te

W
>)

he) aE STIs .

ee

sje "aban Se Oe.
Leet Eas ee aoe
a sae ses:

ay Pet

ish Association for the Advancement of Science,
| BURLINGTON HOUSE,
| LONDON, Ww.

VI 7S am ae:

% A fhe 150k i y Bee
e pf the We flarfe ¥ lar flers are
| wa fee fa trhoregh 5 Te

beeiee) ton er Ghe« eam j
< fe Arvccet cel Mechic Say |

eee tad
ay ty ‘

Rants

REPORT

OF THE

_ SEVENTY-FOURTH MEETING

Bee
es! -
a OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

HELD AT

CAMBRIDGE IN AUGUST 1904,

LONDON :
HN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1905.

PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON

CONTENTS.

=o
Page
OpsEcts and Rules of the Association ........c..cccscsesececeseenseeeeeecsesseees XXX1
Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries from commencement ..............ecsessceescersscssscccssecececsceces xlii
Trustees and General Officers, from 1831 ............ccesceececsescccceccceescseucs lvi
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832 ... vii
PURO LM VCHINeDISCOUPSOS. ca..cranectaeedsrosesaceceacascesest sagemaanteasa sc ronsete se Ixxvii
Lectures to the Operative Classes ........csccsccssecesenceeseneescuscessecsseeceses lxxx
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Cambridge Meeting .....:... lxxxii
Committee of Recommendations at the Cambridge Meeting .................. Ixxxiil
SEMESTER EN CCOUME [11 Nai ieadin neice tests veveds oval sitarestsgen teeeuteasdeteat este cns lxxxiv
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... lxxxvi
DIOL. COUN, VOOE—TIODK, wcancsccecanins anes wiseessasonnasscied ualevoensas cine lxxxviii
Report of the Council to the General Committee ..............ccceseceseeeeeeeeee Ixxxix
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Cambridge Meet-
RR EES EO Orch sa as vanali cnn genapass uno nased nisataar es opusapn ontnonan hans xcvi
Communication ordered to be printed a7 extenso ...........ecseceecenceecseeeeees evi
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if desirable cvi
MRO Preinils Gl NEOUO ova cdi'canes's 2 srqeestsligtetena’hlsasssnsssatvsanoanaadese evii
Rome or Meating im 1905 an@it90B Pei. eo Sea eviil
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for
OPIATE SSE tee al A ea oe el i lee ne ae haan Saal cix
EGS DIL 0 Tos ae Be ee oc ne me eR oo eee CXXVIli

Address by the President, the Right Hon. A. J. Batrour, D.C.L., M.P.,
PER Satdseaeae ta dashes aisAd cahidaaehe cshives 1 <60Urd aw baasward . Lanyrowslens Ry y. Sonanitis 3

iv REPORT—1904.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark + indicates the same,
but with a reference to the Journal or Newspaper in which it is published in extenso. }

Page

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Kites in co-operation
with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society —Third Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman), Mr. W. H.
Dives (Secretary), Mr. D. ArcHipatp, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. A.
Bucuan, Dr. R. T. Guazeproox, Dr. H. R. Muitz, and Professor A,
Scuuster. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ........0..cccecsscosssescessessesseens

Report on the Theory of Point-groups. Part IV. By Frances HaRDCASTLE.

Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir W. H. Prexcz (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GLazpBRooxK (Secre-
tary), Professor W. G. Apams, Captain Ornax, Mr. W. L. Fox, Principal
Sir Arraur W. RicKer, and Professor A. ScuustmR, appointed to co-
operate with the Committee of the Falmouth Observatory in their Magnetic
OPSOT VAMOS sii ccntecco-ccacesscessseeeededdesnpesedsicessessnc sesamiae et aaa

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
RayieieH (Chairman), Dr, R. T. GrazesRooxk (Secretary), Lord Ketyrn,
Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Apams, and G. CarEy Foster,
Sir Otiver J. Loper, Dr. A. Murruean, Sir W. H. Preece, Professors
J. D. Evererr, A. Scuuster, J. A. Fremrne, and J. J. Taomson, Dr.
W. N. Saw, Dr. J. T. Borromiry, Rev. T. C. Frrzparrick, Dr. G.
JOHNSTONE Stoney, Professor 8. P. THompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Principal
E. H. Grirrirus, Sir A. W. Ricker, Professor H. L. Cantenpar, and
Mir GORGE MAW THINY .s.skstc-tstro»seeeecnosscaivescnes adtuevcsteeundeiaaiaae nnn

AppEnDIx I,—On Anomalies of Standard Cells. By F. E. Surrn...
iy II.—On the Electromotive Force of Clark’s Cell. By A. P.
PPROTIGR, 3 ccac25csae55 388 s2.00esuneconcesonaenae tee eee

Seismological Investigations.—Ninth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. J. Mrunz (Secretary), Lord
Ketvin, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Mr. Horacr Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Professor J. A. Ew1ne,
Dr. R. T. Grazesroox, Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor
R, Metpota, Mr. R. D. OrpHam, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. PrumMer,
Professor J. H. Poynrine, Mr. Clement Rei, Mr. Netson RicHarpson,
and Professor H. H. Turnrr (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

I, General Notes on Stations and Registers .............. cceseeeeeeeeens
II. Comparison of Records from three Milne Horizontal Pendulums

17

29

30
33

40

42

Ee

. = =

CONTENTS. Vv

Page

Mi; Ani Improved Record Receiver ic. ...0.2.ieccsecetsnsenseoadeaeotesses 43
IV. The Origins of large Earthquakes in 1905.............:sesseeeeeeeeeees 3
VY. On International Co-operation for Seismological Work............ 45
VI. Seismological Work now in progress. ..........sssecseeeeeeeeeneeeereees 46
VII. Directions in which Seismological Work may be extended ...... 48
VIII., Experiment at the Ridgeway Fault ........ 0... s.cocccscscescertesenee 51

Underground Temperature—Twenty-third Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. D. Everrrr (Chairman and Secretary), Lord KELvin,
Sir ARCHIBALD GxHIKIE, Professors Epwarp Hott, A. 8. HerscHet, and
G. A. Luzour, Messrs. A. B. Wynnz, W. Gattoway, JosppH Dickinson,
G. F. Deacon, E. WetHpred, and A. SrraAHAN, Professors MicH1E SMITH
and H. L. Cattenpar, Mr. B. H. Brovex, and Professor Haroxp B.
Drxon, appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of
Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land
and under Water. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ..........cscseeeeeseeeeeeeees 51

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary), Sir Jon
Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER Bucuan, and Mr. R. T. Omonp. (Drawn up
inh Ji fey Lea CEE 8) ie wocmacBpe bose Gaacdc. POSSE CRE OOe BRO SORE EEE ppdooce contig: Honcrogooosoree 56

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. E. Divers (Chairman), Dr. A. W. Crosstey (Secretary),
Professor W. H. Perxty, Dr. M. O. Forstsr, and Dr. H. R. Le Suzur... 60

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscozn (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Warts (Secretary), Sir Norman Locxyzr, Professor Sir JAmMEs
Dewar, Professor G. D. Liveine, Professor A. ScHustTER, Professor W. N.
Hartzey, Professor Woxtcorr Gisss, Sir W. pp W. Anyey, and Dr. W. E.

EA TIERIIINE. “Sec gagre SS Cpe SaSE LARGE ace dNepcotne: dit gn 26nd Janse OseeeenoccL caceREO Eno SBre 66
‘The Stereochemistry of Nitrogen. By H. O. Jonus, M.A., D.Sc. ............25. 169
Mynamic Isomerism. By T. M. LowRy, D.Sc. ......0....0.csseeccsseccsceseecneenes 193

ieininagmetory and Histories). ..2.1..c0¢assassmansee cscs spetiemeesessssacene 193

II. The Nature of Dynamic Isomerism..,.............000s0seecessseceeaes 196
Ii. Isomeric Changes in which Two Radicals are Interchanged ...... 200
IV. Isomeric Changes in which a Single Mobile Radical is Transferred 204
emo poicale lriverst Gm nce c ieee: tit se cecen ei teannsinwicvnsaedecemeategmione 211
VI. Chemical Properties of Dynamic Isomerides ..................2..00005+ 214
VII. Physical Properties of Dynamic Isomerides .............. ia (Op 2438 216
Wert Reverciple Polymeric Qhange’ 7.22.2 ..cc2scsnnscuveccseddocetsersseteeses “DOO

The Movements of Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire.—Fifth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Warts (Chair-
man), Mr. A. R, DwrerRyHovssE (Secretary), Professor A. SMITHELLS, Rey.

HK. Jonzs, Mr. Watrer Morrison, Mr. Groree Bray, Rev. W. LowEr
Carrer, Mr. T. Farrtny, Professor P. F. Kenpatt, and Dr. J. E. Marr 225

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Dr. WHrreLton Hinp (Secretary),
Mr. F. A. Batuer, Mr. G. C. Crick, Dr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox,
Professor E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G. J. Hinpe, Professor P. F. Kenpatt, Mr,
R. Kinston, Mr. G. W. Lampruen, Professor G. A. Lespour, Mr. B. N.
Pracu, Mr. J. T. Sropss, Mr. A. Srrawan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. (Drawn
PUY At NOMSCCKCUATY.)i stscto iii atecncasters otters stctecccelceeesntscdinteres aeceeeess 226

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Ninth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. J. E, Marr (Chairman), Professor P. F. Kenpatt (Secretary), Professor
T. G. Bonnzy, Mr. C. E. Dz Rancz, Professor W. J Sottas, Mr. R. H.
Tippeman, Rey. 8. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horns, Mr. F. M. Burton,

vi REPORT—1904.

si Page
Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. DwerRyHouse, Mr. J. W. STATHER, Mr. W. T.
Tucknr, and Mr. F. W. Harmer, appointed to investigate the Erratic
Blocks of the British Isles, and to take measures for their preservation.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.) ........seeecsseeeeeeeseeeeseescreesanuneeeeuueeseaeneens 237
Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Fifteenth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES Gerke (Chair-
man), Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonnny, Pro-
fessor E. J. Garwoop, Professor S. H. Reynoxps, Dr. TrmpEst ANDERSON,
Dr. J. J. H. Teatt, Mr. Goprrey Brnetry, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V.
Oroox, Mr. J. G. Goopcuitp, Mr. Witt1am Gray, Mr. W. JBROME Har-
rison, Mr. Ropert Kinston, Mr. J. Sz. J. Paixures, Mr. A. 8. Rerp, Mr.
R. Wetcn, Mr. W. Wurtaker, and Mr. H. B. Woopwarp. (Drawn up
by the Secretary.) ......sssecccsssserssesecssseccsescaeeresuencsenseseeeesaseccseeenseees 242
Well-sections in Cambridgeshire. By W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ..........+5 266
Investigation of the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire,
and at various localities in the East Riding of Yorkshire.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LamptueH (Chairman), Mr. J. W.
Sraruer (Secretary), Dr. Tempnst ANDERSON, Professor J. W. Carr, Rev,
W. L. Carrer, Mr. A. R. DwerryHovss, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H.
Howarra, Rev. W. Jounson, Professor P. F. Kunparu, Mr. E, T. New-
ron, Mr. H. M. Pratnaver, Mr. CLement Razin, and Mr. THomas SHEP-
DAC ee ne Natad pea eure sided epGciecles dsascy'acwes guieSeeseatiasCad eden tuanena key vena 272
Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.—
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HeRDMAN
(Chairman), Mr. J. Lomas (Secretary), Professor W. W. Warts, Professor
P, F. Kenpatt, and Messrs. H. C. Beastey, E.T. Newton, A.C. Sewarp,
and W. A. E. Ussoer. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ........::sesseeeeeeeeee 275:
Udenvale Caves, co. Clare.—Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
R. F. Scuarrr (Chairman), Mr. R. L. Praneur (Secretary), Mr. G. Correy,
Professor G. A. J. Conn, Professor D. J. Cunninenam, Mr. G. W. Lamp-
LuGH, Mr. McHewry, and Mr. R. J. Ussumr, appointed to explore Irish
Waves. (Drawn up) by the Chairman.) ....,<1-+-ccc-s-srsesesessseaccoranneeeettaee 288

The Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the Development of the Frog.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. F. R. Wsxpon (Chair-
man), Mr. J. W. Jenxinson (Secretary), and Professor 8. J. Hicxson.
(Drawn! upi by the Secretary.) <..sccwscsseacvecsseetsevccancisneesessdpaneeneeameae 288

_ The Probability of Ankylostoma becoming a Permanent Inhabitant of our
Coal Mines in the event of its introduction.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. G. H. F. Nurratt (Chairman), Mr. G. P. BrppEr
(Secretary), Dr. A. E, Boycorr, Dr. J. S. Hatpans, and Mr. A. E. Surety 292

Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. W. Garstane (Chairman and Secretary),
Professor E. Ray Lanxuster, Mr. A. Srpewick, Professor 8. H. Vines,

ANGE OLEssOr We gh elie WGRUDON ays .csciccocsuestins.sodsesen ocecnteemte soa eeman 297

Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F. A. Barner (Secretary),
Dr. P. L, Scrarer, Rey. T. R. R. Srepsrne, and Dr. W. E. Hoyte......... 297
The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Fourteenth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Newton (Chairman), Mr. Davin SHarp (Secretary),
Dr. W. T. Buanrorp, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Dr. P. L. Scrarsr, Dr. F.
Du Cane Gopman, and Mr. EDGAR A. SMITH ou... ...cceeecccseseceusceeesces 298

Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.—Fourth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. A. Sepewick (Chairman), Mv. J. Srantey GaRpDIner (Secre-
tary), Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, Mr. Francis Darwin,
Dr, S. F. Harmer, and Professors A. Macatister, W. A. HerpMan, and
S. J. Hickson

CONTENTS. vil

Page
Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor S. J. H1cxson (Chairman), Dr. W. E. Hoyzz (Secretary), Dr.
F. F. Bracxmay, Mr. J. 8. Garpiner, Professor W. A. HERDMAN, Mr. A.C.
Sewarp, Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON, and Mr. A. G. Tansey, appointed
to conduct an investigation into the Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands 299

Colour-physiology of the Higher Crustacea.—First Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor S. J. Hickson (Chairman), Dr. F. W. GamBLe
(Secretary), Dr. W. E. Hoyts, and Mr. F. W. Kresxe, appointed to enable
Dr, F. W. Gamble and Mr. Keeble to conduct Researches in the Colour-
physiology of the Higher Orustacea................:sssscsescesseceerscensceuseseneses 299

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor 8. J. Hickson (Chairman), Mr.
J. E. S. Moors (Secretary), Dr. E. Ray Lanxuster, Professor W. F. R.
WELDON, Professor G. B. Howns, Mr. A. Szpewicx, and Professor W. C.
VIKOLES TOG ST 8 SSE RE BERS aH HBP pbeber Odin ose BBE PHORUe Or: Gus BBHecOcc or AnrHeraboad "ec 300

Report on the Occupation of the Table. By E.S. GoopRicu......... 300

Terrestrial Surface Waves and Wave-like Surfaces.—Fourth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Scorr Kerrie (Chairman), Dr. VAaugHAN
CorntsH (Secretary), Lieut.-Col. F. Batrny, Mr. Jonn Mixns, and Mr.
W.H. WHEELER. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...........scsscsesscecseeeees 301

On the Accuracy and Comparability of British and Foreign Statistics of In-
ternational Trade.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. HE. CaNNAN
(Chairman), Dr. B. Ginssure (Secretary), Mr. A. L. Bownry, Professor
S. J. Coapman, Sir R. Girren, and Mr. R. H. Ineris PALGRAVE............ 302

The Tidal Régime of the Mersey.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Lord Ketvryn (Chairman), Mr. J. N. SHoorprep (Secretary), and Professors
GrorcE H. Darwin, OspoRNE REyNotps, HELE-SHAwW, and W.C. Unwin,
appointed to obtain information respecting the Tidal Régime of the River
Mersey, with the object of submitting the data so obtained to Harmonic
ENTIBAV OIG bast sof endaptesiaals de> sikds aed edo” ssNisaiwoa teense wemslace doe eb esis aa gedadddaa’ ates 318

Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir Joan Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myrzs (Secre-
tary), Mr. R. C. Bosanaurr, Dr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D. G. Hogartn, Pro-

fessor A. MAcALISTER, and Professor W. RIDGHWAY .......ecsececeececeneeeees 321
APPENDIX,—Excavations at Knossos, Crete, 1904. By Dr. ArnrHuR J.
EI VANS VT eaitevee se catewateseccans de kotise dovcnodcummecnvenesatinns 322

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins (Secretary),
Sir Jonn Evans, Dr. ArtHurR J. Evans, Mr. Henry Batrovr, Mr. C. H.
Reap, and Mr. A. Burierp. (Drawn up by Mr. ArrHurR BuLLEID and
Pree Sit, GHORGEACERAY..) 2's gomecepeiiateastsste sacasaecce pines cclenes far heki« cjoanees 324

Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland.—Report of a
Committee, consisting of Professor D. J. CunnineHAM (Chairmen), Mr.
J. Gray (Secretary), Mr. N. Annanpatz, Dr. A. C. Happon, Dr. C. 8.
Mynrs, Mr. J. L. Myrus, Professor A. F. Drxon, Mr. E. N. Fattatzz, Mr.
Ranpatt Maclver, Professor J. Symrneron, and Dr. WATERSTON ......... 330

APPENDIX.—Pigmentation Survey of the School Children of Scotland 3385

Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. A. J, Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myrus (Secretary), Professor
Boyp Dawxins, Mr. E. W. Brasroox, and Mr. T. Asupy, appointed to co-
operate with Local Committees in Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain 337

viii REPORT—1904.

# Page
Anthropometric Investigations among the Native Troops of the Egyptian
Army.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. MACALISTER
(Chairman), Dr. C. S. Myrrs (Secretary), Sir JoHn Evans, and Professor
D. J. Cunnryeuam. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ....-seeeeesrsssseeeererees 339

Anthropological Teaching.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor E. B. Tytor (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Professor A.
Macauisrsr, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. C. H. Reap, Mr. H. Barrour, Mr. F.

W. Rupter, Dr. R. Munro, Professor FLrypERs PETRIE, My. H. Live Ror,
and Professor D. J. CuNNINGHAM, appointed to inquire into the present
state of Anthropological Teaching in the United Kingdom and elsewhere ... 341

The State of Solution of Proteids.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor HatLinuRton (Chairman), Professor E. Waymourn Rxip
(Secretary), and Professor E. A. ScHAFER, appointed to investigate the
state of Solution of Proteids ............cseceeceeeecnceecneeecsecneceseseecsesecneneenes 841

The Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced into
the Circulation Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
E. A. ScHA¥FER (Chairman), Professor W. H. Tuompson (Secretary), Pro-
fessor R. Boyce, and Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON .........0s:eeeeeser neers eeees 342

Metabolism of the Tissues.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
Goren (Chairman), Mr. J. Barcrorr (Secretary), Sir MicHanL Foster,
and Professor STARLING ......sccssececcsenccecerscsserecscsccnsesestessecencececesess

The Respiration of Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H.
MarsHatt Warp (Chairman), Mr. H. Wacmr (Secretary), Mr. F. Darwin,
and Professor J. B. FARMER ...........csccceessccccecsseceensescecnsecsceeuererseereens 544

Botanical Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
L. C. Miatt (Chairman), Professor F. E. Wuiss (Secretary), Mr. Francis
Darwin, and Mr. A. G. Tanstxy, on the Registration of Photographs of
Boasting UMMGO TOS rarcdy 9% cclavScbSe cab linees banaystnaemhd demas onde ee eAaeiiee Albena 345

Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. MarsHatt Warp (Chairman), Mr. A. ©,
SEwaRp (Secretary), Professor J. B. Farmer, and Dr. D. SHARP ............ 346

Report to the Committee by W. Barzson, M.A., F.RAS. ...........0665 346

The Conditions of Health essential to the Carrying-on of the Work of
Instruction in Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
C. 8. Suerrineton (Chairman), Mr. E. Wuirp Wattis (Secretary), Mr.
E. W. Brazsroox, Dr. C. W. Kimuins, Professor L. C. Mratt, and Miss
MAITLAND .......... Sasa dndeanhch sehr onesscaseash acetals <enses costae sssa+sasenenaeetamem 348

Studies suitable for Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Sir Partie Maenus (Chairman), Mr. W. M. HELter (Secretary),
Sir W. pe W. Asyey, Mr. R. H. Apts, Professor H. E. AnMstRone, Miss
L. J. Crarxs, Miss A. J. Coopnr, Mr. GEorer FLEtrcHER, Professor R. A.
Greeory, Principal Grirritus, Mr. A. D. Hatt, Dr. A. J. HeRBERtson,
Dr. C. W. Kins, Professor J. Perry, Principal ReicHer, Mr. H.
Ricuarpson, Mrs. W. N. SHaw, Professor A. Suirnerts, Dr. Liorp
Snape, Mr. Harotp WaGER, and Professor W. W. WAr?s, appointed to
report upon the Courses of Experimental, Observational, and Practical
Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools ................cceceeeeeeeeeneeenee BOD

Influence of Examinations.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H.
KE. Armsrrone (Chairman), Mr, R. A. Grecory (Secretary), the BisHop
or HererorD, Sir Micuaxt Fosrer, Sir P. Macnus, Sir A. W. Rioxer,
Sir O. J. Lopen, Mr. H. W. Evr, Mr. W. A. Suensronz, Mr. W. D.
Eeear, Professor MarsHatL Warp, Mr. F. H. Nevis, Mrs. W. N.
RSeRMMMEMEL EVEL ON VY ISTMMTIINS: SSCS. Secas cba decccscdcectotesceuteescesttnwase 360

CONTENTS. 1x

Page
Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. W. Wurraker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Rupizr (Secretary), Sir JoHn
Evans, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Dr. Horace T. Brown, Dr. VauGHAN CoRNISH,
Mr. T. V. Hoxmes, Mr. J. Hopxrnson, Professor R. Metpora, Dr. H. R.
Mitt, Mr. C. H. Reap, Rey. T. R. R. Stesaine, Professor W. W. Warts
and the GrNERAL OFrFicers. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...............65 377

Report of the Conferences of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held at
Cambridge, August 1904 .............:.scsesseeseseoers pa bidg aie ae aiduatechs ae eae» 379
The Utilisation of Local Museums, with special reference to Schools.
By the ev. We JOHNSON, 1B. AL, BSC. oc .c.0c.scnssocccseccesenurscseenuaees- 388
On the Conformity of the Publications of Scientific Societies with certain
Bibliographical Requirements. By Joun Hopxinson, F.L.S., F.G.S. 394 |
List of Corresponding Societies, 1904-1905 ........ecec cece se eeeees ee eeee ens 402
Catalogue of the more important Papers published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending May 31, 1904 ..............ceceeeeeeeeeees 405

xe REPORT—1904.

,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section AA—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

Page
Address by Professor Horacr Lams, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the
Section

1, Thermal Dilatation of Compressed Hydrogen. By A. W. Wirkowsxr 431

. Experiments to decide whether the Ether moves with the Earth. By
PPEOECESGE NW.) WUBIN @.<.5 02 vgaesesccscecesdiessounedeedasssaages eee 433

Preliminary Note on the Tangential Stress due to Light incident obliquely
on an Absorbing Surface. By Professor J. H. Poynrrna, D.Se., F.R.S. 434

4, The Reaction of the Radiation on a Moving Electron. By Professor M.

bo

ge

ERSIPAIAME 535.5 «+ sn tntnia ddelosyeta's a ass vsuvcies’o-asWalinich-< 20 coe te geen a 436
5. tQuantitative Determination of the Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium
Vapour) By Professor R..W. Wood: «..........,42:-<e0seacceuee 438

6. On the Dynamical Significance of Kundt’s Law of Anomalous Dispersion.
By Protessor J, LARMOR, Sec.B:S.., .........c+sesessc0sseseeseendee ee

7. On the Relation of the Réntgen Radiation to Ordinary Light.. By Pro-
BESSOT Je MGATMO SOC.EGS. voeus.0sccestsesssssciceveesacecceeeee yao 438

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS,

1, A Fragment of Elementary Mathematics. By Professor F. Moriey...... 439
2, *“Peano’s Symbolic Method. By A. N. Wuirpnpan, FIRS. ....ccccceeeeee 440
3. *The Theory of Linear Partial Differential Equations. By Major P. A.
POM a OM, Ses OBES 5 6.22 cp ecu cckvsoussasaseasonssc csc eee 440
4, On the Roots of the Characteristic Equation of a Linear Substitution.
Bay Ti. VA ROW RGR © oa coe oe osee8sceiievasadevesvea s+ sss0siaase ee 440
5. On the Zeroes of Two Classes of Taylor Series. By GH. Hanoy 44]

6. Binary Canon Extension. By Lieut.-Col. ALLAN CunnincHam, R.E. ... 443
7. *On the Theory of Transfinite Numbers. By Dr. E. W. Hosson, F.R.S. 443

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

SUB-SECTION or AsrronoMy AND CosMIcAL Puysics,
Address by Sir Joun Extor, K.C.LE., M.A., F.R.S., Ohairman.................. 443
1, The Spectra of Sun-spots. By the Rev. A. L. Corris, 8.J., F.R.AS, ... 458
2. *The Temperaturo of the Stars, By Sir Norman Locxyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 459

————

CONTENTS. xl

Page
3. “Criteria of Stellar Temperatures. By H. F. Newatt, F.R.S. 0.0.0.0... 459
4, The Short-period Barometric See-saw and its Relation to Rainfall. By
Wiriam J. S. Looxyrn, M.A;;-Ph.D:, F.RvAcSicossiscassccecssacyaccteesss 459
5. “The Relation between Solar Physics and Meteorology. By Professor
LL UUTACL ATT SSSRe Gy apr Se oe nee ee en 460
6. “Experiments with Kites in the Mediterranean. By L. TrrsspRENC DE
MAES a eid nal eet in fana ht Loney dda wentucagnadiogsceonatsimveiactaecee me ote 460
7. The Relation between the Minima and following Maxima of Sun-spots,
Peau NEES MEINE acta ssyras ss (Actas satya cian hg oaoway tase vocccaceete ee 460
8. *Relation between Pressure, Temperature, and Air Circulation in the
South Atlantic Ocean. By Commander C. HEPWORTH.........cs000000000 461
9. On the Ultra-red Absorption Spectrum of Ozone and the Existence of that
Gas in the Atmosphere. By Professor K. ANGSTROM.............0e0ee0eee0e 461
10. An Instrument for the Measurement of the Radiation from the Earth.
Prva eoteenan IC, ANGIE DMs «.0-pe. seh oshpmaen<aeJancoedtabueasdex ctite da at 462
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.
1. The Law of Error. By Professor F. Y. Eperwortu, D.C.L................ 463
2. Report on the Theory of Point-groups. Part IV. (p. 20). By Frances
NANOS BEE re ch opened. ax hh «acadins yea tes teks ands ber sha stomceee dicate 463
3. Notes on Plane Curves. By Haronp Hinton, M.A......ccccccccscsssseeeeeens 463
4, *Note on a Special Homographic ‘Iransformation of Screw Systems. By
pier CROMER A Te) DDD) EIR, Se, aieuadt cue sobaccncasb bu chnacamibus ddeiedds ax 464
5. *The Theory of Vibrations. By Professor V. VOLTERRA .........-..00.e00005 464
6. *The Stability of the Steady Motion of a Viscous Fluid. By Professor

AV VME CED SOs ot raseeddeclcd Sosede sce ees eee eT es 464

7. *Note on the Schwarzian Derivative. By Professor A. C. Dixon, F.R.S. 464

BPM E Sede ded ocala cee S Bots nceoa hv ack Mea venchronnree ete tdadies sad isan 464

9. “Some Observations on Linear Difference Equations, By Rev. E. W.
BREE beh vA aee Saag Ua aelt - Leena vu pits sep socea ob Maga Mas yaasebadtaeed Ocnad 464
10. *On the Use of Divergent Series in Astronomy. By Z.U. AHMAD ...... 464

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.

1. “Recent Improvements in the Diffraction Process of Colour Photography.
A Ee oteneee be Wis SWiOOS) LOY, Met Lat eescicamieat ek oS teases 464

2. *On ‘ Reststrahlen’ and the Optical Qualities of Metals. By Professor
ELLE SIR a an A OEE Se Pres Re hin.) Ona eae 465
3. On the Separation of the Finest Spectral Lines, By Dr. O. LumMEr ... 465

4. “Recent Work at the National Physical Laboratory. By Dr. R. T.
Committee, Habis. ont oSingner suas eit <a dtd eean th wads fa csoumovan ot sone. erie 465

5. An Effect of Electrical Vibrations in an Optically Active Medium. By
MPa OV. FE VORGIY «snot saacSacarhcian doepanat Meant’ clade sastinest: dsseeb youve dd 466
6. Discussion on N-Rays. Opened by Dr. O. LUMMER .......0...cscecccceseeeeee 467
7. tStandards of Wave Length. By Professor KAYSER ........ccceccccceeeeene 468

xil REPORT—1904..

go

Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards (p. 30).......-.:.ssseeeeee
*Exhibition of a Magnetic Alloy containing no Iron, By R. A, Hap-
FIELD ...... Senee sens ceans coMeGAsaeh wth'e ce bestiees smuekina de’ vows opie do Gkle eer ieee aan 468

s©

Sus-sEction oF AstRoNOMY AND CosmicaL PuHysics.

. Report of the Seismological Committee (p. 41) ........4+ Ronen tc Mero: Sent 468
Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites

(Detlib)ercosccsshectececcenectetesstscarcecssesccsetecaeeserecsecasstenaieshennane aaa
3. The Temperature of the Air in Cyclones and Anticyclones, as shown by

Kite-flights at Blue Hill Observatory, U.S.A. By A. LAWRENCE

Ne

HUOMUH, WSO es GAG, sdascecasacseet Secs sccecssasedstencieceoreeedec sent eent =nnenmmam 468
4, “Problems of Astronomy. By Sir Davip Gut, K.C.B., F.R.S. ..........+. 469
5. Discussion on Units used in Meteorological Measurement. Opened by

TD EAAW «Ns SSELAW. EES yee nece cde. stanwedeencsscelinet cm sceben ctwseueen aes ene= Stemi
6. *On the Masses of the Stars. By Dr. H. N. RUSSELL ...........s:seccenecens 469

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
. A Correlation between the Electric Conductivity of Air and the Variation
of Barometric Pressure. By JoHn Don, M.A., B.Sc. ........2ccc0eceeeeneees 469
On the Ionisation of the Atmosphere. By Professor A. ScuusTsr, F.R.S. 471
. *Discussion on the Radio-activity of Ordinary Matter. Opened by Pro-
fessor Ok DB OMBON, PIR. B is .:<secnsaaes»sediniee’ axe ou abaebeasent a eeeeaem 47]

4. On the Radio-activity of the Hot Springs of Aix-les-Bains. By Dr. G. A.
TSUANG): cnncaese ee» auras sebaines gaps wavedsaysi+ tse> on-cespi shou nkapnnee een 471

5. tPlan of a Combination of Atoms having the Properties of Polonium or
Radinm.+ By Lord Kenyin, FURS. ............c00.+++s0deasss00 oe 472

tElectrical Insulation in Vacuum. By Lord Kevin, F.R.S.......0.000008 472
*Electrical Conductivity of Flames. By Dr. H. A. WILSON ......0000000+: 472

—

go to

oN D>
BS
=e
rte
Liles
=
®
OQ
co
g.
fe)
i=}
2;
tg
rm
°
=]
®
Lad
St
oO
@
°
=
aa]
°
ct
ee)
fe)
=
®
Z
ise]
co)
2
o
Ee)
Lal
(e}
=e)
b
3)
i=}
m
i=}
ee

Pmt tt eee ee eee tase estate eee eee Rete eee eases assed es eessesseSenss esses esese®

9. The Production of Radio-active Surfaces. By ©. E. 8. PHILLIPS ......... 473

10. *The Kinetic Theory : Determination of the Size of Molecules. By J. H.
SEMAING ish catnesncnsissances env Oinsvecet vsgnstts¥esieseass ads ak sestiens soem aaa 473

11. Dr. Grindley’s Experiments on Steam in the Light of the Ether-pressure
Theory. By J..MAGPARLAWE GRAY |...2....1040.00s+.0020<s.00800 eee 474

12, On a Volatile Product of the Radium Emanation. By W. O. D.
AU HRA, Sa hg ee hic cnt std adsclinddy ase dasa ashiedeatet eee 474

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.
DEPARTMENT oF PuHysics.

r=

The Propagation of Electric Waves along Spiral Wires, and on an Appli-

ance for Measuring the Length of Waves used in Wireless Telegraphy.
By J. A. Fremrne, M.A., DSc) HARIS: \issaneaskhet.fsetebecdee eee 474

Eddy-current Losses in Three-phase Cable-sheaths. By M. B. Fretps.... 476

*Magnetic and Electric Properties of Nickel at High Temperatures. By
Rr ides FONOUT cd dacs pices. schbes-oddoa caschodesatt ee ane 476

. On the Viscosity of Colloidal Iron Hydrate. By A. D. Drnnine, M.Sc.,
Fh-D.

CONTENTS. Xili
Page

476

cece eee cece ec ccc ees beeeeneeeeeeees sess eesececssesvenceseseceeesversesoscncccoccecce

5. Magnetic Double Refraction of Colloidal Iron Hydrate. By A. D. Drn-
NING, M.Se., P.D. s.cavescccsssescecceeeseceessseeeeecnsecceaeaceseeessecenenens ones 477
6. An Experimental Verification of Newton’s Second Law. By W. D.
FEGGAR, M.A. .....cceescseseesesneaeeceeesecenecesseeseeseesenseneensenesscaresecraeases 478
7, On a Modification of FitzGerald’s Model of the Ether. By J. BurLER
BURIE . . 5o00 00h foo osk ecRistelece tins dave «nd st pstaeetmcivsaaree’- esp a obieliew vince qaep iritsuinns 478
8, *On the Electric and Thermic Conductivities of certain Alloys of Iron.
By Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., and R. A. HADFIELD ...........0006 479
9, On a New Apparatus for producing Magnetic Fields of Force. By Pro-

fessor MARCUS HARTOG ....ccccecencececeecececeeeeeesenenseeesensareseneeeesseees 479

Sus-sEcTION oF ASTRONOMY AND CosmicaL PHysIcs.

1. Report on the Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory (p. 29) ... 479
2. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis (p. 55) ......seeeeeeee 479
3. Some Results with the Solar Physics Observatory Photo-Spectro-Helio-
graph. By Witt1am J.S Lockyer, M.A., 2300) Dip el dl iva \s heap eondoncaoee 480
4, On the Unsymmetrical Distribution of Rainfall about the Path of a
Barometric Depression. By Huew Roper MILL, D.Sc. .......000-0.-- 480
5. The Application to Meteorology of the Theory of Correlation. By Miss
BB, CAVE......ccccceccsccscnscascnecscceccecssecscsunasestacessccocscsssseesenscssians 4
6. The Development of the Aeroplane. By Major B. BaDEN-PoWELL ...... 481
7. *Plato’s Theory of the Planets. By Professor D'Arcy W.THomPson, C.B. 482
8, Report on Underground Temperature (p. 51) ......---ssseseeeeeeeeeeeseeaneneees 482
9. *Zur Flugfrage. By Dr. F. HIRTEL .......eeeeeeeeeeeeeesneeeseeessneeeeeeeenn es 482
10. Upper Air-currents and their Relation to the Audibility of Sound. By
Rev. J. M. BACON .cc.....cee ceeceseeceecsseceseeecsesenceceeseceecsaeeacassseeaerses 482
11. On the Effect of Electric Air-currents. By Professor Serr Lemstrom 482

Address by Professor Sypney Youne, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the

1

2b

. The Rainfall of the Midland and Eastern Counties of England. By Jon
485

Horxtnson, Vice-Pres.R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.B...........:sseeeeeeeeeeeees

. The Rainfall of England, 1861-1900. By Jonw Horxinson, Vice-Pres.

R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.O.E. ...ccccsseccesecseeneesenseceaersensnescsensersnecsons 485

Section B.— CHEMISTRY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

SSC EIN ee a TA carte diciale Jee sldine sele's ovals oe'siislejsiueie 488

The Relation between the Crystalline and the Amorphous States as dis-
closed by the Surface Flow of Solids. By G. T. BEILBY .........:-+0000+ 499
The Action of certain Gases on Glass in the Neighbourhood of Hot Metals.
By Gal D. BREED Y 1.550. 08 oee es cence ne eeanceo ase cecsasstlanneecnbueseeddeadsseonsees 500

. *On the Formation of Salts in Solutions, Sepueteaity amongst Tautomeric

Compounds. By Professor J. W. BRUHL ..........:eeeeeeeeeseeseeeseressecsees 500

. *Methods of Investigating Alloys, illustrated from the Copper-Tin Series. Sa

By C. T. Heycocx, F.R.S., and F. H. NEVILLE, MERON: Gabe s »s cmetasion> hich

Ia tr

REPORT —1904.

Page

. Hexachlor-a-Picolin and its Derivatives. By W. J. Senu, M.A., F.R.S. 501

The Change of Conductivity in Solutions during Chemical Reactions. By _
FAY, MISTIVAIN LAE iit ts canhebrapeeae tutes ses coed delunclesisels oghiesnue deeb be eam 501
On Double Acetylides. By Major A. E. Epwarps and Professor W. R.

HT ODEKUNSON MEDID My peace: ctcpsaesnlaed-<ievscaces aueitiees ses stadvenavarmeeee eeeeeeme 502

. On some Reactions between Ammonium Salts and Metals. By Professor

W. R. Hopexinson, Ph.D., and ARTHUR H. COOTE..............0.ceeeee sense 502

. Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances (p. 60)........... Shed 503

The Constitution of Nickel Carbonyl. By H. O. Jonus, M.D., D.Sc....... 503

A Suggested Explanation of the Phenomena of Opalescence observed in
the Neighbourhood of Critical States. By F. G. DoNNAN ...........000000- 504

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

. On Crystal Structure and its Relation to Chemical Constitution. By

PTOLCSEOLREA UIC. GROLU:.cccteanssedseccteacesatccassodsacasscctaceeadetoet atte amen 505

. On Dynamic Isomerism. By T. M. Lowry, D.Sc. (p. 198) ..........00cc000e 509

The Constitution of Phthalein Salts. By Professor Ricoarp Mryer ... 509

. “Studies in the Dynamic Isomerism of a- and B-Crotonic Acids. By

eS MMORRELE and oH sik ELAN SON: 000s cscs cons ssi'gas cavecenesestreeGenentaanem 512

. Mesoxalic Semialdehyde. By Hayry J. Horstman Fenton, F.R.S. ... 512
. Note on the Influence of Radium Radiations on Atmospheric Oxidation

in presence of Iron. By Henry J. Horstman Fenton, F.R.S. ......... 512

. A Colour Reaction for Methylfurfural and its Derivatives. By H. J. H.

Mangon, bon; and J.P. Mintieton, BoA. .....2:s0..+s sceupteueeinee 513

. A Reaction for Keto-hexoses. By Hunry J. Horstman Frnton, F.R.S. 513
. On the Energy of Water and Steam at High Temperatures. By Pro-

fessor MD nETERTIOL! he! 2s... Gee ok eee ee 513

- “On the Specific Heat of Gases at High ‘Temperatures. By Professor

lg iL AbC0 pal dol cit. eae ih ce een MPA cS 514

*The Oxidation of Carbohydrates by Hydrogen Peroxide in presence of
Ferrous Sulphate. By R.S. Morretn and A. E, BELLARS .............-. 514

- Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Com-

pounds (p. 66.)

MONDAY, AUGUST 22,

. Sur la photographie des spectres d’etincelle directe des minéraux sulfurés.

Par le Comte A. pm GRaMonT, D. és Se.Ph. o.oo... .cccccsccsescscoccoeceeeees 514

. Quelques observations sur le groupement des raies du spectre du silicium

d’apres l’effet de la self-induction, et sur leur présence dans les spectres
stellaires. Par le Comte A. pp Gramont, D. és Se.Ph. voecceceececeeeees ss. 515
*Changes produced by the B-rays. By Sir Wirtram Ramsay, K.C.B.,
RO aE eee ei cos cxu ons ig mewcuwsadase cstet Le 517

. The Stereochemistry of Nitrogen. By H. O. Jonns, M.A., D.Sc. {p. 169) 517
. On the Pentavalent Nitrogen Atom, By Professor Osstaw ASCHAN ...... 517
. The Asymmetric Nitrogen Atom. By Professor E. WEDEKIND ............ 518
. On the Products obtained by the Action of Tertiary Bases on some Acid

Chlorides. By Professor E. WEDEKIND

10.

11.

CONTENTS. XV

. Sur les Manganates et les Permanganates. By Dr. A. Erarp ............ 523
. On the Bearing of the Colour Phenomena presented by Radium Com-

pounds. By Witt1am AckRoyD

*Pseudomorphosis in Organic Persulphates. By Professor R. WoLFrEn-
SEIN I trcstceaiapsevana sciytaswenasecttoniseessmsasescdereeree scensceasencarsetedaneetns 525

A New Theory of the Periodic Law. By Professor G. J. Sroxes, M.A. 525

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

1. On the Velocity of Osmosis and on Solubility: a Contribution to the
Theory of Narcosis. By Professor I. TRAUBE ...........cccececeseeceueees a. 525

2, The Action of Organic Bases on Olefinic Ketonic Compounds. By Dr. S.
RpUeeMe SNA OME LOE. (VV ATSON **ccatcteeasaccavsosvccesenedcanet conenetoc: tubeenaes 527

3. The Union of Hydrogen and Oxygen in contact with a Hot Surface. By
Witi1am A. Bonk and Ricard V. WHEELER.............ccccseceeceeceneceese 527

4, The Decomposition and Synthesis of Ammonia. By Epn@ar Purtip
LOO IMTS a A te ole Ba et A heey ae Mi atts die AL SR At pee ch lae 528
5. On Active Chlorine. By C. H. Bureuss and D. L. Cuapman ............ 529

6. *Exhibition of Effects produced by precipitating Silver Chromate in
SERED Sy ETORIOP D.C RAUBE: .a0.0+s<snceascervascssnandgcntprrtondcce tea: 530

7. *Exhibition of Photographs of Sections of an Australian Siderite. By
Professor A. LIVERSIDGEH, F.R.S............cccccccececeecececuscscecseceesceseseece 5380
8. *Ueber Isocystein (Isothioserin). By Professor S. GABRIEL ............... 530
9. Saponarin, a Glucoside coloured Blue by Iodine. By G. BarGer ......... 530
10. *The Vapour Density of Hydrazine Hydrate. By Dr. A. Scorz, F.R.S. 531

11. *Phe Combining Volumes of Carbon Monoxide and Oxygen. By Dr. A.

Brey Ee os A ea a ak cies cas CEcYs ches vat ana vnc eweee ns iasealicesk 531
12. *The Action of Heat on Oxalates. By Dr. A. Scort, F.R.S. ............... 531
13. *Some Alkyl Derivatives of Sulphur, Selenium, and Tellurion. By Dr.

PROC OTT BukyoOra-csensens poe onceiledctedaunoaseceser Soncesiadacesedaaderete ia tlen i. 531

. *On the Presence of Arsenic in the Body and its Secretion by the Kidneys.

HE VeRVey UHOMASON HRS Bite cat Sees aica scat crdtaces bec Suse UeL EIEN. ok 531

. *On New Low-temperature Phenomena and their Scientific Applications,

By Professor Sir JamES DEwaR, F.R.S.............ccececsecscecseseaccccecscecs 531

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

Address by Ausprpy Strawn, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section......... 532
1. The Geology of Cambridgeshire. By J. EH. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S............. 541
2. The Great Eastern Glacier. By F. W. HARMER.............0. ccecececeeeeees D42
3. On a Great Depth of Drift in the Valley of the Stour. By W. Wurraxer,

Et SS seer ens oes ance sesaanansdesa aces cuceidsaedenmeicar telat omiac tack ape lnieatickosediec cs 543
4, Well-sections in Cambridgeshire. By W. Wurraxker, F.R.S. (p. 266)... 544

. Note on a Small Anticline in the Great Oolite Series at Clapham, North

of Bedford. By Horacn B. WoopwaRp, F.R.S. 2... cece ceceeceeseceneees 544

xvi

REPORT—1904:.

Page

. Recent Coast Erosion in Suffolk—Dunwich to Covehithe. By JoHNn

SPIT pt ciar tie ack dae tne aeaGloc ec oeshiatrse ve sawectesns « nedde cay RAT Ieee eee 644

. Report on the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c.

(CONE Noeceltosh of csuotaidestineess, ssicdcaysid. air aoe 545

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

On the Structure of the Silurian Ophiurid Lapworthura Miltoni. By
IP TOLESSOL NV: SOLEASs TH AEs Sei aise wo0's «ca'ee'seceean.0(ne cisisicls Sain attiatsise ise ater 546
The Base-line of the Carboniferous System round Edinburgh. By B. N.
Price, LL.D: ERS. and J, Hornz, LL.Di, BRiSic.sss0syeesceeueea care 546

. Note on the Fish-remains recently collected by the Geological Survey of

Scotland at Salisbury Crags, Craigmillar, Clubbiedean Reservoir, and
Torduff Reservoir, in the Edinburgh District. By Dr. R. H. Traquatr,
BEG Senet aes sings colvseabieesecc.ccasecsaecsiees tose cgeadecanoestatr te: Set nnn 547

. On the Fauna of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of the Moray Firth Area.

ovate Ee RAQUATE, HSE... 'csescanp es ovips st phassorsicvanndhne tae 547

. Note on Lower Cretaceous Phosphatic Beds and their Fauna. By G. W.

IFAD TAU GPE stare safriniatueidie wales oS R6 vis Sacis aa Seeeeee ab cae ue ou mare nec ee aeeee 548

. On Marine Fossils from the Ironstone of Shotover Hill, near Oxford. By

CAVV EG LUAMEPLUGH . << Sccccsvondcarcarvescesccsccdceactebenc cosedteese: cite tae aaa 548

. On the Fossil Plants of the Upper Culm Measures of Devon. By E. A.

NEWELL ARBER, M.A....... 1 dscis ss ssiniebs.6 vlwenausisia n'a pele ee Geos tee cat eae 549

. On Derived Plant Petrifactions from Devonshire. By E. A. Newenn

AREER SOMA... scsmssucsasheeseneasdtadecerercushersctencoeemes tect eee thee aan 549

9, Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles (p. 275) 549
10, On Footprints of Small Fossil Reptiles from the Upper Karroo Rocks of
Cape Colony. By Professor H. G. SELEY, F.R.S...........cceesccseseeseees 549
11. Report on Life Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks (p. 226) ......... 550
MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. Discussion on the Nature and Origin of Earth Movements ..............s00s 550
i, Introduction. By AuBRey SrraHan, M.A., F.R.S. .......ccccceeeeee 550
ii, The Earth Movements in the North-West Highlands. By Dr. Joun
TT ORAT, TOTRIS, . -2nsscoaseesmee aianea ue ceupumal ceataste totus ape ae 550
iii, Effects of Earth Movements on Rocks. By J. J. H. Tuart, M.A.,
BBE ips geh aan)’ alomunisuauomeabtawistgcvine neha awk (Sout paz zea er 551
2, Evidence in the Secondary Rocks of Persistent Movement in the Ohar-
nian Range. By Professor PERCY F. KENDALL ...........cseecececesvevenees 558

. River-capture in the Don System. By Rev. W. Lowmr Carrer, M.A.... 558
. On the Elephant Trench at Dewlish, Dorset: Was it a Pitfall? By Rey.

Q), SES, TNE PS Sew cacs poacebeees ako ve amonee cohen dk oni aos soca eee gee 559

. Notes on the Glaciation of Holyhead Mountain. By Epwarp Greenty 559

6. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles (p. 237) .........seeeeeeee 559

i)

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

. On the Origin of the Great Iron-ore Deposits of Lapland. By Dr. Hate

AO RSTROM «9.5.0 Jt LTE a ERR” 70) OPS al A 2 ee 560

. Exhibition of Specimens of Tertiary Plutonic Rocks (including Gneisses)

from the Isle of Rum. By Aurrep Harmer, M.A., F.R.S. ...........000- 561

GF tees pee il ie

CONTENTS. xvii

Page
3. The Lava-Domes of the Eifel. By EDWARD GREENLY............00cc0eceeeee 661
4, Report on Geological Photographs (p. 242).........cccssscsseceseesceesecsconsces 561
5. Concretions as the Result of Crystallisation. By Professor H. A. Mrmrs,
CEL es cause ve Lash ngSanacawess « Ried drach tay ae vatini ads doledaasw once mueeisuetaaliscis 561
6. Basic Patches in the Granite of Mount Sorrel, Leicestershire. By R. H.
SARA Ties WA ctste seek cs Sunin cies sivantes seitaiceausinagate seek tag eG aon tienes aa tate ee 562
7. On the Different Modifications of Zircon. By L. J. Spencer, M.A. ...... 562

8. A Preliminary Description of Three New Minerals and some Curious
Crystals of Blende from the Lengenbach Quarry, Binnenthal. By R. H.
PG T/TI Vas Naw ah nae vd ots cpemc es econo re sneetrians catnencaton ce aare nee aieoeteeh ra os 563

9. On the Granite from Gready, near Luxullian, in Cornwall, and its Inclu-
Serensrrr days Are ORSON AONE | EVAN or edeuc clddvscicdeedavesencerd nqsovecduc@ nkce nds 563

10. Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of North-west York-
EIA CD PCED « Siskel <Gip Sulcis aie devon aBeSeae~ dthB SAR To. ig behead on SAVE ARLEN te 565

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24,
1, “Exhibition of a Model of the Cleveland Area, showing Glacier Lakes,

Rey h rotessOr ARON, KOMI TIA TGs. ous coil an'dvan- va ansladawediotd doekiabddce adeeas 565
2. The Glaciation of the Don and Dearne Valleys. By Rev. W. Lower

Bemeeir OYA | cstnrteasst sadapmet ut aba javduogsmh ass decauaranvans «qd ft, meee 565
8. The Discovery of Human Remains under Stalagmite in Gough’s Cave,

Cheddar, Somerset. By Hinry N. DAVIBS .............ccccccssccesccesccescse 569
4, Report on the Exploration of Irish Caves (p. 288)...........ccccsescecesesesces 570

5. The Geology of the Oban Hills, Southern Nigeria. By Jomn Parkinson 570
6. On Boulders from the Cambridge District, collected by the Sedgwick Club.

MMEEED, FCASPA TN, DioN ras cast, cisnck skewstcd a-0 stank dery coniaeh eaeaiacdeec outta 571
7, On Tidal Action in the Mersey in Recent Years. By James N. SHoorrep,
EA EO Bi reas sees vanarcup yeas tssey ontnsvtgn-kinerddusiniaassssceadtteakaatine 572

8. Note on certain High-level or Plateau Gravels on the North Side of the
Tamisian Area, and their Connection with the Tertiary History of Central
England, By A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A.

9. *Some Remarkable Occurrences of Struvite Crystals. By Dr, Huau sw
MOR SED REDE SMT OEAYES 3h TE oases CTA ICIS BSE a ek hee eee ee 573

10. On the Occurrence of Pebbles of White Ohalk in Aberdeenshire Clay. By

Bee eR HUMASE Sate seatsSeisdaces; ich istt pret am Seeteness iecanr onto etic ccs 573
Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
Address by Witt1am Batzson, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section ...... 574
1, The Coloration of Marine Crustacea. By Professor F. W. Kersiz
EON ars ct claw csgian' Qs <seh SSR an} pvp camlandigan Sea bnak be lds GRREUTR AK, oie ca 589
2. The Miocene Ungulates of Patagonia. By Professor W. B. Scott......... 589
FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
1. Heredity in Stocks. By Miss E. R, SAUNDERS ..........cccssssssssssecscseeees 590
2, On the Result of Crossing Japanese Waltzing with Albino Mice. By
Sn RTRs cen hs a Flannci'v Dhavohodnsa wr¥ ekovnpviceeba iGkvkte ibis sasveeee 591

1904, a

XVlll REPORT—1904.

i

Page

8. Experiments on Heredity in-Rabbits. By C. C. Hurst, PUieatacsens nese iDOS

4, *Experiments on Heredity in Fowls. By R. C. PUNNETT .....+...:04+++ merode

5. An ‘Intermediate’ Hybrid in Wheat. By R. H. BIrren ............-.000 593

6. Experiments on the Behaviour of Differentiating Colour-characters in
Maize. By R. H. Look, B.A. ......-.eseeee daveesetcuscecsavevesvosssaa5 svaaeeaeeee 593

7. Experiments on Heredity and Sex-determination in Abraxas grossulariata.

By Rev. G. H. Raynor and L. DONCASTER .....+..eeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeenneeeees 594

8. Experiments on Heredity in Web-footed Pigeon. By R. Srapies-Brownnr 595

9. *Fowls and Sweet Peas. By W. BATESON, F.R.S. .....ccceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 595

10. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples

(p. B00) .csccesecsseeccessrseceessereeeeeesscsesassnneeeeserererssetecesennsseeenneneens 595
11. Report on the ‘Index Animalium’ (p. 297).....:sseseeeceseeeeerrrtneereereeeeees 595
12. Report on the Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the Development

of the Frog (p. 288) ...sseccesseceecsseeeccanseeesseeseusuessesseeseeanececseesseneons 595
13. Report on the Colour Physiology of Higher Crustacea (p. 299) .........++ 595
14, Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean (p. 298) ...seeeeerereeereee 595
15. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth

(Ps 2O7) ..cseeccesserssrsesseenecsecneccccnsessccescecsessncsseacneeesenseneaanen sess coe 596
16. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands (p. 298) .....-..-..seseee000 596
17. Report on the Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands (p. 299) ......-....+++ 596

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.

1. *Egyptian Eocene Vertebrates and their Relationships, particularly with
regard to the Geographical Distribution of Allied Forms. By Dr C. W.
INDE HWAtscst tees aaes ath chaste nese tee ronsoswetsescsuanccencss + fasscnpenden= ermine 596

2. ‘Normentafeln’ of the Development of Vertebrata. By Professor F.
KGB MIME eretvceesuuncadssdetevscstsescvecescnccscescscrcooceeveataevanccrs tes si nammmm 596

3. On the Embryos of Apes. By Professor F. KBIBEL....0....:.csseeseceererere 596

4, On Professor Loos’s recent Researches on <Ankylostoma (the Miner's
Norm!) Byc A. H. SHEPLNY, IN pEUS, cassssesssosspespergencssupeeresg socetenens 596

5. Cytoryctes variole Guarnieri: the Organism of Small-pox. By Professor
GINS CAGIRAING Disc. c0ne ons sive’ Svonons sosssaceeeancedsdnoeeehs> sities setts 597

6. Certain Biological Aspects in the General Pathology of Malignant New
Growths. By J. A. MURRAY, MiB. .........c.cesessecn+sosnesnewuesse ese mmnanme 598

7. On the Fertilisation of the Ege of the Axolotl, By J. W. Jenxnyson,

GAD Bras conceebeasormtaean eeancomeaeies dents amicsasass scearievswveaeeteys seamen 600

8. Some New and Rare Isopoda taken in the British Area. By W. M.

PAU DMRS ATI, Mis SCs ceria ccieecoewiecioritse stones recess sees seseeemcecps cece ta 601

9. tSome New and Rare Schizopoda from the Atlantic Slope on the West
of Ireland. By E. W. L. Honr and W. M. Tarrmrsatt, B.Se............. 602

10. Some New Copepoda from the Atlantic Slopes. By G. P. Farran ...... 602
11. On a New Species of Dolichoglossus. By W. M. Tarrmrsatt, B.Sc....... 603

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

. The Budgett Memorial :

(i) Note on the Developmental Material of Polypterus obtained by the

late Mr. J. 8. Budgett. By J. GRAHAM K&ERR..............:0ceeceees 604
(ii) Notes on the Development of Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis (Daud).

By ahs a MDLES sepkssereancasescrsnsspoanacasechceedeseoreorude seoteas tees ranean 605

CONTENTS. xix

Page
2. Rejuvenation. By Caartus Sepewick Mrwor, LL.D., 8e.D............006 606
3. An Experiment with Telegony. By Cuartes Sepewick Minor, LL.D.,
ERO Miele w cecht deta occu: Sea ga dds «Bu Faeliewabn Sufddsisledind valondl Cade xewecddsintes tains 606
4, The Harvard Embryological Collection. By CHARLES SepewicKk Mrnor,
DE ERP redticaitg nn dev daaisiet sides ¢sGaisife dda aa gvinne nan cnet Mad sagde dade. Mee «33 606
5. The Preciitn Test in the Study of pone pa Ga By Dr.
ROR GR pH NO TUATT EUS eh osc o0t cons fae0, ct tletaehandeeeeadseds fai oy aawadee 607
6. ¢The Mimetic Resemblance of Diptera for Hymenoptera, By Professor
BIS POULTON PH bic Se oe vet e sbiis acshic oe ac shiiedsgoe haces cl'ysccetedusltts tener acadepe ces 607

7. The Evolution of the Horse. By Professor Henry Farrrietp Osporn... 607

8. +The Histogenesis of the Blood of the Larva of Lepidosiren. By Dr. T. H.
LE TEIUIET coonocdhedodaos dances sone oaabaiog JodedonsccooJiEcesuBdagencoddeudere tacueance aa: 608

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24,
1, The Effects Produced by Growing Frog Embryos in Salt and other

Solutions. By J. W. Jenkinson (p. ZSS)i a octane ocncceacceoryoussne cuca tee 608
2. On the Pacific, Atlantic, Japanese, and other ‘ Palolos.’ By Professor
ECMNLOEEL Rus Ser caste ccsecu aoe esacl wecteces ceretestottiredeecrae utes secceceteer. 608
3. On the Elucidation of Cellular Fields of Force by Magnetic Models, By
PEOLESSODNUAROUSEVARTOG: 1 2essucs dele: sas vootcadadeta ce teack alice detnarasdeoesode se 610
4, *Demonstration of Cytoplasmic Figures in Segmenting Eggs of Ryn-
chelmis (Prof. Vejdovsky). By Professor Marcus HARTOG ...........0668 611

Section E—GEOGRAPHY.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

Address by Dovetas W, FREsHFIELD, F.R.G.S., President of the Section ... 612
1, Cyrene: an Illustration of the Bearing of Geography on History. By

SRE ERR TETEE NN Nig sg nea dai punk dasisgaian dain) Avdnned naa nd aecises saga sores 626
2. Ptolemy’s Map of Asia Minor: Method of Construction. By the Rev.
Ae SORONEN byl) 5 cccacaticavaseuevcadactisnedasercea-concveciechescatanoudciureare 627

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
1, The Fulani Emirates of Northern Nigeria. By Major J. &. Burpon, M.A.,

PEM die ec x baixees ta he aa Uaidode cx br da tsa laa wide dattay dass Magplde babs és 628
2. Methods of Topographical Survey. By Major C. F. Crosz, C.M.G., R.E. 629
3. The Glaciers of the Caucasus. By Maurice DE Ditcny ..................04. 631
4. Scenes and Studies in the Nile Valley. By Arraur Srrva Wuirtre......... 631

MONDAY, AUGUST 22,

1, A Journey around Lake Titicaca. By Arraur W. Hitt, M.A. ......... 631
2. Glacier-bursts, By CHARLES RABOT ........ccccccceccsseecseceseveeceusenceeses 632
3. Report on Terrestrial Surface Waves (p. 301) ...........eccceeceeecseeseuseeee 633
4, Brunanburh: Identification of this Battle Site in North Lincolnshire.

Peer isey, ATURE ENONT, MAN, Liss cine ddanepneae ddecviebiessdaskcesincadses 633
5. hy Lipari Islands and their Volcanoes. By Trmpnst ANDERSON, M.D. an

a2

KX REPORT—1904.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

Page

1. Exhibit of Maps and Photographs showing Effects of Earth Movements

near Naples; with a Note on the Area affected by them. By R, T.
GUNTHER, MAL cscssrnonns igs enehersanedawant ind gs cudeninnnae whnluete = Baanameenne aes 634

2, On the Nomenclature of the Physical Features of England and Wales.
By Huei Ropert MILL, D.Sc. .....cccecseeeeeseseeeeessesneeeeseereeeseesesesees 635
3, Changes in the Fen District. By H. Yur OrpHam, M.A. ..........20.000 635
4, Vegetation of the Fen District. By Professor R. H. Yarr, M.A, ......... 636
5. Notes on the Malabar Coast of India. By R. S. Leprrr, M.A., LL.M. 6386
6. A Geographical Object Lesson: Passes of the Alps. By A. W. ANDREWS 637
7. *The Scottish Antarctic Expedition. By W.S. BRUCE .........cccceeeeseee 637
8, The First True Maps. By C. R. BEAZLEY, M.A. .....cccecsseceseceseneeeenens 637

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
Address by Professor WiLLIAM Smart, M.A., D.Phil., LL.D., President of the

OCHO +. cvs.ses oh coemmuact nenpibianesbaissdnpieise' cumempaleavecteterer slides smeetan aan 639
1. Tests of National Progress. By A. LL. BowLEY, M.A, ......scccccseeseeeeenes 647
2. A Moot Point in the Theory of International Trade. By Professor F. Y.

EDGHWORTH,* D.Ciic ov cock sowesspanessetacnedesacedsassaetvetnaccnelneumnaite amen 647
3. The Influence of Agricultural Improvements on Rent. By Professor

AS OW. ELUS, M. AS Giacponpcecocconsseucaaesatcthiserev'ssacod cee ones ineite ta nema 647

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
1, The Incidence of Protective Duties on the Industry and Food Supply aaa

Brance, «By YVESiGUOUG ec cnscccsncestersnaccosnavaceane satis delmasasnesemne
2, The Effect of Protection on some German Industries. By Professor _
PhOWA i 205d Sis cnet aie caeetenteereucnetices Pears axaue ditt eter weet eee eds see ne tne 651
3. Free Trade and the Labour Market. By Professor H. Drmrze............. 653
4, Economic Theory and Fiscal Policy. By L. L. Pricn, M.A. ............06 654
MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. The Economic Importance of the Family. By Mrs. Bosanquet............ 655
2. Cotton Growing in the Empire. By J. A. HUTTON ........:sccsereceeeeesenes 656
3. Report on the Accuracy and Comparability of British and Foreign Statis-
tics of International Trade (p..302) ...5.0.....5.+2ss0ccccsconessosersteentansey™ 658
TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
1. Changes in Nominal and Real Wages in Belgium. By Professor E.
MATIATM 5.5 cvaene nooo ented sosiasinelese dorepiieassnnaucanpi'¢*nasianeeeenan sn mnceneiainnee 658
2. The Development of Towns. By T. C. HORSFALL............-+sseeeeeeeerv eee 660
3. The Town Housing Question. By Mrs, FISHER ......scsssssesceseereenereees 660
4. The Increase of Suburban Populations. By Srpney Low, B.A. ............ 661
5. The Relation between Population and Area in India. By J. A. Bainzs, |
PO elaas cco ea hsa onnnes ead) onidedsasuenmamebleh tars rele tine asta non kata asta 662
6. Investigations on the Nutrition of Man. By Professor ATWATER (p. 758) 663

CONTENTS. xxl

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.

Page
1. The Modification of the Income-tax. By W.G.S. ADAMS.......0....5..0 663
2. A proposed Substitute for the Sugar-tax. By Barnarp ELLINGER ...... 664
3. Some Features of the Labour Question in America. By C. J. Haminron 665
4, The Employment of the Graduate. By H. A. Ropurts, M.A. .........+. 666

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
Address by the Hon. C. A. Parsons, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section 667

1. *The Origin of Sand Ripples. By Mrs. HERTHA AYRTON ........ceeeeeeees 676
FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
1. tFlame Temperatures in Internal Combustion. By Ducatp Currx ...... 676
2. *On the Specific Heat of Gases at High Temperatures. By Professor
tere DRONE Es EAS eee re dorcdeesctiee cere aidneceddcossaasesates ctpsedaeeneesons 676
3. tExhaust Gas Calorimetry. By Professor B. Horxrinson, M.A, »......... 676
4, +The Effect of Receiver Drop in a Compound Engine, By J. W. Hay-
ROPERS ENE arc cts tues. .dusauiduusseepiertcs saechenseuaragennontdoeameazinn ins «moa 676
5. Superheated Steam: Wire-drawing and other Experiments.. By A. H.
TUDO Bs A a dace eR nose so ncd ei nnge Raseecu gia teotea ste seerbeoboanda 37cun SoeMMBaer 676
MONDAY, AUGUST 22
1. Electricity from Water-Power. By A. A. CAMPBELL SWINTON............ 677
2. The Use of Electricity on the North-Kastern Bailveny and on Tyneside.
By ©. H. Merz and W. McLELLAN ........:scceeseeeeceenseeeectenesen seen ecees 678
8. tTesting Alternating-current Induction Motors by a Hopkinson Method.
By W. E. Sumpner and R. W. WEEKES.........006..seceseessseseeeseneeee ers 679
4, Energy Losses in Magnetising Iron. By W. M. Morpny and A, G.
MMPI he pet eo atten k seats snadonsbabubws ncnncescventuecnen «a cenketeee=rt) omnes 679
5. {Distribution of Magnetic Induction in Multipolar Armatures. By W. M.
PETORITON, coos sce s cee cess asitcossacueosiesdederececsessifelssnvasesiisnssgue¥art=nalestors 682
6. On Large Bulb Incandescent Electric Lamps as Secondary Standards of
Light. By Professor J. A. Fremine, M.A., D.Sc., FBS. oo... eee 682

7. Some Investigations on the Ten-candle Power Harcourt Pentane Lamp
made at the National Physical Laboratory. By Ciirrorp C. Parerson 683

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
1, Report on the Tidal Régime of the River Mersey (p. 318) «......0::.ee..eee 684
2, +The Control of the Nile. By Major Sir Hansury Brown, K.C.M.G..., 684
3. A Universal Testing Machine of 300 tons for Full-sized Structural

Members. By J. H. Wioxsrpen, Pres.Inst.Mech.E. ...........sesseeeeeeees 684
4, +The Effect of Rapidly Alternating Stresses on Structural Steels. By

Professor J), O. A RNOLD. ......ccoennccsscvansonce sieseresestarscensreeccaensesnsases 684.
5. The Production of Magnetic Alloys from Non-magnetic Metals. By R. A

MMPPUACEEATAY | Wacuvspaecstsesrcasaccvaxsssqecsdsvevsdcudensicaccsvsesrtatsseoctiyecccerssres 685

6. *Indicator Tests on a small Petrol Engine. By Professor H. L. Cat-
HENGDV AUREL EUs eter re vscacecarevertccecersccucesesssnestsioscosccbecventeccctocsssessens 686

Xx REPORT—1904.

1. tSide Slip in Motor Cars. By Horace Darwin, F.RS., and O, V.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.
Page

IER TRITON. ag ccededececepbgecteavsthoe duoce’duocsnasica vee’ keen cp cep ¥pseie ss «Al CeMbeaeees can 686

. *An Electric Temperature Alarm. By Horace Darwiy, F.R.S. ......... 686
. The Electrical Conductivity of certain Aluminium Alloys as affected by

Exposure to London Atmosphere, and a Note on their Micro-structure.
By Professor ERNEST WHILSON.......:c:ssseeeeeeeeneeeeeeeeeesenseeeeesseesen eons 686

. The proposed Barrage of the River Thames. By JAMES CASEY . ......+++ 686
. Testing Alternate-current Motors by Continuous Current. By WiLn1Am

(CRAP VAR MG IBN Ey \ercsseccecs os catsesceseedessnscseaneucndenans oath eueaesesammannee 687

. tThe Action of Lightning Strokes on Buildings. By KitLiInewortH

PETHDIGHS: biceae ea ctonee td cnacctakcekeccedebetesbsavensdiWapcageadea seats twee +i meRmammnenas 688

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

Address by Henry Batrour, M.A., President of the Section .........:.s:ee0e+ 683

a,

»)

“>

5
Vv

to

The Eyolution of the Lotus Ornament. By Professor Oscar Monzetius 700
*Note on the Entomology of Scarabs. By Professor W. M. FLINpeRs
PEP R UE) Colas Mal eR. sac sscos corenewecanneseoy vets en ssp epepese ee temeeemnee 700
{Excavations at Ehnasya in Egypt, with special reference to a Series of
Roman Lamps. By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perris, D.C.L., LL.D.,
MEM Eea © sug ice. «gees oadanBbpeeens Gnas veasu ivkvaduiemcsgnpianseces 0 ownedans Veena 701

. Recent Explorations at Great Zimbabwe. By R. N. HALL............4000++ 701

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

. Report on Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland

FP a) eters cs coc conut lf ecyusqackl ole civin 3 seeahane saa a seeateoue 701

. “The Alleged Physical Deterioration of the People. By Professor D. J.

CunNiEVGiAM, MED), HORS. tctsiecnessasssoncassarestheesevereccsenetssigcag ammaane 701

. A Comparison of the Physical Characters of Hospital Patients with those

of Healthy Individuals from the same Areas, with Suggestions as to the
Influence of Selection by Disease on the Constitution of City Populations.

By ECP SHRUEEATE, MEDD. ie; sesccunsecatapuntervee BEC HICE ELD oon ooce 702

An Anthropometric Survey: its Utility to Science and to the State. By

VOHIN GRAY. SS Chee meee renee Pedgsneeeatisagcesssceweseart es (eee. 704
. “Discussion on Physical Deterioration and Anthropometric Survey......... 705

. The Progress of the Ethnographic Survey of Madras. By Enear

RESURSTON cack coe ceiaee eR Sees Be ees ccs cee teen sincere eons siglo dees eee ee 705

. Interim Report on the Present State of Anthropological Teaching (p. 341) 706
» Recent Anthropometric Work in Scotland. By J. F. Tooumr, F.1.0. ... 706
. The Distribution and Variation of the Surnames in East Aberdeenshire in

1626 ,and.1896," By J. H. Tocwme, FLO, 2.3, .iassasanaxasetewevt sspeaneetgiee 707

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.

. A Plan for a Uniform Scientific Record of the Languages of Savages.

Pyotr tOHARD Tempra, Bart,,C, 0. By ssosovccacsssaposs sadduancebasssosnepeave 708

» On Group-Marriage in Australian Tribes. By A. W. Howirr ...........6 709

CONTENTS. xxl

Page

. The Passing of the Matriarchate. By R.S, Luppzr, M.A., LL.M. ...... 709
. An Anthropological View of the Origin of Tragedy. By Professor W.

LEBEL HA WueAcyeoy MU Acree Pete aS, AoA. Ama d’s sea atematecn nei seaeviversosatee ee ssipesas 710

» The so-called Tomb of Mena at Negadeh in Upper Egypt. By Joun wid

UPRERSBNES, ERNE gg coc ccctn cath ond sasuachsniuessus anise dr <eep sqerazanansnt

» On an Interment of the Early Iron Age found at Moredun, near Edin-

Pete (Gy i) hh. Cones andl. EH, BRYOn, MLD. ...cccccsscosscnncescorecd seas 712

. On a Phase of Transition between the Chambered Cairns and Closed

Oysts in the South-west Corner of Scotland. By 'T. H. Brycz, M.D. ... 713

. The Cimaruta, a Neapolitan Charm. By R. T. Ginwrumr, M.A...........+ 714
. Records of Paleolithic Man from a New Locality in the Isle of W: oa

fecerorsser 1, B; Pourron, D.Se.-FBS. ocd iiveces iaescnsesesssndddossacnee 715

SuB-SEcTION oF ANTHROPOGRAPHY.

1. The Persistence in the Human Brain of certain Features usually supposed
to be distinctive of Apes. By G. Exrior Smairu, M.D. ............cseeeeees
2, A Note on the Brain of a Foetal Gorilla. By W. L. H. Duckworrn, M.A. 715
3. Some Variations in the Astragalus. By R. B. Spymovr Swett, B.A... 716
4, Some Varieties of the Os Calcis. By P. OC. LAIDLAW ........scceeeceee eee T16
Sencitt Hxpression, By E.G: PARSONS focc....-cc,csesueccescorscepsediorscunces 717
6. Anthropometric Identification: a New System of Classifying the Records.
Vani S SCE eet er etn crctacccecchs teeter wes tes ese ree cet ecnetteanansesee-octeas 717
7. Graphical Representation of the various Racial Human Types. By
Epo EE DI UOK WORTH? MGAG Morhrcres.cearsetensssacs aasescstenestecssancecssencess 718
8. Exhibit of Amorite Crania. By Professor A. MacatistER, F.R.S.......... 718
9. Report on Anthropometric Investigations among the Native Troops of the
MEAL NERO (I IO) vcs cveviateridees aisnaaaae senlinsaaieasizneeaatmanina)savah acess 718
10, The Variability of Modern and Ancient Peoples. By C 8. Mysrs, M. D, 718

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

. Note on Prehistoric Archeology in Greece. By Dr. P. KABBADIAS ...... 718
. Report on Archeological and Ethnographical Explorations in Crete

aH RG SC in uals CO GER a EE Oe OR ne ees JR 719

. Preliminary Scheme for the Classification and approximate Chronology of

the Periods of Minoan Culture in Crete, from the close of the Neolithic to

the Early Iron Age. By Arruur J. Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S. .........00604- 719
4, Painted Vases of the Bronze Age from Palaikastro. By R. M. Dawx1ns, ‘

Bere ete eae Mahe cc akenyaene reason cnaas <i asixtsenerenenserasdunnaeeanrosspesccqsietes sh 72
5. Excavations at Heleia (Palaikastro) and Baga in Eastern Crete. By

rey PBA UII MOG At, BC Aly 5 cc's ocpy sc Sudegenela dawanebed «gonhaecbewebs eases 721
6. The Linguistic Character of the Eteocretan Language. By Professor

ee MAN Wate GP rs e-cwc sl eu ccnketea rn sah ce VaccccsctreSace! sosstevesssness 722
7. A Find of Copper Ingots at Chalcis. By R. C. Bosanquzr, M.A.......... 722
8. The Geometric Period in Greece. By Professur OscaR MONTELIUS ...... 723
9

. The Latest Discoveries in Prehistoric Science in Denmark. By Professor -
3

AVA TN MMA SOHMED TM bac oa soe ea thivieu bist sisducites ie ced bues oldu cueaeielew seats’ dely 14%

xxiv REPORT—1904.

WEDWVESDAY, AUGUST 24.

Page

1. Classification Sociale. Par M. EDMOND DEMOLINS. ......-..ce0sceseeueeeeeeenes 7 Dd
2, Further Excavations on a Paleolithic Site in Ipswich. By Nina FRANCES

TAGARD cisccetsicvscescokesnsvcuslecile teswusuaveeeducsetes’ ¢qnoddrtty tes teeh tt amimmaaam . 725

3. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury (Pp; o24).-,.cosscs-+ s-eseeneeeeer 726

4, Reports on Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain (p. 337)........--sseees 726

5. “Some Funeral Customs of the Todas. By Dr. W. H. R. Rivers......... 726

6. On a Votive Offering from Korea. By E. Sipney HARTLAND .......++00- 726

7. Notes on the Fulahs of Nigeria. By E. F. MARTIN ............0ccecenseneeees 726

8. *The Bee Cult in British Folklore. By G. L. Gomme, F.S A..........0c00ee 727

Srection I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
Address by Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON, ScD., M.D., F.R.S., President of

Phe SeCtOn 2045.4 balsa sciasesecos de denier). tstonBen. eee Nepenacanspcuneonteden en iaaaeay 728
1. On Reflex and Direct Response to Galvanic and Faradic Currents.

By Professor J. A. MAC WILLIAM ......cceccseeccscsecsccsceccersrceessensseneess 741
2. On the Metabolism of Arginin. By Professor W. H. Tuompson, M.D.... 741

3. On the Relation of Tereeoce=s to Trypsin. By Professor EK. H. Srar-
TING, FRB. ..ccseseayecaitantaacdoongems ourmeuens xoeltne .0sbsi een en Enea aa 741

4, The Effect of Alcohol on the Heart. By Dr. W. EH. DIxon .....000+..000s 742
FRIDAY, AUGUST 193.
Discussion on Oxidation and Functional Activity. Opened by Sir J. 8.

BuRDON SANDERSON, Bart., PUR.S......<0..:.scccccecvesssesecenssessesssinensssees 742

SATURDAY, AUGUST 20.

1, The Spread of Plague. By Dr. HE. H. HANKIN ...........ccseeeeeeeeseeeeseeees 748
2, Observations on the Senses of the Todas. By W. H. Rivers, M.D. ...... 749
3. Recent Development of Helmholtz’s Theory of Hearing. By Dr. C. 5.
MYERS oy 0s cch sptcddew 4deean dun ew dowd saagah ntccacep selugnp Bie=E i vob ete eet 7650
4, Experimental Investigations on Memory. The Localisation of Remote
Memories. By Dr. N. VASCHIDH ........sccosscsesccsnscevees sorssanvsassuntese 750

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
Discussion on Conduction and Structure in the Nerve-arc and Nerve Cell.. ... 751

1, On Methods of Artificial Respiration. By Professor E. A. ScHArer,
EUS. ss Snsdacees wake uje alessee tee aes Roe serch ea cholera ge Te aL oats aR oto oi eter 754.

2. The Necessity of a Lantern Test as the Official Test for Colour Blindness.

By Dr: EF. W. EEDRIDGE-GRERN. |c..josccdecdeoerooumeonen armani een teen ele eaRaaee 755
TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
1, On Protamines. By Professor A. Kossrn and H. D. DAKIN ............04. 755
2. The Metabolism of different Carbohydrates. By Professor J. E. Jomann-
RON erie descr sas +ceecensiensd asso venosgdnced savsesasentatpr dee canpegemmegenies ebondeaobisiens 756
8, Some Observations on Blood Pigments. By P. P. Taneige BAP clas 757

. On the Distribution of Potassium in Animal and Vegetable Cells. By

CONTENTS. XXV
Page

Professor A.B. MACATLUM, PHD) 0.0.0.0... cceseucenstdetercsovasecssuserarsssss 757

. Investigations on the Nutrition of Man. By Professor W. O, ArwarteRr... 758

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.

1. Motor Localisation in the Lemur. By Dr. W. Pace May and Professor
PSE SMLINE . Cocacen aaa c otedenns spe Vaeninenpbieas aseeuisesaasn nena un tasiaas oan qensse 760
2. On Descending Thalamus Tracts. By Dr. W. Pace May ..............06-5 760
38. Joint-ill in Foals. By Professor G. Sims WoopHEAD, M.D. ..............+ 760
4, A Committee of Pathological Research. By Dr. T. S. P. StRANGEWAyYs 760
5. The Effect of Chloroform on the Heart. By Professor C, 8. SHERRING-
TON, M.D.; F.R.S., and Miss 8. C..M. SOWTOM ........cscecsescessecsnssonsqeee 761
6. Report on the Metabolism of the Tissues (p. 348) .........:.e.ceeeeees RE ee 762
7. Report on the State of Solution of Proteids (p. 341)............c:eeceeeeen ees 762
8. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors (p. 842) 762

Section K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

Address by Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,F.R.S., President of the Section... 763

1. A New Type of Sphenophyllaceous Cone from the Lower Coal Measures,
eget Et RINE) Ol, 0 cE Mele, AP DER RSet asavansercaneens fsgesacs sated saducuresasran 777

2. On Some New Lagenostomas. By D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
MANGSeBECA, NIEWEELGARBER, MAG cies: .00 cc dersecacecdns sassetcvasesseaune esas casts 778

3. Observations on Structure of the Leaf-trace of Inversicatenate Filicine.
By Professor C. Ee. BERTRAND and Professor F, CORNAILLE...........+++ 778
4, On the Presence of Parichnos in Recent Plants. By T. G, Hi01 ......... 780
5. The Anatomy of Psilotum triquetrum. By Miss Srprnxez O. Forp......... 780
6. Seed-coats of Cycads. By Marre C. Sropus, Ph.D., B.Sc. ............. 000s 780

7. A New Feature in the Morphology of the Fern-like Fossil Glossopteris.
By E. A. NEWELL ARBER, M.A............ceccseessceeees SAC entree CepconEeetee eee 781
8. On Reduction of the Gametophyte in Todea. By L. A. Boopte............ 781

9. On the Reduction of the Marchantiaceous Type in Cyathodium. By
Warman IAG MGI: ISG. 2c seoccssevashoes tase scsteetnissdeacecetss esse cine 782
10. *On some Peperomia Seedlings. By A. W. Hitt, M.A. ........ccccceeeee ees 783

11. Exhibition of Specimens illustrating (1) the Comparative Constancy of

Specific Characters of Eucalypts; (2) the Relation between the Leaf
Venation and the Oil Constituents. By R. T. Baxmr, F.L.S................ 783

12, *Exhibition of Fruits of Melocanna, A cinenicayes and Ochlandra. By
PRO PUL IURE I asec etaachrha sicrtcCaunon gh regacrcartians Gupuenas 03s seat tess ecesoan 783

13. Observations on Secondary Thickening in Amarantus spinosus. By
FUORAOHPAG NV -AGPIR:s AEN, Cs, cacandeas asioccss cts ccenaesssavnteccetomstersececaas 783
14, Report on the Respiration of Plants (p. 344) ..........:ssssccecseceeceeeeeeeeees 784
15. Report on the Registration of Botanical Photographs (p. 345)............06 784
16. Report on Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity (p. 346)... 784
17 *Interim Report on a Monograph of the Genus Potamogeton .....6..e000008 784

XXv1 REPORT—1904.

Sus-Sucrionzor AGRICULTURE,

Page
Address by W. Somurvittn, M.A., D.Sc., D.dic., Chairman ..........+1eeeeeeees 784
1, *The Organisation of Agricultural Research in America. By Professor —

PACE YAU caries steccassbivasteelsssoudevsccleseesescseseseoss assy vshirars-naeeh nat eersmamaes 795

2. The Improvement of Wheats and Mendel’s Laws. By R. H. Brrren,
MPRA RS ae seeW dens stcceuans>toosesckscocsesacsoe0t sccm sera eess's ¥xsaime ii tapt iene 795
3. Hybridisation of Cereals. By JoHn H. Witson, D.Sc. .....sseeceeeeeeeeee 796
4, The Clover Mystery: A Probable Solution, By Roserr H. Evtiot...... 797

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

1, On the Problems of Ecology. By Professor A. G. Tanstny, M.A.,
WET espe Afel a tanecsungthougionsvex<os <cextads shan asanutenchsoee<sssadaiaaeat rie 797
2. Botanical Survey of Britain. By W. G. Smira, B.Sc., Ph.D.............06 798

3. *Observations on the Biology and Distribution of Woodland Plants. By
ARGV PONY OOD IAT J2. 0 cle sgssvek coadsovecducteece cess WxaseiitueWesastvsu 00a 798

4, Interglacial and Postglacial Beds of the Cross Fell District. By Franects
PBI WISs IE MaSe) fasmeascaceotcuesetts sic spserveecoscesansssscleoce ses, a) ocny eae 798

5. Plants of the Northern Temperate Zone in their Transition to the
High Mountains of Tropical Africa. By Professor A. ENGLER............ 799
6. Mechanical Advantage among Plant Organs. By J. Crarx, Ph.D., B.Se. 801
7. *Exhibition of Pure Cultures of Alge. By Professor R. CHopat ......... 801

8. “Exhibition of Micro-photographs of Freshwater Plankton. By Professor
Reber UNE: 2 not gaye cos catia atcha; cannes sx sueswabecases>} -s¢néaaeeys Cie nalana 802

9. *Exhibition of Kammatograph Photographs showing the Movements of
father bey Mrs, SD. E1, SOGOU, <.ccoasstevssciduseases eas unsstnaczhevenaa ieee 802
10. *On the Artificial Formation of a New Race. By Professor G. Kizss... 802

11. The Present State of our Knowledge of the Cytology of the Cyano-
piyces. By HAROLD WAGER, BLES, ~..5...cc0sccaccqaene redverssnaeereeninaa 802
12, The Virgin-woods of Java. By Dr. J. P. LOTSY ...cccccccsessssssessereeseees 803

“ Sus-SEcrion oF AGRICULTURE.

1, Analysis of the Soil by means of the Plant. By A. D. Hatt, M.A....... 804

2. The Probable Error of Agricultural Field Experiments. By A. D.
BTS ks | MY Aso see ane saer vances dana scuccicstichavtnt cesrasarecsveroo regan ana 804

3. The Determination of the Availability of Insoluble Phosphate in Manures.
By T. S. Dymonn, F.I.C., and GrorGn CLARKE, A.L.C. ......cceesesereee oe 805

4. The Influence of Sulphates as Manure upon the Yield and Feeding-value
of Crops. By T. 8. Dymonp, F.1.0., F. Huenzs, and ©, Jure ..........5 807

5, The Improvement of Poor Clay Soils by White Clover and other
Leguminose. By Professor T. H. MIDDLETON, M.A. .....csceceeescceeeeeees 808

6. A New Method of Forming Nitrites and Nitrates. By EpwAarp Joun
Russet, D.Sc., and NoRMAN SMITH, M.Sc. ........ccssesssescssccccccccceeeene 809

7, The Chemical Composition of Different Varieties of Mangels. By. T. B.
aon eM. and I, A. ‘Burry, BTC)! ../i.ssscsiaecestes thee oa ueuicave 810

8. Variation in the Chemical Composition of Mangels. By T. B. Woon,

eens. As Benny, FLO, | 5 0,0che1c0sescoiviesWtKecavdeseugeh eaeeead 811

—_

to

CONTENTS. XXVI1i

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
Page

On the Forms of Stems of Plants. By Lord Avesury, D.C.L., F.R.S.... 812

. *On Recent Researches on Parasitic Fungi. By Professor H. MARSHALL

VAD OH OLG.S. coh osteeackeeabeopsca abet ihe Scbunmbhen see Sic tasteonraecusEivicanss 813

. *On the Vegetative Life of some Uridinee. By Professor Jako,

SRE GSO Nec oe cece ccc catch othe vie wane sat. oisle ona spats olevbarat Gauiene wept ne duadmhwes'eppiatabiaes 8138

. *On the Development of the Acidium of Uromyces Poe, and on the Life-

History of Puccinia Malvacearum. By V. H. Buackman and Miss
ELELEN C. 1. FRASHR......0000-scsssveccssonscescrssenccscconcssenerasssaecence:sseeees 813

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

1, Sunshine and CO, Assimilation ; an Account of Experimental Researches,

By Dr. F. F, BrackMAN and Miss MATTHAEL ........csesseeeseeeeecseenernens 818
2. Struggle for Pre-eminence and Inhibitory Stimuli in Plants. By Pro-

POMBO Vay PREBRA AA Ids sisindeseeSabontctandeckasenhsisessaceeddunueds oaeussatsonsens es 814
3. On the Proteases of Plants. By Professor 8S. H. Vinus, F.R.S. .........04 814
4, Sexuality in Zygospore Formation. By Dr. A. F, BLAKESLEE............... 815
5, Some General Results of the Localisation of Alkaloids in Plants. By

rafessor li, Hi RBARAY. .scasnacessis nee. s-vsaaneianphaasntacpaaemearobeaacondts eee: 815
G. The Discovery of a New Alkaloid in Strychnos Nux Vomica, By Dr.

Reed TODA Maes cc owe. oe coma metena tase sie clase buaabiaeite chldcaBauued weak Made taccasaces 817

. On the Significance of the so-called Anti-ferment Reaction in Geo-

tropically Stimulated Roots. By Professor F. CZAPEK ..........ssereeeeee 817

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.

. “A Measurement of the Great Swamp Cypress at Santa Maria del Tule,

Moexicors By ALFRED -P, MADDSLAY. s.2/dij,c0c) vostacevestessoeoesendeessea sesso 817

. “Oxidising Enzymes and Katalases in Plants. By Professor R. Coopar 818

3. *On the Pollination of Gymnosperms. By Professor K. Fusr.............++ 818
4, The Dissemination and Germination of Arceuthobiwm occidentale. By Dry.
EER GR ly ERERON) « wel [ses tid Soi aL wdwin Aduttoucate MubWauiaale ih sebere texas 818
5. *On the Transpiration Stream in Small Plants. By. Dr. Orro V. Darsi-
BHIBE .cscoinscenuscevevessiscdduavcess doessscdesdesceed sendddedaccdtceveowsersaressca sos: 818
6. On a Brilliant Pigment appearing after Injury in Species of Jacobinia
fe N.O. Acanthacem)... By. J,.PARKIN, MA. sscssccsdsecsssavedeeesescene ovvesesie 818
7. Saponarin (‘Soluble Starch’). By GuORGE BARGER ........:scceseeeeeeneee 819
8. On the Centrosome of the Hepatic. By K. Miyrxs, M.A., Ph.D... .,... 820
9. Further Cultural Experiments with ‘ Biologic Forms’ of the Hrystphacee.
Ey ENTS SALMON Las. ns sbanssesepenprsoesngesdesvaristsaceme ASS eBAbenC 821
10, The Inheritance of Susceptibility and Immunity to the Attacks of Yellow
GUSH ey Ebygek Eley SERENA. fay ck nae ocmseosssieviencsscesasddecdecederoosaanessces 822
11. Infection Experiments with various Uredinee. By Miss C. M. Gipson... 822
12. *On the Normal Histology of the Uredo of Puccinia glumarum. By
Bet AAT S san Kane tah iini'nats onttavhn ieleak Maite eaoandeandden deeda kde aastclsde es 822
13. Pineapple Galls of the Spruce. By E. R. Burpon, BuA............eeeeeeee 822
14. *The History and Distribution of Catesby’s Pitcher Plant (Saracen

Catesbei). By Professor JoHN M. MACFARLANE.........:cscceeee ceceeseeee 823

. “Observations on Two Species of Alpine Rose and their supposed Hybrids.

By Professor JoHN M. MACFARLANE .....sscscsscssesecnscucavesenesseseeesssees 828

16
Ife
18.
19,

20.

XXvIi REPORT—1904.

’ Page
*Exhibition of a Bigeneric Hybrid between Gymnadenia and Nigritella.
By Professor JoHN MM, MACKARDANH 212.210. Jscescuceovertecescodsteatossedsdeaa 823
The Destruction of Wooden Paving Blocks by the Fungus Zentinus
lepideus Fr. By A. H. Reervatp Butrer, D.Sc., Ph.D: ..........eeeeee 823
The Reactions of the Fruit-bodies of Lentinus lepideus Fr. to External
Stimuli. By A. H. Reernatp Butrer, D.Se., Ph.D. ........cccceeeeeeeeeees 824
The Structure of the Ascocarp in the Genus Monascus. By B. T. P.
BARKER, MGAGS 203 seeseaeebeseeses gonesotodocbecdaoncondecadunckananueriace Pecan ct 824
Further Observations on the Ascocarp of Ryparobius. By B. T. P.
PEM ype Nl As -\cd.s We eoeccratoa ea nic oaag osear dhaamaee tAceces 0k eid emeeas tae 825
Some Features in the Development of the Geoglossacee. By Dr. ELias
SepPrNNDY Three Re sthee chu ysieet cet, SOE CHa SHOLEeOdod Ban senee rc 826

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

Address by the Right Rev. the Lorp BisHor or Hererorp, D.D., LL.D.,

Pronident: of the:-Boction’ 6, Wk sad yews. Oésiscadavescleehhd Whe ae 827
- 1. The Present Educational Position of Logic and Psychology. By Miss
EDM, AONB: «5 ovotodeua Zo udsldeibedks oabsocetewneus svete tac katya her eee aaa 840
2. Comparison of the Intellectual Power of the Two Sexes. By Dr. J. pp
RGROSY: ick cdi ss peceeren: Priduevaseustcitostenesesehsscaits deaees dee Oleieanancemeemaam 841
3. The Teaching of Experimental Science in the Secondary Schools of
Ireland. By the Right Rev. Geranp Motnoy, D.D., D.Sc. ....cccceeee eee 842
FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
1. Specialisation in Science Teaching in Secondary Schools. By J. H.
EONAR ORES Be P css ho cek«« ncbeae todas tuaab le taete Seope« ewsneedent saps dy Ra 844
2, Short Description of ‘ Realistic Arithmetic.’ By Lieut.-Colonel G. Mac-
IGIINIMANY SULA LO MENA, a oo. Bosca se the A tease secese renee aces eoca con OR te 844
3. Report on the Influence of Examinations (ps. 860), .....-eachened. ke auaeeeebaee 844
4. Discussion on School-leaving Certificates. Opened by the Rev. Canon
tomes Peete MG do sAtsdisaivaemeceaca se naten senate 845
5. The Need of Scientific Method in Elementary Rural Instruction. By
BAS) RATT 5 INA cae hs scmadeobhns REEMA a tosthle. <n teuese eae ee 848
MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. Discussion on the Training of Teachers and the Local Education
Authorities. Opened by the Right Hon. Hzrnry Hosuovss, M.P. ...... 849
2. The Research Method applied to Experimental Teaching. By Professor
PALS ERSTRONG Ele. ck eT SAR ees Bie 854
TUESDAY, AUGUST 28.
1, Discussion on Methods of Imparting Manual Instruction in Schools.
Opaned by Sir Drie MAGNUS, FSC... s..covsscoosscesssacattehlllos takes 855
2. Report on the Courses of Experimental, Observational, and Practical
Studies most Suitable for Elementary Schools (p. 352) .....cesseseeeeeeeee 5
3. Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of the
Work of Instruction in Schools (p. 348) .........000008 aut sgeeeenes EOS 858

NSIS aS hi/St fe as Se cddccsccssavdvecesasboan isaalte tea toes Spe perncnnnncorotacc 859

LIST OF PLATES.
Puates I. anp II.

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations,

Puates III. ro VI.
Illustrating the Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.

Pruate VII.

Illustrating the Report on Terrestrial Surface Waves and Wave-like Surfaces.

Puate VIII.
Illustrating Mr. Aubrey Strahan’s Address to the Geological Section.

peel tle live tat’

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

THE ASSOCIATION.

—+—_

OBJECTS.

THE AssocraATION contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British —
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.

AnnvaL SupscriBers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive

XXxll REPORT—1904.

gratwitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; butthey may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.

Associatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual volume
of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874 are on sale at £10 the set.

eee
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXill

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appeinted by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance!; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. Permanent Mempers.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association,

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the
Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the
Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Crass B. Temporary MemsBers.?

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims wnder this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

. 2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-

ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of

Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by

_ the President and General Secretaries.
4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.*

(i) The President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of a Section are
appointed by the Council in November or December. They form, with
the existing members (see (ii) and (vi) ), the Committee, which has the duty of
obtaining information upon the Memoirs and Reports likely to be sub-
mitted to the Section at the next meeting, of preparing a report thereon,
of generally organising the business of the Section, and of bringing before
the Council any points which they think deserving of consideration 4

' Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1896.

2 Revised, Montreal, 1884.

* Adopted by the General Committee at Cambridge, 1904.

* Notice to Contributors of Memoirs—Authors are reminded that, under an
_ arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which

1904

. S
XXXIV REPORT—1904.

(ii) The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex-officio members of
these Committees.

(iii) The Sectional Committees may hold such meetings as they think
proper for the organisation of the business, but shall, under any circum-
stances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting at 2 p.m.
for the appointment of additional Members and other business.

Any member who has served on the Committee in previous years, and
who has intimated his intention of being present at the Meeting, is eligible
for election as a Member of the Committee at its first meeting.

(iv) The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to their number
from day to day during the Annual Meeting, but it is not desirable for
them to be larger than is necessary for efliciency ; they have also the
power to elect not more than three Vice-Presidents at any time during
the meeting, in addition to those appointed by the Council.

(v) The List formed during the Annual Meeting is to be entered
daily in the Sectional Minute-Book, and a copy forwarded without delay
to the Printer, who is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.M. on
the next day in the Journal of the Sectional Proceedings.

(vi) Before the close of the Annual Meeting each Sectional Committee
is to nominate six members of the Association to form the nucleus of the
Committee for the succeeding year, and forward a list of the six names to
the Assistant Secretary of the Association.

Included in the six names should be the existing President of the
Section, or one of the Vice-Presidents, and one of the existing Secretaries.

It will be the duty of these Members to transact the business of
the Comiittee until the officers of the Section for the ensuing year are
appoin .d by the Council, and thus become the officers of the Committee

(see (i) ).
Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Mectings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday (optional), Monday, and Tuesday,
for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Committee of

a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee,

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association

they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by the Sectional Com-
mittees before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary,
in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several
Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir of a
length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
DRLORGy eye. cere Reta ercek nave , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... * If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant Secre-
tary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Committee that has held office since the last Annual
Meeting. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by
the Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accordingly.
The List of Communications to be read on Thursday shall be then
arranged, and the general distribution of business throughout the week
shall be provisionally appointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting
the Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed
to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing the same before
8 a.M. on Thursday in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to prepare a copy of the Journal for the following day
by (i) removing from the list of papers those which have been read on
that day ; (ii) making any needful additions to or corrections in the list
of those appointed to be read on following days ; (iii) revising the list of
the Sectional Committee, and making any other necessary corrections,
and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as possible to
the Printer, who is charged with printing the same before 8 a.m. next
morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of
each Section (generally the Recorder) should call at the Printing Office
and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings at each Meeting of the Committee are to be
entered in the Minute-Book, and these Minutes should be confirmed at
the next meeting of the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the

_ Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant Secretary of the Association.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ex officio
temporary Members of the General Committee, and will receive, on
application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, tickets entitling
them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Annual Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the
communications made to the Sections at this Meeting, forthe purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to
have the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has
been made) and securing the presentation of the report in due time ; and,
further, it is expedient that one of the members should be appointed to
act as Secretary, for ensuring attention to business.

It is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on

b2

XEXVI REPORT—-1904.

a Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working.

A tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section shall be sent each year to the Recorders of the
several Sections, to enable them to fill in the statement whether or no the
several Committees appointed on the recommendation of their respective
Sections have presented their reports.

On the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee
for a special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional
Committee, the number of Members of such Committee shall be then
fixed, but the Members to serve on such Committee shall be nominated
and selected by the Sectional Committee at a subsequent meeting.

Committees have power to add to their number persons, being Members
of the Association, whose assistance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered on the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant Secretary of the
Association for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.
Unless this be done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the
Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.'

1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.

2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. If the work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.

4, Each Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-

terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-

ment or reappointment. Interim Reports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.

5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, Professor John Perry, F.R.S., for such portion
of the sums granted as may from time to time be required.

6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire ou
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.

* Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895.

S|

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION, Xxxvii

7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers, The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.

8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
farther grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.

9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received. 5

10, Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Council.

11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.

12. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.

At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,' and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

1 The Sectional Committee is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of
the Section and of the Sectional Committee, except for Saturday.

XXXVI1il REPORT— 1904.

2 To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant Secretary.

3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Official Programme, p. 1.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

The ex officio members of the Committee of Recommendations are the
President and Vice-Presidents of the Meeting, the Genera] Secretaries,
the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of the Association
in former years.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and shall not be taken into considera-
tion by the General Committee unless previously recommended by the
Committee of Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.!

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary.”

Corresponding Societies.

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to

1 Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
2 Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.
* Passed by the General Committee, 1884,

!

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXRLY

the Assistant Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered,
and must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the

results of the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the

Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4, Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before
the Ist of June, to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which
will contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society
as may be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies
Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.

6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.

8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.

__9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.

10.' The Committee of each Section shall be instructed to transmit
to the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recom-
mendations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee
of Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation
of Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend

1 Revised by the General Committee, 1903,

xl REPORT—1904.

the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.

11. It will bethe duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
abie to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater-uniformity in the mode of pubiishing results.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officer's.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

The Council shall appoint and have power to dismiss such paid officers
as they may consider necessary to carry on the work of the Association,
on such terms as they may from time to time determine.!

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of *

1. The Trustees.

2. The past Presidents.

3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

4, The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

5. The past and present General Treasurers and General
Secretaries and past Assistant General Secretaries.

6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting

7. Ordinary Members.

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.

(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

: Passed by the General Committee at Cambridge, 1904.
Site Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874; amended at Cambridge

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xli

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—I1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of twenty-three Members of the
General Committee whom they recommend for election as
Members of Council. The two vacancies then remaining shall
be filled by the General Committee, without nomination by
the Council, at the Meeting at which the election of the other
Members of the Council takes place.!

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

' Passed by the General Committee at Cambridge, 1904.

1904.

REPORT

xlii

“bsg ‘191SO 9991107 eee eee eee ee eee ee ee ee ouelrejoeyy pediourrg “Aoy AeA OU a ‘ ‘
ah “bsg ‘uoystyerq wozhog ( ******** **qQnom@rEG Jo [Avg OL ‘uojdmeyy10N jo smbivyy ey, WL.
"S'U'd “bsg “leyreg 05.1005
"ora Soup ‘ . eee ee eee
PE Ty tee we a a aE a A at ae | yg BEET OE mPOY ‘AAO HET
‘on “g’Ta “bsg ‘uosuepy uyor ic testeeees SUegy Oger ‘equa Jo doysig ov. ORS) “SU ad ACNVIYUTANNALYON FO AMO PUL.
ood.a
-198uy vet Worse tod aorteeon | sie/eTale aiiiw es\s 90/5 Se e.0'e:s minis Masa yETy ‘TTOMOTLM. “AM “ANY “LES TL qaquieydeg “1ooduaATT
“bs ‘ALLINY eov][e AM *ULA\ 4 ‘S'D'd “S'H'd “qeg ‘uojesg Aory op dyad asp **"*** "ts ett" ses * * WopuOrT JO AQISIOATA A) Ot} JO 1OTI9
“CW ‘Tvery, 1osseyo.rg ‘s° © aor: ora “bsg ‘uoqTeq UYOLE “Sa “S"T'd ‘WOON Jodoysig oy} -ueyO “SD “S'U'd “NOLONITUNA JO TUVA aL

K-® “bsg ‘uapueaoH “I “A fe ‘Saad “CW “bs ‘preqoytd ‘O° “S"" TSW ‘orvoq Atop * “At “AOU } . “9E8T “oe JsnSUY “ToIsTag
on “Sd “CW ‘Awaqneq tossajorg [ee rt sett ts st tt et te teeseresesesees SW ‘uojdueygz0N Jo smbrvyy oy, J **** “SU “T'O'C “ANMOGSNVT dO SIQOUVI TL
SS TMP AOTT AOS ea OT CAGIT Naat cate cab did cenigisice Se'seicotvaninie's s <is'eels Ae SOT SANT . ‘ ‘
SREDUMTBST = YS onto fe aks «<r Ghee samen tan cussatt Comat Reng ater [cu vs aviendas ORM erry OE Sanya ee
Jo jeXoy ‘uoysy ‘uoITMEA “A CA US SVU “SU ‘UMoyWeUIXO FUMODSTA Q'TT ‘GAOTI LSOAOUd ‘ATU OTL
. ‘6 ‘
aS" 09g ‘aosuygour UUOP aS {*" Tinaplihacstsla ck aitees ee be seeeeeeeeeeneses ere (HOSUIQOY " ‘I ‘ASH ME ed eta eee geen in
on Mc cg a Tee "Sg" ty ca soqiog TOSSeJOLg eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eeeeeee “*OIp “ord *JoISMOIg, prasg ug “rod “Tom ‘ANVASIUE TTVDNOGOVIN “L urs
*oraye ‘ . .
iets md PS ee COC ON, ACC OOC TION gor JFGe SA dacs ord “T'O'a “bsy ‘uoIpeq eal ‘ “ge81 ‘oe oune ‘aparuanvo
G“orpa “yy ‘aopsuep, aosseyong sao) ory ‘TeSoy sowouoysy “syd “bsg ‘Airy “gd “O) ‘S')'d'A “S'H'd'A “VN “HOIMDGES WVCV “ATE OL

‘op “SM “Wi TeMod tossayord “aout | st eeeeeeeeeeceeeeessereses sNOG 109K ‘SAI “ST ‘TOMO A “A “apt ; ; [8881 ‘61 aun ‘au01x0
‘OT ‘SU ‘an Auaqneqg IOSsejorIg POR Oe "OTP Bc Gai Gc 8 anes Oa: fl ‘TaysMolg: pled ag "Ory "SOU Su ‘a'a anNvVITwOng “M “AGU ouL

ESO) eRe Mua Weal Ws HOLLER cd LOSSOZ OCT Waele /siagleleie'eiein sie ec'es ave) eciajvetrifecinrsritecrs cyte “LEST ‘Lg taquieqydag ‘uu0X
‘gpa “bsg “unt ‘herp ana Sd “Sed “VW “srnoomEA TOME A *AA “ACH { on “Spa SU “TOC ‘WVITTIMZLId THVE UL

“SSIYVLAEYOaS 1V9071 “SLNAGISSed-S95IA “SLN3ACISaad

‘WUIWADUIWWMOY 877 WOLf ‘saLuDzaLIagy 1DI0T PUD ‘s]UapIsad qty
‘squapisarg yun Swounwosspy ysipug ey, fo burpoyy fo sowmay pwn saon,,q oy, buimoys ajqvy

-
co
=| "S77" Cours «
re "Wa “bsg ‘pusly Era ere sorsurmmont 0 uvodt nk
1a “ba. Oe laa Sain "qc aK gwd “aw ‘Aueqne
Sua “VIN ‘TONIBM PIOGQOY “Act oe ‘ gISTOATE() oq} 103 a omera oe Sie laps woo. |
wn Pacha ea Pee 5 nese Seek TaysienTen ogg 40 LOTTeOUe ne) SBUIOUT, b tttete testes seaseees “L¥8I “8G oun ‘auxoaXO
4 irra “naorae) 90 doen BIC PSL, Soe aA eer ne au ooura “TOE ‘ie ee ae AqISAOATUQ OU; LOS *g"Y
: WL I AYUUVH
: "gH Tomog rossojord *AoY OUL ‘sw +e
rs P ; 2 i Pao eb soy eet. a . : ‘A ‘ : s
fa ‘c a Rpoore (O, aia, | Street perestsees Bae, S"d id "puo}xo 40 dOUste DIOT a
Oo W “bsg ‘yxe[9 Arey Sad “TOC “AW “peg “noses SE eRI066 318
g Te telat akg op + ayy ‘arAgjary MUYg So 1 as “OF8T ‘OL 2 ‘
: veto Sealey neces Sas Uyg So]UYO "WOH qasry (sera “Ss4s'o" OL teqmeydes ‘NoLdNVHLO
To'a ‘U3 TA TO'a ‘ ‘ Wal “S'98'0"D * ST
“yaaa pene eng TOMMAUEY BOT )‘NOSIHOUAW AXAMWI WOLUACOU UIS
: I sm
a agate tone ~ or eee eee w ewww ewes tounte gr fe ‘
a “re rrerersses sqrg OnSUry “D “AO EU EE meee baie “OFT ‘ ‘
** YOIMION Jo doyste ouL : meIy "pc aoy [ttt om os © ST ae "Aor
: eNDEADIEFT JO [zeHy OTL mR oS “weg “IGHOSUAH ‘Md NHOL UIS
4 “bsg ‘980A WeTTIT nie
: arg ary ee a (Se cog eg EA MOTEL “AMA
(<3) Sid “Dsq ‘PIEH2H UCIT Sd ee semen Ded ae a soT0A rors ror WoT, StL :
S| saison "S1p'd “WJedaoyy yuMOOST A, Aa wT Wor “wor ouL | “ets “sea “CATE ou Sea DCO FEaS
: 7 UReT EMCI TUR jo uveq) ‘a’ “MOOOVad “9D “ATH °UL
B ve ¢ DBE S1BID “WAL ) wea ee
E ee 1M Sch babes Penree we eeee eee wee e ee ee eeee errect &
fa “ow ‘A WT ‘mosreQ ‘sor “Ae | .... REAR CORU REET ee Homo Oou neon oe. CC TosuTqod "HL *Ae
Ce pee ene Ee RK 3 Seeptunn WILY ‘serg ‘Woz TMB “AA a . ‘
é ss eT SOL ONDE, MAIS) wae ceeseseeeee SMO Stet BSOUL a
‘ SU “ASSOU HO THVA aL
oe YA aa sere neeeeeeeeee
oi ane eae ee sausacecensty bie Salataibielete aislotetelnre{aly aie(eitis’e
a SV “bea 21019 toned (om "ST Cac “beg “Ara “0 “A ote ean STABDOS "Y sett VW
Z sar 9490297 “A “AOL PUB “UO see aS re Wi AGH Foe esae "OPSL ‘GZ OUNL ‘HALSHHON
: 7 are UTOL ser tee ee ee ‘S° . .
made ha Ree Oa ‘NOLUGNA SIONVUA CUOT 94L
ae eas pe bree eRe eb Sree wreta'viaia fare siereye
Bs sees ECE SET TICES Rg
1 BE Moug “AN eee ee weet eee eee TW ‘ OL 1 ei: “woueT, uo) Us a ; Z :
: ine Fe eet ogra ie 62 Aue ‘HLOOWATS
ie AMHHM UOSSHHOUd ‘ATU UL
‘bsg ‘suvy4g uqor
"CTT ‘IOOIN ‘a “C seal *"** aquimnospy-7un0 Sv
= . ‘om . 2 ‘S’ i
bsg ‘TlepprT Aerpuy SU a ‘reysmorg en Tae ons" “goo Pore cae lal A
ae Sic ea as | shins aaa “FST “LT 9qme\dog ‘MODSVTD
Wid ‘ANVAIVAVAUE FO SINOUVN ML

re

ieee “SO WT ‘. "S'a “bsq ‘soqe x syooig ydaso r
* i SV Wa Rebs a A ie Blea UBT AY

Oe cee ONO D oneUTe “EMSs Cer any cee er. SPH “2B0q100 AaraTIT, "F9ST ‘0% Tequiazdog “rooauaary

‘SWad “CW “bsg ‘uosupporg ydasor e DR SOE “VTWW “WOR “Sra “Cd ‘Teme qossajorg ‘AoW +... “Sarg ‘XEMOVUVE TO THVE ous,

te ee eens "SD Soo r Onior “q7eq ‘u0q103q Saray sedleyy ep dmg ms

WIA dA SCN “bsg ‘xedoog Atuazy | 178° “V'N Bl Apos Jord “sey “gy a TO'd ‘Kepureg zossojorg | “gpg “SUd'A “VN “bs ‘SNIMGZOH WVITIIM

“a0 vo Lele seceauuteg igoudig npn 77") Sal fauogeyworya ross9z0I %
sotuunge Pan, ree seul ‘saqdg "Top-qnerT ‘SW “bsg ‘souedg wert, "SS8T “2 Jaqmoqdeg ‘Tray
SOUT [UH *sarg ee es s1* Aqoroog Wa Puv “WT TINH a7 Jo “sora “gig “bag eoaT sorte seteteescoensnsnve aaeee *** Aqao0g “Thy ‘qureg ‘sorg

“"* "S"Wul “YSnorogsepuo'T prot ‘SW VISyIVO Jo prey oT,

teeta towne ‘a'TT ‘ATToAe1g IOssoyorg “Sa ‘soyorg 2 er 9) TOSSeJOIg
ee ed SVU A Seweray “selg aia “WOSTIIqO I aT a “AOY
“WOSITAA “d “AA TOSssayorg | ** SBE ‘oBaT[ON s,uaenty ‘sarg “qq ‘ATMO *S ‘_ ‘AOI "ES8T “T taquieqdag ‘IsvaTag
‘ay “bso 22D, UILBITTE A, Coeereresececcevesnccccosccsceccas ‘VIUN “ad ‘Syoury preApy ADU SOOO eeeeseeeeseseseesene * fyat00g [eskoyy a4 Jo "IA
7 ‘Dea “UBITY “Oe "AA | **°° eevee SAP ‘need PL Od: AL ATWO aS | wy “svar, OTTV eho" “INTAVS CUVAGH TENOTOO
= ies WTWW “s'a ‘serg ‘essoy Jo [req ou,
oOo PPP eee sesserereseeseeesseaee . ‘SW TO’ ‘ueppysruug jo preg ous,
lor}
re wits fais 6b fae eee. ee ee EO TY CY eee eeeee “bs “U189S9 MA "T “TF ‘aw “Dsi ‘ploqqop 19) 7c
Sf ese Miceli send ‘AB q UOOPPIN “TT WT US “g*yar “greg ‘neollog «g wYor «1g I9st ‘g Atop ‘HOrMsay
af "bsg ‘sug ULATTICT ee ee ee ewww ee verre esse see art d “WT ‘MOUS AOssejorg *Aoyy ete Se Menage pees cela os STE AONE COMO
fe ‘S'V'aa “bs ‘Mey sopreyg | wee eee Sed OVW SJOraSpag rossojorg ‘soy | -osy “Surg “To'G ‘bsa ‘KUIV TIECCIa BOUT
i) sere ses“TOIMION JO doystg pxory oy, “dW ‘weyso[puoy poy oye,
Aa
& eee eed Ce ee ee ey Sy 09g Sa aT *soqio,y ‘a ae IOSsejorg
ps Par hk ; rsd A “CW WOSITY “a “AA Tosseyorq “qsmquipy Jo ; ?
; "A'S" “bsg ‘por, sourer | <z1s10aTag 044 Jo pedyourtg “WSU A “Cd ‘8e'T uyop soy A10A OUT, “OSST “12 Aine ‘HpunaNiag
ST a ‘aS a “CH “mMojyyeg Tossojorg es oregear *"solg StL tf “mod “qregq ‘oueqsag mi\e SBULOYL, 1g e104 ee ee a gee ee ees MOM n yy: 4g ‘premoary
Cire Soa aoe HSU | ts corse ‘(teteuey-ao1snp prorq) apfog praeq "UOH F4SIY ONL [49 pues TOPBATBS “9S JO ad9T[0N poqtug 0Y3 Jo jedrourtg
SWAT “WN PUBL Tossojorg ‘Aoy | cess tree sess seteceeseeeesr Sw “TO'd “Ly ‘Aroqosoy Jo weg on | CG PT Sa SOIT ORY UALSMAUT CIAVG UIs
seen Peeeeeeeseeseeseeseceseses SW “TOW “grey 9BO JO leq ous
OPPO es eereresesesesas ysmquipy JO JsoAOIg plo'_T oud “uO qUsiy on
“apt ‘eouwyo somep (SY ASMA Jord “eu “S"ta “CTT “HM ‘roysmorg pravg aig
‘ON bsg ‘soyoeL Tle perenne hee +> gp Obs CGE yon meee «SPST ‘GI toqmeydas ‘nyHONIKUTG
sprees aol SES sau oT o'd Sa “jeg peg qroqoy ag ‘uo WwSry oy, | ‘SVU “VIM “aa ‘NOSNIGON “y “ZL ‘ATH eas
L teteeseseee scvare 7 (KISOIIOIM PAO] onL “AQMOLIBA JO [AVA oT,
** SplARq 4g Jo doystg pso'y ony, ‘Sad “a'W “bsg ‘uerat, “HP .
Gwe bem “oom a) 0. SE (Psa oaotb “Eas “beg ‘udm A sot | so neenee o SESE 6 Aensny “VEENVAS
“bsg “esprsz0yy Moyyqeyy ) ||| Reteern $98 etd SY “Pepuryy Jo wag oy} aoy A194 ous, ; “orp ‘Ayar00g pefoxy
b : Se SCS ae Saar e Dslelelaieisi 3) s'e “SD “Sold “S"U id “Ooeg *I OC “WL “H AIS | 049 Jo qUEPISAIg ‘NOLANVHLYON JO SIQOUVN eaL
= Oe Peewee eres org ‘Q1BpVy qunoostA PPS ‘ayng jo stnbavyy eu
1 “SAINVLEYOSS WV907 “SLNSGISAY¥d—-35IA “SLN3AGISS¥d

xiv

"8" pqogxXO “oan ISMYO Jo weed “CC ‘TEPPYT “ *H “seu S10A ONL
ee eee ‘Sw * ‘aa’ PIOEXO Jo doustg pxory OUT,
eo ‘Svan ‘ora “Wi ’ bs feb 0 ‘assoy JO [Vy oy,

er i iri ry Sse" sale ASSO

"S'O1 “W'W “bsg “NaI 831004)
*S'01d “WW “bag “UTS 'S “f “H
Ta “aw “bsq ‘uoqse[]oy a81004)

“O9ST ‘LZ OuNE ‘auOaXO
*s" “SVU SWI A “VM ‘AWISHLLOUM CHOT UL
-plojxQ Jo JuBUAyNErT ploy “SHA “T'O'a ‘Wsnor0qiaeyy Jo oyNC oy
paoFxQ Jo AZISIOATU 9t[9 JO ToTjaowBy- 801A sa O'a ‘aunee “iT *Aoy ou
PAOFXO JO “AIUD O49 JO LOTPOoOURYO ““"T'N'd ““O'd “YM ‘Aqueq jo [wey ou

esta cna iegtigre qrinosuidoar sn homens
W {FtNOoWwH “A “AN “ACY OTL
9) “mosTqoIN *T YOLIOpoyy ag
"a ‘HX ‘JoJSMoI_ PlAeq aig
ay ef ‘TOOSIOH "M “ UTOL Ag

cee ten ee i
‘swd “TO'd “S'
reunites sysvayen sc lee Wrreqigeiog:
eee eee ee ey on weeps aay 40 HO ou9 JO JSOAOI PLOT OT,
Hireereerreireneeegorar SE SD SOIT ‘Wooprody 30 WR OT
CO ae "SW Sues puourygoy jo oyng oy, '

“Dey ‘OWA “A UO
“WWW ‘Io Tossayorg
‘SO “W'S'W' ‘TOON “Lf tossajorg

Hay
Sys
"LO" "6ST ‘PI taquieydeg ‘Naaaugay

‘SW Wa Sad “VT “UUOT Lossajorg *S'W'd “CM puvpoy Lossayorg
ree Sod ST “Sa “CTT “a ‘Aueqneq sl
| ““LYOSNOO HONIYd AHL SSHNHDIH IVAOU SIH

Weepreqy jo Ayuno0pH 944 jo ToTAATON Us) ‘Sa “a °a'1T “bsq ‘uostoyy, * |

gece: beans aa ‘SY “a ToO'a* “bsg * SOUTT, WOFPOUOTY “W

SOOO ee ee eee ee oF, sy) ‘ ‘V'IN ‘ “bsg ‘ Teysreyy yyAVH sours
wiataliniel eisai ej Stes Ist ele/ Digi sloneLnis ** aspraqurey “esoq10), AVIUILT, JO Tayseyy

“eT “uoH * ‘sw aH “a'd ‘TeMOT A “AL “AOU OTL
Ss ‘a Wi‘ ‘qeg, ‘uoj1esq Aory sedrey ep dirty ug

"SS8T‘ Zz tequioydag ‘saamT
seeeeveveeeeeeeeeceee® sUEMOSHT USM OU9 JO SyUeuE
-qaedoq AIOBSIFT [RINQVN a9 JO UOpUEZULIOdNY “g*4H"7T
“STa “swa'a “TO'C “A'W “bs ‘NEMO GUVHOIT

“VN “bsg ‘uos{LA\ SvuoT,
*S'0'd “bsq ‘paw Ay saydg “A

“y
“y'q ‘SHOULH, SBULOTLL, ‘AOI wo

I
a
Sree CW VW ‘soured WLW “WOH ISNT ONL
S49 “dW “WoHapop yunoostA PIO OTL
Poe Pee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee “aT ‘a svequoy p10'T oy,

Z ‘spa * WS WE WW OTT “bse “aD preyory
SW “CTT “ae “woorey fouopo-"query
pueery jo [eso TSULOUON} AY: SV wa “atrT “Wo [Ture Hy "Y WRITILM IIS “se8T ‘9g ysusny ‘NITang

"aT “bsg ‘yo00uey WOSTION “MA
“C'O'L' “999T1E£ Tossoyorg “Ay
“bsg ‘300g ‘gq Apun'yT

Se ahah lle Ridoniahie eet Sud ak- tat ted hal “eees uTTgng ‘dorwg Jory ploT o“L | ...... So sececcnccescaces teres erage MEPS y aT

tree eeee tees ee reeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeres pmprady JO AOTaOURTD PLOT BML ow L
cose "+S OprUBIUNE 8p GOALeL PLOT ‘aueplry jo smbueyy oy, | SYA “TO “ad “GAOTI AWUHAMWOAH “AGH OL
seeeeeeereseees ungua ‘ada[0p AULT, JO JoAoIg oy,

ak WW ‘88019 spouRnT “Aou OUL “bs “Toye pAopy Yormavg seuoy,y,

ate ee eeneeses . “sur ‘ ‘To'a “S'a8'0'D ‘ MOSIyOINY *T YOrtopory ag
POO ORC O JOISLIG PUB IaqsdONOTH) Jo doysig poy on,
Oe ed secse aie, go bresiale eieke) tineyieye a nhs tf ‘srong jo [AVG OUT

“9G8T “9 Jsusny ‘NVHNALIEHO
******nIOTXO JO AZISIOATU O49 UI AULVIOg jo OSSOjJOIg
“SW “CIT “AW “bsa ‘ANTANVG “d “) SaTUVHO

“bsq ‘Tlesnuy IseM UTOr
‘Sud “bs ‘ystueeg preqory
“V'e ‘uosutqoy “4dep

eee ee ee ewww tees ESOT Cis Ng “Wh ‘uosmmoy.T, UVITITAM LOSsojorg
srreeesequryg [ekOy O44 JO Tose “SW “WW “bsg ‘weyeay seuoyT,
secre “bsg “muni toe = “A'S “Sud “bs ‘agg somur
were eeee sie eiejejeininie. 60906 6)8. eta mele rreraT seen nT “WW ‘TeAT sopreyO Ig
ors Wd “qq ‘eulpree WeNITAA Ig

“bs ‘orpmoy Wer
‘d'W ‘Wosiepuy seuloyy, 1ossejorg
"a'1TT “bsg ‘sue4g uyor

"eg9T ‘ZT raquiaydeg ‘Mops
Hee eee eesene "SO Sorry ‘TTRDUV a aoa ouL

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

se eeeecrecccececesevccseseoser* ‘QUBlIBIOB]T [VdIOUMg *A0Yy A194 ONL,

ee eee ee teen "SW “beq ‘12180 “a ‘ray “Ds *plegeroqos UIUTTTA

: ee ‘aw ‘Aoprappy ‘a ‘9 "uO qqsry ou.
"WW ‘elhog "GH Ao aL | ttt ttt raysao10M Jo doystg ps0'yT on “soy 3qSIY OTL “e98T ‘9 Laqmoaydag ‘NVHONINUIG

| **2* pio}xQ Jo AqIsIeATU 249 UT ABoTOa4N) Jo 1OsseJoIg

“Soa “SW “AIT “VN “bsg ‘sdIITIHd NHOL

“bsg ‘urepeqmeyp ArueH uyory **'SWe a “Sd “T'O'd “VW ‘401809901 PLOT ‘WOH IN SIY OL,
‘SOU VW “bsg “unl ‘smongeyy Ue | ** ettystoqseo10\\ JO yUBUOYNALT-P1OT ‘U04]999A'T pAO'T “MOH JYSIY OUT

** aTIGSHOLMIBA\ JO UVUEIALT-pIOT "YS1eT PAO'T “WOH FYB OT,
eee eee eee ee Sada SeRSAR CS SS BORAT JO [1Bq 944 “MOR 9QSry oq,
aITYSproyeyg Jo JUBUEMELT-pIO'T “plegqory JO [VY oy} “WOH FST OUT

RE Oe ee "sD “Sw “bsg ‘srepuug "A.
Steet ee ee ee ee ***beq ‘uosuryorqy ‘H stouBly ‘aN “bsq ‘LBM cf ‘Vv
eee eee eee ee eee eee! ‘WS SD “Sua “aN “sm ‘OITL “AL

ween ee ee ee I oa 11 ‘SUBAG SolIBIO CD: § ou “bsq ‘gousyo oh A

***"** 1QBq JO UOOVApyOIY oy VqQueudA ITT,
‘reo **+ prloyelayH JO Uva aug ‘Ady AIOA OTT,
seeessees TBUIQIOg ploy ‘UO IQSIY oq.

ss *"*" TOSTAN [LUq “WOH 4IUsry ou
treeeeeeees uaBe Jo sMbIB]{ 949 eGQON 4SOyT on

“VW ‘poomurA "H “A “AOU ONL
“bsg ‘STAB "A “O
"SD “Ds ‘al00yy 0)

; “POST ‘PI Teqmaydesg ‘HIVE
esd “T'O'd “VW “34ed “TIAAT SHTUVHO UIS

soo e en een cence ecwecsesesesesereeretcncssssccssoscccesees ONAIRR

-1aMOg JoIUBMANaLT-p10T ‘ATALIO PUB YION Jo [rey oy} ‘MOH ISH ou,

eee Pee ee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee "Sud “OTT “bsg Suareqire,y ULSI
ed "SVW'Wad “a'd ‘rapeaoyy e[dumay, *aeqy
edt tO EAC So SIM OD NOL CS OW I COA arayn ge (wtf

BUIUTP, JO 9IN_YSUT WIOYAION oY} JO quOpIserg “bsy ‘poo\, SB[OYOIN
Bec e eee ese sree eees A[JSVOMON Jo a0LVyy “bsy ‘Tloq UvIyyMO'T OVEST
Cees eeeeneseeeesseeees ongrT TEO0 ONY jo uvuareyy “bsg ‘10LABy, YSN
siareisieieleimielsie)s' alvrolefnieln sisi rarsa yyy ETT ST “Tod “CTT ‘TeA'T setteqg ag
sn cee e wees ciecneeesaseesiaescesene evn Cn tmer "BATOACTI, “( JOTBA\ JIS

VW ‘suepy o'r al

“bsg ‘weyde[O *O "H
“bsg ‘Quny *H sngsusny
“bsg “eIGON *V

“S981 ‘9g JSUSNY ‘ANA T-NO-GTLSVOMIN
SOOO OOO F< Ur ep “aqt Lys e) ONOULSIVIY “Mm IS

ee

ee ee “"s°T'0 ‘sold “ow A low

Pis.aimie.s)e:piaiie's/s'eiveieln ee saan eine "099 Sry O°

‘VW ‘S10.118,7 “Ww "N “AO aL eee eee ween yekoy IOMIOUOLSY “oud

“VW ‘Sureary “d “9 tossajorg : “a “VW “SHT@GO “f£ *ASU OU.

‘Shr YOLMSpag LOssajorg “Avy OL

“Sw “VI WoysuIgug *D "OD Lossejorg | esprquiep ‘aserjop Aqua, Jo oysvW “SW C'C “TO MOM MA “ASH ONL
ee ‘ATW Jo uvag “q'a ‘ULM pooy AVAIVAL ‘aay £194 OTL

teeeeess S8ptiquiey jo ApIsteAIUY 9Y4 JO AOT[EOUVY|-2d1A O49 *AdY ONL,

REPORT—1904.

"O'd “WW ‘804099 "4 “4 TOSssajorg
Toa “ww “bsg ‘Ary "a 9 *Z98T ‘T 1040900 ‘aNaIUaWVD

sete eeeeseeeererensreeceeseseceees JEnT7qMIUy JO S918
-IOATUL ay} ut AYdosopy [BJUSUTIIedx | pus [vIN}VN JO
Jossejorg UBIMOsyove "SUA “VW “SITTIM “WAMU OWL

(CPO eels sleisiaie ws eee ew eens “TO USUL “sad “Dsq "TIIOAAITLM Ydeso ¢)
| wee eeeee “TOU TL WT A Sora ‘mosuDyspoy “7 LOSSAJOIT |
Beck shucks seats eh SAT STR nae Siege neta eeeneare
~UVTT “OOS “WU 2 “VT "Std SW CCT “bey “omor yooserg somes
ee es & a ds fs)
ar ReRORERCo A TeV OER RET earnest ete aes "TOSI ‘p loquiaydag “UALSTHOSVN

se seeeeeteeeeeeeseeeeserseeeres souarng Garuer poomsaH unmelueg ag |" “SWa “WO “aT “bsg ‘NUIVaulva NVITIM
sores geod “Sad “dW “weg ‘uoyesg Aer sedyey op did 418

oe “oT Som Xai ae ‘laqysoqouvyy yo doysta pio'_y aah

eee ew ee eee ‘sy Wa “TOE “a ‘Aolaeyg pr0T ou

CHEN CIO A es ALO RY DBO ILE UTE ELS path a by sf ‘ALOIS A jo [eq aq

‘sslawvVLSyuossS 1V907 “SLN3SCISSed-S9SIA “SLN3GIS38d

“V'q ‘e00soy “MH *H tosseyorg

“WW “bsg ‘emosuey myg.ry
|
U

“Dsq “PION Pe-GTV
‘SO “Va “bsg “omgsiqied “a “a

xlvi

xlvii

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

wee eee ee ee ee ee et ee ica nana LO Se “WS a ‘IaAVIL ydesor
: aM aissieiomareate eae tase ‘swa "Tord “OTT “bem ‘mor “a somes
‘V'S'd_euny *y “Iq “Ao Risjelviaieralhiwiwiare-beye ison om
—K masta 7 Rruogy Be wihsatdtas ears hs 6s 18 ere ‘TO'a “a'r eee, “LOAN TT A nites OTe “OLS alt Taquiaydas * OOdNHATT

, - sos Tg “bs ‘SeARID “YS
bey ‘WOSHLIBH PTBUIBOY | oo... esse esses eeeeeee eres seg Grporg QUOISPETD "HM “WOH WSN om
ZoysiuBg “M "ANY | .....- sete cece cece eeee es Ter qaeg “moves q Kary seqeyy ep digg ug

sete eeeeeeesceeeeeercnrer GCrrirg ‘Kqreq JO AVY ey} ‘UOH FUSTY OU

“S')'d °S'Wu “AIT ‘AGIXOH ‘H ‘L YwOssa@uoud

see ee ee mete nee eeeeeteretes ‘sr “bsq ‘x0 atom oqo

“WEAMTT "UAW OUD | vc ..cees eee eeneeeees Sta “Sua COW “bem ‘Teuedwuy “q WOMTAL

‘bsq ‘Sulimog "9 uyor
“S'V'W'd “bsa ‘stm *S AtueH

“69SL ‘ST yansny ‘uaLaxy

eee ‘sua | ‘CTI WH “Ds ‘oq Tey, XOd “H “M
“wesw a “TO ‘SHHOLS “9 ANYON WOSsHAOUd

eee ei sence smcunteg & ‘a'1T1 ‘SuLIMOg uyor Ig
see e egy rH "gO “qieg ‘e,00N}I0ON *H plopeyg Ug "WOH JOSIY OL
Rinfaleieteieteyaveraieferercvetatate eiietenater sistas “*** GoAog JO [Bg ONg ‘WOR JUS OU.

—_—_—

eee eee eee oe eee eee ee eee ewes espliq
-uB, Oo AZISIOAIN A) ay4 Uy ATQOTIOD. ue Amouox i) O IOSSIjO.L
O Jo Aqsxoaqun ayy uy Agou09H P q8V 3 0.1, ate eee

Sw TOG “AW “bse “UTMOOH NOLIVI Tamsor

*][2MOH Spuly WORD ‘ADIT
"V'WW ‘u0jdmo1ig ydesor ‘Asay
‘ajduArjeq preuog ‘aq

| WeepumoT “Svea “Sed “TO “WW “bsg ‘suepy yonop uyor
poets sevens ee eae oe Spa OST “Sta “eg Syooqqn'y uyor ats

Puree aspriqurep jo Aqisi9aTty, 93 UL ABojoa JO TOSsajoIg UBIPABA
“poo * “O79 “spu “sau “CIT “WW SouMspeg Wepy “sey ouL
Seiten Vetesttiteseeeters sree cgund Sqruq NUOTlOg JoJo UGOL IIS
* YJOHION Jo JWeUEqneTy-p10T ‘“1ezSe0IeT JO [1Vq 94 “UOH 4S ou.

aBaT10D peqan | oq} jo [edroulrg ‘ ‘s ia “a * “a'Tl “bea * ‘SOQIOT ‘qd some
TROP eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee ee ee er wisioes* aI
-ulpy yo Aqisr9 atu ney jo Tedpoung “s'y'd “'T'O'C ‘19}sMerIg plaeg Ig

sees Se ewww eee eee eeees

*bsq ‘Woslepuy Youyedg
*bsq ‘S80Lp oye] uysny uyor
‘bsg “unl ‘uosiepueyH *f¢

“LOST ‘b Tequieqdag ‘aHaNng

Re es ae ae en **qaeg ‘leyxeg plaeg ag ee ee weet er eseeee Sis\eieeal6, ois uiwie ip iy Selo e/a ele rare ranch Tet pi
Spanos ‘S)u “Saal a Tmo mM “weg “dostqyony, ‘T3oMepoy S| “ON ‘HONATIONNG JO AMNG AHL AOVUN SIH
ewer ee ee eres eee ee eeae Cr dW‘ “qaeg ‘A130 Ugor ag

sis uelewiiaiela/elae sles phidetsuc “LM ‘paAleUUTY pr0'y au3 ‘uOH 4USKYy oT,

ee ee ewer ee ee eee Si eet ising rae aa Bik RoE

Terence ee ence tees eretersen seeesteessceeeessh ony ‘Teaqusng 4

tresses sMOIpUY “49 Jo AqISIOAIU sa) ‘preuoa'y “9S PUB TOWwATUS “Ig JO

te eeeeessbeor ‘9s019 ‘Lh ‘SVU “Sua “bsa ‘purg [essny uyor
# goin nin) sTo aiAiRidin/stnleXs =) 8)m/ele\eiv/aisiscollt ver pai oer ay “CW “Ds ‘1ayooH ydosor
“yw ueteg.w a ecaod ou, | 12S gau 00g Jo resem “s"aa “bsg “meqerp seuoy.L

‘gpa “Syed “bsg ‘OMOT "LP PIB 1.1L, OUsmeusUIION Jo BueUs-WStH “Ded ‘adeM “0 “£ “9981 “2a JsuSNY ‘WVHONILLON

“Wosq1eqoy "1 Be ee wee eee ee en eres eres eseseeeeee ‘aw ‘mostueq “T ot “uo qUusiy ouL wees eree SUT ow WN “od “bsg "TAOUD “7 WVITTIIM
** QIIQSUIVYSUIVAON JO JUBUEANelyT-p1io7y ‘atadjog ploy ‘uo Aq Sty ONL,
| **** @ITysieqsaoleT JO JUBMOINE!T-psoT “pueyyny Jo aynq 94} eovIH SIH
**** gitysfqieqg JO JUBUEqNeLT-pi07T ‘artysuoaeg jo eyNq 944 sey SI

1904.

REPORT

xlviii

Late ‘SOW ‘OPpeid 1D “A “AC

“bsg ‘yommaivyy *q *¢

eveseccene ‘sw ‘ ‘SU “aTl “aw WOSsmOY,T, USI[V Lossejor1g
"bsg ‘omeyery sour

“ese ca sk wa “TO'd “a Ht we ah fa “TOsuLOy TL, TWBIITM IS Losseyorg

9181" 9 Taquieydag ‘MOonSVTH
Stet eeeeeeeeeeneteeeeceeceseseeenteees sorcerer ‘OTT
“sud “CIT “CN ‘SMAYANV SVNOHL YOssadoud

seeeeses say ow qileg ‘TPOMxXeyy SUS We Tg
eee eee eee eee ee ee MOSSvLH yo ysoaorg paory Elie) “uo ONL
“SD “aS wa “Ss'yd “ATT “L's ‘1ASty Jo ayn 0y9 soRLH STH

Ree a ene ae a Ph ert an GEA LLO ces
| Ramee oy plats Abit nid IS W'd “CTT ‘Sesuey “C “VW qossajorg

: “‘bsq ‘eyrelO " UyOLr
‘s'0'a

‘SOWA “SW “OTT “a'0°N “uosaraey *O Arua ats Terouay-10leyT
“os “yg “bsq’ ‘taquedieg query “AV

"GIST ‘ez ysusny “ToLsiug
"res"" Tosti: Jo 10d OU { ** “SOU “SU “HOUT ‘MVHSYAVH NHOr UIs
SH CaN CaO “71a “ONION “H PIOWS MS “WOH ISNT OUT

eee eee ee eee ee eee eee ee ee ‘s''a‘ ‘S'u'a “bsq ‘stepuug * Ay
se enee Par ete Cs oS rele ‘S'la “S'H'a ‘ "a'T'T ‘aoquad.reg “g AY Iq

“spd “Sud ‘eponqd Jo preg oy ‘uoH FqSIY ONL

“bsg “arve[oulg *L
“H'O ‘eT. *H LOsseyorg
bsq ‘qavagq sngzent "A

“SU SAMOUDUY “ACT “AAUO HE “AQ “AOR OU
5 aninclinas <Giestie peariael sop Siaeer Sete camara tie

ea a ‘oon JO [BY ON} “VOR UST ONL
"Sa oT'O'a ‘ueTPysruag Jo [reg a3 ‘MOH WYSIY OL

“PISL ‘6 Jsnony ‘IsyaTag

ST “TOE Seog Iossayjorg “SY “Wosurqoy ‘Iq *Aey OY,
teeeecorr “CTT “T'O'd “‘TIVANAL ‘£ UOSsaaoud

*bsq ‘uosdmoyy, seg
“bsq ‘preppoy pawyory
‘a'a ‘Teqdmep "yf -Aoy on,

Osta ‘aeqsyaeH oyOL ag “ployperg, JO 1oMBTT OU,
ey ae W “Taqs10q ace “M “uo qusiny ouL
reese “T'O'd ‘aoyysnoH prory ‘WOH FUSry OGL
ae syd “SW “ossoy Jo [leq eng “WOH FYSTY OUL

"SI8T ‘LL Taquieqdeg * aquogavug
set se seteeeeaeeeeeteeteerersenrerse es cgroeg Geguageg
“aud ‘NOSWVITTIM '‘M UAAONVXATVY YOSsasoud

TO'a ‘sdinyd tossejorg “Ss "aa “T'0'd “bsg “gorse “a |

eee eee eee ee “SH ‘Sag “Sad “Ds *qorM4sorg qydasor
; aioe huis wes Ga caseeeaats S'la "St 90g “ary ‘Kadreys aq
“Ds 4°11 Arueyy pee. SS a oe a “a ‘Sr a‘ “AW “yleg “yooqqn’yT uyor ag "ZL81 FL qsnsny ‘NOLHDING
“TBM “Id “Aey ours te "= "sour Tora ‘ ‘Da Hf “oarysuosegy Jo oyu 949 d0vIy SIH}. “ota “sna raat “Cw “bsy “WaLNGAWVO "A “AA
“bsq ‘1equedzep sopreyy | tt ttt tte "'TO'd “"O'd “YM ‘puoummmpory jo eynq 93 90H STA zn
**HTOJION JO oxNC 049 908.14 STL *xessng Jo
nee 949 JO JUBUAINETT-pao'y ‘Aaqsoyo1IYH JO [req 94 "NOH IW SIY OL,
Peete eee eeeeeaeee sense eeeeeeeees smmgoarer Oger SMog[BE IOSSO{OIY:
OO ee ween ae ed ‘TSU ‘sold “TO'd “aw *uostqslqQ IOSSOJOIg
ee eee eee ee ee “sua S ‘a’ ‘ 20 “eed wos “ad
eee ee ener eet eee, Shey! Feceny Lee, “qe "TI. rT sopreqo ag i
: eg ahd “beat “too Cl) 12S WE TO" “S'48'0') "a0 “HUE “MOSTHOMMTY “T HOMOON TS | eee eseeeeeeee es A Seda Li pekemre arree
wae Yee : aJOrg | ttretesteceteeeets oie Pale Diana ator ce saieiete nae sje aeratevsiore ++ amg eee
rS'wd “aw Lae Ae ramen ea rediounra “yy “areg query repuoxery ng | “CTI “VW ‘NOSHOHL WVITIIM UIs Yossaaoud
*"pueyoog jo [e1eue4y-o014sner pzoyT “G'TT ‘sijsuy uyor ‘uo yYSsNY OUT, :
ee weer qsmquipy jo 4s0a0rd paio_T oq} “m0 qUsiy euL
De nine ined “Sd “TOC “He ‘Gonepoong jo eynq eyye0wrH StH

“SBINVLSYOSS 1V9071 *“SLN3SOCISSYd-J35IA SLNAGISSad

xlix

eee “Dsq 7e3.10g ‘Ss maey pus A
jo [eleuey-10qoemg “SOUT “a'O

CO eis ee eeeeee

€ . . o ft
“Dew ‘soTtIy sta107¢ aTOON *O 'V [varouey-a10lvyy
“beq ‘oraney ay “gq uyor
“bsg “aoorer “V "AO

"CW ‘JUOUIMUTLD ACL 10589507 | oe. eee, (BBR ES GATED, deetereae roma tae

ot ¢ ‘
Oo ce cig snisoiciees\etnueciens® ss amomarndag ta Oy JO JUOUIYSTIQeISy Rare Shes Ae Tne é ; : :
vols ey} JO LOWEIG “S'O'd'A “SUT “a'O “bsg ‘Tea ‘y ‘| Sod “SUA “CTI “Ta “bea ‘SNENAIS “A ‘0

Aqyearraapy a9 09 teydeas
-orp{ “Sow “ova Soar “TOT ‘Suva “c “a 1g u1eydup

Ce rr)

seresceeeeesardura T-JUUOY PLO] 943 ‘WOH FUSTY ay

ee eeene "SO “ord “sma aud Wh “Dea ‘JoqB[O9 Say dmg
ee ey Sue Ya hab “or “oy: Wt “qorqserg IOSSeJOIg
0 “aH
neg
is
‘Sa “ATT “ay “bsg ‘uostuoyy, uetTy
“OWI TL MvysyMVy ayo ag
‘og'a” a’ ‘bsg ‘uoszepuy ysadmey, | rae od “WT ‘Sax0IS ‘4 *4) Iossojorg
“VI ‘stepy summons a be niyeaorsanie soso ight anne eee

Sea re en ca ea Sve oat ‘SD “S"1 ‘sorg
‘SOL AIT" TO'd “iW “weg MO0gdAT NHOr VIE
yIO

a “ATT “ay ‘wemypy rossezorg

bidtiso T f egy “svat, “TT t ‘ ‘ :
Tete eeeese ones cee corp “aw “bsg USMC ‘TTT
ene s . “TW “Dsq “UBLALA AOS ‘H

“OS8T “G3 ysNaNy ‘VasNV.g
2 SEO GORE GSUS ECHOES aL DOG BOA Go T= fayfars)
[woyourg JO UMesnyY oy4 Jo puv ‘Mopsury paztmy on}
jo SeAINS [WOIPoTOa O49 Jo [ereueH-1oJaIIG “Gg A
“SW “G11 “OSX ‘AVSWVH IGIMOUO MATGNY

“bsq ‘yorayg somes
‘SO “ad “bsq wes10yy "A

"TW ‘PA01D “WAL Ug ‘UO oy
Ce | a BasUBMY JO LOABY OU
Pee ee ee fSasie¢ JO [leq 04} ‘WOR FqSIY ONL

tee eee eee bore 7 fee . cere fare ‘faTxu . *T, LOSSeIOI,
‘beg ‘ssoyy ag | 1.1.11) JSDML “ST “sa 928 “aT “add ‘Aen “H “IL sossejorg
‘'S0'd
“Sad “ATT “bsg ‘Aqrog 10D *H

eee ee eee meee

Ss

* oseeess Caryn Jeqseyy) ‘bsg “wieyqig *H *
"SOW ‘epourey A Jo [wg oy} “WOH FUSIY OTL
OW “OM “WVTTLA zt Leg oy4 ‘UOH Aus ONT,
SOWA “SW CATT “VW “De “etysuoseg jo axuq e43 a08Iy SIH

Ce rae eee eee wean ‘ST ‘sag “Www
“EST L'S Ta“ CTT CW ‘NVNTTV ‘f‘) wOssaT0UNd

Sobek § podagicie se sites “a'11 “Tord “Wl ‘Se9099 “9 eee
Ral elenergr tn woren a0 IAT 0) pS
“am ‘uosretg “49 aossajorg |. seis UvseH .O Ploy “WOH Fysry ou aVis "S181 ‘PL gsmnany ‘xiang
a aero? Sa cape as Opi “SV Wa “Sw
“TIT OE “VW “b8a “FGOOMSILLOdS WVITTLA

‘a'TT “bsg ‘poomsoyy uyor
“bsg ‘Gon souur
‘SU “VW ‘Tia “S “Y rossesorg

*** ulqna ‘asatjop Aqiutay, Jo ysoaorg ayy,
ee | myquqg jo 1osvyT paqoy ot} ‘WOH yqSty ou

Lee - ‘SO “Saad “aw ‘SuTpo eel

iene echis etnerahiCeaaa alia eee “oO “a “Sua “beg ‘aqeg aouedg seprzey9
ee er) Telia ae figs lees eaglioarecae tee bs "LIST ‘ST ysnsny ‘aLoowatg
“espa “SVE “SW Sa TT “Vy “bsg ‘epoomsiyjodg merry ae ee rn ‘TSU

shee eeeerereeeeeeeesescees somone ‘plomVIG PIOT ‘WOH IWSsy ens | “SUT “QTT “Cn ‘JOSHOHL NOTIV wossTuova
—_— . Se

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

“Deg “ployer woylmEH
“beg ‘arenbg wert
“bsg ‘SWepYy WeITTA

1904,

se eeecceceeevecceececs ssoqumospa-qUnoyy yo [2eq 943 ‘uO JUS oy,

Tee e eee eee ee eee ee eee eee ee ee ‘Sma “O9°q ‘WOSTB AY "MH *Aaty
HORROR HEHEHE HEHEHE HEHEHE HEHE EH EEE REE “Wh ‘Apawa “Y “VW “AS
COR eee eee eee "SO" “ord “ood “USPLLL “¥ “M IOssejolg
“beq qaeH “6 sa]1vqO ee ‘SW ‘sold “Olt “TOO WW ‘sayoqs "yy “) 1ossajoig “9981 Tt Iaqueydag NVHDNIKUIG
‘sya “qt £oxs8023) ae “Ay WE Cale ase e.6)6.n.5e 0\n0 8p ee SET IUGR ee jo roseyy “bsg ‘nvauyzaeyy semoyqy, ee eee ee ee eeee setececececees BNBUB) ‘[Wal{UO}T ‘kq181908
“beg ‘oxuyszeQ anion “¢ tteeeeeereresseeeercrier (Zaqsa0I0M JO CONSIT PIO'T OY} ‘ACY FU31H OUT [-IN TION JO JoyjsouvyO-s0r4 pues jedroujg “spy
++ aIlYsproyylg Jo FULUEWNLy-p10T ‘£o1Sa9}01. PAOT “UO FUSY OWL | “SUA “ATT “VW “OW ‘NOSMVG WVITIIA ‘£ BIS
Chee accecceraeresccscccs cose scemsmr nr UOLION paory ‘Woy WSN eu
*QTTYSHOMAVAA JO FUBUAINEIT-PIO'T “T'O'A “USAT psiory “WOH UST SUL
*2alysdoryg JO JWBUAqNE!T-PAO'T ‘p1OJpeIg JO [AVY 9} “WOH FYSTY OWL

teeeeeeeseserees T1OpUOT ‘MINIs 1OJSIH [VANGVN 9{} JO 10ZOAIT
“sou “S'Z ‘sad “Sa “SU “A'IT “emo “H 'M JOssejorg
cbeceeeeeveseeeeececcterersersrereeeterseeeeresess stg ana Vy JO
AyistastugQ oy Jo lojjaouvyH-20t4 “G'd ‘etd [dour “sey AIGA OTL
we beseceeeeeerceseeeseseeetenectsreeeceesseesseeseere! TIIHIOUY
“V'W ‘olttg ‘5 rossejorg | Jo AyIsteamQ ey} Jo Jopoy “QE “VW “bsq ‘uIvg Jepuvxe,y ‘eget ‘6 Jaqmajdag ‘Naaauaay

"SO" aN “WH “bsq *TISVAT snsuy "SVU “TSU aA “ow “a'IT “Wh ‘mosuoy,L TVITILA as LOsB0JOIg eee eee ‘SOU “OWT “om “all “qud

“WHI “beg ‘orqmomp ye | t°'*** weepreqy Jo S719 oy} Jo soaorg proy “DET bars soumve | “DW “a'O'N ‘UIVAIAVId NOAT YIS ‘NOH LHDIY LL

SQTT “ww ‘se1voyeg pus plopavrp Jo [Avy 3q} “WOH WBN OTL
| ce teeeeeerenaeueesoueeeessesteeeeseseeeeseserse® QITTSUaaplEg Vy

sid eascsepe cent secdasioowaseetee ecrrery “qr ‘saeqgng eee | :

Jo quvuaynery-proy “CTT ‘useprlaqy jo Ley on} “UOH FST MUL
PoP eRe eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee useprsq V yo AgpisraatagQ au3 jo

Laoyaounyg “'T'O'a “DH ‘Mopi0yH pur puomory Jo ayn ey3 awry THI

REPORT—1904.

eee eee ee "SUT “att “os'q WT “Dsq ‘quuy £11948 svumoyqL
eee eee eee eee) ‘a'S'O'U'1 “TO'a “CW “bei ‘uojssulyy ‘H “MA
ee ; SOE (SWAG TT Cad “TOT “CW “pasriTUnT preamp Lossoord
sare “bogr ‘Oat AA "BOUT, |eee see eset eet ce eetenaee soteenansan+eees MUQAtIBID “IC “OOH @ Rath oe ME ABO AACS
“beg ‘nostaaags ‘O'S J **''S'O'A “SUT “OTT “VIN COW ‘Tosavg MUTI TS TediouHa | ...... -gapy Cg masa ucierp uy npg ema
ieee s Seen ee ee ee eens ree eseeereerees supe monod "vv 8 eel -edxq Jo qossajorg oat ot d eoway aT gey gy “any
. ‘ By ay" eee eee eee cniee Mine hee ST DOL ‘Tai UL soley, at “uo (IF, C ae is Pe ee a
Day TOSMUE WE og | reneeteeeeee sees eoeees cormrnngy q1ED UOOIIKE PUSXETY Aig uoH ayn | FOC “VN “HOIWIAVE @UOI ‘NOH LHDIA ous
or RT SU SOT “AW “AON “BUI woAT Mtg “WOH ISNT CULT }

“aint “TO'd “s'O'H ‘PIeuopouy epuvxery Uyor IS “OH WISN PUL
tee CTT “OOD ‘epBuUg JO [BAsMey)-IOMIAAOD at} AOUS|[9OXA STH

CET SIO SRT TAT 1g Wi gab ys ta Coal Del Veal 0 tb *Q0080}, ‘aH Iossejorg ;
“Dewy “SMITA “AN “ZL AAISIOATUL) BIMOJOLA OT] JO TOTTooUBYD-201,4 “*Q'"T'T “bs “poosmear"-D “£ "egal ‘eT taquieydas ‘LuodHLAOS
arora a DORIC NYS 09 ff Sour “ant WW “OTTO ‘qTosmud “ML jedroug i espuquryp jo AqIsI9ATT oq Ur
“beg ‘st as >) +++-mmoyqury Jo [LVY oY} ‘WOH FUSIW eUL SVU SIBULOTIV]T ON JO TOssejorq WUITe[Pes “Sv"a'd' A
it Ll coop ag “aT ‘Sellwopeg pue propel Jo Wwe oy ‘MOH BUSI BTL | “Sud “ATT “TO “VN “bd “ATTIXVO UOHLUV
Pree guar Sgr “Cay “wit sated Jo Lug oy ‘wo USI 8uL

‘saievlaso3as 1vo071 “SLNSGISSYd-390IA “SLN3OGIS3ed

“WIT ‘Uauqteg Morpwy ug ‘TOUSULH “Vg WosyTy semve Itg
seat meet es sresse spaory Jo20sUTT ONL “AW WOSNOwL "TAN “WOH GUSTY OUD
se 9 oh ET Fh Oe LOE OREE SS EEL amc MD SL el avin We aie Se “068I ‘g woquuaydag ‘sama a
vit “Ds ‘roqdwy, foupsg eee terete ween amine Sar ene nee “aoe fae anh eeeee 3 ee : . ‘TO SUL WOR “SO d'd Scout =
“Dsig ‘ AUT cc ccc BE ee MITFAAZONL ‘WOH WS OUD | “OS'a“'1'0' “0 “INAV SALSAYNAV WOIUAGTAA UIS
Bea "Plog MogeT Mee “E | ‘SU “WTO “TS'0'D “DM ‘Wodry Jo ssonbavyy_ oy} “woH Is0W OUT
SO SW “ATT CVV “P'H ‘aarysdoaaq Jo ang ot aoury StH

li

ween tenee “TOU IT “SOU “oom “TOA “qiegq Bitisa UBIYIAOT Tr mg
oer ee eee eee ee peoysoyep jo 10Ae ayy INFArysS1O A ouL
ee es OTISVOMONT jo 1OAVTN oT} [NJdrITysIO A, qaqa ouL
veress. car “areyam Jo Agistoatuy etd i WOPIVM OY} “ACY ATCA OUL| ...scaceesscveseectsevacereceessonersosee® TINOEPY
eee ee ee eed “att "TIN * OO u of “uO quay f-) -

ve eeeeeeencuarer GET “por “g'Q ‘suosuTy ne oes He i USNG 049 50 squouprudeg AT0}ST WOMAN Od
seceeseeesters+ es tqrgy ‘grqswoManT JO dosta PIO'T o1f3 Aoy sty ause| 7° 290 V'S'N'd “ST “S'Z ‘seld “SOUT “SUA
seer eeewecerareeesecrssess s TI IOMSUIOABY JO [IVA 9} ‘WOR qq3I auiL Q1l ‘@0 YWMOTH AUNTH WVITIIM UOSSAAOU
+++ ureIng Jo JUBUOMErT-pxO'T ‘VYING Jo [AV ot} “WOH FLSIY oy,

cesteeeeceevereeteueeeturtererer**DUUIIQqUIUGQON JO IUBUOINEry

ploy “ATT “TO “OM “PUBPLaquINTALON JO oyxNd oY} BVI SIH

"ES8I ‘TT taquieydag ‘ANAT-NOdN-WLLSVOMENT

“WWW ‘e[VALoyY UvULIOy *f¢ 1ossezorg

Cee eee eee eee tr eeeeeecesoee caer Caled EUV IV Se[IVyO Ig
‘s'O'g “op'a ‘uospeg edd "a =

omg “a'r “bsg ‘yomnyy tor8r "a'W “bsg ‘asnoyepoM “YT ‘7
‘DW “a0 ‘armMey “gd “Y oUoTOD "Ta “ae “bsg ‘ounyg ‘d *H
rrrrrerrerr rrr ieee errr rere rer! "Ta “a'r “bse ‘woysUV'T-3105 "SA
‘SOW “ST “Sa 08g “CTT “AW “VWI 19980 ToUTOTIT 1ossozorg
Pee eee eee eee eee ‘SOUT “ST “Wh ‘pleyomolg parvuos'y *AOY ouL 4
a. (| ceteeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeren sun HqUg Jo WoOVaPYOTY at} oqvieue A omLT, ‘ ; ~
er saay ys Mey ea BU | vesseessscesscenece SOTA SRM WTO TO TAY YAMS |) ....5e sees ceesee 98st ‘9 oquiegdeg "HAVE aaardive
Day ‘farqdung “A eee eee JoIsLig Jo 10AVY 99 [NJAIys.10 AA SY UL ‘pe - ees A c
sete saeceeeeeseensaeceeoessouauer Jo LOCUPT OU} [NJAIYSIOAL IUBLY OULL Wi “Tod “IITMNVYG ‘¢ NOIUAGAYA AIS
eee ee eee ‘a'a ‘MOU jo doysig. at} “AY qs ou.L
"a'd ‘STIOAA PUB TYAw_ Jo doysig priory oN} *AOY FUTTY PUL “UOH ITS OTL
TOPO eee ee eee eee eee eee eee ee Weg JO ssonbivy_ oy} *uoH 4SO]q OL

Seno meee nero ee esereeeersseessssseeeeserasassecssssseseseess ag

-IaMO JO JUBUEIMaL'T-pI0'T ‘AIOIIO PUL Y1OH JO [IVY oy} “WOH FAY OyT

sere "SO. bic ses Gt & “ony “att “TO'a “Dsq ‘anor qqoosorg souls)
dl STON TiC ICN ICC ICE IN Fe “ae “bsq ‘poomAay JeATIO
BAT BS IOUS TTT eS Tas BOCA ht MOLI 3 9 | “ae “bsq ‘mogysy seo,
: eee ee ee ee ed "OWT “CW “wg ‘sqraqoy UIVITITM ag
'SO'U'a “A'W ‘sanox "A “Vy qAossajoag | **"***** teereeseess Q297109 SUIMO 949 JO [edloulg syL
‘Sa “os'a rreseseceeseccoccess SQISTOAII( BIOJOLA O49 JO LO[[VOUBTD-90O1A SUL “L881 ‘Te ysusNy “UaLSTHONV
“an “Vv TpeysVyy SOUT “VW 1Ossajorg svonberhustevewdeets sees) NOTES jo 108 au [NJdiysio M FUSHY auL fr <A DED ER ORO IRR SO MH Sia) BN
‘ogg “bey ‘mosurydoy soptuyy josie cre tt tt caqsoroueyy Jo coceyy ony TydIysIOM JUSTIN ONL | “SMa “aud “a'IT “T0'd “dW ‘ZOOSOU “A “H WIS
‘S'S “ory “bsq ‘Kepviey p “a eee ee es palojzyes jo doysig au “AO qasny ouL
“aid ‘seqsoyouryy JO doysig p10] 979 “ACY JUSTIA SUL

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

‘SD Wd “SW COATT CV O's ‘Aqiod Jo [Aug oN} “WOH FUSTH ONL

| iscosee appt a ng ea toe ait ROLE Ey ny Ree

“SOU “SW CATT OWN “DH ‘eztysuosag Jo yn 3g} ABT) STH

Beare ee PRU, Bebe ee cr ae CO OOO OG ay eat
[w1njgBN JO Aossajorg uvlelpss “Sua “Ga ‘eng “g ‘AVY onL
SULT pel JO 10ssojorg snidgay "syd “Ch “yeg ‘pusloy eyi{g sua ag
eee eee eee eee ee ee eae ‘SwWa “Tw “eq ‘uosjenmeg prequisg 1g
Tr tteereseess'"229[109 s[nog ITV 30 TeprE A “T'O'd ‘uosuy "Y “AA IIS
LC icehtarae * . ee oe ee *pl0jxQ JO 1oAB OTT, P68 ‘9 JsuSNY ‘au0axO
Ade b> (eas ai paAOsZXO jo placate nth jo TO[TROUGID-SOTA! 349 ial au L PLOFZO jo Aqisroarag 943 jo JoyfeousgpD “ou “TO
HEE weury ee, cr "Ora OLA]OY ploy ‘uo 4Y. T au wx a oO .
Sir GUNUNGSODE {OTE En ee veil : ai OM ‘AUVOASITVS JO SINOUVI AHL ‘NOH LSOW ouL
ee ee es ‘aa ‘pl0jxO jo doysig pao’y 0x3 “Acy qQSTY oUL
sesees esr “TO'd “pM ‘Areqasoy Jo [Weg e493 ‘uOH INST oyL
eee etn ese eteteeeeetesesttertereters STTUBMIOg
JO JuBUeNelyT-ployT “O'A “AO ‘osvpUBM PIOT ‘uoH IWSIY eyL
sigs Saitinie\sle mains ts se 4'¢cie sie.nasinis tie'dacieives ©/sisiine snot (y 1 OLARUTOL
oy} JO JUBTEINALT-pLOT “HW 'O') ‘Aesop jo avy oy “MOR 4FUSTY oT,

“WW “bsg ‘1e3¥N *H *
“WW “bsg ‘soni "9 “9.

veveseeeee «Ciqgut0ay) JO LOssojorg UBITIARS “g"y",q ‘IaqseATfg * ce ad
“WH “bs ‘ewmnog *O 942q111D

ers sq'p ‘SOUMY, UqOL Ug “S"y'd ‘PAOTH “YM TIS ‘MOH 3031Y OUL, ‘ ‘
sieielsis. 9/219 she cr MITT! é > ‘ S "eggl ‘eT tequiejdag ‘NVHDNILLON,
BYBUIIION JO JOAUW O4L “Lodjog PLOT "UOH JUBA OUL | ...........steceessereeeeetees © *piozxe 70 ASIOATUD,

‘'Swacawbsq ‘uosuey" AM “S"y'0ag “WIL ‘3989S0,7 Javqoryy Aossejorg
“bay ‘SUEETTIIM |

SiS

=a
S
“VW “10989 “H ‘A 1Ossojorg~ ** a[JsvoOMaN JO 9yNC 39 soVIH SI “pUuBlIOg JO ayn 9Y4 every SI keryecatnyateisecntnpacritirrrrns
7 "OS'E ‘SaANOIO “yy AOssajorgy | tite stetttsese settee setae eee oaRaia t seeteesetes® Q3pLqUILO JO PA elle 8 Nia CSad “Sst “TOC
AyISIaATAQ ayy Jo AOTJsouBYO “Hy ‘earysuoaeg Jo ayn eq} eoVIy STE ai “VW NOSHMaNVS NOCHOd °S “¢£ “Ud
a aLTYsMBYSUIQION JO ‘yuary]-proy7y ‘suvqry “4 JO exNG ol} eovry SI
o
oy
is |
a
“bsg ‘mostliey uyor atale shererelyie) Stas 8e/aTo 6) Visiecern s74 Seg cee] as ‘moun, WEITITMA Tig} Lossojorg ner F faa
‘CSU rosteoeesente sees sspperaT saad “CCH WSAULOH SEENOC TS TOGGQFOTE |... ...00 004. «0c SoE, entradas marin eoa70 KOATIG

* we eeeee ween ETE A OWE “TON INTL WRIT ag jedpoung
oe mst OSM “OTT “a'O ‘preuopouyy “V "H “¢ “UOH IUSre ONL
eee SM “SW “CTT Aeqosoy Jo [wy 43 ‘WOH IVANT UL
Zinclatsni aia rahi okie ten Woe te EeEsr eae pra AH Wea RRiGHT
ee ee | *-Tsinquipy jo qsOAOIg: pi0'.y eu9 ‘uo qasty ou,

“os “wn “bsg ‘ataTiso jue)
‘Sd “A'S'W'a “W'OMsar WW
fw ‘suoisury “7 4) JOssejorg

[worSojoay ay} JO [wloUey-IOJZOAIIG “S'H' “A'S UT
“S099 “log “OS'C “AIT AIMIGD CIVAIHOUV UIS

puUvlar] JO Tamouorsy [wsoy “SNA “SW “ATT ‘Wed J4eqoy AIS
‘Sy)'sad “ASU “Sw oesuog “os'd “GIT SRE) preqqory IIgs
. ee ee eeee teh T= 7 Aah ela: fs gs JOMI'T "OC “Lf 1g
eee meer eee ewee ‘Sy Wa “or a “TOD ‘arepleqy prot “uo qqsIy aL
re eeene ABsopedy, PlO'T ‘WOH JYSIY oy
‘SVU “S'w'008 SQTT Td “WW ‘Yselhey ploy u0H 443TY aL
ee Tee eee eee eee eee ee “L'y ‘eyng jo ssonbivyy ey ‘acon ASO OUT
** QIITSUBSLOWULD JO JULMOINeL]-pr07T ‘TOspuIM PLOT “WOR BUSTY eyL/

pi} ‘SBIMVLEYOSS WOOT *SLNSCISSYd-39I1A “SLNAGis3dd

"Test “6 gsusny ‘daiduvo
oR PPP eee eee eee eee ee ‘aS wa ‘u0H “SVU
“Sw “ad “AIT “TO'd “Ost ‘SNIDDOH WVITTOM

‘Sv
“yy ‘reuuvy pAoTT “M “H Josseyord
AO GRE “SOU “org “baa ‘uosaIyg Vy “Mm og

————

ee ee eeenee “"S'E'soIg BG aie a & TSU Sits § “aw *‘UMOIg umig ‘Vv TOssajorlg
geri costar ecw ee oer eee |
a

aro

lit

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

"aD “bsg ‘s1950y werLg
"ae “bsg ‘veT anywuty

“beg ‘WOSTIITAL ’S “P

"Sd “Dew ‘T9xIVM “A

"ad “a ‘wnyTeoepY *g “¥ TOss9j01g

en DSH SAUTE “HE “AA
“oT 7 “bsq ‘mosdmoyy, “Op ovesy

"SW ‘UeMprey “VY “A TOssajorg

D8 SAOIPIE “A "
OP's “WTI “V'd “bs ‘39NON “VS
*bsq ‘toszaMeR “AD

F
i

Proceeesenes sane au oy ye mast Marg a TI “9S ‘Aonmmog * 4) *y, tossajorg

PR ene eee meme te ee meee esse renee Suwa “q: TT vat 1M “bea ‘soppeg. uygoy
sae * joIstag JO SlaMyUIA JUBYOIATY JO AJOIO0g oy} Jo 1azseWy OL
SOR GO OHA TCD SOONG oysiig ‘asayjoD Azisraatmy jo pedrourg euy,
seen rem eee renee eens 1OISIAE yo okey aya INFdIGSIOM JUST aul
Sewer t eee ee ee OMe “a'1T “pod “eg © [EMUIBIG °C “Z II
yee See ery wa “TO'd ‘Aig PLVApA TIS “WOH 9UsIY OL,
eee eneeee wees een eeee ‘aa ‘TO9SHAET Jo doystg pao7y og *Asy qs eq,
shee eee AIO S537 Te xq f “Sy q ‘orong jo [avg aq" u0oH qUSIy ou,
0310107, Jo AJISIAATIA 049 JoyNepiserg “C" aia a ie 1 ‘aopnory ‘f 1ossajorg
bing etal A HCE GH A) qokeTy oan Ses Ot a‘ “YHOO “TOsMEC, TWBITILTA IS

avicpaines Ss ayeistaeareins sists eel bielalaie nicie niplelelomslersiinierets tee+ s+ -gpemEy soy
rom /ssyeH"H09 q31H * ‘a ‘IT Sp WwW" 9 4) *qq1a1g ‘V pileuog dis "uo way,
een ilaete. t OTT "ag'0 “DIWO'D “928g ‘reddny, seTrvyO Ig “WOH ey
*****oTreyuO jo SOUTAOIg 944 10J Tonvoupy Jo TOSIULPY O49 “AOR oY,
lee Nod Ne Se ***** O118}00O JO 9OUTAOIT 049 Jo JoImMeig 044 “mop OL
ADELE G) JO dOUTAOIg ute jo TOUIBAOH-FUVUSJUGLT 94 tnodoH sty

b atatstetate welaictaveretla’ iste Wes cute wiaelev ci rapiels\v's -* epemrg Jo uoTmImog
eqg jo Rone ETN: Outed) Mey nN (ay59] ‘JotINney PIZIIM AIS “WOH 94
OS ed “Sw “ATT ‘T'0'd “O°A'0'D “UIATOH PLOT ‘UOH 3431Y SUL
Ne en) eee ‘Sad “TO'd “WN ‘qSre[Aey PIOT ‘WOH INSy OUL

a A adil lS "* epeuep jo uolurTmog 99 JO [Vole 4) -100
-I9A04 ‘ “yh " +) ‘neap1aq Vy jo [leq 949 “WOR quay oq3 AoueT[eox Gg si,

ee ee

‘Syd ‘aSpIstATT “VW ossejorg
ener ee ‘Ta bir fal tg “Ds ‘AeuIsy ‘H jliy
"S'0'd'A “S'H' “bse ‘sax10010 “AA
sess cary “bsg ewoquyey “A
oles ‘aig ison oe terees ToOdIOATT Fe 6 tO Agystoata O jo [ediourry ey
eee ee ee ee ee eee Rrayeretpiniaieeipts/sisiais heleisernsnrde "TOC ‘200soy ‘gq Aruey Itg

bese eee senses eeenerereees sain NOOMIOT "EM IIS
aITYSBOUeT JO quemayneryT-px0T * “Oy MOgJag JO [Tey 94} “MOH YUSIY OL
*joodraary Jo toe pPIOT “A'O'H ‘Aqaaq Jo [req oy "WOH FUSIY SUL

seer eee se eeeeeee

“WIN “bse ‘plogdop “LL XHeg ‘SW “WW “TIMaUC “A “0 Aossejord

‘Sud “T0'd ‘puepreny gC Id Sa “TO'd “JAeA 'S9H095 “HH AIS
PEP eee ee eee eee eee a eeee qormsdy jo IOAV IL “bsq “‘qoyreg "A “.
Taeyss[PUSY PLOT "UO SY OL “Y'S'A “ToYMISH prory "WOH Us1y OGL

CGO ROD qolmsdy jo premojzg si * ‘VN, ‘hphmy prxory ‘WOR YUSIY og,

ees xassm JO JUBUOQNOIY-ploy “SQ y"oeg ‘YSte[Aey ploy “MoH yqSty eT
. eeeese eoveeees esprqmep jo AzSsIOALTIY,

ay} JO prVMoyS YSIH “SU “ATT “TUBGSUISTEM PLOT “TO 431Y SLL
. . . of. eee ewe eee ee eee * xJoyNS Jo AyUM0H

aj Jo WWeUayNary-pzoy “WIN 10s JO snbavy_ ey} “MOH ysoW eGL

ere

"B68T ‘2 sequioqdag “1oLsIuq
te eeeerereee or A “SU'd ‘SSHHOOUO NVITTIA HIS

“1681 ‘BI qsnsny ‘oLNouoy, bi
h aang a re oa ‘s')'oeSOT “W'S T
‘SW'seery “C's “AIT °T0'd “ANN ‘SNVAD'NHOL BIS

"9681 ‘QT requiaqdag “IooduHATT
eee eee eee ee eee eee eee Arepoog redo att} 30
quapisag “C'IT “TO'a “Hrd ‘YMLISII Hdwsor UIs

"9681 ‘TI Jequiezdeg ‘HOTAASaT
eeeeee Bree eet bise SY) “Sou Cord aay 6 ta fe |
‘TO'd “HO'H ‘NOLIVN SVIDNOd UIS NIVLdVO

eee

———

REPORT—1904.

liv

ff + : : : f ‘ . 3 ; wees eee “Sma “aga “a'1t “on ‘puyyalD uyor r0ssajorg }
| arewveebeners Coe oes fe eae Ce ‘aa hoa ‘S801 Bar |
eek or . Ky tbtegct Ee i “beg ‘q7IMg TeX SOULE

PNG 9 Re are ae ee feb le ps “T0'd ‘aTqIey, prequyory as
Peete eee eeeee seer eens egmage "O'a “G'O'H “SIGON mar =
Vet eee er eeees eee ommey Gap hqaBg ipsseene-Siae aaeate mie ee seenrnnes toneu, HOST ‘TT Joquaandag ‘moosv1p
settee eeeeesscuseetareaneeseeseeteseneretteterertee® MOSSBED JO Swag “OS'C “CTT “WW UTHONU AY HOSSaIOUd
Aqiszeatig ey} jo jedioug “a'TT “aa “S104g qoquey “y *AeyY AI0A
"theese" MODSLTD JO JSOAOIg PAO'T 94} “MOR 49 “bsg ‘mjoysiqo jenuleg
resem “a1 “T'0'd “0°A‘0'D “Ulaloy proqT 049 ‘uoH 4q3IY OUT,
- Cee meee eeeseee “"T'd “a°T1 ‘poomsy3Atg pioy ou “u0H qqsny aaL
eee eee PaO 34g 0 3) “MOSSUD) Jo Teg aq} “0H qq3aNT aud

"HSU “og' ‘mweopoepy snugepy 10ssojorg
"a'H ‘dun0ox wgor szossejyorg
‘O'S “TC “OTT ‘Rommreyy “Cc “PAS

Veeeeeeeeesees sgurur Terpy ‘9 " r0ss9zorg)
eee ee ee ee APISIVATAQ,
BOPIA 02 JO AO[foouVyO-2aA “GIVI ‘uojsuIpog *N [edionsg

ed "S'O'801g “SUA “qos ‘adiog, "aA ney "Iq

oe sete ee eee * "S"Yy"'009 *“os'd Soren ‘TOyONY “Mh ‘vy IOSSAJOLg

“barr ‘su9neqg qoupeag . eee eee “ eee ee 5 "S'D'a “TO UsUl IV ‘atmuig azapuexeTy ug
sae rOom ooo “ard 200010000000 00 1 NOUN SOWUN 24 30 plo “ona ‘at A “WOH eu Den prod stonir

wee plojpeag jo OAV TY aya diqs10M SIH eee eee ee ee eee ee ee ee ‘SHU “ant “Toa
poe aks Utprpupesesesecsessss* WegseWy PaoT "00H ISH OML | “OS'd “aN ‘YHNYOL WVIITTIM IS wOssaTaoud
sreeeteseress ord ‘todiy jo dogsig paoy ayy “aay qUSNT eq,
“syd “10d “1's'0'9 “OH “Woary Jo smnbaeyy oq} “WOH 4soyy OT,
esr “OTT “T0o'd “)'H ‘atiystoaaq Jo eyNg on) awry SIH
PRL PAE eS el ee SR RS EOE Gi JO SUIPIY
JS9M\ 94} JO JULMAINAI'T-pAOT ‘YSnorqrvog Jo [AVA og} ‘MOR AYSIYy our

‘bsg ‘snqoorg udpsmey

ee ee es SVU ‘Solg “Om “O'1T why ‘UIMIVC neg “0 Tossojorg
coun naueia aie ee rege "Sud “a’o'y ‘1eL00T WEN “£18
; vrereeeeAIngiaiTNyH Jo teed “Sy “q'a ‘wueg mM ‘A ‘AY AIOA ONL, : ;
mee “bea ‘Aanqorpnad "Ht “M4 * rieteteseeesteceeenee saeny surSno( SION "V ‘WOH WS OWL | ........ 0.6. Peer Se | enon
| | AGH TOYSELIOM * PURGE OL4siq Ulejseq- R * \9
“TOHOOMH WOSELIOA “A bennentesneteresst ete ee Bee te ee ea oD eaueD SMELL (qe “Coe ‘MHISOL-INVEOIN WS WOSsTAOwA
sees “T'O'd “WI “Oy ‘Amgsteg yosmbavyy 043 “WOH ISON OUT,
vreeeeeeeeeseeses ed ‘Ainqiaquep Jo doysiquory ploy ayy oovAy STH
*SBINVLSNOSS WVO07 "SLNBUISSYd-S90IA *SLNACISS8d

ly

, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

PAST PRESIDENTS

Pee ee ee eam eee ee wea aspuqmep yo ROME Aqndaq “Dsq ‘sunox ‘Hd
"ress" Tromnog Ayunog ATT Jo a[sT oy Jo uRMIATeYO “bsa ‘ure; qdosor
Svieeenscusinvie vases neve ees eves ee eeae nesses sree er eeereres TOTO
AyunoH airmsaspuqmep aya jo uvmamyo “bsg ‘mosuaydayg y19qoy
sr eeeesseess seoapiqmey jo lode “q'w “bsg ‘wojeq etAyssaqO "HL
"e"* SSPlIquiBy ‘aSa][oH WeYUAEN Jo [vdroulig “HOIMASpIg *s.ATY
** AVUIYG, Jo Ase “Q'a “pyNg useqaoyy "A ‘Ady AIA ONT,
"VIN “bsq ‘peoqoqiq Ma. 29 Mi Sh 2) PPOUCO IER iar acs eee e ee ad plaqurzp ‘aB@T100 § aan?) Jo auapiseag
“WIN “bsq ‘1900TyS *g / puv AgsTOATAN, aya Jo ToTTeoURO~ aIA “A'd ‘es8VuO "H ‘A “AVY INL ‘POBL “ZT IsNSny ‘aDaIUTNVO
“Sd “Wy “bsg ‘premag ‘OW ttt ‘s’ el is Gace mia tae (Toa “O'A'O') UIAPY PLOT “WOH ISNT oN *** qsinquipa yo Aqist9atg, a2 JO AoTa0URYO “SW
‘WK “bsq ‘aosaroyn *y \ °° syd aT1 “T'd ‘gsedvy proy u0H ISIN OUL | “AN “AIT “TO'd “UNOdTVE ‘fC “¥ (NOH LHODIU 11
"Ta “bs Grasdea) "a's Ce ee ie ei) *aspraqmep jo AQISIOATT
92 JO prBAMAIS Sasa “Syd SOT ‘weysurs[eAy pxloy “woR WSN OUT,
ee. i ri i i ii ‘aa ‘Ala jo doysig, Ploy 079 ‘Aa 4usiy our,
ee aalysuopsuyUNnA
pur aucieRetaines jO YMoys WSsIn “Ta “WW “bsg ‘eH anqaty
*eIIYSOSPLIQUIeD JO WITMaINerT paoy “qvyT “bsy ‘Iaaoyoog Japuvxoly
ee ec ee rie) asprqureg yo Aqisaoaug amd
JO JOT[OouRYO “SUT “AIT “OM ‘otrystoAdg Jo ayn yy soRIH SIF

eee eee ee ee ee “bsg ‘TepUnIg PIOM SeTTeqO )
ee ae ‘a'r “bsg ‘yO ugsiieog soyreyH |

ee er is

. BIS FE OOIU OOO OLE oie ouleb cae] "gH solzeqo
tteeeeeceeeeeeseeesses qrodqqynos 103 *a'W “OM “bsg ‘IVA Baste “a
POT Oe ee mmm eee eee we eee *qa0dq3nog jo TOLL “Dsa ‘yoriqsiavog "Tl “ZL T,
oe 2 a er ii) AqisqoaTan, ? :
> 5 +p | BIZOPOIA OT JO TOT[eoULT o- 201A “oy “CIT “bsq ‘uosurydoy pertly “E061 ‘6 Jeqmaqdasg ‘LuUodHLAOS

os oe bere eee sHevhertes caeeecsvaseeresstneene seees *® TORSMIMT “¥ OBI09H Tg b1* 1st sts ++e8+++* "+ somBET ap ININEUT, 9p juepHOd

: sere sed STO “TT “aid “V'd ‘eoosoy AruaH As | -S91100 “SW “GIT “a'O'H “UAAHOOT NVNUON UIS
sreressssiongey JO [IVA eq} “WOR ITSIY PUL
vteeress Togas JO [Ae 949 “WOH USI OTL
Ce nr a AqIstoAtUQ,
VI10JOLA 9} JO TOTeoUrYO “q"T'T “HM ‘Toouady jaeg™ oy} "WOH AUST OTT,
SW “ATT “Ly ‘sortvojeg pue projarvsH Jo [AVA oy} ‘WOH FUSNT OTL
ee ny oer “ereTe) “oy *Kqaaq Jo Avg og ‘UO quan aq

trreeeees sD TLaypoY 199g Tossayorg

* ord “Wy Aaysoyuey Avy “Y Jossayorg

* qsuylag ‘oAaT[oD s,meen’d Jo JUepisaig eq,

ss ereeessees nspiiag JO 1okE pio'T oq,

WH “qvg Qavag suqien wennttAt Is

eesiesc 7 RUMOR EOL SOCOGOST sta fa | ‘Tepoulg svuoyy, ‘Uo qusiny aa

bg arash ” ve aS ‘ esd “OTT “T0'd “aM ‘8S80Y JO [eg on} ‘WOH WWSTY OMT, *S06T OL tequiandasg “isvaTag

‘Syg “beg ‘amorg ugop | ra ‘Aingsojyrys JO [vq oy} “OH ee aL / ‘Sw’ “oS'a “ATT “WN ‘UVMAC SANVE UOSSAAOUE

See ee eee ee ents en ee ceases cet esneetenreteeeeneesestenseees TTA
Jo AyUNOH 9g} JO YULMAINOIT “WH “Weg ‘UAqseuoRy_ slouvry Us

Tete vest eae eewsseeeeeecusgucsuarteecersaeeereeesesess AGBTIGE

Jo ANNO oq) JO QuvuQNETT ‘WH “OM ‘AisapuopuoyT jo smnbaeyA ony
SOPH eH HE EEE REE eee EH HEHE EEE EEE EEE E EEE EE ledou0g jo

AAQUNOH 04} JO JULUOINOTT ‘WH “OM ‘WAOoIaQY Jo aynq oq} sorry sr

lvi >. REPoRT—1904.

TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831-1904.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 (Sir) R. I. MurcHIson (Bart.), | 1872

F.R.S.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S.
1839-44 I. BATLY, Esq., I'.R.S.
184458 Rev. G. Pracock, F.R.S.

| 1883

Sir J. LUBBocK, Bart. (now Lord
AVEBURY), F.R.S.

1881-83 W. Sporrrswoopk, Esq., Pres.

RS.
Lord RAYLEIaHn, F.R.S.

1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards Lord)

1858-82 General E. SABINE, I’.R.S. PLAYFATR, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EqERtTON, Part., F.R.S. 1898 Prof, (Sir) A. W. Ricker, F.R.S.
GENERAL TREASURERS.

1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.

| 1891-98 Prof. A. W. Ricken, F.R.S.

1898-1904 Prof. G. C. Fostmr, F.R.S.

1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S. | 1904 Prof. JOHN Prrry, F.R.S.
1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S. |

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON TIARcOuRT, | 1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hrrst, F.R.S., and Dr,

F.R.S.
1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.8., and F. Batny, Esq.,
F.R.S.
1836-37 Rev. W. Vrrnon HARcovurt,
F.R.S., and R. I. Murcnison,
Esq., F.R.S,
1837-89 R. I. Murcnison, Hsq., F.R.S.,
and Rey. G. PrAcock, F.R.S.
1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcnison, F.R.S.,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel EK. SABINE, F.R.S.
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and
J. ¥. ROYLE, Esq., F.R.S.
1852-53 J. F. Royun, Esq., F.R.S.
1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S.
1861-62 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.
1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1866-68 I’, GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. Hrrst, F.R.S.

| 1908

T. T1oMSON, F.R.S.
1871-72 Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DouGLAsS GALTON, F.R.S.
1872-76 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. MICHAEL Fostmr, F.R.S.
1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.B.S.
1881-82 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Prof. F. M. BALFourR, F.R.S.
1882-83 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1883-95 Sir DouaGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
Esq., F.R.S.

1895-97 A. G. VERNON TLARCOURT, Esq.,

ERS.,. tand 6 72robe ake Sea.
ScHAFER, F.R.S.

| 1897— { Prof. ScHArer, F.R.S., and Sir

1900 W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.
1900-02 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
F.R.S., and Dr. D. H: Scort,
F.RS.
1902-03 Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S., and
Major P. A. MACMAHOoy, F.R.S.
Major P. A, MACMAHON, F.R.S.,
and Prof. W. A. HirpMan,
F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary.
1832
Secretary.

1832-62 Prof. JOHN PuiLurps, F.R.S.

1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1878-80 J. K. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.,
Assistant Secretary.

G, GRIFFITH, Hsq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

1881

| 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.,
Prof. J. D. Forrns, Acting |

Secretary.

1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.

1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Esq., M.D.

1904 A, SILVA WHITER, Esq., Assistant
Secretary.

PRESIDENTS AND

SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lvii

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Presidents

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

Secretaries

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

= Cambridge
. Edinburgh

1835. Dublin

1836. Bristol

1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle

1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...

1841. Plymouth
1842. Manchester

1843. Cork
1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge

se eeeeees

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Rev. Dr. Robinson .........

Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S.

|Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

Profs Forbes ol B.S... s.ssecsces

| Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A.

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.

Ely.

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,|

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.

Prof, Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

‘Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

...|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
.../ Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
|The Very Rev. the Dean of|Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,

| G. G. Stokes.

1846. Southamp- Sir John F. W. Herschel, | John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G@. G.

ton.
1847. Oxford

1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

|

3art., F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......
; William Hopkins, F-.R.S.......

M.A.,

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.RB.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

1851. Ipswich ...|Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
E.R.S.

1852. Belfast...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Webs. dolly... 272... The Very Rev. the Dean of

1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856, Cheltenham
1857. Dublin

seeeee

1858. Leeds

Ely, F.B.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.

Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.B.S., F.R.S.E.

Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.

W. Whewell,
V.P.R.S.

D.D.,

|
)

Stokes.

Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

| Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G, G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.

S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.

B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.

C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.

Tyndall.

lviti

Date and Place

1859. Aberdeen...

1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1862. Newcastle

1864, Bath

sen eeeees

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869, Exeter

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol

seeees

1876.

aoe

Glasgow

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin.. ..
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea .,
1881. ,
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1888. Southport
1884.
1885. Aberdeen...

1886, Birmingham Prof, "G. H. Darwin, M.A.,|R.

REPORT—1904.

Presidents

The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....

G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
E.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes,
F.R.S.

Prof. W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.K., F.R.S,

Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

W.Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

M.A.,

Prof, Wheatstone,
F.R.S.

D,0.b;

.| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,

F.R.S.

Prof. J. Tyndall,
FE.R.S.

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.RB.S. ;

J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,

LL.D., F.B.S.

LL.D.,

Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E.

W. De La Rue, D.C.I.., F.R.S.
Prof, H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. .

Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.I.A.

Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R:S.,
Pres. Physical Soe.

Rev. Prof. Salmon,
D.C.L., F.B.S.

George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A,, F.B.S.

D.D.,

.|Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,

E.BS.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A.,, F.R.S.

Prof. 0. Henrici, Ph. D., F.R.S.

LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,
F.R.S.E.

UL.D., F.R,S.

Secretaries

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H,
J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Reyv.N.Ferrers,Prof. Fuller, F.Jenkin,
Prof, Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin, Prof.H.J.8. Smith,
Rev. S. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. @. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C, Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

...|Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. 8. Herschel.
J.W.L.Glaisher, Prof.Herschel, Ran-
dal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F, Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. G@laisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley.
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. 0. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.

W. M. Hicks, Dr. O, J. Lodge, D.
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.

Montreal ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-

son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof,
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof,
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890,
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.

1896,

1897.
1898.
1899.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

1832,
1833.
1834,

1835.
1836.

1837.

Manchester
Newcastle-

Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford ......

Ipswich

Liverpool...

Toronto

Bradford ...
Glasgow ...
Belfast

Southport

Cambridge

Edinburgh

Dublin
Bristol

seneee

Liverpool...

Presidents

Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A,,

LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,

FE.R.S.

Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.B.S.

W. L. Glaisher,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.
Prof. O. J. Lodge,

LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. <A. Schuster,

F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.RS.

Sc.D.,
D.Sce.,

Ph.D.,|

Prof.A.W.Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S. |

.|Prof. W. M. Hicks, M.A.,|

F.R.S.
Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,
D.Sce., F.R.S.

F.R.S.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....

Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.

Dr. J. Larmor, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Astronomy, Dr. A. A.
Common, F.R.S.

Major P.A. MacMahon, F.R.8.
—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.
H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

Prof. J. Purser,LL.D.,M.R.1.A.
—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.
A. Schuster, F.R.S.

C, Vernon Boys, F.R.S.— Dep.
of Astronomy and Meteor-
ology, Dr. W. N. Shaw,
F.R.S.

Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Swb-
Section of Astronomy and
Cosmical Physics, Sir J.

Eliot, K.C.1.E., F.R.S.

Secretaries

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof,
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A,
Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
R. EH. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.

Rh. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof, A. Lodge,
J. Walker.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
G. T. Walker, W. Watson.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W.
Watson.

...{Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A., Prof. W. H. Heaton, J.C.Glashan, J.

L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan.

|A. P. Chattock, J. L. Howard, C. H.

Lees, W. Watson, E. T. Whittaker.

J. L. Howard, C. H. Lees, W. Wat-
son, E. T. Whittaker.

P. H. Cowell, A. Fowler, C. H. Lees,
C. J. L. Wagstaffe, W. Watson,
E. T. Whittaker.

H.S.Carslaw, C.H. Lees, W. Stewart,
Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.

H. S. Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A.

Larmor, C. H. Lees, Prof. W. B.
Morton, A. W. Porter.

D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees, J.
Loton, A. W. Porter.

A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson,
Dr. C. H. Lees, Dr. W. J.8. Lock-
yer, A. W. Porter, W. C. D.
Whetham.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

Oxford......|John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

PIPRONEL. esites cach sans sacevi=ces

James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr, Christison,

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston,
Rev, Prof, Cumming

Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
th

path.
.| Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.

Reynolds,

lx REPORT—1904.

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1838 Newcastle | Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.| Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.

1839. Birmingham| Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson,

1840. Glasgow ...|Dr. Thomas Thomson, F'.R.S.| Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

1841. Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ......... J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.

1842, Manchester |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,

14355 Cork..0/..c05 Prof, Apjohn, M.R.I.A......... R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

1844; Workiiscc.: Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.......;Dr. L. Playfair, EH. Solly, T. H.

| Barker.

1845, Cambridge |Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
EK. Solly.

1846. Southamp- |Michael Faraday, D.C.L., | Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

ton. F.R.S.

1847. Oxford...... Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,| B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

1848. Swansea ...| Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......|T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams,

1849. Birmingham| John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... Rh. Hunt, G. Shaw.

1850. Edinburgh | Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...| Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

1851. Ipswich ...| Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.|T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

1852. Belfast...... Thomas Andrews,M.D.,F.R.S.| Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

LUSH Eill os 3.6.08 Prof, J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,)/H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.

F.R.S. Pearsall.

1854, Liverpool |Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.|Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

1855. Glasgow ...| Dr, Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.| Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. BE. Roscoe.

1856. Cheltenham| Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ... J.

1859.
1860.

1861.
1862.

1863.
1864.

1865
1866
1867
1868

1869

1870.

1871
1872

Aberdeen...
Oxford

Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

. Birmingham
. Nottingham
. Dundee
. Norwich ...
. Exeter ......
Liverpool...

. Edinburgh

. Brighton...

.| Prof.

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.1LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......

Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.H.Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.B.S.......

Prof. W. A. Miller,
V.P.R.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

M.D.,

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. HK. Frankland, F.R.S.

M.D.,

Dre Mebus, stents see

Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. J. H.Gladstone, F.R.S....

J. Horsley, P.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-

» livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J.S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof, G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. F. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J. ¥. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
K. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr,

{| W.J. Russell, Dr. T, Wood.

Worsley, Prof.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1873. Bradford ...|Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S...

1874. Belfast...... Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

1875. Bristol...... A, G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A,
F.RB.S.

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...|/F. A. Abel, F.B.S........0044
1878, Dublin...... Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.B.S.

1879. Sheffield ...| Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.

1880, Swansea ...| Joseph ee Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S

1881. York......... Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.5.

1882. Southamp- |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,

ton. F.R.S.

1883. Southport |Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

1884. Montreal ...| Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.RB.S.

1885. Aberdeen...| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

1886, Birmingham|W. Crookes, F.R.8., V.P.C.S.

1887. Manchester |Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.....

1888. Bath......... Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

1889. Newcastle- {Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,

upon-Tyne| D.C.L., F.R.S.

1890. Leeds ...... Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.

Weal, Cardiff ...... Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,

1892.

1893.

1894,

1895.
1896.

1897

1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.

Presidents

W. 4H. Perkin, F.R.S.

C.B., F.B.S.

Edinburgh | Prof. H. McLeod, ¥.R.5......
Nottingham | Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,

M.D., D.8c., F.R.S

Oxford...... Prof. H. B. Dixon, M. ie E.R.S.

Secretaries

.| Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-

ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. EH. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

..».|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

.|H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. EH.
Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. Bb. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Lb.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof, P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. F. Mor-
ley,W.W. J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.

.|J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.

SECTION B (contimwed).—-CHEMISTRY.

Ipswich

Liverpool...| Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.B.S.

Toronto ...|Prof: W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......
Bristol......| Prof. ¥F. R. Japp, F.B.S. ......
Dovenseercc. + Horace T. Brown, F.R.S.......
Bradford ...| Prof. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ...
Glasgow ...

F.RB.S.

.|Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......

KE. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
Kohn, J. W. Rodger.

Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn.

Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A.
Kohn, Prof. R. F. Ruttan.

C, A. Kohn, F. W. Stoddart, T. K.
Rose.

A. D. Hall, C. A. Kohn, T. K. Rose,
Prof. W. P. Wynne.

W. M. Gardner, F. §. Kipping, W.
J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

Prof. Percy KF. Frankland,|W.C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,

W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

xii

REPORT—1904.

Date and Place

1902, Belfast......

1903. Southport
1904. Cambridge

Presidents

Prof. E. Divers, F,B.S........++

Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc.,
E.RB.S.

Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S....

Secretaries

R. F. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.

G. G. Henderson, Prof, W. J. Pope.
'Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope.
|Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
| derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof. W.
J. Pope.

GEOLOGICAL (and, unrin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832
1833
1834

. Oxford

. Edinburgh .

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol

1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle..
1839. birmingham
1840. Glasgow
1841, Plymouth...
1842, Manchester

1843. Conk. .<..s0us
1844. York ....ce.00
1845. Cambridge.

1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford.....,
1848. Swansea ...
1849, Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh!

. Cambridge.

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......
Prof, Jameson

Peer w et eeraeeeneee

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AN

fied TIO casaccsessnaccemee ee
Kev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.$.—
Gcoq.,R.1.Murchison,¥.R.S,
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— |
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S,
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe,
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geoq.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S,

...|Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geog.,

| G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.
|H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
R. I, Murchison, F.R.S.

|Richard KE, Griffith, F.R.S. ... |
Henry Warburton, Pres. G. 8.
|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.

dae ea:

Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ......

| Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.8.

John Taylor.
W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
J. Phillips, T, J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates.

D GUOGRAPHY,.

| Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

William Sanders, $. Stutchbury,
T, J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, i. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N.

W.C, Trevelyan, Capt, Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Wasnington.

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin. .

W. J. Hamilton,D, Milne, H. Murray,
H. HE. Strickland, J. Scoular.

W.J,. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
KR. Hutton.

KE. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. K, Strickland,

¥. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland.

Prof. Ansted, EK, H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rey. W. Thorp.

Robert A, Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T, Beke.

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C,
Ramsay, J. Ruskin,

5.Benson,Prof.Oldham, Prof. Ramsay

Sir Charles Lyell, ¥.R.S

see eeee

Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.

J. B. Jukes, Prof. Oldham, A. C,
Ramsay.

A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.

SECTION C (continued).—GHOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich ...| William Hopkins,M.A.,F.B.S.|C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood,

1852. Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, K.E.,|James Bryce, James MacAdam,
iD B.B.S. Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
1853. Hull ........: Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S......... Prof, Harkness, William Lawton.

1854, Liverpool ..|Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S,| John Cunningham, Prof, Harkness,
vis ; G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
1856, Glasgow .../Sir R. 1, Murchison, F.R.S....|J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof, Nicol.

' Geography was constituted a separale Secliou, see page lxix.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

{
Date and Place |

Presidents

1856. Cheltenham | Prof, A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

1857. Dublin......
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

Dundee
Norwich ..

1867,
1868.
1869, Exeter

tenes

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh
1872, Brighton...

1873.
1874.

Bradford ...
Belfast......

1875.
1876.

Bristol......
Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878.
1879,
1880,
1881,

1882.

Dublin......
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
BY OF Kas ccse cs
Southamp-
ton,

. Southport

. Montreal ..,
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham

1887.’Manchester

The Lord Talbot de Malahide
William Hopkins,M.A., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.5...

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.RB.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S,

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
¥.R.S., F.G.S8.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,

K.C.B., F.B.S,
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

.| Archibald Geikie, F'.B.S.......
.}R, A. C. Godwin-Austen,

¥.R.S., F.G.8.

Prof. RK. Harkness, F.R.8.,
¥.G,5.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof, A, Geikie, F'.R.S., F.G.S.

R

~

A. C. Godwin-Austen,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof, J. Phillips, ¥.R.S. ......
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
¥.G.5.
Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.K., F.G.5.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

W. Pengelly, F.K.S., F.G.S8.

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
¥.5.A., F.G.S.

Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

H. C. Sorby, F.B.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,

E.G.8.

R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. C. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S.

W.T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.

Prof. J. W. Judd, F'.H.5., Sec.
G.5.

Prof. I. G. Bonney, D.b8c.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
¥.R.S,, F.G.8.

OF THE SECTIONS. lxili

Secretaries

Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. Rh. Hep-

worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof, Harkness, G. Sanders, It. H.
Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness,
Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T,
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C,
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.

W. b, Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C,
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. H.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
E. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G, H. Morton.

Rh. Etheridge, J. Geikie, Tl. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L.C, Miall,R.H.Tiddeman,W.Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R, H, Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B, Tawney, W. Topley.

J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

EK. IT. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman,

W. Topley, G, Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, HE. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

¥. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

CO. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top
ley, W. W. Watts.

E. Hull, J. W.

lxiv

REPORT—1904.

Da

1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895,

1896.
1897.

1898.
1899.
1900.

1901.
1902.

1905.

1904.

te and Place

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Cardittysrees
Edinburgh

Nottingham
@xtordem sa2

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto

Bristol! t..J..

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...
Belfast......

Southport

Cambridge

Presidents

Secretaries

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.G.8.

Prof. A. H. Green,
F.B.S., F.G.8.

Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.5.,
F.G.5.

Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

J. J. H. Teall, M.A., ¥.R.5.,
E.G.S.

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.5.

M.A.,

.|W. Whitaker, B.A., ¥.R.S. ...

J. H. Marr, M.A., ¥.R.S.......

.|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,

F.R.S.
W. H. Hudleston, ¥.R.5.......

Sir Archibald Geikie, F.1.8.
Prof. W. J. Sollas, ¥.R.8.

John ROMO WH RS. sccsecsscese

Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. W. Watits,
M.bsc.

Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S.

M.A.,

Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.

W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. HE. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

..|F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement

Reid, W. W. Watts.

F, A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, C. Reid.

Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-
lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.

G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers,
H. Pentecost.

J. W. Gregory, G. W. Lamplugh,
Capt. McDakin, Prof. H. A. Miers.

.|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

G. W. Lamplugh, H. W. Monckton.
H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton.

H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton,
J. St. J. Phillips, H. J. Seymour.
H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton.
ll. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
J. Lomas, HU. Woods.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IVK—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

1832. Oxford...... |Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.5. ...| Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge!) Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.'C. C. Babington, D. Don,
1834, Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham.................00e. W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
SECIION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
1835. Dublin..,... DrsgAliiman, | Ssecsesectautasess ....|d. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Henslow ........+.6 J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, $.
y Rootsey.
1837. Liverpool...}W. S. MacLeay........-..seeeees \C. C, Babington, Rev. L, Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bark: .......0 J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, RK. Owen,
ia, Dr. Richardson.
1839. Birmingham| Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ..........05 H. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D....... |Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson,
1841. Plymouth...| John Richardson, M.D.,F.R.S.!

1842
1843

. Manchester |Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-.

bert, LL.D., F.L.S.

POOL Kiccnves ca William Thompson, F.L.S. ...

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, Kh. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.

‘ At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lxviii.

ES es CCL

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1844. York.........

1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
to

n.
1847. Oxford......

lxv

Presidents

chester.

Sir J. Richardson,
| F.R.S.
/H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.

M.D.,

Secretaries

Very Rev. the Dean of Man-/Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,

Dr. Lankester.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...,| Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H,
Wooldridge.

§.|Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V,

Wollaston,

SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY,

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section K of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. Ixviii.]

1848. Swansea ..

1849, Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
Soa. Hull’ ......0

1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...

.|L. W. Dillwyn, PRS Ss

William Spence, F.R.S. .....
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
W. Ogilby

Beem ewee reese sesesceens

Prof, Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.

1856, Cheltenham |Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.

1857. Dublin......
1858, Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester

1862, Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864, Bath.........

1865. Birming-
ham!

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

1868, Norwich ...

Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,

E.R.S.

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.

Rev. Prof, Henslow, F.L.S....

Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.

Prof. Huxley, F.B.S. .........
Prof, Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

Dr. John E, Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A, Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.

.| Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

Prof, J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.

Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester,

Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. =
Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan [Dr Be Fankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr, W.E. Steele.

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright,

Prof, Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

W. 8S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E, P. Wright.

.|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.

Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C, Clarke, Rev.

H. B. Tristram, Dr. K. P. Wright,

“SECTION D (continued) —BIOLOGY.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.— Dep.
of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
A. R. Wallace.

-| Prof, Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.RB.S.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Physiology, W
H. Flower, F.R.S.

Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B,
Tylor, Dr. K. P. Wright.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. §. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr, E. P. Wright.

' The title of Section D was changed to Biology.

1904,

d

Secretaries

Ixvi REPORT— 1904.
Date and Place | Presidents
|
1869, Fxeter...... eemeae Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh . |

1872. Prighton ...

1873. Bradford ...

1874. Belfast...

1875, Bristol ......

1876, Glasgow ...

1877, Plymouth...

1878. Dublin......

1879, Sheffield ...

1880, Swansea ...

USSleeVOrk.es.csscs

| —Dep. of "Bot. and Zool.,
| @. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
| Dep. of Ethno., 8. B. Tylor.
| Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
EES; F.L.8.— Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
| Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.
__ of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
| Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
| F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
| Prof, W. Turner, M.D.

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.—
| Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
| Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
| E.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
| Col, A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
| Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof, Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
| thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

...|Prof, Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of

Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W. R. Wilde,
M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat, and Physiol., Prof.
Cleland, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anth.,Prof.Rolleston,F.R.S.

A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr, J. G. McKendrick.

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.
Prof. Macalister.— Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.

Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol. R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

A.C. L. Giinther, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. § Physiol. F. M.
Balfour, F.R.S.—Dep. of

| Anthropol., F, W. Rudler.

/R. Owen, F. B.S. —Dep.of An-
thropol., Prof. W.H. Flower,

| ARS. —Dep. of Anat. and

Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon

Sanderson, F.R.S.

Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,

EK. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester,

Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.

Prof. Thiselton- Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof, Lawson, I’. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, EK. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.

H. Lamprey.

W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr, J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.

E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C, A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M*Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schafer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.

G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.

EE Ee

- 1892. Edinburgh

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1882. Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport!

1884. Montreal ...

1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Pirmingham

1887. Manchester

1888. Bath.........

1889, Newcastle -

upon-Tyne

1890. Leeds

1891. Cardiff......

1893. Nottingham?

1894. Oxford? ,,

1895. Ipswich ...}
1896. Liverpool...
1897, Toronto ...
1898, Bristol

1899. Dover ......
1900. Bradford ...

1901. Glasgow ...

Ixvil

Presidents Secretaries

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., E.RB.S.|G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.

-- Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T, W. Shore, jun.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor- Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

L.S.,| Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.

W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

Prof, A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,|C. Bailey, F. KE. Beddard, S. F. Har-

F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

W. T. Thiselton- aes C.M.G.,|F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.

E.R.S., F.L.S H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.

Prof. J. 5. Burdon Sanderson,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8S. F. Har-
M.A., M.D., F.R.S. mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-

shall Ward.

Marshall,|8. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,

M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. S. J. Hickson, F, W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.

F, E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W. N. Parker, H. Wager.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,|G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
E.R.S., F.R.S.E. Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,|G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.

M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. W. A. Herdman, S. J. Hickson,

W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
q

F.R.S.
Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
W. Carruthers, Pres.
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. Milnes
M.A.,

Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
F.RB.S., F.L.S.

Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,]W. W. Benham, Prof, J. B. Farmer,

FE.R.S. Prof, W. A. Herdman, Prof, S. I
| Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater,

SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY

Prof, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.|G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W.
Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.

. H. O, Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.

"| Hoyle.

a vs Garten W. E. Hoyle, Prof.

| E. E. Prince.

.|Prof, R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr.

| A.J. Harrison, W. E. Hoyle.

mee Garstang, J. Graham Kerr.

. W. Garstang, J. G. Kerr, 1.
Taylor, Swale Vincent,

Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.|J. G. Kerr, J. Rankin, J. Y. Simpson.

EK.
Prof, E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. .
Prof, L. C. Miall, F.R.S
Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S

Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S.

Dr. R. H. Traquair, E.BS. i.

' Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. lxxv.
2 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. ]xxvi.
3 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology

=

Ixvili

Date and Place

REPORT—1904.

Presidents

Secretaries

1902.
1903.

1904.

1833.
1834,

1835,
1836.
1837.

1838.
1839.
1840,

1841.
1842,
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846,

1847.

1850.
1855.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.

Belfast...... Prof, G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ...
Southport | Prof. 8. J. Hickson, F-.R.S. ...
Cambridge | William Bateson, F.R.S. ......

|

Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y.
Simpson.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft, A.
Quayle, Dr. J. Y. Simpson, Dr.
H. W. M. Tims.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. J. Y. Simpson, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCKS.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

eee eee w ween eeeeas

Cambridge | Dr.J. Haviland
Edinburgh | Dr. Abercrombie

Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr, G. E. Paget.

/Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson,

SECTION EB (UNTIL 1847),.—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

Dublin ...... Dryas CseerinChard Logescecenss Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

Bristol ...... Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Symonds.

Liverpool...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr, J. R. W. Vose.

Birmingham John Yelloly, M.D., F.RB.S...
Glasgow ... James Watson, M.D.

SECTION

.| Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr.J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid

E.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Plymouth...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |J. Butter, J. Fuge, R. 8. Sargent.
Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

...| Dr, John Popham, Dr, R. 8. Sargent.
|I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
| Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

,C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
| &
'T. K, Chambers, W. P. Ormerod.

Gorketi.ts. ‘Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.
WOrks:.2c<ess J.C. Pritchard... 40:..<.-
Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ......
Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.B.S. ...
ton. | ent.
Oxford! ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Glasgow ...| Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
Dublin...... Prof. R: Harrison, MéDs 7.5
Leeds ...... Sir B. Brodie, Bart., F.R.S.
Aberdeen... |Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.

Sexes Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S.
Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S..........

Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D.............00.
Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.
IBSath\s. ss Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S.

Birming- | Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,

ham 2 F.R.S.

Prof, J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers,
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.

C. G. Wheelhouse.

Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner,

J. S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.

Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

1 Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology.

and Botany, including Physiology’ (see p. Ixiv).

was assigned in 1851 to Geography.

2

Vide note on page lxiv.

Section I, being then vacant,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

OF THE SECTIONS. lxix

Date and Place | Presidents

|
| Secretaries

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,

p- Ixii.]

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF

1846.Southampton| Dr. J. C. Pritchard
1847. Oxford Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.
PRESS WVABSCA) f0a!| coneosescensinc slauvensiissosvesesesucorss
1849, Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm

PROP e meme et ene reer eee eeeeeeesreeeeeeeee

SECTION D.

Dr. King.

.|Prof. Buckley.

G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

1851, Ipswich ...\Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,
| Pres. R.G.S.
1852. Belfast... .- Col. gobemey, R.A., D.C.L.,
E.R
1853. Hull......... ‘R. G. iatham, M.D., F.B.S.
1864. Liverpool...

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.B.S.
«Sir J. Richardson,

1855. Glasgow M.D.,
E.R.S
1856. Cheltenham Col, Sir H. C. Rawlinson,
| K.C.B.
1857. Dublin...... fey. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres.R.LA.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir R. I. Murcliison, G.C.St.8.,
| E.R.S.
‘1859. Aberdeen...|Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1860. Oxford....., lSir RB. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.B.S.
1861. Manchester John Crawfurd, F.R.S........++
1862. Cambridge Francis Galton, F.B.S.........
1863. Newcastle Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
| EBS.
1864. Bath........., Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
| ERS.

1865. Birmingham Major-General Sir H. Raw-
| linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

1866. Nottingham Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
| LL.D.

1867. Dundee ... Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

R.N,,

1868. Norwich Capt G. H. Richards,
F.R.S.

|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.

Norton Shaw.

'R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton

Shaw.

R. Cull, Rev.

Norton Shaw.
Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.

Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr,
Norton Shaw.
Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, §. Ferguson, Dr. R.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O’Callaghan,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr, C.
Lempriére, Dr, Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,

C. BR. Markham, Thomas Wright.
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
| H. Major, Clements R. Markham,

H. W. Kemp, Dr,

R.
R.

| D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
i. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
| Markham, S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.
T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
| Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued).—GHOGRAPHY.

1869. Exeter....../Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
‘Sir R.1L. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,

LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS5 F.G.5.

1870. Liverpool...

|H. W. Bates, Clements RK, Markham
| J. H. Thomas.

|H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert

4 Mott, Clements R. Markham,

xX

REPORT—1904.

Date and Place

Presidents

|
=

Secretaries

1871. Edinburgh |Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. A. Buchan, A, Keith Johnston, Cle-

1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890,
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895,
1896.
1897.
1898,
1899,
1900.
1901.

Brighton ...| Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

Bradford ...|Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B. |

Belfast...... Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Bristol...... Lieut. - General Strachey, |
B.E., C.8.L, F.R.S., ¥F.R.G.S.

Glasgow ...|Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Plymouth..,| Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.

Dublin...... Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-|
son, LL.D.,F.B.S., ¥.R S.E.)

Sheffield ...}Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
¥.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.

Swansea ...|Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S. |

WOK occ snes Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.I.,)
C.B., F.B.S,

Southamp- |Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S,L.,

ton. F.R.G.S.

Southport |Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.

Montreal ...|Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,

K.C.M.G., F.B.8.,V.P.8.G.S.
Aberdeen...|Gen, J. T. Walker, C.L., R.E., |
LL.D., F.R.8.
Birmingham | Maj.-Gen. Sir. F, J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S.L, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Manchester|Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,

G.C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.G.S. |

ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham,
E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.
H. W. Bates, F, E. Fox, H. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, H. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C,
Rye.

Rev.Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

J.S. Keltie, J 8. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Kev. G. A. Smith.

'F. T. §. Houghton, J. 8. Keltie.

E. G. Ravenstein.

Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.

J.S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.

IBAUhereescexs Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E, |
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Newcastle- |Col. Sir F. de Winton,|
upon-Tyne| K.C.M.G., C.B., F.B.G.S.
Leeds ...... Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert)
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. |
Cardiff ...... E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,)
| #.S.S. |
Edinburgh | Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.R:S.,
V.P.R.Scot.G.s. |
Nottingham | H. Seebohm, Sec. B.S8., F.L.S., |
¥.Z.8.
Oxford’... Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N.,)
¥.RB.S.
Ipswich .../H. J. Mackinder, M.A.,|
¥.R.G.S. |
Liverpool...|Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S. |
Toronto ...|J. Scott Keltie, LL.D.
Bristol.,.... Col. G,. Earl Church, F.R.G.§.
Dover ...... Sir John Murray, F.K.S.
Bradford ...|Sir George §. Robertson,
K.C.8.1.
Glasgow ...|Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.G.S.

Sulivan, A. Silva White.

A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
A. Silva White.

John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.

J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 5.
Keltie, A. Silva White.

Col. ¥. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
Yorbes, Dr. H. R, Mill.

John Coles, W. 8. Dalgleish, H. N.
Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.

Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. k. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.
\Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.

| H.R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.

'H.N. Dickson, Dr. H. KR. Mill, H. C.

| Trapnell.

H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. O. Forbes,
Dr. H. RB. Mill.

H.N. Dickson, E. Heawood, HE. R.
Wethey.

H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, G.
Sandeman, A. C. Turner.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS

lxxi

Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries
1902. Belfast .|Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. ...|G. G. Chisholm, E. Heawood, Dr.
A.J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A. Lindsay,
1903. Southport |Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C B.,'E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson.
FE.R.S. | EH. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C. Under-
wood,
1904. Cambridge | Douglas W. Freshfield......... E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson.
H. Y. Oldham, E. A. Reeves.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS,
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.B.S. .........|J. E. Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......| Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS, ~
1835, Dublin...... |Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol...... | Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........| W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr, W. C.
| Tayler.
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........| W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham | Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........| F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
| Tayler.
1840. Glasgow ...|Lord Sandon, M.P., F.R.S. |C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.
1841. Plymouth...| Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
| W. Rawson.
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. .... Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
| W. OC. Tayler.
1843. Cork......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...!Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844, York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,|J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
FE.L.S. cock.
1845, Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam | J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton. | CC. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
| P. Neison.
1848, Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849 Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof, Hancock, F. P. G.
Neison.
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee, Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
V.P.B.S.E. | Stark.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...| J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
Dublin. MacAdam, jun.
1853. Hull......... James Heywood, M.P., ¥.R.S, Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarcu.
1854. Liverpool...|Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........| EH. Cheshire, J.T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
| | Duncan, W. Newmarch.
1855. Glasgow ...,R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. .../J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
| march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

1857
1858

SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856. Cheltenham! Rt. Hon, Lord Stanley, M.P. | Rev. C. H. Bromby, EK. Cheshire, Dr.

. Dublin

. Leeds

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.1.A.

‘Edward Baines

|

| W.N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.

| M. Tartt.

| Prof, Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.

| Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S$. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.

Ixxil

Date and Place |

1859. Aberdeen... |

1860.

1861. Manchester |

1862,
1863,

1864.

1865, Birmingham

1866.
1867.

1868.
1869.

1870.
1871.
1872

1873.
1874,
1875.
1876

1877.
1878.
1879.

1880,
1881.

1882,
1883.
1884,
1885.
1886.
1887.

1888.
1889.

1890,

1891,

Oxford

Cambridge
Newcastle .

Bath

Nottingham
Dundee .....

Norwich....
Exeter

Liverpool...

Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...

seeeee

Glasgow

Plymouth... | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue

Dublin

weerewene

Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ..,
Aberdeen...

Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

aeeeee

Cardiff. ..

... | Sir George Campbell, K.C.8.L,
M.P.

.|G. W. Hastings, M.D. ..........

'Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......|

IM. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......

Rt.

REPoRT—1904.

Presidents

Secretaries

Col. Sykes, M.P., F.B.S. .....+/

William Newmarch, F.R.S....

Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ......+
William Tite, M.P., F.R.8....

W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.

Prof, J. E. T. Rogers

Samuel Brown

Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

eee eee eee enneee

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........

Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....

Rt. Hon. W. HE. Forster, M.P.

Bord, O]Hagan 2. .c.covcsrenssa

James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. 8.5.

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D....
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
5.5.

Rt. Hon. M. HE. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth, |
M.P., F.B.S.

Rh. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.B.5. |

|

Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.1., C.LE., F.R.G.S.

Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt. D.

J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.5.

Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.8.8,

Hon. Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.B.S.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.S.8,

Prof, A. Marshall, M.A., F.S.S. |

Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,

DSc., F.S.8.

Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Prof, J. E. T. Rogers.

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

K. Macrory, H. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
K. Macrory.

R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.

Chas, R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

J. G, Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G, Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof, Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.

¥, P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A, M‘Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr, W. Jack.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof. Adamson, lt. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.

Prof. H. 8, Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.

I. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.

Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
H. 8. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.

Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E.C. Munro,
L. L. F. RB. Price.

Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof, W. R. Sorley.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF

Date and Place

1893,

1894.
1895,
1896.

1897.
1898.

1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1908.
1904.

1836,
1837.
1838.

Nottingham

Oxford......
Ipswich ...
Liverpool...

Toronto
Bristol

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...
Belfast
Southport

Cambridge

1892. Edinburgh |Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle,
K.C.B.

...|H, Cannan, M.A., LL.D.

THE SECTIONS. Ixxili

Presidents Secretaries

Prof, J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof,
C

| HE. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
| L. L. F. R. Price.
Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc., Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B,

E.S.S. Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.
Prof. C. F, Bastable, M.A., E, Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
F,S.S. | W.A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.
Te. Tay Price; IMAL scheabaeevnsves E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,

H. Higgs.
.|E. Cannan, Prof. C. K. Gonner,
| W.A. 8. Hewins, 7 Higgs.

Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P...

.| Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. |E. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt.

J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D. K, Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H
Higgs, W. E. Tanner.

H. Higgs, LL.B.

W. Flux, Rev. G. Sarson.

Major P. G. Craigie, V.P.8.S./A. L. Bowley, EK. Cannan, 8. J.
Chapman, F', Hooper.

W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
Cannan, 8. J. ee

.|A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J Chapman,

Dr. A. Duffin

dipiigecs s A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman,
Dr. Bb. W. Ginsburg, G. Lloyd.

. J. HE. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley, Prof.

| S.J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg,

Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., ¥.R.S.

EK. W. Brabrook, C.B.
Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D...

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Bristol
Liverpool...
Newcastle

aeeeer

1839. Birmingham

1840.

1841,
1842.

1843.
1844.
1845.
L846,

1847.
1848.
1849,
1850.

1851.
1852.

1853.
1854.
1855,
1856.
1857.

1858.
1859.

Glasgow ....

Plymouth
Manchester |

Cambridge
Southamp-

Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast......
alls tt
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin......
Leeds ......
Aberdeen...

|John Taylor, F.R.S8.

| Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S,
|Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F.B.S.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......)

Prof, Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster.
|W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.

Stephenson. | Webster.
‘Sir John Robinson ..........06 |\J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.

.|Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

.. J. F, Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

James Thomson, Robert Mallet.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

Rev, W. T. Kingsley.

William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.

Rev. Prof, Willis, E.R. s.

Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.1.A....
John Taylor, F.RB.S, .........06.
George Rennie, F.R.S..........
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S,

J. Glynn, R, A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P, Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S,

Rey. R. Robinson .........-..... Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Head, Charles Manby.

John Walker, C.H., LL.D.,|John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
E.R.S Charles Manby, James Thomson.

Willis Fairbairn, F.R.S,

John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...
W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S. ...
George Rennie, F.R.S. .........
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,

F.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.
J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J.Thomson.
L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.

C. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.

Ixxiv

REPORT—19

Date and Place

Presidents

04.

Secretaries

1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester |

1852. Cambridge.
1863. Newcastle .

1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867, Dundee

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...

1871, Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..

1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast

Se enee

1875. Bristol

eeeeee

1876. Glasgow .
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin

1879. Sheffield ..

1880. Swansea ...
ISS Y Onksecesscet
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1885, Southport .
1884. Montreal ...

1885. Aberdeen... |

1886 Birmingham

.|F,. J. Bramwell, C.K,

| Edward Woods, C.E.

Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine
LL.D., F.R.S.

J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.B.S....

William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

|J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ....0..
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL, D.,
F.R.S.

Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.

C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine
LL.D., F.R.S.

G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.5.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F. R. s.|

Prof, Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.

W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ...

Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,

C.E., F.R.S.E.

W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.|

.|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......

Edward Easton, C.E.

. J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

J. Abernethy PRs Bisssseenee

Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

John Fowler, C. k., F.G.S.

J. Brunices, Pres.Inst.C.E.

Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E

1887. Manchester Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,

1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-
upon-T'yne,
1890. Leeds

1891, Cardiff ..

1892. Edinburgh

|W.

7 |

(Prof. Wi,

LL.D., F.B.S.
H. Preece,
M.Inst.C.K.

| W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E.

Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.B.S.,
F.R.A.S.
'T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.H.

C.
M.Inst.C.B.

seeceeeee

F.RS, ”)

Unwin, F.RS.,

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

|P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster,

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F, Spencer.

....|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt,

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.

|P. Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.

. P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
| King, J. N. Shoolbred.

8.,H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith.

H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
| J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

.. C.Barlow,H. Bauerman. B.H.Carbutt,

J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred.

|A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.

W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.

| Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,

J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

A, T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.

| Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

_A.'T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.

|A. T. Atchison, H. T, Wood.

A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.

.|A. T. Atchison, F Churton, H, T.

| Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
V.P.Inst.C.E. Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
B. Baker, -“M-Inst.G.H> ...c2... A, T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.

| Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.

|C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, H. Rigg.

Car: Budenberg, W
E. Rigg

Cc. W. ooke; W. B. Marshall, E.

| Rigg, P. K. Stothert.

..'C, W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.

| (C. A. Parsons, H. Rigg.

\E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

\C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.

'C, W. Cooke, W. b. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.

. B. Marshall,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1893. Nottingham
1894, Oxford......
1895. Ipswich
1896, Liverpool...
1897, Toronto
1898. Bristol......
1899. Dover
1900. Bradford ...
1901. Glasgow
1902. Belfast
1903. Southport

1904. Cambridge

1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

seeeee

189], Cardiff......

1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham

1894, Oxford......
1895, Ipswich ...
1896, Liverpool...
1897. Toronto

1898. Bristol
1899, Dover

1902. Belfast

Presidents

lxxv

Secretaries

Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
¥.C.8.

|Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,

F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

.|Prof. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt,

M.A., M.Inst.C.E.
Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.H.

.|G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.

‘Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,
E.R.S.
Sir W. White, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Alex. R. Binnie, M.Inst.
C.E

.| RR. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E.
.|Prof. J. Perry, FBS. ........-
.|Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. T. Maccall,

|C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.E,

‘Hon. C, A. Parsons, F.R.S. ...

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.

Prof, T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
8. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof, Callen-
dar, W. A. Price.

Prof, T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro,
H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A. Price, H.
E. Stilgoe.

Prof. T. H. Beare, C, F. Charnock,
Prof. S. Dunkerley, W. A. Price.
H. Bamford, W.E. Dalby, W. A. Price.

M. Barr, W. A. Price, J. Wylie.

W. A. Price.

J. B. Peace, W. T. Maccall, W. A.
Price.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
1884. Montreal ...| E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.B.S....|G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.

Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.

| Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......
'Lieut.-General _Pitt-Rivers,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

|Prof. Sir W. Turner,

| LL.D., F.RS.

\Dr. J. Evans, Treas.
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...

M.B.,
LS.,

(Prof. A. Macalister, M.A.,|
| KR. Howden, H. Ling Hoth.
'G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,

M.D., ¥.R.S.
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., ¥.R.8.E.

lsir W. H. Flower, K.CB.,
- ERS

‘Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,|

D.C.L.
Arthur J. Evans, F.5.A. ......

... Sir W. Turner, F.R.S. .........

K. W. Brabrook, C.L. ...
C. H. Read, ¥.5.A.

| ERS.
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.

|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W

| Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.

| Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.

G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G.W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.

i}

Prof, R. Howden, F. Bb. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, Dr. J.G.Garson, H. Ling
Roth.

J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H.

Bon

Ling Roth.

\Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres,

Prof. A. M. Paterson.

|A. F. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes,

Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres.

...H. Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker.
'H. Balfour, W. H. Hast, Prof. A. C.

Haddon, J. L. Myres.

‘Rev. E. Armitage, H. Balfour, W.

Crooke, J. L. Myres.

D. J. Cunningham, W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.

Gemmill, J. L. Myres.
Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon,
J. L. Myres.

Ixxvi

Date and Place

1903.
1904,

1894,

1896.
1897.

1899.
1901.
1902.
1904.

1895.

1896.
1897.
1898.
1899,
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904,

1901,

1902.

1903.

1904,

REPORT—1904.

Presidents

Southport /|Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S....

Cambridge iH, Balfour, wMvA. ocsecssssdedeses

Secretaries

E. N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford,
EK. M. Littler, J. L. Myres.

|W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N. Fallaize,

H. 8. Kingsford, J. L. Myres.

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExpertmmentraL
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsycHOLoGy).

Oxford ....0
M.R.C.S.

Liverpool ... Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.

Toronto ...| Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S.
Mover’ ....s6 D N. Langley, F.R.S.
Glasgow ...
Belfast ... |Prof.

E.B.S.

|Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S.,)Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane,

M. 8. Pembrey.

Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C.8. Sherrington.

Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C. 8, Sherring-
ton, Dr. L. E. Shore.

Dr. Howden, Dr. L. E. Shore, Dr. E.
H. Starling.

(Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ...... W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof.

W. H. Thompson.

W. OD. Halliburton,|J. Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne, Dr.

C. Shaw.

Cambridge | Prof. C.S8. Sherrington, F.R.S.|J. Barcroft, Prof. T. G. Brodie, Dr.

L. E. Shore.

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

| A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.
'Prof. res Gibson, A. C. Seward,
| Prof. F. KE. Weiss.

| Prof. J. B. Farmer, E. C. Jeffrey,
A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

..|A.C. Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White.

|G. Dowker, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.

|A. C. Seward, H. Wager, W. West.

D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan, G. F’. Scott-
Elliot, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.

A. G. Tansley, Rev, C. H. Waddell,
H. Wager, R. H. Yapp.

H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager,
R. H. Yapp.

Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley,

H.

H. Wager, T. B. Wood, R.
Yapp.

.'R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y.

Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof.
H. L. Withers.

\Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,

Prof. 13D Us iy sete

W. M. Heller,
Hi. t:
| dnap e.

Ww. Kimmins, Dr.

Ipswich ...;W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S.)
Liverpool. | Dr. DI HaSedttal RS; secs
Toronto ... Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
Bristol v2... ‘Prof. ¥. O. Bower, F.R.S. .
Dover: «2... Sir George King, F.R.S. ......
Bradford... Prof. S. H. Vines, F.R.S.......
Glasgow ...| Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.B.S. ...|
Belfast... Prof. J. R. Green, F.RS.......
Southport A. C. Seward, F.B.S. .........
Cambridge Francis Darwin, E\R.S. ......

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
Glasgow ... | Sir John E, Gorst, ¥.R.S.
Belfast +++ Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.
Southport Sir W de W. Abney, K.C.B.,

| RERAS:

Cambridge Bishop of Hereford, D.D.

‘

-+/J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory,
| W.M. Heller, Dr. C. W. Kimmins.

a

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES. Ixxvii

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place Lecturer

1842. Manchester | Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......

ifs alls) Cope ean o-hayn a (od lh pee pee a
|R. I. Murchison..,..........000..
S45, Cork ..:....:. | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
| Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........

DR EOULISON sronet ccs cence ces cad
1844. York...:..... Charles Lyell, F.RB.S. .........
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S............

1845. Cambridge |G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...

ton. Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
W. R. Grove, F.RB.S...........5.

1847. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......

Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....
1848. Swansea ...|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
1849, Birmingham) Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ............
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

1850. Edinburgh |Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Dr: Mantel, WOR.S;, ccccecsceas

Subject of Discourse

|

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.

|The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America,

.| The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik

Hills in India,

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.

Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetie Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the

minute vesselsof Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.

1851. Ipswich ...| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.RB.S.

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal

1852. Belfast...... Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

1853. Hull.........| Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Robert Hunt, F.R.S.............
1854, Liverpool...| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col, E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......

1855. Glasgow ...|Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R,S.

Distinction between Plants and
Animals, and their changes of
Form.

Total Solar Eclipse of July 28,
1851.

Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the

Geology and Physical Geography

of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of Researches in Terrestrial

Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

Lieut.-Col, H. Rawlinson

. | Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Ixxvili

REPORT—1904.

Date and Place

Lecturer

1856. Cheltenham Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
|

1857. Dublin......
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...

1860. Oxford......

1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath.........

1865. Birmingham
D

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee......

1868. Norwich

1869. Exeter ......

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ..,
1874. Belfast ......

W. R. Grove, F.R.S..

Prof. W. Thomson, F. ‘R. ae =
‘Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.

'Prof. J. Phillips, LL.

Prof. R. Owen, M.D.,

‘Sir R. I. Murchison,

|
|

Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.5.

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S

D.,F.R.S.
ERS.
D.C.L..

Captain Sherard Osborn, R. N.
1861. Rigpegesicr | ExCr. W.A. Miller, M, A., F.R.S.

. B. Airy, ¥.R.5
Sea

Prof. Tyndall, LL.D.,

Prof, Odling, F.R.S.

Prof. Williamson, F

James Glaisher, F.R.S......
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. ......000s

Dr. Livingstone, E.BS. 2 :
| J. Beete Jukes, F.R.

William Huggins, F.

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.
Archibald Geikie, F.

Alexander Herschel,

.../J. Fergusson, F.R.S.

Dr. W. Odling, F.R.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.
J. Norman Lockyer,

Prof, J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S,
Prof,W.J. Macquorn Rankine,

LL.D., F.R.S.

FP’. A. Abel, H.RiS..ce-s+ ue--s

EA Astron.
F.R.S.

ee eenn ewes

Reeser

Ee eeseae

F.R.A.S.

S..
Dz. ERS.
ERS.

His Be yon, Babwsey ssa) ieseeseas

Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,

F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford

Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.

Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.

Sir John Lubbock,B
F.R.S.

Prof, Huxley, F.R.S.

art.,M.P.,

eeeeeee

se eseeres

Subject of Discourse

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

...|Correlation of Physical Forces.
..|The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

.. Geology of the Northern Highlands,

...|Electrical Discharges in highly

rarefied Media.

..| Physical Constitution of the Sun,

| Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
‘ue late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

|

..|The Balloon Ascents made for the

| British Association.

..|The Chemical Action of Light.
.| Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Insular Floras.

The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.

.|Reverse Chemical Actions.

| Vesuvius.

.|The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.

The Scientific Use of the Imagination.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec
tion with Naval Architecture.

../ Some Recent Investigations and Ap-

plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

Coal and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES,

lxxix

Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1875. Bristol ......| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.|The Colours of Polarised Light.
F, J. Bramwell, F.R.S.......... Railway Safety Appliances,
1876. Glasgow ... Prof, Tait, F.R.S.H. ............| Horce,
j Sir Wyville Thomson, ERS. |The ‘ Challenger’ Expedition.
1877. Plymouth...) W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,| Physical Phenomena connected with

1878.

1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.

1883.

1884.

1885.

1886.
1887.
1888,

1889.

. Ipswich

Dublin

Sheffield ..

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.
Southport

Montreal...

Aberdeen...

Birmingham
Manchester

Newcastle-

upon-Tyne |

seenee

. Edinburgh

. Nottingham

.| W. Crookes, F.R.S. .......

F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S,.........64
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S..........
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S. ............

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.
Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.
Francis Galton, F.B.S..........
Prof. Huxley, Sec. It.8.

wm:

| W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....

Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S5.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.

Prot. Haioe ball tReet as on.
| Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.

Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....

John Murray, F.R.S.E.........

A, W. Riicker, M.A., ERS.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D: ...

Prof, H. B. Dixon, ERS.

Col. Sir F. de Winton .........

Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.RS.

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.

| Walter Gardiner, M.A.........

E. B, Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof, C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.

Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S.,F.G.8.

Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.

Prof. J. A. Ewing, M.A., F.RB.S.

Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.

Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.

J. W, Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.

.. Prof, 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
‘Prof. Perey F, Frankland,

F.R.S.

the Mines of Cornwalland Devon,
The New Element, Gallium.
Animal Intelligence.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

.| Radiant Matter.
.| Degeneration.
.| Primeval Man.

Mental Imagery.

The Rise and Progress of Paleon-
tology.

The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.

Tides.

Pelagic Life.

Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.

Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

Dust.

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.

The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.

.|The Great Ocean Basins.

Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.

.|The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

Explorations in Central Africa.

The Electrical Transmission of Power.

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applica-
tions.

Some Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Magnetic Induction.

Flame.

The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.

Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.

Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism.

Magnetism in Rotation.

The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments.

of

Ixxx

Date and Place

REPORT—1904..

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1896. Liverpool...) Dr. F. Elgar, F.R.S.............

1897.

1898.
1899.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

Toronto

see

seeeee

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...

Belfast

Southport

Cambridge

|Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
| B.R.S.

aie Milne: Stu stacsvens cos eee

Prof. J. Fleming, F.R.S. ......
|Prof F. Gotch, F.R.S.... ....
(Prof. Wy Sif0uds Sc: iiskcecce ese
Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......

Be Datwiny Wei. scsteskesecce

..| Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.RB.S....

Prof. W. F. R. Weidon, F.R.S.
Dr. R. Munro

Dr, ANROWG c2c.8.ncrtesaetoee
Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S....
Prof. H. F. Osborn

Safety in Ships.
Man before Writing.
Canada’s Metals.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes.

.| Funafuti: the Study of aCoral Island.

Phosphorescence.
La vibration nerveuse.
TheCentenary ofthe ElectricCurrent.

.| Animal Electricity.
| Range Finders.

The Inert Constituents
Atmosphere.

The Movements of Plants.

Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.

Inheritance.

Man as Artist and Sportsman in the
Paleolithic Period.

The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its
Teachings.

of the

|Ripple- Marks and Sand-Dunes,

|Palxontological Discoveries in the

Rocky Mountains.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

1867.
1868.
1869.

1870.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
1881,

1882.

1883.
1884.

1887, Manchester| Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S.

1888.

Dundee......
Norwich ...
Exeter

seeeee

Liverpool...
Brighton
Bradford ...
Belfast
Bristolizeescs
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
York

Southamp-
ton.

Southpor

Montreal ...

Bath

Subject of Discourse

Lecturer
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.
...| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prot. Odling, Wuliisircacseeiecs:
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

Commander Cameron,
W. H. Preece
Wi HgA VEtON ge ceeacecceecacae oss
H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............
Prof. Osborne Reynolds,

E.R.S.
John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.

oer Seer ee eee eee ey

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.

Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.

.|The modes of detecting the Com-

position of the Sun and other
Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum,
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
Fuel.
The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.

.| A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Electricity as a Motive Power.

The North-East Passage.

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

Alloys.
Electric Lighting.
The Customs of Savage Races.

1889. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.B. .........| The Forth Bridge.
upon-Tyne

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

ixxxi

Date and Place Lecturer . Subject of Discourse

1890. Leeds ...... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S. | Spinning Tops.

1891. Cardiff...... ‘Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. | Electricity in Mining.

1892. Edinburgh | Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.| Electric Spark Photographs.

1893. Nottingham Prof. Vivian B. Lewes......... |\Spontaneous Combustion,

1894. Oxford...... |Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...|Geologies and Deluges.

1895. Ipswich ...)Dr. A. H. Fison..........0008 os |Colour,

1896. Liverpool...| Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.8..../The Earth a Great Magnet.

1897. Toronto .-| Dr. H. O. Forbes ......s000-.4+5 ,..|New Guinea.

1898. Bristol......| Prof. E. B. Poulton, F. RS. The ways in which Animals Warn
their enemies and Signal to their

| friends.
1900. Bradford ...| Prof. 8. P. Thompson, ¥.R.S. Electricity in the Industries,
1901. Glasgow ...|H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... |The Movements of Men by Land
| and Sea.

1902. Belfast ... Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ......!Gnats and Mosquitoes.

1903, Southport |Dr.J. 8. Flett wc... eee! Martinique and St. Vincent: the
Eruptions of 1902.

1904, Cambridge |Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S. .........;The Forms of Mountains.

1904.

\xxxil ~ REPORT—1904. -

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING.

SECTION A,—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

President.—Prof. Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.; Sir John Eliot, K.C.1.E.,
F.R.S, ; Prof. A. R. Forsyth, F.R.S. ; Prof. J. J. Thomson, ¥.R.S.

Secretaries.—C. H. Lees, D.Sc. (Recorder) ; A. R. Hinks, M.A.; R. W.
H. T. Hudson, M.A.; W. J. S. Lockyer, Ph.D.; A. W. Porter,
B.Sc. ; W. C. D. Whetham, M.A., F.R.S.

SECTION B,—CHEMISTRY.
President.—Prof. Sydney Young, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. Sir James Dewar, F.R.S.; Dr. J. J. Dobbie,
F.R.S. ; Prof. W. N. Hartley, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S. (Zecorder) ; M. O. Forster, Ph.D. ;
Prof. G.G. Henderson, D.Sc. ; H. O. Jones, M.A.

SECTION C.— GEOLOGY.
Lresident.—Aubrey Strahan, M.A., F.R.S,
Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S.; J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S. ; Prof.
W. W. Watts, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Herbert L. Bowman, M.A. (Recorder) ; Rev. W. L. Carter,
M.A.; J. Lomas ; H. Woods, M.A.

SECTION D,—ZOOLOGY,
President.—William Bateson, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S.; W. E. Hoyle, D.be. ;
Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—J. Y. Simpson, D.Sc. (Recorder) ; J. H. Ashworth, D.Sc. ;
L, Doncaster, M.A. ; H. W. M. Tims, B.A., M.D.

SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY.
President.— Douglas W. Freshfield, F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Capt. E. W. Creak, C.B., R.N., F.R.S. ; F. H. H.

Guillemard, M.D. ; Colonel Sir C. Scott Moncrieff, R.E., K.C.M.G.,
C.S.L.

Secretaries.—Edward Heawood, M.A. (Recorder); A. J. Herbertson,
Ph.D. ; H. Yule Oldham, M.A. ; E. A. Reeves.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,
President.—Prof. William Smart, LL.D.
Vice-Presidents.—E. W. Brabrook, C.B.; Prof. H.S. Foxwell, M.A. ;
Prof. A. Marshall, LL.D.
Secretartes.— A. L. Bowley, M.A. (Recorder) ; J. E. Bidwell, M.A. ; Prof,
>. J.Chapman, M.A.; B, W. Ginsburg, M.A., LL.D,

a

OFFICERS OF COMMITTEES. lxxxiii

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President.—Hon. Charles A. Parsons, M.A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

Vice-Presidents.—Ool. R. E. Crompton, C.B., M.Inst.C.E. ; C. Hawksley,
M.Inst.C.E. ; Prof. B. Hopkinson, M.A.

Secretarves.—W. A. Price, M.A. (Recorder) ; W.T.Maccall, M.Sc. ; J. B.
Peace, M.A.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

President.—Henry Balfour, M.A.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. Macalister, F.R.S. ; Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A.;
Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—J. L. Myres, M.A. (Recorder) ; W. L. H. Duckworth, M.A. ;
E. N. Fallaize, M.A. ; H. 8. Kingsford, B.A.

SECTION I,— PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S.; Prof. W. D. Halliburton,
F.RS. ; Prof. J. N. Langley, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—J. Barcroft, M.A., B.Sc. (Recorder); Prof. T. G. Brodie,
M.D., F.R.S.; Dr. L. E. Shore.

SECTION K,—BOTANY,
President.—Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S.; W. Gardiner, F.B.S. ;
W. Somerville, D.S:.; Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.B.S.

Secretaries. —Harold Wager, F.R.S. (Recorder) ; Dr. F. F. Blackman,
M.A.; A.G. Tansley, M.A. ; T. B. Wood, M.A. ; R.H. Yapp, M.A.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Hereford, D.D., LL.D.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; Oscar Browning,
M.A. ; Rev. H. B. Gray, D.D. ; J. N. Keynes, D.Sc.

Secrelaries.—W. M. Heller, B.Sc. (Recorder); J. H. Flather, M.A. ;
Prof. R. A. Gregory ; C. W. Kimmins, M.A., D.Sc,

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The President and Vice-Presidents of the Meeting ; the Presidents of
former years ; the Trustees ; the General Treasurer ; the General and
Assistant General Secretaries ; Prof. Horace Lamb ; Sir John Eliot ;
Prof. J. J. Thomson ; Prof. Sydney Young ; Prof. W. J. Pope;
Aubrey Straham ; G. W. Lamplugh ; Dr. J. E. Marr ; W. Bateson :
Prof. 8. J. Hickson ; Dr. W. E. Hoyle ; Douglas W. Freshtield ;
Dr. J. 8. Keltie ; E. Heawood ; Prof. Wm. Smart ; E. W. Brabrook ;
Dr. E. Cannan ; Hon. Charles A. Parsons ; Col. Crompton ; W. A.
Price ; Henry Balfour ; E. 8. Hartland; J. L. Myres; Prof. C. S.
Sherrington ; Prof. Schafer ; J. Bareroft ; Francis Darwin ; Prof.
H. Marshall Ward; H. Wager; The Bishop of Hereford; Prof,
H. E. Armstrong ; W. M. Heller ; and Principal E. H. Griffiths.

bs ez

lxxxiv

REPORT—1904.

Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
1903-1904. RECEIPTS.
£ SiGe
Balance brought forward .....ssssssssseeeseeeneesaneeenersorseneesces Caue lt 4
Life Compositions (including Transfers) .seiseseqaseenonveanerme 423 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ...... Bonde oectaeademeeisccc2 222 0 O
Annual Subscriptions... ... EF Sec cdecuacdcutungeceteee onsen tee tent 559 0 0
Sale of Associates’ Tickets ......cssscssee seccetcerrecesecetseensssenrs 667 O O
Sale of Ladies’ Tickets ......sccccscsssscscccseresseecesssessvcnvesense 365 0 O
Sale of Publications ......scccccssscessccrsecesserencsentesesecesneres 127- 4 0
Dividend On Gonsols .......ccccssvescccesnccovetoedadeuesas s¥esulvne sede 155; 2 0
Dividend on India 8 per Cents. ....cseceeseseeeeeeeerereeneeetenees 103— 1-50
Interest On DepOSit...scccccserecseenseeneeneeeeree eters eneseeeneneenens 33 3 4
Income Tax Tepurned!..c tececcsneevccnsns vaste dates taslececstenes teaver 4717 4
Yo
al
tee
ae
yh
bg
ie
es ;
ee *
£3351. 9. 3
Investments.
£ 3. &
COnNOISig gs. cueesSeceincenk conten ticicses scones deoe ine 6501 10 5
India 3 per Cents. SALA SECS CADEGIDEROCE SIONUIDO 3600 0 0

£10,101 10 5
Sir Frederick Bramwell’s Gift, 2$ per Cent.

Self-cumulating Consolidated Stock ...... 58 8 5
£10,159 18 10

G. CAREY FOSTER, General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Ixxxv

from July 1, 1903, to June 30, 1904. Cr,
1903-1904. EXPENDITURE,
Syl tan ed
Expenses of Southport Meeting (including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &¢., &¢.) ........... PS Eh eedsexs 157 10 9
Rent and Office Expenses ...........sce0eeeee etre arcs stkvaveee i BALOON meen (2
Salariess &C. even eeadeesed dsanc< tatatedes Gli ac a see ae dsiawenaees ASsidesess 527 4 6
Brinn, pHINGIn S100-4 as owbwaapake isttarsiecscase seas aisleleppaincsoes » *262 10 7
Repair, &c., of Banners ............... “aC agpORES EEE CON ar kee sononcent 713 0
Committee on Coast Changes ..........sccsceceesseeeceveusens areas Le LAGS 'G
Payment of Grants made at Southport :
is. id.
Seismological Observations........20.cccccccssencecves 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means ‘of Kites 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Falmouth .........e esse eee 60 0 0
Wave-length Tables of Spectra...........cceeecevees von 0" 0° 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances ............ aaiste oe 25 0 0
Erratie Blocks...... Diveruiet cies aitahea’a duiciats ead. sniniataniaintea 10 0 0
Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks ............ 35 0 0
Fauna and Flora of the Trias .......... Seton 0). 0)
Investigation of Fossiliferous Drifts.... ohoaee 50 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ...........-.... 100 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium .............. 60 0 0
Development in the Frog ............65 teres ataiata sadeee LOD (0) 0
Researches on the Higher Crustacea ...........00e000 15 0 0
British and Foreign Statistics of International Trade Seon Ole
Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction ............65 909 0 0
Researches im) Oreter:cie's sisatsclaciacioate c ce, vivieie's so efakiteev ere 100 0 0
Researches in Glastonbury Lake Village elohe'al o uistetetaintae! © 25 0 0
Anthropometric Investigation on Egyptian tee suse | Sako:,.0
Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain ........ niatpeteledta 25 0 0
The State of Solution of Proteids eo P20... 0
Metabolism of Individual Tissues. awe 40" 0: 0
Botanical Photographs ......... 4 811
Respir AMON! OF PLAN tai tials wycolclee > oveels cieialanreaass wale otete 15 0 0
ixperimental Studies in Heredity ki pic tahevilaiisis See ne 35 0 0
Corresponding Societies Committee.......... eteemee SP2Oe oO

887 18 11
1941 8 5

On deposit at Bradford District Bank......... £1027 13 4

Balance at Bank of England
(Western Branch) .....,......... £627 11 8

Less Cheques not presented ...... 247 18 11

Qashi in han disses eoccarvassk < eed Meets oe a ell
1410 010

£3351 9 3

* Exclusive of an outstanding Printing Bill of about £1,000,

Ihave examined the above Account with the books and vouchers of the Associa
tion, and certify the same to be correct. I have also verified the balance at the
Bankers’, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names
of the Trustees,

W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,
Approved— 3 Church Court, Old Jewry, E.C,
EH. W. BRABROOK, 5 July 28, 1904.
L. L. Price, } Auditors, Y

Ixxxvl REPORT— 1904,
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Dateotseting | Where het President ia te | er Te
1831, Sept. 27...... Di ae ere e ....| The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.O.L.. F.R.S =< —
1832, June 19...... Oxford. ...;; ..| The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. ......... —_ =
1833, June 25...,.,) Cambridge ..| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. eel = a
1834, Sept. 8 . Edinburgh ... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., E.R ee ne acs
1835, Aug. 10.,....) Dublin ..... . The Rey. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F, Se ‘s. — —_
1836, Aug. 22. Bristol .. ., The Marquis of Lansdow ne, F.R.S.. —_ —
1837, Sept. 11, Liverpool ....... ..| The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S. i =
1838, Aug. 10...... Newcastle-on-Tyne...| The Duke of Northumberland, FRSA — —
1839, Ang. 26...... | Birmingham .| The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R. — —
1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow........ . The Marquis of Breadalbane, ERS. _ —
1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth .. .| The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ......... 169 65
1842, June 23, ..,) Manchester ..| The Lor d Francis Egerton, Ae Gas: e.. 303 169
1843, Aug. 17...... WGork 20. ..| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...... 109 28
1844, Sept. 26 Monk, S53 "| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.RS._ 226 150
1845, June 19.,,...) Cambridge ..... . Sir John BP. W. Herschel, Bart., PRS. 313 36
1846, Sept. 10 ...| Southampton Sir Roderick L.Murchison,Bart.. FBS. 241 10
1847, June 23 ..,... Oxford ..... . Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S. ... 314 H 18
1848, Aug. 9 ...... Swansea........ .. TheMarquis of Northampton, Pres.R.8., 149 | 3
1849, Sept. 12...... birmingham . The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. F.R.8.) 227 | 12
1850, July 21 ..,...| Edinburgh Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S....... 235 9
1851, July 2 Ipswich ,.... .. G. B, Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. 172 8
1852, Sept.1 . Belfast .. . Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ......... 164 10
1853, Sept.3 ...... 127) Sa ... William Hopkins, F.R.S........ 141 13
1854, Sept. 20 ......| Liverpool ... The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238 23
1855, Sept. 12..,...| Glasgow..... .. The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. .... 194 33
1856, Aug.6 ...... Cheltenham ..| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.... 182 14
1857, Aug. 26 ...... Dublin ..... "| ‘The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., ERS. ...... 236 15
1858, Sept. 22 ...... Leeds.., .... . Richard Owen, M.D., D. 6. L., F.B.S.. 222 | 42
1859, Sept. 14...... Aberdeen .. ... H.R.H. The Prince Consort cae 184 27
1860, June 27 ...... Oxford)... ... The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. ... 286 21
1861, Sept. 4 ...... Manchester ., .. William Fairbairn, LL.D., I’.R.8....... 321 113
1862,Oct. 1 .é.... ; Cambridge ........... The Rey. Professor Willis, M.A. JE.R.S.| 239 15
1863, Aug. Neweastle-on-Tyne.,., SirWilliam G. Armstrong.0.B., PDRS.| 203 36
1864, Sept. 17] .. Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M. A, ERS. 287 40
1865, Sept. Birmingham,, ..| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D., F-RS. 292 44
1866, Aug. 22...... | Nottingham.,, ... William R. Grove, Q. C., F.RB.S.. 207 31
1867, Sept. 4 ......) Dundee ..,...... .| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B PF, RS. 167 25
1868, Aug.19...... Norwich .., Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. ......... 196 18
1869, Aug. 18 .,,... Exeter ..| Prof. G. G, Stokes, D.O.L., BRB sce 204 21
1870, Sept. .| Liverpool .. .| Prof. T. H, Huxley, LL.D., F.R.8. 314 39
1871, Aug. Edinburgh Prof. Sir W. Thomson, ie; D., F.R. $1 246 28
1872, Aug. Brighton .. ., Dr. W. B. Carpenter, ERS. 245 36
1873, Sept. Bradford ., as| Prot. As W. Williamson, F. 212 27
1874, Aug. Belfast ..... .| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.s 162 13
1875, Aug. 25 ...... | Bristol ..... Sir John Hawkshaw, FERS 239 | 36
1876, Sepi.6 ...... Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, MD ee aE Rs 221 35
1877, Aug. 15..,...) Plymouth... oh enor, As Thomson, M.D., F.R,. 173 | 19
1878, Aug. | Dublin .. .| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., ERS 201 18
1879, Aug. Sheffield... .| Prof. G. J. Allman, ar hans 184 16
1880, Aug. Swansea. . ...| A. O. Ramsay, LL.D., os hs 144 ll
1881, Aug. RPLOne ee .| Sir John Lubbock, ae a 272 28
1882, Aug. | Southampton . pan OC. We Siemens F.R.S. 178 17
1883, Sept.19......) Southport .... ‘| Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., FR. . 203 60
1884, Aug. 27 Montreal .. ...| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F. R. - 235 20
1885, Sept.9 ....., Aberdeen .. .| Sir Lyon Playfair, K. ” B., F 225 18
1886, Sept. 1 ....., Birmingham Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F. 314 25
1887, Aug. 31....., | Manchester — .| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D. O.L., F. 428 86
BRS SOD ID 5... SabH. ecas-yspsemeecmeaee Sir F, J. Bramwell, F.R.S. : 266 36
1889, Sept. 11......| ‘| Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B., F.R.S 277 20
1890, Sept. 3 ...... .| Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S. 259 21
1891, Aug. 19 ....,, Dr. W. Huggins, F-R.S. ; 189 24
1892, Aug.3 ...... || Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.B.S. ee 280 14
1893, Sept. 13....., “| Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S, 201 17
1894, Aug. 8 .....,) Oxford’ ....... ..| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F.R.S. 327 21
1895, Sept. 11....,, ..| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S. 214 13
1896, Sept. 16...... "| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R.S 330 31
1897, Aug. 18....., ..| Sir John Evans, K.C. B., ER. Bae 120 8
1898, Sept.7 ...... ec] SLE Wis OFOOKES Hi bese oe 6 araace see ae 281 | 19
1899, Sept. 13......| Dover..... | Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.,Sec.R.S..... 296 | 20
1900, Sept. 5 ....., Bradford Sir William Turner, D.O.L. » ERS. ..: 267 13
1901, Sept. 11..,... Glasgow.. ..| Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.S. 310 37
1902, Sept. 10....., Belfast ..... .| Prof. J. Dewar, LL. 20% TRG: eee 243 21
1903, Sept. 9 ..,.., Southport ., “| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.O.B., PRS. 250 21
1904, Aug. 17......) Cambridge .| Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S 419 32

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.

(

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS,

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

}
|

\
)
|
|
j
:

i

|

ola |! New | | Amount Grants
Annual | Annual ae | Ladies Foreigners Total Pacey ata tor Scientific,
Members Members i | | “Me sah nf Purposes
st = a — 353 =
FF wil) nee — — 22 900 = — |
= = = | eles = 1298 = £20 0 0
—_ — —_— / — — _— _— 167 0 0
— = — - — 1350 = 435 0 0
ait taity t= = — = 1840 = 92212 6
= 1s ieee Es 1100* _ 2400 = 932 2. 2
6 | oe z = 34 1438 By 1595 11 0 |
= ae — — 40 1353 zt 1546 16 4
46 317 = 60* = 891 a 1235 10 11 |
75 376 33+ 331% 28 1315 = 1449 17 8
| (185 = 160 = = = 1565 10 2 |
45 190 oF 260 = a = 98112 8 |
94 | 22 407 172 35 1079 a 831 9 9 |
65 Ci 39 270 196 36 857 = 685 16 0
197 40 495 203 53 1320 = 208 5 4 |
54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0| 275 1 8
B2, i 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0) 15919 6 |
198 42 510 273 44 1241 108 0 0) 34518 0
61 | 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0 391 9 7
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0, 304 6 7
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0
Ee fees EN 765 524 10 1802 —«1gg2 0 0 «638019 7
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 «29311 0 0 48016 4
104 48 412 346 9 1115= 1098 0 0 73413 9
156 120 900 569 26 2022 «2015 «0 0 50715 4
1 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 61818 2
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 68411 1
wae | 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 76619 6
ioe fi) 125 1589 791 15 3138 | 3944 0 0 1111 510]
150 | 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 129316 6 |
154 | = 209 1704 1004 25 333 3640 0 0 1608 310
182 | 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 O 128915 8 |
215 | 149 766 508 23 1997 | 2297 0 0 1591 7 10 |
218 105 960 | 771 ll 2303 2469 0 0 175013 4
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 «96138 0 «0 «+1739 4 0
go =| 117 720 682 45t 2004 «= 2042:«)SsOs«d1940 0 0
299 | 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0 1622 0 0|
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 ©3096 0 0 1572 0 O
311 197 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0 1472.2 6
280 80 937 912 43 2533 «9649 0 0 1285 0. 0,
237 99 796 601 11 1983 =-2120 0 0 «1685 (0 0
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0 115116 0
307 93 884 672 17 2248 «©9397 0 0. 960 0 0
331 185 165 | 712 25 2774 3023 0 0 1092 4 2|
238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0 1128 9 7 |
290 93. | 1985 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 72516 6}
239 74 529 349 13 1404-1425 0 «(0 «(1080 11 11 |
tri. | 41 389 147 12 915 399 0 0 731 7 7 |
313 176 1230 | 514 24 2557 2689 0 0 476 8 1)
2538 79 516 189 21 1253 1986 0 0 1126 111 |
330 323 952 841 5 2714 ++ - 3369: «0 0 1083 3 3 |
317 219 826 74 26&60H.$ 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 «2256 «0 0 1385 0 0°
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 ©2532 0 0 995 0 6 |
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 «0 0 1186 18 0 |
399 100 | 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0 1511 0 5 |
412 113° | 1024 579 21 2437 |2441 0 0| 1417 011]
368 92 680 334 12 1775 | (1776 «0 0} 78916 8 |
341 152 672 107 35 1497 «1664 0 0 102910 0|
413 | 141 733 439 50 2070 «= 2007:«0 «0s 864.10 0 |
328 57 773 268 17 1661 | «1653 0 0 90715 6)
435 | 69 941 451 77 2321 | 2175 0 0/| 58315 6
290 3 493 261 22 1324 «1986 0 0| 97715 5 |
383189 1384 873 41 3181 | 3228 Q 0/1194 6 1}
286 {125 | 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0 105910 8
327 96 1051 639 33 2446 «©9399 0 0 1212 0 0)
324 | 68 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 0 143014 2 |
297 45 801 482 9 | 1915 | 1801 0 0, 107210 0}
374 131 794 246 20 | 1912 | 204 0 0| 945 0 0}
314 86 647 305 6 | 1620 | 1644 0 0; 947 0. 0|
319 90 688 365 21 | 1754 | 1762 0 0) 845 13 2]
449 113 1338 | 317 121 | «2789 | 2650 0 0 | 887 18.11 |

Ixxxvii

Year

1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1845
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1843
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1892
1899
1900
1901
1962
1903
1904

} Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon, Members for this Meeting

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1904-1905.

PRESIDENT.
Tur Ricur Hon. A. J. BALFOUR, D.O.L., LL.D., M.P., F.B.S., Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh,

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

His Grace the DUKE oF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., LL.D.,
F.R.S., Ohancellor of the University of Cam-
bridge.

ALEXANDER PECKOVER, LL.D., Lord Lieutenant
of Cambridgeshire,

ARTHUR HAtLt, “M.A. D.L., High Sheriff of Cam-
bridgeshire and Huntingdonshire.

The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHor or Ey, D.D.

The Right Hon, Lonrp WALSINGHAM, LL.D.,
F.R.S., High Steward of the University of
Cambridge,

The acne Hon. Lorp Rayi4icH, D.C.L., LL.D.,

The unit Hon, Lorp KELvin, G.C.V.O., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S

| The Rev. F, H. CHASE, D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the
University and President of Queens’ College,
| Cambridge.
| The Very Rev. H. Monracu Butrer, D.D., Matter
| of Trinity.

Mrs, Sip@wick, Principal of Newnham Oollege,
| Cambridge.
| J. H, OHESSHYRE DALTON, M.D., Mayor of Cam-
| bridge.

ROBERT STEPHENSON, Ohairman of the Oambridge-
shire County Council.
| JosEPH Martin, Chairman of the Isle of Ely
| County Council.

| P. H. Youne, Deputy Mayor of Cambridge.

PRESIDENT ELECT,

Professor G. H, DARWIN,

M.A., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S,

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT,

His Excellency the Right Hon. Lorn MILNER,
G.C.B., G.O.M.G., High Oommissioner for
South Africa.

The Hon. Sir Waurer F. Hety-HvUTCHINSON,
G.C.M.G., Governor of Cape Colony.

Colonel Sir Henry E, McCa.uum, K.C.M.G.,, R.E.,
Governor of Natal.

Captain the Hon. Sir ARTHUR LAWLEY, K.C.M.G.,
Lientenant-Governor, Transvaal.

Major Sir H. J. Gootp-Apams, K.C.M.G., Lieu-
tenant-Governor, Orange River Colony.

Sir W. H. Miron, K.C.M.G., Administrator of
Southern Rhodesia.

Sir CHaries H, T, Mercatre, Bart., M.A.
Sir DAvip GILL, K.O.B., LL.D., F.R.S.
THEODORE REUNERT, M.Inst.C.E.

The Mayor oF Carr Town.

The MAYoR OF JOHANNESBURG,

The PRESIDENT OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
OF SouTH AFRICA.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JoHN PERRY, D.Sc., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Major P, A. MacMAnHOoN, R.A., D.Se., F.R.S.

| Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sce., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
A. SILvA WHITE, Burlington House, London, W.

CENTRAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE FOR SOUTH AFRICA,

Sir Davin Gi, K.O.B., F.R.S,, Ohairman.

J. D. F. Gincunrist, M.A., Ph.D., B.Se., Secretary.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

ABNEY, Sir W., K.C.B., F.R.S.
ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
Bonank, J., LL.D.

Bournkg, G. O., D.Sc.

Bower, Professor F. O., F.R.S.
BRABROOK, E. W., C.B.
Brown, Dr. HorAcr T., F.R.S.

CALLENDAR, Professor H. L., F.R.S,
CUNNINGHAM, Professor D. J.. f F.RS.
DARWIN, Major L., Sec. R.G.S.
GotcH, Professor F., F.R.S,
Happoy, Dr. A. O., F.R.S.
HAWESLEY, C., M.Inst.C.E,

HiccGs, Henry, LL.B.
LANGLEY, Professor J. N., F.R.
MACALISTER, Professor A,, F.R.!

| McKenrnick, Professor J. G., PR
MACKINDER, H. J., M.A.
Nos re, Sir Ae Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S.
PERKIN, Professor W. H., F.R.S.

{ SEwaArpD, A. O., F.R.S.
Suaw, Dr. W.N., F.R.S.
SHIPLEY, A. E., F.R.S.
Warts, Professor W. W., F.R.S.
Woopwarp, Dr. A. SMITH, F.R.S,

Ss.
S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Viee-Presidents Elect, the General and ‘Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for
the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord Avegury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D. C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Sir ARTHUR W. Ricker, M.A., D.Sc., ERS.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

Sir Joseph D. Hooker, G.C.S.1. ) Sir Archibald Geikie, Sec.R.S. | Sir Michael Foster, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S. Prof. Sir J.S. Burdon Sanderson, | Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S, Bart., F.R.S. | Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S. | Sir J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S.

Sir H. £. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S, Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,
SirWm. Huggins, K.O.B., Pres. Sir William Crookes, F.R.S. | BRS.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, D.O.L., P.R.S.

'. Gal a Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.,F.R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.
P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S, Sir A, W. Riicker, D. Se., F.R.S, Dr. J. G. Garson.

| Prof. E, A, Schiifer, F.R. Ss. l

AUDITORS.

E. W. Brabrook, Esq., O.B. | H, Higgs, Esq., LL.B.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxix

Report of the Council for the Year 1903-1904, presented to the General
Committee at Cambridge on Wednesday, August 17, 1904.

The Trustees of the Association having consented to act as Trustees
for the sum of 50/., presented to the Association by the late Sir Frederick
Bramwell, to provide for a report being prepared and presented at the
Centenary Meeting of the Association ‘dealing with the whole question
of Prime Movers in 1931, and especially with the relation between
steam engines and internal-combustion engines,’ the money has been
invested, in accordance with the suggestion made by Sir Frederick Bram-
well, in 24 per cent. self-cumulative Consols. .

The’ following resolutions having been referred to the Council by the
General Committee for consideration, and action if desirable :—

1. The Committee of Section A, having received a communication from
the International Meteorologicai Committee, is of opinion that the intro-
duction of international uniformity in the units adopted for the records of
Meteorological observations would be of great practical advantage to science,
and that the Council be requested to take such steps as they may think fit
toward giving effect to the resolution :—

the Council appointed a Committee, consisting of Lord Rayleigh, Dr.
W.N. Shaw, Dr. R. H. Scott, Mr. C. V. Boys, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
Professor Schuster, the President, and the General Officers, to report
thereon.

The Council concur with the Committee in recommending that the
process of arriving, if possible, at a general agreement as to the use of
common units should be :—

(1) To prepare a statement of the considerations which ‘would guide
the choice of units ;

(2) To ascertain whether the meteorological authorities in this country
would entertain proposals to select units on these considerations ;

(3) To ascertain whether (a) India, (b) the Colonial Organisations,
would entertain similar proposals ;

(4) To approach the United States upon the matter ;

(5) To consult the meteorological organisations of foreign countries ;
and finally

(6) To report the proceedings to the Association of Academies with a
view to the adoption of a general system.

It would be desirable for the United States to be kept informed of
the proceedings from the time that it is ascertained that the meteoro-
logical organisations of this country are willing to consider the matter,
but it is not desirable to challenge a categorical reply until the attitude
of the Colonies and dependencies is known.

A memorandum in accordance with recommendation (1) has been
drawn up as a basis for discussion. The Meteorological Council, having
already expressed a favourable opinion upon it from that point of view,
the Council are taking steps to ascertain the views of the various authori-
ties in the manner indicated in the foregoing paragraph, and it is hoped

Eee st _ REPORT—1904.

that arrangements will be made for a discussion of the subject in
Section A at Cambridge.

2. That the Council be asked to consider the desirability of permitting the

publication of the whole of the Sectional Programmes in the daily Journal

at as early a date as possible. !
3. That it is desirable that further steps should be taken to make the

Reports of Committees (as distinguished from papers) communicated to the
Association more accessible to the general public by the provision of Indices
to the published volumes and otherwise; and that the Council be asked to
consider the conditions upon which reports of Committees and Proceedings of
Sections miglit be published if required:

the Council appointed a Committee, consisting of Dr. Scott Keltie, Pro-
fessor R. Meldola, Professor Perry, Professor W. W. Watts, the President,
and the General Officers, to report on this matter.

The Council recommend—

(1) That the names of Members of the Sectional Committees be printed
‘solid ’—7.e. in continuous lines, and that additional names of Members
elected during the meeting be added successively, at the end of the list
printed in the Journal of the previous day.

(2) That the whole programme, so far as settled, of the proceedings of
each Section be printed in the Journal issued on Thursday and each suc-
cessive morning. The Recorders of Sections should be asked to furnish
the programmes of their respective Sections several days before the com-
mencement of the Meeting.

(3) That the publication of the list of papers read the previous day be
discontinued.

(4) That the changes suggested in the publication of the reports be
not adopted, the existing indices being sufficient for the present.

The Council desire to draw attention to the fact that two volumes of
‘Indices ’—namely, from 1831 to 1860, and from 1861 to 1890—have
already been published and are on sale.

4, That the Sectional Committees be continued in existence until the new
Sectional Committees are appointed, and be authorised to bring to the notice
of the Council in the interval between the Annual Meetings of the Association
any matter on which the action of the Council may be desired in the interests
of the several Sections, and that a Committee may be summoned at any time
by the President of the Section, or by the Council :

the Council, having considered the resolution, recommend that it he
referred to the Committee of Recommendations.

5. That the Council be requested to consider the desirability of urging
upon the Government, by a deputation to the First Lord of the Treasury or
otherwise, the importance of increased national provision being made for
University Education :

the Council considered the matter at a Special Meeting, when it was
resolved :—

‘ That the President be requested to approach the various Universities
aud University Colleges, and to inquire (1) whether they would be willing
to join in organising a deputation to the Prime Minister to ask for
increased help to such institutions from Government funds ; (2) whether
they would each appoint representatives to a Joint Committee to organise
such a deputation, it being understood that the deputation will consist

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. x¢ci

not merely of representatives of Universities, but of all those interested
in the objects which it will be the aim of the deputation to secure.’

The communication made in pursuance of the foregoing resolution by
the President to the various universities, university colleges, and large
organisations interested in educational science, was replied to so favour-
ably by them that steps were taken to organise a deputation to the
First Lord of the Treasury.

A large and distinguished deputation, including representatives of all
the universities, university colleges, and many county, municipal, and
other educational authorities in the United Kingdom, was received by the
Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the Exchequer also being present, on
July 15, at the House of Commons. Prior to the deputation a memo-
randum had been drawn up by the President, and agreed to by the
representatives of the principal universities, pointing out the necessity
of a new departure on the part of the Government in relation to State
Aid for Universities. This memorandum was forwarded to Mr. Balfour
some days before the date of the deputation. The deputation was intro-
duced by Sir Norman Lockyer. Mr. Peiham (representing Oxford)
and Dr. Chase (Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge), on behalf of the older
universities, and Mr. Chamberlain (Chancellor of the University of
Birmingham), on behalf of the newer universities, addressed the Prime
Minister, pointing out the need for much more liberal State aid being
granted for purposes of higher education. Sir W. H. White and Sir W.
Ramsay spoke of the importance of endowment of university teaching in
relation to the application of science to the industries of the country.
Sir R. Jebb mentioned the needs of the Humanity departments of
universities. Sir Henry Roscoe discussed the importance of original
research and its infiuence on our national well-being. Mr. A. Mosely,
C.B., pointed out what was being done in other countries in practical
university training for commercial and industrial life. Mr. Bell, M.P.,
spoke of the importance of university training being put within the
reach, as regards expense, of the most promising minds in all classes of
the community, so as to widen the area of selection for the higher
activities of the nation.

Mr. Balfour, in reply to the deputation, said that he did not suppose
there had ever been congregated in one chamber so many representatives
of learning in this country, and hoped that they would forgive him if he
did not wholly rise to the expectations formed of the answer he had to
give on behalf of the Government. The words of his which had been
quoted would, he hoped, absolve him from the necessity of again express-
ing sympathy with what he took to be the main object of the deputation.
Though it has been said that we have failen far behind at least two great
countries in our national education, he absolutely denied that there is the
smallest sign that in the production of the germinating ideas of science
we have shown any inferiority. Germany has for many generations
pursued the State-endowing process of applying science to industry, and
in this we are far behind. The system of thought in Germany, the habits
of the people, and the Government, in this respect place them at great
advantage as compared to us, as far as endowment of universities can
help a naticn in the industrial struggle. But the mere endowment of
universities will not, he thought, add greatly to the output of original
work of the first quality.. It will provide an education which will render

xell REPORT—1904.

fit for industrial work persons who, without university education, would
be very ill-equipped indeed. He concurred with all the speakers that
there is a great financial need, both in the old and new universities, for
help towards this object. But there is a still greater need—namely, that
capitalists should recognise the necessity of giving employment to those
whom the universities turn out. There is some evidence to show that
shipbuilders and manufacturers prefer the future captains of industry to
begin work early in life in the old way. He thought they were wrong,
but they must be convinced that they are wrong, otherwise there will be
no advantage in turning out qualified students if employers are content
to use the man who acquires his training by actual day-to-day labour,
but is not qualified in the higher scientific attainments which are more
and more becoming necessary. Another thing we want is the creation of
positions which will enable a man who has exceptional gifts of originality
in science to devote his life to the subjects of his predilection, so as not
to be driven to another kind of life in which he will not be able to render
the full service of which he is capable to his country. In Germany such
positions, which must in the main be attached to the universities, are
more numerous than in this country. He could conceive no more
admirable use of any funds which the universities can command than
the increase of such positions. Having dealt with the more general
aspects of the problem presented by the various speakers, he desired
to leave it to the Chancellor of the Exchequer to speak upon the
more practical question of what the Government can do and what it
cannot do.

The Chancellor of the Exchequer said that he wished to express his
interest in the work of universities, and recognised the larger part they
were likely to play in our national development in the future. He con-
sidered it would be a misfortune if it were to be thought that it was the
duty of the State to take upon itself the whole or main cost of the higher
education of the country, or if the State were to come into such relations
towards university education as it occupies towards elementary education.
He must bid them consider what control the State would have to exercise,
and what restrictions it might feel called upon to impose if it ever took
on itself the duty of supplying to the universities such large grants as had
been suggested. State aid must always be accompanied by State control,
and it was, he thought, dangerous for the higher education of the country
thatat should have to conform itself, for the purpose of obtaining grants,
to rules and regulations laid down by the Treasury. It would be not less
disastrous in the interests of higher education if anything were done to
relieve patriotic citizens of that sense of the importance of supporting
higher education by voluntary endowment and subscription. The Govern-
ment had not stinted their contributions to education as a whole. They
had been spending large sums on primary and secondary education, which
was a necessary equipment for any student who wished to make profitable
use of the facilities the universities granted. The Government had shown
their interest in universities this year by proposing to Parliament to
double the grant recently given to university colleges, and had expressed
a hope that in the coming year they might be able again to raise that
sum so as, in round figures, to double it once more. We are not enjoy-
ing one of those periods of prosperity when the Treasury could afford to
be generous without having to place fresh burdens on the taxpayer.
Whatever the claims of university education to further assistance, they

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. x¢lil

must wait further development until the finances of the country are in an
easier position. Beyond what he had stated it would be impossible to
make in the next financial year further large contributions to university
education. He thought that it would be of some assistance if universities
would meanwhile consider to what extent they were willing to come under
control if they received grants, to what extent the State was to have a
voice in fixing the fees of students, and to what extent it was to direct
or influence teaching, whether it was to allocate its assistance to promote
special branches of study, or whether it was desired to make every
university complete in itself.

Since the date of the deputation the President has been in corres-
pondence with representatives of the universities, and he has reported
that the Deputation Committee will probably hold another meeting in
order to obtain further information from the universities to be laid before
the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

The work of organising this deputation involved an amount of clerical
work beyond the ordinary strength of the office, and special assistance
had to be obtained for the purpose. Considerable expense has also been
incurred in preparing and printing reports of the several meetings and
conferences which have been held. <A portion of the expenses falls into
this year’s accounts, and are included in the Treasurer’s account.

In response to a Sectional resolution received too late for presentation
to the General Committee last year requesting ‘that the attention of the
Council be called to the inconvenience which is caused to the Sections by
gentlemen accepting the oftice of Vice-President neither appearing at the
meeting nor sending a timely notice of their inability to do so,’ the
Council has resolved that gentlemen nominated as Vice-Presidents of
Sections shall be informed that their attendance at the meeting for which
they are nominated is expected.

The Council also recommend that each Sectional Committee shall
have power to elect not more than three Vice-Presidents at any time
during the meeting, in addition to those nominated by the Council
and elected by the General Committee, and that the rules be altered
accordingly.

Arrangements for the South African meeting in 1905 have received
much attention during the year from a Committee of Council appointed
for the purpose. The general arrangements for the meeting, which were
preliminarily announced last year, have been confirmed, namely, that the
first half of the meeting be held at Cape Town and the second half at
Johannesburg, and that official visits of the Association be made to Natal
and the Orange River Colony, in each of which Colonies one or more dis-
courses will be delivered by prominent members of the Association. It
has been found that the most convenient date for the meeting to open at
Cape Town would be August 15, so that members starting for South Africa
at the end of July could spend at least three weeks in the Colonies, and be
back in England by the end of September.

__ An Additional Expenses Fund has been opened to supplement the
subsidy to be given by the Colonial Governments of South Africa towards
defraying the cost of the meeting, and subscriptions to the amount of
1,650. have been received or promised. The Council hope that a con-
siderably larger sum may be forthcoming during the ensuing year, so as

to secure a thoroughly representative meeting in the Colonies of South
Africa,

civ RePoRT—1904.

The Council have considered what alterations, if any, it wiay be desirable
to make in the transaction of business at the South African meeting in
consequence of the exceptional distance. They are of opinion that little
alteration will be necessary in the custom other than that previously
mentioned, and that no changes need be proposed in the written laws of
the Association. There will, however, be difficulties in fixing the place of
meeting for 1907, and the date of that in 1906, for delegates from the
towns concerned could not be expected to attend. It may also be felt
that members who are unable to leave the United Kingdom ought to have
the opportunity of voting on these points, and on the election of the
President and Officers for 1906. The Council therefore recommend that the
General Committee hold only two meetings in South Africa, one at Cape
Town and the other at Johannesburg, and an adjourned meeting at some
convenient place in London on some day to be hereafter fixed towards the
end of the month of October 1905.

An invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association in 1906
will be presented from York. A letter has been received from the Lord
Mayor and the Chancellor of the University of Melbourne expressing the -
strong desire of the Colony of Victoria that a meeting of the British
Association may be held in Melbourne at a convenient date.

The Council nominate as additional Vice-Presidents of the Associa-
tion for the Cambridge Meeting :—

His Grace the Duke of Devonshire,
K.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Chancellor of the
University of Cambridge.

Arthur Hall, Esq, M.A., D.L., High
Sheriff of Cambridgeshire and Hunts.
The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Ely,

D.D.

The Right Hon. Lord Walsingham,
LL.D., F.R.S., High Steward of the
University of Cambridge.

The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

The Right Hon. Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O.,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S.

The Right Rev. H. Montagu Butler, D.D.,
Master of Trinity.

Mrs. Henry Sidgwick,
Newnham College.

J. H. Chesshyre Dalton, Esq., M.D.,
Mayor of Cambridge.

Robert Stephenson, Esq., Chairman of the
Cambridgeshire County Council.

Joseph Martin, Esq., Chairman of the
Isle of Ely County Council.

Principal -of

The Council nominate as Sectional Officers the various gentlemen
whose names appear on the programme of the Cambridge Meeting.

The Council nominate Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S., Chairman,
Dr. Tempest Anderson, Vice-Chairman, and Mr. I’, W. Rudler, Secretary
of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to be held
during the Cambridge Meeting.

A Report has been received from the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, together with the list of the Corresponding Societies and the
titles of the more important papers, especially of those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by the Societies during the year ending
May 31, 1903.

The Council nominate for election as the Corresponding Societies
Committee for the ensuing year the following members :—Mr.
W. Whitaker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Rudler (Secretary), Rev. J. O.
Bevan, Dr. Horace T. Brown, Dr. Vaughan Cornish, Principal
EH. Griffiths, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
R. Meldola, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr. C. H. Read, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
Professor W. W. Watts, and the General Officers of the Association.

The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer during

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xev"

the past year, and his accounts from July 1, 1903, to June 30, 1904,
have been audited and are presented to the General Committee.

The Council having been informed by Dr. G. Carey Foster that he
does not intend to offer himself for re-election as General Treasurer at
the Cambridge meeting, desire to put on record an expression of their
high appreciation of the value of the services rendered to the Association
by him, and their great regret that he feels it needful to resign.

The Council recommend that Professor John Perry, F.R.S., be
appointed General Treasurer in succession to Dr. G. Carey Foster. The
confirmation of this recommendation will cause a vacancy on the Council.

In accordance with the regulations the retiring members of the Council
will be as follows :—By seniority, Dr. J. Scott Keltie, Mr. L. L. Price,
and Professor W. A. Tilden ; by least attendance, Professor G. B. Howes
and Sir J. Wolfe-Barry (resigned in November last).

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

Abney, Sir W., K.C.B., F.B.S. *Higgs, Henry, Esq., LL.B.
Armstrong, Professor H. E., F.RS. *Langley, Professor J. N., F.R.S.
Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D. Macalister, Professor A., l’.R.S.
Bourne, G. C., Esq., D.Sc. McKendrick, Professor J.G., F.R.S.
Bower, Professor F. O., F.R.S. *Mackinder, H. J., Esq., M.A.
Brabrook, E. W., Esq., C.B. Noble, Sir A., Bart., K.C.B., F.8.S.
*Brown, Dr. Horace T., F.B.S. Perkin, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Callendar, Professor H. L., F.RS.. Seward, A. C., Esq., F.R.S.
Cunningham, Professor D. J., F.R.S. *Shaw, Dr. W.N., F.RB.S.

Darwin, Major L., Sec. R.G.S. *Shipley, A. E., Esq., F.R.S.

Gotch, Professor F., F.R.S. Watts, Professor W. W., F.B.S.
Haddon, Dr. A. C., F.R.S. Woodward, Dr. A. Smith, F.R.S.

_ Hawksley, C., Esq., M.Inst.C.E.

The following claims for admission to the General Committee have
been allowed by the Council :—

8. Monckton Copeman, M.D., F.R.S.
F. W, Edridge-Green, M.D., F.R.C.S.
William J. 8. Lockyer, Ph.D.

John Morrow, M.Sc.

A. B. Rendle, M.A., D.Sc.

Alfred R, Sennett.

xcvl REPORT—1904.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
CamBpripGe Meeting 1N AuGusr 1904.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

|

| Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

|

| Section A—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

| Making Experiments for improv- | Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.

ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.

Seismological Observations.

To co-operate with the Royal
Meteorological Society in ini-
tiating an Investigation of the

of Kites.

To co-operate with the Committee
of the Falmouth Observatory
in their Magnetic Observations.

Upper Atmosphere by means ©

Secretary.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E.

Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and G. Carey Foster, Sir Oliver
Lodge, Dr. A. Muirhead,
Sir W. H. Preece, Professor
A. Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming,
Professor J. J. Thomson, Dr.
W. N. Shaw, Dr. J. T. Bot-
tomley, Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick,
Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Pro-

fessor 8, P. Thompson, Mr. J. —

Rennie, Principal H. H. Griffiths,
Sir A. W, Riicker, Professor H.
L. Callendar, and Mr. G.
Matthey.

| Chairman.—Professor J. W. Judd.
| Secretary.—Mz, J. Milne.
Lord Kelvin, Professor T. G.

Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Pro- |
fessor G. H. Darwin, Mr. |

Horace Darwin, Major L. Dar-
| win, Professor J. A. Ewing,
| Mr. M. H. Gray, Dr. R. T. Glaze-

brook, Professor C. G. Knott,

Professor R. Meldola, Mr. R. D.

Oldham, Professor J. Perry, Mr.

W. E. Plummer, Professor J. H.

Poynting, Mr. Clement Reid,

Mr. Nelson Richardson, and

Professor H. H. Turner.
|
| Chairman.—Dr. W. N. Shaw.
Secretary.—Mr. W. H. Dines.
Mr. D. Archibald, Mr. C. Ver-

non Boys, Dr. A. Buchan, Dr.

_ Watson.
| Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.
Secretary.— Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Professor W. G. Adams, Captain
| Creak, Mr. W. L. Fox, Professor
A. Schuster, and Sir A. W.
| Riicker,

| RB. 'T. Glazebrook, Dr. H. R. Mill, |
| Dr. A. Schuster, and Dr. W. |

|

40 00

40 00

50 00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

xevli

}
}
|

Subject for Investigation or Purpose |

Members of the Committee

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements.

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances,

Dynamic Isomerism.

The Transformation of Aromatic
Nitramines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to Sub-
stitution in Benzene Deriva-
tives.

SECTION

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation. |

The Movements of Underground
Waters of North-west York-
shire.

|

1904,

Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.

Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.

Sir Norman Lockyer, Professors
Sir J. Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A.
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and
Wolcott Gibbs, Sir W. de W.
Abney, and Dr, W. EH. Adeney.

Chairman.—Professor E. Divers.
Secretary.—Dr. A. W. Crossley.

Professor W. H. Perkin, Dr. M. O. |

Forster, and Dr. Le Sueur.

Chairman.— Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Secretary.—Dr. T. M. Lowry.

Professor Sydney Young, Dr. J. J.
Dobbie, Dr. A. Lapworth, and
Dr. M. O. Forster.

Chairman.—FProfessor F. 8. Kip-
ping.

Secretary.—Professor
Orton.

Hyp. FP)

Dr. 8. Ruhemann, Dr. A. Lap- |

worth, and Dr. J. T. Hewitt.

C.—GEOLOGY.

Chairman.—Dr. J. E. Marr.
Secretary.—Mr. P. F. Kendall.
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E.

De Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas, |

Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Rev. S. N.
Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr.
F. M. Burton, Mr. J. Lomas,
Mr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Mr.
J. W. Stather, Mr. W. T. Tucker,
and Mr. F. W. Harmer.

Chairman.—Professor W.W.Watts.

Secretary.—Mr. A. R. Dwerry-
house.

Professor A. Smithells, Rev. E.
Jones, Mr. Walter Morrison,
Mr. G. Bray, Rev. W. Lower
Carter, Mr, T. Fairley, Professor
P. F. Kendall, and Dr. J. E.
Marr,

weithe
00

oth

to
or

00

00

10 00
and unex-
pended
balance.

Balance
in hand.

xcvili

REPORT— 1904.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To study Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous Rocks.

To report upon the Fauna and
Flora of the Trias of the British
Isles.

To investigate the Fossiliferous
Drift Deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, and at various
localities in the East Riding of
Yorkshire.

SECTION

To aid competent Investigators
selected by the Committee to
carry on definite pieces of work
at the Zoological Station at
Naples.

Compilation of an Index Generum
et Specierum Animalium,

To enable Mr. J. W. Jenkinson to
continue his Researches on the
Influence of Salt and other
Solutions on the Development
of the Frog.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Dr. J. E. Marr.

Secretary.—Dr. Wheelton Hind.

Mr. F. A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr, A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox,
Professor E. J.Garwood, Dr.G.J.
Hinde, Professor P. F. Kendall,
Mr. R. Kidston, Mr. G. W. Lam-
plugh, Professor G. A. Lebour,
Mr. B. N. Peach, Mr. J.T. Stobbs,
Mr. A. Strahan, Mr. D. 'T.
Gwynne Vaughan, and Dr. H.
Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Lomas.

Professors W. W. Watts and P. F.
Kendall, and Messrs H. C.
Beasley, E. T. Newton, A. ©.
Seward, and W. A. E. Ussher.

Chairman.— Mr. G. W. Lamplugh.
Secretary.—Mr. J. W. Stather.

Dr. Tempest Anderson, Professor |

J. W. Carr, Rev. W. Lower
Carter, Messrs, A. R. Dwerry-
house, F. W, Harmer, and J. H.
Howarth, Rev. W. Johnson, and
Messrs. P. F. Kendall, E. T.
Newton, H. M. Platnauer, Cle-
ment Reid, and T. Sheppard.

D.—ZOOLOGY.

Chairman.— Professor S. J. Hick-
son.

Secretary.—Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
fessor G. B. Howes, Mr. A.
Sedgwick, Professor W. C.
McIntosh, and Mr. G. P. Bidder.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Dr. ¥., A. Bather.

Dr. P. L. Sclater, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, Mr. W. E. Hoyle, and
the Hon. Walter Rothschild.

Chairman.—Professor Weldon.
Seeretary.—Mr. J. W. Jenkinson.
Professor 8. J. Hickson.

|
|

Grants

£. es d.
Balance
in hand.

10 00

Balance
in hand,

100 00

75 00

10 00
and unex-
pended
balance.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Xcix

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee Grants
ie 2a s
To enable Dr. F. W. Gamble and | Chairman.—Professor 8, J. Hick- | 15 00 |
Mr. F. W. Keeble to conduct Re- son. | and unex- |
searcheson the relation between | Secretary.—Dr. F. W. Gamble. | pended
Respiratory Phenomena and _| Dr. Hoyle and Mr. F. W. Keeble. balance.
Colour Changes in the Higher |
Crustacea. |
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
To carry on an Expedition to in- | Chairman.—Sir John Murray. | 150 00 |
vestigate the Indian Ocean | Seeretary.—Mr. J. Stanley Gardi- |
between India and South Africa | __ ner.
in view of a possible land con- Dr. W. T. Blanford, Captain E. W. |
nection, to examine the deep | Creak, Professors W. A. Herd-

. submerged banks, the Nazareth = man, §. J. Hickson, and J. W.

7 and Saza de Malha, and also | Judd, Mr. J.J. Lister, Dr. H. R. |
the distribution of Marine Ani- , Mill, and Admiral Sir W. J. L.
mals. | Wharton.

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

The Accuracy and Comparability | Chairman.—Dr. E. Cannan. | 20 00]
of British and Foreign Statistics | Secretary.—Dr. W. G. S. Adams. /
of International Trade. | Mr. A. L. Bowley, Professor 8. J. |
| Chapman, and Sir R. Giffen.
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
To conduct Archeological and | Chairman.—Sir John Evans. | 7 00
Ethnological Researches in | Seeretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres. and unex-

Crete. Mr. R. C. Bosanquet, Mr. A. J. | pended
Evans, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, Pro- | balance.
fessor A. Macalister, and Pro- |

fessor W. Ridgeway.

To investigate the Lake Village | Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro. Balance
at Glastonbury, and to report | Seevetary.— Professor W. Boyd | in hand.
on the best method of publica- Dawkins.
tion of the result. Sir John Evans and Messrs.

Arthur J. Evans, C. H. Read, | /
H. Balfour, and A. Bulleid.

To conduct Anthropometric In- | Chairman.—Professor A. Mac- 10 00}
vestigations among the Native alister.
Troops of the Egyptian Army, | Seeretary.—Dr. C. 8. Myers.

Sir John Evans and Professor
D. J. Cunningham.

To co-operate with Local Com- | Chairman.—Dr. A. J. Evans.
mittees in Excavations on | Seeretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres. |
Roman Sites in Britain. Professor Boyd Dawkins, Mr. E. |

|W. Brabrook, Mr. T. Ashby, and

»| Professor W. Ridgeway.

Cc REPORT—1904.

|
}

_ The Ductless Glands.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee

Grants

To organise Anthropometric In- Chairman.—Professor D. J. Cun-
vestigation in the British Isles. | ningham.
| Secretary.—Mr. J. Gray.
| Dr. A. C. Haddon, Dr. C. S.Myers,
| Mr. J.L. Myres, Professor A. F.
| Dixon, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Mr.
Randall MaclIver, Professor J.
| Symington, Dr. Waterston, Mr.
E. W. Brabrook, Dr. T. H. Bryce,
Mr. W. H. UL. Duckworth,
Mr. G. L. Gomme, Dr. F. C
Shrubsall, Professor G. D.
Thane, and Mr. J. F. Tocher.

| To conduct Explorations with the | Chairman —Mr. C. H. Read.

object of ascertaining the Age | Secretary—Mr. H. Balfour.

of Stone Circles. | Sir John Evans, Dr. J. G. Garson,
Mr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro,
Professor Boyd Dawkins, and
Mr. A. L. Lewis.

| The present state of Anthropo- | Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.
logical Teaching in the United | Seeretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.
Kingdom and elsewhere. Professor A Macalister, Dr. A. C.
Haddon, Mr. C. H. Read, Mr. H.
Balfour, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Dr
R. Munro, Professor Flinders
Petrie, Mr. H. Ling Roth, and
Professor D. J. Cunningham,

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

The State of Solution of Proteids, ; Chairman.—Professor W. D. Halli- |

burton.

| Secretavy.—Professor E. Way-
mouth Reid.

Professor E. A. Schiifer.

To enable Professor Starling, Pro- | (hairman.—Professor Gotch.
fessor Brodie, Dr. Hopkins, Mr. | Seeretary.—Mr. J. Barcroft.

Fletcher, Mr. Barcroft, and | Sir Michael Foster and Professor |

others to determine the ‘ Meta- Starling.
bolic Balance Sheet’ of the
Individual Tissues.

Chairman.—Professor Schiifer.

Secretary.—Professor Swale Vin-
cent.

Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L.
FE. Shore, Mr. J. Barcroft.

Section K.—BOTANY.

To carry out the scheme for the | Chairman.—Professor L. C. Miall.
Registration of Negatives of | Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss.
Botanical Photographs. | Mr. Francis Darwin, Dr. W. G.

| Smith, and Mr. A. G. Tansley,,

40 00

Balance
in hand.

20 00

30 00

| and unex-

pended
balance.

40 00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose | Members of the Committee

ci

Experimental Studies in the Phy- | Chair man.—Professor H. Marshall
siology of Heredity. | Ward. |
| Secretary.—Mr. A. C. Seward.
| Professor J. B. Farmer and Dr.
D. Sharp.

The Structure of Fossil Plants. | Chairman.—Dr, D. H. Scott.
| Secretary.—Professor ¥.W. Oliver

| Messrs. A. C. Seward and HE.
Newell Arber,. |

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

To report upon the Course of Ex- | Chairman.—Sir Philip Magnus.
perimental, Observational, and Secretary. —Mr, W. M. Heller.
Practical Studies most Beene Sir W. de W. Abney, Mr. R. H.
for Elementary Schools. Adie, Professor H. EH. Arm-

| strong, Miss A. J. Cooper, Miss
L. J. Clarke, Mr. George Flet-
cher, Professor R. A. Gregory,
Principal Griffiths, Mr. A. D.
Hall, Mr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr.
C. W. Kimmins, Professor J.
Perry, Mrs. W. N. Shaw, Pro-
fessor A. Smithells, Dr. Lloyd
Snape, Principal Reichel, Mr. H.
Richardson, Mr. Harold Wager,
Miss Edna Walter, and Profes- |

| sor W. W. Watts.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.
mittee for the preparation of ; Seeretary.—Mr. F. W. Rudler.
their Report. Rev. J. O. Bevan, Dr. H. T.

Brown, Dr. Vaughan Cornish,

Principal E. H. Griffiths, Mr.

T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson,

Professor R. Meldola, Dr. H. R.

Mill, Mr. C. H. Read, Rev.

T. R. R. Stebbing, Prof. W. W.

Watts, and the General Officers

of the Association.

50 00

20 00

20 00

ell hiet pint ooo AREPoRT—1904,

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose | Members of the Committee

Section AA—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro- | Chairman.—Lord McLaren.
logical Society in making Meteoro- | Secrctary.—Professor Crum Brown.
logical Observations on Ben Nevis. Sir John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, Pro-
fessor R. Copeland, and Mr. Omond.

The Rate of Increase of Underground | Chairman and Sceretary.—Professor

Temperature downwards in various H. L. Callendar.
Localities of Dry Land and under | Lord Kelvin, Sir Archibald Geikie, Pro-
Water. | fessor Edward Hull, Professor A. S.

Herschel, Professor G. A. Lebour, Dr.
| CO. H, Lees, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. W.
| Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr.
| G. F. Deacon, Mr. Edward Wethe-
red, Mr, A. Strahan, Professor Michie
Smith, and Mr, B, H. Brough.

The Consideration of the Teaching of | Chaivman.—Professor Horace Lamb,
Elementary Mechanics, and the Im- | Secretary.—Professor J. Perry.
provement which might be effected | Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Professors Chrystal,
in such Teaching. Ewing, G. A. Gibson, and Greenhill,

Principal Gritliths, Professor Henrici,

Dr. E. W. Hobson, Mr. C. 8. Jackson,

Sir Oliver Lodge, Professors Love,

Minchin, and Schuster, and Mr, A.

| W. Siddons.

That Miss Hardcastle be requested to |
continue her Report on the present |
state of the Theory of Point-groups.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

[someric Naphthalene Derivatives. Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. EH. Armstrong,

The Study cf Isomorphous Sulphonic | Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers.

Derivatives of Benzene, Secretary.—Professor H. E, Armstrong.
Dr. W. P. Wynne and Professor W. J.
Pope.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys- | Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.
tematic Registration of Photographs | Secretary.—Professor W. W. Watts.
of Geological Interest. Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. Anderson,
Professors H. J. Garwood and §. H.
Reynolds, and Messrs. A. 8. Reid, W.
Gray, H. B. Woodward, R. Kidston,
J. J. H. Teall, J. G. Goodchild, H.
| Coates, C. V. Crook, G. Bingley, B.
Welch, and W. J. Harrison. |

UOMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

ebd
Cll

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

i

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To record and determine the Exact
Significance of Local Terms applied
in the British Isles to Topographical
and Geological Objects.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Myr. Douglas W. Freshfield.

Secretary.—Mr. W. G. Fearnsides.

Lord Avebury, Mr. C. T. Clough, Pro- |
fessor E. J. Garwood, Mr. E. Heawood, |
Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Col. D. A. John-
ston, Mr. O. T. Jones, Dr. J. S. Keltie,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Mr. H. J. Mac-
kinder, Dr. E. J. Marr, Dr. H. R. Mill,
Mr. H. Yule Oldham, Dr. B. Peach,
Professor W. W, Watts, and Mr. H. B.
Woodward.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

To continue the Investigation of the
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands,
with power to co-operate with the
Committee appointed for the purpose
by the Royal Society, and to avail
themselves of such assistance in their
investigations as may be offered by
the Hawaiian Government or the
Trustees of the Museum at Honolulu.
The Committee to have power to dis-
pose of specimens where advisable.

To conduct an Investigation into the
Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands.

To summon meetings in London or else-
where for the consideration of mat-
ters affecting the interests of Zoology
or Zoologists, and to obtain by cor-
respondence the opinion of Zoologists
on matters of a similar kind, with
power to raise by subscription from
each Zoologist a sum of money for
defraying current expenses of the
Organisation.

To inquire into the probability of Anky-
lostoma becoming a permanent in-
habitant of our coal mines in the
event of its introduction, with power
to issue an interim report.

To enable Miss Igerna Sollas, of Newn-
ham College, Cambridge, to study
certain points in the development of
Ophiusoids, and to enable other com-
petent naturalists to perform definite
pieces of work at the Marine Labora-
tory, Plymouth,

Chair man.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor 8S. J.
Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr. F.
Du Cane Godman, and Mr. Edgar
A. Smith.

Chairman.—Professor S. J. Hickson.

Seeretary.—Dr. W. E. Hoyle.

Dr. F. F. Blackman, Mr. J. 8S. Gardiner,
Professor W. A. Herdman, Mr. A. C.
Seward, Professor C. 8. Sherrington,
and Mr. A, G. Tansley.

Chairman.—Professor EK. Ray Lankester.

Secretary.—Professor 8. J. Hickson.

Professors T. W. Bridge, J. Cossar Ewart,
M. Hartog, W. A. Herdman, and J.
Graham Kerr, Mr. O. H. Latter, Pro-
fessor Minchin, Dr. P. C. Mitchell,
Professor C. Lloyd Morgan, Professor
E. B. Poulton, Mr. A. Sedgwick, Mr.
A. EB. Shipley, and Rev. T. R. R. Steb-
bing.

Chairman.—My. A, E. Shipley.
Secretary.—Mr. G. P. Bidder.
Mr. G. H. F. Nuttall,

Chairman and Secretary.—Mr. W. Gar-
stang.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Mr. A. Sedg-
wick, Professor Sydney H. Vines, and
Professor W. F. R. Weldon.

civ

REPORT—1904.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose |

Members of the Committee

To enable Dr. H. W. Marett Tims to
conduct experiments with regard to
the effect of the Sera and Antisera
on the Development of the Sexual
Cells.

Terrestrial Surface Waves.

The continued Investigation of the Os-
cillations of the Level of the Land in
the Mediterranean Basin.

To investigate the Resistance of Road
Vehicles to Traction.

To consider the Incidence of the Patent _
and Design Laws upon the National
Development of the Practical Appli-
cations of Science.

Chairman.—Mr. G. H. F. Nuttall.
Seeretary.—Dr. H. W. Marett Tims.
Mr, J. Stanley Gardiner.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

Chairman.—Dr. J. Scott Keltie.

Secretary.—Dr. Vaughan Cornish.

Lieut.-Col. F. Bailey and Messrs. John
Milne, W. H. Wheeler, and W. Whit-
aker.

Chairman.—Mx., D. G. Hogarth.

Secretary.—Mr, R. T, Giinther.

Drs. T. G. Bonney, F. H. Guillemard,
J. 8. Keltie, and H. R. Mill.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

Chairman.—Sir J. 1. Thornycroft.

Secretary.—Mr. A, Mallock.

Mr. T. Aitken, Mr, T. C. Ae Pro-
fessor T. Hudson Beare, Mr. W. W.
Beaumont, Mr. J. Brown, Colonel R. E.
Crompton, Mr. B. J. Diplock, Pro-
fessor J. Perry, Sir D. Salomons, Mr.
A. R. Sennett, Mr. E. Shrapnell Smith,
and Professor W. C. Unwin.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Secrctary.—Sir H. Trueman Wood.

Mr. C. D. Abel, Mr. Dugald Clerk, Dr.
R. T. Glazebrook, Mr, R. A. Hadfield,
Hon. ©, A. Parsons, Mr. A. Siemens,
and Major-General Webber.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

he Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Anthropological Interest. H

To report on the present state of know-
ledge of the Ethnography, Folklore,
and Languages of the Peoples of the
Pacific, with a view to further re-
search.

Chairman.—Mzy. C. H. Read.

uctary: —Mr. H.S. Kingsford. ~
Dr. J.G. Garson, Mr. H. Ling Roth, Mr. H.
Balfour, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. KE. §.
Hartland, Mr. E. Heawood, Professor
Flinders Petrie, Mr. E. N. Fallaize,
and Mr. J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.

Mr. H. Balfour and Mr. J. Stanley Gar-
diner.

a

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY 'THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

cv

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

To consider what steps may be taken to
organise Anthropological Teaching
and Research in the British Empire.

Excavations on Prehistoric Sites in
South Africa,

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Mr. H. Balfour, Professor D, J. Cunning-
ham, Mr. G. L. Gomme, Dr. A. C. Had-
don, Professor A. Macalister, Dr. C. 8.
Myers, Professor Flinders Petrie, Mr.
C. H. Read, and Mr. F, W. Rudler.

Chairman.—Mr. H. Balfour.
Secretary.—Mrx. J. L. Myres.

| Sir David Gill, Dr. A. C. Haddon, and
| Professor H. A. Miers.

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

The Physiological Effects of Peptone
and its Precursors when introduced
into the circulation.

Chairman.—Professor HE. A. Schafer.
Secretary.—Professor W. H. Thompson.
| Professors R. Boyce and C. 8. Sherring-

ton.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

The conditions of Health essential to
the carrying on of the work of in-
struction in schools.

To consider and report upon the influ-
ence exercised by Universities and
Examining Bodies on secondary school
curricula, and also of the schools on
university requirements.

The Training of Teachers.

| Chairman.—Professor Sherrington.
Secretary.—Mr. E. White Wallis.
| Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,
_ Professor L. C. Miall, and Miss Mait-
land.

Chairman.—Dr. H. E. Armstrong.

Seerctary.—Mr. R. A. Gregory.

The Bishop of Hereford, Sir Michael
Foster, Sir P. Magnus, Sir A. W.
Riicker, Sir O. J. Lodge, Mr. H. W. Eve,
Mr. W. A. Shenstone, Mr. W. D. Eggar,
Professor Marshall Ward, Mr. F. H.
Neville, Mrs. W. N. Shaw, and Dr. C.
W. Kimmins.

| Chatrman.—The Bishop of Hereford.
Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Holland.
Professor H. E. Armstrong, Mr. Oscar
Browning, Miss A. J. Cooper, Mr.
Ernest Gray, and Dr. H. B. Gray.

V1 ; | REPORT—1904.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.

The Stereochemistry of Nitrogen. By Dr. H. O. Jones.
Dynamic Isomerism. By Dr. T. M. Lowry.
On the Wells of Cambridgeshire. By W. Whitaker, F.R.S.

ftesolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
if desirable.

From Section A.

G.) The Committee think it desirable that information as to reports and papers
sent to the General Secretary for communication to any Section should be forwarded
to the Recorder of the Section concerned as soon as possible after it is received at the
office.

(ii.) The Committee of Section A desire to draw the attention of the Committee
of Recommendations to the concluding portion of Sir John Eliot’s Introductory
Address to the Sub-Section for Astronomy and Cosmical Physics, and to express the
opinion that the organisation of a Central Meteorological Department for the British
Empire would be of the highest benefit to the progress of Meteorological Science
and its application to the economic problems of the various Colonies and Depen-
dencies. The object of each department would be to collect and prepare digests of
the Meteorological observations taken in different parts of the Empire, to provide a
scientific staff for dealing with the more general Meteorological problems, includ-
ing their relations to Solar Physics and Terrestrial Magnetism, which involve the
co-ordination of data from wide areas, and to promote experimental investiga-
tions of the scientific questions which arise in connection with such discoveries.
The Committee desire also to express the opinion that the reorganisation of the
Meteorological Office, which is at present before the Government, affords an excep-
tionally favourable opportunity for the establishment of such a central Meteoro-
logical Department for the Empire.

From Section F.

(i.) That it is desirable that the Reports of Committees, especially where they
extend over two or more years, should be offered for public circulation in a separate
form from the annual volume of Reports, at a small price, say 6d. per copy.

(ii.) That as there has been a great’ demand for copies of the Reports of the
Women’s Labour Committee of this Section, and it has been impossible to satisfy it,
these Reports be printed and sold separately at the smallest charge possible.

Irom the Conference of Delegates.

(i.) That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Members of the Council of
the Association, together with representatives of the Corresponding Societies, to
consider the present relation between the British Association and local Scientific
Societies, :

That the Committee be empowered to make suggestions to the Council with a
view to the greater utilisation of the connection between the Association and the
affiliated Societies, and the extension of affiliation to other Societies who are at pre-
sent excluded under Regulation 1,

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF: MONEY.

“evil

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
General Committee at the Cambridge Meeting, August 1904. The
Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer

for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.

*Rayleigh, Lord—Electrical Standards .............ceceeseneee ees
*Judd, Professor J. W.—Seismological Observations ............
*Shaw, Dr. W. N.—Investigations of the Upper Atmosphere
Prtiparis? Of Wites «535 00.56.2543 cs eee A, tt
*Preece, Sir W. H.— Magnetic Observations at Falmouth

Chemistry.

*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables of Spectra ..

*Divers, Professor E.—-Study of Hydro-Aromatic Substances
Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ............
Kipping, Professor F, §.—Aromatic Nitramines aaanee

Geology.

*Marr, Dr. J. E.—Erratic Blocks (and unexpended balance)

*Watts, Professor W. W.—Movements of Underground
Waters (balance in hand) ..........006. ceessssseerensenaseee ens

*Marr, Dr. J. E.—Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks
Dermiesinese WIHT) 8. Sones spen ota cee stan there aees a: srt eet eee

*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Fauna and Flora of British Trias

*Lamplugh, G. W.—Fossiliferous Drift ae ag te ets in
hand) Micidussidaniheseasrrceta ts es

Zoology.

*Hickson, Professor 8. J.—Table at Zoological Station at
Waples ......650: EP naira aneaeet aie

*W oodward, Dr. H. — Index: ‘Animalium ..

*Weldon, Professor—Development of Frog ‘(and “unexpended

balance)
* Hickson, Professor 8. J. — Higher Crustacea (and unexpended
balance) pes epee: arenes
Geography.
Murray, Sir J.—Investigations in the Indian Ocean .........

Keonomie Science and Statistics.

*Cannan, Dr. E.—British ee Foreign Statistics of Interna-
tional oh 1 a pA Ae eR AY Cae Wee Roce cee es

Wareied Torward. (Llc i etee love ove Vhs acc'uve@OB5

* Reappointed.

10

oo oos

oo°ocoe

Qo, oO CoS

oO

oOo COO8k8

oocoe

oo oS) oS

jsoico

evill REPORT—1904.

2 | 6.78:
Brought forward 635 0 0
Anthropology.
*Evans, Sir J.—Excavations in Crete (and unexpended
DAIAMCE) oes 50.500 ceesce vee cos dacnoneranceen ree easinnich «qsedenmasions 75 0 0
*Munro, Dr. R.—Lake Village at Glastonbury (balance in
hand) ... ==
*Macalister, Pr ofessor A. “Anthropometry ‘of Native Eg gyptian
GHOSE. ciosseendece< cases scsacceasghiie<dheseoeyiyaageh mene 10. 0.-0
*Evans, A. J.—Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain ...... D0 .0
*Cunningham, Professor D. J oe NPR Investigation
in Great Britain and Ireland.. shale 0" ..0 -.0
*Read, C. H.—Age of Stone Circles... 40 0 0
*Tylor, Professor iS: — Anthropological Teaching (balance
PRMD! voces ava seerab wae cn « swsidign inn dsdlen nxsana saeanaaee eee —
Physiology.
* Halliburton, Professor W. D.—The State of Solution of
Proteids 20 0 0
*Gotch, Professor—Metabolism of ‘Individual Tissues “(and
unexpended balance) .. sehveanebene gud saan a rae se mano ean
Schiifer, Professor—The Ductless Glands ....scccscsec-e. 40 0 0
Botany.

*Miall, Professor—Botanical Photographs .........se0sseeeeseeees D0
*Ward, Professor H. Marshall—The Physiology of Heredity ... 35 0 0
Scott, Dr. D. H.—The Structure of Fossil Plants ............ 50 0 O
Educational Science.

*Maguus, Sir P.—Studies Suitable for Elementary Schools ... 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Committee.

*Whitaker, W.—Preparing Report, dc. .........ss0.ssssseeeeeeeee 20 0 O

£1,000 0 0

* Reappointed.

The Annual Meeting in 1905.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1905 will be held in

South Africa, commencing, August 15, at Cape Town.

The Annual Meeting in 1906.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1906 will be held at

York.

———- —_ =

i ee lt

GENERAL STATEMENT,

cix

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes

1834,

£ os. ad.
Tide Discussions ......sesss+00- 20 0 0

1835
Tide Discussions ....scsseeeerre 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Be7 0 0

1836.
Tide Discussions ........++ Za 1GarnGy. O
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0

Thermometric Observations,

REC ces enseses eevee keneewessns os 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tinued Heat .....cseeeeeseeeee 7.0
Rain-Gauges ..cceccesseceseeeeres 913 0
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation..........ssssee 60 0 0
Thermometers ......ceescesseeee 15 6 0

£435 0 0
1837.

Tide Discussions ...........s006 284 1
Chemical Constants ............ 24°18
Lunar Nutation.............600+ 70 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12
Tides at Bristol .........-0......, 150 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 93 3
Vitrification Experiments 150 0
Heart Experiments ..........-. 8 4
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0
Barometers ........+eceeeeeescevens 11 18

£922 12
1838.
Tide Discussions ...........0+4+ 29 9
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

TION) .p.ccccecseecevecseoscnvees 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
Bristol Tides ..........46 Servers. DOPOD
Growth of Plants ............06 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers .........seeseeees 3.6 6
Education Committee ......... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments .......... ose 0)
Land and Sea Level......... moet 207) 82.8
Steam-vessels....... Poca gpg 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5

£932 2 2

——————————

Bnronoeo ooona So

oo

1839.

; £ os. d.
Fossil Ichthyology .......... 110 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c. ............ 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 1444 2 0
Bristol ides). ...ssnenesaseasnaeias 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 2111 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 0O
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 7
Railway Constants ............ 28 7 0
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 2
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 O 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 O
Stars in Lacaille ............... ll O 6
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0
Animal Secretions............. 10 10 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 O
Atmospheric ATE aeasnsaeereeer 1461 0
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 «0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
KEIN GUSSIE tesa aes nee eases 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles ..,...:.cccece sees 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 0
£1595 11 0
| eee re ee

1840.

1) ETISiGU GES) \ncccasneenacasaspacs 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ............ 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions ............40. 50 0 O
Land and Sea Level...... Rbk ae OnLy iL
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ...............00 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ............... 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air .........-20005 1515 0
Water on Tron ....... es. seee eens 10 0 O
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics ............6 50 0 O
Forms of Vessels ............0. 184 7 O
Chemical and Electrical Phe-

MOMENA oo scrcerecececasssvcees 40 0 0
Meteorological Observations

at Plymouth ................. 80 0 0

Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9

£1546 16 4

re

cx

REPORT—1904..

1841.
£8.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0
Meteorolegy and Subterra-

nean Temperature ..........- 8 8
ACHINOMETETS .......0002scceessoes 10 0
Earthquake Shocks ..... as sees MST
CLIC SE OISONS) i. 100cs 6s. once suse ne 6 0
Veins and Absorbents ........, 3780
NIT RAVERS: « sesseew's sessenee ss 5 0
Marine Zoology ..............000. 15 12
Skeleton Maps .....0--.csseseees 20 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 6 18
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0
Stars (Lacaille)...........0.00 Be OLD
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... iy ue)
Stars (Catalogue of) ............ 40 0
Water Ontlron. i. .c.cccscesscaders 50 0
Meteorological Observations

BimNVENMNOSS “seestvetesssscee ce 20 0
Meteorological Observations

@eduetion Ob) ire. .s:.cce. 25 0
Fossil Reptiles ........ .....0.06 50 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ ...... 62 0
Railway Sections ............. af SBenll
Forms of Vessels ...........0005 193 12
Meteorological Observations

Site yaNOUthien scnteterta codecs 55 0
Magnetical Observations...... 61 18
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

BUGNEY Ya, aculeuveededaewn''es cases 100 0
idlestatserth | <72..52.<-2.05s exe 50 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 11
Tabulating Observations ...... 96
Races tor Meni. 20.5, ossaceseenetes 5 0
Radiate Animals ............. Gee Pall)

£1235 10 1
1842,

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Aides\ ab Bristol. lis. sccgsesthans 59 8 0
Gasesion Light .0;..cescecesscse 30 14 7
Chronometers:.<.cccccesecevecnce ER reilly man
Marine Zoology.........sessesees Is ma)
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 O
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

PINEN Bb. cesscateeneranescereeere 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O
Fossil Reptiles (publication

OLNRCPOLE) has aseeccesee tne 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............... 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on :

HROGKHOT caaee coacuessixcereciec te 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

BoIPLVIOOUGH secececcscescsce ee 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 O

H|/Oowooo no ocooaccoceo f=) SConcooconomoocooco os

ONS ees
Horce,O£ Windieiivecetscsusssese 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 O O
Vital Statistics ..........c.c00 ae 00l20>40
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
ee
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
OL StATS <.sscccssesmesnrdeanstee 2-0 0
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
Hornby cies cseiemasaeeancaiee scare 120 0 O
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
Inverness .....s. er a Wee)
Meteorological Observations
ab Plymouth: . ood: sscvsreasenc 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ....., L050). .0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
SNOW, waccus«ccsacesverasioneeees 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations ...........sseee0s 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ..........000.- 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
BUIMVEINEES | Aiossesceease dete 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ....... wee okppOee), 10
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
IOONE) seessnvaeseseansaneraemee ene 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails of
RAL WAY Sicscnsnocnsmenesethiheee 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ............... 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .........ssssee00s 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks .. .<otsesestaaesssusevetees 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
GLARED. sean sennake as saeeeeeee 10 0 O
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 44 £6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .......esseeeeees «gO (0,50
Marine Zoology .. waeseaner prstiel eel I
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0.0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0
Vital Statistics .........ccscce00» 36 5 8

ee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

oe Sends
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-

stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength

Of Materials ......ccscceceeuee 60 0 0}

£1565 10 2
cients WEEE
1844,
Meteorological Observations

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at

EL YMOUtH: (556 e.ccwaces oseess ose 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation .............00008 25 8 4
Publication of the British

Association Catalogue of

CHEN yrnas caveatdaesevaisseya0 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the

East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature

PP SUAES 2... .speesessees0e 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-

EQEY) waves vasaieesseseesccssecieess LT 8
Instruments for Kew Obser-

WALOLY) swailevscccaucetocnecese ser 56 7 38
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature

AHPIPCIANG, .....0scecerssseeeaees 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

way Sections ...........0ssc00 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of

Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the

#igean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and

Cornwall seis cde dee as 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

GE DCCOS iisiscecadiissiaceceeces 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

MEISCCOS i csssccsc0sFe8ehes 1842 8 7% 3
Exotic Anoplura ............... 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-

Tin’s Instrument ..,...1842 10 0 0

£981 12 8
a

cxl
1845.
LB de
Publication of the British As-

sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations

at Inverness ..........c0eceeee 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation ........sceeceeees 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments

at Edinburgh.............0605+ 1811 9
Reduction of Anemometrical

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-

| ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 0

| For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ............... 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of

Shellsy .cacsscudecrcccesevort tes 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1848 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CINES Wee vaecdescdepdemascacss bole 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0

| Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846,
British Association Catalogue

OF SUAES f.e0iss.c%-d0actvo% 1844 211 15 0

Fossil Fishes of the London
| CIB ccade cs saaaee sie devetecee 100 0 O
| Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 O
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 14616 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0

| Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .........1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 O
Expenses attending Anemo-

MMICLCEAE scncackacsacssniinnaians Lei 6
Anemometers’ Repairs... .... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race

1844 7 6 3
| Statistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York ............ 12 0 0

£685 16 0

A? => eS

exil rEPortT—1904,
1847. 1852.
LS ds £ s. da.
Computation of the Gaussian | Maintaining the Establish-

Constants for 1829......-..0 50 0 0 ment at Kew Observatory
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0! (including balance of grant
Physiological Action of Medi- 10) ae S}H10) Me pscenondocetbons serc- 233 17 8

CINICS) das cesancsssteewecneaseeeaee 20 0 O | Experiments on the Condue-

Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0 tion of Heat ......... sisaseeee 56 2 9

Atmospheric Waves ........4--. 6 9 383 | Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0

Vitality of Seeds ........c.000 4 7 7 | Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Maintaining the Establish- Researches on the British An-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6 | melida s..scccscccccecsesseceeees 10 0 0

£208 5 4 | Vitality of Seeds ............... 10) 6252

——————= Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10% 0) 70

1848, £304 6 7

Maintaining the Establish- | a are re

ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11 | 1853.

Atmospheric Waves ..........++ 3.10 9 | Maintaining the Establish-

Vitality GEISCCOShocckacesass cane 915 O ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 O
Completion of Catalogue of | Experiments on the Influence

SSEELTIS Wire c aisralecinisieis'c.ons oh'o 0 s'sisiaisisinin 70 0 0} of Solar Radiation ......... HY 010
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0 | Researches on the British
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0 ANNCMOR ai catendsucteeteree = 1020170

£275 1 8 | Dredging onthe East Coast
— Of Scotland ....cnecevereccssrss 10 0 0
1849, | Ethnological Queries ......... B20 30
Electrical Observations at £205 0 0

Kew Observatory ............ 50"-00
Maintaining the Establish- 1854.

ment at itto.........ccecee0- Om 205 seg hats :

SaEe | Maintaining the Establish-
Eceprivct Pinsts mes. 00, aan eee
na of Periodical 10 0 0 former grant)... 330 15 4
Bill on ‘Kcsovat otialnese Investigations on Flax......... ES 00) 0)

metrical Observations 13 9 O HOt, temp cha

rp eee eee |) 2 Wrourht) Iront.. .s.ssaecestasse 10; 40,70
£159 19 6 | Registration of Periodical
Phenomena. .scessessacscenceos 10 0 0
1850, British Annelida ............... 10 0 0
Maintaining the Establish- Vitality of Seeds ...........:. 5.2.3
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0 | Conduction of Heat ............ A DeiO)
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0 | £38019 7
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 0}
Meteorological Instruments, | 1855
AZOTES\adoentrnanse men nontea sea 25 0 0 Sheree eek
£345 18 0 Maintaining the Establish-
ae ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
| Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 O
1851. | Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8 5
Maintaining the Establish- Vitality of Seeds ............00. LO Teil

ment at Kew Observatory Map of the World............... 15 0 0

Cineludes part of grant in | Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0

STONE. scctevidewaseasteaienescces 309 2 2 | Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0
Theory of Heat ...........0000008 20 1:1] £480 16 4
Periodical Phenomena of Ani- ;

els and Plants..........s0006 5080 1856
Vitality of Seeds ..........0.... 5 64M | woseatns abli
2a (hee of Solar Radiation 30 0 0 | eeu: ee cae
Ethnological Inquiries......... £2) HOMO. rat me aS NES
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0 ial £75

£3919 7 1BBB e500 07g BIEN} O
[= Panereuare a

GENERAL STATEMENT.

ee eee
Strickland’s Ornithological

RIMBON YING) scvicscsshscetecs + 100 0 6
Dredging and Dredging

URIS Sees cei clciscaossseceseceasee J ss 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena...........cecsereeees 10 0 O
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0
Harthquake Wave Experi-

TESUECRUS) igo nqnooteoe Hu dobiot co SRE 40 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Of Scotland ............:s000s0e 10 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusea of California ......... 10 0
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0
Natural History of Mada-

ABCAR Any sa accuceu suteinceseeches 20 0
Researches on British Anne-

TAO gs 3 sianiateolsicieidos bck 25 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

PEO Tee e tae sain scieaciessn= = sak 10 0
Temperature of Mines......... Tes
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations............ 5 7
HT C-DOAUS |. 62. sc eceveeececoeeeee 5 0

£507 15
1858.
Maintaining the KEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi-

ASOD cadelectesee see scessess 0sas 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

DE Scotland ..........0...sse0000 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seed ............... 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

PUAN ccetclentel cetessac, acassexscce 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

PES a ccclidsteesyswes ative cea 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

DEM. cavoss asco cece peepee aes eae 10 0 0

£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 145 0 0

1904.

Oe OS. ou oO o oo (oi XSi) j=)

Cx.

8

ae Fat

Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0

Trish Memnicata ssh. ives csticsen « 5 0 Q

Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0

| British Meduside ............... 5 0 0

Dredging Committee ......... 5 0. 0

Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 0
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland............... 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 200 1
Balloon Ascents.........cces+s++ 39 11 0

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 @
| Dredging near Belfast......... 16ye6) 0
| Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 14 0 0
| Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of DuraDen .. 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of

PIGN GS 95.2 . sexe. awaseaiees beast 101,08
Researches on the Solubility

Oba SaliSmrssecesee asses ee seec 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents

OL Manures’ 2224. ......0.csees 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNTS: < sci ceeseet ees oes soe 113 6

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860......£50 0 0 72 0 0
1861......£22 0 0 =
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 0
| Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 9
Chemical Alloys ............... 20 0 @
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACHLONNY done eetscces ccc ces 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

WES away wun aceheceteei ance 5 0 0
Wap? @ivele pestres soecesetereseaete 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

LONG ipa en te earcvecevtueie ieee « 50 0 0
PYIsOUWD1etYp aeseteettocsscercnes 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............006 10 0 @
Alpine Ascents ........ ......000 6 510
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10
aetna oe

CX1V

1862.

REPORT—1904..

Lass
Maintaining the EHstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0
Pa ru Ma WS saaseeisaseensenswccpen 21 6
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine <...c..0-. ngaotacet seers 5 0
Tidal Observations ..........+. 25 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0
Photographic Pictures of the
SURE Seeecnsasasiieses ones pepenset 150 0
Rocks of Donegal............+ 25 0
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland Coasts ........++6. 25 0
Connection of Storms ......... 20 0
Dredging North-east Coast
DEM SCOMATGN \ehucascsecnesacee 6 9
Ravages of Teredo .........+. 3 11
Standards of Electrical Re-
BISHAMICE! sccdecewpescscorsesset 50 0
Railway Accidents ...........+ 10 O
Balloon Committee ...........- 200 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
Prison Diet «ccscocssssescoosecess 0
Gauging of Water
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0
Thermo-electric Currents 5 0

£1293 16

1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory...
Balloon Committee deficiency
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
penses )
Entozoa
Coal Fossils
PICIViN GS <5. ..ecccscscesase Sane case
Granites of Donegal............
Prison Diet
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments
Dredging Shetland ............
Dredging North-east Coast of
NGOUAOM re soe cecetsmanecaneacss
Dredging Northumberland
BNO SD ATHAIMN§,.escses<s-canaes
Dredging Committee superin-
tendence
Steamship Performance
Balloon Committee ............
Carbon under pressure
Volcanic Temperature .........
Bromide of Ammonium ......
Electrical Standards............
Electrical Construction and
Distribution
Luminous Meteors ............
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph

eee emer eee ee eens eeereeres

Atte eee enero testwas

eee eee e ee eeeeeteenesssens

ae Pee ecw eee eesesstees

see ee weer eceeses

ee receeerece

© oOo SoS Sos oc o7 roo coc ocooe ©

on 1S oooooo oo

Oo

iS) oo ooooocoo

alocoocoooso off CO CSO SOO coo 8

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

Balloon Committee ..........++ 100
iy Gn0iG disci cs snccacsosccsensn <a 13
Rain-Gauges—...:..scscsensecneces 30
Tidal Observations in the

ELUMDED ccnarrsstsenneescaredees 6
Hexylic Compounds ..........++ 20
Amyl Compounds .........++..+. 20
Irish ora) ..2vasespesesasscensace 25
American Mollusea ............ 3
Organic Acids ti.crecn<ssaseeus 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
Hn yPvelus | sopsacssaeseeheeaneceses 50
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Researches ...... 30
Oyster Breeding ..........2.00% 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100
Moon’s Surface Observations 35
Marine) Wauna’ <,.cnescsascsescer 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies

IN Water ccrsmerancsenanscesencs 100
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8
Luminous Meteors ...........- 40

ooo oooocooocoecococesoqoonmn oooco

£ 8. d.
Thermo-electricity .........+++ 15 0 ©
Analysis of Rocks .......+.++- 8 0 0
iy dnroidars.cassraneste spac rensbee 10 0 ©
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal Fossils ..... Reoenanoce Dt 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

MCNUS Fe scscentereswekencsoteeae 20 0 0

| Dredging, Shetland ............ tow (Oy
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 O
Standards of Electric Re-

SISTANCE. Fecacascaceameneeceseets 100 0 O
Analysis of Rocks ........... 10 0 O
iy Groldait. ac .cesaceuecusesseneuee LOO RO
Askhain’s\Gittaliectmes: -tovmiesmd 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 O 9%
Rain-Gauges .....sccccesssscceces 1915 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

ETURDEL ..2casaeneasasounssnenee 50 0 0
Npectrall Raystecssseces.-asweseese 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors .........0++ 20 0 0

£1289 15 8&
1865.

ra!
P9092 SSS SSSESSSSSSESSES SE FPPP

£1591 7 10

a i i el

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1866.
8.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50
Metrical Committee............ 50
eritish Rainfall. ......-.0s....s0 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitution of
PANEPITON: Wetisscecececeosecse css 50
Amyl Compounds ............... 25
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall ............ss00 25

Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25

Dredging Hebrides Coast 50
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies

EEA LECT seen sacwcoconnesstdascss 50
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

WS pandas sone iSs erect. eee 29
Rigor Mortis ............sesseeces 10
Trish Annelida ...........00ss0:. 15
Catalogue of Crania............ 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene

Islands ; seen)
Typical Crania Researches goat oO
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100

Bjeee SfD Ss Of SSocios Soeoceo, coooooocsew

d
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
; 4

£1750 1

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600
Meteorological Instruments,

PALCAEINIO 2 5 jcicsdosae casero ced aee 50
Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
British Rainfall.................. 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-

POLE ete: secs covers et eee seesy 100
Electrical Standards............ 100
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25
Fossil Crustacea ............... 25
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna . 75

Do. Plant Beds 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent Laws ......:. prineeneeewe 30

£1739

RBMiOOoOSDSoFROOCOCSO coocoocosoocooooco o

oloooococooco eooocooocooocooo o

1868.
£
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

CXV

8.

ojo oo ooococecec ceocececoeococoe

Moo Sooo oosoes SOooCoooogsooc i

Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
| Zoological Record............... 100
| Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
| Steamship Performances. .. 100
British Rainfall}. scsccccccessse.- 50
Luminous Meteors............... 50
Organic Acids: 2. .cevscessesssese 60
Fossil Crustacea.............s00+ 25
| Methyl Series.........ccccecee.+s 25
Mercury and Bile .............. 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
StonepRocks: ...x<s5sseueonen3e 25
| Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
| Fauna, Devon and Cornwall... 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-..4. 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
Hoseil Bloralt ccc. csestacte eto. 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
| Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30
British Marine Invertebrate

Wa une éescv cxscsees ascertained seas 100

£1940
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee ............068 50
Metrical Committee ............ 25
Zoological Record .............65 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-

WELSWaber. ...cccrassetesdeces «a 20
British )Rainiall <.-.cscecssedeces 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

KCis cesenesscapastaatebeaien ness 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations ano. 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of

Gastron. 25.0524: cecneeseaaeees 80
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl Series............ssseesees 30
Organic Remains in Lime-

stone Rocks... ..-. gedewel ites. 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30
Mogsil Wore nase catacsusts dass 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
OreanicpAcids. ..cssvepsecavasews 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ..........000: 20

ooo coococeoso ooo. ooo oo ocoooo

ero 9SS99SC99 SOS coo co eCcoe

Cxvi
£ 8. d.
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

HIGHS Gece eedie eer esedtesssasee pe 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0

£1622 0 0
1870.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory ae

Metrical Committee............
Zoological Record.............+. 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20

Ears in Fishes
Chemical Nature of Cast

Monee teste naieeests tecesece vee 80
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Heat in the Blood............... 15
British’ Rainfall... .....csec.scese 100
Thermal Conductivity of

MOMS CoC Noasiessacsecestesrenarnr 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4
Bagshot Leaf-beds ..........++ 15
HOSSI HOTA, sccnssccecsesssoccds 25
Tidal Observations ..........05 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50

Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment
Mechanical Equivalent of

eo oococoeceoocecoo oooo coooeo

o oocoocoocoooeoco ooco scooeooceso

£1572 0 0

1871.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress

In) CREMIStLry ...1...000. serenne 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record.............+ 100
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Fossil Flora .......ceccceeeeseees 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood............... a
British Rainfall................0. 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea ....cccecscseee 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects ........ essccecses 20

ecooocowooooo coo oo

ecooeoooseooosco ooo oo

REPORT—1904.

sy

Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing ......+++++-++- 20
Bagshot Leaf-beds .........+++ 20
Moab Explorations ........+... 100
Gaussian Constants .......+.++- 40
£1472

wl} oooo

aloscoo &

1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 300

Metrical Committee............ 75
Zoological Record............-. 100
Tidal Committee .....,.....0.0- 200
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab............ 100
Terato-embryological Inqui-

TICS sav seacapaceewecuetsetede> 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
Heat in the Blood............... 15
Fossil Crustacea ..........-.00. 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
Waunar OD jectainiccscentwcansonns ae 20
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20
British Rainfall......... cesesenes 100
Poisonous Substances Anta-

PONISI: .ccccanaensseseniacassane 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

StittMtiON,, &0C.| <cvswesceeueeesece 40
Mathematical Tables ......... 50

Thermal Conductivity of Me-
tals

Preererrrerier iiss

o|;/o oo fo ooooooooo ceocecooo

ole coo ocvoecqcoocodeoo ocoecoe¢c &

1873.

Zoological Record........+..++ 100
Chemistry Record............+6 200
Tidal Committee ............4. 400
Sewage Committee ..........+ 100
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Fossil Elephants .. ............ 25
Wave-lengths .......15 seseeeee 150
British Rainfall...............++- 100
Essential Oils...........2+:eeeeees 30
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Gaussian Constants .........- yh:
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature... 150
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20
Timber Denudation and Rain-

fall Lov wcccudensscdphenss sees 20
Luminous Meteors............+++ 30

o;}oo sooooecocsecooooscoe

'Oloo coooscocooeocoooocsccso

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1874,

£ 38. d.
Zoological Record............0+ 100 0 0
Chemistry Record..........2..++ 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Elliptic Functions.............++ 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors ......... 10 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

IROGES) .i icici ces scccsccvecscccee 10 0 0
Anthropological Instructions 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
British Rainfall................0. 100 0 0
Essential Oils...............sss00e 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms............... 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-

NAT Ceservanccveadessceasssesenerne 210 0
Physiological Actionof Light 20 0 0
Trades Unions .............0000+ 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone Corals 25 0 0
Erratic Blocks ...........ssee00 10 0 0
Dredging, Durham and York-

shire Coasts .........s.ses0ces 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3 6 0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

MEASUTES.......0csreesesceereres 715 0

£1151 16 O

1875.

Elliptic Functions ............ 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall ................. 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 O
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... 10 0 0
Isometric Cresols ............... 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 O
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 O
Development of Myxinoid

PRISER: sii scetcesslvetccsstetescee 20 0 0
Zoological Record.............+5 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0

£960 0 0

1876.
Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0
hms Laws scilccistccsssecs cars 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0

my ES hs
Isomeric Cresols ......sseseeen 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACELALC.....ccceceececsseseveeeees 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid..........++++ To! 30
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0
Geological Record............++ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

ROCKS .......scceccneeceecseerene 10 0 0
Underground Waters ........+ 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record......+..0++ 100 0 0
Close Time ........cscecccereeseees 5 0 0
Physiological Action of

SOUMGrg-ceeesebeeeneeraredess 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 1315 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels .........++- 5 0 0

£1092 4 2
eo Ue ee ales
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

Mineral ss (vecencdeses-nesnnsene 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS) teas hasesmecaecs amen =e 911 7
Zoological Record..........0+0. 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern ....sseccsesssnees 100 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ........... - 100 0 O
Dipterocarper, Reporton ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

GC Atscecadsqeadesenactsees seeencsts 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt

angU Nickell aeresesiese snap ciate 8 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone ............46. 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACETAL] 2... cecaroceencveecesecs 10 0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

MMIGTay f ch cased senteate ons oe seucee 15 0 0
Development of Light from

QOAIPOAS josnmssbs sfe-gncenasee- 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... 118 0
Geological Record............+8 - 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 54.0 O
Physiological Action of Phos-

phoric Acid, &C..........s00+0 Lb 0

£1128 9 7

REPORT—1904..

exviil
1878.
£ 8s. d.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record..........+..+. 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
IRECOLGED ce cececesrcsceceuseesess 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
DWATETStsrascrccsecessesestcesveas 1510840
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure........ccecccsscceseres 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
_ for 4th Million «.........0.00. 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record ......-.++++s0« 100 0 O
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
ON seoswesseescenssvinceesrsssens 16+0: +0
Therma] Conductivity of
IROCKR! ccsueccdersaccecaccasvestine 416 6
Luminous Meteors.........+++0+ 10'20: ©
Ancient Earthworks ..........++ 25 0 O
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples .............+ 76; “00
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ 17. “0! 50
Record of Zoological Litera-
UCC eavesteecntecessedseeewn cast 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Caves in
IBOLNEO) Peacciadscutecerthedvaster 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
Geology iicescocttaseaws cresceeee 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts............... 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Underground Waters............ 10 0 O
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
HUN CalU CLOCKS. eeeteasecerstess 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
DEVON ses aesesseetscccscessstees 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6

£ 8. a.
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-

CfICIENUS ca ncccne -haetteee = aeee 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance

SULV.EY) -ceessane eee -e eee 10 0 0
Tables of Fundamental In-

variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-

servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring

the Speed of Ships ......... A 2 LeS
Tidal Observations in the

English Channel ............ 10: 0.0

£1080 11 11
ee
1880.
New Form of High Insulation

KCyptecsceraesncenhensneees Fas 10 0 0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-

chanical Equivalent of

HIGRb) (cesasacsceusssseubesme eet 8)0b.70
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8 56 0
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20) -0) 710
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and Paraffines ............. ANG T
Report on Carboniferous

POLY ZOd en acereveqevesienseensna 10 0 9
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

SAULUS one ase necsonnscavasaoneeial 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 O
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ............ 56 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-

UY Civesaiescest Nensceesessreacens 100 0 0
Table at Zoological Station

Bb NApPles) Ressscscssdesscsnsse 7b: 0570
Investigation of the Geology

and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 9 0
Anthropometry ........ssesseeee 50 0 0
Patent Laws \<-.0tss.crsescersos 5 0 0

£731 7 7

=

GENERAL STATEMENT.

wlio) oo ooceocococowoooos ?

H10 CO SCODOOCOOHOCOCOCSO ®

1881.

£
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperature... 20
Electrical Standards........ pace) ate)
High Insulation Key............ 5
Tidal Observations ............ 10
Specific Refractions ............ 7
MGSSIL POLY 208)” s2.s-...cc0ese00s0 10
Underground Waters ......... 10
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25
Pertiary Flora ...........cs-se0s 20
Scottish Zoological Station... 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Natural History of Socotra... 50

Anthropological Notes and
TOMES oe vole vs ceevie' Ue'slsuidte 9
Zoological Record............... 100

Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ............... 30
£476

1882.

Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0

Fundamental Invariants of

Algebraical Forms ....,.... 76
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ............... 100
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
THOMAELETS! escccsensvs.seceres. 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements............... 50
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra ..........0006. 25
Geological Record............... 100
Earthquake Phenomena of
RESHUAToncvcs-cosscsse casas acsiens 25
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
HICH ecncsignancnancvscen resect: 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground
WWUGETS © duewey iee'dat cep <coeshe 15
Tertiary Flora of North of
Mrpeland ttrpacestcsss cs rss keseets 20
British Polyzoa .......2.-+0000006 10
Exploration of Caves of South
bie ITCLANG © acct haases esroeades 10
Hxplorationof Raygill Fissure 20
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Albuminoid Substances of
‘SCTE GA Ae a once econo 10
Hlimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise...........2..5 50
Migration of Birds ............ 15
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Natural History of Timor-laut 100
Record of Zoological Litera-
EEC R ets citisaceeeess siotseasnes. 100
Anthropometric Committee... 50

£1126

111
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
9 0
0 0
G0
0 0
0 0
111

exix

d,

oe
—)

oS

w oocooco oo o oS ooo

wlooeo C= eS 3S Se 'o:e oo o (SP Se Ss)

wlooo Oo

1883.
£
Meteorological Observations
On Ben) NeviSiescsendasaeaseres: 50
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WAIVER stats seacsacascercnsentes 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
aPANe .Asacatsneshesedastessenes 50
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS ...ceccssesocoecssees 25
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales .......0+...0. 10
Circulation of Underground
WWiSiGGTS.- cca: scomsnaser eres on cee 15
Geological Record............+++ 50
Exploration of Caves in South
ofplrelandy shascstserseaetn sect 10
Zoological Literature Record 100
Migration of Birds ............ 20
Zoological Station at Naples 80
Scottish Zoological Station... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............00. 38
Exploration of Mount Kili-
MA-DjaTO.....ccaccecseesceeeee 500
Investigation of Loughton
Camp \sactatieceteceeees ences 10
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Screw Gauges........sc0..0. sseeee nO
£1083
1884,
Meteorological Observations
on Ben NCViS <2 .0..csscsbose-== 50
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust..............0008 20
Meteorological Observatory at
CHEPStOW <<<. .cecasesesenece snes 25
Tidal Observations............... 10

Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8

Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN: -. ccusncosasceavecburivenece 75

Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15

HOssiliBolyZ0a.....-.0+swasneeve tes 10

Erratic Blocks of England ... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palo-
ZOU ROCKS Pe. as seemsent cesses 15
Circulation of Underground
Wailers. ii: an cue aaeeaeestiesee 5
International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration of Mount Kili-

ma-njaro, East Africa ...... 500
Migration of Birds............... 20
Coagulation of Blood............ 100

Zoological Literature Recor 100
Anthropometric Committee... 10

£1173

ooce ooo o o

=) oo o

Oo

POoocoo Sooce "So. o eocaso C=) (=) BS)
So

Sclocooce

Cxx
1885.
£
Synoptic Chart of Indian
(CHRGRIAI> ea pcenedecuorboseeEe neocon 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
MIO DSM re cirens cnnsdeens aisveciarsee 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
GES NTIMDCLS ass.ciencanesssaeee 100
Meteorological Observations
On Ben NEVIS .....0s0c.. 0-000 50
INE TC OTIC ISH tas. sea, casslgesdss 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
OUTMOUS Wares sseoScengt snsnisl> 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
GIOTISE arsbatenetoveaness seas sean s 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VIG Siete caste cia ic cian ceases 25
Rayeill Hissure...jcccvsssoseese 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
CAN AME t aaiaaisacee eum cwaMces nek > 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeozoic
ROCKS saps Scet ened iapeae toasts 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 50
Geological Record ............... 50
Circulation of Underground
WaHONS) ccrens cussceehepse sesso 10
Naples Zoological Station 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
LJALO Weare soseceaua veers sasente 25
Recent POlyZ0de...cs0se+acceensere 10
Granton Biological Station ... 100
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom ......... 150

Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100

£1385

1886.
Electrical Standards............ 40
Solar Radiation .......c)...00 ce 9
Tidal Observations ............ 50
Magnetic Observations......... 10

Observations on Ben Nevis...
Physica! and Chemical Bear-

100

ings of Electrolysis ......... 20
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20
Caves in North Wales ......... 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VLUS! or.ac<s<cca idea reece 30
Geological Record............... 100
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Granton Biological Station... 75
Naples Zoological Station...... 50
Researches in Food-Fishes and

Invertebrataat St. Andrews 75

Ge)

ooo opDS> Goose coo Oo Oo: oO o So oo OP ©» 7

ie

o oooooso oo S90

xX

1|o

ooo eco. Sc oC {Oooo

ooo ooo oocEe oO o o oo © oO J =) Oo (=)

|

REPORT—1904.

£
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Secretion of Urine............... 10
£xploration of New Guinea... 150
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales ...........00. 10
Prehistoric Race in Greek
Tslands\....:sssssesssasssneqsenee 20
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
NAC Aoasienncondeosnse dacenameareme 50
£995
1887
Solar Radiation ..............0..+- 18
HlectrolySisic-sssa-aessn<seae eee 30
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75
Standards of Light (1886
STAND) Rasrecmeneeuemet tess acta 20
Standards of Light (1887
STAG Wemesscecpartepeccts.ce seers 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations .............-.00- 15
Magnetic Observations......... 26
Electrical Standards............ 50
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra ............ 40
Nature of Solution ............ 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WIUS! 5s conde cc csecsasresdtsnessccce 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(US8Gierant) iy ccncecsssseserses 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(S8ierant) ci... secusnh eee 50
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20
Hirratic Blocks “s.essesc-e/<0ns-5 10
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20
Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isle of Wight... 20
Underground Waters ......... 5
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10
Provincial Museums Reports 5
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Naples Biological Station 100
Plymouth Biological Station 50
Granton Biological Station... 75
Zoological Record ........:0ec+0s 100
Wloraiof China Wecsce.srs¢screere 75

Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons
Migration of Birds
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles
Regulation of Wages
Prehistoric Race of Greek
SIAN ee caacanssiccctescacecee ses
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20

£1186 18

SO. co (OS Coco oceooe oo -Soeooo "SS cicsesescewo oo ooo

SO, SO. ee SIS iS

clo © © ooeo8

SPOS SS SS S9STSSSSOCSS FSF SESSS FS S&S SCSeE9ESSE CF FS GSO

|

a i i ee ee alias

—————

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1888.

Ben Nevis Observatory.........
Electrical Standards............ 2

Magnetic Observations......... 15
Standards of Light ............ 79
Hlectrolysis ......scccssseseeees 30
Uniform Nomenclature in
RIECHANICS) damescavecesaedentans 10

Silent Discharge of Elec-
OG Mates i pic perches st maas alee 9
Properties of Solutions

Influence of Silicon on Steel 20
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
US) asgebbesee Serepncnegeeouenoce: 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
RENCE acMisces aur eassasserassese 25
Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
Geological Record ..,.....+.+0++ 50
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10
Underground Waters ......... 5
Palzontographical Society ... 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth... 50
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
MEUS oacetereies saeias sss dae eaela oa 20
Zoology and Botany of West
ReTOUIAS ccs gaeeaeltvincienisas hance 100
Flora of Bahamas............... 100
Development of Fishes—St.
PATIO WS) dane: «das «eeiedd sedans « 50
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
Migration of Birds ........... 30
Flora of China ........ :..ses00 75
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Biological Station at Granton 50
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50
Development of Teleostei 15
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
PRECIOUS) cccesbecdecurs-e-cseneeas 5
Precious Metals in Circulation 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Effect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development............ 25
North-Western Tribes of
FE SAGAM Greccseiacescaceecmacsciees 100
Prehistoric Race in Greek
PLAS cv eldaisansienadaeisnelcaiewe aise 20
£1511
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50
Electrical Standards............ 75
Electrolysis.......0...cscecseeeeees 20
Surface Water Temperature... 30
Silent Discharge of Electricity
GHLORV SCN) 5 a iasacscaceaave ries 6

So Cowonoef

a

S1eoescor 6 -eeo ococooocr oo. cs oo. GcocYer oocoeoso. © sor

er OOCCooO

ono®

mto-oOF Ss Ses s-cecocooesseoe of So: Ccocoeqceaces coc cos 2 Ow

o oooo

CXXI
£ 8. da.
Methods of teaching Chemis-

DLYMRem Rene sa ienperesaecacrac senses 10 0 O
Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record...........s000+ 80 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena ofJapan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VaUNE) Paper doe -epincesbcrrontn: coc 20 0 0
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

Wao itiirn cusennesmepseidtcenaees 1 0 0
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
Flora of China ........ccssccsees 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Physiology of Lymphatic

SIBIIEM LS Sepoaoseconcnaperonse sae 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly

TSIEN GC ey Se ageneneee coe oreo scoce 100 0 0
Geology and Geography of

Atlas Range ......sscsseeseers 100 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

in HstuarieS ......csccocsssoee 100 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

Canadas» eartalelentencelnwetanteielalests 150 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath.. ... 100 0 0

£1417 011
1890.
Electrical Standards............ 1217 0
Hlectrolysis .....cesessscevereeee 5 0 0
Electro-optics........sssreseeeeees 50 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Electricity on

Oxy Gems apasececs seltads sce ta 5 0 0
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0
Recording Results of Water

Analysistasscsceeassssdeetee sae 4 1 0
Oxidation of Hydracids in

SuNLSHH Ki stecsssecdedenncnsees 15 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

Wal Ree aeneagea Jodo jungeouotieued 20 0 O
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground

Waters. .mvemecstceieecsiceacsseee bOsr0)
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 O
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10 0 0
Geological Photographs ...... 7 14 11
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Perade-

TV alcccseasascvscosctwarenuecetas 25 0 0

exxil
£ 8. dad
Experiments with a Tow-

Hieh Mossescaseesscnccsescwresesces's 43 9
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

in HstuarieS ..........-ssseeee 150 0 0
Graphic Methods in Mechani-

Cal Science .........eseeeeeeeees tE'O.0
Anthropometric Calculations 5 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0

£799 16 8
1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory.......+. 50 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Bilectrolysis......:...0s0ccsescasens 5 0
Seismological Phenomena of

DADAM Vis nse saecsanandsaravevees 10 0
Temperatures of Lakes......... 20 0
Photographs of Meteorological

BHenOMeNA...5250:--<0ssen>s0uss 5 0
Discharge of Electricity from

ROINtS he cececnec vac rues conesidens 10 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar

MDCCHRUMT | Mesesccncas-cendeeens 50 0
International Standard for

Analysis of Iron and Steel... 10 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

RAW CHiehenasipcinpsce sesseraceeeranes 25 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 25 0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17 10
Geological Record..........++0+ 100 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VAUS ten = cae o<cettenen pes ahee 10 0
Fossil Phyllopoda..............+ 10 0
Photographs of Geological

Interest) qaiescs..sassasseaeecune 9 5
Lias of Northamptonshire ... 25 0
Registration of ‘Type-Speci-

mens of British Fossils...... 5 5
Investigation of ElboltonCave 25 0
Botanical Station at Pera-

GON Aon acct ante <tar'e denen seunhe 50 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0
Marine Biological Association 12 10
Disappearance of Native

IPIANIUS 7 wose neve tee doteseeenctie 5 0
Action of Waves and Currents

in WStuaries: 5: -srseresesccsse 125 0
Anthropometric Calculations 10 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-

logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0
North - Western Tribes of

Canad avg rrcnsesstncncerenccses 200 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0

0

Some VTou eon a“ .oo oo Ooo oo oo © So ao co oC oo

REPORT—1904.

1892.
ee 5
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

Phenomena... .ccessursssceseses 15 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0 0
Discharge of Electricity from

Points . .24:...ssececeseseemar ene 50 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of

JAPAN ...ccvessasoccrescanecsseen 10 0 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 12 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
Action of Light on Dyed

Colours! "i sssvteesucstesueneet LOMO) “0
Erratic Blocks ......csecessssss: 15 0 0
Photographs of Geological

Interest -s.:.0.0ss5sssccsssesees= 20 0 0
Underground Waters ........+ 10! 0=0
Investigation of Elbolton

CAN Ovees.cadcauchavaseds<vostaeen «A25E0970
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0 0
Cretaceous Polyz0a .......s+0e 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 1710 0
Deep-sea Tow-net ...........0005 40 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Islands\.....0.s0ssss.es-s 100 0 0

| Climatology and Hydrography

of Tropical Africa ......... « 50 0 0
Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 0 0
Anthropological Notes and

QUETIES fiicccde ecescesctcscens 20=-0--0
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-

shonaland ...:....c.sscsscsvess 50 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

@anAGa wvaccnsesecvscsveceree 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0-0

£864 10 O
1893.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... Pas10" 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Fal-

mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VW A (Ssh idenoretinct sono: ores 20 0 0
Hirratic BIOCKS: (2..2.0<...5+seness 1031670
Fossil Phyllopoda.............+. b 10) 0
Underground Waters ......... b 00
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava, Chapelhall, &e. ...... 20 0 06
Eurypterids of the Pentland

IOVS ep cesowacesnenaeneeer neeomes 10:0" 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Islands............ «+ ne U0 AO

—————

GENERAL

£ d,
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 0
Physiological Action of

Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 O
Index of Genera and Species

GEPAMEMAIS,,...\ociecsessscecesst 20 0 0
Exploration of Karakoram

Mopntains' ...........0e.0se0e0s 50 0 0
Scottish Place-names ......... TO 0
Climatology and Hydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0
Economic Training ............ BoUTIAO
Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

DMANAGR -eiercakvnnsvecksCeeeses 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0

£907 15 6
1894.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

PhenOMEena....02...000000-2000. 10 0 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

ROU Wersent sa: bss sa gosptoes 155% 15 0 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5 6
Wave-length Tables............ 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

WOIGHIS hecscorsnstese-acseeccdes 5 0 0
Erratic Blocks .......2...ss0000. 15 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

BOTA Vai Cah acess sqauctsacwcae age 20 0 O
Eurypterids of the Pentland

ERO a sedees sets evsa eb Secnipeap acess 5 0 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

PUALC! eexchonecnes osiehaenacciones 14.0 0
Observations on LEarth-tre-

HOTS Unclsissine sbans celles sceesiso'<d 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole

RA Cote smyaci sie seat aaccaaeinaiies os Due
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine BiologicalAssociation 5 0 O
Zoology of the Sandwich

TRIBTIC ET VAtorarpenpceent eae eeren 100 0 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0 0
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ 10 0 O
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0 0
Economic Training ............ 910 0
Anthropometric Laboratory

MSPALISHICS, soc c0s secascceseas - 5 0 0

' Ethnographical Survey ...... LOS OL0
The Lake Village at Glaston-

PELE -6 o sccssnceaker sass acke bla’ welds 40 0 0
Anthropometrical Measure-

ments in Schools ............ 5 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0

£583 15 6

STATEMENT,
1895.
o) 48:
Electrical Standards............ 25 0
Photographs of Meteorological

Phenomenda.......-.....eeeeeees 10 0
Earth Tremors . .........0-2e0++ 75 O
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-

vations made at Falmouth

Observatory itsi.cc.0.0s-n eee 50 0
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-

GATS 2.2... .areccrecnsereverenrs 25 0
Meteorological Observations

On Ben Nevis siiccceccssccscses 50 0
Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements... 10 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

QOlOUKS= “fas rsccecie ecssssceeess 4 6
Formation of Haloids from

Pure Materials ............++ 20 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VALIVES. .<-ccd-cesssvnvecssnccsess 30 0
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

BILYSIS) .cc.02scvctecssssecvss=ons 30 0
Erratic Blocks .........seeesrees 10 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ... ..... 5 0
Photographs of Geological In-

HOLest cccce csagetees sear ustssese 10 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava; Cs. ccan eeeserceensese 10 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

15 010 pe erg oquenoostcepeeinanoces a 3 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

Slate e ccreien carenenecsersos == 50 0
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10 0
Nature and Probable Age of

High-level Flint-drifts...... 10 0
Tableatthe Zoological Station

at Naples .......cecesecseseene 100 0
Table at the Biological Labo-

ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology

of the Irish Sea.........20+-0 35 9
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 50 0
Index of Genera and Species

OfPATimallsieeesaevenaceerenseesls 50 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa 5 0
Exploration of Hadramut 50 0
Calibration and Comparison of

Measuring Instruments 25 0
Anthropometric Measure-

ments in Schools ............ 5 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 0
Exploration of a Kitchen-

midden at Hastings ......... 10 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph...........+0+ 25 O
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0

£977 15

Cxxili

So oo To coo Of

_

tren oo oo oo Cc ose coc * O SO o Jif om Lee ami =i — eel ee ES)

CXX1V
1896.
£
Photographs of Meteorolog:-
cal Phenomena. .......:5.0..+« 15
Seismological Observations... 80
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100
Calculation of certain Inte-
TAS sees ansanecamee's Sijalsceisides oe 10
Uniformity of Size of Pages of
Transactions, &C. .........+5: 5
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10
Action of Light upon Dyed
ME OIONIS tie -eese-nevacenenscanusne 2
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-
VSS Nestea si Sesant wktentide Jean p oe 10
The Carbohydrates of Barley
ROBUAW) peseee ors acais coves stamens 50
Reprinting Discussion on the
Relation of Agriculture to
NICIENCE) (deese ss adsaunhennanarape 5
HITEARICUBIOCKS ics. ,..csscncseess 10
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5
Shell-bearing Deposits at
CIAVATRG) Alever aces cwaccsoaadup 10
Eurypterids of the Pentland
LE GUI OA eonpegs encarta anes scene 2
Investigation of a Coral Reef
by Boring and Sounding... 10

Examination of Locality where
the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-
ford Museum was found... 25
Paleolithic Deposits at Hoxne
Fauna of Singapore Caves ...
Age and Relation of Rocks
near Moreseat, Aberdeen . 19
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............0+. 100
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............ 15
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea .............+. 50
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-
LANGE {es aoncks-wes ssi apmeeseencbie 100
African Lake Fauna............ 100
Oysters under Normal and
Abnormal Environment ... 40
Climatology of Tropical Africa 10
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments...... 20
Small Screw Gauge ............ 10
North-Western Tribes of
@anadal .o.. ses sass vaieeeeieee 100
Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30
Ethnographical Survey......... 40
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............... 10
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph............... 25
Corresponding Societies Com-
TUNG Eby nioress's seicle'e Soenies doeeee 30
£1,104

~

o oS a On OF io 1o°o:o

oO or © ooo

Os SS OF USSF 1S Sie OOK OF OK On OO OOO

So oC Oo ooo ®

o (=) oc ooo

Sven 640 BS.s oF Ce SOO GO 6S oO © -oF oo So

REPORT—1904.,

1897.
£ &. d.
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of certain In-

beprals... scassssescurersa-eesanee LO) j,.050
Electrolysis and Electro-

chemistry = .;tic-ececsesuss oneer 50 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-

lysis. s.cctistceo boone: ake 10 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VAbIVeS.. sznscsegenaahos +s apeeee pom s(x AO
Hrrati¢yBlocks \Gvccssssteyancoss 10 (0.
Photographs of Geological

Tviteneatig: «-scaen- ceeen snare 15» (0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in

the Isle of Man............... ib: 0-70
Table at the Zoological Sta-

OT INAPIES © oc ccsescssacasees 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 910 8
Zoological Bibliography and

POD Caton eres-neccesesves espe 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

ANIMBANUIM cs:caneateassseanars 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 40 0 0
The Details of Observa-

tions on the Migration of

BITAspyateecane saci eeemoesecnees 40 0 0
Climatology of Tropical

RTTICD He conte aeaattas aaaeeee wEner ZOE) 0
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 10 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 20 0 0
Investigation of Changes as-

sociated with the Func-

tional Activity of Nerve

Cells and their Peripheral

I XCENSIONS aance cases sesaar owe 180 0 0
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30 0 O
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph.............+ is yea Ui 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

tone and its Precursors...... a0 OO
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MIULCR idaclesaeaext een se canes geie 25 0 0

£1,059 10 8
1898.
Electrical Standards............ 75
Seismological Observations... 75

Abstracts of Physical Papers 100
Calculation of certain In-

teprals).asescuesssacwesentenacest 10
Electrolysisand Electro-chem-

TEV Wig Sngeer eer oncroncearigeee os 35
Meteorological Observatory at

IMGHEME AM neces ese s- 70 sartenet 50

o eo oe ooo

o 98 98 Sooo

Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements ...
Action of Light upon Dyed
Colours .......scceecesceesseres
Erratic BIOCKS ........seseeeeees
Investigation of a Coral Reef
Photographs of Geological
Interest ......s.esececeeeceneeee
Life-zones in British Carbon-
iferous ROCKS........+ssesseeee
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora
In Canada ......cccccsseseeceee
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples ...... .-...ecse0-
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth .........
Index Generum et Specierum
Amimalium .......0.ssesseseeess
Healthy and Unhealthy Oys-
FETS ....ceeeee Oaeccccscecceseovses
Climatology of Tropical Africa
State Monopolies in other
Countries

Small Screw Gauge ............
North-Western Tribes of

MRTIRGA ccctese iscectscecesecasses
Lake Village at Glastonbury
Silchester Excavation .........

GENERAL STATEMENT.

Ethnological Survey of Canada 75

Anthropology and Natural
History of Torres Straits...
Investigation of Changes asso-
ciated with the Functional
Activity of Nerve Cells and
their Peripheral Extensions

125

Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15
Corresponding Societies Com-
RT HECE age canncasseseascasecacts 25
£1,212
1899.
Electrical Standards............ 225
Seismological Observations... 65
Science Abstracts ...........0005 100
Heat of Combination of Metals
BHPATLOYS coupes oa ciopasaeleneven ene 20
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 50
Calculation of certain In-
EPTAIS . io acacesw«svawapeonessecas 10
Action of Light upon Dyed
MMOUTS) cio ceca ccsccena sles teen desis 4
Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Constitution of
Organic Substances ........- 50
Erratic Blocks ...........se00e0e 15
Photographs of Geological
TIGCTOSE snc cepadsvecneedss sxesss 10
Remains of Irish Elk in the
Male vOf Mans: « .scsccccessesscees 15
Pleistocene Flora and Fauna
in Canada ....... Seerooec even 1 30.

s.

oF oF Oot. So

d.

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ao Oo oOo. l6LcOMO colo oo

on Oo ieee

CXXV
Cae Sonn
Records of Disappearing Drift
Section at Moel Tryfaen . 5a7 0010
Ty Newydd Caves............006 40 0 0
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill... 30 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples ......ssecsseeeaee 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium ..........00.ceeeeee 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Apparatus for Keeping Aqua-
tic Organisms under Definite
Physical Conditions ......... 15 0 0
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English Chan-
nel during 1899..........0006 100 0 90
Exploration of Sokotra ...... 35 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 50 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0 0
Ethnological Survey of Canada 35 0 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropolo-
gical Notes and Queries’... 40 0 0
Age of Stone Circles...........: 20 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
LONG on. ceeccderesenceeeseeaet cess 30 0 0
Electrical Changes accom-
panying Discharge of Res-
piratory Centres.............+- 20 0 0
Influence of Drugs upon the
Vascular NervousSystem... 10 0 0
Histological Changes in Nerve
Celiice.cc--seentedueteee-caete sed 20 0 0
Micro-chemistry of Cells ...... 40 0 0
Histology of Suprarenal Cap-
SMLER! sn. coewtre ee ceeeces adeeces 20 0 0
Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex..........200+. 10 0 0
Fertilisation in Phyzophycee 20 0 0
Assimilation in Plants......... 20 0 0
Zoological and Botanical Pub-
Veter Tilo) 6 Apecorceeeceprnereer nner 5 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
MNILbCE v,..scvccsvcesessrsecseees 25 0 0
£1,430 14 2
eli
1900.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 O
Seismological Observations... 60 0 0
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 25 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
Montreal............20sseseeeeees 20 0 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-
tions ...... Ss bocna noses 75 0 0
Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Constitution
of Organic Bodies........... 6 301.07 0
Wave-length Tables............ 5 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative
ANALYSIS! {caves sanvabaulaescvees 5 0 0

REPORT—1904..

CxXxvl
fas adhe
Isomorphous Sulphonic Deri-
vatives of Benzene ......... 20 0 0
The Nature of Alloys ......... 30 0 0
Photographs of Geological
Interest ...00:.0-sscsccseeesens 10), 0,10
Remains of Elk in the Isle of
IMA vee cscmtsen-caceaeacasenee: ss Dy O70
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora
in Canada, .....scovesesseessees 10/+0..:0
Movements of Underground
Waters of Craven .........+++ 40 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples .....2.0+:.se+e00 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium ........c0sssscseeees 50 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English
Channel .raccseccsccesscenssess 40 0
Zoology of the Sandwich
HGIANGS® v-rac-tebeesen-> neces 100 0
Coral Reefs of the Indian
REGION 2. sessessvesesceeaseees 30 (0
Physical and Chemical Con-
stants of Sea-Water ......... 100 0O
Future Dealings in Raw
IPLOGUGCE) ss sressnnsneedeseteeuee 2 10
Silchester Excavation ........ 10 0
Ethnological Survey of
Canada ..cccnaccess=secssncepes 50 O
New Edition of ‘Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’ 40 0
Photographs of Anthropo-
logical Interest .............+. 10 0
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children in Schools 5 0
Ethnography of the Malay
IR@niNSi lal, co nscinccmnaseneeuenes 25 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
LONE ones cvienie cenenonsomepsnmess 20 0
Comparative Histology of
Suprarenal Capsules......... 20 0
Comparative Histology of
@erebral Cortex... ..s:..050:.- 5 0
Electrical Changes in Mam-
malian NerveS ...cccssecseees 20 0
Vascular Supply of Secreting
(GEG Eh asansaonbroodse sane nooe 10 0
Fertilisation in Phzophycee 20 0
Corresponding SocietiesCom. 20 0
£1,072 10
1901.
Electrical Standards ......... 45 0 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0
Wave-length Tables............ 414 0
Isomorphous Sulphonic Deri-
vatives of Benzene ......... 35 0 0

Sle rs OO. Oo “Oe Se OF OR eee iene Ce Om ic:

= 18. 1d.
Life-zones in British Carbo-

niferous Rocks ........++0+0+ 20 0 0
Underground Water of North-

west Yorkshire ..............- 50 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0

_ Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion; Naplesjioc.mcsroes rapes 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Amimalium . 6.25. 5<cs0-cescwers 75 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 10 0 0
Terrestrial Surface Waves... 5 O O
Changes of Land-level in the

Phlegrzan Fields............ 50 0 0

| Legislation regulating Wo-

men’s Labour sa/e..sec0e-ss pase 15 0 O

| Small Screw Gauge............ 45 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

to/Prachion. <-cscsc<accossuse ere t5- 0240
Silchester Excavation ......... 10...0:,..0
Ethnological Survey of

Canada. ss sicccosccsusesssssnee 30 0 0
Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0 O
Exploration in Crete ......... 145: 0.0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

ODE. seeesedeesencascensstes saat 30 0 0
Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 15 11
Suprarenal Capsules in the

Rabbits cc cesnteteinensdeeseneves 56 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 0
Morphology, Ecology, and

Taxonomy of Podoste-

MACE se 2c duress decent een 20 0 O

| Corresponding Societies Com-

MUILECES... Seen ceese-cmseule ee sete 15 0 0

£920 9 11
1902.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 35 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

Kites: \s.uanecssen shou receeneee 75 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOUS... Fosse es eee 80 0 0
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Organic Sub-

SUANCES evrecencssenaesncecgeee 20 FOG
Wave-length Tables............ 5 0 0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ LOMO 0.
Exploration of Irish Caves... 45 0 0
Table at the Zoological

Station, Naples ............... 100 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Animalinm’:;.ct:csests.cssecse 100 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 1b" 70)*.0
Structure of Coral Reefs of

Indian Ocean..............0%6 50 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT. CXXVil

EE

i i ee le ee

£ 3. ad. | onese

Compound Ascidians of the Anthropometric Investigation 5 0

Clyde Area ........s.sseeeeeeeee 25 0 O | Anthropometry of the Todas
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 15 0 O and other Tribes of Southern
Legislation regulating Wo- Indias; <2... scearsecessaseeeeances 50 0

men’s Labour........+ssseeeees 30 0 O | The State of Solution of Pro-
Small Screw Gauge .......-.+++ 0 0 Peld stress ee eteeassatcegein aes 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles Investigation of the Cyano-

GO TYACHION. |. 020s .eecscccevese 0 0 phyce Ra chuihobils odie belclton b aiehia'e oO:
Ethnological Survey of Respiration of Plants ......... 0

Canada ....seseereceeeeeeereees 0 0 | Conditions of Health essential
Age of Stone Circles............ 0 0 for School Instruction ...... 0
Exploration in Crete............ 0 O | Corresponding Societies Com. 20 0
Anthropometric Investigation £845 13 2

of Native Egyptian Soldiers 0 0 — =
Excavations on the Roman

Site at Gelligaer_ ............ 0 0 1905.
Changes in Hemoglobin ..... 0 O | Seismological Observations... 0)
Work of Mammalian Heart Investigation of the Upper

under Influence of Drugs... 0 0 Atmosphere by means of
Investigation of the Cyano- Kites. a) Mnpeedencna-taekes sets

PDY CEH... eeceenseeeeeseeees “ 0 0 | Magnetic Observations at
Reciprocal Influence of Uni- eT naa

versities and Schools ...... 0 0 | Wave-length Tables of Spectra

Conditions of Health essen-
tial to carrying on Work in
Schools .......cecsesesseeeeeeee

Corresponding Societies Com.

£947

1903.

Electrical Standards..........«
Seismological Observations...
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
TSSINGES “seseosoppcececobe er aancesa
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
DATUIGE sccassnccncessncacescecnane
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
STANCES .eerececceseccceeseccees
Mirratic BlOCKS ..c.ccsssessessose
Exploration of Irish Caves ...
Underground Waters of North-
west Yorkshire .............+.
Life-zones in British Carbon-
Tferous Rocks..........secssees
Geological Photographs ......
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples .......0.......
Index. Generum et Specierum
Animalium .........ceccecseeses
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and
BCAChes .....scc,cesecverecesare
Scottish National Antarctic
IX PECILLON o.ccesscacceecceses
Legislation affecting Women’s
HGADOUL <.ccpaccesrssssseresears

oo
oo

ROO ae On Onn Oe TO!) On ois: OS oO:

wioCo oa Oof710 S&S oO eo loocd © ©

Study of Hyro-aromatic Sub-
SEANCES ......ecccscesccavcee-ee
Erratic Blocks .................
Life-zones in British Carboni-
ferous Rocks ............20005+
Fauna and Flora of the Trias
Investigation of Fossiliferous
ID TetRuS, Geqneaecooabconacepoyrenad
Table at the Zoological Sta-
HiOns Naples! Wizeccscwssdeces see
Index Generum et Specierum
ANIMAMOM\.. n.0sesteesveasencs

| Development in the Frog......
| Researches on the Higher

(Or GHENG)) FaAggeeact eecuneennde
British and Foreign Statistics
of International Trade......
Resistance of Road Vehicles
tO) PEACHION Ss... scceusere-piani len
Researches in Crete ............
Researches in Glastonbury
Lake Village ..........s.0.000.
Anthropometric Investigation
of Egyptian Troops .........
Excavations on Roman Sites
ine Biba, ictccn'ssstecow'es ends) a

RIHES) SS pacdondoo peocceeesonodcee
Botanical Photographs.........
Respiration of Plants... ........
Experimental Studies in

ICLEGiby/cccescencecececensnse cs.
Corresponding Societies Com-

MIULECES 2.00. cccese ccc scacenerseoes

o oo o SI oo o =) oo oo iS Fogle}

CXXVIl1 REPORT—1904..

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, August 17, at 8.30 p.M.,in the Corn Exchange, Sir
Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., resigned the office of President
to the Right Hon. Arthur Jazes Balfour, D.C.L., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S.,
who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 3.

On Thursday, August 18, at 5 p.m., in the Theatre, Mr. J. W. Clark
delivered a Lecture on ‘The Origin and Growth of the University of
Cambridge ;’ and at 9 p.m., a Soirée took place at Trinity College.

On Friday, August 19, at 8.30 p.m., in the Theatre, Professor G. H.
Darwin, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘Ripple-Marks and Sand-
Dunes.’

On Monday, August 22, at 8.30 p.m. in the Theatre, Professor
H. F. Osborn delivered a Discourse on ‘ Palzeontological Discoveries
in the Rocky Mountains.’

On Wednesday, August 24, at 2.30 p.mM., in the Senate House, the
concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were
explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to South Africa. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence at Cape Town, on Tuesday, August 15, 1905.]

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS

BY

Tue Rieut Hon. A. J. BALFOUR, D.C.L., LL.D., M.P.,
F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh.

PRESIDENT.

Reflections suggested is the New 7 Theory of Matter.

Tue meetings of the British Association have for the most part been held
in crowded centres of population, where our surroundings never permit us
to forget, were such forgetfulness in any case possible, how close is the tie
that binds modern science to modern industry, the abstract researches of
the student to the labours of the inventor and the mechanic. This, no
doubt, is as it should be. The interdependence of theory and practice
cannot be ignored without inflicting injury on both ; and he is but a poor
friend to either who undervalues their mutual co-operation.

Yet, after all, since this great Society exists for the advancement of
Science, it is well that now and again we should choose our place of
gathering in some spot where science rather than its applications, know-
ledge, not utility, are the ends to which research is primarily directed.

If this be so, surely no happier selection could have been made than
the quiet courts of this ancient University. For here, if anywhere, we
tread the classic ground of physical discovery. Here, if anywhere, those
who hold that physics is the true Scientia Scientiarum, the root of all the
sciences which deal with inanimate nature, should feel themselves at
home. For, unless I am led astray by too partial an affection for my own
University, there is nowhere to be found, in any corner of the world, a
- spot with which have been connected, either by their training in youth, or
by the labours of their maturer years, so many men eminent as the
originators of new and fruitful physical conceptions. I say nothing of
Bacon, the eloquent prophet of a new era ; nor of Darwin, the Copernicus
of Biology ; for my subject to-day is not the contributions of Cambridge
to the general growth of scientific knowledge. I am concerned rather
with the illustrious line of physicists who have learned or taught within
a few hundred yards of this building—a line stretching from Newton in
the seventeenth century, through setts in the Bele atte through
Young, Stokes, Maxwell, in the nineteenth, through Kelvin, who cnbadae
an epoch in himself, down to Rayleigh, Larmor, J. J, IB gnisses and the

B2

4, REPORT—1904.

scientific school centred in the Cavendish laboratory, whose physical spect-
lations bid fair to render the closing years of the old century and the open-
ing years of the new as notable as the greatest which have preceded them.

Now what is the task which these men, and their illustrious fellow-
labourers out of all lands, have set themselves to accomplish? To what
end led these ‘new and fruitful physical conceptions’ to which I have
just referred? It is often described as the discovery of the ‘laws con-
necting phenomena.’ But this is certainly a misleading, and in my
opinion a very inadequate, account of the subject. To begin with, it is
not only inconvenient, but confusing, to describe as ‘ phenomena’ things
’ which do not appear, which never have appeared, and which never can
appear, to beings so poorly provided as ourselves with the apparatus of
sense-perception. But apart from this, which is a linguistic error too
deeply rooted to be easily exterminated, is it not most inaccurate in sub-
stance to say that a knowledge of Nature’s laws is all we seek when
investigating Nature? The physicist looks for something more than
what, by any stretch of language, can be described as ‘ co-existences’ and
‘sequences’ between so-called ‘phenomena.’ He seeks for something
deeper than the laws connecting possible objects of experience. His
object is physical reality : a reality which may or may not be capable of
direct perception ; a reality which is in any case independent of it; a
reality which constitutes the permanent mechanism of that physical
universe with which our immediate empirical connection is so slight and so
deceptive. That such a reality exists, though philosophers have doubted,
is the unalterable faith of science ; and were that faith per impossibile to
perish under the assaults of critical speculation, science, as men of science
usually conceive it, would perish likewise.

If this be so, if one of the tasks of science, and more particularly of
physics, is to frame a conception of the physical universe in its inner
reality, then any attempt to compare the different modes in which, at
different epochs of scientific development, this intellectual picture has
been drawn, cannot fail to suggest questions of the deepest interest.
True, I am precluded from dealing with such of these questions as are
purely philosophical by the character of this occasion ; and with such of
them as are purely scientific by my own incompetence. But some there
may be sufliciently near the dividing line to induce the specialists who
rule by right on either side of it, to view with forgiving eyes any trespasses
into their legitimate domain which I may be tempted, during the next
few minutes, to commit.

Let me then endeavour to compare the outlines of two such pictures,
of which the first may be taken to represent the views prevalent towards
the end of the eighteenth century ; a little more than a hundred years
from the publication of Newton’s‘ Principia,’ and, roughly speaking, about
midway between that epoch-making date and the present moment. I
suppose that if at that period the average man of science had been asked

=a = Oe eee eee

Se

ADDRESS. 5

to sketch his general conception of the physical universe, he would
probably have said that it essentially consisted of various sorts of ponder-
able matter, scattered in different combinations through space, exhibiting
most varied aspects under the influence of chemical affinity and temperature,
but through every metamorphosis obedient to the laws of motion, always
retaining its mass unchanged, and exercising at all distances « force of
attraction on other material masses, according to a simple law. To this
ponderable matter he would (in spite of Rumford) have probably added
the so-called ‘imponderable’ heat, then often ranked among the elements ;
together with the two ‘electrical fluids,’ and the corpuscular emanations
supposed to constitute light.

In the universe as thus conceived the most important form of action
between its constituents was action at a distance ; the principle of the
conservation of energy was, in any general form, undreamed of ; electricity
and magnetism, though already the subjects of important investigation,

“ played no great part in the Whole of things ; nor was a diffused ether

required to complete the machinery of the universe.

Within a few months, however, of the date assigned for these deliver-
ances of our hypothetical physicist, came an addition to this general con-
ception of the world, destined profoundly to modify it. About a hundred
years ago Young opened, or re-opened, the great controversy which finally
established the undulatory theory of light, and with it a belief in an
interstellar medium by which undulations could be conveyed. But this
discovery involved much more than the substitution of a theory of light
which was consistent with the facts for one which was not ; since here
was the first authentic introduction ! into the scientific world-picture of a
new and prodigious constituent—a constituent which has altered, and is
still altering, the whole balance (so to speak) of the composition. Un-
ending space, thinly strewn with suns and satellites, made or in the
making, supplied sufficient material for the mechanism of the heavens as
conceived by Laplace. Unending space filled with a continuous medium
was a very different affair, and gave promise of strange developments.
It could not be supposed that the ether, if its reality were once admitted,
existed only to convey through interstellar regions the vibrations which
happen to stimulate the optic nerve of man. Invented originally to fulfil
this function, to this it could never be confined. And accordingly,
ag everyone now knows, things which, from the point of view of sense-
perception, are as distinct as light and radiant heat, and things to which
sense perception makes no response, like the electric waves of wireless
telegraphy,? intrinsically differ, not in kind, but in magnitude alone.

This, however, is not all, nor nearly all. If we jump over the century

! The hypothesis of an ether was, of course, not new. But before Young and
Fresnel it cannot be said to have been established.

? First known through the theoretical work of Maxwell and the experiments of
Herz,

6 REPORT—1904.

which separates 1804 from 1904, and attempt to give in outline the worlde
picture as it now presents itself to some leaders of contemporary specu-
lation, we shall find that in the interval it has been modified, not merely
by such far-reaching discoveries as the atomic and molecular composition
of ordinary tnatter, the kinetic theory of gases, and the laws of the con-
servation and dissipation of energy, but by the more and more important
part which electricity and the ether occupy in any representation of
ultimate physical reality.

Electricity was no more to the natural philosophers in the year
1700 than the hidden cause of an insignificant phenomenon.! It was
known, and had long been known, that such things as amber and glass,
when ‘electrified’ by friction, could be made to attract light objects
brought into their neighbourhood ; yet it was about fifty years before the
effects of electricity were perceived in the thunderstorm, It was about
100 years before it was detected in the form of a current. It was about _
120 years before it was connected with magnetism; about 170 years
before it was connected with light and ethereal radiation.

But to-day there are those who regard gross matter, the matter of
everyday experience, as the mere appearance of which electricity is the
physical basis ; who think that the elementary atom of the chemist, itself
far beyond the limits of direct perception, is but a connected system of
monads or sub-atoms which are not electrified matter, but are electricity
itself ; that these systems differ in the number of monads which they
contain, in their arrangement, and in their motion relative to each other
and to the ether; that on these differences, and on these differences
alone, depend the various qualities of what have hitherto been regarded
as indivisible and elementary atoms ; and that while in most cases these
atomic systems may maintain their equilibrium for periods which, com-
pared with such astronomical processes as the cooling of a sun, may
seem almost eternal, they are not less obedient to the law of change
than the everlasting heavens themselves.

But if gross matter be a grouping of atoms, and if atoms be systems
of electrical monads, what are these electrical monads? It may be that,
as Professor Larmor has suggested, they are but a modification of the
universal ether, a modification roughly comparable to a knot in a medium
which is inextensible, incompressible, and continuous. But whether
this final unification be accepted or not, it is certain that these monads
cannot be considered apart from the ether. It is on their interaction
with the ether that their qualities depend; and without the ether an
electric theory of matter is impossible.

Surely we have here a very extraordinary revolution. Two centuries
ago electricity seemed but a scientific toy. It is now thought by many
to constitute the reality of which matter is but the sensible expression.

» The modern history of electricity begins with Gilbert, but I have throughout
confined my observations to the post-Newtonian period.

ADDRESS. 7

It is but a century ago that the title of an ether to a place among the
constituents of the universe was authentically established. It seems
possible now that it may be the stuff out of which that universe is wholly
built. Nor are the collateral inferences associated with this view of the
physical world less surprising. It used, for example, to be thought that,
mass was an original property of matter, neither capable of explanation
nor requiring it ; in its nature essentially unchangeable, suffering neither
augmentation nor diminution under the stress of any forces to which it
could be subjected ; unalterably attached to each material fragment,
howsoever much that fragment might vary in its appearance, its Ce! its
chemical or its physical Beadstions

But if the new theories be accepted, these views must be revised.
Mass is not only explicable, it is actually explained. So far from being
an attribute of matter considered in itself, it is due, as I have said, to the
relation between the electrical monads of which matter is composed and
the ether in which they are bathed. So far from being unchangeable, it
changes, when moving at very high speeds, with every change in its velocity.

Perhaps, however, the most impressive alteration in our picture of the
universe required by these new theories is to be sought in a different
direction. We have all, I suppose, been interested in the generally
accepted views as to the origin and development of suns with their
dependent planetary systems ; and the gradual dissipation of the energy
which during this process of concentration has largely taken the form of
light and radiant heat. Follow out the theory to its obvious conclusions,
and it becomes plain that the stars now visibly incandescent are those in
mid-journey between the nebulee from which they sprang and the frozen
darkness to which they are predestined. What, then, are we to think of
the invisible multitude of the heavenly bodies in which this process has been
already completed ? According to the ordinary view we should suppose
them to be in a state where all possibilities of internal movement were
exhausted. At the temperature of interstellar space their constituent
elements would be solid and inert ; chemical action and molecular move-
ment would be alike impossible, and their exhausted energy could obtain
no replenishment unless they were suddenly rejuvenated by some celestial
collision, or travelled into other regions warmed by newer suns. .

This view must, however, be profoundly modified if we accept the
electric theory of matter. We can then no longer hold that if the
internal energy of a sun were as far as possible converted into heat either
by its contraction under the stress of gravitation, or by chemical reactions
between its elements, or by any other inter-atomic force ; and that were the
heat so generated to be dissipated (as in time it must be) through infinite
space, its whole energy would be exhausted. On the contrary, the
amount thus lost would be absolutely insignificant compared with what
remained stored up within the separate atoms. The system in its
corporate capacity would become bankrupt—the wealth of its individual

8 REPORT—1904.

constituents would be scarcely diminished. They would lie side by side,
without movement, without chemical affinity ; yet each one, howsoever
inert in its external relations, the theatre of violent motions, and of
powerful internal forces.

Or, put the same thought in another form : When the sudden appear-
ance of some new star in the telescopic field gives notice to the astronomer
that he, and perhaps, in the whole universe, he alone, is witnessing the
conflagration of a world, the tremendous forces by which this far-off
tragedy is being accomplished must surely move his awe. Yet not only
would the members of each separate atomic system pursue their relative
course unchanged, while the atoms themselves were thus riven violently
apart in flaming vapour, but the forces by which such a world is shattered
are really negligible compared with those by which each atom of it is held
together.

In common, therefore, with all other living things we seem to be
practically concerned chiefly with the feebler forces of Nature, and with
energy in its least powerful manifestations. Chemical affinity and
cohesion are on this theory no more than the slight residual effects of the
internal electrical forces which keep the atom in being. Gravitation,
though it be the shaping force which concentrates nebule into organised
systems of suns and satellites, is trifling compared with the attractions
and repulsions with which we are familiar between electrically charged
bodies ; while these again sink into ‘insignificance beside the attractions
and repulsions between the electric monads themselves. The irregular
molecular movements which constitute heat, on which the very possibility
of organic life seems absolutely to hang, and in whose transformations
applied science is at present so largely concerned, cannot rival the
kinetic energy stored within the molecules themselves. This prodigious
mechanism seems outside the range of our immediate interests. We live,
so to speak, merely on its fringe. It has for us no promise of utilitarian
value. It will not drive our mills ; we cannot harness it to our trains.
Yet not less on that account does it stir the intellectual imagination.
The starry heavens have from time immemorial moved the worship or
the wonder of mankind. But if the dust beneath our feet be indeed
compounded of innumerable systems, whose elements are ever in the
most rapid motion, yet retain through uncounted ages their equilibrium
unshaken, we can hardly deny that the marvels we directly see are not
more worthy of admiration than those which recent discoveries have
enabled us dimly to surmise.

i;

Now whether the main outlines of the world-picture which I have
just imperfectly presented to you be destined to survive, or whether in their
turn they are to be obliterated by some new drawing on the scientific
palimpsest, all will, T think, admit that so bold an attempt to unify

ADDRESS. 9

physical nature excites feelings of the most acute intellectual gratification.
The satisfaction it gives is almost esthetic in its intensity and quality.
We feel the same sort of pleasurable shock as when from the crest of
some melancholy pass we first see far below us the sudden glories of
plain, river, and mountain. Whether indeed this vehement sentiment in
favour of a simple universe has any theoretical justification, I will not
venture to pronounce, There is no & priorz reason that I know of for
expecting that the material world should be a modification of a single
medium, rather than a composite structure built out of sixty or seventy
elementary substances, eternal and eternally different. Why, then,
should we feel content with the first hypothesis and not with the second ?
Yet so itis. Men of science have always been restive under the multi-
plication of entities. They have eagerly watched for any sign that the
different chemical elements own a common origin, and are all compounded
out of some primordial substance. Nor, for my part, do I think such
instincts should be ignored. John Mill, if I rightly remember, was con-
temptuous of those who saw any difficulty in accepting the doctrine of
‘action at a distance.’ So far as observation and experiment can tell us,
bodies do actually influence each other at a distance ; and why should they
not? Why seek to go behind experience in obedience to some &@ priori
sentiment for which no argument can be adduced? So reasoned Mill, and
to his reasoning I have no reply. Nevertheless, we cannot forget that it
was to Faraday’s obstinate disbelief in ‘action at a distance’ that we owe
some of the crucial discoveries on which both our electric industries and
the electric theory of matter are ultimately founded. While at this very
moment physicists, however baffled in the quest for an explanation of
_ gravity, refuse altogether to content themselves with the belief, so satisfy-
ing to Mill, that it is a simple and inexplicable property of masses acting
on each other across space.

These obscure intimations about the nature of reality deserve, I think,
more attention than has yet been given to them. That they exist is cer-
tain ; that they modify the indifferent impartiality of pure empiricism can
hardly be denied. The common notion that he who would search out the
secrets of Nature must humbly wait on experience, obedient to its
slightest hint, is but partly true. This may be his ordinary attitude ;
but now and again it happens that observation and experiment are not
treated as guides to be meekly followed, but as witnesses to be broken
down in cross-examination. Their plain message is disbelieved, and the
investigating judge does not pause until a confession in harmony with
his preconceived ideas has, if possible, been wrung from their reluctant
evidence.

This proceeding needs neither explanation nor defence in those cases
where there is an apparent contradiction between the utterances of expe-
rience in different connections. Such contradictions must of course be
reconciled, and science cannot rest until the reconciliation is effected,

10 REPORT—1904.

The difficulty only arises when experience apparently says one thing
and scientific instinct persists in saying another. Two such cases I have
already mentioned ; others will easily be found by those who care to seek.
What is the origin of this instinct, and what its value ; whether it be a
mere prejudice to be brushed aside, or a clue which no wise man would
disdain to follow, I cannot now discuss. For other questions there are,
not new, yet raised in an acute form by these most modern views of
matter, on which I would ask your indulgent attention for yet a few
moments,
1B

That these new views diverge violently from those suggested by
ordinary observation is plain enough. No scientific education is likely
to make us, in our unreflective moments, regard the solid earth on
which we stand, or the organised bodies with which our terrestrial fate is
so intimately bound up, as consisting wholly of electric monads very
sparsely scattered through the spaces which these fragments of matter
are, by a violent metaphor, described as ‘occupying.’ Not less plain is it
that an almost equal divergence is to be found between these new theories
and that modification of the common-sense view of matter with which
science has in the main been content to work.

What was this modification of common sense? It is roughly indicated
by an old philosophic distinction drawn between what were called the
‘primary ’ and the ‘ secondary’ qualities of matter. The primary quali-
ties, such as shape and mass, were supposed to possess an existence quite
independent of the observer ; and so far the theory agreed with common
sense. The secondary qualities, on the other hand, such as warmth and
colour, were thought to have no such independent existence, being,
indeed, no more than the resultants due to the action of the primary
qualities on our organs of sense-perception ; and here, no doubt, common
sense and theory parted company.

You need not fear that I am going to drag you into the controversies
with which this theory is historically connected. They have left abiding
traces on more than one system of philosophy, They are not yet solved.
In the course of them the very possibility of an independent physical
universe has seemed to melt away under the solvent powers of critical
analysis. But with all this I am not now concerned. I do not propose
to ask what proof we have that an external world exists, or how, if it
does exist, we are able to obtain cognisance of it. These may be ques-
tions very proper to be asked by philosophy ; but they are not proper
questions to be asked by science. For, logically, they are antecedent to
physical science, and we must reject the sceptical answers to both of them
before any such science becomes possible at all. My present purpose requires
me to do no more than observe that, be this theory of the primary and
secondary qualities of matter good or bad, it is the one on which, as a
matter of fact, science has in the main proceeded, It was with matter thus

_- as re

eal

ADDRESS. 11

conceived that Newton experimented. To it he applied his laws of motion ;
of it he predicated universal gravitation. Nor was the case greatly altered
when science became as much preoccupied with the movements of molecules
as it was with those of planets. For molecules and atoms, whatever else
might be said of them, were at least pieces of matter, and, like other
pieces of matter, possessed those ‘primary’ qualities supposed to be
characteristic of all matter, whether found in large masses or in small.

But the electric theory which we have been considering carries us into
a new region altogether. It does not confine itself to accounting for the
secondary qualities by the primary, or the behaviour of matter in bulk
by the behaviour of matter in atoms ; it analyses matter, whether molar
or molecular, into something which is not matter at all. The atom is
now no more than the relatively vast theatre of operations in which
minute monads perform their orderly evolutions ; while the monads
themselves are not regarded as units of matter, but as units of elec-
tricity ; so that matter is not merely explained, but is explained away.

Now the point to which I desire to call attention is not to be sought
in the great divergence between matter as thus conceived by the
physicist and matter as the ordinary man supposes himself to know it,
between matter as it is perceived and matter as it really is, but to the
fact that the first of these two quite inconsistent views is wholly based
on the second.

This is surely something of a paradox. We claim to found all our
scientific opinions on experience ; and the experience on which we found
our theories of the physical universe is our sense-perception of that
universe. That ts experience ; and in this region of belief there is no
other. Yet the conclusions which thus profess to be entirely founded
upon experience are to all appearance fundamentally opposed to it ; our
knowledge of reality is based upon illusion, and the very conceptions we
use in describing it to others, or in thinking of it ourselves, are abstracted
from anthropomorphic fancies, which science forbids us to believe and
Nature compels us to entertain.

We here touch the fringe of a series of problems with which induc-
tive logic ought to deal ; but which that most unsatisfactory branch of
philosophy has systematically ignored. This is no fault of men of
science. They are occupied in the task of making discoveries, not in
that of analysing the fundamental presuppositions which the very pos-
sibility of making discoveries implies. Neither is it the fault of trans-
cendental metaphysicians. Their speculations flourish on a different
level of thought ; their interest in a philosophy of nature is lukewarm :
and howsoever the questions in which they are chiefly concerned be
answered, it is by no means certain that the answers will leave the
humbler difficulties at which I have hinted either nearer to or further
from asolution. But though men of science and idealists stand acquitted,
the same can hardly be said of empirical philosophers, So far from solving

42 REPORT—1904.

the problem involved in the attempt to extract knowledge from experi-
ence, they seem scarcely to have understood that there was any such
problem to be solved. Led astray by a misconception to which I have
already referred ; believing that science was concerned only with (so-called)
‘phenomena,’ that it had done all that it could be asked to do if it
accounted for the sequence of our individual sensations, that it was con-
cerned only with the ‘laws of Nature,’ and not with the inner character
of physical reality ; disbelieving, indeed, that any such physical reality
does in truth exist ;—it has never felt called upon seriously to consider
what are the actual methods by which science attains its results, and how
those methods are to be justified. If anyone, for example, will take up
Mill’s logic, with its ‘sequences and co-existences between phenomena,’
its ‘method of difference,’ its ‘method of agreement,’ and the rest ; if he
will then compare the actual doctrines of science with this version of the
mode in which those doctrines have been arrived at, he will soon be
convinced of the exceedingly thin intellectual fare which has so often been
served out to us under the imposing title of Inductive Theory.

There is an added emphasis given to these reflections by a train of
thought which has long interested me, though I acknowledge that it never
seems to have interested anyone else. Observe, then, that in order of
logic sense-perceptions supply the premisses from which we draw all our
knowledge of the physical world. It is they which tell us there is a
physical world ; it is on their authority that we learn its character. But
in order of causation they are effects due (in part) to the constitution of our
organs of sense. What we see depends not merely on what there is to be
seen, but on our eyes. What we hear depends not merely on what there
is to hear, but on our ears. Now, eyes and ears, and all the mechanism
of perception, have, according to accepted views, been evolved in us and
our brute progenitors by the slow operation of Natural Selection. And
what is true of sense-perception is of course also true of the intellectual
powers which enable us to erect upon the frail and narrow platform which
sense-perception provides, the proud fabric of the sciences.

Now Natural Selection only works through utility. It encourages
aptitudes useful to their possessor or his species in the struggle for
existence, and, for a similar reason, it is apt to discourage useless apti-
tudes, however interesting they may be from other points of view, because,
being useless, they are probably burdensome.

But it is certain that our powers of sense-perception and of calcula-
tion were fully developed ages before they were effectively employed in
searching out the secrets of physical reality—for our discoveries in this
field are the triumphs but of yesterday. The blind forces of Natural
Selection which so admirably simulate design when they are providing
for a present need, possess no power of prevision, and could never,
except by accident, have endowed mankind, while in the making, with a
physiological or mental outfit adapted to the higher physical investigations,

ADDRESS. 13

So far as natural science can tell us, every quality of sense or intellect
which does not help us to fight, to eat, and to bring up children, is but
a by-product of the qualities which do, Our organs of sense-perception
were not given us for purposes of research ; nor was it to aid us in
meting out the heavens or dividing the atom that our powers of calcu-
lation and analysis were evolved from the rudimentary instincts of the
animal.

It is presumably due to these circumstances that the beliefs of all
mankind about the material surroundiugs in which it dwells are not only
imperfect but fundamentally wrong. It may seem singular that down to,
say, five years ago, our race has, without exception, lived and died in a
world of illusions ; ard that its illusions, or those with which we are here
alone concerned, have not been about things remote or abstract, things
transcendental or divine, but about what men see and handle, about those
‘plain matters of fact’ among which common sense daily moves with its
most confident step and most self-satisfied smile. Presumably, however, this
is either because too direct a vision of physical reality was a hindrance, not
a help, in the struggle for existence ; because falsehood was more useful
than truth; or else because with so imperfect a material as living
tissue no better results could be attained. But if this conclusion be
accepted, its consequences extend to other organs of knowledge besides
those of perception. Not merely the senses, but the intellect, must be
judged by it ; and it is hard to see why evolution, which has so lament-
ably failed to produce trustworthy instruments for obtaining the raw
material of experience, should be credited with a larger measure of
success in its provision of the physiological arrangements which condition
reason in its endeavours to turn experience to account.

Considerations like these, unless I have compressed them beyond
the limits of intelligibility, do undoubtedly suggest a certain inevitable
incoherence in any general scheme of thought which is built out of
materials provided by natural science alone. Extend the boundaries
of knowledge as you may; draw how you will the picture of the
universe ; reduce its infinite variety to the modes of a single space-filling
ether ; re-trace its history to the birth of existing atoms ; show how under
the pressure of gravitation they became concentrated into nebulz, into
suns, and all the host of heaven ; how, at least in one small planet, they
combined to form organic compounds ; how organic compounds became
living things ; how living things, developing along many different lines,
gave birth at last to one superior race ; how from this race arose, after
many ages, a learned handful, who looked round on the world which thus
blindly brought them into being, and judged it, and knew it for what it
was: perform, I say, all this, and though you may indeed have attained
to science, in nowise will you have attained to a self-sufficing system
of beliefs. One thing at least will remain, of which this long-drawn
sequence of causes and effects gives no satisfying explanation ; and that

14 REPORT—1904.

is knowledge itself. Natural science must ever regard knowledge as the
product of irrational conditions, for in the last resort it knows no others,
It must always regard knowledge as rational, or else science itself dis-
appears. In addition, therefore, to the difficulty of extracting from
experience beliefs which experience contradicts, we are confronted with the
difficulty of harmonising the pedigree of our beliefs with their title to
authority. The more successful we are in explaining their origin, the
more doubt we cast upon their validity. The more imposing seems the
scheme of what we know, the more difficult it is to discover by what
ultimate criteria we claim to know it.

Here, however, we touch the frontier beyond which physical science
possesses no jurisdiction. If the obscure and difficult region which lies
beyond is to be surveyed and made accessible, philosophy, not science,
must undertake the task. It is no business of this Society. We meet
here to promote the cause of knowledge in one of its great divisions ; we
shall not help it by confusing the limits which usefully separate one
division from another. It may perhaps be thought that I have dis-
regarded my own precept ; that I have wilfully overstepped the ample
bounds within which the searchers into Nature carry on their labours.
Tf it be so, I can only beg your forgiveness. My first desire has been to
rouse in those who, like myself, are no specialists in physics, the same
absorbing interest which I feel in what is surely the most far-reaching
speculation about the physical universe which has ever claimed experi-
mental support ; and if in so doing I have been tempted to hint my own
personal opinion, that as Natural Science grows it leans more, not less,
upon a teleological interpretation of the universe, even those who least
agree may perhaps be prepared to pardon,

va at

REPORTS ©

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

a eS eee

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

1 —

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Kites in co-opera-
tion with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.—Third
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman),
Mr. W. H. Dives (Secretary), Mr. D. Arncuigatp, Mr. C. Vernon
Boys, Dr. A. Bucuan, Dr. R. T. GuAzEBRoox, Dr. H. R. Mint,
and Professor A. ScHUSTER. (Drawn up by the Chairman and
Secretary.)

Tne Committee have acted throughout in conjunction with the Committee
of the Royal Meteorological Society.

Since the date of the last report an account of the observations made
in the summer of 1903 has been communicated to the Royal Meteorological
Society and published in their ‘ Quarterly Journal.’

Winter Observations.

In the interval between the meeting of the Association at Southport
and the beginning of June experimental observations have been made at
Oxshott ; kites, of which various details have been altered, have been
sent up almost every day on which the wind-force equalled or exceeded
six on the Beaufort scale. The object of these experiments was to ascer-
tain if the behaviour of the kites could be improved by alteration of
shape, size, &c., more particularly with regard to uniformity of pull and
stability in winds of varying force.

As regards the first of these qualities considerable improvement has
been effected by arrangements which will be described subsequently.

Instruments.

A new form of meteorograph has been designed for kite experiments
by which the records of pressure, temperature, and humidity are traced
upon a revolving disc of paper instead of a drum.

The pressure is indicated by the variation of capacity of an aneroid
box of thin metal containing air. This needs a temperature correction to
give the actual pressure, and the necessary correction is obtained from
the temperature trace. Temperature is recorded by the expansion of
ether contained in a coil of thin brass tube, terminating at one end in a
small aneroid box, the variation in the position of the lid indicating the

1904, Cc

18 REPORT—1904.

changes of temperature by direct multiplication with the aid of a single
lever.

The humidity is given by the expansion and contraction of a bundle
of hairs in the usual way. This apparatus was described by Mr. Dines
for ‘Symons’s Meteorological Magazine’ for July. One of its advantages
for kite work is the stability of the pen levers due to the more powerful
controlling forces. Another important advantage is that the apparatus
is comparatively cheap. It is made by Mr. Hicks, of Hatton Garden.

Ascents in connection with the International Aéronautical Investigation.

From the beginning of February till June ascents were made at
Oxshott on every day specified by the President of the International
Aéronautical Committee unless the wind was too light for work with
kites.

Ascents from H.M.S. ‘ Seahorse.’

As reported last year, an application made by the Royal Society to the
Admiralty for the loan of a vessel for experiments with kites became
inoperative in consequence of the accident to the ship which their lord-
ships intended to place at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose.
At the desire of the Royal Meteorological Society the Royal Society renewed
the application for the loan of a vessel with a view to experiments in the
summer, and their lordships assigned H.M.S. ‘ Seahorse,’ a special service
vessel of 600 tons and 1,000 horse-power, for the service, under the
command of Staff-Captain F. W. A. Crooke, R.N., for six weeks from
the middle of June. Mr. Dines visited Portsmouth to make preliminary
arrangements, and the ‘Seahorse’ arrived at Crinan on June 16. The
fitting of the winding engine was completed on June 18, and the opera-
tions commenced on Monday, June 20, and were continued daily until
July 28, with the exception of Sundays and the three days, July 9, 11,
and 12, when the vessel was at Oban for the purpose of coaling. The
approximate heights of the several ascents were as follows :—

Date | Height reached Date Height reached
Feet Feet
June 20 3,250 July 8 5,000
remit 4,000 wee 8,500
see 5,340 5 4 1,760
022 3,320 Heels 8,060
es 4,100 16 6,050
3 2D 3,750 ? { 6,760?
a Bil 2,300 45 NU 1,200
» 28 7,300 eats) 4,200
» 29 4,900 sue 20 2,680
oO. 5,600 sy 5,500
July 1 5,500 pe PD) 5,900
DS 4,400 jf 2a" =
rd. 6,300 » 25 5,310
PD) 7,200 Aye Ais 5,280
” 6 5,300 39 27 a = -
Pueett 7,350 2s 8,000

1 Afternoon.

2 No ascent owing to want of wind. Persistently calm weather prevailed on
and after July 18.

INVESTIGATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE BY MEANS OF KITES. 19

The Committee take this opportunity of recording their thanks to
the Royal Society for their action in the matter, to the Lords of the
Admiralty for the loan of the ‘Seahorse,’ and to Staff-Captain Crooke
and the officers and men of his vessel for the manner in which they
contributed to the carrying out of the observations. An account of the
results of the experiments will be published later.

Proposed Observations on S.S. ‘ Helga.’

In the course of correspondence with Mr. E. W. L. Holt, of the
Fishery Branch of the Irish Board of Agriculture Technical Instruction,
Dr. Shaw learned that there was a prospect of occasional kite observa-
tions on board the s.s. ‘ Helga,’ belonging to the board, provided that the
_ Department was not called upon to defray the expenses of the necessary
apparatus and materials. Dr, Shaw reported the matter to the Committee,
and reported, further, that if the Committee were willing to supply
apparatus and gear for the experiments on the ‘ Helga’ the Meteorological
Council were prepared to make arrangements with Mr. Dines to initiate
the experiments and explain the method of working the apparatus,

Of the contribution of 200/. from the Government Grant Fund made
last year for the purpose of hiring a vessel a sum of about 90/,
remained ; and as the loan of H.MLS. ‘Seahorse’ obviated the necessity
for the further hiring of a vessel, it was suggested that the unexpended
balance of the fund might be used to provide the apparatus. After
communicating with the Royal Society upon the matter the Committee
decided to adopt the suggestion, and Mr. Dines made ready a duplicate
set of apparatus, which will be mounted on board the ‘ Helga’ as soon as
an opportunity offers for commencing experiments on that vessel.

The funds appropriated to the use of the Committee during the year
have been :—

£

Balance of Government Grant Fund left over from last year LN9O

British Association Grant made at Southport : ~ 4 « | 50
Anonymous Contribution by a Member of the Council of the

Royal Meteorological Society . 5 3 ‘ - 2 ae 20D

Provision for Continuation of the Experiments.

The Committee of Section A of the British Association passe d
a resolution desiring the Council to take steps to urge upon the
Government the provision of means for co-operating in an organised
union with the Continental nations and with India and America in the
investigation of the upper air by means of balloons and kites. The
decision of the Government with regard to the matter is nevertheless
intimately connected with the action intended with regard to the Report
of the Meteorological Grant Committee of the Treasury. The Com-
mittee’s report was published in June, and refers in favourable terms to
the proposed investigation, but suggests no specific grant for the purpose.
The action of the Government with regard to the ‘finding of the report
has not yet been made known.

Nothing is therefore ascertained as to the prospects of an investiga-
tion of the upper air of this country upon an official basis. In the
meantime Mr. Dines is likely to be able with the apparatus in hand to
obtain kite observations on the fixed days of the Meteorological Com-
mittee, and to make further investigations with regard to improvements

c2

20 REPORT—1904.

of the kites and apparatus. With regard to the latter an easy means
of calibrating the meteorograph is required, and this involves the use of
a suitable air-tight inclosure which might be used for similar operations
in future. The cost of such an apparatus is estimated at 25/.

The Committee therefore ask for reappointment, with a grant of 401.

Report on the Theory of Point-groups.'—Parr IV.
By Frances Harpeastie, Cambridge.

§ 10. 1857-18783. ‘The rise and development of the theory of algebraic
functions has been described by Brill and Noether in a masterpiece of
German erudition.2 The whole of the fifth and sixth sections of this
work, as well as large portions of other sections, treat, historically and
critically, of matters more or less relevant to the theory of point-groups.
It would be impracticable to deal thoroughly with such a mass of
material within the limits of this Report. Some account of certain
publications of this period will, however, indicate how the theory of
functions came to be connected with the theory of higher plane curves,
a connection which is the origin of the theory of point-groups. And as
a preliminary to this, the following section deals very briefly with
Riemann’s contribution to the ideas which gave rise to this theory.

At the very end of the eighteenth century, two years before the
birth of Pliicker and five years before that of Jacobi, Gauss, then in
his twenty-second year, put forward a strictly rigorous proof of the
fundamental theorem of algebra. In this dissertation* the position of
a point in the plane was taken, for the first time, as the geometrical
interpretation of a single complex variable, in contrast to the Cartesian
plan, which, confining the attention to real quantities, had associated
two independent variables with each point. By this interpretation the
first step was taken towards the connection of the theory of functions
with the theory of higher plane curves ; for, fifty-two years later, this
plane of the complex variable was made the foundation of the ingenious
structure commonly known as a ‘ Riemann surface.’ The conception of
a many-sheeted surface spread over the plane, upon which the complex
variable is free to move, and in which the sheets are connected by inter-
penetration of one another in a manner which it is impossible to con-
struct in the concrete, but which in the imagination affords a perfect
representation of the ‘branching’ of a many-valued function, each sheet
being associated with one branch of the function, and melting into
another sheet round a point at which, for one and the same value of the
variable, two branches coincide—this conception, by means of which the
many-valued function is transformed into a one-valued function of the
position of the variable on the surface, is due to Riemann (1826-1866),
who first described such a surface in his ‘Inaugural Dissertation,’

! Parts I., II., and III. appeared in the Brit. Assoc. Reports for 1900, 1902, 1903.

2 Brill and Noether, ‘ Die Entwicklung der Theorie der algebraischen Functionen
in iilterer und neuerer Zeit’ (Jahresber. d. deutschen Math. Ver. vol. iii. (1894),
pp. 109-565).

3 *Demonstratio nova theorematis, onnem functionem algebraicam rationalem
integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse,’
Helmsiadt, 1799 ; Gauss, Werke, vol. iii, 1876, pp. 1-30.

a

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. oF

published in 1851.' ‘This surface is an essential feature of Riemann’s
method ; the results in the theory of functions which he obtained are all
intimately connected with its use ; and it is as a consequence of this fact
that the possibility of the transference of these results into the theory
of higher plane curves naturally presented itself to his readers. A
Riemann surface is, in its original state, ‘multiply connected,’ 2.¢., it
cannot be bounded by one continuous curve ; its dissection into a
‘simply connected’ surface, bounded by one continuous curve, is effected
by means of ‘cross-cuts.’ In one of the opening sections of his ‘Theory
of Abelian Functions’? Riemann takes the number of these cross-cuts
for any given surface to be 2p, and this assumption provides the original
definition of the number p, a number which reappears on every page of
this memoir, and whose importance is marked in § 11 by the establish-
ment of its permanence under bi-rational transformation of the equation
F (s, z) = 0, associated with the given Riemann surface. In§$ 12 Riemann
further pointed out that all algebraic equations can be divided into
classes : those of the same class are derivable from each other by bi-
rational transformation, and are characterised by the value of p. This
classification is of great importance ; for subsequently, when the number p
has been identified with a purely geometrical property of a curve, it is
shown that, starting from this as a definition, p is permanent under a
bi-rational transformation of the curve ; and the standpoint of projective
geometry, from which curves are classified according to their orders, is
almost entirely replaced in the theory of point-groups by the standpoint
of bi-rational transformation, in which a curve is classified according to
the value of p.

Riemann regarded all the functions with which he dealt not, as other
writers had done, from the point of view of the actual functional form
they possess, but as defined by certain properties? Among these
properties is the existence of infinities of given orders at given points
of the Riemann surface, and of given ‘moduli of periodicity’ at the
2p cross-cuts. The simplest case is that in which the function has no
infinities, but only moduli of periodicity : these were called by Riemann
‘integrals of the first kind,’ and, from the fact that there are 2p cross-
cuts, he showed that there are exactly p linearly independent integrals
of this kind on a surface.t He next discussed integrals of the
‘second’ and of the ‘third’ kinds, which have respectively algebraic
and logarithmic infinities, and then proceeded to form an algebraic
function by means of a sum of integrals of the first and second kinds,
together with an additive constant, this sum being subject to the
condition that the moduli of periodicity should vanish.® And, by
counting the constants in the equations which express this condition,
he found that, after the m infinities of an algebraic function have been
chosen on the surface, there will always remain precisely m—p-+1
arbitrary constants (including the additive constant) in its expression.®
This result was corrected seven years Jater by Roch (1#39-1866),
who pointed out that under certain conditions the number of arbitrary

! «Grundlagen fiir eine allgemeine Theorie der Functionen einer verianderlichen
complexen Grosse,’ Inaugural- Dissertation, Gottingen, 1851, Ges. Werke, pp. 3-47.

2 «Theorie der Abel’schen Functionen,’ Crelle, vol. liv., 1857; Ges. Werke,
2nd edit. 1892, pp. 88-144.

3 Loe. cit. § 3. 4 Loe. cit. § 4.

5 Loe. cit. § 5. § Loe. cit. § 5,

22 REPORT—1904.

constants is increased. The theorem in which he formulated the true
state of the case will be enunciated later on, after a brief summary of
some more of Riemann’s results.

After showing that an algebraic function, s, with m infinities on the
surface, is the root of an irreducible equation of the nth degree whose
coefficients are integral functions of the mth degree in z, the complex
variable—in other words, after showing that there is an equation,

n m
F (s, z)=0, which is so associated with the surface that as z moves over its
whole extent, s is a one-valued function of its position with m simple
infinities—Riemann considered the question of the determination of the
‘branch-points’ of the surface from knowledge of the associated equation.
The essential property of a branch-point is not only that two branches of
the function coincide for a certain value of z, but that, as 2 moves round
the branch point, these branches interchange their values.! This opens
up the possibility that two branch-points may, as it were, destroy

nm m
each other by coincidence ; and, by expansion of F(s, z)=0 at a point,
Riemann showed that true branch-points only occur when “* =0, but not

s
oF, or else when e =) Tel and OP FO?F _ ce ars h OF _
8 ie

0 Os? Os. 02 08
)F O?FO?F | /OF . oF \?
ae mee

when
: 3 Os
and aS =0, but oa “6 9 the branches do not interchange their

values as z moves round the point. In the discussion of the r branch-points
which may thus disappear, Riemann explicitly limits himself by assuming
that when branch-points coincide it shall only be in pairs ; he thus rules
OF _o OF _o ag roc) wire fee
Daa” CLO sent 0s? 022 \ Osdz
when three branch-points coincide, two of them destroying each other.
This limitation is, however, quite unnecessary, and in the subsequent
adaptation of his results for the purposes of higher plane curves it was
not adhered to.? Riemann used his determination of the number of
arbitrary constants in the expression of an algebraic function of the
surface to show that every algebraic function s’ with m infinities, can be
expressed as the quotient of two integral functions.? The number of
arbitrary constants in such a quotient will be, as required, m—p+1,
provided that both numerator and denominator vanish at the 7 points
in which two branch-points destroy each other ; and this condition is
also required in order to ensure that s’ should, in general, assume two
different values at such a point, although s has only one value. Now

out altogether the cases in which

Ow ; : ae ; '

ay? the differential coefficient with respect to ~ of the integral of the first

kind, is an algebraic function on the given surface, and it is infinite at the

branch-points of the surface ; moreover 2 vanishes at the branch-points
8

of the surface and at the 7 other points as well ; lence the simplest
w
Oz

_-; the numerator is then a function which Riemann denotes as

expression as a quotient for is one in which the denominator is

* Loe. cit. § 6. * See Clebsch, Crelle, vol. Ixiii. p. 192. ® Loe, cit. § 8.

|

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 93

n=—2 m—2

@ (s , 2), and it also must vanish at the 7 points.'| This function ¢ has,
in general (n —1) (m—1)—r arbitrary constants, a number which Riemann
had previously shown? to be equal to p. There are, therefore, p linearly
independent functions ¢, which agrees with the former statement
that there are p linearly independent integrals of the first kind. The
function 9, which thus appears quite naturally in this expression for

w
dz”
through its influence on the theory of higher plane curves, is connected
with the theory of point-groups. It is characterised by the fact that it
must vanish at the 7-fixed points on the surface where a pair of branch-
points destroy each other ; moreover, as Riemann went on to show, it
has also m(n—2)+n(m—2)—2r=2p—2 other zeros which may be any-
where on the surface ; * in contradistinction to the fixed zeros, common to
all »’s, these latter are now often spoken of as the moveable zeros of a
o-function. Roch’s correction of Riemann’s enumeration of the number
of arbitrary constants involved in the expression of an algebraic function
on the surface—alluded to above—is concerned with this function », and
his theorem is as follows:* ‘ If an algebraic function s’ have m infinities

plays an important part in that portion of Riemann’s work which,

nm 1b
on the surface associated with F(s, z)=0, and if q functions ¢, which
are linearly independent of each other, vanish in these m points, then
s has m—p+1+¢ arbitrary constants in its expression.’

This is the theorem known in the theory of functions as the Riemann-
Roch theorem ; transferred into the theory of higher plane curves it
became part of a more general theorem, now usually spoken of as Brill
and Noether’s Theorem of Reciprocity. The latter, which is of funda-
mental importance for the theory of point-groups, was not taken from
any theorem which had been explicitly stated in the theory of functions,
but its enunciation was suggested by certain results obtained by Riemann
in connection with the theta-functions.® These results are based upon the
discussion of Abel’s theorem, which occupies the last three sections of the
first part of Riemann’s ‘Theory of Abelian Functions.’ Part II. of this
work is devoted to the theta-functions, but the actual results in which we
are interested appear in a later memoir (1865) on the vanishing of the
theta-functions.“ A short account of these investigations will now be
given in order to show how the first idea of a point-group arose.

Riemann was only directly concerned with Abel’s theorem in so
far as it applied to integrals of the first kind; he was in fact the first
definitely to enunciate and prove it for this case, for in Abel’s original
discussion of the subject this case had been treated as a particular instance
of the more general theorem for the three kinds of Abelian integrals, and
the conditions under which the sum of the integrals reduces to a constant
(i.e., the case in question) are complicated, and involve possibilities which
are excluded by Riemann’s method of attacking the problem. This
method, moreover, is readily applicable to the other cases, which, however,
do not concern us here. The ¢-function, which enters, as we have seen,

' Loe. cit. § 9. * Loe. cit. § 7. 3 Loe. cit. § 10.

* Roch, ‘Ueber die Anzahl der willkiirlichen Constanten in algebraischen
Functionen,’ Crelle, vol. lxiv. pp. 372-376 (1865).

®> See Brill and Noether’s Bericht, also Mathematische Annalen, vol. vii. p. 280.

6 Riemann, ‘ Ueber das Verschwinden der Thetafunctionen, Crelle, vol. Ixv.
1866; Ges. Werke, pp. 212-224.

24 at REPORT—1904.

automatically into Riemann’s expression for the differential of the integral
of the first kind, is necessarily involved in his discussion of this particular
ease of Abel’s theorem ; it forms, indeed, the natural link between those
results in the theta-functions already alluded to and Abel’s theorem
itself. Thus the theory of point-groups was originally provided with a
purely transcendental foundation—the whole superstructure being based
upon Abel’s theorem—although, as will subsequently be seen, its true
foundation is algebraical, and it can be rendered perfectly independent of
transcendental considerations.

The basis of Riemann’s proof of Abel’s theorem is his division of
algebraic functions into classes pertaining to the same Riemann surface.
For this enables him to take ¢ any rational function of s and z as the
independent variable in w, an integral of the first kind on the surface

nm
associated with F(s,<)=0. If, then, ¢ has m infinities on the surface,
dw . : : 2 :
-— is anm-valued algebraic function of ¢ ; and if w®, w®,. . . ,zv™ are the

dz
k=m dayk)
m-values of w for any one and the same value of Z, 3 = is a one-
k=1 a
valued function of ¢ whose integral is everywhere finite on the surface.
This function, composed of the sum of m-integrals, is thus necessarily
equal to a constant, and by proper choice of the path of integration can
he easily shown to be zero ; with the notation previously introduced by
Riemann, we have

A é p(s 1%] )dz I “$(8%)dz> P(8n%m)A2m—()
i | OF ea) | “OF Gam) 1° '* | OF Gxt).
0s; O85 O8m

where (s,2,) . . . (8%) are pairs of values of s, 2, at which ¢ assumes
one and the same value.! This is Abel’s theorem for integrals of the
first kind. Its importance for the theory of point-groups lies in its esta-
blishment of a system of p differential equations formed by writing con-
secutively ~, . . ¢, for in the left-hand side of equation A ; these ¢’s
being the p linearly independent numerators in Riemann’s expressions
for the p linearly independent integrals of the first kind. In discussing
the integration of these equations Riemann introduces the notion of a
system of quantities being congruent, with respect to certain moduli, to
another system ; the p quantities (b, .. . b,), namely, are said to be
congruent to the p quantities (a, . .. a,) with respect to 2p systems

9
a “=p
of moduli, when b,=a,-+-=m,k” where r=1... p and m, ... my, are

v=1
integers. The notation is (b, ... b,)=(a, ... a,).

The necessity for this notation arises—although Riemann does not
explicitly say so—where the paths of integration in equation (A) are
arbitrary ; the sign of equality in that equation must then be replaced by
a sign of congruence.

In an earlier section (§ 10) of Part I. of the ‘Theory of Abelian Func-
tions’ Riemann had shown that a rational function can be expressed as a
quotient of two ¢-functions provided that the number of its infinities be
less than p+1. This result is obtained by counting constants in the

} Riemann’s ‘ Theorie der Abel’schen Functionen,’ § 14. 2 Loe. cit. § 15.

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 25

1) \

quotient f the reasoning is somewhat obscure, and the number does

(2) ?
not tally with the number of arbitrary constants previously found by the
author ; on the contrary, it agrees with Roch’s more accurate formula,
showing that, in certain cases at least, Riemann knew that his own
needed modification. But, however this may be, the result itself is true,
and its use in the integration of the p equations formed from equation

(A) is of importance. For if ¢ is expressible as the quotient 7, (on if
ie8)
m<p +1, as the quotient a) then (s;%,) . . + (8n%m) are the common roots

of F(s, 2)=0 and of C=X (or of F(s, 2)=Oandé=".). That is to say,

(8:21) « - + (8n%m) may be regarded as the common roots of F=0 and yx=¢y
(or of F=0 and #°—%»®=0), but they are roots which vary with ¢, not
those which make y=Y=0 (or o?=9®=0) independently of ¢. When
m <p+l, they are therefore m of the 2p—2 moveable zeros of a p-functron,
since ¢°—p” obviously fulfils the necessary conditions which make it
@-function.! It is, of course, also possible, though not necessary, that
even when m>p-+l, ¢ should be expressible as the quotient of two
@-functions, and in such cases, once more, (8,2) - + + (8nZm) are m of the
2p—2 moveable zeros of a ¢-function.

Now Riemann shows that the p differential equations formed from
equations (A) can be completely integrated, under certain conditions :
first, when m<p+l1 and ¢ is perfectly general ; next, when m=p, in
which case { is necessarily expressible as the quotient of two ¢-functions ;
and, lastly, when m=2p—2, provided that ¢ 2s expressible as the quotient

of two ¢-functions. For, in the first case, if m=p-+1, ’ has p+1—p+1,

i.e., two independent constants ; it therefore depends upon one arbitrary
parameter after its +1 infinities have been chosen, and therefore s, 2,
which are (p+1)-valued functions of ¢, also depend only upon one

parameter, when | has been chosen so that it becomes infinite (ize. e—0)

at the p+1 lower limits of the integrals; of the p+1 upper limits
(8,21) - - - (Sy41%p41) Of the p+1 integrals connected by the p differential
equations it is thus seen that only one can remain arbitrary under these
conditions, and the system can therefore be completely integrated. If
m <p+l1 the reasoning only needs to be modified by considering that
certain of the upper and lower limits coincide, whereby such integrals
drop out from the equations. The solution of the p differential equations
may then be written

#=p+1 p+1 pti
BS cathy Da tose Dt wi? ) ==) (ep side)
#=1 u 1
where c, . . . ¢, are constants which depend upon the choice of the lower

limits of the integrals.”
In the second case, when m=p, ¢ is necessarily of the form a and
now, by the Riemann-Roch formula, it has p—p+1+1, 2<., ee inde-
1 Loe, cit. § 16. 2 Loe. cit. § 14.

26 REPORT—1904.

pendent constants as before ; the differential equations can be integrated,
and (s)2,). . . (8,z,) are p of the 2p—2 moveable zeros of a function.

In the third case, since ¢ is a quotient of two ¢-functions, ¢ has
2p—2—p+1+1=p independent constants, 7.¢., it has p—1 arbitrary
parameters, and thus, as Riemann states it, ‘the problem of determining
p—1 of the 2p—2 quantities (s,2,) . . . (82)s%2,)-9) in such a manner that
they shall be functions of the remaining p—1 and shall satisfy the
p differential equations

2p—2
Stee or ae le
1

is completely solved if the 2»y—2 quantities are the moveable zeros of a
»-function, and there is only one solution.’ Such pairs of quantities are
said to be tied by the equation ¢=0.! And the solution of the differential
equations, with the notation introduced above, is

Qn -2

2p—2 2p—2 2)
k Ke (k = ‘
( Shae eh ie 2pk LY Pi A Soe wp) = days 2.)
1 1

where c, only depends upon the additive constants in w,, 7.e., upon the
lower limits of the integrals ; or, in other words, the sum of the values
which any one of the p linearly independent integrals of the first kind
assumes at the 2»—2 moveable zeros of a -function is congruent to a
constant which only depends upon the lower limits of the integrals.

Part II. of Riemann’s ‘Theory of Abelian Functions’ is, as has been
said, devoted to the consideration of the theta-functions, which he defines

thus :
+ co p p 2 Pp
> G1 70,M,1, + 2D0,m
S(.-m) =[ > 7 sc iia a sd

where the summations in the exponents are with respect to p, p’, and
that in the outer bracket with respect to m,...m,. The adoption of
u,...u, the p linearly independent integrals of the first kind, in
place of the general arguments v, . . . v, and of the moduli of periodicity
of the w’s in place of the constants a,,,—an adoption which is duly
justified by Riemann—makes, as he says, ‘log 3 a function of a single
variable z, which when s, ~ resume their original values after an arbitrary
continuous change in the position of 2, is changed by linear functions of
the w’s.’* Thus 3 is a one-valued function of p arguments, but of a single
point on the Riemann surface, which point is the upper limit of each
of the p integrals which appear in the arguments of 9. The notation
employed by Riemann has not been adopted by all following writers, for
he does not use the symbol of integration with upper and lower limits
associated with it ; he introduces instead a symbol of his own for the
values of the integrals at the upper limits, and only mentions the lower
limits in words. There is, for our purpose, a certain advantage in this
notation, for it draws attention to the values of an integral w, ata certain
set of points which form the different upper limits of the same integrand.
Thus, if «,...«,, are the m points on the surface in which a rational
function of s, 2 takes the same value, then, in Riemann’s notation, wu” is
the value of w, (for w=1,...p) at the point ¢, (for v=1,.. . m), for

' Loe. cit. § 16. 2 Loe. cit. § 17.

» pe Pie i

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 27

which the values of s, z are s,, 2,; in particular, if 7,.. .%, are the
p zeros which every 9-function is shown to have, then aj? is the value
of w, (for w=1,.. .p) at the point », (for v=1,.. .p) for which the
values of s, z are o,, ¢,.!

Moreover, if in the argument of the $-function the integral w/?
or «® occurs, it is possible, by allowing the point ~%, or @, (still de-
fined as above) to be a variable point on the surface, to consider
the $-function as a function of z, or of Z, instead of as a function of
the quite unspecialised point z; this is important in connection with the
identical vanishing of the $-function. The introduction of additive
constants ¢,... ¢, into the arguments of the $-function is another
important feature of Riemann’s discussion of the subject ; for he shows !
that in $(.., u,—e, ...) it is always possible so to determine the

= i
lower limits of the integrals that (...¢,...)=(... Zal?.

1
shall hold, and it is with ¢hese lower limits that he works. The establish-
ment of this congruence between the additive constants of each integral
and the sum of its p values at the p zeros of the 9-function Jeads to the
preliminary discussion in § 23 and § 24 of the conditions under which
a 9-function vanishes identically, ie., for an arbitrary position of the
variable point on the surface.

»—1

He first shows, in § 23, that if (...u,—e,...)=(... — Sa? coe

1
then the $-function with these arguments vanishes identically, ¢.e., for
any arbitrary position of ¢; and, conversely, that if 3 vanishes identi-
cally then each of its arguments w,—e¢, must be congruent to a negative
sum of the values of p—1 integrals at certain p—1 points m . . . m4”
Now these p—1 points may be arbitrarily chosen, and we still have

p-l
2 ( ...— 3a”... } identically zero; and, since $ is an even function,
1

p-1
meanis leads to 9 ( ... Ba? ... ) being also identically zero ; whence
1
by the above converse we are led to certain p—1 points 9, . - + M-2
p-1 a 2p—2 :
Beem A Sat! oy Ss ( Be ers he ) sie, tothecongruence
1 Dp

2p—2
( tees Ba” ... )=(0,0,...0). But this shows that the last p—1
z

points are dependent upon the position of the first p—1l points in
such a manner that as the latter vary continuously we always have

2p-2
> da’ =0 ; and this system of differential equations is, as has been seen,

1

always satisfied by the 2y—2 moveable zeros of the ¢-function (the
i ci x @

lower limits are another set of moveable zeros, since = = and when

52

€=0, 9% must = 0 but not ~®). Hence we have the important result
that when a 8-function vanishes identically its p zeros are tied by a
p-function.

In § 24 a second important conclusion is derived from the fact that if

1 Loe. cit. § 22.

2 The precise determination of these p—1 points is as _ follows:—It
is assumed that although & (...7,...) vanishes identically, yet that

++ U—a+7,. ..) does not vanish identically where np is arbitrary—the

remaining y—1 zeros of this S aren .. . mp-1.

28 REPORT—1904.

vanishes identically each of the arguments is congruent to the negative
sum of the values of p—1 integrals at certain p—1 points ; these points,
namely, are assumed to be p—1 of the p points in which any rational
function takes one and the same value on the surface, and then with
the notation explained above we have

oe
(p) —_— =.) v
eine ee. =e... )=(--. aU oes
& z ,
M4 eC)
4 =
Ves, Sear eran fy (ae args |
1

Pp (v)
Hence for all continuous variations of Sp) &) we have du, =0,and there-

fore the p pairs of quantities s,,~, are p of the moveable zeros of o=0,

wu’ where the remaining p—2 are fixed. And if w?*-+-+be the values of

2n—2

u, at these p—2 fixed points we have ic sas Yu, ; . =(0,0,...0). Whence

1
2p—2

it follows that (...¢,...)=(...—3w,...). Which results are thus
p+i

stated by Riemann: ‘An arbitrary system of quantities (.: 6/08 sory:

l ee
congruent to one system of the form {... Xa...) unless it is congruent to
9

p-2
one of the form i --—Za...}), in which case it is congruent to an in-

finite number of the first-mentioned form,’

It is in these results that we find the first suggestion of a point-group—
that is, of a set of points on the Riemann surface which are chosen in
some definite manner out of the set in which a rational function assumes
one and the same value. Moreover, in the most general form into which
Riemann threw these same results in his later memoir—now to be de-
scribed—we find a conspicuous feature to be the reversible relationship which
exists between a pair of point-groups in the two cases which he considers—
a relationship, namely, concerning the number of points in each point-
group which may be arbitrarily assumed. This relationship is intimately
connected with the Riemann-Roch theorem—although Riemann himself
was not concerned to point this out—andis a particular case of the Theorem
of Reciprocity established by Brill and Noether.

The first two sections of the memoir on the vanishing of the
S-functions are occupied in putting the theorems of § 23 upon a more
rigorous foundation by showing that it is always possible to take such
arguments for a 9-function as to ensure that it does not vanish identically
in which case the results of § 23 and § 24 are true. The third section
then goes on to establish these in a still more general form, by considering
successive pairs of 3-functions with arguments that differ from each other in
an analogous manner to those of 9(...7,...) and &(...u,—a2+r,... ), of
which the first vanishes identically, but not the second, and where r, itself
is of increasing complexity. Thus a typical pair of $-functions is
(1) SC... a PtP 4 oP. fam —yP-Y— 4-9, , , —uP-™ De, , ey
and

(2) Bes ae alt — PD — ye Po ey
the first of which is assumed to vanish identically, while the second,
whose arguments only differ by the addition of a?-™*?—w?-™, does not.
Since (2) does not vanish identically we have, by considering it as a

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS, 29

ganetion Of Z,,;,(.-. —ap..-—al™) + ule +... uP” +e...) con-
gruent to the sum of the values of all its p zeros ; now the m points
Ep-1+ + + €p-m are m of these zeros, since when ¢,,;=2,1 . . . 2m in

L

turn, we get a $-function whose arguments are of the form of (1) ; let the

p—m other zeros be n, . ~~ %)-m then the above congruence, when
identical terms are removed from each side, becomes

eee ale, 2 2 Ja (2s ob ie Fal a yt

But again, by considering (2) as a function of z,_,, we find that, 3 being

an even function, (...ai?t?+... +aPo™*P—upP— 1... —uPe-m—e,...

is congruent to the sum of its values at its p zeros; and that m+1 of

these zeros are 741 - - - Mp—m+1, Since when 2, ;=a?t” , . .a?-™+*” in turn

we get a 3-function whose arguments are of the form (1) ; now let the

p—m-—1 other zeros be ¢,; . . « €)~ i, then the congruence which holds is

Ret le sage er ee Jw Os ce WOES ome is toh
We have thus shown that (e, . . . e,) = (ul? ... a) and also to
(—u ... —u”), d.e., that the point-groups composed of the p 7’s and

those composed of the p—2 «’s are congruent to each other ; and, more-
over, that when m of the points » are arbitrary (p—m being uniquely
determined), then m—1 of the points « are arbitrary (since p—m—1 of
the p —2 are determinate). And it is easily seen that this relationship is
reversible, z.¢., that if m—1 of the «’s are arbitrarily chosen, then a of the
ys can be arbitrarily chosen. The 2»—2 zeros of a o-function have thus
been divided into two point-groups, containing p and p—2 points
respectively, and it has been shown that if m of the p points can be
arbitrarily chosen, then m—1 of the p—2 points are also arbitrary, and
vice versa.

A precisely similar line of argument applied to the conclusions of § 23
shows that the 2»—2 zeros of a ¢ function may also be divided into two
point-groups, each consisting of p—1 points, and that then, if m of one
point-group are arbitrary, m of the other are also arbitrary.

The connection with the Riemann-Roch theorem is at once evident ;
for if in the first case dealt with above we assume that a rational function
becomes infinite at p points, then, if m of these p points are arbitrary, the
function has m arbitrary constants, and therefore, since by the Riemann-
Roch theorem m=p—p+1+q, g=m—1, i.e., m—1, different o functions
can be drawn through them, which agrees with the number of «’s which
have been shown to be arbitrary ; and, conversely, if the number of
infinities is p—2, and if m—1 only are arbitrary, the Riemann-Roch
theorem shows that m—l=p—2—p+1+4, ie., that g=m, which agree
with the number of 7’s which may be chosen arbitrarily.

Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. PREEcE (Chairman), Dr.
R. T. Guazeproox (Secretary), Professor W. G. Apams,
Captain Crea, Mr. W. L. Fox, Principal Sir Anraur Ricker,
and Professor A. SCHUSTER, appointed to co-operate with the
Conumittee of the Falmouth Observatory in their Magnetic Obser-
vations.

THE grant voted by the Association last year has been expended in
carrying on the Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory.
. The apparatus at the Observatory was inspected by Mr. T. W. Baker

30 REPORT— 1904.

of the National Physical Laboratory in October last, and found to be
working well. The results for the year 1903 have been printed in the
Proceedings of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society and in the Report of the
National Physical Laboratory for 1903. Dr. Chree is at present engaged
in examining the Vertical Force Records for 1904, with a view to deter-
mining how best to treat these. They have not hitherto been worked out
in full.

The records for the great magnetic storm of October 31 and Novem
ber 1, 1903, were specially good, and have been reproduced in the
Laboratory Report.

In view of the fact that the Kew magnets are very much disturbed
and that the buildings at Eskdale Muir have only just been commenced, it
is in the opinion of the Committee desirable that their work should be

continued. They therefore recommend their reappointment, with a grant
of 50/.

Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Lord RayLEIcH (Chairman), Dr. R.'T. GLAZEBROOK (Secretary),
Lord Ketvin, Professors W. E. Ayrron, J. Perry, W. G.
Apams, and G. Carry Foster, Sir OLtver J. Lope, Dr. A.
MurrueapD, Sir W. H. Preece, Professors J. D. Everett, A.
Scuuster, J. A. FLemine, and J. J. THomson, Dr. W. N. SHaw,
Dr. J. T. BorroMtey, Rev. 'I’. C. Firzparricx, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE
StonEy, Professor 8. P. THompson, Mr. J. Renniz, Principal
E. H. Grirrirus, Sir A. W. Ricker, Professor H. L. CALLENDAR,
and Mr. GEORGE MaTTHEY.

APPENDIX PAGE

I.-—On Anomalies of Standard Cells. By¥.¥E. Smirw. (From the National

Physical Laboratory) . : ; : : : ; ‘ : , 33
Il.— On the Electromotive Force of a Clark Cell. By A. P. TROTTER . : . 40

Tue Committee desire to record their deep regret at the death of their
colleague, Professor Everett, who had been a member of the Committee
since 1881. He attended the meeting at which the present Report was
considered. His work in connection with the C.G.S. system of units is
of great importance and has proved of very real value to science.

The Committee are glad to report that during the year considerable
progress has been made with the construction of the Ampére Balance.
Mr. L. Oertling has constructed the weighing mechanism, which has,
however, not yet been taken over by his Committee, and the electrical
parts of the instrument are nearing completion in the workshops of the
National Physical Laboratory. The following particulars of progress
and of applied tests may be of interest.

1. The weighing mechanism.—tThe castings, rods, tubes, screws, &c.,
.ntended for this had their magnetic permeability determined, and no
part used in the construction has a permeability differing from unity by
more than 0°001 per cent.

The balance was examined for stability and sensitiveness at Messrs,

a a

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 31

Oertling’s works with satisfactory results ; a difference of one-tenth of a
milligramme may be detected.

2. The marble cylinders and fittings.—Insulation and permeability
tests were made on various samples of marble early in the year; even-
tually First Statuary Carrara Marble was chosen as most suitable for the
work. An experimental marble cylinder was wound with a double helix
and the insulation satisfactorily carried out; the results of the tests
leave little doubt as to the advantages of the double helix. The winding
of both suspended cylinders has now been completed, and it is anticipated
that the fixed cylinders will be finished in September. The linear
measurements and insulation tests have yet to be made. Unless unfore-
seen difficulties arise the balance equipment should be completed, and
the whole ready for preliminary observations by the end of the year.

During the early part of the year Mr. F. E. Smith completed his
researches into the construction of a mercury unit of resistance, of
which some account was given in the last report. The results have been
communicated to the Royal Society and are being published in the
‘Philosophical Transactions.’ The values of the various tubes (eleven in
number) are very accordant, and a mercury standard of resistance of
a high degree of accuracy now exists. Since the completion of his work
the specification of the Clark cell has engaged Mr. Smith’s attention, and
a detailed account of his work forms an Appendix to the present Report.
Mr. Smith has amply confirmed the result of previous investigators that
the greater part of the difficulty in obtaining entirely concordant results
for the various cells set up by different experimenters is due to the
mercurous sulphate. He describes three methods of preparing the paste
which lead to identical results, and which have the advantage that cells
set up with these pastes have, the same E.M.F. within one or two hundred
thousandths of a volt immediately after manufacture. In the first
method due to Professor Divers and Mr. Shimidzu the paste is prepared
by the action of fuming sulphuric acid on mercury ; in the second, follow-
ing Professor Carhart, it is prepared by the electrolysis of weak sulphuric
acid and mercury ; while in the third mercurous sulphate is dissolved
over a water bath in sulphuric acid. The acid solution is then poured
into a large volume of distilled water and the mercurous sulphate is
precipitated in a pure form. In all cases it is important that, as advised
by Mr. Swinburne and Professor Carhart, the salt should be washed, for
a Clark cell, with zinc sulphate, and for a cadmium cell with cadmium
sulphate, and not with distilled water. Mr. Smith is continuing his
inquiries and hopes shortly to be able to issue a complete specification
for Clark and cadmium cells. The completion of the Ampére Balance
will enable an absolute determination of their E.M.F. to be made.

The Committee regret to report that no further progress has been
made since their last report with the experiments to determine the per-
manence and reliability of the platinum resistance thermometers de-
scribed in that report.

It was pointed out last year that a special resistance box was required
to enable the work to continue ; unfortunately the funds necessary for
its purchase were not forthcoming, and the work has remained stationary
for a year.

The Committee would consider it most unfortunate if work of
& very real importance, on which a start has already been made and

32 REPORT—1904,

considerable funds expended in the purchase and investigation of pure
platinum wire, should lapse for want of support, and they trust that
their recommendation in favour of the continuance of the work may
this year be accepted.

Meanwhile they would call attention to the very complete comparison
up to a temperature of 1000° C. between the constant volume nitrogen
thermometer, the platinum resistance thermometer, and the platinum—
platinum-rhodium thermo couple communicated recently from the
National Physical Laboratory to the Royal Society by Dr. Harker.

The Committee have received a cordial invitation to co-operate in
the Electrical Conference at St. Louis during the forthcoming autumn,
and have asked Professor Perry and the Secretary, who are attending as
delegates of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, to represent their
views on two questions of special interest.

The first of these relates to a proposal by Professor Carhart to substi-
tute the saturated cadmium or Weston cell for the Clark cell as a recog-
nised standard of E.M.F. The Committee are aware that the fact that the
temperature coefficient of the cadmium cell is one-twentieth of that of the
Clark cell offers many valuable advantages, but in view of the fact that
experiments designed to lead up to a satisfactory specification of the cell
are in progress at the National Physical Laboratory, and that the comple-
tion of the Ampére balance would enable the absolute E.M.F. of the
cell to be determined, the following resolution was passed at the last
meeting :—

‘The Committee are not prepared at present to displace the Clark cell,
and prefer to wait for the conclusion of the experiments at the National
Physical Laboratory, and with the new balance, before coming to a deci-
sion as to the value to be assigned to the E.M.F. of the saturated cadmium
cell,’

The second question relates to certain proposals as to nomenclature
which are to be brought forward by Dr. Kenelley. These are : (A) that a
systematic nomenclature should be agreed upon for magnetic units, and
(B) that the prefix ‘Abs’ should be used to indicate that a unit is given
in the absolute C.G.S8. electro-magnetic system, and ‘ Abstat’ to indicate
that the unit in question is in the absolute C.G.S. electrostatic system.

Thus an Abs volt would be the C.G.S. electro-magnetic unit of E.M.F.
and ‘ Abstat’ volt the C.G.S. electrostatic unit of E.M.F.

These proposals have been discussed by the Committee, which have
agreed to the following resolution :—

‘With regard to the choice of magnetic units the Committee are of
opinion that the only two systems which need to be considered are the
C.G.S, system and the Ampére-Volt-Ohm system, and that the quantities
to be named, if any, are—

1) Magnetic Potential.
5

(2) Magnetic Flux.!

(3) Magnetic Reluctance.

Of the above two alternatives the Committee are in favour of the CG.S.

‘ The name ‘Maxwell’ was recommended by the Paris Congress, 1900, as the
name of this unit, and this recommendation was adopted by the Committee at
Bradford.

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 33

system as that on which to base any nomenclature of magnetic units, but
are of opinion that a system of nomenclature is not called for.’

electro-magnetic and absolute electrostatic systems of units, and express
the opinion that no system of prefixes should be employed in which each
prefix does not bear some definite numerical signification.

In view of the work still necessary with regard to the Ampére
balance, the cadmium cell, and the platinum standard of temperature,
the Committee recommend that they be reappointed, with a grant of
50/., that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman, and Dr, R. T. Glazebrook
Secretary.

APPENDIX I.
On Anomalies of Standard Cells. By F. E. Smrru.
From the National Physical Laboratory.

The Committee disagree with Dr. Kenelley’s prefixes for the absolute

During the past two years certain anomalies of Clark and of cadmium
cells have been under investigation at the National Physical Laboratory.
The work is still far from completion, but the essential results so far
obtained are given in this paper.

In March 1902 some experiments at Bushy House resulted in the
isolation of the depolariser employed in both standards as the great
disturbing element. Lord Rayleigh, in his paper in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ for
1885, § 44, had shown this to be the case, and Mr. Swinburne arrived at
the same conclusion in 1891,' while recently in America Professor H. 8.
Carhart and Mr. G. A. Hulett have traced the variations in E.M.F. of
the cadmium cell to the same source. A new specification of the mode
of manufacture of the paste was thought to be desirable, and this
problem was the first to receive attention.

Im order to be independent of the variations of the other elements,
cells were constructed of a type indicated by the arrangement

Hg— Paste — Solution and Crystals — Paste — Hg,
(4) (2)
where a and 4 represent pastes made with different samples of mercurous
sulphate. The Rayleigh H form of vessel was employed. Preliminary
observations showed that when the same paste occupied the two limbs,
‘such a cell had no measurable E.M.F.
In addition a cell typified by the arrangement

Amalgam
é Sol | z
mo Solution & |
ts and Crystals a o
a | fae
~S wa
Paste (B)
|
Hg

was largely employed, a four-limb vessel, similar to two Rayleigh H form
of vessels crossed, being used to set up the standard. In this case there

1 See B.A. Report, Cardiff, 1891.
1904. D

34: REPORT—1904.

is one negative pole and three positive ones, and the E.M.F. between
any two of them may be measured. Such a cell not only indicates
whether a particular paste is abnormal or not, but each of the three
groups of elements may be compared with an external standard. It is
possible, of course, that a change resulting in one of the pastes may affect
the neutrality of the solution, and so the E.M.F. of all three groups. All
observations were made in a constant temperature room, the cells being
immersed in paraftin oil.

The earlier results of the investigation are omitted, but the differences
in E.M.F. due to pastes made from purchased samples of mercurous
sulphate are shown by measurements made of cell No. 1 (4 limbs) and
cell No. 28 (2 limbs), the observations covering a period of rather more
than two years. The pastes have been distinguished by the letters K, H,
and R ; all were subjected to the same treatment and advantage taken of
the latest methods for their preparation known at that time.

TABLE
es Clark Cell, No. 1 (4 limbs). | Pit drareoea
Observation. ; _ a= : hoe rraeibe
H>R. K>R. | Hee, |) ee
Sept. 8,1902 .| +0-00213 +0:00047 | +000166 | +0-00168
Hep. 30, 95,7 195 45 | 150. 4 104
hci aes 150 16 | 104 79
WDece (De. A ei, 123 AB 80 59
Feb. 24,1903 . 94 2 Pee 52 No obs.
June 24, ,, . 62 37 25 eas Ey
Mavewe =. ok 37 30 aie, a3
Feb. 61904. 27 41 | —0-0v014 | —50
only 9; ,, —.-| 000001 Bk = 52 Ee

It is clear that although the effect of each paste is not known two of
them have certainly changed, of which one is K. Jn the chart curve
HR shows the change in E.M.F. of the H group, assuming the R group
to remain constant ; similarly the H ~ K curve represents the change in
voltage of this group, K being assumed constant, and like remarks apply
to the third curve. There is a sudden break in the directions of the
curves H K and KR shown after the observations of November 2,
while none is shown in H_ KR; the deflections consequently indicate that
the element K must have changed in an abnormal fashion. Indeed
between November 2, 1903, and July 9, 1904, the E.M.F. of the K group
apparently increased by at least 00003 volt ; a rise of exceptional
magnitude. <A fall in voltage is the usual feature.

The fact that the E.M.F. of a cell had changed by as much as 0:16
per cent. was very disconcerting. It is true that a difference between
H and R was anticipated, for H was a pale yellow colour, while R. was
grey. On the other hand the paste K was also slightly yellow, yet no
such difference is observed between K and R. It was thought that the
mode of manufacture of the sulphate might influence the properties of the
product. Mercurous sulphate is often prepared by precipitation, either
Hg,(NO;), and Na,SO, or Hg,(NO;), and H,SO, being employed ;
traces of the resulting nitrate in the final product would certainly intro-
duce a disturbing element. Again mercurous nitrate is often associated

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 35

with a basic nitrate, and basic salts are to be avoided, as will afterwards
be seen. Samples of the salts were prepared by these precipitation
methods and the results were far from satisfactory. Two samples of the
sulphate were also obtained from the same manufacturer ; the Clark cells
prepared with these differed in E.M.F. by 0-0004 volt ; each was sub-
jected to the same treatment and there was no observable difference in
colour.

A more satisfactory specification of the depolariser being desirable,
other modes of manufacture eliminating the above troublesome elements
were sought. Concentrated sulphuric acid and mercury react very slowly
at ordinary temperatures, but much more rapidly at temperatures approxi-
mating to 300° C. The resulting salt is associated with H.SO,, which
probably is not very difficult to remove if the salt be ina fine state of
division. Dr. Muirhead has prepared mercurous sulphate in this way and
forwarded two Clark cells containing the product to Bushy House. A

Rae Se hil 89" Re. jn eee ee
200} | \i {|__| n, sak felt ae Lal) 2 i el de hy] st)

8 eal [ eae ne Be es) ha ies
sot - gest sts) hte F508 Eg a ae ey PER OE Be

Pe L | 4 4 +— jee + — _-

% |

= eS | eae =a es Says er ee ee low ue
00 a 4. | ee VES sl ee ee | ae

OF MILLIVOL

ri
1
]
i

0) (2) AS ee

Perr | ‘m

-50 zh | a ca ise

$$ —-}-—4-4-— f+ —_ Se ES + =f eB 8 he

| | | i

7" pe Sa el eal a ea "DATE OA OBSERVATION | | ran) al eae bal
A SIAR SS PRS lc lM Mil Os MA el a a

SEP DEC FEB. JUNE NOY. FEB JULY

1902 1903 1904

second method of preparation due to Divers and Shimidzu is reported in
the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society’ (47, 639). Briefly, pure mercury
and fuming sulphuric acid saturated with SO, are brought into contact.
They react in the cold, though there is no visible evidence for some time
owing to the solubility of the product in the liquid ; the acid also becomes
saturated with SO,. If the main portion of the liquid be removed from
the salt, this latter may be freed from SO, by warming ; mercurous
sulphate associated with H,SO, is thus obtained. The acid is removed

_ by washing. Dr. Carpenter has prepared five samples of the salt in this

way ; they were made from five lots of the fuming acid from different
manufacturers and mercury distilled im vacuo at the laboratory. These
sulphates were examined in four-limb cells of the cadmium type ; the
results of the observations are given in Table II. The standard of
reference is cell No. W 17, a cadmium cell more than two years old and
known to have changed but little since its manufacture.

D2

36 REPORT—1904.

Tasty I1—Z.M.F. of Cadmium Cells minus EMF, of W 17.
Differences in hundredths of a millivolt.

Cell No. 52 Cell No. 53 Cell No. 54
Date of ;
Observation b. C. a b. | Ce a. b. CG:

April 4, 1904 | +38 | —21 | —19| +38 | —14| -13] +38] +14] —18

April 18, ,, +36:/-—80 | —20 | +39)|>—43e: —144l ce aiel eae ene
May 3, ,, +30 |-—43 | —20.) 482.) — 14] 4 | aa ee ee
June 13)... ,, +27 | —50 | —21 | +32 | —14 / SA Ba Son) nd
uly, 995.5 +93 | —54 | —21" | +30'| —18 "96 eae

The pastes 52a, 53a, 54a were prepared with the same sample of
Hg,SO, ; it was purchased and prepared in a similar manner to the
sulphates dealt with in Table I. 546 was also a purchased sulphate. The
remaining specimens were prepared by Divers’ method.

It will be observed that all the pastes change so as to reduce the
E.M.F. of the cell ; but whereas the E.M.F. of the cells prepared with
purchased sulphates is greater than that of W 17, those made up with
the Nordhausen sulphates have in each case lower E.M.F.s. Cell No. 526
is exceptional in the fall of its voltage. The difference in the prepared
pastes, though small, condemns part of the method of preparation, and
further investigation became necessary.

The method of preparation adopted by Dr. Carpenter was at first
repeated. Close observation showed that on formation the sulphate cakes
considerably, and is accompanied at the surface of contact with the
mercury by a compound of a light brick-red colour. If without freeing
from the acid or SO, the product is added to distilled water, reduction of
part of the sulphate apparently occurs, mercury is precipitated as a black
powder, and the red compound entirely disappears. (The mercury thus
precipitated is a valuable addition to the paste, the conversion of mercuric
sulphate to the mercurous condition being rendered possible by its pre-
sence.) The salt produced by freeing the first product from SO, also
loses the brick-red tint, and is finally obtained as a pure white paste. On
prolonged washing with water, however, hydrolysis results and the colour
changes to pale yellow. Two samples of hydrolysed mercurous sulphate
were thus prepared, the one being washed for one hour with water and
the other for twenty-four hours. An experimental cell indicated that the
more hydrolysed product if employed to set up a cadmium cell would
cause the E.M.F. of that cell to be greater by 0-00064 volt than if pre-
pared with the first sample. The presence of this hydrolysed product is
therefore to be avoided, and washing by water prohibited.

About this time, through the kindness of Professor Ayrton, the
results of some experiments by Professor H. 8. Carhart and Mr. G. A.
Hulett, of the University of Michigan, were communicated to the
Laboratory. Professor Carhart has also sought a standard method of
preparing the depolariser, and suggests that any prepared sulphate be
washed with cadmium sulphate (or zinc sulphate for Clark cells) in order
to prevent hydrolysis. Prior to this, Mr. Swinburne, in a letter to
Dr. Glazebrook, suggested the precipitation of the sulphate intended for
Clark cells from saturated solutions of mercurous nitrate and zinc
sulphate, the washing to be effected with alcohol or saturated zine sul-

phate solution.

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 57

Omitting the description of further experiments, the final mode of
preparing the mercurous sulphate for standard cells is here given.

Fuming sulphuric acid saturated with SO, (32 per cent. of SO; is a con-
venient specification) is added to sufficient pure distilled mercury to ensure
the latter being always in excess. The mercury should be contained in a
clean glass vessel and violently agitated by a glass stirrer, so that the
product may be in a fine state of division. After seven or eight hours the
reaction will be sufficiently advanced for the sulphate to be separated from
the acid, but if convenient the action may go on for some days. Care-
fully pour off as much of the strong acid as possible into a large volume
of water or into an empty vessel, and afterwards add the pasty product
left to thirty or forty times its bulk of distilled water. Mercury is
precipitated and a considerable quantity of heat is evolved owing to the
dilution of the acid. A few minutes suftice for the sulphate to settle, when
the acid liquid may be decanted and the salt well washed by agitation
with acidulated water (1 part of conc. H,SO, to 10,000 parts of distilled
water). Filtering follows, a filter pump being employed to effect exhaus-
tion. It is advisable next to pound the damp sulphate thoroughly in an
agate mortar to ensure the absence of small caked masses, after which
acidulated water is again added, filtering effected, and the salt washed on
the filter-paper with two or three lots of neutral saturated cadmium
sulphate solution (or zinc sulphate solution for Clark cells). The salt is
now removed to a small flask, saturated cadmium sulphate solution added,
and the whole well shaken and then allowed to stand for twenty-four
hours. Filtering follows, then three more washings with cadmium sulphate
solution, removal to a flask once more with CdSO, solution, and at the
end of twenty-four hours the solution should still be neutral to Congo red.
If so, the sulphate may be filtered and is ready for the manufacture cf
the paste. The whole of the operations should be conducted in a room
screened from sunlight. As thus prepared the mixture of mercurous
sulphate and mercury is of a dark grey colour. Cells set up with paste
prepared from it require no ageing, and the constancy obtained with
pastes made from materials obtained from different sources is an indica-
tion of the purity of the salt.

Table III. gives the results of comparisons between cadmium cells set
up with pastes prepared in this way and cadmium cell W17. The latter
in every case has the greater E.M.F. Differences are expressed ir
hundredths of a millivolt.

Taste III.

ee Cell No. 66 Cell No, 67 Cell No. 68

a b c a b c a b c
May 12,1904) -—24 -—26 —24 se ES
” 12, ” SOT tee 20. ee =— ee
ee = — 20502 -_ a
” 16, ” ae —27 —'25 —28 —_
» 16, — aD ee ail a
mE 16, SO P10 P10) Hot =21" =20 =
June 13, ,, — = E99 29) 27
” 13, ” v == — 23 —22 — 23
» 13, 4 oie 20a —o1ee |) o 20s 2009 = l= 20) ¢— 9
oly 6; v5, ,) —21 —21. —20 —19, —20 —19, | -—20 -—21 —20
STEELS) 035 —20, —20, —20 —20 -21 —20 = 20. —20) —1 Gr

oe eee ne)

38 REPORT—1904.

The first set of observations with each cell was made about five
minutes after adding the solution ; the second set of observations about
twenty minutes afterwards ; and the third set three hours afterwards.
For the first two sets of observations the temperature of the four-limb
cells was unsteady ; for the remaining observations they and W 17 were at
the same steady temperature. Other cells of the Rayleigh H form have
been constructed, and the comparisons are equally satisfactory.

An alternative method of preparing the salt was next sought. This
second method is very simple. Any purchased sample of mercurous
sulphate is heated together with mercury and concentrated H,SO, on a
water-bath for half an hour, the mixture being stirred occasionally. At
the end of that time the remaining solid is allowed to settle and the hot
clear acid carefully poured into a large volume of distilled water. Mercu-
rous sulphate is soluble to a considerable extent in hot concentrated
H,SO, ; the result of the dilution is, in consequence, to precipitate the
salt. As thus produced the mercurous sulphate is in a finely divided
state and of a pure white colour. It is well to at once admix with a
little mercury and filter. The washing is performed as before. Portions
of three purchased samples of Hg,SO, were dealt with in this way,
and after treatment gave identical results with the cells dealt with in
Table III. The three original samples prepared in the ordinary way
produced cells differing in E.M.F. from the standard by 40, 160, and
10 hundredths of a millivolt.

A third method devised by Professor Carhart does not necessitate the
use of concentrated acid. In order to hasten the reaction between
mercury and dilute sulphuric acid (one to six) an electric current is
passed from the mercury to a sheet of platinum foil suspended in the
liquid. It is essential that the liquid be kept well stirred so as to keep
the mercury surface exposed. Professor Carhart has employed a beaker
or crystallising dish to contain the liquids, and used a current of about
0-3 ampére ; the current density, however, is not stated. At Bushy
House the salt so produced has been compared with those prepared
by the two previous methods. Under ordinary circumstances about three
grams of the salt—very grey owing to the presence of mercury in a fine
state of division—is obtained per hour. The current density at Bushy
House has been about ‘01 ampére. It was gratifying to find that the
product (washed as before) gave identical results with the other methods.
Very violent agitation was maintained during the preparation. When
the liquid is not stirred a yellow compound (apparently turpeth mineral
HgSO,.2Hg0) is also produced, and cells the pastes of which are prepared
with the product have an E.M.F. when first set up more than a millivolt
higher than the normal. Particular stress must therefore be laid on the
instruction to keep the mercury surface well exposed. The same thing
was found to happen when attempting to form mercurous sulphate by the
electrolysis of a saturated cadmium sulphate solution in an ]{-form
vessel, the electrodes being pure mercury.

It will be observed that the remarks on the depolariser apply equally
to Clark and to cadmium cells. Cadmium cells alone were made up in
the final tests because of their small temperature coefficients ; but Clark
cells have also been set up and similar results obtained. It is also neces-
sary to add that all purchased samples of Hg,SO, are not so abnormal as
those dealt with in Table I., nor does the E.M.F, of an abnormal cell
always fall so rapidly as is indicated there. (The rate of fall is probably

a

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 39

a function of the fineness of the sulphate.) Evidence of remarkably stable
cells set up with purchased mercurous sulphate is afforded by six cadmium
cells made at Bushy House in April 1902: these have been in constant
use, and in the case of two of them have frequently been short-circuited
through 100 ohms. One of these cells is taken as a standard in the com-
parisons. By reference to a seventh cell made up in June 1904 witha
paste made from sulphate identical with that employed for the previous
ones it is thought probable that the whole six cells have fallen -07 milli-
volt since their manufacture, Table IV. gives the result of the com-
parisons.

TABLE IV.

Date of Observation | 16>17 16>18 | 16>19 16>20 | 16>21

May 5, 1902 : | “00000 “00000 ‘00000 ‘00000 ‘00000
Sep. 12, ,, A | + 1 0 + 1 0
Feb. 25, 1903 ag 0 0 0 0 0
Dec. 14, _ ,, A ae ee: 0; | — 0; 0 0 + 0;
Feb. 6, 1904 0 0 | 0 | 0 | 0
July 9, ,, : oi a8 OF | + 0, | -- 1; | = 0; | 0

At the present time the E.M.F. of a cadmium cell set up with a paste
made from fuming sulphuric acid and mercury is less than that of these
cells by 0°21 millivolt.

With respect to the other elements of standard cells it is proposed to.
investigate the cadmium and zinc amalgams, and the solutions of the
sulphates of these metals, in a manner very similar to that employed for
the pastes. Much valuable information has fortunately accumulated
respecting the influence of impurities in these, so that probably the task
is a light one. Jt is interesting to note that neither of the amalgams
should have its surface exposed to the atmosphere for any length of time ;
it is preferably covered with water or a solution of the sulphate of the
metal. This prevents oxidation. In addition to these investigations the
effects of acidity and basicity are to be determined, together with observa-
tions in connection with lag, polarisation, temperature coefficients, ce.

Remarks on the Rayleigh H Form and the Board of Trade Tube
Form of Standard Cells.

In 1892 Dr. Kahle, in a paper read before the British Association at
Edinburgh, described some researches made by him on the Clark cell.
Comparisons of H cells set up by him with tube cells set up by Dr. Glaze-
brook at Cambridge led to the assignment of an E.M.F. to the H cell,
four ten-thousandths of a volt less than that of the Board of Trade form.
This difference in value has been often quoted, and is at the present time
accepted as a fact. In view of the discrepancies produced by the paste,
together with theoretical considerations, it was thought desirable to
investigate this difference if such should exist. For this purpose the
H and tube forms of cell were combined. In addition to the usual ter-
minals to the H cell, a zinc rod was inserted in the limb containing the
paste, so that the arrangement of the elements in this limb was in accord-
ance with the specification of the Board of Trade pattern. The sole
difference in the elements of the H and tube cells was therefore the sub-
stitution of the zinc rod for zinc amalgam. In some cases the zinc rod

40 REPORT— 1904.

was amalgamated, in others it was merely cleaned, in no case did it
touch the paste. With two cadmium cells set up similarly, a rod of
cadmium amalgam contained in a glass tube perforated at a few points
replaced the plain cadmium rod. Very steady temperatures were main-
tained before taking observations.

Table V. gives the results of comparisons of these Clark and cadmium
cells. The standard adopted for the Clarks was cell No. 10, a standard
more than two years old and fairly constant ; that for the cadmium cells
was a third cell, No. 48, made up at the same time.

Cells numbered E 10 and E 11 contained a different paste from that in
C3,C7,C9. The differences between H and T are small and irregular,
and probably explained by the non-uniformity of the surface of the zinc
rods and slight differences in the concentration of the solution. The zine
rods in E 10, E 11, C 3, and C7 were amalgamated ; that in C9 was
cleaned only.

TABLE V.—Differences in Hundredths of a Millivolt.

Matenon Clark Cells Cadmium Cells

Observation] —

E 10 E11 C3 C7 | C5 49 | 47

July 5,°04-2 —8|+0
» 6,, |/+0 +2/4+3

SiS iiss We ek emer (429) 759i) ase ea ma ie
9 (tt —6l+2 O46 4-2i)498 $1947 a= qa2) eroleemeeal

Means |+1 -4 +2 -2,4+4 -—0,+9 +3 |+8 47 |4+2 ais “Fil

The observations show that no such difference as 0-0004 volt exists
between the two forms ; the difference found in 1892 is to be attributed
to other causes, probably the pastes employed.

APPENDIX II.
On the Electromotive Force of a Clark Cell. By A. P. Trorrer.

A determination of the electromotive force of the Clark cell (Wolff’s
large pattern) in terms of the ampére and ohm, has been made recently
at the Board of Trade Electrical Standards Laboratory. The ampére, as
measured by the Standard Ampére Balance of the Board of Trade, was
passed with suitable precautions through a manganin coil having a
resistance of 1:4343, ohm at 15°-0 C., and the difference of potential
between the ends of this coil was compared with that of the Clark cell
upon a low-resistance potentiometer. After necessary corrections the
electromotive force of the Clark cell was found to be 1:4329 volts at
15°0 C. The temperature of the Clark cell was read by a thermometer
in an oil bath in which the cell was placed, estimating to 0°-01 C. The
cell had been kept for several months in a constant-temperature room
and had not varied in temperature by more than 0°-05 ©, for forty-eight
hours before the comparisons.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 41

4

Seismological Investigations.—Ninth Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. J. MILNE (Secretary),
Lord Krzv1, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor
G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwiy, Professor
J. A. Ewine, Dr. R. T. Guazesroox, Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor
C. G. Knort, Professor R. Metpota, Mr. R. D, OLDHAM, Professor
J. Perry, Mr. W. #. Piummer, Professor J. H. Poyntine, Mr.
CLement Ret, Mr. Netson Ricnarpson, and Professor H. H.
Turner. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[Puates I. AnD II.]

CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. General Notes on Stations and Registers _. ; : 4 : : . 41
Il. Comparison of Records from three Milne Horizontal Pen dulums . - Aa
Ill. An Improved Record Recewer : : : - : : 0 . 43
IV. The Origins of Large Earthquakes in 1903. - : é , ; . 43
V. On International Co-operation for Seismological Work : : : . 45
VI. Seismological Work now in progress . : : : - : . 46
VIL. Directions in which Seismological Work may be extended . : : . 48
. 5 51

VIII. Experiment at the Ridgenay Fault

I. General Notes on Stations and Registers.

Durine the past year the registers issued are Circulars Nos. 8 and 9.
These refer to Shide, Kew, Bidston, Edinburgh, Paisley, Toronto, Vic-
toria, B.C. ; Baltimore, San Fernando, Cairo, Ponta Delgada, Cape of Good
Hope, Alipore, Bombay, Kodaikanal, Batavia, Irkutsk, Perth, Mauritius,
Trinidad, Tiflis, Christchurch, Wellington, Cordova, and Tokyo. Captain
H. G. Lyons, R.E., Director-General of the Survey Department at Cairo,
writes that the Abbassia records terminated on December 23, 1903. On
the same day they were recommenced at Helwan, long. E. 31° 21’,
lat. 29° 52’. At Abbassia, in the delta, the foundations were on sand,
and during wet weather may have been disturbed. At Helwan the
instrument stands on a limestone pier founded on solid rock.

It is anticipated that an instrument will shortly be installed at Malta.

The multiplication in the number of stations, scattered as they are all
over the globe, has led to a great increase in the work of correspondence
and reduction which has to be undertaken at Shide. Much of this work
might well be done by an assistant under the supervision of the Secretary,
leaving the latter more free to devote himself to scientific problems. The
Committee consider that the time has arrived when a fund should be
established to provide a sufficient income for securing the continuity of
the work in the future. Upon such a fund the salary of an assistant
would be a principal charge. The Committee are happy to be able to
report that Mr. M. H. Gray has very generously given the sum of 1,000/.
to serve as the nucleus of such a fund, while the Committee on Geophysics
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington have also expressed a desire to
contribute to the important work which is being carried on at Shide.
The Committee are in correspondence with the Executive Committee of
the Carnegie Institution, and they trust that donors will come forward to
assist in putting the work upon a permanent basis.

Tt may here be mentioned that Mr. M. H. Gray has already given

42 REPORT—1904.

material support to the station of Shide ; his brother, Mr. R. K. Gray,
provided the instrument for San Fernando ; Mr. Joseph Wharton, of
Philadelphia, U.S.A., gave the instrument installed at Strathmore Qol-
lege, near that city ; ‘pendulum apparatus was given to Shide by Mr.
A. F. Yarrow ; the instruments in Hawaii, Victoria, and Mauritius were
paid for, or partially paid for, by funds put at the disposal of your Secre-
tary ; while the remaining installations were established by institutions or
Governments in the countries where they are now working.

II. On the Comparison of Records from three Milne Horizontal
Pendulums at Shide.

These pendulums and their installations referred to in the following
note are described in the British Association Reports, 1902, p. 60, and
1903, p. 81.

Pendulum A is the type instrument, and carries a load of 243 gms.
It stands on its own pier, records E.W. motion, and its period, like
similar instruments in other parts of the world, has been kept at about
seventeen seconds.

Pendulums B and C stand on the same pier and swing on the same
cast-iron upright. JB is parallel to A, and, like it, records E.W. motion.
C responds to N.S. motion, but by means of an arm attached to it,
similar to the arrangement shown in the British Association Reports for
1902, p. 61, fig. 1, its records are made side by side with those of B.
At intervals of several months the loads carried by B and C have been
purposely varied, and the object of this note is to show the differences in
the results obtained in consequence of such changes. In considering these
differences two points not to be overlooked are, first, that only the move-
ments of A and B are comparable ; and secondly, that the swinging of B
might.cause motion in C, and wice versa.

The comparisons given in the following table refer to the number of
records given during different periods by A, B, and C, and the number of

|

—--- | Number of Records Number of Early

Commencements
December 28, 1902, to April 28, 1903 |

A B C A B Cc

fe Deslas W. 243 grms. 5 = =
TB, pelt, We2os - 5, : ; 35 35 31 15 12 15

|G, p. 20, W. 155, J ate ‘

April 28 to December 6, 1903

A, p. 17, W. 243 grms. . - | = =

iB; pili We23t 4 5; : : “29 40 50 9 12 47

”

C, p. 20, W. 404 ae be

December 8, 1903, to May 2, 1904 |

(A, p. 17, W. 243 grms. _,, | 22 40 al 8
foeee poo ese 2
| C, p. 20, W. 404, ; i a |

27

[le

times each of these pendulums commenced to record either sooner than the
others or at least simultaneously with one of the others. P=period in
seconds, and W=load carried by the booms expressed in grammes,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. AS

During the first period the records accord fairly well with what might
be expected, the small moment of C accounting for the small number of
its records.

In the second period, when the load on C was increased threefold, we
find that it gives the largest number of records and the largest number of
early commencements. The large increase in the records on B may be
due to the influence of C swinging on the same support. In the last
period, when B carried a load practically equal to that on C, and had its
time of swing increased to thirty seconds, we see that it gave the greatest
number of records and also most frequently was disturbed before the
others.

Although these records are not strictly comparable, and for the most
part only refer to mere thickenings of the photographic trace, they suggest
that an increase in load and of period in the type instruments would result
in increased sensibility.

Ill. Improved Record Receiver for Horizontal Pendulum Seismograph.

The accompanying illustrations, figs. 1 and 2, show two views of
a new seismograph recorder.

The instrument consists of a light brass cylinder, D, 1 metre in circum-
ference and 160 millimetres wide, mounted upon a steel spindle. One of
the projecting ends of this spindle has a deep-threaded helix of 6 millimetres
pitch cut in it ; this being suitably mounted upon roller bearings, advances
the cylinder 6 millimetres for one turn in four hours, by a gear connection
with a clock. The bromide paper carried on the cylinder is changed every
3°5 or 4 days.

A cylindrical mirror has been introduced to give a greater concentra-
tion of the light on to the boom-plate.

For the time record mark upon the bromide paper a shutter actuated
by an electro-magnet is employed, the light being shut off from seven to ten
seconds every hour. For this purpose a regulating clock with suitable
electric contacts is required. An example of records from the new and
old form of receiver is shown in Plate I.

The advantages of the new arrangement are :—

1, Although the paper moves beneath the end of the boom at more
than four times the rate (250 millimetres per hour) that it does in the
original receiver, only one-half the quantity of paper is used. This implies
a large reduction in expense for paper and developer, the latter being
applied by a brush.

2. An open diagram is obtained on which wave-periods can be
measured.

3. Movements of small amplitude are easily recognised.

4, Records can be quickly inspected and are easily stored.

IV. The Origins of Large Earthquakes recorded in 1903 and since 1899.

The origins of the large earthquakes recorded in 1903 are indicated by
this Shide register number upon the accompanying map, Plate II. In the
registers (Circulars 8 and 9) there are 135 entries for this year, whilst on
the map only sixty-four origins are indicated, which means that there were
about seventy-one earthquakes the materials relating to which were insuf-
ficient to enable their origins to be determined. Even with the origins
which have been determined, the notes of interrogation attached to

44 REPORT— 1904.
numbers on the map indicate that such determinations are accompanied
by uncertainty.

Speaking generally, it may be inferred that about 50 per cent. of the

Fies. 1 AND 2. Milne’s Horizontal Pendulum (seismograph) with new
L sray
recording arrangement,

BRASS RAILS

|

6 FEET

3 SCALE ‘
; 2 2 METRES. 2

large earthquakes have disturbed the world’s surface as a whole, whilst the
remainder have only affected areas equal to those of single continents.
The greatest activity is again along the Libbey Circle (radius 70° and
centre 180° E. or W. long., and 60° N. lat.). Marked activity has
taken place at the junction of regions E. and F., and in the eastern por-

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 45

tion of the E., both of which may be described as regions in which there
are intersections of tectonic folds.

Maps corresponding to the one here given can be found in the British
Association Reports for 1900, 1902, and 1903.

V. On International Co-operation for Seismological Research.

In 1902 the British Government received an official invitation from
Germany to take part in a Conference the object of which was to esta-
blish an international inquiry about earthquakes. Acting under the advice
of a Committee appointed by the Royal Society, the Board of Education
appointed Professors G. H. Darwin and J. Milne to represent Great
Britain at the proposed Congress, which took place in Strassburg
July 23 to 28,1903. Twenty-five States or countries were represented,
but the total number of delegates and guests who were at liberty to take
part in the proceedings was 100, out of which sixty-two were Germans.
Final results were arrived at by single voices, each country having one
vote ; thus Great Britain and her colonies, like the German Empire, had
each one vote only. France was not oflicially represented.

The more important results arrived at were as follows :—

A Central Association is to be formed with its headquarters in Strass-
burg. Each contributing country will be represented by one member of
a governing Committee, which elects a President, a Chief for the Central
Office, and a General Secretary. The Chief will reside in Strassburg, but
it was decided that the President and Secretary should be elected from
outside Germany.

The work of the Association would be as follows :—

1. To carry out observations after a common plan.

2. To carry out experiments on important matters.

3. To establish and support observatories.

4. To collect, study, and publish reports or réswmés of the same.

The cost of this work, including a Secretary’s salary, is to be for the
first twelve years about 1,000/. per annum, twelve years being the dura-
tion of the Convention. The contributions to make up this sum are to be
apportioned amongst the co-operating States according to their population,
the British contribution to be 160/. per year. Should Great Britain join
the Convention, as it will be necessary to send a representative to the
Governing Committee, the total annual outlay will be about 2004.

Whilst at Strassburg the British delegates explained that they were
in no way empowered to pledge his Majesty’s Government, and that they
had been informed that their Government would not take action that had
not the support of the International Association of Academics. At the
last meeting of this Association, held in London May 24 to 30, 1904, the
advisability of international co-operation for purposes of seismological
research was discussed, with the result that it has been referred for
further consideration to the following Committee : Professors A. Schuster
(Chairman), Helmert, de Lapparent, Mojsisovics, Agamennone, Karpinski,
and T, C. Mendenhall.

The Foreign Office and the Board of Education have been informed of
this action.

46 REPORT—1904.

On April 21, 1904, the Seismological Committee of the Royal Society
reported to the Council of that body as follows :—

(1) That this Committee is of opinion that any moderate subsidy
likely to be available would be most profitably expended in support-
ing the seismological work inaugurated by the British Association,
and that there is urgent need of such help, which should be a first
call on any such funds.

(2) Assuming this need supplied, the Committee would approve
the further co-ordination of the work by joining the proposed
Association.

VI. Notes upon Seismological Work in various Countries.
1, Austria.

With the object of recording earthquakes with a local origin, Austria
is divided into sixteen districts, each with many observers. ‘Their notes,
which are for the most part made without the aid of special instruments,
are collected at a local centre. From 120 to 200 disturbances are noted
annually, and the registers are published separately or collectively by the
K. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien.

At Trieste, Laibach, Kremsmunster, Lemberg, and Pribram there are
instruments to record earthquakes with a distant origin. Four of these
stations have received State subventions. The registers are published in
series with the above.

An important publication issued by Dr. A. Belar, of Laibach, is ‘ Die
Erdbebenwarte.’ In it we find articles relating to seismological investiga-
tions, notes relating to such work in general, and a catalogue of the Laibach
observations.

2. Belgium.

Station Géophysique d’Uccle. Registers relating to earthquakes with

distant origins are published every three months.

3. Germany.

Strassburg issues a monthly register of earthquakes with distant
origins with corresponding notes from a few foreign stations, together
with a list of a few earthquakes which have been felt in various parts of
the world. It is supported by the State.

Hamburg issues a list similar to that issued by Strassburg, but more
complete. The station was started as a private enterprise by Dr. R.
Schutt, but its founder has presented the same to the city authorities.

Gottingen issues a register relating to the observations made at the
University.

Teleseismic observations are also made at Jenaand Potsdam. It is
proposed to establish thirty-four more stations within the German Empire.
4. Great Britain.

A Committee of the British Association enjoys the co-operation of
thirty-nine stations, which are fairly evenly distributed over the world.
Each station is provided with similar apparatus intended for a particular
class of teleseismic observation. The registers from these stations are
published every six months, to which is added once a year a short report.
These publications are distributed to the co-operating stations and to
those who desire them. Support is obtained fromthe British Association,
from the Royal Society, and private sources.

—“— =

tl a te ee ll ee re a

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 47

5. Greece,
D. Eginitis has published a catalogue of local disturbances, 1893-1898.

6. Holland.

The Magnetic and Meteorological Department in Batavia observes and
publishes records relating to earthquakes of local and distant origin.
Supported by the State.

7. Hungary.

Earthquakes are observed by a system similar to that adopted by
Austria, At Buda Pest, Agram, O’Gylla, Fiume, and at a few other
stations, instruments have been installed to record earthquakes with a
distant origin.

8. Italy.

In Italy there are about 800 stations at which earthquakes are
observed. Out of these there are fifteen first-class observatories provided
with apparatus to record teleseisms and local shocks, and 150 second-class
stations using seismoscopes. Since 1879 these have been under State
control. The registers are published by the Central Meteorological Office
in Rome, and to these are added corresponding records from nearly all
the teleseismic stations of the world. This catalogue therefore practically
contains the information relating to teleseisms contuined in registers
issued by all other nations. A few observatories, as, for example, those
at Padua and Florence, also publish their records separately.

9, Japan.

Japan has at least five stations for teleseismic observations, and about
eighty provided with instruments for recording local shocks. Records of
these latter are made at over 1,000 centres, and as from 1,000 to 2,000
earthquakes are recorded annually, and as each of these may be noted at
many centres, the number of manuscripts accumulating at the Central
Observatory in Tokyo is very great. Accounts of the more important
shocks are published in the ‘ Official Gazette ’ and in other newspapers.

A catalogue of 8,331 shocks (1885-1892) was published in the
‘Seismological Journal,’ and a similar but more extensive catalogue is now
in progress.

The Earthquake Investigation Committee issue many publications
relating to seismology, while papers on the same appear in the Tokyo
Physico-Mathematical Society. Very many of the publications are in
Chinese characters. At the University there is a Professor and an
Assistant Professor of Seismology.

Practically all work is supported by the Government, the Investigation
Committee alone receiving 1,000. to 5,000/. a year.

10. Norway.
Tn connection with the Museum in Bergen Dr. Kolderup is issuing
an annual list of earthquakes felt in Norway.
ll. Roumania.

The ‘ Institut Météorologique de Roumanie’ issues occasional sheets
relating to teleseisms.

.

48 REPORT—1904.

12. Russia.

In Russia and Siberia there are seven stations of the first order at
which teleseismic and other shocks are recorded, and ten or twelve stations
of the second order. ‘Teleseismic records and special papers are published
by the ‘Commission Centrale Sismique Permanente.’ Some of the
stations, like Tiflis, Taschkent, and Irkutsk, also publish their records
separately.
13. Servia.

Servia has a station in Belgrade.

14. Switzerland.

2 7 i } «© © © _ =
In 1880 F. A. Forrel and Heim arranged an organisation to collect
records relating to shocks originating in Switzerland. These are published

by the Meteorological Bureau.

15. United States of North America.

The Department of the Interior, in the monthly bulletin of the
Philippine Weather Bureau, publish a list of teleseisms recorded in
Manila, anda list of earthquakes recorded in the Philippines.

In California there are about twenty stations furnished with apparatus
to record local disturbances. Lists are published in the Bulletin of the

U.S. Geological Survey.

VIL. Directions in which Seismological Work may be extended.

From the preceding section it may be inferred that at the present
time there are about eighty stations at which teleseismic disturbances are
recorded, and that nearly half of these are in Central Europe.

To obtain a fairly even distribution of stations over the surface of the
world about twenty-three more places of observation are required. A
possible distribution for these is as follows :—

Alaska, 1; U.S.A., Central Canada, Newfoundland, and Central
America, 7 ; South America, 3 ; Iceland, 1; N. Norway, 1; Africa and
Aden, 3 ; China, 2 ; the East Indies and the South Pacific, 5.

A more immediate requirement is, however, the establishment in and
near to districts from which world-shaking earthquakes originate of sets
of ordinary seismographs, together with the co-operation of observers
provided with good time-keepers, or even fairly good watches. In dis-
tricts remote from telegraphs or observatories these may be rated by sun
observations. A simple method of making such an observation sometimes
employed at Shide and Cassamiccola is as follows. In a brick wall
facing south a hole has been made which on the outside is covered by two
pieces of sheet iron brought together to leave a vertical slit about 5 mm
(; in.) in width and 40 cm. (16 in.) in height. The sun passing before
this slit throws an image of the same upon the opposite wall 14 feet dis-
tant. On this wall opposite the slit and in a north-south plane with the
same there is a vertical line. When the image reaches this, the sun is
due south at an observed time. To the time when this occurs the equation
of time is added or subtracted and local mean noon is obtained within
about one second.

The object of these time observations, which may be made quite well
with an ordinary watch, is to obtain the time of arrival of earth move-
ment at various points round an epicentre, from which may be calculated

SE ———————-

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 49

the positions of foci of world-shaking earthquakes, not alone from the
initial disturbanve, but also from ‘after shocks,’ which latter seldom reach
distant places.

When we know these foci, local observations enable us to make close
approximation to the times at which large earthquakes have originated ;
and when this is done our knowledge of the rates at which motion has
been propagated in various directions through and round the world will
become more reliable.

The districts where such observations are required are indicated on the
map, Plate IT.

District E (Japan) is already well supplied with seismographs. Dis-
tricts requiring similar installations are: A (Alaska), Band C (Central
America and the West Indies), and K (Caucasian Himalayan district).
In each of these at least six seismographs and the means of obtaining good
time are needed.

Other lines upon which geophysical and seismological research might
be conducted, but which have hitherto received but small attention, are
numerous. Our knowledge of earthquake movement as recorded under-
ground as compared with that noted upon the surface requires extension.

As far as we can learn from the excellent work inaugurated in the

Adalbert Shaft at Pribram by Dr. Edmund V. Mojsisovics, it would
appear that the movement, at a depth of 1,115 m., is for worid-shaking
disturbances practically identical with that noted on the surface, from
which it may be inferred that for this class of earthquake the large waves
are not a mere superficial disturbance of the earth’s crust.

Whether suboceanic disturbances are accompanied by molar displace-
ments and large changes in suboceanic configuration remains to be
determined by soundings the results of which should be of value to the
hydrographer.

The fact that at certain observatories unfelt teleseismic movements
are accompanied by perturbations of magnetic needles, which disturbances
remain without satisfactory explanation, suggests that if such irregular per-
turbations are due to the influence of local subjacent magnetic magmas,
in such localities not only should magnetic intensity be abnormal, but
also that the differences between the observed and calculated values for
gravity should be unusual.

What are the relationships between seismic and volcanic activities ?
and, further, what are the relationships between such phenomena, changes
of level, magnetic elements, and the value for gravity ? are also questions
the answers to which are at present largely based upon hypotheses.

The movements on fault lines which accompany earthquake disturb-
ances require an extended investigation, while the relationship which
appears to exist between the dip and strike of rock folds and earthquake
movement is a subject that has received but little attention.

Much has already been done to establish a relationship between
earthquake frequency and certain astronomical phenomena ; but fields for
investigation, as, for example, the connection between movements of the
earth’s crust and the wanderings of the pole, have yet to be exploited.
Again, as bearing upon earthquake occurrence, secular movements of the
earth’s crust, as, for example, those which are evidenced by changes in
water level, alterations in the lengths of base lines and levels, the increase
or decrease in the water-holding capacity of certain basins, have yet to be

subjected to extended and careful measurements.
1904. E

50 REPORT—1904.

The harmonisation of results obtained from seismometry relating to
the probable nature of the interior of the world with the requirements of
astronomy, geodesy, the revelations of the plumb-line and the thermometer,
together with various branches of physical, chemical, and geological
research, constitute inquiries of profound interest.

Surface warpings of the earth’s crust due to lunar or tidal influence or
the variations in load which accompany changes in meteorological condi-
tions may not only have a bearing upon earthquake frequency, but also
may throw light upon the variations in flow and the rise and fall of
subterranean waters, the escape of gases, and even perhaps assist the
meteorologist in his forecasts of the weather.

As illustrative of the practical outcome of seismological investigation
the following may be mentioned :—

From observations on the destructive effects of earthquakes, the
knowledge obtained respecting the actual nature of earthquake motion,
and from experiments made upon brick and other structures, new rules
and formule for the use of engineers and builders have been established.
In Japan and other countries these have been extensively applied in the
construction of piers for bridges, tall chimneys, walls, ordinary dwellings,
embankments, reservoirs, &c. Inasmuch as the new types of structures
have withstood violent earth-shakings, whilst ordinary types in the
neighbourhood have failed, it may be inferred that much has already been
accomplished to minimise the loss of life and property. These investiga-
tions have yet to be extended.

The application of seismometry to the working of railways, particularly
in Japan, has Jed to the localisation of faults on lines and alterations in
the balancing of locomotives. The result of the latter has been to decrease
the consumption of fuel.

Records of the unfelt movements of earthquakes indicate the time, the
position, and, what is of more importance, also the cause of certain cable
interruptions. The practical importance of this latter information,
especially to communities who may by cable failures be suddenly isolated
from the rest of the world, is evident. The many occasions that earth-
quake records have furnished definite information respecting disasters
which have taken place in distant countries, correcting and extending
telegraphic reports relating to the same, is another indication of the
practical utility of seismic observations. Seismograms have frequently
apprised us of sea waves and violent earthquakes in districts from which
it is impossible to receive telegrams, whilst the absence of such records
has frequently indicated that information in newspapers has been without
foundation, or at least exaggerated. The localisation of the origins of
world-shaking earthquakes, besides indicating suboceanic sites of geological
activity, have indicated positions where the hydrographer may expect to
find unusual depths. They have also shown routes to be avoided by
those who lay cables.

In addition to the above, a great proportion of which relates to what
may be called the field work of seismology, there are many subjects bear-
ing upon the same science which remain to be investigated within the
walls of a laboratory ; and as it seldom happens that any one research
fails to suggest new departures, the work of to-day implies new and
extended investigations in the future.

fee une 27 Gam.

British Association, 74th Report, Cambridge 1904.) [Plate I.

1904 June27 6am

ro erivvnnmriuivevrl il fied 2
4364
2 Earthquake June 26-27 N° 863

7

Deflection due im Period of Pendulum 15-55

to 2°turn of
screw

it}
y

6
——————

Sie June 26 2am
] D aT s>
i \ ANU wear nnnnneovnnn ARN YArnwrrAYYY enna}
fa _/8

660 Earthquake June 25/904 _ Shide /W. 252 mm =! hour. 10

&

June 25 23m

22

=>

Periods of movement — ‘15.55 > i |

18

2)

ge CNN ee ca

60mm =/hour

—________—o-9 =a fff Ih sf. ———< $< $$

860 Earthquakes June 25 1904

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigation.

Vambridge 1904.] [Plate II.

by their B.A. Shide Registyuakes which since 1899 have originated
als.

~

Baltimore 5
be

British Association, 74th Report, Cambridge 1904.)
Origins for 1908 are indicated by thelr BA. Shide Rogister number.

from these is expressed in large numerals, Observing stations are named.

The Large Earthquakes of 1908. [Plate It
Earthquake districts are indicated A, B, C, &c., and the namber of earthquakes which since 1899 have originated

SS 70 rm

So u
| | MD
| 4 AS
i Sy
| 2 R ° 0
Bz Sante: p

| | a

Hf)
erp A]
/
) Norie 768?)
a 77071
bY Cepricer { Fg
Nees

Kope Town &

THE WORLD

—---+-~-.

ON
! MERCATORS PROJECTION.

|
is

L2

|. Aatacent Ciccle__|

+ $e pd =
0 leagitede 90 Weal 1 70 728

"Jo Weridinn of O Greenwich wt ——

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigation,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. bil

VIII. The Experiment at the Ridgeway Fault.

: Mr. Horace Darwin informs the Committee that he visited Upway in

March last, when he took out most of the apparatus and put new
in its place. This seems to be working well, and if it continues to do so
_he hopes to furnish a detailed report on the relative movements of the
_ two sides of the fault next year.

Underground Temperature.—Twenty-third Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. D. Everett (Chairman and Secretary),
Lord Kenvin, Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Professors Hpwarp HULL,
A. S. Herscne., and G. A. Lesour, Messrs. A. B. WYNNE,
W. GatLoway, JoserH Dickinson, G. F. Deacon, E. WETHERED,
and A. Straan, Professors Micuiz Smita and H. L. CALLENDAR,
Mr. B. H. Brouas, and Professor Harotp B. Dixon, appointed for
the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and
under Water. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

In response to a pressing request from the Secretary for further informa-
tion respecting the Calumet and Hecla mine, Professor Agassiz, in the
spring of 1903, had all the observations (covering a period of ten years)
tabulated and sent with sketches to Professor T. C. Chamberlin, head of
the Geological Department of the University of Chicago, who undertook
tosuperintend their examination. In February 1904 Professor Chamberlin
wrote the Secretary to the effect that he had only been able to prepare a
preliminary report of a tentative kind, and that the material must have
‘more critical study before going into print. Subsequent information
unofficially communicated renders it probable that the rate deduced will
be between 1° in 120 feet and 1° in 130 feet.
_ The report of the Australian Association for the Advancement of
Science for 1902 contains, at p. 309, an account, by Henry C. Jenkins
(Government Metallurgist, Victoria), of observations of underground
temperature in deep gold mines.
_ At the North Garden Gully mine, Bendigo, 99°-1 was found at
3,000 feet ; and at New Chum Railway mine, Bendigo, 107°-0 was found
at 3,645 feet. The mean surface temperature inferred from observations
at 182 feet and 247 feet in neighbouring shallow shafts is 61°-4; which
gives the rate as 1° F. for 80 feet at both these mines.
Electric-resistance platinum thermometers were used. Also slow-
acting thermometers in which fine flannel is wrapped three times round
the bulb, and the thermometer, with cork supports, then inclosed in a
sealed glass tube.
A nearly identical rate was obtained in some preliminary observations
_ which were taken in less favourable circumstances in a 1,700-foot heading
at South German mine, Maldon, and at the depth of 2,080 feet in the
Band and Albion mine, Ballarat. The rate 1° in 80 feet is exactly the
same as that found by Professor David in a bore, 2,733 feet deep, near
Port Jackson.!
A shaft 1,000 metres deep, recently sunk at the collieries of Ronchamp
_ (Haute Saéne) in East France, is described in a series of four articles, by
! See Report for 1895.
B2

52 REPORT—1904.

Mons. L. Possigue, in the ‘ Bulletin de la Société de l’Industrie Minérale’
for 1903. The first 764 metres belong to the New Red Sandstone series,
including Lias and Permian. The remainder include 112 m. of Upper
Coal Measures, 66 m. of Lower Coal Measures, and 68 m. of Schists. The
following rock temperatures were observed during the sinking :—

Depth Temp. C. Depth Temp. C. Depth Temp. C.

M. o | M. 2 M. 2

10 10°5 830 39°6 930 44°6
300 21:0 850 10°7 950 45:2
400 24:5 860 41:0 960 45°5
600. 31°1 870 41°5 970 45-7
700 34:2 890 42-9 990 46°4
750 36°8 900 43°5 1000 46°8
800 38°3 910 43°8 1009 47-4

The shallowest, compared with the deepest, gives an increase of
36°:9 C. in 999 m., which is at the rate of 1° C. in 27:1 m.,, or 1° F. in
49-4 feet.

When the observations are plotted they show nearly a straight line
from 10 m. to 600 m., its gradient being 1° C. in 28-6 m. (1° F. in 52 feet),
and the remaining portion from 600 m. to 1,009 m. oscillates about a line
whose gradient is 1° C. in 25-1 m. (1° F. in 46 feet).

Regular observations of temperature have been taken in the Simplon
Tunnel, of which only about half a kilometre remains to be pierced. On
its completion Mr. Francis Fox promises a full account of the tempera-
tures, which will probably be communicated to one of the London societies
before the end of the present year.

A large body of evidence on temperatures in deep coal mines is con-
tained in the report recently published by the Royal Commission on
Coal Supplies. The chief element of uncertainty in discussing the observa-
tions is the mean surface temperature, which has in most cases not been
directly observed, and is doubtful to the extent of 1° or more. The
following list of well-determined mean surface temperatures (chiefly from
the publications of the Royal Meteorological Society) seems to constitute
the best material for forming a judgment. They are for . moderate
elevations, except where otherwise stated :—

Camden Square, London : : : : é > AGS?
Bolton . : ~ : : . - 49P2
North Thoresby (Line.) , ; ‘ : . ‘ . G49P2:
Rounton (North Yorks.) z . ¥ » AFP 3:
Ashton-under-Lyne (elevation 405 feet) - : -, £OaD

At Pendleton, near Manchester, Mr. H. Bramall took observations
in the Rams mine and in the Agecroft Colliery. The deepest observation
was at 3483 feet from the surface in the Rams mine, the temperature
found being 100°, as shown by a thermometer left for three hours in a
hole bored 35 feet into the rock and covered with a piece of cotton waste.
Assuming a surface temperature 47°, we have an increase of 53° in
3,483 feet, a: 1° in 66 feet. If we take the surface temperature as 48°,
it is 1° in 67 teet.

At Agecroft Colliery the deepest observation was 92°°5 at 2,940 feet ;
which with an assumed surface temperature 47°°5 gives 1° in 65 feet.

The above-named temperature in the Rams mine was checked by

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 53

Professor Harold Dixon in October 1902 with a slow-acting thermo-
meter made by Negretti & Zambra and tested at Kew inserted in a
hole 4 feet deep in the floor at the lowest point reached.

The reading obtained was 100°-6, which confirms the deduction of
1° in 66 feet.

In the North Staffordshire coalfieddd Mr. W. N. Atkinson, H.M.
Inspector of Mines, found the following temperatures at the greatest
depths reached :—

Sueyd Colliery, Burslem . : . 87°5 at 2,625 feet.
Glebe Colliery . ; : . We COne ta a neeO as
Great Fenton Colliery F 3 , Sb Or? yy, © 2400), ©;

Assuming 48° as the surface temperature, the mean rates of increase
downwards are :—-

Sneyd , é : ‘ : : . 1° in 66°5 feet.
Glebe 2 : : : : ; fe Odie LOOT Let yyg
Great Fenton . a 2 : ‘ gee eS GEO)» ce

The method of observation was to drill a hole, insert a bottle of water,
and, after leaving it in the hole, plugged with clay, for twenty-four hours
or more, take it out, and put a thermometer into the water in the bottle.
In the Sneyd Colliery observations were thus taken at thirteen depths
during the sinking of a shaft, beginning with 1,104 feet and ending with
2,625 feet, and the increase shown was fairly regular. The Glebe and
Great Fenton observations were also in sinking shafts.

At Hamstead Colliery in South Staffordshire Mr. F. G. Meachem
made observations extending over several years. He found the mean
annual surface temperature to be about 49°, and the temperature of the
undisturbed strata at the bottom, 1,950 feet deep, 66°. This last was
ascertained by inserting a maximum and minimum thermometer, pro-
tected by a metal case, into a bore-hole driven ten feet into freshly cut
coal. The hole was closed with clay and left for various periods from
one to fourteen days.

Repeated observations gave the same result. The rate of interest
hence deduced is 1° in 115 feet. A surface temperature of 48° would
give 1° in 108 feet. Mr. Meachem himself says: ‘All observations
show an increase of temperature in undisturbed strata of 1° F. for every
110 feet of descent beyond 65 feet from the surface.’ !

Mr. W. N. Atkinson ? obtained a nearly identical rate at a new shaft
at Baggeridge Wood, 8. Staffs ; but the circumstances were unfavourable,
the shaft being wet, and the observations not made till about a week after
the sinking was finished. The temperature thus found was 664° ata
depth of 1841 feet. Assuming a surface temperature 48}°, this is an
increase of 1° in 102 feet. The Secretary has made inquiries to ascertain
whether these very slow increases in South Staffordshire can be due to
steep inclination. He learms from Mr. W. N. Atkinson that the strata
in South Staffordshire generally are very flat and nearly level. At
Hamstead the inclination averages only one in 55 (or, according to Mr.
Meachem, | in 19). In North Staffordshire, on the other hand, the strata
are much contorted, and the inclinations at Glebe, Great Fenton, and
Sneyd range from 1 in 10 tol in 5. The suggested explanation of the
difference therefore completely breaks down.

’ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxv. 1903, p. 271.
? Q. 2295 in Report of Commission.

5A REPORT—1904.

In South Wales, in the neighbourhood of Rhondda and Aberdare,
Mr. William Jenkins has taken numerous observations by a somewhat
rough method, an ordinary thermometer being inserted in a hole bored
3 feet deep into the coal, with an oiled waste plugging, and taken out
from time to time and reinserted till the temperature was steady, the
whole time being upwards of an hour. The observations were made in
various seams at depths below the surface ranging from 1,094 feet to
2,515 feet, with very varying results, the surface being 875 feet above
sea-level. Taking the surface temperature as 47°, and comparing it with
the deepest observation (735° at 2,515 feet), we have an increase of
264° in 2,515 feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 95 feet ; but the mode of
observation is unsatisfactory.

At Dowlais, in the Merthyr coalfield, Mr. H. W. Martin has taken
numerous observations in several collieries by means of thermometers
inserted in boreholes and left for about twenty-four hours, the instruments
being apparently strong thermometers specially ordered from a local
optician. The greatest depth below the surface was 2,600 feet, with
temperature 77°. Assuming the surface temperature to be 49°, this gives
a rate of 1° in 93 feet. The inclination of the strata averages about 1 in 7.

At the Niddrie Collieries, near Edinburgh, Mr. Robert Martin has
made observations in the Great Seam at the depth of 2,623 feet, and finds
the ‘temperature in the solid coal face’ at this depth to be 74°. The
surface ground temperatures found at four surrounding stations of the
Scottish Meteorological Society (Joppa, Nookton, East Linton, Smeaton)
are 46°1, 47°°6, 47°°7, 47°-9. Assuming a surface temperature of 47°°5,
we have an increase at the rate of 1° in 99 feet. The strata are highly
inclined, the dip ranging from 50° to 90° ; a circumstance conducive to a
slow rate of increase.

Hofrat Prof. H. Hofer, of Leoben, Austria, has recently issued, with
the sanction of the Austrian mining authorities, a circular giving direc-
tions for the taking of temperature observations during the sinking of
mining shafts, and has since been furnished, at his own request, with
copies of most of the reports of your Committee. The circular recom-
mends the use of maximum thermometers, divided to fifths of a degree
centigrade, to be inserted in holes bored to the depth of at least 2 metres
in the floor or side and well plugged. The observations are to begin at
25m. from the surface, to be repeated at intervals of 50 m. till a coal
seam is approached, and then at shorter intervals through and a little
beyond the seam. This process is to be repeated for every seam that is
traversed. A main purpose of the investigation! is to determine the
influence of coal seams on the temperature of their surroundings. Hot
springs have been encountered in several Austrian coal mines, and Pro-
fessor Hofer ascribes their heat to chemical changes in the coal. In this
connection it may be mentioned that much evidence has come before the
Coal Commission of spontaneous heating of coal by exposure to the air.
According to Professor Hifer the greatest heating occurs in brown coal.

It seems desirable at this time to make more generally known to
observers of rock temperature in mines that the simple and strong pattern
of slow-action thermometer, designed by your Committee many years ago
for this purpose, is still obtainable from the makers, Messrs. Negretti &

1 Oester. Zeitschrift fiir Berg- wnd Hiittennesen, 1901, p. 249, &c. Also paper to
Institution of Mining Engineers, London Conference, 1904.

ee ——————

————————e ee

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. ao

Zambra. It is a mercurial thermometer, with extra-thick bulb, imbedded
in stearine, the whole being inclosed in a hermetically sealed glass tube
with a perforated copper case for protection against breakage.

Professor Harold Dixon, F.R.S., who has taken a leading part in the
underground temperature work of the Coal Commission, has been added
to the Committee ; and two old members, Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S.,
and Sir C. Le Neve Foster, F.R.S., have been lost by death. Mr. Glaisher
was one of the most active members of the Committee for the first fifteen
years of its existence.

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Keport of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary),
Sir JoHN Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER Bucuan, and Mr. R. T.
Omonp. (Drawn up by Dr. Bucway.)

THE Committee was appointed, as formerly, for the purpose of co-operating
with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteorological obser-
vations at the two Ben Nevis Observatories.

The hourly eye observations have been made at the high-level Obser-
yatory by Mr. Rankin and his assistants uninterruptedly during the year.
At the low-level Observatory in Fort William the self-registering instru-
ments have been in continuous use throughout. the year,

The health of the observers has been good. Mr. Robert H. Mac-
dougal, who has been on the staff for many years, left the Observatory in
December, and Mr. W. L. A. Craig Christie was appointed. The
Directors desire to thank cordially Messrs. W. G. MacConnachie, A. J.
Ross, and J. H. Buchanan for their valuable services as volunteer
observers while members of the ordinary staff were on holiday last
summer,

The results of the observations made at the two Observatories during
1903 are detailed in Table I.

TasBie I.

1903 | Jan. | Feb. | farch| April | May June | July | Aug. | Sept. Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year

Mean Pressure in Inches.

Ben Nevis Ob- 24-915] 25°232| 25-325) 25°555| 25°360) 25°189] 25-405 | 24-925) 25°315) 25-056) 25-210
servatory
Fort Wiliam
Differences .

25°099] 25°148

29°475| 29-845] 29-863] 30:088)29°847| 29-659] 29°924/ 29°410) 29°915| 29-650) 29°760
4:560| 4°613| 4°538| 4°533| 4°487| 4°470| 4°519| 4-485| 4600] 4°594| 4°550

29-720
4621

29°726
4578

Mean Temperatures.

° ° io} ° o is) ° o ° ° °
BenWevisOb-| 22:7 | 27:3 | 24°6 | 24°5 | 33:4 | 387 | 39°38 | 37°6 | 37°3 | 31:7 | 28:3 | 24:2 | 30°8
servatory a
Fort William | 38°5 | 43:2 | 41:5 | 42°7 | 49:7] 53:9 | 55°1 | 53:9 | 53°64 | 47-8 | 43:5 | 38°5 | 46°8
Differences . | 15°8 | 15°9 | 16°9 | 18:2 | 16°3 | 15:2 | 15°3 | 16°3 | 163 | 161 | 15°2 | 143 | 16°0

Extremes of Temperature: Maxima.

Ben NevisOb-| 35:7 | 42°3 | 37:0 | 35°0 | 56°0 | 580; 49°6 | 49°0 | 50°0 | 40°5 | 41°9 | 36°6 | 58°0
servatory /

Fort William! 50°4 | 55°6 | 56°5 | 57-6 | 71:5 | 76:0 | 71:1) 63:8 | 680 | 60°0 | 55°5 | 54:0 |} 76°0
Differences. | 14°7 | 13°3 | 19°5 | 22°6 | 15°5 | 180 | 21°5 | 148] 18:0 | 19°5 | 136 | 17-4 | 180
Eatremes of Temperature: Minima.

Ben Nevis Ob- 77 | 17:0 | 149 | 12°6 | 15:7 | 22:8 | 27°7 | 31:0 | 24°3 | 22°8 | 10°9 | 13:3 (HE

servatory | | | |
Fort William | 213 | 32:1 | 32:3 | 29°6 | 33:4 36:2 | 40:6 | 42:2 | 35°38 | 31:0} 235 | 224 | 21:3
Differences . | 13°6 | 15:1 | 17-4 | 17:0 | 17°7 | 134] 12:99 | 11:2] 11°55 | 821 12°6 91 = 13°6

56 REPORT—1904.

TABLE I.—continued.

1903 | Jan, | Feb. March) April | May | June | July | Aug. Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
Rainfall in Inches.
Ben NevisOb- | 33°45 | 36:24) 37:95) 8-36) 661) 6:44 | 13:26) 20:97| 10:72) 18-66) 17:27, 6-81 216-74 |
servatory | |
Fort William | 16°12} 17-04| 17-25) 3°81} 449) 297] 6-60] 11:95; 7:15] 13:05! 7:85! 5:611113-89
Differences | 17:33! 19:20] 20:70; 4°55| 2°12; 3°47| 6°66 | 9°02 3°57 | 5°61) 9°42) 1:20 |102°85'!
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.
Ben NevisOb-; 11 Sy hy TH 4 1 2 5 7 3 8 5 3 79
servatory | | |
Fort William | 5 7 7 0 1 0 1 3 1 4 | 1 251-32
Differences . 6 6 10 4 | 0 2 4 4 2 4 4 1 47
Number of Days 0:01 in. ov more fell. |
Ben NevisOb-| 22 27 | 28 22 19 18 23 29 | 18 29 22 23 280
servatory |
Fort William} 21 26 31 13 16 12 21 27 21 29% | 23 20 259
Differences . 1 1 | -3 9 3 6 2 2 =—3 | Ge 3 21
Mean Rainband (Scale 0-8).
Ben NevisOb-| 14 24 2-0 20 2°3 3°6 27 2°6 25 3°3 2°5 15 2°4
servatory
Fort William | 3°6 4°8 39 371 38 | 47 47 | 47 40 45 40 34 al
Differences . 2°2 2-4 19 ie 15 i bf 2-0 2°1 15 1:2 15 19 1G
Number of Hours of Bright Sunshine.
Ben NevisOb-; 16 5 1l 40 79 137 76 | 23 67 16 21 18 509
servatory
Fort William | 22 10 39 120 135 178 141 91 126 36 21 15 934
Differences . 6 5 28 80 56 41 65 | 68 59 20 0 +3 425
Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind in Miles.
Ben NevisOb-| 22 | 17 17 | 11 | 1l 9 11 12 20 18 9 19 15
servatory |
Percentage of Cloud.
Ben NevisOb-| 88 98 95 80 82 74 86 95 80 96 89 93 87
servatory
Fort William | 73 88 85 74 73 68 75 83 66 89 80 77 78
Differences .| 15 10 10 6 9 6 11 12 14 7 9 6 9

The above table shows for 1903 the monthly mean and extreme
temperature and pressure ; the amounts of rainfall ; the number of days
of rainfall, and of the days on which it equalled or exceeded an inch ;
the hours of sunshine ; the mean rainband ; the mean velocity in miles
per hour of the wind at the top of the mountain ; and the mean cloud
amount. The mean barometric pressures at Fort William are reduced to
32° and sea-level ; but those at Ben Nevis Observatory to 32° only.

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure was 29-760 inches,
or 0-098 inch below the average of thirteen years ; whilst the mean at
the top was 25-210 inches, or 0-090 inch below the average of twenty
years. The mean difference for the two Observatories was 4:550 inches,
the mean monthly difference varying from 4:621 inches in January to
4-470 inches in August. At both places the mean for the year was con-
siderably lower than any hitherto recorded, and only in June, September,
and November were the monthly means above their normals. The means
for October were much lower than any yet recorded for that month, the
deficiency at Fort William being as much as 0°365 inch. At the top the
absolutely highest pressure for the year was 25:°941 inches at 2 P.M. on
May 26, and the lowest 23-916 inches at 5 a.m. on February 27. At Fort
William the extremes were 30°572 inches at 10 a.m. on November 6, and

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 57

28-326 inches at 6 a.m. on February 27. The extreme range on Ben
Nevis was, therefore, 2-025 inches, and at Fort William 2:246 inches.

The deviations of the mean temperatures of the months from averages
of the thirteen years (1891-1903) are shown in Table IT. :—

Tasie II.
Fort Top of { Fort Top of
William. Ben Nevis. | William. Ben Nevis.
° ° Oo Oo
January . d . —02 —07 July. ; é . —2:0 —19
February . : . +46 +3°2 August . ; . —2°6 —3:2
March . . . +11 +0°3 September : . +04 —07
April : : . —2°4 —3'8 October . é . +12 + 0:3
May : ; . +00 +02 | November : . —05 —1:2
June : : . —15 -13 ~=«| December : . —16 —1%5

The most remarkable features of the year as regards temperature were
the low temperatures for April and the cold weather of the summer
months. At both Observatories the April mean temperatures were the
lowest recorded for that month since 1891, the shade minimum at
Fort William registering frost from 12th to 18th, and on 22nd and 24th ;
whilst on Ben Nevis the minimum fell to 12°-6 on 17th, and the maxi-
mum rose above the freezing-point on only eleven days of the month,
the highest shade reading there being no higher than 35°-0, on the
6th and 9th. The absolutely highest temperature for the year at Fort
William was 76°-0 on June 7, and at the top 58°-0 on the same day ;
the lowest at Fort William being 21°3 on January 13, and at the top
7°-7 on January 10.

In Table III. are given for each month the lowest observed hygro-
metric readings at the top of Ben Nevis (reduced by means of Glaisher’s
Tables) :—

Tape IIT.
1903 Jan, | Feb, | Mar. | April| May | June | J uly | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dee.
| |
° ° °o °o | ° °o ° °
Dry Bulb. . | 19:1 | 42:2 | 236) 161 | 42:0) 47:3 368 | 437 | 186] sto | 20) 27-0
Wet Bulb a “ 15°3 | 32-0 181 | 141 32°0 | 33°5 30°9 | 32°8 | 30°3 | 25°6 19:0 | 15:7
Dew-point . . |-12°4 | 20:2 |-10°7 | -1°3 | 20°70 | 18:3 19°3 | 20°9 | 16:9 11-0 -6°2 | -20°9
Elastic Force . . | 7024 | -109 | -025 | -041 | -108 | -099 | °104 | -112 | -093 | ‘071 -032 | -016
Relative Humidity | 23) 41 21 46 40 | 30 42 | 41 37 41 | 26 14
[Sat.= 100] |
Day of Month , 8 9 Sue Gls 29 5 8 | 1 16 18} 18 29
Month of Year. 23 17 17 1 2) 24 2 | 2 9 9 | 3 23

Of these relative humidities, the lowest, 14 per cent., occurred on
December 29 with a dew-point of —20°-9, that being the lowest dew-point
for the year. From 9 4.M.on January 21 to noon on February 9—that is,
for a period of 507hours—the atmosphere was continuously in a saturated
condition, the summit of the mountain being wreathed in fog or mist
throughout the period, except for one short break of three hours. The
next longest periods of continuous saturation were from April 3 to 11,
from September 3 to 10, and from December 9 to 17.

The rainfall for the year at the top was 216-74 inches, or 55°97 inches
above the average of 19 years; whilst the annual amount at Fort William
was 113-89 inches, or 35:31 inches above the average for the same period.
At Fort William the year was the wettest hitherto recorded, but on Ben

58 REPORT—1904.

Nevis the amount was considerably below that for 1898, when the total
was as much as 240712 inches. On Ben Nevis the totals for January,
February, March and August were the largest hitherto recorded for these
months, whilst the aggregate for the first three months was half the total
for the year and considerably more*than twice the average. At Fort
William, also, about half the annual amount was registered during the
first three months, whilst the aggregate for that period was more than
twice the average. At the top of the mountain the greatest fall recorded
on a single day was 4°78 inches on January 29, the corresponding fall
at Fort William being 1-78 inch ; whilst the maximum daily amount at
Fort William was 3:09 inches on January 25, the fall at the top on that
day being 3:03 inches.

At the top of Ben Nevis the number of rainy days was 280, or 17
above the average, and at Fort William 259 days, or 25 above the average.
The number of days on which 1 inch or more fell was much above the
average at both observatories, Ben Nevis having no fewer than 79 such
days, or 26 above the average, and Fort William 32, or 17 above the
average. Of these days of heavy falls, as many as 41 occurred at Ben Nevis
during the first three months of the year, and as many as 19 at Fort
William. Considering also daily falls of between 0°50 inch and 0:99 inch,
and less heavy falls, we have the following table :

Aggregate of Falls Number of Days

Daily Falls of ————— — --
B.N.O. | Fw. | BNO. F.W

| ——— ae — ——— =e a
1 in. and over. : ; 5 . | 149-4in. | 51:3 in | 79 32
Pincers ia.) fg | go. a) etl ge 46
Lessthan$in. =. . . .| 283,, | 306.,, | 149 181
Higtal > Petae Pah! yet: Oe GIO. “| eM 259

Thus, on Ben Nevis nearly half, and at Fort William nearly one-third,
of the number of rainy days had falls of half an inch or over, whilst at the
top of the mountain such falls contributed six-sevenths of the total for the
year. Again, at Fort William 45 per cent. of the annual amount was due
to daily falls of 1 inch or over, and at the high-level station nearly 70 per
cent. to such heavy falls.

The sunshine recorder on Ben Nevis registered 509 hours out of a
total possible of 4,473 hours, or 11-4 per cent. of the possible sunshine, being
227 hours below the average of twenty years. This is the smallest annual
amount recorded since the Observatory was opened, the next least sunny
years being 1884 with 524 hours, 1886 with 571, and 1890 with 591. The
amounts for February and March were the least on record for these
months, and only in June, September, and December were the totals
above the average, and that by very small amounts. At Fort William the
annual amount was 934 hours, being the smallest total in thirteen years and
185 hours below the average for that period. February, March, and Octo-
ber had the smallest amounts on record for these months, the total of 10
hours in February being only one-fifth of the average for that month,

On Ben Nevis the mean percentage of cloud was 87, and at Fort
William 78, both above the average. February, March, August and
October were very cloudy months, the eye estimations of cloud amount

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 59

agreeing with the small amount of sunshine registered by the sunshine
recorder.
On Ben Nevis the following phenomena were observed :—

Auroras :—September 20 ; November 1 ; December 25.

St. Elmo’s Fire :—January 3, 6, 27, 28; February 27 ; March 5, 17, -
27; May 16 ; July 23; August 3, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21 ; September 2, 10;
October 5, 15, 16.

Thunder and Lightning :—July 2; August 15, 19, 20, 24.

Thunder only :—June 25, 29.

Lightning only :—January 26, 27 ; February 20, 25; March 5, 30;
June 29.

Solar Halos :—April 19 (with Mock Suns) ; June 29.

Lunar Halos :—January 5, 8 ; February 9 ; July 31 ; December 1.

In November 1903 the Deutsche Seewarte at Hamburg, Germany,
applied to the Directors for daily telegrams from the Fort William and
Ben Nevis Observatories, witha view to their use, along with similar
data from Continental high-level stations, in aiding the preparation for
the daily forecasts for the German Empire. These telegrams have
accordingly been sent for several months past, and appear regularly in
the Daily Weather Report issued by the ‘Seewarte.’

Copies of the Ben Nevis observations have also been"sent on applica-
tion to Dr. Hergesell, to be used in connection with the International
Aéronautical Investigation.

The discussion of the Ben Nevis observations on the lines indicated
in our last year’s Report has been continued. The chief subjects taken
up by Dr. Buchan have been a continuation of the inquiry into the
relations of temperature and pressure at the two Observatories, more
particularly in regard to the great movements of the atmosphere grouped
under the cyclone and the anticyclone. The observations have been
sorted out into the following four classes :—

1. The data for the mean hourly differences of the sea-level pressures
and temperatures for the months, including all types of weather, with the
exception of those days on which strong winds occurred, which rendered
the barometric readings untrustworthy owing to the pumping of the
mercury.

2. The second class included all those days during the fourteen years
on which the difference of temperature, on the mean of the whole day, was
12°-0 or less.

3. The third class included those days on which the difference of
temperature was 18°-0 or upwards.

4, All the other days were grouped under this class on which the
difference of temperature lay between 12°-0 and 18°-0, showing thus the
results for the days when the temperature differences were virtually about
the average.

This fourth class has been added to the investigation since the
meeting of the British Association at Southport. Further, the averages
for these four different classes have been now calculated from all the
available observations made at the two Observatories from August 1900
to December 1903.

The broad results are these :—(1) When the difference of the mean

60 REPORT—1904.

temperatures of the day is only 12°-0, or less, the calculated sea-level -
pressure for the top of the mountain is markedly greater than at Fort

William, and the accompanying meteorological conditions are anti-

cyclonic, the weather being clear, dry, and practically rainless ; (2) when

the difference of temperature is 18°-0, or greater, the meteorological

conditions are cyclonic, and the accompanying weather dull, humid, and

rainy.

The large result here arrived at empirically is in accordance with the
principle laid down by Dalton—viz., that air charged with vapour or
vaporised air is specifically lighter than when without the vapour ; or,
in other words, the more vapour any given quantity of atmospheric air
has in it the less is its specific gravity.

Another important result is that the cases of small differences of
temperature between the two Observatories are chiefly occasioned by an
increase of temperature at the top of the mountain, and large differences
of temperature by a decrease of temperature at the top.

The intimate relation thus disclosed between the varying temperatures
and sea-level pressures of a high-level and a low-level station is of
prime importance in forecasting the weather, inasmuch as it reveals, in
a way not hitherto attempted, the varying conditions of the hygrometric
states of the atmosphere, particularly at high levels, upon which changes
of weather so largely depend. The setting in of a process of saturation
of the atmosphere at great heights may thus be made known, even when
no cloud has yet been formed to indicate any such saturation. The
important bearing of these results on such practical problems in meteoro-
logy as the forecasting of the monsoons of India is evident.

The Study of Hydro-aromatie Substances.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. E. Divers (Chairman), Dr. A. W. CRossLEY
(Secretary), Professor W. H. Perkin, Dr. M. O. Forsrer, and
Dr. H. R. Le Svevr.

Recent Work on Hydro-aromatic Substances.
By Dr. A. W. Crossiey.

Tue following is a summary of the work published on hydro-aromatic
compounds since the preparation of the last report.!

Petrolewm.— Roumanian petroleum ? resembles Russian and American
petroleum, inasmuch as the densities of fractions taken every 2° between
50° and 70° diminish to a minimum at 60° to 62°, and then continuously
increase, whilst in the case of Galician oil there is a steady increase of
density throughout. A further difference from this latter oil is to be
found in the composition of the fractions between 60° to 100°, which do
not contain secondary hexanes, as on nitration they yield aromatic deriva-
tives only. Methyl- and ethyl-hexahydrobenzene are among the hydro-
carbons contained in the Roumanian oil.

Hydrocarbons.— Sabatier and Senderens* have shown that, when
benzene or its homologues, containing methyl groups as side-chains, are
passed together with hydrogen over reduced nickel, hydrogenation takes
place without complication ; whereas if the hydrocarbons contain longer

' Reports, 1903, p. 179. ? Poni, J. C. S., 1903, Abst. (1), 593.
3 Compt. Rend., 1901, 182, 1254.

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 61

side-chains (ethyl, propyl, &c.) part of the latter is split off. For example,

‘ethylbenzene gives principally ethylhexahydrobenzene, but also small
amounts of methylhexahydrobenzene. Sabatier and Mailhe! have further
investigated the product obtained by passing benzene and hydrogen over
reduced nickel, and find that if the temperature be maintained at 250°
pure hexahydrobenzene is formed, identical in all respects with that
occurring in Caucasian petroleum. If hexahydrobenzene be passed over
reduced nickel at 270° to 280°, it is decomposed into benzene and hydrogen,
which latter reacts with the benzene, forming methane. An energetic
substitution reaction takes place when chlorine acts on hexahydrobenzene
at a temperature of 0°, resulting in the formation of a mixture of mono-,
di-, tri-, tetra-, and hexa-chloro- derivatives.”

According to Markownikoff,? methylhexahydrobenzene has not been
obtained pure by the methods so far described ; for example, when isolated
from Caucasian petroleum, it is contaminated with normal heptane. It
can, however, be prepared in the pure condition by the action of zinc dust
on an aqueous alcoholic solution of 3-bromo-1-methylhexahydrobenzene.
The hydrocarbon obtained by eliminating the elements of hydrogen bro-
mide from this latter substance ‘ is a mixture of the two methyltetrahydro-
benzenes with the double bonds in the 2 : 3 and 3 : 4 positions. The pure
substances have been obtained by other methods.” In such hydrocarbons
the influence of the side-chain is such that in the splitting off of hydrogen
together with a halogen, or in the combination with a molecule containing
mobile hydrogen, the latter splits off from, or combines preferably with,
the carbon atom furthest removed from the side-chain, whilst the electro-
negative element combines with the carbon nearest the side-chain.
1:1 : 3-trimethyl-A*-tetrahydrobenzene.®

Hydroxy-derwatives.—The reaction introduced by Sabatier and Sen-
derens has been extended to the preparation of aromatic alcohols. When
phenol is passed together with excess of hydrogen over reduced nickel at a
temperature of 140°-160°, pure hydroxyhexahydrobenzene is obtained ; 7
but if the temperature be raised to 215°—230°, the hydroxyhexahydro-
benzene first formed is decomposed into ketohexahydrobenzene and
hydrogen. From the mixture so produced Sabatier and Senderens have
obtained the pure alcohol or ketone by, in the first case, passing the pro-
duct with excess of hydrogen over reduced nickel at a temperature of
140°-150°, and in the second by passing the product without hydrogen
over reduced copper at a temperature of 330°. Under similar conditions
thymol and carvacrol are converted into the corresponding hexahydro-
derivatives (Brunel).

Todohydroxyhexahydrobenzene gives, when treated with potash or
silver oxide,’ the internal oxide of 1 : 2-dihydroxyhexahydrobenzene,

fy)
ScH—cE,
cH Sou,

\cu,—CH,

1 Compt. Rend., 1903, 187, 240. 2 Bull. Soc., 1903, 29, 974.

3 Cent. Blatt., 1904 (1), 1345. 4 Cent. Blatt., 1904 (1), 1346.

5 Cent. Blatt., 1903 (2), 289; 1904 (1), 1213; Wallach, Annalen, 1903, 329, 368.

6 Harries and Weil, Ber., 1904, 37, 848,

7 Holleman, Cent. Blatt., 1904 (1), 727; Brunel, Compt. Rend., 1903, 187, 1268 ;
Sabatier and Senderens, ibid., 1903, 137, 1025.

8 Brunel, Compt. Rend., 1903, 187, 62.

62 REPORT—1904.

into which substance the former is easily converted by the action of water.
When the internal oxide is treated with alcoholic ammonia,' there result
l-amino-2-hydroxyhexahydrobenzene and two forms of dihydroxycyclo-
hexylamine, NH(C,H)9-OH)>».

Power and Tutin ® have isolated a levorotatory modification of quer-
citol from the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre. It is demonstrated that this
substance has the same constitution as d-quercitol (pentahydroxyhexa-
hydrobenzene) which has been established by Kiliani and Schaefer,? and
can only differ from the latter stereochemically ; but, since d-quercitol has
(a), + 24°16, whilst the new quercitol has (a);,—73°°9, the one cannot be
the optical antipode of the other. Eight optically active modifications of
pentahydroxyhexahydrobenzene are possible, and until a further number
of these isomerides are known it is impossible to assign a definite con-
figuration either to d-quercitol or to the new 1-quercitol.

Aldehydes and Ketones.—The general method for the preparation of
aldehydes by the action of organomagnesium haloids on the esters of
orthoformic acid dissolved in dry ether 4 appears to be applicable to the
syuthesis of hydro-aromatic aldehydes,’ and in this way hexahydro-m-
toluic aldehyde has been prepared from 3-bromo-1-methylhexahydro-
benzene.

The preparation of hexahydrobenzyl alcohol ® has been described by
Bouveault. Methylhexylearbinol, C,;H,,.CH(CH;)OH, is obtained when
acetic aldehyde is allowed to act on the magnesium compound of chloro-
hexahydrobenzene.? When these alcohols are oxidised with chromic acid
the former yields hexahydrobenzaldehyde and the latter hexahydroaceto-
phenone.

Chloro- derivatives of ketomethyldihydrobenzene.*®

Acids.—When pentane-aye-tricarboxylic acid is digested with acetic
anhydride and then distilled,® a remarkable decomposition takes place
with elimination of carbon dioxide and water and formation of 6-ketohexa-
hydrobenzoic acid.

CH,—CH,—CO,H CH,
PO GAG ay eae pCO. CEC. a,

— CH
- 00 + CO, + H,0
CH,—CH, -CO,H :

\ cH, -- CH,

On reduction the corresponding hydroxy- acid is obtained, which yields
trans-6-bromohexahydrobenzoic acid when treated with hydrogen bromide,
and this bromo- acid, under the influence of sodium carbonate, gives rise
to A’-tetrahydrobenzoic acid. d-Ketohexahydrobenzoic acid combines with
hydrogen cyanide to form the mixed nitriles of the cis- and trans-modifi-
cations of a-hydroxyhexahydroterephthalic acid. Both the corresponding
acids decompose on distillation with formation of A!-tetrahydroterephthalic
acid, identical with the acid synthesised by Baeyer.!°

c-Ketohexahydrobenzoic acid has been used by Perkin !! as the starting-
point for the synthetical preparation of terpin, inactive terpineol, and
dipentene ; but as this report does not include a consideration of the
terpenes and camphors, an account of this work is not given.

1 Brunel, idid., 1903, 137, 198. 2 J. C. 8., 1904, 85, 624.

3 Ber., 1896, 29, 1762. * Tschitschibabin, Ber., 1904, 87, 186.
5 Thid., 850. 5 Compt. Rend., 1903, 187, 60.

7 Bull. Soc., 1903, 29, 1049. * Zincke, Annalen, 1903, 328, 261.

8 Perkin, J. C. S., 1904, 85, 416. 19 Annalen, 1888, 245, 160.

1

n J. C.S., 1904, 85, 654.

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 63

Transformations.—1-Methy1-3-ketohexahydrobenzene has been con-
verted into 1-methyl-2-ketohexahydrobenzene! by the series of reactions
already described.”

When 1 :5-dimethyl-3-keto-+!-tetrahydrobenzene * is heated with an
equal weight of ammonium carbonate, a small quantity of a base is formed
identical with collidine (2:4:6-trimethylpyridine). The mechanism of
this process is the exact reverse of Hantzsch’s reaction * whereby dihydro-
pyridine, under the influence of hydrochloric acid, yields ketotetrahydro-
benzene.

Tt has been shown by Demjanow and Luschnikow * that it is possible
to convert a substance containing a tetramethylene ring into one con-
taining a pentamethylene ring (cyclopentanol from tetramethylenemethyl-
amine) ; and, in continuance of this work, Demjanow ° has now provided
an example of the conversion of a ring containing six carbon atoms into
one containing seven. On distilling hexahydrobenzamide with phosphorus
pentoxide it yields cyanohexahydrobenzene (1), which on reduction gives
the corresponding amine (2). When the hydrochloride of this amine

CH, - CH, CH,—CH,
CHK (1) Sex GN CH @), cH . CH, . NH,
CH, —CH, CH,— CH,”

oe —OH,=08 - eS
CH,

(3) |
*\ cH, — CH,—CH,

is acted on with silver nitrite it is converted intoan alcohol identical in every
respect with suberyl alcohol (3), already described by Markownikoff.’

A study of the action of bromine on 3 : 5-dichloro-1 : 1-dimethyl-A?**-
dihydrobenzene * has shown that the resulting hydro-aromatic bodies very
readily lose hydrogen bromide to form aromatic substances, of which the
two principal ones are 3 : 5-dichloro-4-bromo-o-xylene and 3 : 5-dichloro-
6-bromo-o-xylene. Since the dichlorodimethyldihydrobenzene, which forms
the starting-point of the research, contains the gem-dimethyl group, the
migration of one of these methyl groups becomes an essential step in the

production of an aromatic compound. The reaction has therefore been

worked out so as to gain an insight into the course of such changes, more
especially as, on account of the symmetry of the molecule, it forms one of
the simplest cases in which the wandering of an alkyl group can take
place. The reaction is largely influenced by the condition of experiment,
but no substance has been encountered in which an alkyl group has
wandered into any but an ortho-position.

The Nature of Double Linkings.—Recent experimental work has
enriched our knowledge of the behaviour of substances containing double
linkings, more especially as regards the property of addition. In the
case of a substance containing several double bonds in the molecule, these
bonds often do not behave independently of one another. Thiele’s theory °
of partial valencies provides a possible explanation of many such cases.
Knoevenagel '° considers it essential to study the movement of the atoms
themselves in the molecule, and assumes that doubly linked carbon atoms are

' Wallach, Annalen, 1903, 329, 368. 2 Reports, 1903, p. 181.

3 Knoevenagel and Erler, Ber., 1903, 36, 2129. 4 Annalen, 1882, 215, 297.

5 Cent. Blatt., 1903 (1), 828. 8 Cent. Blatt., 1904 (1), 1214.

™* Ber., 1893 26, R, 813. 8 Crossley, J. C. S., 1904, 85, 264.

o~ - Annalen, 1899, 306, 87. 10 Ber., 1903, 36, 2803.

64. REPORT—1904.

in a continuous state of oscillatory motion. In the case of a substance such
as butadiene, the formation of the dibromide BrCH, -CH=CH—CH,Br,
is explained by supposing the swinging motion of the carbon atoms to be
taking place first in one direction and then in the opposite, as indicated in
the accompanying diagram (fig. 1).

Continuous motion in one direction only is prevented by the hydrogen
atoms attached to the terminal carbon atoms, which come into the plane
of rotation. It is quite another matter in the case of benzene, where
alternate carbon atoms are supposed to rotate continuously in opposite
directions, because none of the valencies which pass into the plane of
rotation have hydrogen atoms attached to them ; the result is that the
double linkings change their position and travel round the ring (fig. 2).

HTGa. Fig. 2.

oO | S So) Po Qa S

Such a theory indicates the possibility of new types of isomerism,
more subtle even than optical isomerism, and it is pointed out that cases
of supposed polymorphism, ¢.g., the quinols and benzophenone, may be
in reality manifestations of structural differences of the above type.
Knoevenagel supports Lehmann’s view,' that substances exhibiting
difference in crystalline form afford evidence of difference in chemical or,
perhaps better, physical constitution.

It is also suggested that bodies of the type of ethyl +*:°-dihydro-
terephthalate should be particularly liable to lose a molecule of hydrogen,

(+)
HC . COOCH,

Ars
HO CH

| ll
HC CH

ay

HC . COOCH,
(+)

since the two hydrogen atoms marked (+) would be in a continuous state
of bombardment, due to the swinging motion of the carbon atoms con-
nected by a double bond. On increasing the temperature this state of
things would become sufficiently intense to cause the partial dissociation
of the molecule with evolution of hydrogen. This actually happens in the
case of the above ethereal salt on heating? in an atmosphere of carbon
dioxide, especially in presence of platinum black. The evolved hydrogen
is much smaller in amount than required by theory, only 18 c.c. being
obtained by heating one gram of the salt instead of 113 c.c. This is

1 Molehularphysih (2), 413. ? Ber,, 1903, 36, 2857.

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 65

readily explained, for the evolved hydrogen combines with some unaltered
ester, and the result of the reaction is the production of methyl terephthalate
and methyl hexahydroterephthalate.

Al3. Dihydrobenzene. By Dr. A. W. Crosstey.

In the last report of this Committee,! brief allusion was made to the
preparation of A‘‘*-dihydrobenzene ; work in this direction has now been
completed, with results which entirely confirm the preliminary experi-
ments. The hydrocarbon obtained from dimethyldihydroresorcin by
Crossley and Le Sueur”? was proved to be 1 : 1-dimethyl-\”** dihydro-

CH CH

Tae
(CH,).CX pu

GH, CH

benzene, and by submitting dihydroresorcin to an identical series of
reactions a hydrocarbon was obtained,’ which differed from any previously
prepared dihydrobenzene in only combining with one molecule of bromine
to give a dibromodihydrobenzene melting at 104°-5. It was therefore
suggested that the double bonds would be in the position 1 : 3, and the
hydrocarbon prepared by Baeyer ‘ and Markownikoff® would be A***-di-
hydrobenzene, which is characterised by directly adding on four atoms of
bromine to form a solid tetrabromide melting at 184°. Harries and
Antoni ® consider that their work proves this suggestion to be incorrect.

Unfortunately it was not found possible to prepare pure A‘: *-dihydro-
benzene from dihydroresorcin, but this end has now been attained by the
removal of the elements of hydrogen bromide from dibromotetrahydro-
benzene.’

CH, . CHBr CH=CH
CH. cue =2HBr+ CH, CH
K ir r x >
CH, . CH, CH, —CH

; The reaction can only take place in one way, and therefore leaves no
_ doubt as to the constitution of the resulting hydrocarbon, which like that
obtained from dihydroresorcin only adds on two atoms of bromine to give
a solid melting at 104°-5. That this latter substance is in reality a
dibromodihydrobenzene is conclusively proved by the fact that on treatment
with quinoline it Joses two molecules of hydrogen bromide, yielding
benzene.

It seems indisputable that, as already suggested, the hydrocarbon
obtained from dihydroresorcin or from dibromotetrahydrobenzene is
A***-dihydrobenzene, and the hydrocarbon giving the tetrabromide melting
at 184° must therefore be A!‘ *-dihydrobenzene.

' Southport, 1903, p. 182. 2 J. C. 8., 1902, 81, 822.
® Crossley and Haas, J. C. S., 1903, 83, 494. + Annalen, 1894, 278, 88.
5 Annalen, 1898, 302, 29. 6 Annalen, 1903, 328, 102.

7 Proc. C.S., 1904, 20, 160.

1904. r

66

REPORT—1904.

Wawe-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—
Report of the Committee consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor (Chairman),
Dr. MarsHauu Watts (Secretary), Sir Norman Lockyer, Professor
J. Dewar, Professor G. D. Livernc, Professor A. SCHUSTER, Pro-
fessor W. N. HartLey, Professor WoLcotr Gipss, Sir W. DE W.

ABNEY, and Dr. W. EH. ADENEY.

RUTHENIUM.

Kayser, ‘ Kénigl. Preuss. Akad, Wissensch. Berlin,’ 1897.

Adeney, ‘ Proc. Royal Dublin Soe.’ vol. x. (n.s.), pt. 1, No. 3.
Hixner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzungsber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cv. 1896, cvi. 1897.
Rowland and Tatnall, ‘ Astro.-phys. Journ.’ vol. iii. p. 288, 1896.

Wave-length
(Kayser)
Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Adeney |

Exner and
Haschek

5887°371
64830
33°561
33380
28-580
28235
26:018
15157
04°461
5792°382
90-741
82°720
82-511
74°533
71°352
68-066
58°875
56:980
53°72
52°163
47°623
46:131
45°776
40°710
34°606
30°122
25°895
24:975
14391
13-025
02-522
5699°741
99-224
96°526
94-626
93°190
92-288
88-990

Intensity
and -

5

NE PDF ONPRPNORPRNCORPR EWE WOWOCNKN REE RAONWKYHNOOOSO

Character |

| Reduction to

Vacuum
pete ieee
A
1:60) 46
” ”
1:59 | 4:7
9 ’
33 ’
” 3
7°? 3
1°58 e
” 9°
” ,
” ”?
” ”
99 ”
1:57 S
39 3
” >’
39 3
99 >
” 3°
” ”
> ”
9 ”
29 37>
” ”
1:56 55
” 39
° ”
” ”
“5 4:8
99 ”
1:55 i
> 9
9 99
29 ”
” 9
” 99
” >

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

16980°9
170462
171375
38-0
52:1
53°1
59°5
91°7
17223°4
59°3
64-2
88:2
88:8
17312°7
22°3
321
59°8
66:1
752
80:0
938
98-2
99:4.
17414°7
33'3
46°7
59°8
62°6
93°9
99:1
175313
39°9
41°5
49°8
55°6
60°71
62°8
73°0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 67

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Reduction to
Spark Spectrum VWatouain Rie,

Wave-length Intensity Oscillation

(Kayser) and i fas) |. Hxreduency
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character Rect oe in Vacuo

Haschek r
|

5679-790 4 1°55 | 4:8 17601°5
76°720 a = 5 11:0
65°370 4 1:54 5 46°3
63-233 0 a 5 52°9
57°127 Z Pe 5 72°0
53°482 2 3 35 83°4
53°005 0 3 Ee 84:9
50°981 2 3 3 91:2
49°737 3 Sy 5 95-1
48-058 1 5 a 17700°4
47°755 0 A A 01°3
41°848 2 5 5 20°3
36°441 7 . =p 36°9
29984. 1 oe Fr 57:2
27°722 2 15. 8 64°4
19-558 0 s ss 90-2
09-360 2 AS 4:9 178224
06-958 3 3 % 31-1
03-782 3 8 is 36°2
03°370 2 s 3 41°5
00°753 2 5 ra 49'8
56582°501 2 1°52 er 179082
79°650 2 * ss 17-4
78914 2 % ES 19°7
78°594 4 Pr oe 20°8
70:906 2 5 3 45°5
69233 4 35 33 50°9
59-962 6 35 3 80°8
56°719 3) 5 a 91:3
49960 2 151 5 18013°2
40°881 3 35 a 42°8
31-220 © 2 5 3 pS 74:2
18-056 Z 53 Pe 18117°4
12°593 2 1:50 os 35°4
10°934 6 9 i 42°8
077151 0 a 3 53°3
01-230 1 % 5:0 72:7
5496-899 4 FA 5 90-4
94°575 1 5 3 95:0
84-850 2 Be 3 18227°0
84°524 6 % 8 28-1
80°507 3 3 P 41°5
79°619 4 > 95 44°3
75°377 2 1-49 93 58°6
73°050 2 is 3 663
71°755 0 Fr: 3 70°7
56°329 2n A. BS 18322°3
55018 6 = 3 26°7
62-930 1 Pr 6 338
39°618 2n 1-48 a 78°6
39°421 2 33 es 79°3
27°815 4 3 i. 184186
19:056 4 Fr 53 484
01-609 2 1:47 | 5:1 18507°9
01:234 is, . s 09:2
5386-083 | 4 5 = 61:2

68

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum | Oscillation

(Kayser) = reel aos and Frequency
Are Spectrum Agios Exner and | Character ree 5 in Vacuo

y Haschek x
|

5378-042 3 Me pl pa 18589:0
13°505 On ob os 18604°7
65°799 2 A ne 31°5
62°271 2 1:46 rn 43°7
61°967 5 35 99 448
48°340 0 Bs 5 92°3
36°110 3 55 = 18735°1
34°901 2n ay 5 39°4
33114 3 ‘ a 45°7
15520 2 1°45 a) 18807°7
09-440 a a : 29°3
07°481 0 5 i 37°2
06°624 1 + 73 39°3
06-035 0 As 41-4
05-030 4 ¥ SS 44:9
5291°327 1 “ 5:2 93°6
84:256 4 1°44 ay 18918°9
80°989 2 9 , 30°6
75240 1 “ ee 51:2
66'988 1 55 . 81-0
66°642 1 ny F 82:2
64°113 On 2 > 91°3
57240 2 35 19016:1
51°816 1 4 35°8
45°612 2 1-43 : 58°3
45°112 0 F 5 60:2
43°109 2n 5 a5 67°4
42°560 1 nA . 69:4.
35°774 1 - 4 94-4
23°708 3 Ss, 19138°1
14:247 1 5 Pr 72:8
13-586 3 Ay = 75:2
09°667 2 1-42 5 89°9
02°285 2 rp 5° 19217°0
00°040 3 re +5 25°3
5195°171 4 i 5 43°3
76°361 0 es 5 19313°3
74:°105 0 1-41 3 2107,
71:193 6 3 - 32°5
69242 0 Ps 55 39°8
68°793 0 os 5% 41°6
68-237 0 a “p 43°6
60°167 2 s ‘ 73°9
55°302 4 a a 92:2
53°364 2 a op 99°5
51:230 4 25 re 19407°5
47°401 4 = Ad 22°0
42933 4 a aS 44-2
36°717 5 1:40 + 62°4
34°285 0 55 a 71°6
34°059 2 a 72°5
27°423 2 = - 97:7
07°230 4 or 5:4 19574°7
01°892 0 55 3 95:2
01°553 2 spel eae 96°5
5093996 4 139 | ;, 19625°6

4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 69

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to
Vacuum

Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) an Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character | y + pia in Vacuo
Haschek A
5077°484 3 1°39 | 5:4 19689:
77243 1 er Ap 90°3
73141 2 a is 19706°2
62°815 1 1:38 3 46°5
57°487 4 xy a 67°3
537114 0 Fi aa 84:4
47-471 2 53 53 19806°5
45°570 ] ‘ Pe 14:0
41°528 0 a ee 29°9
40°908 1 ae a 32°3
40°521 1 9 a 33°'8
39°794 On 39 3 36°7
26°343 3 1:37 | 55 89°7
20°472 0 Ae i 19912°9
19-140 1 9 % 18-2
11:387 3 =e e 49:0
10°765 1 Pr 55 515
05°394 1 si 3 73°0
03°697 0 ae is 79°7
4992°891 2 i = 20023°0
87-412 il 1°36 FA 45°0
80-498 2 PA an 712'8
76°351 2 35 a 89°5
75534 0 x * 92°8
74°255 9 es Fe 98-0
69°055 2 55 3 20119°0
60°022 0 a Fr 56°7
55°416 1 bs = 74:4,
38°587 3 1:35 | 5°6 20243°1
35°805 0 a5 a 54°5
21:233 4 eee on 203144
M755 ul | 1°34 55. 53°7
10384 0 ae he 59"4
08°045 3 rt A! 69'1
05°179 1 ” ” 83°0
03°223 5 a fe 89°2
02-033 0 ae Pe 94°1
01°234 0 aA 64 97°4
4899-416 1 :. as 20405'0
95°745 4 yi ‘ 20°3
95°555 1 3 - 211
95°474 1 53 Bs 21°4
85:186 0 ne na 64°5
82832 0 a5 é 81-1
77598 0 1°33 . 963
75188 0 an = 20506°4.
74489 0 95 aa 09°4
69°952 1 : ” ” 28°5
69-314 6 ae 99 31-2
65°253 1 fi, Ps aS 48°3
63°265 0 lapse a 56°7
62°024 2 ae nd 62:1
54°731 1 ” ” 92°8
44°720 4 ” o» 20635°3
39°930 1 1°32 5 55'8
39°174 et aed : 49°0

70 REPORT—1904

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Reduction to |
Wavye-length Intensity Vacuum — Oscillation
(Kayser) = == — and > Pa Frequency

Are Spectrum H Seay ee Character eee : in Vacuo
4833°157 5. 2 1324) (5°7 20644°7
28°865 0 a as 20703°1
22°738 | 0 x A 29°4
17512 1 =r rf 519
15694 5 a 5 59°7
14°895 0 o a 63°2
13412 0 a “A 70°6
06°375 0 a 55 20800°0
05°043 2 as es 05°8
01°343 1 1°31 oc 21°8
4798607 2 BS 3 33°7
95°721 2 3 ‘5 46°3
94°547 2 » PP 51°3
81:937 1 aa 58 20906°3
74°168 0 a 24 40°2
73°325 0 2 ay 43°9
69°464 + . 5 61-2
67°315 0 Se fe 70°4
64°582 0 1°30 a 72°4
58-043 6 = ‘ 21011°2
56°402 2 3 f 18°5
53°280 0 “A 5 322
51197 0 +: ee 41°5
43°205 1 is “3 77:0
38°587 0 3 ee 97°5
33°710 4 - ay 21119'3
33°486 0 3 rc 20°3
31504 3 ne a 29°1
21:078 1 1:29 x 758
18°228 0 5 a 88°6
16201 2 a Pe 97°5
14°335 0 =f A 2120671
127146 1 53 x 15°9
09-672 4709°55 6 %» ” 27'1

04°2 1 ” ”

02°6 1 ” ”

4692°3 1 1-28 4
4690°284 90°5 4 Pp 59 21314°7

87°3 1 ” 39
85°947 86:2 1 34 ‘ 34°5
84:196 84°4 4 a 3 42°4
83°258 0 Ss es 46°7
81:966 82:2 4 ob Ss 52°6
81°563 0 * 5 54°5

775 In ” ”
74°821 | 75:0 4 mA A 853

74:0 In ee a
70°146 70°4 + oo a 21407°0

69°5 1 5 a

68°5 In =A >

67°5 In es af
62°663 | 0 ” ” 41'1
54-901 | -@ 12 9 76°8
54489 54°6 | 4 ees 99 78°7
52°371 1s taker OD 7 ) 88°5
48-293 | 9 » 9 21507°4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 7

RUTHEN1UM—continued.

1

Spark Spectrum Reduction to |
Wave-length Intensity ots Oscillation
(Kayser) | ; and Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney | Exner and Character Rese a * in Vacuo
| Haschek r
4647787 4647-68 5 127| 59 | 2809-7
46:967 0 bs 33 14:9
46°326 0 a oy 165
45:264 45-4 4 ec 35 21°4
42°752 1 =r Ss 331
42°548 1 - % 34:1
41°135 41°2 0 we 7 40°5
39°490 391 0 3, 55 48:2
38°569 0 “h = 52°5
35°849 36:0 4 oo ts 651
28°495 0 - 6:0 98°8
267184 1 be a 2161071
17°827 0 1-2 an 49:2
125 1 oe
10°6 In a ay |
09°5 In $5 a
05°833 05°8 2 » ’ 21705°6
02-978 0 oD 3 20°1
01°933 01:9 3 3 26°8
*4599°271 4599-30 6 9 % 36°6
96879 97:1 4 = oe 479
93°367 0 “ ‘ 64:5
93°161 0 39 a 65°4
* 92-695 92°7 4 re 3 67°7
91°717 2 a a 72°3
* 91°257 91°4 4 ne - 74:5
89°734 0 a % 818
89°177 87-4 0 35 A 84:4
85°5 1 » 99
* 84°632 84°60 4 = » | 21806:0
815 In 8
80°246 80°4 3 1:25 55 26°4
74:2 In » 25
64°862 65:0 2 3 61 21900°4
62°772 62°9 1 3% rf 10°4
21607157 4560°16 60°3 4 rr . 22°9
59°215 1 z “0 27°5
56°5 In a A
* 54°696 54°70 54°71 6r 5 5 49°3
* 52:281 52°28 52°5 Pt 4 F rc 60°9
* 507112 50°11 50°3 3 » ” 714
49589 49°6 2 32 * -73°9
* 48:030 48°03 48:2 4 55 $5 81-4
* 47463 47°46 47.6 4 PC 5 84:2
47°105 47°3 2 Be zs 85°9
45°4 In 3 33
44:0 1 29 ”
42°848 42°85 42-7 1 1:24 x 22013°1
42°0 In Fe a
41-4 In 3 ss
40°05 40:2 In SS Fe 20°1
36:0 In D 55
35°0 In 5 #3

* Rowland and Tatnall: 4599°265, 4592-699,
4554°697, 4552-293, 4550°121, 4548-031, 4547-467.

4591:285, 4584°619, 4560-168,

72 REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Beets fe
Wave-length Intensity | = Oscillation
(Kayser) I and Frequency
Arc Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character | , + ht in Vacuo
Haschek A
|
4531:035 4531°04 4531°2 of 1:24 | 61 | 22063°9
25°616 0 | 9s 90°3
= 21-110 21°11 21°3 4 > ” 22112°4
Sal O77 17°98 18-2 4 ’ ” 27°7
* 17:060 17:06 173 4 ” ihe 322
16°421 16°42 166 2 45 or 35°3
= N33 11°35 115 4 | 99 ” 60-2
* 10°25) 10°25 104 a | 9 % 65°6
08°715 08°72 08-8 2 ae oh th 732
08-192 08°3 ] [has a5 75°7
*4498 322 4498 32 449830 4 1-23 = 22219°4
91-846 91°85 92-1 2 of 6-2 564
90°396 90°40 90°5 2 re » 63°5
88°550 88°50 88°7 4 ” ” 72°7
82°194 82°19 82:3 2 Len A 22304°3
* §80°603 80°60 80°7 4 1 er 3 12:2
79°80 79°7 1 on ree 16:3
75493 75°7 2 ss Dex 37°7
* 74:093 74:09 74:2 4 [i gs Ey es 44°7
71:200 0 lees “5 59-2
70°69 70°8 Jd a ae 61°7
67°427 67°6 2 | 1:22 % 78°0
66°511 2 ae: 99 82:7
65°649 65°65 1 ” ” 87:0
64°661 64°66 0 9 ” 91°9
* 60°209 60°21 60°19 6 % ” 22414°3
535. In a F
* 49-509 49°51 49°50 t Bs = 68-2
* 44-674 44°67 44°8 4 ce - 92°6
43°3 In ob is
40°245 0 oe pom eg. 50 Si
* 39:938 39°94 39°98 5 | ese 2» | 166
39°574 2 “ os | 18°5
38°6 1 a5 BS |
30°478 u 121 | 63 64°6
* 28°624 28°65 4 “5 5S 74:1
26°182 26°18 1 % ’ 865
24°958 252 3 oy , 92°8
23°143 23°3 1 es : 22602°0
* 21:629 21°63 21°7 a | 95 3 09°8
21-006 21:01 21:2 4 3 * 13:0
20°634 20°63 2 * ” 14:9
14:607 2 of or 45°7
13:°458 2 ap = 516
12058 0 ties => 58°8
* 10°207 10°21 10°17 6 lees ” 68°4
09-1 In icing aw
05°809 052 0 of 7 91:0
02°7 In 5 a3
4399-751 99°75 00:0 1 % ” 22722°3
*% 97:956 97°96 43983 f 9 » | 315
96868 | 0 “5 cathe el 37-2

* Rowland and Tatnall: 4521°124, 4517-985, 4517-063, 4511°364, 4510-265,
4498°316, 4480°617, 4474:100, 4460°194, 4449°509, 4444°681, 4439-935, 4428-631,
4421-626, 4410°193, 4397°966,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 79

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Wave-length ae a Oscillation

(Kayser) i and |... | Btequency

Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character) , , | }_ in Vacuo
Haschek A

43957125 449513 4395°4 Z E21 | 6:3 22746'1

B Ol-19) 91°19 91°5 4 1:20 fe 66°5

* 90°614 90°61 90°60 6 = ; 69°6

89°547 89°4 0 ” ” 75°1

89-150 2 4 - tel

* 86°431 4386°43 86°6 4 a a3 91:3
86:1 + a5 :

* §85°823 85°82 85°85 5 3: ” 94°4

* 85°563 85°56 85°60 5 ” ” 95°8

* §83°530 83°53 83°7 2 ” ’ 22806°4

81-421 81:42 81-7 2 ” ; 173

76°745 768 1 - a 41°7
73°9 1 9 ”
73°4 1 oc c

* 72°381 72°38 72°38 5 ” » 64°5

71°52 71°6 2 ” > 68°8

* 71:363 4 = a 69°9

70°580 70°9 2 on fe 74:0

65°741 0 “E 6-4 99-2

64-270 64°6 2 ce ; 22906°9
63°5 1 » ”

62°872 63°2 1 “ ac 20°3

* 61-581 2 = a 21:0

* 61°372 61°37 61°40 5 “e Ke 22-1
58°5 In a 33

57:031 57°6 1 -S ** 45°0

* 54-960 54°96 55:2 3 1-19 3 55°9

* 54:300 54°30 54°32 6 5 “ 59°4

50°632 0 op of 78°8

* 49°868 49°86 49°90 5 “A “ 82°8

* 46°640 46°9 a a oa 99°9

43°178 43°7 0 = 95 230182

* 42-243 42°24 42°25 6 ” ” 23°2

41-204 41-4 2 ” > 28°6

40°503 40°7 2 or a 32°4
40°0 In oe) ”

38°829 39°1 2 ” » 41°3

* 37:427 37°43 37°6 4 os “ 48°7
373 1 ae re

* 36°584 36°58 36°7 2 te 59 » 53°2
33°1 1 |» »

32°789 32°9 0 PP “5 73°4

32°655 32°66 2 ” ” 74:1

* 31°321 31°32 315 4 ~ aH 81°8

28-712 29-0 2 = “ 95:2

* 27°588 27°59 27°8 3 , ” 231012

27°489 2 ar a 01°7

* 26-987 26°99 27:2 Pt 4 ” ” 04:4

* 25°215 25:22 25°4 4 35 = 13°8

23°626 0 a * 22°3

23-120 23°15 23°3 2 Os > 25°0

21°450 2 Los 340

* Rowland and Tatnall: 4891-191, 4390°605, 4386-436, 4385°814, 4385°553,
4383'526, 4372-363, 4371°366, 4361:597, 4361°371, 4354969, 4354-296, 4349°867,
4346°645, 4342°236, 4337-431, 4336-591, 4331-329, 4327°590, 4326-986, 4325-213.

74: REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

| é
. | Spark Spectrum | Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
' eee) = Z 5 ve a eed Ta, Fr Frequency
re Spectrum xner an haracter carat! bead in Vacuo
P Adeney Teva A+ ar
4320-972 | 4321°0 0 1:19 ) 64 23137°5
20°743 2 ie dies 378
* 20:045 4320°04 20°08 5 a Bl Ss 41°4
19:274 2 See hee 45°6
-* 18:596 18°60 18°7 4 118 i 49°3
* 16°792 17:0 2 elt oe 59°0
15219 =| 4 sa eae 67°4
* 14-468 14°47 14°6 4 3 33 71°4
13°067 0 eh Aan oP 79°0
12°632 12°8 2 Sane ss 81:3
12:047 0 oe as 84:4
11-0 1 9% ES
09°361 09°6 2 Y §: 98°9
08°567 08°57 0 er 65 23203'1
* 07748 | - 07-75 07°74 4 Pe * 07°5
06:2 1 5 >»
05:0 1 a ve
2150 0 es fe VEZ
01:297 O15 ] BP ie eo 42°3
4299°3 1 +5 53
*4297 ‘887 4297°89 97°92 8 a 55 60°8
96°860 96°86 971 2 oo + 66:3
* 96-090 96°09 96°05 5 aS 5 70°4
* 94955 94°96 94°95 5 ” » 76'6
94:268 | 4 . = 80°3
* 93°441 93°44 93°48 4 s = 848
92°419 92°6 0 As a 90°4
90°692 90°69 90:9 2 a a 99°8
TOR ZO9. ie Ione 874 4 ~ eS 23318°7
* 84:502 84°49 84°50 6 ” ” 33°4
| 83-4 In 3 5
SDD 82°36 82°6 | 2 35 3 351
* §82:093 82:09 82°3 2 i. ae 46°6
81°7 1 ” 99
79°6 1 HELA LA
* 78°842 2 a a 64:0
*° 77415 776 2 ” ” 72°1
73115 | 0 Ws : 95°6
72-0 |. 2 ain : =
67:0 0 “ as
66°157 ” ” 23433°8
* 65°766 65°77 65°9 2 ” ” 37:0
63°551 63°7 | 2 ‘5 ag 48°]
60°166 60°17 60°3 3 “f as 66:7
* 59-152 59°15 59°20 5 ” ” 72°3
57°6 es ne
56°790 57:0 0 ef - 85:4
56:049 | 561 0 r An 89°5
55°868 5D"7 1 3 s 90°5
48 °304 48°5 2 99 6°6 23532'2
* 46°902 46°90 46°95 4 A “5 40°0
* 46:522 46°52 46°55 4 oA ap 421

* Rowland and Tatnall: 4320-036, 4318°599, 4816°801, 4314-471, 4307°746,
. 4297°870, 4296-090, 4294-948, 4293-443, 4287-204, 4284-490, 4282°367, 4282-089,
4278°844, 4277-413, 4265°762, 4259°144, 4246-893, 4246498.

ates ites

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

“I

Or

Spark Spectrum Bedaetion. to
Wave-length Intensity Noa Oscillation
Kayser) and ali Frequency
is Aesan Adeney cant Character | , + 7 in Vacuo
4246°359 6 117 | 66 23543°0
* 44°997 4245°05 4245°2 4 9 ” 50°5
* 43°228 43°23 43°20 6 TOGYY , ss 60°3
* 41:23) 41°23 41°25 6 PP ” 71:4
40°194 40°4 0 Py ” 76°9
40°0 1 ” ”
38°5 In ” 29
* 36°838 36°84 37:1 4 oc = 23604°0
33°6 1 ’ ”
* 32-478 32°48 32°6 4 ”9 ” 20°2
31:7 1 ” ”
* 30°470 30°20 30°48 6 + os 31:4
* 29°472 29°47 29°6 4 ” ” Saft
28°2 1 ” ”
* 26°825 26°82 27:0 Ca 0 ro os
* 25°258 25°26 25°4 3 ” ” 60°6
* 20°838 20°84 20°85 4 5 op 85°4
* 17°438 17°44 17°40 7 ” ” 23705'5
* 14-610 14°61 14°60 4 5 3 20°4
13°8 1 ” iS
* 12-240 12°24 12°20 5 SC op 33°7
09°5 1 ” ”
* 07°797 07°80 08-0 i 55 ; 58°8
* 06°178 06°18 06°20 4 % 3 67°9
03°5 1 115 ss
03°2 1 % >
* (00°069 00:07 00°05 v4 “ 6°7 23802°5
*4199°039 419904 4199-02 4 » ” 08-2
* 97°748 97°75 97°78 4 i 5 15°6
* 97:038 97:04 97°05 2 9 3 196
95:0 1 ” ”
* §89°639 899 0 3s a 61°7
88°6 In : ”
84°5 In ” ”
* 82-994 83:0 0 Sy s 99°6
* 82°807 1 3 rr 23900°7
* §82°621 82°62 82°8 2 5 3 01°7
* 76°615 758 Os 2 re #3 41°9
753 2 ” ”
74°5 In ” ”
73°4 1 ” »”
70°9 In ” ” .
* 70°218 70°22 70°5 2 fp a 72°'8
69°3 1 ” ”
* 67°666 67°67 67°65 5 114 35 87°5
* 67-030 67°03 67°3 0 Pr FH 91:2
65°1 In ” ”
? 64°'8 In » % :
61°817 61°82 61°80 } 4 PA Fy: 24021°3
59°5 | 1 Ft J
58°2 1 ” ”

* Rowland and Tatnall: 4244:992, 4243-216, 4241:215, 4236°834, 4232-481,
4230°478, 4229-475, 4226°824, 4225:256, 4220°838, 4217-427, 4214-714, 4214°604,
4212-225, 4207°798, 4206:178, 4200-062, 4199°039, 4197-745, 4197-039, 4189-631,
4182998, 4182°812, 4182-623, 4175-604, 4170-219, 4167°683, 4167-047, 4161-823.

76 REPORT—1904.
RUTHENIUM—continued.
Reduction to
Spark Spectrum
Wave-length , ; Intensity bie Oscillation
(Kayser) i. t : ects 4 Raney
Are Spectrum xner an aracter e: in Vacuo
P Adeney Hence A+ =
"4150" 475 4150748 4150°6 1 1-14 | 6°7 24086 9
48°530 48°53 48-7 1 sath We OS 98°]
* 46°956 46°96 46°92 4 35 ” 24107°3
* 45°905 45°80 45°95 4 = ES 13°4
* 44°335 44°35 4 6 BS 24:4
38-923 0 = 5 54:1
* 37°410 37°41 37°6 3 % » 62°9
35°8 Os 1 fc 3
35°2 1 ” ”
3 1IS7¢ In Fc a
29°2 In 113 i
* 28:°017 28:02 28°2 2 ” ” 24217'9
27 -Gl 27°61 27°7 2 > ” 20°3
26°7 In . A
25°3 In Pa as
242 1 ” ”
5123297 23°23 23°4 2 AS 3 40:0
21:287 21°4 2 FA AS 57°4
* 21-147 21°15 2 A of 58°3
* 18-678 2 50) fates 728
14°285 145 1 PD _ 98°8
= 1137532 13°53 137 2 % ” 24303 °2
FP 12:S10 12°90 12°95 4 Sa a 06:9
09°796 10:0 0 oS 4 25'°3
* 08-218 2 rs or 34°6
* 08:003 08:00 08:2 4 ’ ” 35°9
06:065 06°3 0 » % 47°4
* 02-438 02°6 2 ’ ” 68°9
01:006 01°91 02:1 4 ” » 72:1
900-533 00°53 00°6 2 Fr on 80:2
*4097- 965 | 4097" 97 4098-00 4 cs 69 95°6
97:°185 97:97 97°5 2 ~ A 24400°1
95°3 In ” ”
* 91-218 | 91-22 91°5 1 1-12 se 35°7
| 88:7 1 7 5
* 85:567 85°57 | 85°62 5 35 as 69°5
83°9 1 ” ”
82:947 83:2 2 55 - 85:2
EO OSOn Lime Wee Ovi 80°76 a oA 5 98°3
79:440 | 79-6 1 » ” 24506°3
78:2 1 9 99
* '76:900 76°90 76°90 5 ” ry 21°5
74-4 1 ”? 7
73°260 73°4 2 PY % 43°4
Eo 47 73°15 2 ” cores 44°]
* 71-560 718 3 % a S| 53°7
* 68:529 68°53 68°58 4 1 es dH 720
oe VSP 67°78 68-0 4 a aa 766
* 64°616 64°61 64°9 4 Fr ae | 95'7
64-262) |) 964°265 64:5 2 Bg Fs p 97°8
* 63-160 | 63°16 63°3 2 53 35 24604'5

* Rowland and Tatnall:

4063°147.

4150°470, 4148-539, 4146-939, 4145-905, 4144-324,
4137°394, 4128-035, 4127°609, 4123-227, 4121-153, 4118: 666, 4113'542. 4112-905,
4108°224, 4108-001, 4102-443, 4100-530, 4097-948, 4097- 185, 4091-223, 4085-589,
4080°757, 4076°886, 4073:156, 4071-561, 4068°529, 4067-771, 4064:615 4064-263,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

~JI

“I

Spark Spectrum Pegueton

Wave-length | Intensity Oscillation

(Kayser) eas aha : - an ; 1 ene,

Are Spectrum Adeney Haschek raracter | y 4 a in Vacuo

*4063°021 1 1:12 | 69 24605°3

4060°7 In FF a
58°2 In 2 33

* 54-216 405422 54°18 4 111 AS 58'S

* 52°356 52°36 52°6 nt ” » 7071

* 51°566 51°57 51°56 4 ” ” 74:9

* 49°570 49°57 49°8 2 Bs 70 87:0

47°4 In ” ”?

* 46:2 2 ” ”

43°5 2n ” 2”
42-123 2 ‘3 oA 24732°5
40°620 40°7 2 : ” 41°7

Be, 39°37 39°6 4 ’ » 49°3
37°892 38°2 2 > ” 58-4
36612 37°0 2 ih, ee 5 66:2
32°650 328 In Ve ae = 90°5

* 32:363 32°36 32°6 4 ” ” 92:°3

* 31147 31°15 31°4 3 ” ” 99°8

30°6 In > cc
28°584 28°8 2 a “5 24815°8
26°650 27-0 1 > ” 27°5

* 24°848 25°1 2 ss 2c 38°3
24°449 24°7 2 as Fi 41:1

* 24-001 24:00 24:00 4 ” 33 43°9
22837 2371 2 5 Fr 511

* 92°327 22°33 22°30 5 as cf 54:2
21°146 21°15 21:4 > 3 a ry 61:0
19°699 19-70 19°9 Ir 2 ” » 70°5
18-891 | 1 33 re 75°5

158 In 1:10
14:297 14:30 14:6 2 ” ” 24904°0
13871 13°87 14:1 2 ” ” 06°6

* 13°655 13°66 13'8 4 =p 5 07°9

11-882 09°91 11°6 2 ” ” 19°0
10°3 1 = A
* 08-422 08°42 08°6 2 » > 415
* 07°680 07°68 07:8 3 » ” 45-1
* 06°749 06°75 07:0 ze 3 ” 50°9
* 05'789 05°79 06:0 4 » > 56°9.
04:7 In ” ”

03°15 03°3 In Bs ci 73-2
01:8 1 ” ”
3998-2 In 2 *

*3996°650 3996°65 96°6 2 » an 25013°9
96°136 96°14 96°10 4 ” » dif
94-700 1 ee °p 26°1
89°344 2 35 a3 59°7

* 87:959 87°96 | 87°95 4 55 omit 133 68°4

* 85-011 85°01 | 85-00 5 aa a 863
84°840 | 1 BOW 88-0
82°372 82°37 82:1 3 » 3 25103°5

* 79°591 79°59 79°58 2 HE Fy. 211

* Rowland and Tatnall: 4063°023, 4054:212, 4052°354, 4051°561, 4049-570,
4045-949, 4039°365, 4032-362, 4031-155, 4024°847, 4023°986, 4022-315, 4013°652,
4008-418, 4007:686, 4006-748, 4005-793, 3996°128, 3987-942, 3985-007, 3979°571.

78 REPORT— 1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

| Spark Spectrum oan ok
Wave-length | Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) Pecan ae, 7 ‘e Seeney
Are Spectrum | Adeney Haschek aracter |) 4 a4 in Vacuo
*3978°620 3978 62 | 3978°61 4 1 LOR ied 25127°3
* 74°646 74°65 74:7 5 1:09 pat 52°3
72568 4 5 = 65°5
70°0 1 Vs ”
69°936 69°94 0 33 re 85'8
68°64 Ca 68°6 Ca 2 3 33
* 65:057 65°06 65°05 2 oe “ 25213°2
61°84 62°3 zs Bs 33°7
* 57-596 57°60 57°7 4 a a 60°8
57°376 575 2 a “c 62°2
* 52°850 52°85 52°9 0 oe * 91-1
52°436 1 ne 7:2 93°6
72 olspl 51°35 51-4 | 4 3 3 25300°7
* 50-548 50°5 3 ne Ss 05°3
* 50°366 50°37 50-4 4 a A: 06°9
* 507192 50°3 2 33 A 08-0
* 49-564 49°56 49°6 2 Neate - 33 12-1
* 46-456 46:5 2 ee : 32°0
* 45°723 45°72 45°73 0 ar? = 36°7
* 44°341 44°34 44-4 2 a of Be 45-6
43:2 In 5 ae |
* 42-209 4221 42°3 4 bs a 59°3
* 41-811 41°81 42-0 3 fe 3:24 61:8
39-268 39:27 0 ” ” 78:2
* 38°045 38°05 38°2 3 6 * 86:1
34352 1 os af 25409°9
33°80 Ca 33°80 Ca 4 1-08 35
33°06 33°1 1 A or 18°3
32°444 0 = of 22:2
ol 936 31:94 31:93 4 ss ns 27°6
26°581 F 0 # 33 60:2
* 26:071 26:07 26-05 6 bas ” 63°5
eee 24-7'76 24°78 24°9 2 I 6} 2 72:0
* 23°636 23°64 23°62 6 454 x 79°4
22°476 22°5 1 5 35 86°9
21-061 21:06 21°71 4 ” ” 9771
*
19°711 0 2 + 25504°9
16°7 In = 25
* 15-000 15:00 151 4 yopuaal\aeaes 35°6
145 9 ”
* 12-248 12:25 12°3 3 ”» ” 53°5
11:279 114 3 gees “ 59-9
* 09-229 09:23 09:22 5 | oe ” 73°3
* 08-907 08:91 09-0 3 eee et aice: 75°3
06:9 In = =
06°7 In » 9
067141 063 1 25 AD 93°4
02:4 | 1 at ne
* 101-393 01°39 01°5 | In ZA A 256246
38989 Pt | 4 39 93

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3978-600, 3974°650, 3965-055, 3957°600, 3952-844,
3951°360, 3950°556, 3950°371, 3950°183, 3949°560, 3946-468, 3945-730, 3944-339,
3942:215, 3941°819, 3938-060, 3933-700, 3931:920, 3926:062, 3924-774, 3523-615,
3920-060, 3914-990, 3912-252, 3909:222. 3908-906, 3901:391.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE

' RUTHENIUM—continued.

ELEMENTS. 79

| Reduction to | |
Spark Spectrum
Wave-length , | Intensity Maou Oscillation
eget) = 7 ae ae | : and : “ | Frequency
Are Spectrum | Adeney Hecchek | Character ) 4 == in Vacuo
*3898:'500 389850 | 3898°6 In 1:08 | 7:3 25643°5
Penoioo0! | | 97:39 97°5 3 a is 50°9
EON) lio dee o's dee
95:1 | In 1:07 5p
94-387 94°39 94°5 In FA ef 70-6
* 92-916 92-92 93-0 2 33 pe 80-4
* 92366 92°37 92°35 2 - . 83°9
* 91:567 91°57 91°6 4 = £ 89°3
* 90-350 90°35 90°4 2 ae 7 97°3
89°6 4 2? ”
* 87-962 87:96 88-0 1 ue es 25713°1
876 2 ” ”
86°5 1 ” ”
* 84-849 84°85 84:9 1 “ A 33°7
* 84-203 84:20 84:3 2 ~ oe 37°9
| 82:3 2 ” ”
80:95 81:0 1 oa nh 59°6
80:2 In #3 4
79°15 79:2 2 FA A) 71:1
* 76:23 76:2 1 5 e, 90:0
z pene 73°65 73°6 1 a [es 25808:1
72: 1 ” ” 16-2
71-4 1 » » |
71:0 ] 29 29
; 70°8 1 ” ”
* 67:965 67:97 67:95 3 » ” 46:2
a 65°55 65°6 2 - 33 62:2
63°8 In $3 ss
* 62°82 62°80 6 Pe Ss 80:5
62:0 1 |
60°8 2 oe) 2”?
60:0 Fe 1 A i
59°8 1 29 ” |
58°8 ] ” obs |
* 57-689 57-69 57°65 5 as ” 25915-0
572 1 alata
56°6 2 1:06) 53
54:9 1 ” ”
53°4 In 35 a
x 52°26 52°3 2 af ie 51:4
51:3 1 ”? ”
e 50°56 50°50 4 Ss gi 62°9
49°6 1 A A
. 49-1 1 ONE:
{ 48:2 1 2? ”
46°7 2 "7 »
| 43:2 1 2? ”
| 42:'8 1 ” | ”
| 42°6 1 3 ”
41-1 2 39 | >
40°9 2 99 9
* 39°815 39°82 39°82 4 ee es 260356
38°8 2 » 99

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3898-498, 3897-383, 3392-915,
3290°347, 3887:960, 3884-849, 3884-207, 3876-229, 3873-660,
3862°819, 3857°680, 3852-260, 3850°561, 3839-832.

3892°364, 3891°564,
3867°962, 3865°547,

80 REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Renee
Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) | and ” S arae | eikequency
ae Spectrum Adeney | ee Character | , 4 | <~ in Vacuo
*3838°215 3838 22 3838-2 1 1-06 | 7:3 260465
368 1 “5 os
36°71 1 as 3)
= 35°19 35:2 2 =D “5 67:0
32°3 Pd 1 a a
eist-946 | 31-95 31°82 4 a = 89-1
31:0 1 ~ 4
30°4 1 oo a
| | 29°5 1 9 ”
* 28°8359 | 28°86 28°8 2 a 23 26110°1
be 28-0 Fe 1 53 5
27°5 1 ” 9
26°3 1 ” ”
Ee2p-O70 |) 2508 25:05 1 ” » 35°9
24°5 Fe 1 ee a
* 22:225 | 22:23 22°19 4 ” ” 55°3
| . 20°50 20°5 Fe 1 +6 aS
| 20-00 19°8 1 = » 70°77
SIO 184. | | 19-18 19:2 2 cf a 76°
| 18:5 Rh 1 s 5:
| 18-1 1 2 ”?
* 17-439 17°44 eum 3 55 =D 87:9
169 1 | 1:05 | 7:4
| 164 | 16:3 1 Neate at 95:4
| 15:90 16-0 Fe i ” ” 98-7
a 15:0 150 2 =e “ 26204°9
j) 4s} 1 - re Ay
13:20 13-2 1 jonas a 17:3
* 12-874 12°87 12-83 3 ere ses 27°3
12-0 1 ” ”
| 11°3 ay = See Lanes
= | 08-82 08-7 2 Pee 5 47°4
| 06-7 1 ” ”
* 05°57 05°5 2 s 69:9
| 04°70 | ” 2”
| 04-20 ” »
~ 03-40. 03°4 2 6 no 853
01-4 1 ” ”
3 | 00°39 00°38 Ir 4 > x
*3799-486 | 3799-49 379942 4r “ os 26311°9
* 99-040 99-04 99-05 4. “e os 15-0
* 98-205 98-21 98-18 1 5 “5 20°8
* 95°327 95°33 95:3 0 ; ”» 40°7
2 95:00 95-0 2 a as 43:1
93°3 Rh 1 fe ll 6
* 90°649 | 90°65 90-62 5 et ih 733
| 89°8 1 ” 22 |
88°8 1 “5 |
| 88-0 Fe 1 ” | ” |
* "867193. | 78619 86-27 5 ” » | 26404-4
| 84:30 84°4 1 ab fed 17:3
| 83-5 1 sl |

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3838-201, 3835-191, 3831:934, 3828-849, 3828-319,
3825°074, 3822°233, 3819°173, 3817-424, 3814-976, 3812°869, 3808-824, 3805-570,
3803°326, 3800°393, 3799°489, 3799:042, 3798-189, 3795-316, 3795-052, 3790°655,
3786°194.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 81

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Beteetion
Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) and ob Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney 2 ela Character | ,, | 1_ in Vacuo
3782:891 3782'89 3782°8 0 1:05 | 7:4 26434°3
81:313 81°31 81:25 3 ” ” 38-4
80:20 80°1 1 i 3 46-2
- 78:90 78:9 2 “E <5 55:3
78:00 78:0 2n a a5 616
aid 123 77°72 77°78 3 ” ” 63°6
74:6 1 1:04 35
* 73°306 73°31 73°4 0 ” ” 94:5
71-244 71°3 0 oe 15 26509:0
70:0 In x PS
69°3 1 ” »
* 67:500 67°50 67:50 4 a3 3 353
65-938 66:0 0 5 6 46°3
* 64:179 64:18 64:3 1 a es 58:7
64:00 64:0 Fe 1 os zs
62°7 1 ” ”
* 61:644 61°64 61:70 4 5 As 76°6
* 60-178 60:18 60°15 4 a3 FS 87:5
* 59-976 59:98 60:00 2 o -) 89-4
58°50 58°5 1 a :5 98:9
57°80 57°8 1 ” ” 26603°S
57°40 57°4 In = > 06°6
* 56-083 56:08 56:07 4 * ” 16:0
* 55865 2 * a 186
* 55-241 55:24 55:2 3 53 3 21:9
* 53°695 53°70 53°70 4 ” ” 32°9
53:00 53°0 1 4 a5 378
52°70 ” ”
52°00 52:0 1 33 Bs 45:0
50°60 50°6 1 a sy 54°9
49°60 » 9
48°40 ” ”
48-15 ” ”
47:15 47-1 1 on 2 79°4
46:372 46-4 2 . a 85:0
46:00 2? ”
45°75 45°72 6 a5 : 89-4
44-550 44:55 44:55 2 » » 97:9
* 44-367 44:37 44:35 2 es ” 99:2
43°45 43°5 1 es F 26703°8
* 42-938 42:94. 42:95 4 “A 5, 09°5
* 49-435 42°44 42°45 5 “3 -e 13-0
| 40°5 1 ” ”
* 39-622 39°62 | 39-60 4 “ i, 33-2
* 39-058 39:06 | 39-1 2 ss 4 37:2
* 38-774 38°77 38°8 Pd 2 ‘i 3 39-2
* 37:904 37°90 2 1:03 rs 516
* 37:°548 37°55 37°5 3 5 s, 48-0
35:00 Fe 35:0 2 is 5 663
34:70 34°6 2 an Pa 684
33°90 34:0 In 3 Ss 74:1 |
* 33-187 33:3 2 ata 792 |

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3778-853, 3777°729, 3773°314, 3767:495, 3764173,
3761°655, 3760°163, 3759-979, 3756°075. 3755°868, 3755:234, 3753-684, 3744-363,
ae, 3742°422, 3739°610, 3739:057, 3738-773, 3737 902, 3737 540, 3733°188.

G

82

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum Rateeee =

Wave-length Intensity Oscillation

(Kayser) and | Frequency

Are Spectrum Adeney pes Character | ) + == | in Vacuo

|

#3732170 | 3732:17 2 1:03 | 7:5 26786°5

* 31:045 3731-0 2 a EF 94°6

* 30°745 30°65 3 5 53 26803°6

* 30°587 30°59 7 » 76 04°6

* 28°170 28°17 28°15 5 “ 45 15°3

27°33

OAT UT 27°08 27°15 4 ” ” 23°1

* §26°254 26°25 26°10 4 ” ” 29°0

25°59 25°6 Ir 1 = +
#25115 25°12 25°1 4 ai seas 37°2
24°663 2 a , 40°5
24:110 24°11 24:2 4 “ “5 44:5
22°80 22:9 1 ap “ 53°9
22°458 22°3 1 a 9% 56°4

* 19°474 19°47 19°52 4 Sra 3 759

18-60 18°5 1 + re 84:2

*) 17°823 17°82 178 2 ie is 89°9

eh ila 17:15 17:13 4 > ” 94°6

16°583 ] * a 26901°6

216523 | 16:32 16-4 3 ” ” 00°7

AENLS-703: jy .bs70 15°7 3 $3 5 07:2

14-788 15°0 1 ‘5 3 11-6
13°6 1 ” ”

* 12-443 12°44 12°5 3 a oD 28°8
11-2 1 ” ”» |
10°5 1 53 é |

09°35 09-4 1 a ay 159] Nita |
08°15 08-2 1 ’ Pr 58-0
07°05 ” 2

* 05:506 05°51 05°5 2 » » 19°2

* 03344 03°34 03-4 2 v > 95°0
5 03:1 ul ” 2

* (02°369 02°37 02°5 2 Fy a 270021
02:0 In 43 5S

* 01°457 01-4 2 a 5 08°8

01134 01:13 01:2 2 + os 111
00°487 00°5 i 5 sp 15°8

3698-016 3698-0 2 1:02 = 3a°9

*) 97°92] 3697-92 3 “ - 34°6

* 96°738 96°74 96°7 4 3 an 43°3
96-0 1 A ae +)

94°30 94-1 1 +) + 61-1

* 93°740 93°74 93°7 2 ” » 65°2

92-90 33 6

92°60 92°5 Rh 1 ” ”
91-10 SF] 1 as 3 84°5
90°179 90°18 90-19 Pd 1 t op 91:3

87:5 1 ” = |

86°742 86°74 86°6 1 3 99} ae LUG
* 86-109 86°11 86-1 4 5 et 20°6
85:204 85-20 2 = ay 27:9

* Rowland and Tatnall:

3686-086.

37327170, 3731:048, 3730°737, 3730°577, 3728-173,
3727073, 3726:239, 3725°117, 3719:468, 3717°822, 3717:146, 3716°314, 3715-705,
3712-444, 3705°496, 3703°343, 3702°369, 3701:456, 3697-906, 3696-725, 3693-734,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS 83

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Kee 4
Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) Hones and ne Tae Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Tianchek aracter | y+ <- in Vacuo
| 3683-730 3683-5 ! cil 1:02 | 7:7 27138°7

82:5 In 35 5

81:8 In 3 es
* 78-465 367847 78:4 4 ” ” 7175
78°222 78°22 78:2 2 3 % 78°6
78:140 2 e 53 80:0
a 77100 77:10 771 2 ri i 86°6
* 76817 76°82 76°7 3 ” ” 89:9

76°4 1 ” ”
75°60 75°7 1 is 55 98-7
* 75°408 75°41 754 3 % ” 27200°2
* 72°525 72°5 2 5 5 21°6
72°210 72°3 2 33 # 23°1
* 71:363 71:3 2 a . 30°71
* 69°694 69°69 69°79 4 ” ” 42°5
68-890 68°9 1 3 5 55°8

67:1 1 33 3

65:4 In a Ee

: 64-1 1 ” ”
* 63°526 63°53 63°53 5 2 ” 88-4.
* 61-727 2 on 33 27301°8
* 61-486 61°49 61°57 a 2 ” 03°6
* 60°964 60:96 61:0 3 Fe 3 07°5
60°25 60-2 2 rr Ss 128

59°55 ” ”

59°0 1 ” ”
57-716 57°72 57°82 1 101 Ae 32°9
57°315 57°32 574 2 2 ” 34:8
56°50 56°7 1 oo FP 40°9
» 56:112 2 3 3 438
* 54-559 54°56 | §4°55 4 Fr - 55°6
53°857 53°86 53°9 2 ” ” 60°6
53°00 53°0 1 my 5 67:1
§2°816 0 eS r; 68°4
§2°627 0 a 35 69°9
em «62-465 52°47 | 62°5 3 re 3 Alc
* 50-473 50°47 50°48 4 % 2 87:0

50°0 1 ” °

49°75 ” ”

48°85 ” ”

48:0 Fe 1 se 33

475 1 ” ey)
* 46:266 46:27 46°3 3 ” ” 27417°6
45'827 | 1 er. 3 20°9

7 | | 413 1 er ”
* 40-791 40°79 i 740"7 | ct BEM) os 51:3
i) * 638°163 38°16 38°2 2 - 78 78°6
| * 37-614 37°61 37-62 4 smh | ea 82-7

| 37°0 1 » ”
* 35°661 35°66 35°6 4 as 3 97°5
* 35°093 35°09 35°10 a ” > 27501°8
* 34-063 34:06 34:1 4 5: “ 09-6

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3678:456, 3677-098, 3676-808, 3675°400, 3672°521,
3671°355, 3669-688, 3663°520, 3661-721, 3661°525, 3660-961, 3654-549, 3652-460,
3650-465, 3646-262, 3640-786, 3638-161, 3637 ‘612, 3635°658, 3635-084, 3634064.
’ G2

84. i REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

+

Reduction to
Spark Spectrum , agen aes
Wave-length Intensity | Oscillation
Li sedeeadl Exner and | Gh ae al ae
Are Spectrum Adeney ingghak aracter | ) 4+ ar in Vacuo
3632°545 3632°55 36326 i 1:01 | 7:8 27521°1
* 31°860 31°86 31°9 3 PP » | 26:3
31°65 Fe al-7He | Fp ees |
29°352 | 1 ” ae. | 44:8 |
288ir | a a
| 28:50 ” ” |
| / 298°1 | | ” ” |
as 7425 | 27°43 Pay fas | 2 | ” ” | 60:0
* 26'897 26°90 26°88 5 | 99 ” 71:0
* 25°345 25°35 | 25°30 5 7 Bae 75'8
23995 | 0 ap 5 86:1
23804 | 23:80 t= 42359 4 PP aa = 875
* 90-426 | 20:43 | 20:4 4 2 x 276132
* 19°334 19°33 | 19:4 4 a BS 21:6
| 18-90 Fe 18-8 Fe |) pe ”
eT O9O7 Se 7209 172 4 1:00 “ 38:7
/ 15-4 3a) ease
15°05 | ” rr) |
14-486 14:5 1 oy, we 58-6
| 13°3 1, 99" Se ee
12°6 / ” | ”
12°30 1 aay 7
11°6 a9) el heecay
10°8 1 | ” | ”
09°6 Pd 1 | Aspe] pre
*3609°241 2 eo We to ee 98°8
* (08-862 08°86 08:9 2 9)! aay 277018
06°6 1 | sey ”
06-297 06°3 1 | 9 + 21°4
* 05:792 05:79 05°8 Ir 3 ° yy 25°4
03°3 1 ” ”
02°6 1 r “5
* 01°627 01°63 01°7 2 ” ” 57-4
00'8 1 ; ”
*3599°913 359991 359995 4 os % 70°7
99-548 0 “5 5 73°4
99-0 1 ” cy)
97°5 1 » »
* 96:315 96°32 96:28 5r 33 Sy 98°4
95°8 1 eal ie
9S 07 93°18 93°17 4r “1 79 27822°6
91:58 91:7 1 x 2 35:0
91°044 91-04 91:0 1 53 np 391
90°7 1 | one a
* 89:°370 89°37 89°37 4 “ ah | 52-1
87344 87°34 87°34 2 Ay 55 67:9
85°5 1 39 9
85°3 1 9 ”
85:17 85:0 1 as x 84°8
* 84:21 84:3 2 + oF 92°3
81:31 Fe 81:4 Fe 1 oA st

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3631°859, 3627-433, 3626°886, 3625°339, 3620-434,
3619°348, 3617:100, 3609-247, 3608°878, 3605°785, 3601°630, 3599-914, 3596-342,
3593°178, 3589-360, 3584349.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 85

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum aes Bee :
Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
. (Kayser) Pale ot ee and i on i Frequency
| Are Spectrum Adeney Huschek Character | ) + ae in Vacuo
*3579°923 3579°92 3579°8 0 1:00. |) 7:9 27925°7
78°90 78°7 1 ” 5 33°7
i 77°55 776 | 1 0-99 Fs 44:2
77:10 771 | 2 nf a 47°7
76:17 ti 33 »
75'1 1 a0 |) ce
* 74744 74°74 74:7 3 BN aes 6671
74:00 ” | EE)
73°8 Ir 1 Seana css
73°3 1 » |»
72°13 72:1 1 7” np 86°6
5 719 1 ” ”
* '70°743 70°74 70°74 1 of “ 97°6
68°6 1 ” ”
* 67:308 | 67°31 67°3 2 » » 28024-4
66°59 66°6 2 Ais oe 30°0
| 65°5 Fe 1 AS -
* 64°945 64°95 65°0 0 2 Fy 43°0
* 64-714 64°71 64:7 1 os a 44°8
* 64:517 64°52 64-6 0 ” » | 464
| 63°7 1 ” ” |
63°3 1 53 Sor) al
62°75 62°7 1 op ae 60°3
* 62°035 62°04 62:1 0 ” » 65°9
61°83 61°7 1 oS oe 67°6
61-2 1 » ”
60°85 60°8 Os 2 Fe of 754
60:00 | 60°0 1 a =p 82:0
} 59°8 1 ” ”
* 57:203 57°20 | 87:2 0 Ysa ” 28104°1
57°0 Lu ” »
* 56°779 56°78 56°8 0 ” 2 O7°4
* §4:002 54:00 53°9 1 fr a 29°4
50°73 | 60°7 1 cs 3:0 55-2
* 50-420 50°42 50°4 2 he ce 58-4
49-90 49°8 1 Br aa 61°8
48-70 48:6 1 a 53 713
* 47°136 47°14 47:1 1 2 » 83°7
45°9 2b | ” oF)
42°7 1 | ” 2?
* 41°788 41-79 41°7 3 » >» 28226°3
41-1 1 ” 9
40°9 1 ” ”
40°3 1 ” »
* 39°518 2 = of 44:8
* 39°418 39°42 39°40 2 ” ” 45:2
* 38°100 38°10 38:03 3 %3 2» 55°8
36°78 36°7 2 0:98 || 55 66°3
* 35:985 35°99 36:0 2 ” » 12°77
* 35°529 35°53 35°5 2 ” » 76°3
* 32°965 32°97 32°95 2 ” ” 96°8
* 31°545 31°55 31°5 3 ” ”» 28308°2
29°26 29°4 2 a -e 26°5

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3579-924, 3574-748, 3571-913, 3570°748, 3567-309, 3564-949,
3564719, 3564°509, 3562-043, 3557-207, 3556°773, 3553°998, 3550°419, 3547-131,
$841°777, 3539°521, 3539415, 3538-100, 3535°988, 3535°537, 3532-962, 3531-543,

86 REPORT— 1904.

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum Rees ue
Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
* (Kayser) n and 7 Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney patie Character | , . =e in Vacuo
*3528°841 3528°84. 3528°7 2 0-98 | 8:0 28328°9
28°05 ” 2
27°39 27°3 1 on Ar 41°6.
26°6 i ” »
26°4 1 »” ”
25°7 In 3” 33
24°62 24°6 2 oe a 63°8
24:16 24-0 2 aa ss 67°5
22°4 1 ” ”
222 1 ” ”
*' ~20':285 20:29 20:22 4 “p % 98:9
* 19°795 19°80 19°80 3 ao A: 28402°7
19°10 19°] 1 a 4: 08°4
18:00 ” 2
16°046 16:05 16:0 0 ” 3 33°0
152 In o ar
14911 1 pod Ne tes 42'2
* 14:649 14°65 14°60 4 ” ” 44:3
* 13-807 13°81 2 9 9 512
13°0 1 ” ”
11°5 1 ” ”
10°5 In ” ”
09°870 2 - 8:1 83:0
09°35 09°30 4 ” > 87-2
07°3 In ” ”
06:9 In ”» ”
05°9 In ” 2
04°65 ” ”
03°60 ” ”
02-578 02°58 02°5 2 ” ” 285423
01°510 1 or “ 53°1
*3499-098 3499°10 3499-05 10r 9 ” 70°7
* 98-103 98°10 98-0 1 0:97 rr) 79°6
* 96-293 2 ” 22 93°6
* 96:145 96°15 96:1 2 ” ” 94:8
* 94-410 94:2 3 Ay PT) 28609°-0
93°377 93°38 93:2 2 ” ” 17°5
92°256 92:26 92:0 1 ” ” 26:7
90°879 90°88 90°8 1 ” ” 46°8
90°30 90°3 1 ” ” 42°7
89°895 1 oo ; 53°7
88:2 In ” ”
87:87 87°7 1 ” 33 62°7
86948 2 ” ” 70°3
86°360 2 ” ”? 74:0
85°6 In So ”
83°65 83:7 1 39 a5 97°4
Sees 463 83°46 2 op oo 98:9
* 83:317 83°32 83°3 2 ’ 5 28700'1
82°499 82°5 2 + BS 06:8
82:0 1 ” 2”
81°66 23 9
* §81:465 81°47 81:42 4 ” ” 15°4

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3528832, 3520-286, 3519°785, 3514°631, 3513-799,
3499-095, 3498-086, 3496°272, 3496:°131, 3494-404, 3483-438, 3483317, 3481°449.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

RUTHENIUM — continued.

87

Reduction to

Spark Spectrum
Wave-length P 2 Intensity | Yeenum Oscillation
(Kayser) noe ae : i an | er i es Sat)
Are Spectrum Adeney Haschek aracter | y 4 == in Vacuo

3481:044 0 0:97 | 81 28718°'8

80°295 3480°30 3480°2 2 ” ” 25:0
79°45 79°5 2 AB as 32:0

776 In ” ”
77°350 hee 0 “5 =, 55:0
75:00 750 1 AG a 68:9
* 73°900 73°90 73°90 5 ” ” 78:0
73°45 73°4 1 a * 81:7
72843 72°84 72°7 2 ” ” 86°8
72°39 72°4 2 e a 90°5

70:20 :
Beedle: 70-0 1 As,
69°5 1 55 a5
68°1 In > .
* 67:190 67°19 67°3 2 5 8:2 28833°6
65°437 65°44 65°5 1 cpmel| Ree 48:1
63°751 0 os oo 62:2
* 63°289 63°29 63°2 4 : 3 64:0
* 62-208 62:21 62:1 2 ” ” 66°1
61°55 ” ”

59°736 59°6 2 ay “o 95°7
58°3 lb 0-9 on

57°849 0 ” Hs 28911°5
573 1 ” ”
57:05 ” ”

* 56°769 56°77 56°7 4 P. A 20°5
55°888 2 a ze 27°9
55°548 55°6 2 nh iy 30°8
53°373 0 Ay A 49:0
53°056 53:06 53°0 4 % “5 51‘7

52°1 1 93 »
51:014 0 A ne 68°8
49-608 0 an B 80°6
* 49°105 49°11 49°1 4 os = 84:9
46°96 46:8 In vs ;
46°630 2 m9 oh 29005°6
46:227 46°3 2 Ps Fe 09:0
46:095 46:10 0 ne oO 10°1
45°675 0 “5 ne 13°7
45453 1 “ re 16°4
| 45:3 1 ” 9
44°574 | 1 “5 % 23°0
43818 | 0 cE Ss 29°3
43309 0 a) ro 33°6
41-942 0 % 5 45°3

* 40°361 40°36 40°4 f ” ” 58°5
39°835 2 ie a5 63:0
38°819 0 ae Ay 715

* 38-522 38°52 38°5 4 ” ” 74°1

* 36°886 36°89 5r =5 ae 87:9

* 36°481 2 = 55 91°3
36°237 0 5 ss 93°4

* 35°340 35°34 35°3 4 cs 3 29101:0

34:93 f ¥

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3473-892, 3467:192, 3463:286, 3462:186, 3456-763,
3449°107, 3440°351, 3438-510, 3436°883, 3436-475, 3435°327,

88 REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum gett ie
Wave-length | Intensity Oscillation
erect) z Reda ais : 5 ay
Arc Spectrum Adeney Haschek aracter | y 4 == in Vacuo
3434°325 3434°33 0 0:96 | 8:2 29109°6
* 33°406 33°41 3433°45 4 ” ” 174
* 32-909 32°91 32°9 4 ” ” 21:5
32°560 32°5 0 “6 > 24°6
* 32°354 32°35 3 3 7 26°2
31°905 0 FY) “ 37°3
* 30°910 30°91 31:05 4 . “6 38°5
30°568 30°6 0 as + 41-4
* 29:702 29-70 29°6 4 os oe 48°8
* 28-790 28-79 | 28°60 2 “o = 56°5
* 28°476 4r <j SS 59:2
27°717 27°72 0 3 on 65°6
* 26:120 26°09 | 26:2 2 7 Bs 79°2
e f 24:5 1 ” ”

PRAMAS || ae 1 nities’ | eee!
22°578 2 > » | 29209°4
20°881 0 “p 53 23°9 |

* 20:243 20:24 20:2 4 + = 29°3
20:0 In 99 |

* 19°394 19°39 2 oc + 36°6

*" 187125 18°13 18°] 2 , ” 47°5

17°790 1 0°95 6 50°4

* 17:493 17°49 17°45 7 % ” 52°9

16°90 16°7 1 eS aca 58°0

* 16°329 16:33 16°4 1 aS “5 62°9
15°6 1 ” ” |

* 14:787 14°79 14-7 3 op as 76:1

145 1 ” ”

14:422 2 LP 95 8:3 79:2

14:130 0 as sein 80°7

13°870 0 “p seal 75°4

* 12:947 12°95 12°8 3 or “ 91°9

12:221 2 “co of 98-1

e768 si7 116 4 % 9 29302°0

10°84 10-7 2 AG 55 100

10-10 ” ”

09-707 2 1 As 19-7
* 09420 09°42 09-42 5 x 22°2

09-2 2 ” ”

07-042 0 0 AS 42°7
2 Wayets 2 3 oS 45°3
* 06-017 2 = BS 51°5

05°426 0 s5 BS 56°6

03°924 03°7 1 “n = 754

02:7 1 cy) ”

02-00 4 p 0
* 01:878 01:88 3 = Ps 87:2
* 201-637 01°64 | 2 = 3 89°3

01:°304 O14 0 a “O 921

00-890 2 99 » 95°8

00°738 | 1 oO FD 97:1

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3433-397, 3432-896. 3432-348, 3430-908, 3429-689,
3428°769, 3428°460, 3426-089, 3420-236, 3419-389, 3418-117, 3417-466, 3416-320,
3414-782, 3412-939, 3411-780, 3409-424, 3406-731, 3406-025, 3401876, 3401-646,

SE

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 89

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length
(Kayser)
Are Spectrum Adeney
3400°116
| 3399°15
3399°040 99°04
98-470
96-967
96-060
95°465
* 92°654 92°65
* 92:032 92:03
91-042
* 89°639 89°64
89-250 89°25
* 88:849 88°85
87:967 87:97
* 87°368
86:390
* 85°838
* 85°609 85°61
* §85°303 85°30
83:053
81-040
* 80°301 80°30
* 719°747 79°75
79°402
* 78-165 78:17
76186
75°377
75°036
* 74°790 74°79
74115 74:12
73°45
72-922 72°92
* 71/990 71:99
71:°793
70°720 70°72
70°19
69°813
69°433 69°43
* 68588 | 68:59
68:053
67868
65°470
65:163
64:°933
* 64:230 64:23
* 62°457 62°46

* Rowland and Tatnall:

Reduction to

Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
and yp Luc aay eeequency;
Exner and | Character EH i_ in Vacuo
Haschek xr
0 | 0°95 | 8:3 29402°5
3399°4 1 + {
0 ” ” 11:8
98°9 2 haa a ”
0 ane a ae 16°7
4 ee oe 32°2
0 ” | ” 37°5
95°3 0 re es 42°6
94:0 In ae “
92°68 4 “E - 67:0
92:0 2 3 % 72-4
2 op a 81:0
89-6 4 ef, a 93°3
89:3 0 op 5 96°6
88°8 4 fr Lp 29500°1
88:0 0 s HD 07°8
87°3 2 Ar, a 13:0
86°3 2 én 3 21°5
2 ” ” 26°4
85°7 2 a % 28°4
85:2 4 inane “F 31:0
0 | 9s 9% 40°6
82°3 1 ee 9
81:6 1 ” ”>
81:0 2 ees 7 68°3
80°3 4 | ” ” 74:7
79°6 4 - FS 79°6
79°4 2 4 % 82°6
78:2 £ 5 FL 93°4
1 | 0-94 + 29610°8
2 ” ” 179
2 ” ” 20°9
74:7 4 “h ss 23°1
2 ” ” 29°0
73°5 1 oc Pr 34'8
73°3 Pd 1 - PP
0 ” ” 39°5
4 cry ” 47°7
718 0 AL ; 49°4
2 99 99 58:9
70°10 4 5 5 63'5
69°7 2 3 Fr 66°4
69°40 2 re ae 70:2
68°58 6 oc 7 776
0 ” ” 82°3
0 3 84:0
0 ” 29705°1
0 + as 07°8
648 1 es 7 09°9
64-1 4 ee ;
62°3 2 ae 7s 16:0

3392°672, 3392°032, 3389-644, 3388-846, 3387:369,
3385°836, 3385-608, 3385-207, 3380-308, 3379-744, 3378-170, 3374-790, 3371-992,
3368604, 3368°524, 3364-243, 3362-473,

{Ue REVORT— 1904.

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum Bes
Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) and Sa |) edeency,
Are Spectrum Adeney Peco ead Character | , + to in Vacuo
*3362°142 33621 4 0°94 | 8-4 29731°7
61:295 3361°30 61:2 2 a 5 34°5
60°20 60°0 1 > “p 42:0
* 59-230 59°23 59°30 6 ” 8°5 592
58°110 0 | ” ” 70:2
56°598 2 aS este 838
56327 56°3 2 + “5 86:1
55°803 55°7 2 A | 90°7
54001 2 an x 29806°6
* 53°776 53°6 4 + a 08°3
53°444 53°44 53°3 2 ” ” 116
63:°122 1 ry of 14:5
* 52-060 52°0 4 a “5 23°9
50°681 2 ss ae 36°3
50°363 50°36 50°30 0 rh 2 39°1
50°236 2 29 “p 40-2
49-822 49°82 0 ” ” 43°8
* 48°833 2 9 ay i 52°6
* 48145 | 48°15 48:0 2 4S * 58°8
* 47-748 * 47°75 47°6 4 “ is 62°4
46°360 0 of of 73°9
* 45°450 45°45 45°3 4 ” ” 83°7
44:934 2 “5 fF 87:5
* 44°666 44°67 zt os a 89:8
43°32 43:2 2 a rr 92°9
42-999 0 “p eH 29904°8
42854 42°85 42-7 0 less Pee | 06°4
* 41:809 41°81 41°7 4 | 99 a» | 15°4
* 41:361 413 1 2 “ 19°3
* 41:230 2 rh er 20°4
39°932 39°93 39°8 2 ” 255) 0 37°6
* 39°691 39°69 39°72 6 ” ” 34°4
39:092 0 ” | ” 39°7
38°849 2 0:93 ep 41°9
38°3 In es 1! aces
37:°963 37°96 378 4 PY 3) ees 49°9
36°774 36°6 3 Sen Takes 60°6
36°296 2 1 We tone Reuss 64:8
* 35°822 35°82 35°7 4 ” ” 69°1
34°764 0 Be =p 78°6
* 32°768 32°7 2 os co a) 966 |
32°483 0 op A 99°22 |
* 32:186 32:1 4 “5 oS 30001°8
312 1 so TON 5y
28-583 2 pallies 34-3
* 27°831 27°6 + Seiae Iss 41:1
25:373 25°37 25°4 2 aa sh 53°3
* 25°136 25°14 25°0 + sf | Sis 65 3
24:509 24°51 24°6 0 as | of 71:3
24:077 2 as a 74:9
23-226 4 as | 3 82:6
22°368 22:2 4 ry) a5 90°4

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3362°151, 3359°239, 3353°790, 3352°075, 3348847,
3348°153, 3347°757, 3345°457, 3344°679, 3341°811, 3341°365, 3341230, 3339°690,
3335°836, 3332°781, 3332°190, 3327°843, 3325°136,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 91

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Spark Spectrum
Wave-length ‘ : Intensity ae Oscillation
(Kayser) i eo and Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Henan and Character | y+ +- in Vacuo
3321-634 0 0:93 | 8:6 30097°1
21°385 3321°2 2 A) BS 99:3
19-944 1 oy ip 301124
19°655 1 Suimeniiny bss 15:0
* 18-992 | 3318-99 18:8 6 woe as 21:0
* 18012 | 18:01 17:9 4 ” ”» 29:9
17:66 17°5d 2 “ a 33°71
17:045 17:05 170 1 % a3 38°7
* 16:523 16°52 16°55 6 “5 “s 43-4
* 15:590 2 oe = 519
* 15°365 15°37 15°30 3 ” 2» 54:0
15181 2 as oh 55°6
14-203 2 op A 64:5
12:99 12:7 1 Cpe nih ete 75°6
12°348 | 1 . 5 81-4
12-068 0 “4 . 84:0
11-388 | 0 a 5 90:2
* 11-090 11:09 11:0 4 ” » 929
10°220 10:2 0 ” ” 30200°9
09°965 09:97 0 ate the 59 06:1
09°38 09:2 1 SAIN Gass 08°5
09-00 be VES
08°751 08:8 0 S50. All eones 14:3
08-122 08°12 08-1 4 oa ay 20:0
07-679 O77 2 9 Fe 24°1
06°81 06°6 1 AD er 321
* 06'305 06°31 06:2 4 » ” 36°5
05-804 0 o 36 41-1
05°15 05:1 2 A ce 47:2
* (04:948 04:9 2 Be a 49°1
04:72 0 rf “5 507
04°634 2 3 Be 51°9
04-418 0 fp Hh 53°9
* (04:141 04:14 04:0 4 , rs 56°5
02°312 1 “5 oF 73°2
01:94 01:9 Pt 1 “5 Bs 76°6
01:726 01:73 01°6 5 ar a 786
01°35 Ol-l 2 ys + 81:9
3299-926 00:0 0 ” ” 95:1
* 99-479 329948 3299°3 2 0-92 a5 99:2
* 98-559 98°56 98-4 4 S 6D 30307°7
* 98-096 98°10 98-0 3 Pts dy | aete U9
* 97°393 97°39 97:2 3 - 5 19°4
* 96-786 96-79 96-6 2 Le os 24-0
* 96-252 96-25 96:1 4 a oP 28°9
94-926 0 = Pe 41:1
* 94-269 94:27 94°38 6 re 1 47°1
92°390 92-1 2 aa nr 64:4
91°789 91°8 2 a x 70:2
91°5 In “¢ on
91-250 2 7 33 750
91:0 1 %» ”

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3318:965, 3318:025, 3316°524, 3315°579, 3315°363,
3311:096, 3306°310, 3304-951, 3304-126, 3299-466, 5298°549, 3298-089, 3297°389,
3296°780, 3296°248, 3294-233.

92 REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

| Reduction to
Spark Spectrum
Wave-length 7 Z Intensity | Vacuam Oscillation
(Kayser) E a a Frequency
Arc Spectrum Adeney mo hart Character | , 4 <— in Vacuo
289°389 3289'S 2n | 0-92 | 86 30392°2
3286°55 86°8 | 1 $ 8:7 30418°3
86:040 1 sys 23°0
85°505 85°7 2 9 “5 28°0
* 85-067 4 ” | ” 32°1
84:46 84:5 1 slew cs 37°7
84:3 2 ” ”
82-744 by B2e5 | 0 er Bt 53°6
81-995 2 Ais ites ce 60°6
81-735 81-74 | S815 0 53 Saul 63-0
81:26 81-2 1 a on 67°3
80:°678 1 * BS 729
80599 80°5 2 ” 73°5
79521 2 4 83°5
* 717-699 77°70 77°6 4 = + 30500°5
76°820 76°6 0 » 39 08°7
75°87 75°7 1 es ears 17°5
* 74°831 74:83 74:7 5 ” ” 27:2
73°765 73 77 73°6 0 » ” 371
tee Boal yl 73°22 73°1 5 ” oo | 42:3
72°366 0 sere <5 50:2
72°0 In of ||
71-746 0 ” ” | 560
71:2 In ae an |
70388 70°2 2 a of 68°7
69°80 sorte IMGs, ot
69:°336 2 * 3 78°5
69-087 69:05 68°93 2 ay eer 80:9
* 68°345 68°35 68°3 5 sae Wes 87:8
67°269 67:2 Os 0 phere fee es Si9
67:07 | ” ”
66°588 66°59 66°4 4 ” » | 80604°3
66:1 1 ” ”
* 64:808 64°81 64:90 2 és ail 31:0
* 64:692 | 32:1
* 63-988 63:9 3 7 Fey 39°7
63°740 | 63°7 3 oa os 41-0
62°5 Os | 0 ob) xo
61-7 In ENE es
* 61-257 61°1 1 or = 54°3
* 60°494 60°49 60°45 3 as Pass | 61:5
* 60°304 | 60°30 60°1 5 alle eee 63°3
* 69-811 59°81 59°6 2 Sel eA 67:9
59-111 59°11 59:0 4 OSes 74:5
* 58°176 58-18 58-0 0 ” ” 83°3
57°94 57°7 3 PA a 90°6
572 1 ” ” ‘
56°746 0 D eS 96'8
* 56°477 56°48 56°3 4 “ - 99°3
55'356 55:2 1 » ” 30709°9
55°173 0 2 a 11-6
* 54°856 54°86 * 54°6 4 oF 3 14°6

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3285-066, 3277°697, 3274°834, 3273:208, 3268°346
$264:790, 3264°688, 3263:984, 5261-256, 3260-477, 3260°301, 3259-805, 3258-173
3256°460, 2254°834,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 9

RUTHENIUM—continued.

OS

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length
(Kayser)
Are Spectrum Adeney
#3254674 3254°67
53°36
| 53°136
| * 53°038
. 52-683
52-400
* 52:031 52:03
* 51°464
51°10
50°605
50°065 50:07
48:977
48-04
47°501 47°50
46-380 46:38
45°746 45°75
44:719
44:585
44:°475
* 43-638 43°64
42-978
42-283 42-28
41884
41-643 41°64
* 41°362 41°36
* 39°745 39°75
38-904
* 38°667 38°67
38-132
36101 36°10
35°85
35-431
35230
34-920.
34°39
33°650
* 32°881 32°89
32°180
31°869 31°87
30°738
29°881
28-850
* 28°651 28°65
* 28:276
* 28°021
* 27-016 27:02
* 26°497 26°50
25°418
25-03
24:72
24:18

* Rowland and Tatnall:

Exner and
Haschek

32545
53:2

3254°670, 3253:041, 3252-029, 3251-459,

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

eo WONnrKNNe

KDE COUN WNHNRONNOEPRONNNONNOUNWROONNNOKFOCOOCOFMNNS

, | 89

” ”?

307154
28°8
30°9
31°8
35°1
37°7
41°]

5243°632,

3241°360, 3239-727, 3238-660, 3232°872, 3228-651, 3228-280, 3228-007, 3227-027,

3226°502.

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

* Rowland and Tatnall:

3223°394, 3221°311,

3201°631, 3196°725, 3192°191, 3190-096.

Wave-length Intensity a Oscillation
" ee) Fee and es Frequency
re Spectrum Adeney Heschel Character | ) 4 te in Vacuo
3223°723 0 0:91 | 89 31011°1
* ~ 23'393 3223°39 32232 ae | 3 14:3

22:07 21:9 2 a oe 27°1
21°493 21°49 21°3d 1 “5 a 32°6
* 21-303 2 m5 “A 34-4
20°899 20-90 2 0:90 “5 47°1
* 20-195 20°20 20'1 2 on “5 45-1
19°49 194 2 “0 a 519
19:274 1 op * 54:0
18-9 1 ” ”
17:96 Vien 2 Of er 66°7
* 16°641 16°64 16°5 aa 3 7 79:4
16-0 1 | ” ”
15613 0 | * 7 89-4
14-475 14:3 2 A —- 31100°4
13°33 13°3 1 “ a 11-4
* 13-098 13°10 13:0 3 > “5 13°7
12°30 ” ”
12:0 Ir In mr 5
11°38 11:3 if “3 a 30°4
10-95 ” ”
10°6 Pd 1 oh A
10:287 10°29 10°1 2 ” , 41:0
09-758 09°6 1 OD or 46-1
09:43 ” ”
08°865 1 3 AD 54:8
08542 3 tp 3 57°9
08-405 0 = ep 59:2
07°751 07°75 07°7 0 43 F 65°6
07°43 07°3 2 bs a 68°9
06°82 06:7 2 | U3 5 74:6
05-428 05-43 05°3 2 | 88-2
05:08 05:0 fe 5 915
04°36 04:2 2 es 3) 98-6
03°62 03°6 2 “9 “ 31205°8
03:0 1 ” ”
02-705 02°5 2 * 5 14:7
* 01:604 3 5 a 25°4
01°372 01:37 01:38 2 + = 27:7
3199-238 | $199-0 Ir 0 45 a 48-5
319874 98°6 2 7 53°4
98-437 98-5 2 = e 56:4
97-603 O77 0 s my 64:5
* 96-718 96°72 96°5 a “ *3 73°2
95°85 95°6 1 uf a 81:7
95-438 1 5 3 85:7
95°137 95°14 95-1 0 : Ys 88°6
93°617 93°5 2 5 = 31303°5
92°52 92°5d 1 D 53 04:5
P92 171 92°17 92-1 2 F = 07°9
91-900 91°7 2 gir el ae 20°4
91303 1 eal ees 26:2
* 90-088 90:09 89°9 4 ie as me 38°2

3220°199, 3216°646, 32137105,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 95

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Zoe -
Wave-length | Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) 4 and aoa | Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character | , + oes in Vacuo
Haschek A
*3189°835 3189°7 3 0:90 | 89 31340°7
89418 89:2 2 $ BA 44°7
88°8 1 ” ”
88-713 88°5 2 “ - 51°7
* 88-463 3188-46 88°45 5 be % 54-1
88-057 2 35 4 58:2
86°867 1 co op 69:9
* 86-171 86:16 86:0 4 os ns 76°7
85553 2 FA 5 82°8
85:276 85:28 85°3 0 3 A 85°5
84:9 1 ” ”
84-1 1 9 ”
83:9 1 ” ”
83°54 83:4 2 a a 31402°7
82:0 1 ” 2
81-312 81-4 0 0°89 “5 24:7
81-126 0 7 os 26°5
80:569 0 3 9-0 31°9
79:380 79°38 79:2 2 45 a 43°6
78843 1 * fc 49-0
Pe i159 77°16 77:18 4 a 3 65:6
76°401 76:2 3 Js fc 73°2
75°32 75°30 4 re te 84:0
75:10 4 = aA
* 74:243 "74:24 74:1 Os? 4 iy 53 94°5
73°500 2 fe y 31501-9
73°221 2 53 1) 04-7
72°778 72°78 72°6 0 oS “, 09-1
71°352 2 a a 23°3
70196 70:0 2 Bs Aj 34:8
* 68-648 68-65 68°5 5 “p r 50:2
68°355 1 3 * 53:1
67-514 67°51 67°58 0 a “5 61°5
66-68 66:4 2 a ris 69:8
66:24 66:0 2 = a 74:1
65:507 0 sr re 81:5
65-307 65°31 1 sp 5 83:5
65-086 65:0 0 “ cf 85:7
64-939 64:94 65-0 0 “6 > 87:2
64:7 1 ” ”
64:1 1 ; +
64:0 1 ” 2”
63186 63°30 63°25 0 Fe ait ea 31604°7
60-80 60-78 f > A 28°6
* 60:036 60-04 60:05 4 “f o 36:2
59:003 Cai? 59-00 58-7 4 cp » 46°5
57°739 57°5 2 a ss 59-2
57°3 1 ”? ”
571 1 ” »
56:917 2 a % 67°5
56°733 0 ne s 69°3
55°90 ” »
55-4 1 ” ”

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3189-843, 3188-468, 3186:162, 3177°170, 3174-254,
3168°678, 3160-042.

96 REPORT—1904.
RUTHENIUM—continued.
Reduction to
Spark Spectrum
Eo net a Intensity acuum | Oscillation
ayser) an are | Frequency
Exner and 1 i
Are Spectrum Adeney Haschek Character | y+ =o in Vacuo
3154:°543 2 0°89 | 9°0 31691°3
* §3°927 3153°93 3153°7 4 : ” 97°5
52°35 62-2 1 Coa =F Slike
51-780 1 Pe x 19-1
51:25 §1°3 1 feet = 24°4
* 50°803 50°80 50°5 | 4 Vaiss aa 28:9
50-283 1 = - 34:2
49-7 1 9 2
49:3 1 ” 9
48593 48°59 48°7 2 Pe a 51:2
48-138 | 0 a op 55:8
47°547 47°55 47°62 0 “6 55 61:8
* 47-323 2 o. * 64:0
46183 46:18 | 46:0 2 + 9-1 75°5
44-820 2 A 5 89-0
* 44-369 44°37 | 44:2 4 a =e 93-8
43°764 43°76 | 43-80 } 0 a5) umes 31800-0
43°46 | 43°40 4 Pe “ 03:0
41°66 | 41°5 2 O88") ¢; 21:2
* 41°081 41:08 40:9 4 Pry ” 27:1
* 40-596 40°4 3 ame “ec 29:0
40-201 1 {ates > 36-0
39°379 39°65 39°5 Pt? 2 ” ” 41:6
38-884 2 re An 49°4
38:0 | 1 ” ”
37:036 0 spe ll eeoe 68-2
* 36°663 36°66 | 3 Puede a3 719
36°451 365 | 1 eek aaa 74:1
36:044 36:04 35:98 | 2 3s OMS lap ess 78:3
35°48 | ” ”
35°170 35'1 | 0 = a 87:2
34°895 34:90 | 34:98 | 1 ss oe 89:1
33°800 2 Ley lies 31901-0
aR ea lhe 1 FS a
* 32-988 32-99 ae Bs 8 09:3
32°6 2 Peel cr
32°5 2 % %
32°122 1 An 5 18:2
30°709 0 a ty 32°5
* 929-935 es 5s ay 40°4
29°717 29:7 2 7 42°7
29°574 29°5 0 ‘o 7 44°]
28'8 In ets ss
28-539 2 Boreal Gs 54°7
28:07 28:05 4 SA lee, 59°5
27°643 0 Ff o 63°9
27:387 1 eae a 66°5
26°730 26°73 26°75 2 ae oc 73:2
* 26-068 4 3 7 80:0
25°7 1 ” ” s
24:98 ” ”
* 24-709 24:6 | 2 ” ” 93-9

* Rowland and Tatnall :
3140-604, 3136°671, 3132-995, 3129-951, 3126-075, 3124°720,

3153941, 3150°816, 3147°326, 3144:383, 3141-094,

{

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 97

RUTHENIUM—coniinued.

Spark Spectrum ee be

Wave-length | Intensity eo

Kayser an requenc

= Beetiram Adeney Exner and | Character ees ie in ead
Haschek A

*3124-481 3124-48 ao 0°88 | 9:1 31996-2

* 94-277 24:28 3124+] ee. saet haere 98-3
93°83 2 ” ”

23°610 0 ir oe 32005°1

22-970 0 ” 29 11:7

22-108 1 + a 20°5
20°90 ” ”

20°650 20:7 1 a s 35:5

* 18-792 18-6 4 of a 54-6

* 18-170 | 18-0 4 if Bi 61:0
17°563 0 * x 67-2
17-181 0 - = fle
16945 | 1 is - 83-6

| 16°5 In ” ”
15°536 | 15°5 0 a - 88-1
14:53 14-4 In ifs 9-2 98-5
13-756 13°76 13°8 Pd 0 3 = 32106°4
13-502 13°3 2 Bs 55 09:0

* 12-782 12°78 12°5 2 fe - 16-4
12-408 12:3 2 - x 20:3

* 12-012 12-01 3 4, % 24:3

11°8 1 ” ”
11:24 11+1 1 3 = 32°3

* 10-641 10°64 10°5 4 x “ 38°83
10°147 0 ” ” 43°6

09:5 In me aot S|
08526 08:3 2 ss rE 61-4

* 07-829 3 = 67°6
07:698 07°70 07°72 0 6 3 68°9
07°373 0 ” ” 72°3

* 06-942 06:94 06-7 3 by oe 76°8
05:910 0 3s 87:5

* 05-524 2 sf x 915
05°382 05°38 05:2 2 5 “ 92-9
04:570 2 $ cc 32201-4
04:070 0 3 “ 06°5

03°51 03°3 2 B, x 12°3
02:50 02-5 1 * 25°4
02-2 1 ” 3”
01:7 1 0:87 ”
01:59 01-4 1 me a 32:3
* 00-953 3000-95 3000-95 4 93 = 38°9
99:8 1 a se

*3099-390 99:39 99:40 5 F 54 55:2

98-954 0 S \ 58°0
98-05 97:9 2 3 . 63:0

* 97-706 97°71 97-6 4 Ee 2 72°7

a 97°2 1 } ” ”

* 96-672 96-67 96°65 6 a 2 83°6
96-062 96:0 0 H x 89:9
95640 0 i bf 94°3

* 94-500 94-64 94:5 2 3 _ 32306°2

| 93-01

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3124:480, 3124-279, 3118-799, 31187182, 3112-792,
3112°031, 3110°650, 3107-825, 3106-954, 3105-523, 3100-945, 3099°390, 3097-708,
3097337, 3096°669, 3094°507.

1904. =

98 REPORT—-1904.

RUTHENIUM—-continued.

Spark Spectrum Bee be
Wawve-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) F and ——==T oa | reguency:
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character | 4 + Le in Vacuo
Haschek r
3092-351 0 | 0°87 | 9:2 | 323286 |
92°085 | 0 | ves 3 31-4 |
een O 71a. | 3091°8 2 eres Phe | 35°0
91:004 | 2 op saeedl 42°7
| 3090-54 90°5 1 3 yet vail 47°6
* 90°341 90°34 2 * SS 49°7
* 89-915 89:92 89°7 4 “5 a 54°1
* §89:252 89°25 89:2 4 ac 39 61-1
88°362 0 a P| 70:4
88-177 88°18 88-1 2 5 Par Pi 72°3
88°050 0 es a 73°7
87°039 2 +f Pe 84:2
86°888 1 sh ss 85:9
86°631 86°63 2 35 3 88°6
* 86:181 86°18 86:0 4 3 cb 93°3
85°597 0 2 oc 99°4
84°728 0 =f a 32408°6
* 84:631 84:5 2 ast hieetss 09°6
* 83:252 83-0 3 » 9°3 24:0
81:946 81°95 81:7 0 os 3 37°7
81:489 81:49 81:3 0 + ZF 42°5
81218 | 1 “3 A 45-4
* 81-009 81-01 4 ~ a 47°7
80:292 80°3 4 ee Ea 55°2
79°953 80-1 0 & a 63:3
79°27 7971 1 “ * 65°9
78:209 1 = fe aor
77°657 2 cp 33 82°9
77-175 77:18 77:0 2 ob sa 88-0
* 76°886 768 2 as es 91-1
75°412 75°41 75°3 1 ES “ 32506°6
* 73°440 73°50 4 + + 27°5
72°42 72°3 2 as “5 38°3
71°824 0 “fs S 44:6
wear ibey Pal 0 of - 45°7
71:586 71°5 2 -- = 47-1
70°6 J : ”
70°3 1 ” ”
69-289 2 . 715
* 68°3b5 68°36 68:2 4 * or 81-4
67°5 1 ec ”
66°4 2 Ps Fee ad
* 64:958 64:96 64°95 4 esa a 32617°6
| 63°3 1 ; chy } thy
62°155 62°16 62-0 2 086 ,, 47°3
| 60°67 60°4 2 ” | ” 63°2
60°346 | 60°37 60-2 0 3 | 66°6
* 59:284 | 59:28 59°71 3 Th) leer 78°3
* 58-909 1 | A 82:1
58-762 58°76 58°6 2 ” ” 83°6
57°468 57°47 57:2 3 6 | Pri fi 97:5
56-971 56°97 56°92 0 + oo -« 82002'S

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3091-980, 3090°348, 3089:916, 3089-259, 3086°182,
3084°637, 3083-257, 3081-010, 3076°883, 3073-442, 3071°711, 3068°363, 3064-951,
3359275, 3058891,

RUTHENIUM—continued.

_ ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

99

q Wave-length
(Kayser)

Spark Spectrum

A. Exner and
| Are Spectrum Adeney spears
3056877
56°192 |
* 55°042 305504
3054'8
54°6
53°450
52°445
51-974
51°704
50-504
50°309 50°3
49°32 49°32
49°174
* 48°897 48°90 48°7
* 48°606 48°61 48°4
48-442
47°88 47°6
47:108 47:0
46°356 46°36 46°1
46114
* 45833 45°83 45:6
45°630
44:5
44:077
43°161
* 42-953 42°95 42°7 Ir
_ * 42-598 42°60 42°3
42°025
* 40-418 40°42 40°2
40:071 40:07 39°9
39°586
38°851 38°6
* 38-289 38:1
38-078 37°9
: 37°845 37°0
36°580 36°58 36°53
35°93 35°6
_ 35°578 353
* 34:167 34:17 33°8
* 33°562 33°56 33°4
33°16 33:0
32°771 32°77 32°3
32°026 315
311
30°890 29°2
30°801 30°7 Os
29-04 28°9
28°785
27°910 27°91 27°7
27°678
27°361
277195 27°20 27-0
26°7

Intensity
and

Character

RONOFORKFN RRO

WRENN NOOCNWREWNRE ORK OCRNWNONORRO

WO DR Oe

eSBNoooo Wr

Reduction to
Vacuum

A+

Oscillation

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3055-039, 3048-900, 3048-603, 3045°828, 3042-944,
3042°587, 3040-420, 3038-284, 3034-169, 3033-564.

H2

100 REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Reainetton oo
Wave-length Intensity Fil ee Oscillation
(Kayser) i. eat and a ee Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney eee eat Character | , 4 <a in Vacuo
3025:212 0 0°86 | 9:5 33046-1
3024-0 3023-7 1 55 as 59:3
23:05 22:8 085 | ,, 69-7 |
22-72 22:5 1 = Bs 73-4
* 20-989 20:99 20:7 2 * i 93°5
20°5 1 ne 3 99:1
20:360 0 5 55 33104°4
19-876 19:88 19°6 0 a sp 08:9
19-472 19:2 2 3 4 20'8
18°38 18°3 Os 2b * ed
18-158 18°16 2 a “5 23°3
176 2 ” ”
17°356 17:36 17-32 5 + os 32:1
16:818 0 aS fe 38:0
16°10 15°8 2 a ‘ 45°8
15°60 15°3 2 $5 S 51-4
14°5 i ” ”
14-312 14-3 14:3 0 . sh 65°6
* 13-477 | 13:48 13-3 3 5 - 748
13-172 0 % fe 78:0.
* 13:040 + ” ” 79°6
12-003 12-0 0 x 5 91:0
10-623 10°62 10°3 2 5 ie 33206:2
09:798 09:80 0 hy 3 15°3
09:2 1 ” ” 25°1
* 08-911 08:7 2 5 ss 27°5
08-695 0 # s 30°9
* 08-387 08:2 2 + x 35°2
08:00 07°8 1 ” ”
07:2 1 ” ”
* (6°708 06°71 06°75 4 35 x 49-4
06-094 05°8 2 35 5 56:2
05'1 2 ” ”
04-708 04:6 2 = oa 71:6
02600 02°60 02:4 2 2 co 94°9
027188 0 a ma: 99°5
* 01°756 01:76 01-6 3 5 < 33304:3
01:0 1 ” ”
00°341 00°57 00°3 2 es 175
00-00 . »
2999°6 2 by 34:8
2999-011 2999-01 98-99 1 3 - 411
* 98446 98°45 98-2 3 > > 55°0
98-09 98-0 1 % * 48-9
* 97-743 97°74 97°6 2 * : 53°5
* 97:34 97-4 1 ee 9-6 58:3
* 97-011 96:89 96°6 1 5 ip 63-4
96:44 96:2 1 BS + 68-1
96:01 95:8 1 Fb % 78:4
* 95-083 95-08 94:7 5 95 5 84:5
94°54 94°5 1 ” ”
93°6 1 ” ”
* 93:387 93:1 3 asl age 97:4

* Rowland and Tatnall: 3020-985, 3013-468, 3013-030, 3008-906, 3008-366,
3006°699, 3001°751, 2998-458, 2997-730, 2997-536, 2997:006, 2995-077, 2993-385.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

, | Reduction to
‘ Spark Spectrum
Wave-length 7 i Intensity SS Oscillation
(Kayser) E a an Frequency
| Are Spectrum Adeney Hacchek Character | ) 4 - in Vacuo
2993-070 1 0°85 | 9°6 33400°9
2992-48 2992'5 1 leas no 075
92-080 92-08 92:0 0 3 “F 12:0
i 91-71 91°66 8 x3 a 16:2
HK 90-413 | 2 ri 55 30°5
90:0 In a 2
* 89-770 | 89°4 2 A ie 37°9
89-451 2 eke = 40-4
* 89:079 | 89-06 89-02 0 eos ms 455
88-224 88-0 1 nae is 55°1
88-047 1 ee is 571
86-453 86-45 86:5 1 ier 53 74:9
86°104 0 3 re 78:8
85:78 85:5 1 Ieee. 5 82-5
85:08 84:7 1 eee ne 90°3
|. 83°74 ” ”
* 82-045 82:05 82-0 4 0°84 x 335244
81-080 81:08 80°8 0 | 99 ” 35:3
* 80:065 80:07 80:05 3 re re rf 46°7
* 79-847 79°85 79:80 3 Wes ae 49:2
78°760 78°76 78°72 2 ore F 61:4
77°596 77°60 774 0 PA ” 74:5
77°346 77°35 77:25 2 oA Fe 77°4
* 77:048 76'8 3 3 or 80°8
* 76:°707 76°71 76°62 4 9 » 84:6
75:253 1 er: ns 33601:0
a 74:79 74:7 1 5 “A 06:2
* 74-454 74°45 74:4 2 med Fo 10:0
* 74-099 3 * ac 14:0
73°743 73°74 73°7 0 a3 18:1
73°3 1 ” ”
73°08 73°0 2 ne £5 25'5
72°594 72°59 72°4 0 93 ss 31:1
71:10 70°9 1 bs PA 48-0
70°6 1 ” ”
70°5 1 ” %
69-850 69°85 0 5 9:7 62-0
69-069 69:07 68°8 4 9 ” 70°9
68-564 68-56 4 ” ” 76°6
68-233 68-11 67:9 0 ap 99 80°4
67°456 aad 2 re = 91:2
66-674 66°67 66:3 1 re e 98-1
65°820 65°72 1 % ” 337078
65°674 65°67 3 ay “ 09°4
65 286 65:29 65:2 4 35 PA 13:9
64-415 0 nA a3 23°7.
63°829 3 Fe a 30°4
on 63°52 63°50 2 Hr oe 33°9. |
: 0 ; oS 43:2
62442 Ate A 0 i‘ ” 46:2
61-803 { y 62:0 2n Pr 9 60°3
61-60 ” ”

__* Rowland and Tatnall: 2989-768, 2989-061, 2982-048, 2980-056, 2979-834,
2977:037, 2976-700, 2974-457, 2974-095.

102

REPORT — 1904.

RuTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Sa Oscillation
(Kayser) and ae | Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character | y 4 yee in Vacuo
Haschek ar
2961-097 3 0°84 | 9:7 33761°6
2960°35 2960-2 2 aa a 701
59-855 59°86 59-6 2 y, a 75°7
58-993 0 this = 85°6
58-118 3 | San 4d 95:5
57:297 0 I ie » | 338050
55-960 0 or 3 20°3
55-714 y(t oa 23-0
55°463 e - ee a 25:9
54-594 54-59 54°7 4 heats aot 358
54°4 2 Pe 99
54:371 54-20 54:0 0 A = 38:5
53116 0 + ny 52°7
52-78 526 1 a 0} 56°6
52°599 2 od Et: 58°7
52°36 52-2 2 e 61:3
51-516 51:3 2 if > 71:2
50-650 50°5 1 4 81-1
50-080 50:08 50-0 0 laos 55 87°5
49-612 49°61 | 49°5 4 oo ae 93.0
49:2 1 | ’ ” |
48:7 1 ee 3
48°47 48-2 1 o £ 33906-1
47°72 47°7 1 es a 14'8
47:102 47°10 47-0 4 - s 21-9
46:670 0 e erst 26°3
45°75 45°78 45°82 4 Z eoul 37:2
45°591 0 ay | 39-2
45°20 45-0 2 “ saat 437
44-294 0 ¥ s 54-2
44-035 44-04 43-9 3 a ae 571
43-593 43°59 1 J a 62:3
42-823 0 Oe tse 71-2
42-366 42°37 42°40 1 ee a 76-4
41°6 1 ” 35
41-0 In ee
40-474 | 403 3 af : 98°3
40-057 39:8 3 a ss | 8003-1
39-796 0 x ae. 06:2
39-247 39°25 39-0 2 s eel 12°5
37-679 0 S ; 30°7
37-448 1 aaeul 33°3
37:20 37-0 1 = sia 36-2
36-591 0 a spikes 43°3
36-380 0 : eel 45°7
367131 2 a BAT 47°8
35°67 35°5 2 a ony 54:0
34-638 0 the a8 oe 65-9
34-309 2 Wiices ee 69°7
33-367 33°37 33°38 0 Pate eit 80°7
32°6 1 | ” ”
31:35 31:2 2 lp e | 34104°1
29-87 29-6 1 res soe 21-7
29-027 29-03 29°] 0 | thes ae | 31:1
28-608 28-61 28:5 2 | | 36:1

ON WAVE-LENGTH 'TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 105

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Spark Spectrum
Wave-length 4 i Intensity Mees Oscillation
(Kayser) = ay ae GR) Oo SA ag and ~~| ‘Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character | y 4 ee in Vacuo
Haschek
292827 0°83 | 9°8 34140°1
2927°858 27°73 2927°72 0 ” ” 44°3
27:232 2 ” ” 52°2
26°913 0 ieee 55:9
26°69 26°5 1 rf nc 58°5
25-890 25°89 0 ” ” 67°38
25°685 25:5 0 or sam | 70:2
257189 0 a ree? 76:0
24-760 0 bd eb 81-0
24-20 23°9 2 a op 875
23°40 23°1 1 » PP 96-9
22°50 22°3 2 “f “rc 34207°4
21°95 21:8 1 s 9-9 19:0
21:276 0 + + 21-7
21-068 21°07 2 “ “ 24:1
k 20°5 1 ” ”
20-369 L p 7 32°3
19-723 19°73 19°6 4 “= A 39:9
19-276 0 7 of 45:1
18-76 185 2 a ot 51-2
17°880 17:88 17:9 2 ” ” 61°6
fed saab 1 ” ”
17°353 0 3 ae 67°6
17-249 2 i 46 68-9
16351 16°47 16-48 6 I on 791
15°736 2 “ 3 86-7
14-403 14:3 2 ” ” 34302°4
14:10 14:0 2 a a 06-0
13°5 1 ” ’
13-286 13°29 13°3 3 ” ” 15°6
13-0 1 ” ”
12-866 0 ‘6 3 20°5
12°555 12°56 0 » ” 24°2
12°451 12°45 0 on Rs 2574
10°542 2 5 35 48-0
10°10 ” ”
09-352 09°35 09°95 1 - tp 64:0
09°5 1 ” ”
09°1 Os? 2 Pe 99
08-590 0 o be 71:0
08-0 In “ fp
O71 In os np
06:6 1 ” ”
06°424 06°42 06°3 3 » ” 96°6
05-952 05:9 1 on re 34402°2
05°756 05°76 om % = 04°5
04°825 04:7 0 A a 15°6
03°7 1 » »
03°3 1 ” ”
03°180 03:0 2 3 3 34:9
02-969 02:8 1 =r 3 37°6
02-223 02:22 02°10 1 sy Pe 46-4
01-890 01°74 01°8 1 aS 3 50°4
00-63 00°7 2 ” ” 65-4
99:9 1 Fh »
2899°820 | 2899-70 2899°7 1 9 » 75°0

104

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Spark Spectrum
Wave-length : j Intensity sestne
(Kayser) 4 - i and
Are Spectrum Adeney Haschel Character Lee <-
2898:845 28987 1 0°83 | 9:9
98°650 | 98°5 3 + a
2898-40 ” %
98-0 2 ” ”
97-820 97°82 1 i 10:0
96-638 96°7 3 *F ”
95-925 95-9 1 ss i
95°554 0 ” ”
94:0 1 » ”
93°844 93°84 0 sl:
92:8 2 39 | ”
92-654. 92°65 92:5 {> i hnaee,
92-2 1 ” »
92-00 91:9 | 1 ae oS
91-762 91:5 2 as m4
91-242 91-24 2 ” ”
90:7 1 ” 99
89:9 In aH aS
89°6 1 ” ”
89-543 89°54 0 an aS
88-739 88°8 2 0°82 ~
88-112 88-11 88-2 2 ae 5
87224 87°22 87:3 0 a 7
86°646 86°64 86-7 ot 5 af
85:60 85°6 1 = 7
85:1 1 ” ”
84-601 84:60 84:7 2 o Ee
83-701 83°70 83:8 3 7 “f
83°3 1 ” ”
82-697 2 a5 ro
82-299 82:22 82°24 2 os +n
81:373 81°37 81°5 1 A as
81-0 1 ” ”
80:637 80°64 80°6 0 ” 9
80:24 80°3 2 “6 +A
79°853 80:0 3 ap 45
79°466 0 aA aa
79:20 79°3 2 . a
78:3 Pd 1 a “S
77°930 78:04 78:1 2 AA ns
717-5 1 ” ”
77:197 Gee 2 A %
76:9 1 ” 9»
76:6 1 9 ”
76:3 1 ” ”
758 1 ” ”
755 1 ” ”
75°104 75°10 75:2 5n 50 om
74:7 1 ” ”
74161 2 53 5
73°83 73°9 2 5 Bs
73°34 73°5 2 55 5
72-468 72°5 2 aa A
71-756 71:8 4 oo 10°1
71:57 Tfilers 2 5 Fe
71:296 3 ” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

34486°6
88-9

34510°8
12°8
21°3
25°7

4671
60:4

68-1
71:0
(iif §

97°5
34607°2
14:7
25°3
32°3
44:8

568
67°6

TERY
85°4
95°7

347045
09°3
14:0
18-7
21:8

37:2
46-0

714

82°8
86:8
92°7
34803-2
11:9
14:0
17:3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 105

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Reduction to |
Wave-length Intensity | Vacuum Oscillation
(Kayser) and Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Bet ond Character | 4 <- in Vacuo
| 2870°8 | 2 0°82 | 101
2870°53 70°6 In i » | 2&4826°8
2870°322 2 oe 9 29-2
69-047 69°05 69:1 | 0 - on 44°8
68-662 0 = A 49°3
68-426 68°43 68°5 2 a 3 52:2
68-286 2 3 58 53°9
| 67°20 67°3 1 53 ze 67°1
66-743 66°74 66:9 5 S “ 72:7
66°41 66°6 2 5 - 76°7
66°19 66°4 2 ts aa 79°4
65°65 65°7 2 ; ¥ 86-0
64°726 0 0°81 rf 97:2
63°33 63°5 2 is es 34914:2
63°112 63:1 2 Fr oy | 168
62-963 62°96 0 ; rae 22°8
62°5 In “ *
61°833 62:0 1 oS 35 32°5
61-508 61°54 61:6 5 e oS 36°5
61:17 61:3 1 Noes, es 40°6
60°95 61-1 1 53 re 43°3
60-491 60°49 0 yon fe 48°9
60-114 60°11 60-2 + 55 es 53°5
60-0 2 ” ”
59-9 2 35 Bayt
59°65 59°6 In i ea op Yl
58-693 58-69 59-1 0 a a 68°8
58:0 2 » 9
57°88 9 0
57:770 0 = Rea 82:2
57°367 57°37 57°4 1 EC A: | 87:2
56:67 56°7 2 ns ane Ml 95°7
56°3 1 ” 39 |
56°153 56°1 2 ” » 35002°0
55995 55:9 2 5 = 04:0
55:454 55°45 55°5 0 5 ne 10°6
55:01 55:1 1 pe = 1671
54°820 54°82 54:9 0 9 x 18-4
q 54-465 54:3 0 A By 22°8
54°173 54:17 4 45 a 26:3
53-433 53°43 0 ss weit'| 35°4
; 53°28 53:3 2 BS Hei] 37°3
, 52°7 1 spunea t
52-4 1 ” 2 |
! 51-225 1 >> shell 62°5
50°86 50°'8 2 Ar » | 67:0
50°3 In = oe, ot
49°73 49-7 2 3 A 82:2
49-399 49°40 49-4 0 = oneal 85:0
48-688 48°8 1 sant eeaet bl 93°8
47°72 47°8 1 a 10:2 35105°6
47°25 47:3 1 ott wl See 11-3
46-9 1 Ce aa
46662 46°7 0 fe | 18°6
46°430 46°5 1 oe os 21°5
45°3 or) i)

106

Wavye-length
(Kayser)
Are Spectrum

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum

2843-277
42°859

42°651
41°777

40:°657

38°729

37°384
36°684

36-254

34:107

32°755

31-280
30°815

29:253
27:969
27°627

24-866
24-004

22-912
22-659
22:371
22142
21-504
21:279

19-667
19:062
18:913
18-460

Adeney |) Hysol
2844-86 2844-9
| 43:9
43-4
43-0
41-78 | 41-81
41:23 41°3
40:66 40°8
39-9
39-52 39°6
39°16 39:1
38°73 38-9
38-0
37:28
36-68 36-7
36°5
36-4
35°77
34:52
34-2
33°97 34:0
33°64
32:9
32:00 32-1
30°8
30°3
301
29-6
29-4
29:25
27-97 28:1
27-63 27°7
27°19 27°3
26°81 26:9
26°7
26°36 26-4
25°62 25°6
25:20 25°3
24-3
23°33 23-4
22-9
2266 22-62
22:3
21°50 21-48
20°8
19-2
18-46 18-6
17°74 17-7

|

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to |
Vacuum |

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

NrNORFNNRKF KE NNNRK RK ONK Kb

NOSSO TINTS OTE IRS) FS as ONO bow

35156°4

60°4
65-6

68-2
79:0
85:8
92°9
352070
11°6
168

33°5
42-2

47:6

14-3
76-0

Oana
SS UST
Pee)

ON WAVE-LENGTAH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 107
RuTHENIUM—continued.
F
Reduction to |
Spark Spectrum
Wave-length 3 F Intensity bec | Oscillation
(Kayser) i a an Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney ee Character | , 4 i- in Vacuo
28177192 2817°3 3 0°80 | 10°3 354859
16°7 In ” ”
| 15:9 1 ” ”
15°410 15°6 0 3 % 35508°5
| 2815-18 15:2 1 Prva iscsi 11-4
14:7 2 ” ”
13°807 13°81 13°78 0 ei ss 28°7
13°44 13°38 4 fe ie a 33'S
12°925 13:0 2 =e) FS 48°3
12:9 1 ” ”
12:06 12:2 1 i = 50°8
11°66 11°'8 1 - 5 55°9
11:360 0 » 3 59°6
10-788 10°79 10°79 0 Es Bs 66:9
10°645 10°65 10°5 3 ios 3 68°7
10131 10°13 10°3 a o 3 752
08-335 08:5 0 7 “p 97°9
07'7 07-7 2 re " 35606-0
07°34 | O75 2 rh Es 10°6
06-845 06°85 | 06°85 0 # 33 169
: 06°5 | In 2 x
| 04°94 05°1 2 s 411
| 04:0 1 ” ”
03°76 03°7 1 3 op 561
03-593 03°4 1 co 9 58-2
02-907 02°91 | O31 2 4 > 66:9
02-260 02-26 02-4 0 # ce 75°1
01°6 | 1 ” ”
01-2 1 9 ”
00-785 00°79 00°7 1 $ 94-0
| 00°6 1 9 9
00:243 0 FL: op 35701°9
00°03 9 +
| 2799-71 2799°7 1 “ota bate 3 07°7
99°4 1 i le as
98-91 99:0 | 2 $ 10-4 17°'8
97°91 97°9 1 - + 30°6
| 97-20 97°3 1 Fr Be 39°6
2796°652 =: 9665 96:6 0 ss ns 46°6
| 96:10 | 96:2 1 Fr op 53°7
| 95°7 1 93 9
95-464 95°46 95:6 0 > " 61°8
94:42 94:4 2 x + 752
| 93-2 ie | Ih Sigti
92°746 2 5 96°7
92°418 92-42 92:4 2 $s “6 35800°9
91°164 91°16 91:3 0 % rE 04:1
90°695 0 rt sale ae 23:0
90:28 90°3 2 eh os 28:3. |
89°720 89°72 89:6 0 x 5) 35:5 |
88-84 88°8 2 a Pr 46:8
88°5 1 ” ” |
87:930 87:93 87:95 3 3 58°5 /
87°35 87°5 2 3 : 65°7 |
86°50 86:5 | 1 3 #8 66:9
85-90 85-92 4 84:6

108 REPORT— 1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Paes to
Wave-length Intensity ete Oscillation
(Kayser) Re er a aa Rea and 7 ee Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Haschek Character | ) 4 =a in Vacuo
2785°746 | 1 0°80 | 10°4 35886°6
| 2785-29 | 2785°3 2 ss aetieee 92°4
84-978 0 * “ 96°5
84-625 84:62 84:6 0 oD =r 35901°1
83°85 83°9 2 0:79 5 11-1
83:0 1 ” »
82-305 82°31 | 82-4 1 as eel 21:0
81:0 2n “ 5
80858 | 80:86 2 s 3 49-7
80°5 1 ” ”
80:0 1 ” ”
79°54 79°6 2 + a 66-7
79°2 2 » 9
79-081 79:08 0 ” ” 72-6
78°54 78:48 6 as = 79-7
78:2 1 2” ”
77629 77:63 778 0 elites 82°6
77°6 2 » ”
| 765 1 shit |e
76-009 75°9 1 x op 36012°5
75°723 75°72 75°70 0 Peet errs 16-2
75:288 e783 1 i De &| 21°9
75:2 1 35° hel coe
74:589 | 74:7 2 a “. 31:0
74-4 1 ” 3
74:25 ” ”
732 1 “f =o
73:068 72°9 0 ce ne 50°8
72°716 72°72 0 re 6 55°3
72°55 72°58 4 $3 5 57°5
72-2 1 ” ”
71:99 72:1 1 55 un) oka 64:8
71°59 716 1 simul) os 70-0
71:15 71:3 2 Soh eres 757
70'805 709 2 Pe Pe 80:2
70°399 70°40 70°5 0 + a 85°5
69-993 0 a9 ee 90°8
69-024 69-02 69:02 4 5 10°5 361032
68-032 0 s sae 16:2
67°66 67°7 1 = = 2171
67'5 1 » 9
67:1 1 Pri nit eS
66-66 66°7 2 Hy +5 34-1
66°323 0 a9 x, 38:5
| 66-00 66-1 2 ss a 42°8
65°530 | 65°53 | 65°55 2 ssibeiheh 95 48°8
| 65:24 65°25 4 rr 52-7
64:824 65-0 2 + | 58-2
64-005 64:2 1 a “n 68-9
63513 | = 63°53 63°6 4 Mea se 753
63-232 | 63°3 2 | 29 » | 79-0
62:9 1 ” cP
62-400 62°4 2 ee eee 89:9
62°17 62:2 1 |\@ 93 os 93:0
61°60 61-7 1 eres » | 362014
61:5 In Assad Maes

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 109

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum pean ial
Wave-length Intensity say Oscillation
(Kayser) uy Gee Boe and 1 Frequency
Arc Spectrum Adeney oe Character | 4 = in Vacuo
| 2760°88 2760-9 2 0°79 | 10°5 36209°8
2760:268 | 60:27 | 602 0 as 93 17°8
| | 59°8 1 ” ”
| 59°35 59°3 1 ” » 29°9
59-0 2 AY FF
| 58°5 1 ” »
58°104 58°10 | 58:0 0 ” ” 46°3
57°912 | 1 # * 48:8
| | 575 1 ” ”
57:175 / 57-1 0 2 a4 58°5
56°7 1 9 =|
| 56°6 1 ” ”
56°46 56°5 1 rE > 67°9
56-0 1 ” »
55°30 Fe “| 55°9 1 nN
55°5 1 » »
55°30 55:3 2 7 Seale 832
54:3 1 soe 3s
53°543 | = 5354 53°6 2 9 | os 363063
52°868 52°87 52°94 2 Eeiiikee Rat 15:2
52°548 52°55 | 52°59 2 a a 19°5
52°14 | §2°3 2 3 4: 24:8
51-698 | 51:9 0 ” FP 30°7
| 51-6 1 ” | ”
| 51:0 1 sot anal
50-452 | 506 0 Fe 10°6 47°0
49-923 0 A cf: 54°1
49°66 49:7 2 9 + 57°5
49:26 49-4 2 is 5 62°8
49-2 2 2 6 |
48-7 1 ” ”?
48°3 In 6, .
48-03 | 48-08 4 - of 79°1
| 47°62 | 47-7 1 sh) LNs 84:5
46°991 47:00 he eee 0 fo hacen 92°9
46°75 468 2 9 ” 96°1
46-169 46°17 46-2 0 ” ”» 36403°9
45:90 45°98 | 4 = oH 07°3
45°343 0 FP *5 14:7
45:22 45°22 4 Pr ay! 16°3
44°821 0 AD “4 21°6
44-541 44°54 44°62 2 a = 25°3
44:022 44:02 44:10 2 s rE 32°3
43°57 | 43°62 4 % An 38'3
—— 43°3 In sok alas
| | 42°6 2 adel beeeD
42°15 | 42:2 1 Bil ae 57:1
| 41°7 In 0-78 =
| 415 1 ” ”
| 41-4 In t 35 ”
ome: ag 2 ” ”
40°327 40°3 1 3 op 81-4
40-085 0 Py +5 84°6
39°68 Fe | 39:8 In % 38
39°311 39°40 | 39-4 4 ayer it, ge al 94°9
39:1 1 ona ies

110

RUTHENIUM—continued.

REPORT—1904.

Spark Spectrum peduelion ie
Wave-length Intensity es iecions Oscillation
(Kayser) and Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Hae end Character | \ 4 i- in Vacuo
2738°983 2738°9 0 0-78 | 10°6 36501°3
38:3 1 ” ”
38'0 2 ” ”?
| 273787 37'8 2 A oo 14:1
37°66 ” ”
36°917 36°92 36°98 0 ” » 26°9
36-412 36°54 36°6 0 25 aS) 33°8
35°806 35°81 ° 35°9 2 as 2 41-7
34438 34:44 34°44 3 *D ss rl 59:9 |
| 33°68 33°7 55 “5 70°1
33:167 33°2 0 aD oe 77-0
32°83 32'8 5s a 79°5
32:5 Ir ? 33 a
32-011 32°1 0 on + 92°5
31:48 31:5 5 55 99-6
31-028 31-1 2 Fi oS 36605°7
30°79 30°7 sf or 08°8
30°416 30°42 30°5 2 oe op 139
307115 | 0 aa a 17°9
29°540 | 29°54 29°5 2 A 2 25°6
29°04 28:9 a sia 323
27:74 2” ”
27°4 » apr!
27-063 27:06 27°1 0 Aj 10°7 58°8
26:6 ” se
25°549 25°55 25°55 4 o oY 79:2
24°95 24°95 a On 87:2
24:2 a a3
24°153 24:0 = x 97°9
23°6 9 »
23°10 23°3 = ot 36712°1
22°903 22°8 0 os 5 14:8
22-760 22°76 22°6 3 oD s 168
22°493 0 35 ES 20°3
21°937 0 A> 20 35°4
21°653 21:7 3 a a 31°7
21:3 2” ”
20°4 ” ”
19°838 19°84 19°8 0 aS os 56:2
19-610 19°61 19°7 5 ” ” 59°3
18-919 18:92 19:0 0 oF oO 68-6
17:93 18-0 5 ay ot 82-0
17510 17°51 17°45 2 = * 87°7
17°100 0 a “9 93:2
| 16°8 39 9
16°23 | 163 Be a5 36805:0
16°15 2” ”
15595 ) -albe6 2 “0 a 13°6
15326 | 153Rh 0 te As 173
| 143 Ae or
| | 14:0 ” ”
13824 | 13°66 13°7 1 an a 37°7
13-272 13°14 13:2 2 oD x 45-1
12/967 | | 0 “, oS 49°3
12-493 | 12:49 | 12°43 4 a os 55°7
12169 | | 0 a 60:2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 111

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum as gated ©
Wave-length _| Intensity ie es
Kayser | an requency
ios eg eciram | Adeney Pee ne Character | , 4 i Eaivecad
27119 0°78 | 10:7
11:2 ” ”
2710321 2710-32 10°3 0 s a 36885°3
| 10:0 ” ” |
09°851 0 ames 4 91:7
09-291 09-29 09°3 2 || iat 5 99°3
097157 091 0 a 3 | 36901-2
08-930 08:7 0 ~ aI 04:2
08-054 | 08-2 2 . * 16:2
| 07-41 | O75 In ee ee 25-0
| | 07-4 2 2 ”
06°6 1 a 99
| O56Rh | In - i!
05:416 | eae!) a i 52-2
04:99 | 04:9 [i oelae ; 3 58-0
04:65 04:7 2 ¥ a 62:7
04°31 04:4 1 ‘ 5s 67°3
03°891 04:0 2 Bs x 7371
03-403 03:7 0 a - 79-7
03-221 | 03-0 0 2. Es 823
02916 | 02:92 02:8 4 ff e 86:4
01:434 01-5 4 = a 87:0
/ 01-09 01-2 2 es 10:8 97-6
ae | 00°77 00:8 0 x a 37015°6
A 1 ” 23 18:3
00°32 00°3 2 3 3 21'8
2699-957 00-0 1 # oe 26:8
269942 2699°5 1 % a 34-2
98-80 O-line
98°23 39 =
98-161 0 % as 51-4
1 > ” if
97°595 | | 97:8 0 a A 59°3
| 97°4 2 ”> ”
97:18 ¥ i
96-653 | 96:7 0 ae . 72-2
| 94:85 : ne 1 kg aa 97-0
9) 1 99 ”
94:25 94:3 1 Bs » 37105°3
93:9 1 pi nt
93°750 93°75 93-6 0 3 = 12-1
93-392 93°39 2 at SNe 17:1
92-199 ? 92:20 92-08 4 5 s 33:5
90-904 0 Cee 51-4
90-487 90°49 | 90-4 1 2 - 57-2
89-51 | 89:6 1 i A 70:7
88-969 88-97 1 Cea ee 78:2
88-668 1 Li of 82-3
88-216 88-22 88:4 1 ms Eas 88-6
87-580 87°58 87:7 1 o Be 97-4
87-214 | 87-21 87°3 1 PR ie a eck 2h |
| 86-94 87:1 2 i ae 06°3
86:375 86:38 86°5 4 | apes im 14:0
85-94 86:1 | 1 ie i 20°1
| 85°57 85°8 aie ig ae 25-2
85:242 | 85-24 | 85:4 oeee, Peay |) 29°7

112

REPORT —1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

47239°5
44-6
5074
63:1

93°4
37304'8

18-7
20°T
30°9
38:7
43:5

52°3

64:2
68-4
82°5
87°8
90°6
92°5
99-0

374079
30°9
33°9

60:4
64:5
69°8

77°6
375012
04:9
09-4
14:9

28°8
41°6
50°2
55-7
59-2
65°4
71°6

Wawve-length Intensity We
(Kayser) E a and 1
Are Spectrum Adeney Haschek Character | y+ a
2684:540 | 2684:69 2684°9 0 0:77 | 10°8
84:172 | | 84:3 Rh 1 “ 33
83°756 | 1 ” ”
82°84 82°9 In ” ”
81-5 1 ” ”
80°66 80°7 2 ’ 2
80-0 1 > ”
79°843 19°F 1 ” ”
79°54 3
78°837 78°84 78°79 4 » 10°9
78:267 78:27 78°3 0 ” ”
77-967 0 ” ” |
77°406 77°5 0 ’ ”
77:057 77:0 0 ” | ”
76°86 ” ”
76°430 76-4 2 a a
76°27 2 ”
75°58 75:7 2 ” ”
75°273 75°27 15:2 0 ” »
74:27 74°4 2 > ”
73°930 73°7 0 ” ”
73°691 73°7 2 Py 9
73°550 2 ” ee)
73°089 73°09 73°2 0 ” ”
72°6 2 ” 2”
72-451 72°45 72°5 0 » ”
70°813 0 ” ”
70°586 70°60 70°7 0 ” ”
69°6 2 ” ”
69°24 ” ”
68°71 68-7 1 ” »
68-421 0 ” ”
68-042 68-1 1 9 =|
67°89 ” ”
67:479 67:48 67°35 1 » ”
65°803 1 ” ”
65-542 65°54 65-4 0 ” ”
65°227 65°1 0 » »
64°833 64°83 4 9 » |
64°65 ” ” |
63°85 63°6 1 ” ”
62°94 63:0 2 33. >| .95
62°36 62°3 2 ” Neo ins
61:937 | 0 2” ”
61-690 61:69 61°64 4 ’ ”
61-249 61°25 | 61:20 2 ”
60-673 | 60°8 0 39 »
59°64 59°8 2 ” 9
59°5 In } PA
58-862 0 ”
58-482 | 68-4 2 i ¥
58-28 | ” ”
57:249 57:25 57°3 i » et
56°776 1 ” 11-0
56°641 1 ” ”
56°328 56°33 56°35 1

88-2

99:2
37604°6

22-0
28°6
30°5
35°0

|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 113

RUTHENIUM—continued.

=

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Voie | Oscillation
(Kayser) an Frequency
Arc Spectrum Adeney eee Character | y+ i- in Vacuo
2655°292 1 0°77 | 11:0 37649°6
55°193 0 oN ass 51:0
54:898 2654:90 2655°1 0 O276. | ss 55:2
54°563 54:7 0 i + 60:0
54:2 2 » ”
54-01 » ”
53°776 1 “ or 71:2
53°240 53:2 1 3 - 78°8
53°05 2 ”
52°7 1 ” ”
52°240 52°3 0 FD =p 93-0
52°05 ” ”
51-936 51°94 52:0 zt A cy: 97°3
51-603 51:7 Rh? 0 Er rp 37702°0
51:366 51°37 51°5 2 33 “ 05-4
50-968 50°97 0 or _ 111
50°693 50°6 0 op % 150
50:486 50°49 50°4 1 3 op 17:9
50°21 50:2 1 ny aa 21°8
50-076 0 o 4 23'8
49-608 49°7 2 s “ 30°4
48-872 48°87 48:95 2 ay op 40°9
48-706 0 By - 43°3
48°535 1 a a 45°7
47:019 48-1 1 sy y 53:1
47394 47°5 2 A ne 62:0
47-0 1 ” ”
46°715 0 “ a 717
46-087 46:09 46:1 2 . PD 80°7
45°3 1 ” ” |
44-711 44-71 44°7 0 Fi 3 37800°3 |
44°187 0 3 fe 08°6
43-600 43°60 43°7 0 ” ” 16:2
43°3 2 op of |
43°042 43°04 43-1 4 op Ae 242 |
42°607 42:5 0 is Op 304
42°3 1 ” ”
42-063 42:06 0 ” % 38:2
41-72 41°7 2 = “ 43°1
41-549 0 3 55 45°6
40°413 40°41 2 sme b S 19
39°67 39-7 2 5 ii 125 |
39°205 39°3 2 op a 79°4
38°597 38°60 38°6 2 a3 PY 87:9
38°5 1 ” ”
38:2 1 = ”
36°95 36°9 1 e ns 37911°6
36-760 36°7 2 as 33 14:3
36°617 36°62 0 3 5: 16°4
35927 35°93 36°0 Pd 4 ” ” 26°3
35°451 35°45 35°4 0 -n rh 33°2
33°93 ” ”
33°7 1 ” ”
33°537 0 F. % 60°8
32°85 32°9 2 5 3 70°7
32°584 32°5 1 98 i 745

1904,

114 REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Reduction to |
Spark Spectrum
Wave-length | A 2 | Intensity aS Oscillation
(Kayser) E a and 1 Frequency
| Are Spectrum | Adeney Hache | Character | 4 3 in Vacuo |
2632-210 | 2632-4 0 | 0°76 11:0! 37979-9
31°657 / 31:7 1 eee i! 87°8
| 315 1 ” | ”
2631-22 31°3 2 st kas 94-1
30°314 1 = >c 38007°1
30°19 30°2 2 + oo 090 CO
30°010 0 += mS 11°6
29°49 29°5 1 a = 19-1
28-91 B29 | 2 iP AG Bo 27-5
28-621 0 9 | 31°6
28°375 28°38 | 283Pd? 4 ” | 35:2
27°90 | ” ”? |
27°737 27°74 ) 1 a | eee 445
27°5 1 Ss. | Lioe
26°60 26°5 2 eh i595 60:9
26°444 0 aS <5 63-2
26290 | 26-1 0 pote fates 65-4
25°95 | rad ee
25°59 25°6 1 = Ss 75°6
25°5 2 ” ”> |
25-168 25°2 0 ~ = 81-7
24°87 | 249 1 * = 86-0
24°35 |; 24:3 1 “s 2 93°6
23-914 1 +s 99°9
23-76 | 23-7 In * & 38102°1
23°51 ” ”
| 21 1 a le
| 22-9 1 sae he
22-4 In RYU ss
21°91 21-9 1 42 - 29-0
21-46 | 24-4. 1 oth os 35°6
21:173 | 21:2 0 ss Sibees 39°8
20-713 20°71 20°8 2 7 = 46-4
207154 | 20-15 20°2 0 2 = 54°6
19°745 19°8 2 -- - 60°5
19°42 19°5 2 = + 65°3
19-105 19°2 0 -A = 69°8
18-68 ” ” 8
: | f 18-0 1 ~ “r 7°7
17-882 { = 44 : wi pes
17-29 17-2 2 3 + 96°3
16°50 16°5 1 Pe! Mare 38207°9
15-7 1 ”» ”
15179 15°18 15-2 2 = | = 27:2
14°93 15-0 2 Ss = 31-0
14-671 14:8 Pd 2 A 5a tl 34°6
14151 14:15 14-2 L = == 42:2
14-0 In os the Se kl
1337 | 13-4 In i 53-6
137143 0 5 +. 57°0
12-990 0 ae 59-2
4 12-63 12-6 2 Aa eee 64°5
IZA |) A217 12-2 2 - ae 71:3
11-99 12-0 1 ” ” 73°9
/ 11-63 11°6 2 se = 79°2
11:130_ lee | 74 2 = aan 86°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 115

RuTHENIUM—continued.

. : ,
| Reduction to |

Spark Spectrum
Wave-length 5 e Intensity Vacuum | Oscillation
(Kayser) a= <= 5 an | ene | Frequency
Are Spectrum ‘Adoney Los Ain Character 4 :- in Vacuo
2610718 _ 2610°2 2 0°76 | 11°0 38300°3
2609°573 09°57 | 09°6 2 0°75 | 09°5
097143 09-14 09-2 aa 5 11-2 15°5
| 08°5 1 ” ”
08-024 08-02 | 08-0 1 a 7 32-0
07°440 0 3 ric 40°6
07°18 Fe 07:0 1 = Bs
06°40 06°4 2n rr on 56°8
05-950 06:0 2 3 a 62°5
05-439 05°5 2 oe op 68-4
04409 04:41 04°3 0 “ p 85-2
03°43 0374 In os or 99°6
03-00 03-0 1 a o 384060
02°49 02°4 2 53 13°5
01-553 01°55 01:6 2 = + 27°3
01-392 0 a ne 29°7
00-840 00°7 0 9 os 37°9
00°5 ” ”
00-00 2599°9 1 re a 50°3
2599°53 Fe 99°6 a ” ”
99°5 1 ff “
98-99 Fe 99-0 2 a3 Fe
2598-681 98°68 98°6 0 ” ” 69°8
98-07 98-1 2 “ 789
97°84 97°7 ul x oa 82°3
97°417 97°42 97°3 1 ” ” 88°5
96-043 96-04 96-0 0 ” » 38508°9
95°734 0 a re 125
94-926 95:1 2 HF rh 25°5
94°65 94°6 1 a of a 29°6
93°79 93°9 In a aS 42-4
93°6 In a rr
93°3 In ” ”
93-1 In FP a
92°3 1 ” ”
92-093 2 re FC 67°6
91-710 0 a a 73°4
91:44 91°5 2 5 a 77°4
91-201 91:20 91°3 2 + cf 80°9
91-087 1 A A, 82°6
89-886 89:9 0 a a 38600°5
89-649 89°65 89°6 2 F er 04°1
89-129 89-0 0 a rp 11°8
88-08 88-1 1 a 11°3 | 27°3
87-413 0 a an 37°3
86-95 87:0 In ag as 44-4
86°157 86°16 86-0 0 xs fr 56°1
85815 . 0 oe *r 61:2
85-412 85°6 1 oa 7 67:2
84-211 84-4 2 a op 85°2
83-131 83°13 83:2 2 5 a 387014
83-1 1 ” ”
82-7 1 ” ”
82°48 ” ”
81-990 82-1 2 7 se 20:0
. 81:6 1 7 Py

116

REPORT— 1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Wave-length
(Kayser)
Arc Spectrum

in Soe.
2581-216

80883
80316

79°879
79623
79°309

79-071
78°653

"77-052
75°339

73654

72512
72°370

71-068
70°180
69°840
68°854
67°981
66-666

65°277

64°674
64°503

62-252

60-920
60°347

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Intensity beg Oscillation
Exner and | Cl and ey eel
Adeney Haschok haracter | y 4 a= in Vacuo
| 2581-23 2581°3 2 0°75 | 11:3 38730°1
81-0 1 ” »

2 ” ” 35'1
80°32 80-4 0 39 9 43°6
80:08 ” ”
79°94 79°8 0 oc es 50°2

2 ” ” 54:0

79:3 | 1 A A 58°7
79°10 2 os os 62°4
78°65 78'8 2 2» | 99 68°7

78°4 1 ” | ”
75 1 Sirs dee OF
7711 77:2 0 rhe bees: 92:7
76°17 76°3 2 Se 38806:0
Wer 2) ol Mae. nh eae
} 1 ” ” 18-5

74:8 1 | 9» ”

74:20 74:3 1 ih oe 39 35°7
73°65 73°6 0 1 Sees 5 44:0
73°3 1 haa »
73°09 73°0 ] *y Pea 52°5
72°71 72°7 In - “5 58°2

2 a or 61:2

2 I) a5 ria ah 63:3
ileal; lee 2 I ae or) 81-4

70°8 2 as or 83:0

705 1 ” ”

70:0 0 poe elf) ety 96-4
69°84 69°8 2 ee ee ey 38 01°6
69°5 1 fy 2
68-93 69:1 2 |» _ 15-4

4 oo» » 16:6

68:2 1 | 3 11-4

1 : a 29:7

67°7 1 esc P
66°67 66°8 2 lias “5 49°6
66°30 66°5 2 or FE 55:2

661 1 less
65°77 65:8 2 Hess “6 63°3

65°5 Pd 1 ell se

1 ” ” 70°7

65:1 1 | ” | ”

64:73 64:9 1 | O74] 5, org)

Gh a ees
64-02 64:2 2 oo aq) t| 89:9
63°78 63:8 1 x » | 93°5
63°38 63°5 1 FA EF 99-6
63-00 63:2 1 ” ” 39005°4
62°58 62°8 1 Tues 11°5 iM IGF

62°4 2 “s ay 16°7

61°7 1 lies =

61-4 1 / 29 ”

611 1 | = ;

61:0 3 Peis | ee 37°0
60°35 60°5 2 Foe lh een 45°7

1 |

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

{UTHENIUM— continued.

BLA

Wave-length

(Kayser)

Are Spectrum

2559°497
58-626
58-359

57°784

56-994
56°100
55:955
55-734

54790
54-060

52-965
52524
52°384
52-083
51°822
51-466
50-946

49-664
49-576
49-260

47-600

46°765
45°866

44-318
43-778
.43°349
43:240
42-601

41-381
40-411
39°822
38-565

37°776

36°315

35°147

Spark Spectrum

| Exner and
Adeney | Haschek
2559°60 |. 2559-7
58-91
58-63 | 58-7
58°13 | 58-2
57°78 | 57:9
57-25 57:3
56-96 56-9
56:10 | 56-2
55:96 55:9
55:0
54-5
53-58 53-6
52:08 | 52:10
51:82 | ~ 51:7 Pd
| 5-4
49-92 50-0
49-6
49-26 49-3 °
48-86 49-0
48-1
47:80 478
47:0
46:81
46:01 45:8
45:10 45:1
44:32 44-4
43°35 43°38
42-24 42-3
41-6
40:41 40°43
39-82 39:90
38-1
37-78 37:6
37:18
36°60
36:51
35°80 35°7
35-42 35°5
35°15 35:1
34:23 34:2
33°66 33:6

| Intensity |

and |

| Character .

POW NWE EH ONNNE ER OSOCOOP REE PONNONMMON Cc

=] 5 5

COMP OrcoorFNOONrFN

RPDNonno

Reduction to

Wii Oscillation
| Frequency
Petes oes in Vacuo
| ~
0:74 11°5 | 39058:7
” 23
” 3 | 72:0
Ae aa 761
7 ee | 79°6
3° ” | 84:8
” | ” | 93-0
x | ea! || 96°9
eis : 39110°6
ae eo 128
> | 9 | 16:2
2 | ” 30°7
1 Ors | be 41°9
et ss oil 46-0
22 oe tl 63°5
9 9 65-4
2 99 68:5
| 39 29 72°3
eee a ae 76:2
33. ” 81°6
” ” 89-6
a5 » | 39205-4
» ass a 09°4
ess 99 10-7
ae ae 15-6
”> ” 21-7
ne aoe 41:2
” bP) 54:0
” } 29 67:8
” | ” 79°6
” ” 91-6
fr » | 39300°
9 ” 06°7
9 ” | 08°4
23 el 18°3
” > 23°8
» 9 371
> | 7) 52:2
ie teen 61:3
” ! ” | 80°9
9 | ”
99 99 93:1
” 99
” ”
ees ae 39415°7
” ” 23°8
” 2? 29:7
» 09 33:9
” ” 48°2
” 571

118

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Spark Spectrum : Te etrGhl ites
Wavye-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) ee es. and i Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney pecan Character | + — in Vacuo
| [
2533°331 2533°33 2533°3 I O74 | 115 39462:2 |
32°128 | 1 mp 5 68°7
30°67 30°6 2 25 a 39503°7
30°40 30°2 1 ce on 07-9
29°812 29°81 29°7 1 cb 116 17:0
28°813 0 os on 32°8
28:027 28°03 28-00 0 “ x 45-0
27°19 27:2 In PAW neers 58-1
26°914 Del 24 ” | ” 62-4
26-011 0 5a aS 76-7
25°726 25°68 25°6 Ir 0 e 3 81:0
25°263 0 or *s 88:3
25°12 ” ”
24:952 24:95 25:0 0 s a 99-9
24:6 1 ” »
23°9 1 ” ”
23°3 1 ” ”
22°83 22°8 1 os “s 39626-4
22-410 22°5 0 A: a 33°0
21-700 21°9 2 P 3 44:2
21:08 21:0 2 2 on 53°9
20-925 20°89 20°8 1 as a 564
20:041 0 x 5: 70°3
19°49 19-32 4 aa a 78°9
18-601 18-60 18°55 0 re “ 94°6
17°728 2 “f “ 39706°7
17°403 17°40 17°38 2 sr a5 11:9
17:00 ” »
16°882 16:9 0 ef An 20°1
16°25 16:2 In = “3 30°0
15°74 158 1 op = 38-1
15:372 15°5 1 er: 3 43°9
14:10 14°3 In An 5 64:1
13-417 13°42 13:40 2 “5 99 74:9
12:898 13-0 2 Fs a 83:1
12°79 12°7 1 a = 84:8
11-652 11-7 1 py 11°7 39802°7
11°41 11:4 In & “6 04:9
11-058 0 sel ee 121
10-238 0 Suet eke 25:2
09-709 09°6 0 ¥9 3 33°6
09-160 09-2 1 Onion biass 42°3
08-508 08-81 08-80 2 ame bss 52°6
08°377 08:4 2 NE 9s 54:8
07-090 07°13 07°16 2 ” ” 76:1
06°61 06°6 2 99 a 82°7
| 06:5 2 ” ”
| 06°18 06°1 1 ie aa, 91:2
: | 05-73 05:8 Pd 1 B20, 96°38
| 055 1 % os
| | 05°13 05-1 1 ames 39906°3
| 03°40 03°4 1 3 99 34:0
02:966 | 03-0 0 35 os 40°9
02°484 02°48 02°5 0 5 a 48°5
01-990 02°12 02:1 0 ” ” 56°5
01:569 017 2 ” oF) 61:2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Wave-length

Spark Spectrum

is oe) = 5
re Spectrun xner an
. so Haschek
2500-940
00-484 2500°36 2500°3
2499°873 2499°-9
2499-60 99°5
99:2
98:670 98°67 98-7 Pd
98-512 98°6
98°1
97°14 97:0
95°775 95°88 95'8
94°773 94°77 94°6
94:22 94:3
94-116 94:00 93°80
92°9
92°3
92:1
91-847 91°85 91:6
91°4
91°10 91:2
90°555 90°7
90:017
89°34 89:5
88°58 88°7 Pd
88°3
88:1
87:7
87:26 87°3
86°7 Pd
86°31 86:3
84-66
84-055 84:06 84:2
83°82 83:7
83:3
83:0
82-628
82:0
81:83
81-216 81:22 81°30
80°83 81:0
80°3
79-611
79-458
79:010 79°01 79:02
78°33 78°5
78:2
77:22 77°4
77:1
76:960 76°6
76°395 76°4
75483
75:0
74:506 74:55
74115 74:2
73°55 73°8
72°81 73:0
72:215 72:22 72°6

Intensity
and
Character

Ree eee LNDNONEF NE RENE RENE RE NNRKRKNOSO

RONERrO

CNrFKONNONKEFNKENNOOKNS

Reduction to |
Vacuum
Re =
ar
0: .
73 | 117 |
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”?
te 11:8
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
cP) ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
ie LS |
” ”
” ”
” 2?
” ” |
” ” |
| ” ”
” ”

Oscillation

| Frequency

in Vacuo

39973°3
80°5
90°3
94-7

40009°6
12°1

34:1
56:0
73°6
81:0
82:7

40119°1 -

311
39:9
48°6
59°5
71:8

93:1
40208°5

45:0
478

68:1
81:0

91:0
97:3

40317:
19°6

40400°2
06°6
158
27:9
37°6

i

120

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Spark Spectrum
Wave-length P Intensity ee Oscillation
(Kayser) 4 and i F Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Benet pnd Character | ) 4 = in Vacuo
2471-576 2471'3 0 0:73 | 11:9 40448°1
71:3 1 ” ”
70°805 0 ” » 60°7
70°608 2470°61 70°7 0 FP) ” 64:0
68°8 1 9 9
| 68°5 1 el i
67-674 C767 | FF 0 7 » | £05121
67°5 1 ” 3, alt
67°3 1 ” ”
66:4 In 7 a
65°7 il 2” ”
65°5 1 ” ”
65°1 1 ” ”
64:781 64:78 64:9 2 “ 9 59°7
64:474 0 As Py 64:7
64:0 1 »” ”
63-026 63°03 63:1 2 “ a 88-6
62°8 1 ” ”
62°20 62°3 1 ” ” 40603°2
61:506 61-7 0 9 ” 13°7
61:5 1 ” ”
60°57 ” »
60°17 60-1 1 59) CHS 35:7
59°6 1 ” ”
: 59°4 1 a ve
59°146 59°15 0 or 12:0 42°6
58-706 58°8 Rh 2 a millcaaes 59°8
57°31] 57°31 | 574 0 eal ess 82-9
57:050 1 elle es 87-2
56-666 | 56-70 4 s ia 93-6
56°519 56°59 56°60 4 ” ” 96-0
56°376 0 al | ect 98°3
55°614 55°61 55°66 5 9 a 40712-0
55°005 549 2 =p seis | 21:2
54:267 54:27 54°4 0 26 i 33°6
53°85 54:0 2 a " 40°3
52°6 In ast as
51:27 51°4 2 sel 5s 83:2
511 2 Pd ye
50°650 50°90 50°7 1 ” ” 93:5
50°464 50°46 50°6 0 +. ss 96°7
49-958 1 - aL 40805 0
49°6 2 55
48-958 48-96 49-0 0 “5 5 28-0
48°4 1 as rg
47°537 47°6 In és # 45:4
46:9 1 be Bs
46°7 1 ” ”
45-519 45°52 0 ” ” 79-1
44:924 | 0 a 3 89:1
44-497 | 44°5 0 ” ” | 96°2
44:129 44:2 1 ” pe | 40902°4
43:48 43-4 2n x =| 12-1 13:2
43:036 0 ne is 21°6
41°82 | 41:6 1 | 41:0

|
\
{
|

se

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 121

RUTHENIUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum paon. =
Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) an rae Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character! , 4 | Es in Vacuo
Haschek A
2441°419 2441-42 | 2441-4 0 0°72 | 121 40947°7
41:051 41:05 40°9 1 3 “A 53°9
39°715 39°72 39°7 0 95 a 76°3
39°3 1 9 »
39:0 1 ” 0
38°8 1 ” ”
38°5 1 ” 93
37°3 1 251 2
37:019 37°1 0 ~ Pe 41021°7
36°6 1 amelie
363 1 ” ”
35°53 35°62 aa a rp 46°8
34-980 34:98 35'1 0 ” ” 65°9
33°81 34:0 In m “3 TT
33:2 In “ an
33°0 1 a |
32-25 32°3 2 a « | 41102-1
31:6 1 ” oh
30°8 1 ” inst
30°45 30°5 2 48 Py 32°6
29:672 29-6 2 foal | ey 45°7
29°4 1 srolingses. |
29°1 1 saeciy seen
28°98 29-0 1 35 Sy 57°5
27°82 27°8 2 i 12:2 77:0
27:26 27:2 1 56 es wy) 86°5
26°96 ” ” 91°6
26°66 26°7 1 a * 96-7
26:0 In Pea ear:
25°7 ea ease erin Fa.
24°56 24°6 1 mts y 41232°5
23°7 In en ee
22:91 23:0 2 a iy 60°5
22°30 22°4 2 Be ene 70°9
21°4 1 0-71 oD
20°905 20:9 2 te ns 94°7
20:24 20°3 1 ” ’ 41306-0
20:2 1 ” 9
20:0 1 ” ”
19:04 ia 1 35 ie 27°5
18-6 1 ” 9
18°3 1 ”? ”
17:05 Lt7Gi 2 3 5 60:6
16°64 9 9
15°82 158 2 iS a 81:6
15°30 154 2 a “f £0°5
14:93 14:9 2 3 55 96°9
14:00 14:0 2 ” ” 41412°8
13°60 13°5 2 fe es 19°6
13°32 ” ”
12:9 1 9 »
12°6 1 ” ”
12-1 1 ”
11:62 11:7 l ds 12°3 53°6
11°5 1 5 Of
11-2 1 ” ”

122 REPORT—1904.
RUTHENIUM—continued.
Reduction to
Spark Spectrum
Wave-length e : Intensity Bede Oscillation
(Kayser) Nl and l Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Exner and | Character | ) + ase in Vacuo
Haschek r
| 24108 1 0-71 | 12:3
2410-24 | ShOS 2 7 a3 414773
| | 10:0 1 ” ”
09-7 1 ” ”
2408-744 08-7 1 ar) Lees 41503°1
08°51 ” ”
07:997 08-00 2 DS ss 16:0
07:37 07°6 1 3 xy 26°8
07-1 1 9” 9
06°67 06:9 u re 2 38°9
06:12 ” ”
055 1 ” ”
05-4 1 35 =
05:00 05:1 1 re ket 67:7
04:9 1 99 ”
04:6 1 9 ”
02-802 02°80 | 02-90 4 a “5 41605'8
01:93 | ” ”
| ecOLes | (ORS 1 oe a5 33°8
00:7 In ” ”
00°38 00°3 1 $5 “6 478
| | 9399: 28 Pe ns
98-63 ” ”
_ 2398: 0 2 9 9
97 70 97:2 2 as 12°4 99-7
2396-791 96°79 96:90 2 on “4 41710°0
96:0 In a “5
95:66 95°6 1 “D a 29-7
95°3 1 ” ”
95-0 1 ” ”
94°70 99 ”
94:2 2 ” ”
93°84 93-7 1 ” ” 61:5
93°3 1 ” ”
92-501 92:7 2 i - 84:9
92°1 2 oo “5
91°73 91°8 1 x a4 98°3
|} 91-4 1 ” ”
90:6 1 Efe sao
90:4 1 ” ”
90°1 1 ” ”
88:5 1 ” ”
88°3 In 7 1
87-28 ” ”
84:3 1 ” ”
83°53 83:7 2 ” ” 41942:2
83:0 1 ” ”
82:08 82-18 4 nh 12°5 67°6
815 1 ” ”
81-2 1 is “6
81-0 1 ” ”
80°8 1 ” ”
| 80°1 2 ” ”
79°94 79:9 2 ” ” 42002°4
79°54 | ” ”
77°6 In ” ”

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 123

RuTHENTUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum Eedietion ve
| Wave-length | Intensity arses Oscillation
, acti | = ‘ | est a E eeeaneey
re Spectrum xmer an aracter i. in Vacuo
‘ ied Haschek og ae
2376°30 2376°6 2 | O71 | 12°5 42069°7
ee 7 OFTL 75°80 4 ho Soe ayes 80°2
75°6 1 ee
2375°346 75°3 2 s 33 86°6
75-1 1 cr “
74:3 1 ” ”
72:08 72:2 2 0:70 - 42144°6
70°251 70°25 70:4 2 | ~ 99 ” 771
| 702 1 ee 3s
68-7 In 3 :
68-2 Ir 1 pial All meer
67°31 67°5 2 5p 12°6 49929°4
64°6 1 » »
64:13 64:3 In op nS 86°3
63°7 In # #
62°9 1 ” ”
62°47 62°7 1 ” ” 42316°0
62°3 1 9 ”
60°8 In os 0
59-14 59°3 2 =: os 71-7
| 58-90 58°95 4 ih Aras 80:0
57-991 | 57:99 58-10 2 SS ie tes 96:2
| 62:92 53:2 2 ey) TBST 42487°7
51-411 | 51°6 2 on ay 42515°0
£1:23 51:3 1 a oh 18:2
£051 50°7 1 PA FP 31:3
£6°45 46°6 1 a Ff 42604'9
44°7 1 “ cb
43°6 1 ” ”
42-920 42:92 43:03 2 ” » 69°1
42°66 42°7 2 5 3 756
4111 ” »
40°767 _ 40°77 40°8 2 ” 12°8 42708°2
40-00 40°2 1 PP ae 22-2
39°4 1 ” ”
38°9 1 ” ”
38094 38-05 38°1 2 ” » 57:1
36°93 37:0 2 33 Pr 78:4
36'1 1 » ”
35:047 35:05 2 ” ” 428129
34°5 1 ” ”
34:05 34°71 2 ” ” 31:2
33°72 33°8 2 Saditca 37-2
32:26 32°5 In ae oss 64:0
31°81 31:9 1 ” ” 723
31:23 | 31:3 2 55 » 83:0
29°11 29:2 2 FP Hy: 42922°0
28°5 1 | % ”
28°1 1 ” ”
20°82 | 069 | ,,
20°0 2 Pe lane
18:7 1 ” ”
13°51 13°6 1 on 13:0 43210°4
09°3 1 ” ”
08°8 1 ah | sk
08-6 1 Te ol

124

REPORT—1904.

RUTHENIUM—continued.

Lohse, ‘ Sitzber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin,’ xii. 1897.
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ ceviii. 1899.
Kayser, ‘Abhandl, kénigl. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin,’ 1903.

ee | Reduction to
park Spectrum ; Vacuum ate
Wave-length | Intensity Oscillation
(Kayser) E a | and Sar | Frequency
Are Spectrum Adeney Haschek | Character | , + 5 | in Vacuo
2308°1 In 0:69 | 13:0
2305'85 05°7 2 “5 » | 48356°0
04:97 ” ”
03:06 | ” 29 /
2298°80 2298°7 | 1 ap 13:1 | 87:9
97:28 97°5 1 a » | 484166
94:6 | 1 if ae
94:2 | 1 AS +
87:2 87:2 2 x 13°2 43708-4
83:2 | 1 ” ”
82 00 81:8 2 “3 * 43808-0
81-7 | 1 ” 2”
79°7 1 0” ”
79°4 In »
| 8-7 In . S
| 72:3 In 0-68 +
68-26 68:3 1 a5 isd 44073°4
63°73 63°6 1 aa alas 44161°6
| 61:1 1 ae ee
| 51:7 1 ” | ”
YTTRIUM.

Reduction to |

Wave-length | Intensity anateen Lohse Neonat Oscillation

(Kayser) and Tisneriand Are Spark Frequency

Are Spectrum | Character THaschor x: Ae | in Vacuo

my TF

6701-188 2 | 182 4:0 | 14918-7
6687°892 2 a “ 50°6
56°056 1 181 | 4:1 15019°8
50-880 1 ” ” 33°9
13-988 1 1:80 a 151154
6585:077 1 1:79 5 81-7
77:096 1 a5 a 15200°2
64:059 1 1:78 +5 30°4
57:568 2 ” ” 45-4
38-797 3 | ” ” 89-2
05°611 1 | 1:77) 4:2 15367'1
6437:414 1 | L75'e 55 15530°0
35226 5 a5 re 35°3
02°229 33 1:74 ” 15615°4
6396°588 1 | of | > 29°1
6275:214 i | 171 | 4:3 15931°4
36°962 b 1:70 | 5 16029°2
22-787 4 169 | 4-4 65°6
18-150 b 39 3 viv)

| 00:043 b AD ” 16124°7
6191:930 1 1:68 x 45:7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

YTTRIuUM—continued.

Reduction to

125

Wavye-length | Intensity Pe Sed Lohse NACHE Oscillation

(Kayser) and havosand Arce Spark Frequency
Are Spectrum | Character Hacchak en bas in Vacuo

peas

6182°455 b 168 | 4:4 16170°4
65°310 b 33 ap 16215°4
50°935 1 1°67 ér 53°3
48-624 b 5 cH) 59°4
38°645 aa a “ 85°9
37°893 1 FP FA 87°8
34°240 3 “ aS 97°5
32°343 b ” 22 16312°6
27°610 1 ” ” 15:2
24-701 1 oF “5 22°9
14:954 1 a fC 49:0
08-050 1 1-66 i 67°4
02:967 1 s op 81-1
6096-999 1 | or “ 97°1
89:597 1 a: oP 16417:0
88-190 2 | “p 4:5 20°7
82-800 1 | as rr 35°3
81-448 1 or Ap 39°0
73034 1 1:65 +c 59°3
60-526 1 Me - 95-7
53-998 b rp Ay 16513°5
42:778 1 1°64 a 44:2
40°463 2 “ a 40°5
36°833 b of . 60:5
25°513 I - os 91°6
23°624 2 ” ” 96°8
20°105 b on of. 16606°5
08-424 2 ” ” 37°8
07:929 1 sp 3: 40:2
04:906 1 1°63 3 48°6
03°810 b 3 nS 51°6
5987°870 b af re 93-1
827133 2 65 167119
72°324 b A “A 39°4
66-439 1 1°62 ar 55°9
50°249 2 “5 4°6 16801-4
45:946 2: 2 3 13°6
45-081 1 s “ 16:0
03:201 2 1-61 a 16935°3
5880-218 1 1:60 cE 17001°5
72:072 1 on 4°7 25:2
32-480 1 1:59 ae 17138°7
22°064 2 Fr Fy 75°4
12°888 1 1-58 rE 98-6
5797°348 1 op rf 17244°6
87:907 1 oc rb 72°7
81-901 2 ” ” 90°6
65-849 3 Pe a 42:9
44-046 3 ” ” 17404°5
43-567 1 BAe», ae 06-1
40°417 1 1:56 > 15°6
29:087 3 $5 os 50:1
27-090 ] Oe ieee 56:2
23-663 2 = tare 66-6
20°801 3 aides 753

126

REPORT—1904.

YTTRIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Ss Be. Lohse eee Oscillation
(Kayser) an Ean enand Are Spark Frequency
Are Spectrum | Character : 1 in Vacuo
iz | | Haschek A+ a
| |
5706926 5 1:56 | 4°8 17517°9
5675°480 3 1°55 os 17614°8
75311 2 ” ” 15°3
69°456 1 | + on 33°6
68-784 1 a5 a 35°7
* 63°148 6 | 1-54 op 53:2
61:107 1 | oes a5 59°6
57-479 1 - an 70°9
48-684 5 a a 98-4
46-909 2 a os 177041
44°898 4 2 + 10°3
35-966 1 ” ” 38°4
33°121 2 a on 47°3
32°477 2 * of 49°4
30°353 5 5; 4 56°1
24114 2 | 55 5 75°8
10-580 1 1°53 4 17818°7
06°552 3 “5 4:9 31-4
5598°537 1 5: 5 56°9
91-168 2 5 of 80°4
82-098 5 1°52 ~ 17909°5
81:295 2 oF 39 12:1
77°62] 4 > “6 23°9
67°972 3 +s ae 55°0
56°655 4 5 = 91°5
51:209 2 1-51 “ 18009°3
46:228 4 ss op 25°4
* 44-818 5 - 5 30:0
41°852 3 Rees = 39°6
27°765 6 | 35 H 85°6
25:°944 2 a5 - 88°3
21°845 6r +o 18105°0
13°856 2 1:50 “5 31:2
* 107115 5 oe N 43°5
03°665 5 os 5-0 64-7
5497°637 5 Pr a 84°6
95-802 2 ” ” 90°7
93°375 3 os as 98:7
91°634 2 35 on 18204°5
80-952 3 Hp x 40:0
73°596 4 1:49 * 64:5
66°669 6 ae i 87°7
38447 4 1-48 A 18382°6
24:588 3 A 4 18429°5
17246 2 » 0 54°6
* 03-003 4 5 xo 18503°2
5388-623 1 147) 51 52°5
80°851 3 x5 + 83-9
5290-004 2 1-45 | 5:2 18898-4
70°527 3 | 1:44 “a 18968 °2
69-712 5 | [fs gg a 71:2
40-958 2 | JCA) IP se 19075°3
* 05:890 6 | 1:42} 5:3 19203°7
00°580 5 + oF 23°3

* Rowland: 56637155, 5544°831, 5510120, 5402-982, 5205°897.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 12

YTTRIUM— continued.

Wave-length
(Kayser)
Are Spectrum

Spark
Spectrum.
Exner and
Haschek

Intensity
d

an
Character

Lohse
Are Spark

| Reduction to
| Vacuum

a
A

1

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

7

5196-588
35°356
* 23°380
19-283
03:941
*5087°600
73°344
70°363
07:134
4982-297
74466
48:740
31°129
28°427
26°503
22-063
12°236
09-185
06°275
* 00°304
4895-436
93-620
86-832
86°464
* 83°881
81-629
79°832
79-339
63-303
60°031
56-896
55073
54°437
52-860
45°862
40:052
39°335
26°438
23°497
23°310
21°813
19°857
18-396
17-589
04986
04502
4799°491
87:078
86°753
81:217
80-360
66°280
63°142
61-169

2 VISE SSI Ae aS IL la hale aad

5:3

* Rowland : 5123-390, 5087-610, 4900°301, 4883-867.

19238°1

128

Wave-length
(Kayser)
Are Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

REPORT—1904.

YTTRIUM—continued.

Spark
Spectrum,
Exner and

Haschek

Lohse
Arc Spark

4752:970
41°595
33°637
32°565
28-710
26°031
04:818
01°165

4699-424
96-976
92°137
89-938
82-501
78°523
75°030
71-020
67-024
66°567
59-058
58:497
53951
52°309
43°863
27390
13°165
04:977
01:484

4596°771
90-972
85°505
82352
81-954
81-506
79-043
73°746
70°855
657120
64:576
59°558
55-491
54°651
44-500
42-222
34:298
27-983
27°430
22242
14-190
13°764
06°139
03°534

4492-592
91°924
87°683
87-433
84621

NE NRPNWNRFONWNPWNNNANAWNWNHNKENRWHE WR

5

WW EWN OWWNAPRNNWNWRNNHN RI DH

4527-98
27°43
22°16

06:12

87°61

Reduction to
Vacuum

——_- ee

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TEE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

YTTRIUM— continued.

129

Reduction to
Wave-length | Intensity | eek | Lohse Maeune | Oscillation
(Kayser) an Exner and | Arc Spark | Frequency
Are Spectrum Character Hiaschekee || Pe aad iL in Vacuo
| | a
4479-184 2 1:23 | 6-2 22319°3
77°628 4 4577°59 Ea War 27:0
77°140 4 77:10 By 29°3
75°900 4 | 75°9 Py “c 35°7
74-074 3 | 99 99 44:8
72:953 2 Ferrie lane 50-4
65-463 2 65°50 1:22 ” 87:9
46-805 4 Sed Ps 22481°8
45°491 3 | ” ” 88°7
43-834 4 43°83 ” ” 96°9
37°519 3 ” 33 | 22528°9
36°321 2 36°37 ”» ” | 35:0
33°145 1 Fae yore el 51-1
27-191 1 1:21 | 63 81:3
22-772 6 | 22°80 as » | 22604:0
18°360 1 FP ro 26°5
17°635 2 samualh oe 30°3
15552 2 2 | rae i 40°9
02°574 1 | (tal |) S2eOteT
4398-201 5 | 4398-21 heise ~ 30°2
97-904 2 | Weis 2 31:8
94-840 3 | ”» ” 47°7
94:184 2 We ee “5 51:0
93°788 1 | 1:20 _ 53-1
87-908 3 87°84 Wes FP 83°6
85-649 2 ” ” 95°3
79°499 4 ér -p 22827°4
75°794 3 99 a 46:7
75°113 8 7511 s As 50°2
71621 1 PP “0 68°5
71:144 2 ga IE tay 71-0
66-204 3 66°30 » | G4 96°8
58-895 5 58°91 » | 22935:2
57°876 + Ht ate amed i are 40°6
53°833 1 (RP ESae =<: 61:9
52-499 2 ie ee “ 68-9
48°957 a 48°91 ss mi 87°6
46°323 2 ” ” 23001°6
44:812 3 “f, “D 09°6
37°476 2 ares a 48°5
30°945 3 30°85 I ae = 83°3
24°765 1 ” » 23116-2
22°474 2 22°4. Be fr 28°5
18-182 1 1:18 oo 51:5
18-052 1 eee = 52:2
16-472 2 » aa 60-7
15°662 3 fs) At 65:0
14-080 2 ” ” 73°5
09-784 6 09°81 or ra 96-6
07:234 2 “c 6°5 23210°2
05°499 1 ” ” 19°6
02°431 5 02°45 a x9 36:2
00-526 3 on * 46°5
4291:217 3 117 =A 96°9
* Rowland: 4358-879.
1904. K

130 REPORT—1904.

YTTRIUM—continued.

| Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Bass Lohse ee Oscillation
(Kayser) and Renaviand. Are Spark [ Frequency
Arc Spectrum | Character Waschek ee | oe in Vacuo
Xr
}

4275°650 1 1°17 (6:5 23381°7
74:346 2 x as 88-9
72°295 2 “4 a 234001
69-001 1 5 a4 18:2
67-085 3 ie 09 28°6
51:343 5 4251°39 | 99 6°6 23515°3
50°532 1 TeLGs ees 19:9
41:924 i! oy das 67°6
35°852 3 35°94 oh aS 23601°4
32-709 2 oF 35 18-9
31:461 1 on Fp 25:9
29°351 1 ap 55 37°7
24°396 33 ” ” 65°4
20°779 4 20°81 ” ” 85:7
17:960 3 “5 5 23701°5
13°698 3 a Pe 25°5
13:174 2 ” ” 27:9
09:872 1 55 aA 471
04°847 4 04°84. ” ” 75°5
4199°442 3 4199-46 115 | 6:7 23806-°0
77°684 5 77°65 af, 33 23930°0
74:287 4 74°31 B 3 49°6

* 67:670 3 67°81 114 A 87°6
57°786 2 ae 3 24044°7
43°017 6r 43°03 AA 6:8 24130°2
28°472 6r 28°49 5 Bs 24215:2
25:079 4 25°10 1:13 ss 35:2
10°964 3 ao aD 24320°3
06°552 2 ” » 44°5

* 02°548 Tr 02°60 as = 68:3
4095'617 1 69 24409°4
* 83°862 5 83°89 Pr * 79°7
§1°391 3 1:12 a 94:0
81-089 2 ” ” 96°4

* 77-522 6r 77°54 a 4 245178
65°159 ul 65:20 oe a5 92°4
48-004 2 47°98 ~ 7:0 24696°5

* 47°774 4 47°81 IEA Wi 97°9
44-407 2 AS 5 24718°4
44-235 i} ape | Cees 19:1

* 39:°981 4 4040-0 es Ss 456
30°011 3 a5 es 248068
3987°652 3 3987°4 “1 yes 25070°3
* 82-746 6 82°75 1:10 ” 251012
78°775 1 78°74 4 BS 26°3
73°597 2 BS . 59:0
67°847 1 1:09 ss 95°5
55°237 3 » 7:2 25275°7
§4°431 1 BS os 80°9

* 61-739 3 51°76 5 ‘ 98-1
50-499 5 50°51 ” ” 25306°1
46°350 2 + rs 32°6
30°799 4 30°84 cr) ”? 25432°9

* Rowland: 4167°737, 4102:541, 4083-783, 4077-498, 4047-823, 4040-013, 3982-742,
3951°765, 3950-497.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

YrrriumM—continued.

131

Reduction to

W. : Spark Vacuum aaa
ave-length Intensity Spectrum. Lohse Oscillation
(Kayser) and Exner and Arc Spark | Frequency
Arc Spectrum | Character | Haschek euler in Vacuo
A
3904-738 3 3904-72 108 7:3 25602°6
00°425 2 5 m4 31:0
3892°570 2 Pr | ode 82:7
90-281 1 1:07 of 97:3
87:928 3 nf 25713°3
78418 2 3878°47 on sf | | 76°4
§2°541 1 le 5” | £25949'6
46°805 1 1:06 | » | 88°3
40°575 2 o ne 26030°5
33°006 2 33°00 op a 81:9
26-064 2 26-00 sat II iss 26129:2
18°513 3 18°49 ” ” 80°9
*3788°839 5 3788°88 nr 74 26384:9
* '74:494 5 74°51 1:05 fr 26486:2
70°740 1 1:04 | 7:5 26512°5
47°695 3 47:70 ” | ” 26675°5
38-772 2 20 ch 26739°2
35°756 1 1:03 Se | 60°8
34:422 1 ” ” 70°4
24-920 3 Pena eras, 26838°7
18-237 3 7 aS 86:8
* 10°448 6r 10°41 a es 26941°3
3697:923 2 3697°88 ” ” 27034°6
96°721 2 Part ae 43°4
93°989 1 on rE 63:4
92°667 4 as As 73°1
82-985 1 82°85 7 77 27144:2
82-748 1 os as 459
68°640 | 3 68°67 as 5 27250°3
» 64°744 8 64°76 “ aS 719°3
61-086 2 xr ss 27306°5
56°390 2 56°30 Pf 58 416
54°796 2 54°77 ” ” 54°6
53°636 2 oo Ap 62:3
§2°801 1 7 en 68:5
46°363 2 46°35Sa 9 ” 274169
45°567 3 45:54 Pi PF 22°9
39°422 3 oe 55 69:2
35-471 2 “ 78 98°9
* 33°267 4 33°28 | Pr 7 275156
* 28-852 7 28°89 a 33 49-1
* 21-099 5 21°12 ss a 27603°2
* 11:194 6 11:19 Bs a 83:9
* (02-069 6 02°12 “r a 277540
* (0°884 7 00-90 = tt 63:1
*3593°071 5 3593-11 rr 79 278224.
* 84:656 2 84°71 re 5 88°9
76209 3 os ap 27954°7
71°587 2 of Pn 90:8
52°843 4 yr be 28138°6
* 49°153 7 49°21 : 8:0 68°7
13-036 3 “5 er 28457°4
11°354 3 o: all 71:0
3499:044 3n 3 jee | -28burk

* Rowland : 3788°839, 3774°473.

K2

132

Wave-length

Arc Spectrum

REPORT—1904.

YTTRIUM— continued.

(Kayser)

Intensity
and
Character

*3496:233

*
*

*
*
*

85-885
84-208
68-028
61:168
54322
51-082
48-962
33°159
12-620
09:914

3397°169

90°021
88-725
83-206
82975
80-054
77:863
64923
62°381
62131
59-082
54:979
54°749
44-680
40:528
37°986
35'349
31°335
31-029
28:013
19:922
18-700
08°525

3293:599

90-713
82-594
80-055
78°576
52-408
42-408
16°812
06-652
03-450
00°386
3195-741
91-627
91-438
79-539
73179
55°785
35285
30:059
14:415

NNWwnoroa

UES SCARS By OPS Ge SS See

5

DOWWE ROPE YOK OUNWN We ee eR Re eR ON ee eb

Spark
Spectrum.
Exner and
Haschek

Lohse
Are Spark

}

3496:25

68:05
61:15
54:23

48:98

3362°20

28°11

3282°7

42°49
16°87

03°51

00°44
3195-80

73°40
35°30
14°6

| Reduction to

Vacuum
Penial bet
A
1:03 | 81
3? ”
9 ”
33 8-2
” >
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 8:3
” 99
> ”
35 8-4
”? ”
” ”
”> ”
> ”?
” ”
0:94 7
” ”
” ”
55 8°5
” 99
> ”
” ”
” ”>
” ”
0:93 AY
”? >
” >
” ”
- 86
” ”
9° 9
0°92 ae
2” ”
” | 8:7
” | 33
93 ”
- 8:8
0:91 33
0:90 3
3 8:9
> 3
> ”>
23 2?
33 >
39 3°
0:89 | 9:0
» ”
”> ”
ae 9:1
0:88

>

3°

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

28594°1

31936°8
32099°6

* Rowland: 3328-016, 3242-395, 3216°807, 3203-435, 3200°407, 3195-705.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
(Kayser )
Arc Spectrum

3112151
11:924
09-007
04:808
03°846

3096°741
95998
91-850
86°981
76°634
72°479
59-639
50°015
47-252
45°489
44-956
38:599
36°710
22-404
21:844
10:255

2997-069
95°383
84:376
74°710
74042
65-096
55999
48:°533
30°128
19-167

2890°497
86585
84583
56°419
54544
26°450
22°694
18-982
13-773
00°319

2791319
85-293
60°174
30°190
23°096

26727190

2547°661
40°384

Intensity
an
Character

HRD DO DD DD oD See a at Dt Dt Dt 9 DR 0 DD 09 et 9 00 tt 00 0D et De

YTTRIUM—continued.

133

Reduction to |

boris Lohse eee es Oscillation
Exner and | Are Spark ete Frequency
Haschek phat a | in Vacuo

3112-2 0°38 | 92 | 321229

” ” | 25°3

” ” / 55°4

” ” | 98:1

| 99 | 322089

| ” ” | 82°8

3096-04 | 0871 w» | 90°6

| ” | ” 32333'9

| ” ” 84°9

| ” 9°3 32493°7

| ” ” 32537°7

036 | , 32674'3

| a le! 32777 3

| tte at leaenro

” ) ” | 26°0

| ” ” | 31°8

” ” | 32900°4

” ” | 16:0

» | 95 | 33076°7

0°85 | ” | 82°9

” ” | 33210°3

” 96 | 33359°4

” ” | 75°1

” ” 98°4

% ” | 33507°1

O84| ., 336146

” 9-7 33715°9

” 9 33819°8

” ” | 23905°5

» | 98 | 341184

033 | 99 | 34499-1

” ” 345862

| 0-82 | 10:0 | 34633-0

39 ” 57°1

» | 101) 349988

0°81 ” | 35021°8

” 10°2 35369°9

” ” 35417°0

” | * 35529°2

00°30 » | 104 357098

” ” | 358150

2785°32 ic lace 92-5

» | 105 36219°0

0:79 | 106 =. 36616°8

0-78 | 10°7 36712°3

! % 10°9 37411°6

0°77 | 11:5 39240-2

| O74 | 5 39352°6

” 11:8 40363°6

0-73 | 11:9 40575'4

2460°73 O72) 4, | 40627-7

si ee 408763

” | ”» 82:7

peese t alate 41237°8

22°32 » ” 713

134

REPORT—1904.

YTTRIUM —continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Spark Lohse — | Oscillation
Fl Spectrum. Ss —|F
(Kayser) se Exner and Arc Spark 1 ha apd
Are Spectrum | Character Haccher ee > in Vacuo
2417-364 1 | 0-72! 122 413552
2385-298 2 O-71 | 12:4 41911°1
61°883 1 | | 9 126 = 42326°5
pags | aan st:
54°266 2 5; 33 83:5
32°651 2 | 55 12°8 Pree
31°732 1 | ins — 73°
2289-087 2 i aes 13:1 43672°4
83°722 2 0-69 | 13:2 pees
83:370 1 | os 3 1:
| 77°738 1 | ae ie 43890:0
74171 2 | | 0-68 | 133. 43958°7
72°884 1 | oe or 83:7
71°853 1 o » | 44003°6
67°152 1 is A ol 949
65°110 2 eA » |, Sado“ 7
64:452 2 33 a 47°5
62°768 1 - ar 80:3
60°661 1 33 134 | 44221-4
60°157 2 3 at | 31:3
59°594 2 “1 Aes | 42°3
59°339 1 Lo oa Ae 57°3
49°240 1 Was 135 444459
45°720 1 1 odes Pe, ee
43-097 3 = ” 67°
42°643 1 FS uss - 76:8
40:695 1 ass s 44615°6
36°384 u | dibs 13-6 | 44701°4
31-276 1 » | 9 | 44803°7
28-241 1 = a 64:8
27°849 | 1 | 0°67 99 72:7

Line Spectrum or SuLpuur.
Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ lxvii. 1898.

| Wave-length

5819°543

Intensity
an

Character

i

Intensity | | Intensity
Wave-length and Wave-length and
‘Character | Character
5559°129 1
5665123 | 4 567141 4n
62°741 In 36:968 3
60-289 6 26°458 5n
48°565 1 20°749 1 jme
47:296 he Mats} 18°968 3n
45920 | 2n 09-799 | 10
40°535 | 4 5478°589 2n
40°257 J 8 77649 1
16°844 4 75:209 2
06°349 | 8 73°791 8
5579°327 6 68°565 1
65007 | 8 | 54-000 10

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 135

Linu SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

ae aa

Intensity | Intensity | | Intensity
Wave-length | and Wave-length and | Wave-length ani
Character \Character, \Character
| |
5434°737 2 4661°782 | lb? | 4285°133 8
32994 10 56°916 3 83°825 2
28°907 51:043 1 83318 1
50-440 1 82-741 3
49-328 3 78670 3
01-035 sn | 48-416 1 | 69°942 4
5345°832 8 i 47-614 In | 67:959 4
20°894 8 42-024 2 | 67°255 6r
39°024 1 59-408 2
5233°187 1 24-322 In 57°603 3
30°040 1 13°618 1 53°772 10r
27-406 1 4596-368 1 50°150 1
27-072 1 91-285 1 36230 1
20°872 1 91°164 2 31182 4
19-650 3 27°590 2
12°803 8 62°118 2 21°810 2
07:482 2 527592 } 5 17397 4
01-520 2 49°723 3 4193-667 2
01°149 } 6 25°159 6 89°896 5b*
24°817 2 86°120 } 1
04:370 3 85631 2
5160-348 2 4499-450 1 78992 2
42°512 3 | 36806 | 2 75°415 3
| 85907 2 | _ 74471 7b’
| 83-647 4 74179 4
81°661 1 68-554 4
03°535 4 78°633 A: 65°255 1
5098-890 1 | 65°329 1 657127 3bv
51°874 1 | 64-618 5 62°856 10
47-499 3 \ 63°761 5b’ 62-539 2
39°596 2 i 56°584 2 53269 .| 10b”
32°657 8 | 40:043 4 49-068 2
27:408 4 32°561 } 3 47:126 3
14:248 8 31°131 lb’ | 45:266 10
11°815 3 18°982 2 44:027 1
09-762 6 17134 3 42-390 8b’
07-010 1 15°052 4 33-041 1
4993°733 3 4393°862 3 27°724 2
927152 5 92012 2 19:377 3
42-649 2 67:037 2 \ 12-472 } 2
25-493 6 64:873 A a 12-319 2 } 5
24-269 5 627610 6 11-670 5
17°410 4n 61°671 5 05°151 1
02°656 2 60-625 1 4099-607 } 3
4885°831 3 54°739 5 99-360 2
24°353 2n 51-408 2 95-288 2
19°834 1 49-551 3 91°372 1
11-967 4 47°558 1 76024 t
92°333 2 45°637 1 72°252 3
40°444 4 70077 } 3
33°947 1 69°802 2
32°852 5 64634 3b
30°798 1 50°328 2
19-762 1 32956 4bv
4716-382 4 18°847 3
17:299 2 28-995 6
4677-804 2 | 4294-558 8b’ 11-469 1
68-738 a i> 91-606 1 09-566 1

136 REPORT—1904.

LINE SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity Intensity) | Intensity
Wave-length and Wave-length and Wave-length and
Character Character Character
4007:995 2 3861°541 1 3618°937 1
06-700 1 60°833 3b 17:086 | 4b
04:045 1 53°280 3
3999-026 3 51:312 3br 00°307 2n
98-998 4b’ 47°319 2 3596°152 \edaacg
45336 1 94:575 3
98-127 3 42502 2b | 67°382 2n
93°706 5 39°368 2 60°857 In
91:144 4b* 38-440 10 | 56°506 rf In
37°882 8 49-920 2b
86°158 5 31°980 4 43°856 3b
83°924 6 3794°841 5 |
82°893 lb* 83°543 2b || 40°416 3
79-030 4 3499°566 ob
81:923 1 74:°713 2 | )
80-002 4b‘ 60-030 2 97°438 iy 8
54°879 1 83°140 send
74316 1 50°927 3 79°435 8b
73°341 4 49-554 4 74:061 6
70°820 | 3b 48-039 5 71-014 In
70°640 3b 44-488 2 3390°354 3
63:279 3 27°457 3b 87:242 5
61°695 4 17864 8b 85986 2n
59°468 1 12°868 2b 77°300 1
59-189 | 2 10°604 2b 73°402 3n
54°457 i 2 09°470 6b 72°285 In
50°866 In 00323 2b 70°490 4
47°326 2n 3699-529 3b 69°624 3
45:059 1 98-046 1 68-210 2
39°897 In 96°373 3b 67°306 4
33°650 3b 89-639 1 63-294 In
32°437 2 80°671 1 56°567 In
32°104 3 78°329 4b 55°233 as a |
28°734 8 72°436 3 44:216 \c -2n
23°788 3b” 69-139 6b 41°612 lat
63°513 1 40°508 3
20:997 2 62°107 5 30°924 ed
19°550 3 56°715 3 25013 | 5b
18-312 1 55°435 1 24-160 4
127149 3 54°669 1 17:205 2
07:285 2 53°559 In 14-643 1
3899-501 2 38°267 2 08:953 3
94°159 1 37131 2 05°774 2
92°759 2b 36°305 1 01-806 1
82°366 ied 32°144 8 01-211 eee} 2d
76°353 a 2b 26°508 3 | |
64°773 1b 22°892 2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 137

BAnp SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR.
Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. kais. Akad, Wissensch. Wien,’ Ixvii. 1898.

_ —ee aaa nl

Intensity | Intensity | Intensity
Wave-length and Wave-length and Wave-length | and
Character Character, Character
6380 5582183 1 5556°189 2
20 81:192 1 55°654 Heres
6265 | 80°882 1 55-209 ie
6165 80-506 3 54°788 ie. 4:
00 807124 2 54:529 te oil
6036 79536 1 54:197 3
5967 79°012 3 53°775 \ 3b
00 78871 3 53°251 Mm 2
5838 77°750 3 52-820 3
5779 77:424 3 52514 1
12 76°891 2b 527195 1
5653 76°356 1 51°836 3
01°812 sn 75°687 3 51243 4
01-411 5 | 75244 3 50°849 4
00°894 3 74719 1 50°276 5
00-669 3 74:437 3 49-682 4b
5599-778 + 73972 1
99°477 4b 73586 3 49-067 4
98-916 4 72°356 i 2 48-694 1
98-568 + | 71-830 2 48-383 3
98-076 4 | 71:469 5 47:985 1
97-717 1 | 70°972 1 47°643 3
97°376 4 70°639 1 47°361 2
97°169 2 70°320 2 47-069 1
96°836 1 69-605 2 46-666 2
96°444 4b |) 69-112 4 46-409 2
95°898 4b || 68-632 1 46-051 3
95°505 1 68°337 3 45-638 4
94-960 5b 68-030 3 45-178 4
67-603 3 44°653 5
94-310 5b 67:235 2 44-220 4
93-864 5s 66-883 1 43-594 6
93:058 2b | 66-622 2 43°177 2
92-649 1 66°369 2 42°747 5b
92-069 1 | 65-911 2 42-214 4
91-683 + | 65-280 3 41-900 1
91-425 1 i 64-860 2 41:491 4
90-694 3 | 64-611 2 41-002 2
90:292 3b 63°976 5 40°712 5
89-798 4 63°132 1 40°235 3
88-813 2 62°717 1b 39-663 1
88-469 2 62-395 2 39°159 3
88-075 3b 61-886 3 38621 | 6G
87-408 1 61:441 4 38°189 3b
86:991 2 60°922 3b 37°836 it 3b
86°526 2b 60-407 2 37°309 5
86168 2 59°787 3 36°926 4
85°775 3 59°155 5 36°595 4
85-229 3 58-794 3 36°303 4
84-699 2 58-251 1b 35°781 6
84°331 2 35°347 4
83-900 5b 57°809 3 | 34:943 3
57296 3 34°526 6
82-913 ae 56843 5 34-132 33
82-603 eb 3 it 56-512 1 33°744 63

138 REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

|
Intensity Intensity | Intensity
Wave-length and Wave-length and Wave-length and
Character|/ Character Character
5533196 5b 5505-771 } 2s 5478692 | 6
05:278 | =< 8br 78-228 re
| 04:986 j 1 77°606 8
32'691 3b || 04-681 1 77023 3b
04-295 1 76597 | 3
32:169 6 03°893 6 76:270 3
31-422 8 | 03-449 3b 75-770 4
30°767 3 | 02-589 5 75°346 5
30:214 2 | 02:213 |. 4 74-950 3
29-901 2 01-350 1 74351 } 4b
29°621 4 | 00°574 4 73°858 3s
28-912 2b 00°398 2 73°374 3
28-521 2 5499-733 oo 73049] | 2
28126 4 99°150 Q |i 72949 4
27-657 4 | 98-816 an! 72782 2
27-240 “gaa | 98-475 an | 72500 1
26-765 1 | 98-104 QZ | 72243 3
26°379 3b || 97-395 2 || 71:390 } 3
25-869 3b | 97-014 4 | 70-780 1
25°438 1 / 96-703 } on a 70-278 2
25°154. | 96-372 } ill 69-931 \ 4
24-680 In 95-401 ae 69:469 3
24-420 2n 94°777 4 69-120 1
23°540 3 | 94381 4 68°831 3
22-249 1 | 93-982 3 68-299 3
| 93:505 1 67:886 1
21-963 4 93-312 i 2 67°624 2
21-232 8 92803 8 67-053 1
20°521 2 92°105 3 66:556 1
207150 4 91-605 i 66183 3
19-515 1 91-418 | | 65-896 3
19°145 2 91103 | 65°658 2
18-761 2b 90-711 | af 65-385 1
18-529 1 90-118 a i 65-086 2
18-233 ee 89-532 ae 64-680 4
17-942 3 | 89092 =| 2 ~ #i| 64-028 2
17-556 4 88-679 4 | 63:769 1
17-038 4 88-274 | 63-400 1
16°355 5 87-967 38 | 62-975 1
15°746 1 87:510 9 | 62°751 1
15°421 1 86-790 10 62-434 2
15°155 1 86-238 1 62:160 | 3
14-240 4 85°814 4 61:820 1
13-898 } 3 85°354 2 61-473 1
13-048 4 85-075 4b 61:160 3
12°853 } 1 84-525 i) 60°815 2
12-432 3 83°741 1 60-560 3
11-963 1b 83-492 || 60:168 1
11°309 2b 83-248 2 59°531 1
10:460 3 82°813 4 59°191 2
10°160 \ 1 82395 2 58-507 4
09-594 2 81-955 3 57°79 2
09-209 3 81:398 6 57-010 3
08-806 5 80-910 2 | 56-783
07-637 2b 80-607 2 55°311
07°115 2 80:198 2 | 55-010 3b
06-599 4 | 79916 5 54-648 3
06-256 J ae 79341 6. #l 54-098 2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wave-length

6453°462
52046
51:647
51-202
50°511
50°190
48329
47:880
47-459
47:007
46°355
45°842
45-044
44683
44-152
43°867
43°153
41-892
41:504
41°189
40-760
40°536
40°285
39°155
38-472 |
38°246
37875
37°565
36870
36°440
35°932
35°367
34426
33922
33°600
32°962
32°527
31°932

31219

30:507
30°198
29'566
29-260
28-940
28-656
28'349
28-068
27-685
27-272
26:838 }
26°655
26°197
25-712
25°390
24-908 }
24-514 $

Intensity |
and ||
Character’

—_—

NOWNON EK WE OK KE RPWRRE DOO OWONORN EWE

og o

iow

ie IRS Ie ao aaa CS GaSe MES es NS Oo IRIS Pm rie ce he he hee ee

inn

be]

|

139

Intensity | Intensity
Wave-length and Wave-length and
Character: | Character}
5424:171 J 3 5395°646 1
23°724 3 95°327 4
23°438 | 1 93:578 | 2
23°143 5 93°487 1
22°743 | 2 92°435 \ 2
22°112 3 92°082 3
21°787 1 90°967 | 1
21°467 4 |
21-078 4 | 90°716 } 2
20°793 3 | 90:214 1
20°385 2 | 89°552 3
19-994 t | 89-049 4
19-479 4 | 88-517 2
19-100 3 | 88-182 3
18-609 6 | 87504 2
17°827 a wl 87:105 1
17:359 5b 86-763 +
16°580 ) 4 | 86188 5
16°232 4 85°861 3
157149 3 85'014 In
15°416 \ 2 84:516 1
14:325 4 84°183 4
13-909 } 1 83:578 } 3
13°742 1 83:100 2
13°402 4 82°175 3
12-959 1 81-759 3
12-709 1 81-466 3
12°427 2 81:28] 3
12-061 3 80°918 1
11:737 2 | 80°318 3b
11-360 1 | 79°346 it 7
11-061 3 78:959/ | 5
10°447 5 78061 3
09-790 4 77316 \ 6
09-402 1 | 76°897 | 5
09-098 2 ! 76:462 1
08-680 2 76173 3
08°315 3 75°486 3
07:998 1 | 75158 \ 2
07691 5 | 74°695 | 2
07:047 3 74°346 3
06:547 \ 1 73°680 3
06°301 2 73°195 5
05013 3 72-690 5
04:141 2 72°046 2
02°954 3 71:433 3
02°590 1 71:147 3
01:957 2 70°810 2
01°593 1 70°473 3
01:185 3 69°944 1
00°805 1b 69°673 2s
5399-684 2 69-384 1
99-350 1 68-989 4
98-996 3 68-441 1
98-285 3 68°314 | 2
96°479 2 67:978 3
96:226 \ 2 67°588 3b
95°841 1 | 66-993 t

140

REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wave-length

Intensity
and
\Character;

Wave-length

pa

an |
Character

5366-482
65°380
65°355
65-093 J
64-697
64-237
63°814
63-297
62-896 )
62:520
62-140 |
61:678
61°531 }
61-158
60°892
60°627
60°279
59-806
58845
58-263
57°740
57°367
56-973
56-203
55-540
54-883
54-019
53-062
52*152
51-273
50°816
50-405
49-898
49-390
48-912
48-361
46-911
46-163

45194
44:041
43007
42°359
41-953
40-898
40°121
38°777
38°257
37890
37°476
37:285
36°556
36°127
35°510
34833
34234
33°939
33°592

ROD OR OP WR WON NOH WOON WORe Ba

5

ae tee ey ne es we OS ela Py oe Fmt

|

5333-106
32817
32°525
32°153
31522
30°789
30:295
29°516
27-921
27-671
27°369
26-731
26°301
25°715
25-223
24-873
23°851
23°587
23-241
22-867
22-971
21858
21:536 |
21-240 |
20°651 |
20203
19'835 )
19:585
19°31]
18-654
17:883
17-361 )
17119
16:87
16-586
16-202
15°720
15°338 |
14-998
14-48]
14:125
13-614 |
13-272 |
12:879
12'506
11°760
10-621

09°823
09°410
09-071
08-191
07:°847
07:525
07:121
06°783
06231
05°874

i]

im

OWwWONAONN ERNE NDE ARON EWE WWWHENNNNEN ROE NEED RN Ewe bo
eee
oa

CU GS
5

DWE we WN wo

Wave-length

Intensity
and

Character

5305°501
05°113
04-404
03-962
03-444
03-274
01-986
01381
00-924 }
00°476
5299-973
99:601
99-071 )
98-795 |
98-154 |
97-997 J
97°312
96-983
96-015 |
95:584 |
94-551
94-031
93-300
92-240
90°799
90°330
89848 |
89-006
88-259
87°585
86-932
86-482
85°746
84-913
84450
83-016
82:630
82-289
81579
80-228
79:898
79-433
78-548 |
78-247 J
77876
77°440
77-101
76°733
76-378
75-901
75-528
74-276
73-990
73-592
73323
72-999
72689
72:335

=]

CORDNNNDNE WWE Ne Re ewe ot

a o

NWWNWN ERK DNDN WH wh ht wwe Co

BE

Cael RO oe a)

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

Wawve-length

5271-872
71-316
70°558
69:378
69-089
68:833
68-508 \
67:847
67:401
67-254
67-024
66°540
66:155
65°512

65109
64:917
64:044
63°500
63°017
62°484
61:990
61451 \
61:247
60:608
60269
59°841
59°552
59-192
58-607
58°340 \
57:986
57°405
56°803
56-043
55°739
55269
54-974
54-534
54°153
53°756
53303
§2°981
52:700
§2°158
51:677
51:359
51118 |
50°512
49-820
49-315
48:958 |
48-090
47°126
46°801 }
46°336
45°587
45°015

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

an

CO me ee LD DR RK whe

=}

=b—

5n

—Ddo—

5

RS eS Ge Ree

5

bp 02 2 Go 39 9 RO LO Go HR BO Go

=]

bo oo bo bo to bh

(Character

Intensity]
d |

141

Wave-length

5244:577
43-906
43°212
42-702
42282
42°027
41°737
40:856
40-069
39-682
39°320
38°477
38:114
37:089
36°527
36-079
35-472
34131
32°817

32'182
31:328
30°792
30°329
29-835
29°109
28-457
27-943
26-798
26155
25-734
25-258
24-676 |
24-454 J
23-947 |
23-671 J
23-307
29-983 J
29-245
21-546 |
21-274 |
20°690
20:229
19-882
19:544
19-201
18-668
18-037
17-704
17-019
15:935
15°409
14-796
14-451
13°835
13158
12870]
12-594

Intensity]|
and ||

bo Go oD
=] 6

Sees tae as dy ge aah oem

i=}

=)

BB

oo

low

DOM We RWW Re ORR ENR REN WE NNR RP REP NRE NRE REP NR RE NEN eR be

5212-052

Wave-length

11593

10-931 |
10°617 |
10:017
09-045 |
08-782 J
08-306
07-417
06-906
06-409
05-737
05-227
04:779
04-296
- 03°710
03-341
02:904
02:465
01872
01-652
01:156
00:756
00°333
5199-956
99:582
99:309 |
99-000
98-475
97:817
97:°675 \
96-769
96:588
95-966 }

—

95-728
94-782
94:048
93-436
92°734
92288
91-956
90°521
90°117
88:573
88:100
87:335
86-880
86-612 \
86-033
85:016
84-426
83-775
83:063
82-670
82-165
81:562
81:169

Intensity]
and
Character)

WNWNRK PNK Ore

ag

BOISE 2S HERS 2 Kee ROS

i]

5

ee De eH ee tn

142 REPORT—1904.
BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continuced.
Intensity Intensity
Wave-length an Wave-length and Wave-length
Character Character
5180:855 2n 5146:732 3b
78-761 2 46-257 2 5102-903
78-043 3b 45-783 4b 02-608 \
716861 1 45:031 2 02-140
76'401 2n 44-482 3 01-965 |
76°361 In 44-000 2 00°853
75°881 In 43°458 2 | 00-494
75:229 Qn 43:131 1 | 5099-627
713-653 Qn 42574 In 98-972
73171 Qn 98-392
72-692 1 41°671 eI 97:634
72-307 1 40-923 In | 96-911
71-175 2 40:448 Qn |] 96°457
70°660 1 39-074 a 95-983
70°353 2 38-400 2 95-055
69°665 1 37°643 In 94-684.
68592 2 37-001 1 94-225
68-122 2 36624 1 93-912 |
66:239 In 36-113 1 93-098
35:663 | 2n 92-697
66:142 2n 35-398 2n 92-195
65°330 Qn 33-270 1 91-949
63-880 3 32-852 1 91:541
63-389 3 29-743 1 90-979
63-008 2 28816 2 90-162
61:691 4b 28-220 1 89-388
61-214 2 27-561 1 89-196 \
60°816 2 26:914 In 88-322
59-844 5 25-783 In | 87-529
59:557 1 i 86-884
59-148 | In 23-942 ekin. | 86-270
58-916 | In 23-188 | In 84:475
58-194 \ Qn 22-682 iP eeIn 84-024
57-921 2n 21-987 een | 82-964
57509 1 20-490 i a
57°134 3 19500 Iti 82°415
56:689 2 18°144 [ee ae 81-412
56-275 1 17:233 bas 80-781
55826 2 15°673 oc ae 80°325
55°332 | 4 14-984 Qb 79-334
54-873 | Qb 13-655 fin 78-503
54379 3 12976 | In 78-022
53-960 3 12558 \ ain | 77-659
53-559 1 12-262 e¢in -| 75-217
53-102 2 ie ha | 74-912
52-655 3b 11-279 iene 74-576
52-281 2 10-943 | 1 74-086
51-929 3 10-152 1 73-586
51-615 1 09:767 es 72-729
51:344 1 09-186 | 2 71-923
50987 4 08-392 In 71-629
50:583 2 07:832 Qn || 71-349
50-287 1 07:195 Bt} 70-893
49-935 2 06-224 2n 70-563
49-583 3 05:412 2 70°181
48917 3b 04-594 2 | 69-757
48:163 4 04-239 3 69-355
47-535 4 03-731 ip» |

Intensity

NPD PDD N Wo

mR WDD DWN
i=] 5 a

bo oo bo
5

ow a

DR RR NRE RE NWNR REN DN ww

— DD —
=] 5

an
\Character

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

4999°574 \

Intensity Intensity
Wave-length and Wave-length and
Character Character
5039:277 2
5068-966 1 38°818 3n
68-568 3
68:099 2 38°368 1
67°529 2 37°866 3
66886 \ 2n 37:004 4
66°643 | 2 36°532 2
65°833 3 35°866 2b
65°323 2 35°366 2
64:973 1 35:030 In
64°546 \ 2 34°631 4n
64:219 1 33°881 2
63°825 2 33°261 2n
63°247 1 32°737 lb
62:779 1 |
62°315 2b 31:510 lb |
61°770 2 30°301 2b
61:189 3 28°121 1
60°756 1b 27°485 1
26°447 1
59°871 4 25°645 1
59103 3 25-008 Ll -
58°636 1 24-700 \ 2
587134 3 24°377 | 1 |
57°626 1 22-684 1 |
56-981 4 22°043 3b SO}
56°493 | 1 21°495 1
56:071 f * ey 21-003 1
55°711 fe: 20°525 2
55:444 2 19-483 2b
55086 2 18-593 lb
54°862 1 17°820 1
§4°463 1b 17:096 \ In |
53°057 ree 16°772 on. |
53°290 8 15°790 lb
52°545 3 15-215 2b
§2°119 1 14:173 3n
51°440 5 13°449 In
51:044 5 12-821 2
50°370 2 11°703 4
49°590 3 11-099 3
1 10°436 2
48-953 2 09:°677 2
48°544 1 09°322 1
48°137 2 08-988 2s
47°790 4 08-224 2n
46°730 2 07:057 3b
46°266 4s
45-418 2 05°971 2b
44°712 5 05-304 3
43930 3b 03°968 | 2
43297 4 03°713 2
42°770 2n 03178 2
42°438 1 02-765 In
41-976 3 02:020 4
41-438 3 01°375 3
40°887 4 00°578 3
39-694! 3 00013 2

Wave-length

99-206
98-868
98-556
97-989

97:306
96°658
96177
95-634
95°141
94-718
94-197
93:75
93-208
92-712
92-336
91-909
91-642
91-491 |
91-059
90628
90-258
89-995 |
89:543
89:182
88-494
87:317
87:°371
85°737
85304
84-526
83:842
83-385
82°675
82-162
80:833
80°387
79:706
78-830
78-083
77286
76617
75-282
74-566
73-674
72-641
71-915
70-935
70°103
69°433
68-786
68-638
67°576
67:046
66-176
65°747
65°549 i

143

Intensity
and
Character

|

Orr bo
oa

wb
oo

5

Ee aR eG NSD IE Oe a Se Se

i=}

er Oh

i)

ee eel oh al all)

144

REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wave-length

Intensity |
|. and ||
Character;|

4964-764
63°511
62962
62°341
61:002
60°404
59-968
58-993
58°458
58264
56-692
56°193
55-625

54:670
54-056
53°728
53°300
53°156
52°248
51°889
51-020
50°455
49-362
48-850
48458
47°790
47-408
46-968
46°464
46-006
45-609
45°195
44-803
44°179
43-903
43-555
43-169
42-909
42-439
41-989
41-552
41-174
40°737
40-403
39°87] |
39°317
39-010
38531
38:245
37°471
36°995
36:588
35-966
35:219
34-592
27-070
26-222

1

Qe ee ee ee

>

5

Led

BO ee Oe na Eee Coed tre oe are ey Ee me

o

ST ONS ISH ON aN NS ee ha

ow
romog

Intensity} Intensity
Wave-length and || Wave-length an
\Character)| Character
4925-558 In || 4992772 | 3b
25-008 In
2 sl | Sia alee
23-244 1b ene =
H 89406 In
23:036 J 2b ‘
88-933 In
22-499 1 88-663 1
22-038 1 87-852 Qn
87°429 2n
85144 2n
17827 2b |
17213 | 1b | eo oe
16°603 | i | 84:205 2n
16-260 howy | 83°751 In
15-980 1 } 82°399 In
15-304. 1 81:910 In
14°505 = 81-214 3n
see : | 80-245 2n
13-214 1 79°754 In
12-617 in 78913 2n
12°133 3
11:260 } 2
10:984 2
09-882 1 Qn el =a
09-715 | 2 iba 8n
09-299 1 74:927 1
i 74°455 In
08°818 3
07°653 3 73164 In
: 72°732 In
06°995 1 ‘
06-210 On Uae
05°55 71°172 3b
ee \ a 70°583 2b
04793 J In 707141 lb
04:337 | 3n 69°559 lb
03-452 3 68°447 4b
03°045 2 67°300 2
02-606 In eed 3
‘i 64:823 2b
02:198 1 \
01:108 63°839 2b
2 E
00-249 1b 63°366 4
62°881 2b
4899:780 3
99-456 1 62°390 2
99-077 2 62°034 1
98394 4 61:169 4
97°921 2 60°656 3
96:968 3b 60°178 3
59-465 1
96°315 3 58-956 3
95-654 3 58:476 4
95-290 1 58°107 1
94°593 3b 57°626 1
56°827 5
93-603 In 56°490 2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 145

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity. Intensity | Intensity|
Wave-length and | Wave-length and Wave-length and
‘Character Character ‘Character
4855'803 2b | 4770730) | 1 || 4740189) | 3
55273 «=| «C8 70°540 | In | ssc} In
54898 | 1 | 70-009 1 | 48-416 2
54539 | 1 69-508 } 2 48:101 P Sn
54-190 Qn | 69-259 2 47-786 1
53°726 peng 68:566 a 47:533 2
53-255 2b | 68-273 | 46847) | 1
os) | 67-939 5 46:263 \ ae
67°635 1 46085 | 2
52-281 J Tests | 67°342 2 45°611 1b
51702 1 66°542 2 45252 2
51:342 33} 66:220 | 44-392 2
51-029 33} 65°504 Re | 43-967 1
50:180 2 65:221 Pe) 43°74] 1
49°707 3 64°762 1 43-465 1b
49-249 sey El 64557 8 In | 42-973 3
48-701 \ ee 64195 | 3 | 42:572 1b
48-230 | | 63°756 ae 42153 2
47-519 ret) 63476) ob = || 41:552 1
47-088 } Cae gl 63:256 eI 41148 1
46-762 | 63°042 a | 41-083 2
46-124 Ul 62°749 iy | 40-680 1b
45709 | 2 62-265 2 40:396 1b
45346 | Ib 62-098 1 sas) 1
44-599 Se | 61:397 4 39°821 2
44-298 Thi; 60°916 In | 39°673 2
43-612 * | 60°437 3b || 39:384 1
42-364 é 38-992 2
41-697 hy | 38-030 2
40°666 2b 59°854 2 37-471 2n
Aisi) Ub | 59°547 1 37-188 1
so562.- | 2 | 59343 i || 36-918 In
4784°744 1 | 59:020 th 36°659 2
an | 58:466 2 || 35°814 2
83665 | 1 | 57886 } 2 || 35568 1b
S20s0u ake LS | 57°818 Re | 35-051 2b
82-779 J 4 | 34-327 1
81-948 \ + 57°054 2b | 33-926 4b
81:738 ere | | 33:314 1
80°787 In 56:367 es | 33-117 1
80:396 1 56064 ye ° 32-982 1
80-170 eon 55°757 4n | 32902 1
79°179 | mi 2n 32544 1
78-738 lis >| 54°784 2n 32-416 1
78-029 Os, 5 54-489 \ 2n 31-947 2
77°641 2 | 53°379 2 31:649 4b
77-128 In | 53-150 2 31117 1
76°656 eat 52°680 2n 30:893 1
75°656 | ee || 52-021 275) 30°662 \ 1
75468 cts | 51-740 J 2 30-182 1
75°154 e-4| 51-615 2 29-822 2n
74°794 1 51144 | In 29-604 1
74-164 2 50:868 2 29°424 1
73377 2 50-626 | 1 29-244 2n
72-910 3n 50°239 2 28-825 1
71:729 1 50-029 2 28-563 } 2
71285 2 49°722 } 1 27°856 1
0012 |) 1 f 49-471 2 733. |, 1

)

1904.

146 REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity | Intensity Intensity
Wave-length and | Wave-length and | Wave-length and
‘Character \Character Character
4727°520 J 1 4709236 © 8b || 4690619 3
27-067 2 90:350 In
26°691 J 2 08-972 ) 1; a
26-208 3b 08-813 a. My 89-793 1
08-162 1 89-602 3
25°570 2 07:935 2b 89-278 2
25°165 1 07514 | 4 88-687 4b
24°717 } 3n 07-088 Pe a
24°341 2 06-808 3 | 88-110 3
23°901 an 06:439 4b |) 87:920 3
23756 | 1 | | 87:°675 1
23378." = 93 | ; 87-423 1
22-893 2b ae : 87-220 2
22559 | 3 05-356 2b 87-081 | 2
99991 | 4 | 86814 2
1971 | 1 ; 86-574 3
21-695 1 pears | 86-209 1
21-482 2 04-173 2b I 85-834 2
21-194 2 | | 85-453 4
20°607 Sb ore | 85-243 2
20°172 eas 03°658 2 al 2
19-783 2 a 03-223 = 84°755 3
19-199 2 | 02896 1 84:503 2
18-644 3 02°585 1 84-384 2
18-178 4 02°407 1 83-969 4
17798 l 02-114 > 83-760 4
17:505 2 01775 4 83159 1
17°185 1 01-360 =| 82:87 2
16°737 1 00°835 ER 82:617 2b
16°540 1 00:579 ia | 82-378 2
16-283 3 00°397 In 82-058 3
16-084 \ 1 00-244 2 81-671 1
15°799 3 00:036 3 81-537 3s
4699-628 2 81-240 3b
15-318 2 99°303 | 1 80-406 3
14813 2 99°010 | (1 S018 1
14:579 3 98°489 3 } 80-076 3
| 14-392 24 98-250 || 79-761 3b
| 14-235 ae 97°871 2b | ros] 4
14-098 Pe! 97°421 3b 79°135 4
13°860 9 97:079 1
13°556 9 96°911 2
13°365 1 96°773 2 78-509 2
13-109 2b 95°705 1 77957 t
12826 4b 95°387 | 1 77°762 2
12°356 \ 1 94°596 2b 77407 lb
12:034 2 94°331 3b 77:047 3
tae 3 76°157 2
10-941 2 93-100 2 75°816 4
10°578 2b 92-756 |
92-526 | a Ill 75-485 3
10-270 ro, oH 92:174 || 75044 6
10-030 ye 91:727 | 74-731 3
09-796 1 | 91-360 || 74-655 2
09:579 1 91-147 1 |i 74-432 | he

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECPRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 147

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.
a a SE EE EE eee

Intensity Intensity Intensity
Wave-length an Wave-length and Wave-length an
Character} Character, Character

4673°953 i 4661°876 1 4645°448 1b
3.784} 5b 61-799 4 45°110 1
73402 \ 1 61:593 1 44°734 2
73°296 4 | 61:446 1 44-509 1
73°065 2n 61:179 1 43°994 4
72°883 3n 60°863 8 43-568 3
72°824 3 60°443 4 43°247 3
72°424 3 | 60°265 1 42-297 3
72176 3 | 60°044 1 41-927 1
71:940 3 | 59°647 8 41-736 1
71:572 3 59°493 6 41-506 4

71:383 ] 59°270 4 41-255 2b
71:268 2 58°793 2 40-831 6

70:990 2 58°505 4b 40-460 4b
70°675 6 | 39°805 3

70°435 2. || 39°373 3b
70329 6 | 39°196 2
| 57:975 3 38-540 3

| 57°496 3 38331 2b

| 57°188 8

707122 6 | 56°495 3b 37946 1
69:883 6 || 37°723 2
69°474 1 567140 6 37°363 1
69°475 5 55°691 2 36°802 3
69-042 3 55°348 \ 3 36°621 2
68-801 4 54131 3 36°375 2
68:483 4 54°863 | t 35°943 2
68-338 3b 54596 J 4 35°564 1

68-040 J 3b 54°233 5 35269 2b
67°892 4 } 53°948 | 1 34:865 1
67°681 1 | 53°841 J 1 34°762 \ 1
67:554 1 53°631 2b 34:527 4
67:369 3 34°328 } 4
67°147 Ib || 537112 1 33°715 5
66°932 3b 52°971 3 33°155 1
66°787 1b 52°565 4 32-991 1
66°646 3 52°323 8 32°711 3
66°333 6 527128 2 32°460 ) 3
65-970 2 | 51°848 3 32°279 1
| 51°331 2 32-139) 4

, 51-088 c 31584 3b
65°712 2 50°814 3 31:193 2
65°357 6 50°623 3 30-924 1
64988 4b 50°493 1 30°753 2
64°721 4b | 49:993 2 30°514 1
64381 4b 49°404 6 30°409, 3
64°184 1 | 48°817 1 30°214 2
64:036 3 48-629 1 30:053 2
63°803 2b 48°399 \ 3 29°652 1
48-082 1 29°342 3
47-980 1 28°887 1
63°622 4 47:660 2 28°659 1
63°435 1 47°385 1 28-483 2
63°163 5 47:047 } In 28°202 \ 3
62-796 Qs 46:02 In 28-014 2
62°431 } 2b 46°709 aa 27°486 1
62220 4 46°404 4 27°366 } 1
62-099 } 1 45°761 4 27:101 2

L2

148

REPORT—1904. -

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wave-length

4626:917

26°704
26°465

26-079
25°639
25-419
25-239
24-983
24-571 |
24-321.
24-194 }
23834
23-613
23:399
23-084
22°853
22578
22-379
21/876
21-703
21-285 |
21-124
20-901
20°682 |
20542
20°418
19°70
19°541
19-368
19-211
18-997
18-850
18-705
18-384
18-233
17-953
17-720
17-482
17-161
16-908
16-761
16-208 }
16-081
15-784
15-466
15-188
14786}
14:574
14-212
13-925

: !
13°737 \

13-566
13-478
13204}

13-204
12968

J

Character

i

BO BO C0 rs BD BO 09 G8 A RO C9 PA Fa at Cor HH at a HR BD et BO Pas BD 09 9 BO BD 09 BO C9 HA Pat sat G9 9 BO BO BO BO Co G9 BO BD Co LO OY 1 09

|
Wave-length |

4612:585
12-327
11-950
11-672
11-184
10-810
10-470
10°159
09°546
09:158
08-786
08°633 |
08-284
07-900
07-447
07°146
06°744
06-493

06-104
05°676
05°492
05:288
05:056
04°528
04-209
03-989
03°747
03-488
03°127
02°913
02-509
01°789
01-546
01-259
00°835
00-386
4599-825
99-407
98-488
98-347
98-091
97°757
97-408
96-751
96-497
96-297
95-964
95°577
95-435
95-252
95-010
94-730
94:587
94-391
94-257
94-012
93°635

SS

| Intensity
and
Character

Wave-length

Intensity
and

haraaéee

NE WNWNNNWRNAMWWW Re

fom

RDF ON WR RWW Ree be

DNR RNR RENN NNR e

4593°533
92-784
92-190
91-815
91-591
91-420
90-985
90-712
90-533
90°509
90-062
89'818
89:458
89-164
88-936
88-551
88-423
88-051
87-921
87-616
87-218
86°855
86-594
86-415
85-987
85°760
85-634
85°407
85°175
84-908
84-666
84-477
84-288
84-016
83-834 }
83-626
83-514
83-331 }
83-086
82-673
82-321
82-111 )
81.835 |
81-674 |
81:317)
81-058
80-890 |
80-497
80-022
79-625
79-384
79-087
78-808
78-528
E 78-363
78-068
77-884
77-548)

|
|

eRe bh &w bo
Bo

6

Bp

Beer a ak em ey ak Pa ae Fm ey Oe a Ree Ren SEED ie oe

mb
i=}

me bo 0

_
1]

=]

eee hoe bom eho hoe

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

Wave-length

4577°192 [

76-987
76-682 |
76°388
76-210
75-953
75625 |
75°508 J
75°122
74-939
74-698
74:133
73-890
73°602
73-208 }
72-966
72-704
72-273
71-998
71-872
71-479
71-312
71-152
70-982
70-765
70-292
70-037
69-526
69-277
68-990
68-581
68-187
67-674
67-435)
67-325
67°124
66-830
66-597
66-404
65-880
65°713
65-635 |
65-335
65°198
65-062
64-798
64-437
64-230
63-864
63-552
63-412 }
63°104
62-955
62-668
62-498
61-990
61-651
61-360

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity
and
Character,

DORE RNNNDE NE WR Ee

min

BS

oo

CRE DR WH WW WHORE RENN EWE NDNNN EWN NWR RNR Deere wow

Wave-length

Intensity

an
\Character

4561-012
60°841
60-483 }
60-194
59-882
59°743
59°601
59°31
58-952
58-770 |
58-581 f
58-267
57-946
57-495
57-223
56871
56°437
56151
55-928
55°817
55°701

55°481

55-252

54-794

54-237
53°859 )
53°756
53°616
53284
53°112
52-962
52°272
52-553
52°392
52-211
51-966
51°741
51-403
51:027
50°764
50°445
49-993
49-628
49581
49 346
49-091

54346 \

48-716
48-524
48°336
48-182
47°765

47-442
47-235)
47-109 |

OOK KDE WHE WWRWR NN RENNER wwwre

a

REE We PRE WWE WR WR EDN N RE eee

iow

— i NnNwre
a

Wave-length

4546-926
46-745 |
46°582 (
46°336
46'196
46-067 J
45°624
45-185

44-978
44:771
44:540
44-275
44-062
43°866
43-736
43-570
43-284 \
42822
42°617
42°386
41:948
41-229
40°948
som}
40°655
40°395 |
40-244 |
39°997
39°726 }
39-470
39°194
38-982
38-681
38-438
38-192
38-003
37°778
37:490
377181 |
36-958 |
36°774
36°647
36°572
36°361 |
36005 |
35°678
35°398
35:027

34-675
34-487
34-292
34-135 )
33-883 |
33°569 |
33-254
33-054

149

Intensity
and
Character

Co DODO WwW CO

oom)

eee
He CUTIES meRO I G2 BOR oR BD LOS SD O9 oPO Hm BO LO RO BO GG

COORD Ee

I

Pe a ell Sa

150

REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity Intensity
Wave-length | and Wave-length and Wave-length
Character \Character
4532°762 8 4517837 2 4502°509
32°583 1 17°635 1 02°325
32°327 + 17:407 2 02-106
31°895 \ 1 17:096 3 01-943
31°661 3 16:947 3 01-762
31:476 1 16-433 2 01°333
31:253 4 16°177 3 01-191
30-992 6b 15°816 6 00-922
30°547 6b 15°565 4 00-578 |
30°190 4 15-320 3 00°439 J
29°995 3 15°127 1 00-7128
29°785 3 14:888 1 4499-766
29°564 3 14°667 4 99-579
29°347 \ 3 14°472 3 99-400
29°252 3 14244 3 99-274
28:967 1 13°707 a 99-052
28°655 a 13°399 5 98-873
28°340 5b 13118 3 98-645
27 240] lb 12°836 1 98:480
27°809 4b 12°650 4 98-149
27°580 In 12°349 1 97-888
27°494 \ In 12:209 1 97°672
27:097 4 12°102 1 97°524
26°740 2 11936 3 97°330
26-478 3 11-734 1 97:203 |
26:298 1 11:537 1 96°995
25:°905 4 11°345 2 96-828
25°651 2n 11:054 6 96°566
25°535 } 2n 10°791 5 96-462.)
25:277 1 10°534 1 96°373 |
25:077 2 10°212 1 96-178
24-763 4 10°015 6 95-944
24°408 uf 09°516 6 95-646
24°198 5 08-999 8b 95°494
23-782 | 8 95242)
23°660 4 08-491 4 95:237
23°348 2 08-013 2 94-993
23°208 1 07°871 2 94-596
23°083 2 07°749 1 94-508
22°861 3 07:456 4 94-023
22°581 2 07°188 4 93-807
22-400 2 07:057 4 93-637
22°027 2 06°854 1 93-281
21:667 4 06°489 4 93°045
21°338 2 06:227 6 92-805
20:999 1 05°821 3 92:679
20°797 2 05°572 3 92-310
20°614 3 05-368 1 92-187
20:081 3 05:172 2 92-096
19-750 4 04:946 8 91-835
19°511 2 04:416 2 91:472
19-211 2 04-229 2 91-289
19:074 1 03-964 5 91°110
18-665 3 03-713 3 90°806
18-492 1 03-558 3n 90°579
18°370 1 03°295 | 4s 90°375
18-181 1 02°917 | 6 90-180
18-067 | 2 02-730 2 89:911

Character)

Intensity
and

WW 9 BORO BO HR G9 OTD HR HR G9 C2 a TR HH HS GO 69 G2 ht CD EH HB BD BD G2 GO BD G2 BD CT BO BD BD HS GO GOH BO BO G2 BO

kOe Ro
5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 151

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued,

iA

Intensity

Intensity Intensity |
Wave-length and Wave-length and || Wave-length and
Character \Character|| Character
4489°717 1 4476-098 } 2b 4462°573 J 2
act 10 75°867 J 2b 62°421 hep
89-085 8 75558 1 62-329 1
88-836 2 75°373 1 61-660 3
88-680 1 75°223 5 61-406 2
sso} Is | 74910 hae 61-015 4
88-574 Is 74°757 ara 60°415 4
88:215 6 74:598 2 60°206 2
87-908 } 6 74:281 ive d 60030} | 3
87:596 8 74178 Neil | 59°826 | 1
87-124 3 73°899 2Qb-—si|| 59°628 1
snr} 6 | 59°519 \ 1
86°743 3 73°614 + 59:200 2
86-495 5 73°352 4 58°855 3
86-206 5 73°107 | 1 58-503 4
85°877 2 72°948 | 1 58:293; | 4
85-803 } 2 | 72:574 \ 4 57°814 |} 3n
85-591 6 | 72°204 4 57°634 } 3n
85-401 } 6 72°139 | 2 57°429 2
85-067 5 71:964 J 6 57:300 \ 2 |
84°851 5 71:714 1 57:083 1
84-616 5 71:537 2 56:903 2n
84:375 5 71-288 1 56°708 \ Iy peas)
83-891 B)) 71198 J 1 56523 | hen
70:985 1 56-407 | | 2n
83°657 4 70°667 5 56°226 ly vein:
83:476 2 70°439 | 1 56°118 } telat
83-289 3 70°363 | 1 | 55°916 rod 1
83°109 3 707171 3 55°738 2
82-835 5 70:063 eee! 55:538 3
82-637 2 69°849 | 2 55°386 3
82-400 4 69°497 | 2b 55211 hia
82-219 4 68-997 3 55°115 es 4
81-983 5 68-565 2 54-802 1
81:787 5 68-304 2 | 54-684 1
81°632 5 68:219 J 2 | 54°504 3
81-412 2 67:964 3 54°343 1
81°136 \ 8b 67°735 3 54:176 1
80°912 | 1 | 67:566 1 54:048 2
80:779 1 67:259 2 53°87 5 1
80-501 j 8 | 67-088 3 53°49 5
80:262 2 | 66:°883 1 53°306 5
80:092 2hy || 66°727 1 53°098 \ 1
79°782 3 66°488 2 52°667 4
79°523 2 66-201 \ 2 52°303 hall
79°346 2 66-060 2 52-090 |} 1
79°265 | 4 \ 65:820 2 51:973 J 1
79°047 1 | 65°392 3 51°751 In, |
78-893 1 65232 ie 5 §1°562 1
78647 3 | 64°798 | 3 51°371 3
78-390 2 64:503 | 3 51:073 ) 2n
78°187 th Jaca Me rit : 50°881 - 3n
78023 ee! 64:210 1 | 50-608 ) 3n
78-020 8 63°850 | 4 50°296 2n
77-448 3 63°447 2n 50:0 9 4
77091 3 63°166 | 2 49-608 | 4
76:924 3 63°002 1 49:247 _ 4
76°403 | 5 il 62-868 [ 1 48993 ( | 1

REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Character

|

Wave-length

/ Intensity)

| and

4448-751 |
48-443 |
48-112
47-886
47-171
47-017
46-787
46-611
46-437
46-313 }
46-094
45-916
45-567 |
45-476 |
45-161
44-947 |
44-798
44-365
44-208
43-780
43-474
43-389
43-287

42-914

42-591

42-078

41-890 |

41°750

41-595 |

41-419

41-045

40-883

40-701

40-442

40-140

39-669

39-441 |

38-678 j

38-542

37°708

37-653

37-148

36-906 \

36-801

36-450

36-196

35-937

35-686

35°598

35-215

35-132 |

34-742

34-596

34-429

34-173

33-997

33-583

33:2 0)

v7)

Re Ree DK WWNWNHN WWE WHWWRWEWNHNNRE NWN RE RPWNNNE NRF NNNNNRK RF NNNKENNWAe

4433-123 J
32-865
32-643
32-085
31-923 |
31-643
31-349
30-898
30-401
29-955 |
29-726 J
29-131
28-792
28-421
28-030
27-714
27-569
27°179
26-932
26°559

25-884
25-044
24-797
24-487
24-200
23-999
23-749
23-659
23-249
23-014
22-861 }
22-554
22-901
21-731
21-395
21-201
20-904
20°617
20-290
19°856 |
19-687 |
19-401
19-079
18-862
18-430

17:836
17-498
17-040
16-691
16-411
15-948
15-488
15°319
15°140)
14:979 |

|

a

o

a

eee)

o

whee toh bo
a

>

DORR RK KE DNR we

| Wave-length
Character || :

Intensity
and
Ch aracter

4414-842 \
14-603 J
14-281
14-100 |
13°74 |
13°574
13-421
13-139
12°896
12-548 }
12°373
12-001
11-682
11-448
11178
10-920
10°745
10°630
10-293
09-907
09°705
09:494
09:319
09-107
08-602
08-178
07-892 |
07:798 J
07-400
07-171
07-019
06-874 |
06-754 )
06-517
06:317
06:117
05-698
05°415
05:156
04-161
03-867
03-633
03-318
03-012
02-750
02:594
02-133
01-499
01-433
01-015 |
00-944 j
00:730
00:536
00-289

4399-961
99-760
99-580
(9-460

Fe NNNNYNK RK NWN bl

a

im

NONDOKNNWNNNKH PRE RE NRK RE RNY NNKP WN RR RR Rr NNWRENNY NNR REE

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wave-length

4399:172
98-889
98-712
98-425
97-836
97-623
97-141
96-889
96-549
96-180
95°605
95-250
94:886
94-321 |
94:101 J
93-751
93-742 |
93-631 J
93-421
93°172
92-936
92-768
92-471
92-134
91-941
91-655
91-479
91-306
91-005
90°751
90°331
90-099
89-919
89-574
89-155
88-858
88-495
88-144
87-842
87-636
87-350
87-208
86-917 |
86°745 J
86-457
85°849
85-615
85-441
85-010
84-945

————,

84-661
84355 |
84°125
83-949
83-520
83-330
83°155

Intensity’

and

Character

ORO PN ERNARWWRE NAN WORE RE ARE NE WOWR AAA RN RM Am ar

ole oO
a

PNWwwe he

Wave-length

4382:873
82°699
82°495
82°306

Inten sity)
and |
Character,

Wave-length

153

| Intensity
and
Character

WWAANRENNWRNR WWE

a

oR RR OO

oo
o

ES a a al ll

a

NONNorRK CO r WwW OD

4369°613 |
69-299 | |
69113 J
68°685
68-418
68-266 |
67-951
67-746
67466
67:146
66-968
66:678
66-468
66-202
65829
65507
65129
64-911
64745
64-481
64-208
63-919
63-730
63-482
63-262

Hm WO OL Or G2 Wo bo

o

—l

—
PRODORPER ODOR WORr®D

—

OONABOAWR OEE HOR WRE WDNR AWNEAMAAMAADS OR ON

154

REPORT—- 1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wave-length

4354-973 )

54-074
53896 |
53°782 | |
53-560 |
ta
|

54:783
54°628

53°387
53-264
53-052
52827
52527
52°339
52:197
52-002
51-838 |
51-709 J
51-212
50-984
50°745
50°667 |
50°475
50:282
50°17
50-073
49811
49-665
49-522
49-384
49-207
48-883
48:489
48-120
47-957
47-792
47667
47-447
47-246
47-040
46°871
46-712
46-445
46061
45-680
45534 }
45232
45-019
44-763
44-560
44-339
44-106
43886
43-674
43-488
43165

Intensity.
and
Character

Wave-length

RADDA WWRWNN DOWNED WRARR RE ODWOE EEN WWE DEERE OE NDE EP RARE DEE EPO we bhe

4342-966
42-815 |
42-733
42-391
42-144
41-925 |
41:818
41-572
41:372
41-056
40-855

——

Intensity
and
Character

OP RP ORF OP WORK Oe ONlwhh bo

AON AMD E De SDH AORRADERREAUTODOBDNENWNENONWE

_
oOnmw
o

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Character

4329-820 |
29°415
29°162
28-799
28-675 |
28-439 |
28-230

28-118

27:945
27°646
27:445
27:149
26°794
26-606
26:420

WWWwWwWNwnwne WHE PRN WERK OWN DOORNKE ROTA

5

OAANNAWWeERORDWOWeEeOWwbee

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 155

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity / Intensity | Intensity
Wave-length and | Wave-length and Wave-length and
Character} Character Character
4317-258 4 4303-860 \ 3 4290-281 { 1
17°155 3 03-688 J In 90:145 | 1
17-062 3 03-246 ) 3 89979! | 2
16-969 } 1 03-137 ! 3 89-763) | 4
16°753 4 02883 1 89:435 2
16-491 2 02-606 6 89-214 | 3
16-225 4 02-338 1 89-083 J 3
15-943 3 02182 4 SS'S80 rai wel
15-740 3 01-972 1 88-781 | hie2
15-478 1 01891 } 1 88-549 | 2
15°255 2 01-688 ) 3 88-397 } 1
15-020 8 01-502 1 | 88-176 4
14814 \ 3 01-320 ) ie eal 87-956 1b
14:573 1 01-016 oe) 87-725 4
14-267 1 00°857 rt" 87°491 3
14-080 6 00-701 al | 87°305 vert
13-694 2n 00°511 4 | 87:151 ) 1
13-287 8 00:313 2 86-770 2b
13-090 In 00-179 1 86-620 } 2b
12-800 4 00-003 1 86-419 1
12°643 1 4299822 1 86-250 3
12°459 4 99°541 2 85-986 5
12-202 3 99-216 4
12-019 3 98-951 3
11-773 3 98-741 45 85144 4
11°614 1 98-588 1 84-795 3b
11:361 3 98-365 2 84386 § 2b
11°158 } 4 98-235 3 84-169 | 2b
10-959 \ 1 97:894 2 83-967 4
10°869 1 97°511 o% | 83-627 3
10°627 } 4 97-076 3 83-204 2
10°427 4 96-972 aed 82832 2
10-078 5 96-662 real) 82615 1
09°752 } 4 96°325 1 82-483 3
09°495 4 96-318 3 82169 2
09-264. 1 95875 5 82-059 2
09-075 gil | 95598 3b 81-908 3
08-797 ae | 95°353 3 81-676 | 2
08-556 1 95°135 1 81-342 2
08-376 3 94:839 5 81-128 2
07-904 2 94-503 4b 80-798 J 3
07-795 2 94°310 | Bue 4 80-626 1
07-470 5 94-164 pe | 80-480 2
07-250 1 93-895 i = 80-253 3
07°122 3 93-768 J 3 80-107 1
06-888 1 93-484 5 79-909 2
06-680 2 93-039 2 79561 3b
06-427 1 92-939 er 79°183 2
06:272 1 92-409 Be | 79-075 \ hg 2
06-084 5 92239 } ae | 78730 | 2
05°844 2 91-995 ea | 78°566 | ) 2
05-606 1 91-668 J 2 78°473 | 1
05-304 4 91-428 3 73246) | 4
05-009 4 91-210 1 77911 | Qb
04-772 1 91-048 5 77°719 | | 5
04599 1 90-762 1 77°500 | 2
04455 3 90:591)} 3 77°313 2
04-058) 3 90-421 | 1 76-929 1

156 REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity | | Intensity | Intensity
Wave-length and | Wavye-length | and Waye-length and
Character | Character | Character
|
4276-758 | 2 4263-256 4 | 4250-982 1
76591 2 63.133 | ae | 49-850 3
76°312 | 4 62-758 cor || 49-631 1
76-205 J 4 62-490 4 | 49-280 2
75-906 3b | 62-212 1 48-921 2
75°658 1 61-966 | 48-655 | 4
75°522 | 1 61:759 a 48-479 1
75-297 3 61-407 3 48-215 1
75087) | Ib 60-963 2 48-109 3
74877 2b | 60-756 1 48-012 3
74°752 ) lb || 60-6389 | 2 47-817 1b
74:175 —_ 60222 | 2 47-580 ] 2
73-957 2 59967 | 1 46-998 2
73°602 4 59-804 2 46-789 } 3
73-423 B - 4 59-678 3 46°597 23
73-285 } 2 | 59-499 2- 46-317 2
72°880 | aa | 59°335 1 46-052 1
72805 | In | 59-019 3 45-901 4
72°567 2 58°897 J 1 45-704 1
72°369 || 58681 | 1 45-677 4
72-254 } 2 58-532 1 45°156 3
71-540 2 58-273 3 45-006 2
71-345 2 58-086 2 44-843 1
71-078 1 57'843 4 44-783 1
70'811 3b 57616 2 || 44-566 2
70°511 4s | 44:395 1
70-083 2b 57-275 5 44-228 2
69-832 2 57-026 1 43-944 2b
69-623 4 56-944 | ae 43-725 } 3
69432 3 56-699 2h 43-540 2
69-223 1 56-493 | 2 43-311 In
68-996 1 56115 2h 43-201 } In
68-743 1b 55'842 3 42-986 3
68-570 4 55662) | Is |i 42-733 1
68-239 4 55°580 Is | 42-554 2
68-007 1 55-287 3b | 42350 2h
67-846 1 54-953 2 | 42-081 2
67°676 1 54815 | 41-901 2
67-411 3b 54-625 o Gi 41°745 3
67:195 1 54-405 3 41595 | 1
66-996 Is 54/102 3 41-462 4
66-819 2b 53-960 { 3 41192 | 1
66-400 3 53-282 5 41068 | 2
65-986 3 53108 | 2 40-835 3
65-913 | 2 52-884 3 40-583 2
65-685 2 52504 | 1 40-339 8
52-402 1 39-840 3b
65-439 4 52-274 2 39-288 | 3
65-258 1 52°164 2 38-976 4b
64-991 3 51-962 3 38°769 | 3
64-784 1 51-643 1 38-557 4
64-565 1 51-510 4 38-187 4
64-329 3n b 37-894 4
64-141 2 51-273 3 37-608 4
64-029 ie 50°795 1 37402 | 1
63°892 2 50-679 1 37:164 (sth
63-671 2s 50-595 2 36857 | 5
63-551 In || 50289; | 1 36°581) 3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

157

Wave-length

wv
\Character

4236°392
36°234
35°812
35°766
35°625
35°363
35°08
34629
34°358
34:164 }
33°968
33°677
33°453
33°266
33148
32°921 J
32°766
32°415
32°100

31-458
31-322
31-111
30°841
30°642
30°539
30°341
29-969
29-668
29°427
29-062
28-860
28°656 \
28-304

Intensity
nd
|
|
|

(Sa)
lon

ee
a

POON EP REE ROOR WEE WRWWRONWERRWORE ECON RENE OONNNKEK WR AOWWRe POW bO

Wave-length

4223-041
22-810
22-667 J
22-480
22-221 |
22-150 J
21-966
21/811 |
21-592 J
21-423
21-221
20-990
20-660 }
20°588
20-311
20-074
19-881
19-647
19-411
19-266
19-105
18-718
18-544 |
18-282
18-044
17-905
17-736
17-534
17°374 |
17-219
16-962
16-809
16-682
16°451
16-269
16-070 J
15:841
15-669
15539
15-272
15-189
14-656
14°106 |
13-799
13°513
13-186
12-990
12-796
12-646
12-404
12-232
11-901

pee

+

>=

=

11-610
11-450
11°343
11-256
11-051)

\Character

Intensity
and

WTR WOR RDI WROWROON OH OE OH KwAeRwDe

Ro ae ee eae

ion

CDNNNNWRERERRE WROD RO

Wave-length

4210-943 |
10°758 }
10°659
eben)
10°324
10-139
10-006
09°745 |
09°519
09-287 )
09-011 f
08-729 )
08-499
08-299
07-946
07-702
07-525
07-311
07°144
06-822
06-609
06-409
06-235
05-962
05°778
05°592 /
05-326
05-037
04-897 |

04°543
04-134
03-907 |
03-798 |
03-563
03-454
03-279
03-162
03-045
02-888
02-700
02°378
01-910
01:514
eee
01-184
00-986
00:553 }
00-423
00-205

4199°853
99°600 |
99-431
99°139
98-881 |

98-698

98-459

98-272 |

97°917 |

|
J

1

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(

\Character

Intensity
and

|
|
|
|

Go m DO bo G2 Oo Go

>

PROM N WW WR AWM ORE OMNWOR RN HEE OWORRNOONORNERWNWORWAARONWOUARRE

158 REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.
| (

Intensity Intensity Intensity
Wave-length and Wave-length and Wave-length an.
Character Character Character
4197-730 | 2 4185°887 | 3 i 4174-096 4 /
97:°587 1 85°747 2 73933 1
97:461 2 85°632 J 1 73°702 2
97:297 ) 3 85°479 ) | 3 73°546 ]
97-075 8 85°379 - 3 73°357 | 2
96°815 8 85°245 6 73°040 1
96-581 4 84:882 | 3 72°781 4
96392 1 84:728 | 8 72-530 6
96-227 lye 84-461 1 727318 3
96:072 ae) 84°390 | 1 72°085 1
95°616 8 84-270 2b 71:918 3
95°347 / | 4 83°846 | a 71°755 4
94-968 1 83°713 4 71°549 2
94°862 1 83°478 4 71°337 2
94:697 3 83-330 6 70°955 6
94-482 4 j 1 70-662 3
94°308 3 83:031 5 70°364 8
94-194 1 82°807 2 70°242 | 3
94-021 Ky al 82-619 3 69-932 5
93-865 t 82°364 2 69°771 1
93-720 4 82°132 3 69-567 6
93°494 2 81:974 2 69-193 3b
93°274 3 $1:°761 38 68-973 3
93-128 ara 81:583 2 68-801 4
93-032 1 81:370 5 68-608 1
92°847 3 81:188 |} |) 2 68°377 1
92°596 4 81-048 eee 68:221 6
92°313 4 80°795 | 4b 67°832 5
92°135 3 80°648 1 67-700 | UI
91:946 2 | 80°540 [ 1 67:522 4
91-660 5 80°355 ied 67:316 3
91:347 4 80°198 is: 67:028 5
91°211 | 1 \| 79-951 if 8 66°890 3
90-980 5 79°657 zt | 66-658 4
90-802 1 79°376 | 8 66-485 3
90-730 1 78°856 3 66°323 2
90°319 6b 78°696 | 5 66-200 4
90°131 3 78°322 ob 65°916 2
89-907 6 78°184. 1 65°683 4
89-716 1 78°102 j 1 65-473 5
$9°552 5 78-031 1 65:270 4
89-283 4 77°718 4 65°146 4
89-039 3 77:536 3 64956 1
88°816 4 | 77389 | 2 64:807 1
88-614 2b 77:264 1 64-611 | 3
88-290 5 76°995 2 64-416 J 3
88-079 2 76°837 6 64:247 \ 6
87:°787 } 5 76°505 3 64-094 4
87°622 5 | 76°348 | 6 63°755 4
87-422 3 || 75-982 3 | 63-532 4
87:259 1 75°756 6b 63:285 6
87:197 } 4 75°492 2 62-941 4
86:936 1 75°413 1) b || 62°729 3
seraao 4 75293 lJ 62°638 3
86°637 3 75°119 4 62°442 1
86°438 2 74°759 } 4 | 62°332 ce)
86:296 } 4 74:580 5 | 61-971) 1
86:075 | 4 74°312 | 4b Jl 61:858 | 5 il

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 159

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

nn

Intensity Intensity Intensity |
Wave-length and Wave-length and Wave-length and |
Character Character Character
\| |
4161-682 | 1 | 4150-009 ) 1 | 4136-701 2
61°572 f 4 49-890 4n 367535 i 3
61-308 | 1 49°734 3 36°202 h 3
61:173 ) 4 | 49-498 1 36°016 | 2b
60:971 \ 3 | 49-406 1 |
60-880 3 49-205 1 35°854 HP Lie
60°734 1 | 49-042 2 35°672 ee
60°559 2 | 48-905 3 35°175 t 3 |
60°377 1 48-595 5 34:987 i 3 |
60°199 3 48-227 6 34°755 1
60:034 4 48:051 1 34:570 2
59°781 1 47:897 3 34°359 4
59°670 3 47671 6n 34:060 2
59°576 3 | 47:525 \ 6n 33°852 1
59°476 3 || SATS) 1 33701 | | 2
59°365 1 | 47-025 i, 3 33°511 b 2
59°039 6 | 46°862 3 33°359 1 |
58°764 \ nS | 46:640 2b 33°268 1
58631 f | 46:469 - 1 32°923 1
58°223 | 3 | 46°311 2 32°714 2n
587129 J 3 46-099 3 327432 3
57°887 | 4 | 45°890 1 31°964 3b
57°566 8 | 45°642 5 31-717 | 1
57°173 2 45°323 1 31:575 J 2
56°922 6 | 45°176 } 1 31°343 3
56°651 \ 1 45°038 2 31131 3 |
56°485 | 1 | 44°733 2 30°785 1 |
56-240 | 3 i| 44:310 4 30°684 1
56°126 J 3 | 43°507 1 30°555 1
55°951 1 | 43°179 1 30°427 1
55°756 4 43-001 3 30°280 1
55:569 3 42784 3 307112 1
55°272 1 \ 42°796 | 2 29°894 1
55164 i 4 | 42-672 J 2 | 29°653 1
55034 i 2n. | 42°397 4b | 29°387 3
54°747 ie 2 42046 4 2 297148 1
54:672 3 41°787 3 28°915 2b
54°362 5 41:583 2 28-666 1
53:979 } 5 41:317 } 4b 28°539 1
53°709 1 41°138 1 28-406 1
53:497 5 40911 1 | 28-262 4
537168 3 40°701 4 27°939 1
53-009 1 40°389 4 27°795 } 3
52°818 2 40°017 \ 3 | b || 27°472 1
52°640 } 3 39°836 3 27:274 2
52°391 3 39°596 2 27°120 1
§2°215 3 39°435 2 | 26°994 1
52°105 3 39°224 2 26°806 2
51°886 3 38-969 3 26°604 1
51°622 4 38°842 4 26°402 1
51°410 3 38°249 1 26°205 1
51°185 1 38°019 2 26°057 1
61:011 \ 2 37°829 1 | 25°830 2
50°881 2 37°709 1 | 25°459 | 3
50°758 1 37°469 5 25°065 | 3
50°589 \ 3 37:055 1 24°859 2
| 50-493 3 36°928 2 24:694 } 2
cs 50-285 4 36856 1 24-443 2

160

REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR —continued.

Intensity | Intensity.
Wave-length and || Wave-length and || Wave-length
Character | \Character,

4124-243 3b || 4111-037) 1 4098-349 J
24-071 1 10-774 a 98-048 |
23-949 2 10°537° 3 | 97°704 }
23-789 1 10°368 | 3 97-443
23-582 1 10-058 6b 97-262
23-457 4 09°:722 | 2 97-095

| 23-298 1 96-905
23-109 1 09109} | 38 96-634
22-863 ) 2 08-839 J | 96-433
22-721 | 2 08-514 a | re
22565 1 08-322 eS | 95-972.
22146 4 08-026 oN 95-728 ]
21:881 1 07:801 en! 95-332
21:541 1 07-595 eam y 95:184 }
21-352 1 07-493 | 1 tl 94-941 }
21-098 | 3b 07-283 3 7 94-868
20°735 | 3 06-785 8 94-660
20°534 2 06-291 2n 94-475
20340 4 06-066) | 1 94369
20°176 1 05-929 | 2 93-928
20051 1 05-684 1 93-724
19°759 ae) 05572; | 2 | 93°477
19-624 LF 05375} | 2 | 93-265 }
19-371 S. ail 05-133 2 | 93-189
18-950 ] 2 fi 05-0327 | 2 | 92-971
18-862 | axa 04-868 i 92-799 }
18-445 1 04-729 2 92-678
18-311 2 04607 1 92-430
18-059 | 3 04°488 ih 92-242
17-852 4 04-351] | 2 91-974 |
17-587 } 3 04166) | 38 91-768
17-423 | 3 03-958 1 91-418
17-107 4 03694 | | 4 91-229
16-874 | 1 03:407/ | 4 91-059
16-731 J 3 03140 | 2 90589
16-408 2b | 02-973 2 90-493 {
16-084 3 | 02°755 1 90-302
15-760 as 3 02-585 4 89-954
15°529 ee || 02°410 1 89-677
15-170 | 3 02-261 1 89-442 )
1498304) 1 02-086 3 89-283
14-743 | 2Q 01-892 1 89-127 |
14435 | 38 01-711 3 88-879
14086 | 6b 01-390 ) 3 88-611
13-730}, 7240 SSb. a) 01199 - 4 88-355
13448 a ey 01-000 ) 1 88-205
13-208 oe 00-743 i Ti 88-092
13-031 a 00°484 Le 87-807
12°895 ) 1 | 00-264 2 87:547
12-640 | viel 00-063 3 87333
12°41 | 2 || 4099-893 1 87175
12277 T ail 99-649 Loh 8 86-914
12-132 1 | 99-479 | oe. hl 86-734
11-953 2 il 99-403 | a. a 86-490 |
11-791 | ee tll 99-214 3° 86359
11-635 3 98-985 4 86134 |
11-449} 1 | 98-724 4 85-909
11-231 } 3b | 98:526 } 1 85-714

|
|
|

In tensity’
and |

oo

6

PEPE OWN RR RE RR ERE ER OORR RE Rw OWwE

io”

PNHOWPP RRP RR COON ROR WOR DN WR ROO

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTs. 161

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Wavye-length

4985-445 |

19

85-193 |
84-950
84-820
84-654
84:356
84103 |
83-921 |
83-810 !
83-590
83-264
83-115
82-873 }
82-581
82-298
180 f
81-999
81-833
81-577
81-384
81-193
80-977
80-786
80-539
80°157
79-841
79-648
79-506
79-375
79-197
78-950 |
78-870 j
78-621
78-442)
78-246
78-084 |
17-887
77-792
77-693
17-581
17-437
77-170
76°754
76-497 }
76-400
76-194
15-963
15°745
15555
75°373 |
75-208 -
75-076 |
14877
74-793 |
74-601 |
74-379
74-193
73-869 )
04.

i

Intensity |
| and
Character

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Character

io” ~—

oe

_
KP PWD WW WREKWWWOOR WHR eS WWW RR RWN RE NRHOWOATE ANP EPRONWOUWe WON ©

b

|

4073-720 }
73-471
73-224
73-082
72-976 }
72-816
72-646
72538 |
72-319
72-181
72-082
7
71-522
71:370 [
71-198
70-965 }
70-808
70-582
70-269
70-039
69-950
69°722
69-399
69-062
68-688
68-432
68-015
67:810
67°675
67-529
67°355 }
67-132
66-838 }

_
PDO WWWNNDOWRNDe bo

om

|
\|

Wave-length

|

Intensity

and

Character

60°801
60-624
60°343 |
60-226 |
60-099
59-962
59°787

4060-956

59-623
59-496
59-417
59-128
38-996 |
58-855 *
58-709
58-553
58-239
58-069
57-923
57-865 |
57-644
57°397
57-123
56-958
56-708
56-454
56-331
56-046
55°883
55°676 }
55-580 |
55°325
55°159 |
54-999 |
54-794
54-609
54-435
54-296
54-157
53-896
53-768
53-523
53°304
53-162
52-964 |
52844 |
52-639
52-482 |
52-220 |
52-029 |
51-900
51-631
51386 |
51-178
50-925 |
50°807 J
50°584)
50-432 }

|

= OEE ROHDOE PPP RWWWOWRRDWWWRNHWONWOH HE RWONWORE ERE OORWNWNNNORHHEwomwnw

REPORT— 1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continned.

Wave-length

4050-285 J

49-812
49-628
49-413
49-272 }
49-009
48-803
48-605
48-341
48-016
47-842
47-699

47-448 }
|

50-065

47°303
47-144
46-942
46-833 )
46637
46-401

Wave-length

Intensity |
Piles

Character |
pes

Wave-length

nee
and |

Character.

ao

>

DH DOWER RK COON NDE NWNWNWNWNNWWWORK RS WRRWWWNNWWWRRDHE OE WR RPP

a

HH bO OU bO B® bO 09 9 0

HH GO OO
oa

4038-085

37°915
37-751
37:546
37:281
37°018
36°638
36°631

36°125
35-989
35°910 L
35°783 |
35°675
35413
35°147
34:967
34:714
34:538 \
34:332
34:061
33°772
33°440
337142
32-928
32-689
32°533
32°389
32-216

CO ORR 0

o>

ANAK WWW WR RE RRND NWWWWWORRRE HE WWE RN WRROOORE RDO RE WORE

4025-847
25-699
25-527
25-293
25-109
24-806
24-570
24-303
24-120
23-928
23-776
23-692 }
23-459 J
23-240
22-975
22-794
22-619
22-310 J
22-152
21-852
21-630
21-490
21-987 |
21-197 |
20-966
20°700
20:536
20:346
20-119
20-008 }
19°752
19°463
19-175
18-996
18-794
18670]
18-495

18-244

18-106

17016

17-742

17-505

17°332

17-056

16-862

16-714

16-416

16-295 |

16-145

15-689

15-460 |

15-376

15-104

14-833 }

14-743

14-519

14:337

14-183)

RO EOD Ft 9 at rs 9 HR BD BD Ft BO 00 Fe at tat es 09 BD RD Fat et et BD BD BD BD 9 BO HR 9 LO OD tH OO HB BD G9 09 LO OD O9 BO BO G9 OT OT OT BO

5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 163
BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.
Intensity Intensity. Intensity
Wave-length and || Wave-length and Wave-length and |
Character | Character (Character,
4014-024 J 1 4002-112 1 3988-550 | 2
13-600 }j 2n 01:959 i 88°322 | 2
13-347 J 2n 01-681 ies 87-955 2
13054 3 01:493 lee 2 87°772 1
12°89] 1 01:347 2 87-619 2
12-724 [ 1 01-107 3 87-288 | 3
12:567 3 00-955 } 1 87:057 1
12-450 il} 00°635 8b | 86°891 1
12-283 1 00-286 | 1 86°749 2
12°161 - 1b 00-066 J 2 86°558 2
12-041 ) 1 3999-835 2 86-331 | 2
11676 2 99-733 | 2 86-016 | 2
11-463 aa 99-637 4 85-862 3
11-209 2 99-432 1 85-394 4
11-103 3 99-243 2 85-205 } 4
10°896 1 99-125 1 84:843 3b
10°792 2 98-925 2
10°670 i! 98°721 5 84-549 1
10°473 1 98-545 1 84°385 1
10-280 1 98-340 3 84-247 4
107119 2 . 98-026 3 84-000 2
09-701 2 97°868 1 83-750 2
09-508 2 97:699 2 83-591 1
09-133 2 97°376 2 83-339 2
08-751 5 96-778 2 83°129 1
08-521 2 96-506 2 82-875 4
08-193 4 96°314 2 82°567 4
08-016 § 3 95°851 } 2 82-479 2
07°738 1 95-722 2 82-043 3
07°528 3 95°535 2 81-822 3
07°364 3 95-339 2 81:510 4b
07-196 1 95-104 2 81-275 1
07-064 1 94-846 4 80-976 3
06-865 3 94-656 2 80°743 1
06-749 3 94°355 1 80-388 4
06-566 2 94-174 2 80-176 | 1
06°397 } 3 | 93-991 1 79°946 4
06-176 3 93-667 2 79°553 2
05-787 2 93-596 3 79°374 4
05°574 2 93-407 4 79234 } 4
05-196 1 93-133 1 78-909 2
05-040 4 92°954 1 78-624 2
04-895 2 92°757 2 78-106 5
04:610 1 92-421 2 77693 ) 3
04-470 2 92-048 3 77°384 1
04-388 2 91-795 1 T7117 1
04-239 1 91-502 3 76°941 1
04:113 1 {| 91-239 1 76°758 4
03-968 2 91-040 1 76-483 | 1
03-793 2 90-829 4 76-323 2
03°477 2 90-518 2 76:163 1
03-251 3 | 90°239 “er 75°930 1
03-073 1 | 89-935 1 75°834 3
02-946 1 89-756 3 75°711 | 1
02°755 1 89-444 2 75°460 3
02-494 4 89-153 2 75-192 1
02-271 3 89-023 1 75:007 2
02-301 2 88-764 2 74-780 3
9

164. REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

| Intensity | | Intensity Intensity
Wavelength | and | Wavelength | and Wave-length | and
Character Character Character
3974-532 1 3962-508 3 3950°158 } 4
74-386 | 1 62-176 5 49849 3
74-212 1 61:891 ) 1 49-609 3
74-034 | 3 61-759 - 2 49-489 \ 2
73°716 2 61-615 } 3 49-258 | 4
73:516 1 61:307 | 2 48-961 | 4
73°322 De 61-162 | 1 48-687 4
73190 1 61-019 2 ss 02 4
73-012 3 60:857 1 48-364 4
72-808 3 60-678 } 2 48-139 1
72-584 } 1 60°579 i 48-009 2
72°321 3 60-398 ) 4 47°735 4
72-131 2 60:243 1 47-491 1
71-907 1 60-119 j 3 47-336 2
71°762 3 59-931 2 47-201 4
71-542 2 59-806 1 46-740 | 1
71:282' 3 59-707 1 46-502 4
70:929 4 59-497 2 46350 3
70-710 2 59°387 1 467111 4
70°504 3 59-260 1 45°844 3
70191 1 59-097 4 45606 | 3
70-008 4 58-898 1 45°540 3
69:816 2 58-794 2 457164 4
69:736 1 58-557 2 | 44-937 i
69:529 1 58-303 te 44-752 1
69-268 1 58-014 1 44-648 4
69-072 1 57843 3 44-350 3
68-955 3 57°665 4 44-136 2
68°489 3 57393 2 43-826 1
68°375 ro 57144 4 43-548 4
68-245 1 56965 3 43-311 | 4
68-096 1 56363 3 42:567 | 4
67-938 2 56161 1s 42°144 4
67-721 2 55954 ls 41-641 } 4
67:548 2 55°700 4 41-304 1
67:280 3b 55-461 1 40°765 2b
67:072 3 55-203 } 4 40-446 5
66°818 2 54-943 4 | 40°162 1
66°631 2 54-755 fs? 39-808 4
66450 3 54-404 4 39:358 5
66:257 2 54-179 } 2 38-875 1
66-083 2 54-069 2 38-762 } 1
65892 4 53-912 1 38-485 3
65°714 1 53-782 2 38-279 1
65511 4 53-608 3 38-051 2
65-294 2 53-495 1 37-425 | 3
657153 | 2 53-309 1 37°164 3
64:777 3 53:129 3 36673 4
64:553 4 52-908 3 36-278 3b
64-385 1 52647 1 35°878 2
64-248 3 52:308 2 35°460 5
63-937 38 52-071 2 35°155 3
51:837 2 34-916 3b
63-602 1 51-500 3 34:535 2
63:435 4 51-206 3 33-932 4
63-481 | 4 50-978 2 33-685 1
63-077 1 50°673 4 33-249 2b
62-789 3 50-329) 4 32-432 5b

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

3931-947
31-712
31°416
31-078
30°874
30°559
30°237
30°106
29-691
29-461
28°856
28-403
27:°573
27:274
26-953
26°354
267111
25°837
25:272
25-042
24-802

24415 -

|

24178
23-903
23°733
23288
22°813
227114
21-580
21°363

21-013 |

20°887
20-456
20°047
19°577
19-022
18-760
18-369
18-198
17:904
17542
17°389
17-046
17°834
16°527
15-966
15-322
14-906
14-683

Wave-length

|

)

|
|

J
J

J
J

14-337 )

13-944
13-406
13-153
12-771
12-546
12°212
11-920
11-661
11-408

}

Intensity, |
and

|
|

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

165

Character

Wave-length

BR OR RE WOR DNWNWNNWNWREPRNNNRRE WHR DRE wh

i=] 6B

WwWor De

3n

3911-050
10-911
10°624
09-914
09-148
08-846 )
08-570 -
08-343 }
07°531
07-127
06841
06-634
06-285
05-702)
05-497 | |
05126
04:477
04-157
03-819
03-298
02-827
02-362
01:842 )
01-622 |.
01-432 )
00-762
00-437 |
00-181 J
3899-753
99-244 |
98-864 /
98-606 }
98-248
98-023
97-724
97°310
97-021

96°527
96:109
95-574
95-165

94-601
94-202
93-743 ,
93°566 |
93:323 |
93-097
92815
92:565
91-715
91-434
91-230
90-984
90°460
90°104
89-786

Intensity
and
Character
SA]

1]

Wave-length

Intensity

and
Character

aR sec edt kl eel 0 eee PoP CaO Has AE Cae Ge 12] He em ee Ee EIS

bo cw bo BO Co a IND: Cok

DDR RK wee ww to

BOS 09 69

3889-050
88-524.
88-121
87647
86:839
86-036
85-750
85:399 |
85183 |
84-873
84-584.
84-332
84-065
83-828
83-214
82-697
82-429
82°172
81-919
81-433
81-016
80-518
80-306 |
80-123 5

; 79-860 |
79°635
79°325
78-660
77-925
77°365
76-982
76:560
76°103
75°707
15378
74-587
74:091
73°670
73249
72-888
72-316
72-064
71-761
71-115
70'816
70°501 i
70°275 |
69-951 }
69-766
69-156
69-037
68-645
68-104
67:509 {
66-917
66°415
65:486
65-219
64°849 |

De RWWWR We ee Do we =
ToS BB Bt OP RO BO BO TR BO OBO BO LO HB 09 OT BD LO BD BO OT 09 OF LO OO BONO

bo

|
|
|

166 REPORT—1904.

BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

Intensity) Intensity ! Intensity
Wave-length | and || Wave-length and Wave-length and
\Character Character es
3864'566 | 2 || 3840-021 3s 3814-984 J Ib
64-233 Pes | 39-702 In 14:573 1b
63859 2 I 39°174 2 14074 91
63°143 yl 38-868 1 13896 Tea
62-480 2b | 38-366 2 13542 pe. 3
62-091 5 38-253 BY 12-881 | 4
ere) 2 37-914 In | 12-467 os. 4
61:218 | 2 37°396 re aa 12-337 i 1
60858 | 2 12-041 3
60-516 3 37-017 33 | 11-645 2
59°787 5s 36-758 1 11-330 4
59°102 2 36-530 2 | 10-704. 3b
58-366 2b 36-088 | |
57-750 4 35-668 oo yl 09851 | 2
57-457 z 35°506 } LG) |
35-204 1 09-274 eae?
56-312 1 34-901 3 08-880 Wir
56017 \ 2 34-157 Is 08-592 1
55°810 3 33-798 In 08-377 1
55-428 3 33-505 2b 07-748 2
54-822 1 33-096 1 | 07°365 3
54-599 | 1 32-883 ee aH 07-017 2
54-281 | 1 32-630 pl 06-694 ) 2g
54°100 | 3 32-407 1 06-414 | 2b
53-686 | 3 32°135 eat 05-821 2b
53-392 | 2b 31-884. | 05:186 3
537145 1 31-497 | 04-844. 3
52-917 ) 3 30-975 2 04-423 1
52-590 | 2 30°569 | 1 04-136 ae
52-300 | 3 30269); | 2 03-676 2
51-874 J 3b 29-398 et ih 03-429 | 3
29-073 Bi Ub 03-073 2
51-752 1 28-484. 2b 02-421 we 3
51-271 | 3 Bayi tae 1 01-908 ) fo Me!
51-004 | 2 27-152 ia oT 01-645 | . 3
50°664 1b 26831 Mesa 01-199 } 2
50°395 2 25-412 | 1 00-716 lie. i
49-499 4 25°174 i= 20> J 00-252 1b
49-183 1 24-563 | 4 || 3799-893 2b
48-878 3b a 99-059 2
48-011 2b 23-537-f0 i) Qn | 98-354 rie
22-964 \ 3 97:°559 | 1b
47-666 1 22-200 ge 97-203 rea
47-259 2 21-947 1 96-889 ee
46-291 3 21-481 ie 96-362 1
46-023 Vie ve | 21-090 i 96-128 2
45-770 aie 20°881 1 95-716 2
45-300 3b 20-188 1 95-390 1
44-988 | 1 19-881 1 94-618 3
44-718 | 3 | 19-559 1 94-176 1
44-390 1 19-201 | 2 93-914 } | 2
44-095 Soe 18°954f | 2 93-564 1S.
43-471 ie 2: 18-528 oe 93-300 2
43-250 ine 2 18-323f | 1 92°841 4
42-689, | 1 | 17-796 | 3 92-451 1
ADDS8 | +2 4 16-986 eas 92-072 3
42-277 1-7) 16-626 le Os 91-713 4
41-911 3b 15-569 | 2 91-400 2
40-905 | 4 15-168) 3b 91-055 1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length

3790-860
90-554
89-972
89-670
89-386 |
89-096 /
88-880 |
88-476 |
88-202 |
87-843
87:466 |
87°159 |
86-839
86-639
86-143
85-818
85-321 |
85-117 |
84-668 |
84-454
83-946
83-577
83-342
83-085 \
82-519
82-030
81-779
81-511
81-280
80-451
80-163
79-902
79-605
79-454.
78-743
78-447
78-103
77-818
17-367
77-028
76-582
76-307 }
75°542 |
715/262 J
74-795
74-240
73-983
13-655
73°361
72-913
72-422)
72-085 |
71-717 |
71-311
10°777
10-524.
70-273

69-768 |

167
BAND SPECTRUM OF SULPHUR—continued.

| Intensity | Intensity | Intensity

| and Wave-length and || Wave-length and

Character Character Character
2 3769°651 } 3 3748-054 4
3 69-472 J 6 47-456 4
3 69°215 1 46:998 6
4 68-996 | 2 46:047 3
2b 68°583 2 45-429 2
1 68-233 3 44-749 2b
3 67°526 3 44°500 1
3 66:921 ) 3 44°186 2b
1 66:670 2 43°782 2
1 66°358 2 43°432 P)
2 65°884 | Sbe,| 42°977 2
f |] Se |g | ae
3 65:029 4b 41°515 3
1 64°717 1 41°217 2
4b 64°321 2 40°858 3
4 63°736 2 40-099 3
3 63°546 1 | 39°885 } 1
1 | 63°032 Qe || 39°617 2
1 | 39°157 2
2 62°667 2 38941 \ 2
1 38°667 2
lb 38°453 ee
2 61-920 ) 3 38°120 2

ie ba 61°646 3 Piste) 2
ib || 61-249) 3b 37-373 3
1 60°966 lb 36°744 3
1 I} 60°751 3 36-080 1
3 |] 60°505 2 35°449 2
1 60°194 3 35°014 2
3 60-006 3 34-712 2
1 l 59-748 2 34-253 3
3 59-426 1 33-794 2
3 | 59-211 1 33°128 2
2 | 58°871 4b 32°782 1
2 58°099 1 32°538 2
2 57°815 lb 32°033 | 3
1 57°502 1 31°756 | 1
2b 57°202 4s 31-573 } 1
1 56°768 2 30°971 2

| 4 56°280 3b 30°661 \ 4

| 1 55°941 1 30°067 2

| 2 55°542 4 29-845 1
2 55°115 i 29°611 1

ere 54°854 2 29-293 3
2b 54°567 iJ 29-068 1

| i 54:026 | 4 28°533 4b
1 53°722 3
3 53°385 3 28-089 1
3r 52°473 | 4 27°819 2
2 51-911 } 3) 27°314 2
2 | Bee | i | Bm |
In 50°498 1 26-079 | 2
3 50°175 5 25°888 n
2 49-536 2 25°348 \ 1
In 49-284 3 oe :

49-023 1 24°785

3 48-731 6 24°569 1

8 REPORT—1904.
16

ND SPECTRU SULPHUR— ontinued.
B M OF P C e.
A th

iti penalty
Intensity ie
ae th | and || Wayvye-length Shane
se re ‘Character
RES See Character i :
| 1b 3667-340 } >
2 | 3694-708 1b | ey
3724-345 J aw pias Ib 7-07 |
a0 ae il sak 1b 66:537 2
ze 4 forks b 66-217 4
see | 3 93-499 1 66-217 ,
He 1 93-086 Qn 66-130 }
noe 1 92642 | 3n 65-695
ae in, 4 91-836 -- 3n mee 3
ee is 91-400 | ifs 64090 :
19149 1s 91-400 so
18-847 Fao 90-872 | lees ae :
18-518 f oa 1 90:552 | 1 64-080 :
10365 # ae al a 63345 | 1
1585 4 eee ae 62-877 1b
1s i 87010 | In 62656 Os
15-187 \ 1 87-010 Lee | ae =
Het | 3b 86°585 | In | peel 3
14755 2 Il 86134 | 2 | cio)
1307 2 sear i 61307; | 1
13-501 } 3 85-457 1 ee Re
ra 2 Aer = 60-478 } 2s
12-747 9. | 84-518 Dre: | pone ree
14 : ie 50656 | | 2
oe \ 1 S322 | 2 | obo eda
10818) 82547] ) | In ear tee
a 1 81-632 | | In 59°706 2
see \ 2 |i 81-203 | 1 | On 58-508 1
10°322 4 80-939 | | ln | pos 2
ces 2 || 80-255 1 57-991 3
a 1 wai | “2 S754 2
ee 2 78997 | 3 57-068 =
07-622 - 78-907 3 so
ree 1 77-806 1 56°573 3
coe ne In || 77405 | Is 56-159 2b
wegen 7 76-271 2 oa 842 4
Hens 2 75°874 1 54334 2
s3. 20 ; pees B | 53-838 2
ease 2 75-233 3 | 53-838 2
230 i te tt 53-300 Qn
aS 1b 73-517 2 53-300 \ 2n
ce 5 ae 5 52834 1
os 1 | 72°717 In oe :
3699-907 , m7 1 a
ee 1 71-894 | 2 2-274 }
Hoe 2 71-632 2 52-074 2
a8 5 Fone Pe 51-200 1
re 2s 70-762 ) n oe
al 25 || 70333 3 ee
Hee 2 || 70-153 | 1 50-084 2
— 96-955 2 69-197 3 49825 | 1
os 1 68-701 } In 49-067 4
pemeeny 24 2 68-466 1 ee 3
ee | egos 67/951) 3
one ee 67-634 | On

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 169

The Stereochemistry of Nitrogen. By H. O. Jones, M.A., D.Sc.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewtenso.]

Tue stereochemistry of nitrogen has, for a number of years, attracted
considerable attention, which was until recently confined chiefly to the
isomerism of the tervalent compounds; of late years, however, the quin-
quevalent compounds have been the subject of an exceptionally large
number of investigations. The former, with the exception of a few out-
standing problems, may almost be regarded as a closed chapter, whereas
the latter is still in a state of rapid change. The phenomena exhibited
by these compounds are so bewildering in their variety, and apparently so
difficult to reconcile with one another, that this brief review of the present
state of our knowledge may be useful in promoting discussion which will
throw some light on the obscure problems that perplex workers in the
field.

The facts brought to light by the work on quinquevalent nitrogen
compounds considered in conjunction with those observed by Professor
Pope and his collaborators in sulphur and selenium compounds necessitate
some slight alteration in the prevalent conception of valency, and have
at the same time supplied the materials for such a revision of ideas.

No entirely satisfactory hypothesis as to the nature of valency and
the forces which act in chemical compounds has hitherto been proposed.
There is, however, a growing conviction that these forces are electrical in
their origin and arise in consequence of the electrical structure of the
atom; if this be so, then these forces are very probably localised along
certain directions outside the atom.

However, without making any assumption as to the nature of these
forces, the existence and stability of chemical compounds almost require
that they should have a definite spatial configuration such as must be
assumed in order to account for the phenomena of stereoisomerism, and
further, that the most symmetrical contiguration possible would probably
be the most stable. By a definite stable configuration is understood an
arrangement of atoms or groups around a plurivalent atom in which each
group, under the action of forces exerted on it by the plurivalent atom
and by the other groups, oscillates (within limits dependent on tempera-
ture and other conditions) about an equilibrium position in which it
would probably be stationary at absolute zero. The lines joining the
centre of the plurivalent atom to the centres of the various atoms or
groups in their equilibrium positions may be called the ‘ valency directions.’
The equilibrium position for any particular radical attached to a pluri-
valent atom—carbon, for example—would not be fixed, but would be
dependent to some extent on the other radicals attached to the same
atom, since the position taken up is the result of the action of a number
of forces; hence the valency direction must also be variable to some
extent. These views were quite clearly expressed by van’t Hoff soon
aiter the tetrahedral configuration for carbon compounds was proposed.

The new assumption, which had to be made in the light of recent
experience, is that during a change of valency, such as that of sulphur
from quadri- to sexa-valency,' the configuration of the molecule may
alter and the radicals already present take up entirely new positions.

1 Pope and Neville, Zvans. Chem Soc., 1902, 81, 1560.

170 REPORT—1904.

Assumptions of a slightly different kind have been made to account for
certain phenomena observed in quinquevalent nitrogen compounds ; it has
been found necessary to suppose that the position occupied by the electro-
negative radical is not always the same—in fact, that the resultant effect of
the forces exerted by the nitrogen atom and four electro-positive radicals
is such as to attract an electro-negative radical which may enter the
molecule in one of two positions.

Further, in order to account for the existence of one kind of isomerism
observed among tervalent nitrogen compounds (p. 172), it has been sug-
gested that for three groups attached to a nitrogen atom two configurations
are possible.

Stress must be laid on a difficulty encountered in the whole of this
field—namely, the uncertainty as to the cause of certain differences which
are observed in some compounds, particularly when those differences
disappear on solution, whether they are to be attributed to isomerism
of an unstable kind or merely to dimorphism : this difficulty is accentuated
when the compounds exhibit no distinctive differences in their chemical
reactions.

It has been deemed advisable in dealing with this subject to treat the
tervalent and quinquevalent nitrogen compounds separately, and in the
latter case to present the facts completely before entering upon any dis-
cussion of them, because it is necessary to review the whole field in
attempting to offer a consistent explanation of the various phenomena.
The time is certainly not yet ripe for drawing any final conclusions about
this complicated subject, and there is still much work to be done before
a clear path through the maze-will become evident.

I. TervaALent NirroGen Compounps.
(i) Compounds of the type N a be.

(a) The Problem of Optical Activity.—It might be expected from purely
dynamical considerations that the most stable configuration for three
groups attached to one atom (nitrogen) would be that in which all three
groups were situated in the same plane with that atom ; the distances of
the groups from the centre of the nitrogen atom would be variable and
dependent on the nature of the groups, but no displacement out of the
plane would be expected so long as none of the groups was asymmetric.
Such a displacement apparently occurs when strain is introduced, as in
the formation of cyclic compounds or double linkages, and might occur if
one of the groups became asymmetric.

This view is supported by the facts, since all attempts to demonstrate
asymmetry in tervalent nitrogen compounds—other than cyclic compounds
—have hitherto been abortive.

Krafft! tried to resolve ethyl-benzylamine and p-tolyl-hydrazine by
the crystallisation of their neutral tartrates ; Behrend and Kénig ? made
similar experiments with the tartrates and mandelates of 8 benzyl-hydro-
xylamine and f nitro-benzyl-benzyl-hydroxylamine, and Ladenburg * on
the acid tartrates of methylaniline, tetrahydroquinoline, and tetrahydro-
pyridine. In all cases the salts appeared to be homogeneous, their
properties remaining unaltered by recrystallisation.

Regarded in the light of recent experience these experiments are

1 Ber., 1890, 28, 2780. 2 Ann., 1891, 268, 175.
3 Ber., 1893, 26, 864.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 171

inconclusive, since similar attempts failed to resolve quinquevalent nitrogen
compounds. The failure might have been due either to hydrolytic dissocia-
tion of these salts of weak acids with weak bases, or to partial racemism,
which the recent work of Professor Kipping has shown to occur so
frequently.

Reychler ! eliminated the first-mentioned possible cause of failure in
his attempts to resolve methyl-ethyl @ naphthylamine by fractional
erystallisation of its dextro-camphorsulphonate from non-hydroxylic
solvents ; the writer also made a similar attempt with methyl-benzy,
aniline, but no resolution was effected in either case.

The evidence derived from all the foregoing experiments (with the
exception of that in which p-tolyl-hydrazine was used) is useless if the
change of valency direction established in the case of sulphur and selenium
also occurs in nitrogen during the change from ter- to quinquevalency.
There is, however, no evidence of this, and the ease with which cyclic
compounds, such as pyridine and piperidine, form quaternary ammonium
derivatives is not in favour of this view.

On this account some experiments were made by Mr. J. P. Millington
and the writer? with the object of obtaining evidence free from this
objection, by avoiding a change in the valency of the nitrogen during the
process of resolution. Benzyl-phenyl-hydrazine d-camphorsulphonate and
the brucine salt of methyl-ethyl aniline sulphonic acid were submitted
to fractional crystallisation, but without effecting any separation into
fractions of different rotatory power ; in the first case it is probable that
no change of valency of the nitrogen atom in question takes place, and in
the second it is certain.

Evidence of quite a different kind has been adduced by Messrs.
Kipping and Salway.* It was proved that when an externally compen-
sated acid chloride reacted with an externally compensated primary amine
(each containing an asymmetric carbon atom) to form a substituted amide,
this consisted of four compounds, which being enantiomorphously related
in pairs give rise to two externally compensated compounds easily separable
by fractional crystallisation. This, therefore, forms a method of testing
for asymmetry in carbon compounds, and by analogy it should be capable
of detecting asymmetry in nitrogen compounds. The products of the
interaction of dl-benzyl-methyl-acetyl chloride with methyl aniline,
p-toluidine, pheny]-hydrazine and benzy] aniline were examined and found
to be homogeneous. The active (d) acid chloride was also allowed to react
with p-toluidine and with benzyl aniline ; but, as before, the product
appeared to be a chemical individual. Finally, the active chloride was
treated with an active amine ; if the nitrogen atom form a centre of
asymmetry, in addition to the two already present, then two compounds
should be formed ; but again the product was homogeneous.

Clearly, therefore, all the evidence is in favour of a plane configuration
for tervalent nitrogen compounds.

(b) Isomeric Tervalent Nitrogen Derivatives N a 6 c.—Although the
tervalent nitrogen atom is incapable of giving rise to optical activity, it
seems capable of giving rise to another kind of isomerism of which there
are two distinct examples.

' Bull. Soc. Chem., 1902[3], 27, 979.
2 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1904, xii. 489.
3 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 438.

172 REPORT—1904.

Miller and Pléchl! found that the product of the interaction of as-m-
xylidine with acetaldehyde in hydrochloric acid solution was a mixture of
substances which had to be separated mechanically. The two substances
have the same composition and molecular weight and give the same
reactions. They are represented by the formula

C,;H,(CH;),NH—CH—CH,
CH,
CHO

because (1) they give the tests for an aldehyde, (2) condense with m-
xylidine to give the same product,

C,H,(CH,),NH—CH—CH,
C,H(CH;),N=CH—CH,,

(3) give the same benzoyl derivative, and (4) are mutually transformable.
They differ only in melting point (102° C. and 131° C)., crystalline form,
and solubility in ether and benzene. The evidence points very clearly to
some cause other than structural differences to account for this kind of
isomerism, though the possibility of tautomerism has not been detinitely
excluded.

The other example was observed by Willgerodt? in the sym-dinitro-
pheny]-pheny|-hydrazine produced by the interaction of dinitro-chlorben-
zene and phenyl-hydrazine. Two isomeric substances appear to be formed,
one being an amorphous powder which is readily transformed into the
other and crystalline isomeride. Here also the possibility of structural
difference in the nitro group hardly exists, for if it did, it would certainly
be observable in many other compounds. Willgerodt offers an explanation
of this isomerism based on the assumption that free rotation is limited
between two nitrogen atoms; but this assumption is undesirable and is
not supported by any other experimental facts.

Vaubel * suggested a configuration for the nitrogen atom which would
explain the above cases of isomerism, based on the following considera-
tions : a nitrogen atom is capable of taking the place of a —CH group in
pyridine and also of becoming quadruply linked to carbon in isocyanides.
On this view the groups attached to the nitrogen are supposed to occupy
definite fixed positions which are at certain different but fixed distances
from the centre of the nitrogen atom. This assumption is unnecessary
and is contrary to the spirit of stereochemical conceptions.

Further work on this subject is much needed, but if it be definitely
established that isomerism, such as that apparently exhibited by the above-
mentioned substances, does exist, then it must be assumed that there are
two possible positions of equilibrium for three groups attached toa nitrogen
atom, one being somewhat more stable than the other. Isomerism, due
to such a cause, could only be detected under favourable circumstances
similar to those under which these experiments were carried out—namely,
when a reaction resulting in the formation of a solid substance takes place
in the cold; in all such cases one isomeride would probably readily pass
into the other.

1 Ber., 1896, 29, 1462.
2 Journ. prakt. Chem., 1888, 37, 449.
3 Stereochemische Forschungen, 1899, i. 20.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. Wises

(ii) Cyclic Nitrogen Compounds.

The evidence for isomerism of tervalent nitrogen compounds is more
conclusive in those cases where the nitrogen atom forms part of a
ring.

‘Ladenburg ' found that when coniine hydrochloride was distilled with
zinc dust and a Jittle water a new substance called isoconiine was pro-
duced ; isoconiine differs from coniine in optical rotatory power, the solu-
bility of its chlorplatinate in alcohol and ether, and to a less degree
in other properties.

The existence of these isomerides is explained by supposing that the
hydrogen atom attached to the nitrogen may be either on the same side
of the plane of the piperidine ring as the propyl group or on the opposite
side, thus :

oS
| alow, luloum,

Ne ~
N—H H—N

This hypothesis is not incompatible with the plane configuration of
the nitrogen atom, since the strain introduced by the formation of a ring
may disturb the equilibrium.

Later ? Ladenburg described zsostilbazoline, an isomeride of stilbazoline
differing from it chiefly in rotatory power. Isomerism of this kind should
exist in the y piperidine compounds which are not optically active, but
this has never been demonstrated.

The case is, however, much strengthened by the discovery of the
isomerism of tropine and w tropine.

y tropine was obtained by Ladenburg and Roth * from hyoscine, and
was prepared artificially by Willstatter* by the reduction of tropinone.
Similarly, Willstatter and Miller obtained two tropylamines.

In these cases there is no asymmetry in the molecule ; both compounds
are inactive,and the isomerism can only be explained by the different
spatial relations of the methyl and the hydroxyl or amino group thus—

CH,—_CH-—-—CH, CH, CH——CH,
| |
N—CH, H—C—OH and CH,—N H—C—oH
| | | |

cH,—-CH—__—CH, CH, CH——CH,

Giustiani® described isomeric benzylmalimides which differ in solu-
bility and melting point, and give different monacetyl and benzoyl deriva-
tives. Here, however, there is a possibility of tautomerism which has
not been excluded, but if this be set aside the isomerism could be
explained in the same way as that described above.

1 Ber., 1893, 26, 854. 4 Ber., 1896, 29, 936.
2 Ber., 1903, 36, 3694. 5 Ber., 1898, 31, 1212, 2655.
8 Ber., 1884, 17, 151. ® Gazz, 1892, 22, 1. 169; 1893, 23, 1. 168.

174 REPORT—1904.

a—C—b
(iii) Lsomerism in compounds of the type |
—¢.

The isomerism among compounds in which nitrogen is doubly linked
to carbon is now so well established and the hypothesis of Hantzsch and
Werner to explain it so abundantly supported by experimental evidence,
that in this place it will suffice if a very brief statement of the most
important conclusions arrived at be made, and attention called to a few
points which cannot as yet be regarded as settled satisfactorily.

(a) Ketoximes.—Goldschmidt! while working with V. Meyer on the
oximes of benzil discovered an isomeride of benzil dioxime; later
V. Meyer and Auwers discovered a third modification of the same
substance? and a second monoxime of benzil.* Meyer and Auwers gave
a clear and conclusive demonstration of the structural identity of these
oximes‘ and proposed to account for their existence by assuming that
free rotation between the carbon atoms was prevented in these compounds.
The discovery of an isomeric oxime of p-chlor-benzophenone ® disposed of
this view, which cannot account for the existence of a second oxime, and
the hypothesis of Hantzsch and Werner © alone remained.

These authors explain the isomerism of oximes by supposing that
when a nitrogen atom is united to carbon by a double bond, the third
valency is not in the same plane as the other two, and the group attached
to it may take up two equilibrium positions one on either side of this plane.

According to this hypothesis, there should be one oxime of

a a—C—a
co namely |
a N—OH
ine a—C—b a—C—b
and two of CO namely | and |
Be NOH HON,

a prediction verified for the oximes of benzophenone and p-chlor-benzo-
phenone and in many other cases.

a—C—C—a
Then two monoximes and three dioximes of a diketone eral
0 Fa
should exist, the dioximes being represented thus :
a—C—C—a a—C C—a a—C — C-—a
ll ll | I | I
HON N.OH HON HON NOH HON

which has been verified in the case of the mono- and dioximes of benzil.
The isomerism in all these cases is perfectly definite, the compounds
differing in melting point, crystalline form, solubility, and some of their
chemical reactions, and further are mutually transformable under the
influence of heat, solvents, and suitable reagents such as acids and
alkalies.
The usual criterion for determining their configurations is the

1 Rer., 1883, 16, 2176. 2 Ber., 1889, 22, 537. 3 Ber., 1889, 22, 705.
+ Ber., 1888, 21, 784, 2510: 1889, 22, 564, 1985, 1996.
° Ber., 1890, 28, 2403. ° Ber., 1890, 28, 11; Zeit. phys. Chem., 10, 1.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. Vie

‘Beckmann transformation,’! by which the oximes are transformed into
substituted acid amides, thus :—
a—C—b a—C=O a—C—b O=C—b
l| = | and | hz |

N—OH NH—d HO—N a.HN

The hypothesis predicts four isomerides of compounds of the form

a—C

| | but until quite recently no instance of this had been
HON NOH

observed. Manasse” obtained three dioximes of camphorquinone, and
Dr. Forster * re-examined these and obtained a fourth.

In the case of the ketoximes the predictions of the hypothesis have
been experimentally verified for all kinds of ketones of the aromatic but
not for those of the fatty series. Most of the attempts to get isomeric
oximes of fatty aldehydes and ketones have been unsuccessful ;4 the only
case definitely observed is that of the oximes of oxalacetic acid,°® of which
there are two definite isomers differing in melting point and in their
behaviour towards ferric chloride ; with which the a acid givesa yellowish
brown and the (3 a violet colour.

(b) Aldoximes —The case of the aldoximes cannot be regarded with
the same complacency. Beckmann ® observed that benzaldoxime when
treated with sulphuric acid or with an ethereal solution of hydrogen
chloride was converted into an isomeride. A long controversy then
ensued between chemists who claimed that the isomerides were structurally

NH
different, as represented by C;,H;CH=NOH and CyH,CHC | , and
O

those who held the view that the differences were stereochemical, as in
the case of the ketoximes. The work has been confined mainly to
benzaldoxime and substituted benzaldoximes. The two benzaldoximes
give respectively an oxygen and a nitrogen ester when treated with alkyl
haloid compounds—a fact regarded as evidence in favour of structural
isomerism. The work of H. Goldschmidt’ on the action of phenyliso-
cyanate on the two oximes and that of Professors Hartley and Dobbie 8
on their absorption spectra, however, is in favour of structural identity.
Fa The hypothesis of stereoisomerism is now almost universally accepted,
and is supported by the phenomena exhibited by the esters, which were
at first so difficult to reconcile with this view.

““f- Beckmann ® treated a (anti) benzaldoxime with sodium ethylate and
benzyl chloride in the cold and obtained an oily ester which on treatment
with hydrochloric acid split up partially into benzaldehyde and a benzyl-
hydroxylamine and was therefore an oxygen ester, whereas by similar
treatment of the @ (syn) oxime he obtained a crystalline ester which

) Ber., 1883, 16, 2176. 2 Ber., 1893, 26, 243.

3 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1903, 83, 514.

+ Franchimont (Ree. trav. Pays-Bas, 10, 236); Dunstan and Dymond, Zyans.
Chem. Soc., 1892, 61, 470; 1894, 65, 206.

5 Piutti (Gazz., 1888, 18, 457); Ebert (Ann., 1885, 229, 76) ; Cramer (Ber., 1891,
24, 1206); Dollfus (Ber., 1892, 25, 1915); Fenton and Jones (Zrans. Chem. Soc.,
1901, 79, 95).

® Ber., 1887, 20, 2766; 1889, 22, 429. 7 Ber., 1889, 22, 3112.

8 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, 509. 9 Ber., 1889, 22, 435, 1534.

176 REPORT—1904.

gave B benzyl-hydroxylamine on hydrolysis, and was therefore a nitrogen
ester.

Later Werner and Buso ! found that the liquid oxygen ester just re-
ferred to, on treatment with hydrochloric acid underwent isomeric change
during its partial hydrolysis, and gave rise to a solid oxygenester. There
are consequently two isomeric oxygen esters, the existence of which can
only be explained by different steric relations, and a nitrogen ester.

The phenomena exhibited by the methyl] esters are complementary to
those observed in the benzyl esters. Petraczek ? prepared a methyl ester
by the action of sodium and methyl iodide on a benzaldoxime, which ester
when hydrolysed gave a methyl-hydroxylamine, H. Goldschmidt and
Kjellin® isolated an ester from the products of the interaction of
2 benzaldoxime, methy] iodide, and sodium methylate, which gave /3 methyl-
hydroxylamine on hydrolysis, and was therefore a nitrogen ester ; at
the same time they observed the odour characteristic of the oxygen esters
and concluded that the oxygen ester of the syn oxime was formed at the
same time.

Finally Dr. Luxmoore?* observed that by the action of methyl bromide
and hydrobromic acid on £ benzaldoxime the hydrobromide of a new
nitrogen ester was produced. This ester differed from the nitrogen ester
already known in being very readily hydrolysed by water to form
B methyl-hydroxylamine ; it was also labile, and on standing changed into
the stable syn N ester.

Thus there is enough evidence to justify the conclusion that two benzyl-
oxygen esters and two methyl-nitrogen esters exist, and the isomerism in
these cases can only be explained on the hypothesis of stereoisomerism—
thus,

. | and So yo
wis
C,;H,ON NOC,H, CH,N N—OH,.

This conclusion is supported by Goldschmidt’s work on isomeric oxygen
esters of anisaldoxime and nitro-benzaldoxime.°

The isomerism of the nitrogen esters is analogous to that of tropine
and wy tropine.

In addition to the Beckmann transformation a second criterion for
the determination of configuration is applicable to the aldoximes ; one of
the oximes on treatment with acetic anhydride loses water and gives a
nitrile, whereas the other either remains unchanged or gives an acetyl

a—C—H
derivative, the former must therefore be the syn-oxime, (| , and
NOH

a—C—H.
the latter the anti-oxime, ll
HON

The hypothesis of Hantzsch and Werner, which has, as we have seen,
accounted in a satisfactory manner for the isomerism observed among the
oximes, requires that isomerism should exist also in other compounds with

1 Ber., 1895, 28, 1278. 2 Ber., 1882, 16, 827. 3 Ber., 1891, 24, 2812.
Trans. Chem. Soe., 1896, 69, 177. 5 Ber., 1890, 28, 2178.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. Wye

alike structure. A search for these isomerides instituted by Hantzsch and
others has been successful in a number of cases. In all these casesit is
more difficult to exclude the possibility of dimorphism and to show that
the compounds in question are structurally identical.

(c) Hydrazones and Semicarbazones.—The evidence for the existence
of isomerism among hydrazones and semicarbazones is fairly conclusive,
though by no means so satisfactory as for the oximes.

Fehrlin ! found that the hydrazone of o-nitro-phenyl-glyoxylic acid was
converted into an isomeride, when dissolved in alkalies and precipitated
by the addition of acids ; the two products differed in crystalline appear-
ance, melting point, solubility, and behaviour with nitric acid, but gave
the same reduction product. These results were confirmed by Krause,”
who found, besides, that both gave hydrazones of isatin on oxidation.

Hantzsch and Kraft* by the action of phenyl-hydrazine on anisy]-
phenyl-ketone on the one hand, and on its dichloride on the other, obtained
two different anisyl-phenyl-ketone hydrazones which differed in appear-
ance and solubility, and one of which was slowly transformed into the
other in alcoholic solution.

The possibility of structural differences was finally excluded by
Overton * by preparing two diphenyl-hydrazones of anisyl-phenyl-ketone,
and of p-tolyl-phenyl-ketone by the method used by Hantzsch ; several
other hydrazones, however, could only be obtained in one form.

Anschiitz and Pauly ° prepared three isomeric diphenyl-hydrazones of
dioxy-tartaric ester, two of which are readily transformed into the third
by heating in solution or by traces of reagents such as iodine and sulphur
dioxide: behaviour which is very characteristic of stereoisomerides ;
Bamberger and Schmidt ® found that two hydrazones of benzoyl-formalde-
hyde could be obtained, and that these were interconvertible by means of
solvents.

The only aldehyde hydrazones which have been obtained in different
forms are the phenyl-hydrazones of protocatechuic aldehyde,’ and of
salicylic aldehyde,* and in both these cases the evidence is not sufficient
to exclude the possibility of tautomerism in the benzene ring like that
shown by phloroglucin.

The evidence of the existence of isomeric semicarbazones is insufti-
cient ; but Marckwald” has observed very definite isomerides of diphenyl
thiosemicarbazine itself, which differ in melting point and in their
reaction with carbonyl chloride. Their reactions are explained as
follows :—

C,H,NH—C—SH -. C,H,—NH—C—SH
I I
C,;H,—NH—N N—NH—C,H,

| coal, | cocl,
C,H;N—C—SH ne eS me

CO N Now

at ie ae —C,H,. P
1 Ber., 1890, 23, 1574. 2 Ber., 1890, 28, 3617. 3 Ber., 1891, 24, 3511.
4 Ber., 1893, 26, 18; see also Hantzsch, Ber., 26, 1. * Ber., 1895, 28, 64.
® Ber., 1901, 34, 2001. 7 Wegscheider, Monats., 1893, 14, 386.
§ Biltz, Ber., 1894, 27, 2288, ° Ber., 1892, 25, 3098.

1904. N

178 REPORT—1904.

Both react with methyl iodide to give derivatives in which the methy]
group appears to be attached to sulphur, which points to the absence of
structural differences.

(d) Stereoisomeric Aniles and other Compounds.—Many unsuccessful
attempts to prepare aniles, Schiff’s bases, in isomeric forms were made
before any indication of their existence was obtained.!

A new isomeride of ethylidene aniline was isolated by Hibner,? from
the product of the reaction in water, which melted at 85°5° C., whereas
that already known melted at 126°C. The two compounds are mono-
molecular, and the one with the lower melting point is readily converted
into the other. Later, the same chemist with Peltzer? isolated two
isomeric ethylidene o-toluidines, which were apparently structurally iden-
tical, and of which, again, the lower melting point form could be readily
transformed into the higher. Hantzsch and Schwab ‘ described two ben-
zylidene p-toluidines in which the isomeride with the lower melting point
is the more stable. The possibility of structural differences in simple
aniles, like C,H,—N=CH—CHsz, need scarcely be considered, and the
relations between the compounds exclude dimorphism, so that their exist-
ence must be due to stereoisomerism.

Lastly, Schall and Raschkowetzky° describe two isomeric carbo-

JN—CoHs
diphenylimides, of , between which there can be no structural
Aw -CyH;

difference.
a—N
(e) Compounds of the type II Azo and Diazo Compounds.—Azo
NN — ’
compounds ought to exist in isomerides similar to those of oximes and
hydrazones, but that they do so has never been established in a satisfac-
tory manner. Janowski® has described two trinitroazotoluenes and two
p-azoxytoluenes ; the evidence, however, is insufficient to allow any defi-
nite conclusion to be drawn from it.

The diazo compounds are well known to exist in isomeric forms, to
explain which no hypothesis seems adequate except that of Hantzsch,
together with the admission of structural isomerism. This subject is so
involved, and moreover has so recently formed the subject of an exhaus-
tive report,’ that a mere mention must suffice. Syn and antidiazo com-
pounds exist, which are represented thus

C,H,;—N C;H,—N
| and I
X—N N-X,
where X represents an acidic radical, a hydroxyl group, or a metallic
radical attached to oxygen. Diazonium compounds, which are structurally
different from the diazo compounds, also exist.
a—C—b

The existing isomerides of compounds of the type ll and allied
N—c
types can only be satisfactorily explained with the aid of the Hantzsch-

1 Ber., 1891, 24, 3518; 25, 2020; Ann. Chem. Phys., 1896, 9, 433.

2 Ber., 1894, 27, 1299. 2 Ber., 1900, 33, 3460.
4 Ber., 1901, 34, 822. ® Ber., 1892, 25, 2880.
6 Monats., 1888, 9, 831; 1889, 10, 583; Ber., 1890, 23, 1176.

7 Morgan, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1902, 181.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN, 179

Werner hypothesis, which has predicted and accounted for all the cases of
isomerism of this kind hitherto observed. The absence of isomerides in
some cases in which they were expected—for instance, the oximes of
aliphatic aldehydes and ketones—is not to be regarded as a serious objection,
since one of the compounds may be so unstable as to be almost immediately
transformed into the more stable isomeride, or again, in such cases as the
azo compounds, either a suitable method for preparing the isomeride may
not be known, or the compound may not be reactive enough to undergo
transformation by any of the methods available.

II. QuinquEVALENT NiTRoGEN ComMPouNDs.

Attention was first drawn to the ammonium compounds with reference
to the discussion whether valency was fixed or variable, and from 1816
onwards a lively controversy waged between chemists who maintained
that ammonium chloride was a molecular compound, and those who held
the view that it was an atomic compound in which nitrogen was quin-
quevalent.

Experiments made by V. Meyer and Lecco! showed that the union of
trimethylamine with ethyl iodide on the one hand, and of ethyl-dimethyl-
amine with methyl iodide on the other, gave rise to the same product ;
after an objection raised by Lossen? had been answered? this was
regarded as strong evidence in favour of the atomic nature of these
compounds. Had the results of these experiments been different an
erroneous conclusion would have been arrived at. At present the doc-
trine of variable valency is accepted by most chemists, and ammonium

aN

chloride is usually represented as H Voce ake with a quinquevalent nitro-
H

H
gen atom attached to four atoms of hydrogen and one of chlorine.

(i) The Formation of Substituted Ammonium Compounds,

The rate of formation of substituted ammonium compounds from
amines and alkyl halogen compounds varies to a very great extent, and is
found to depend both on the alkyl groups in the amine and on that in the
halogen compound, Much work has already been carried out on this sub-
ject, and much more will have to be done before one can hope to under-
stand the reactions. Thus Menschutkin‘ investigated the velocity of the
reaction between a very large number of alkyl halogen compounds and
amines ; no general conclusions can be drawn from this work, the amines
being divided into three classes, according as the maximum rate of
formation occurs (1) for the salt of the tertiary amine, (2) for the salt of
the secondary amine, or (3) for the quaternary ammonium salt.

Tn all cases iodides reacted about seven times more rapidly than
bromides, and these about a hundred times faster than chlorides.

It frequently happens that the same compound is formed quite rapidly
in one way, and quite slowly or not at all in another way.°

1 Ber., 1874, 7, 1747; 8, 233, 936; Annalen, 1876, 180, 170.
2 Ber., 1875, 8, 49. 8 Ber., 1877, 10, 309.
4 Zeit. phys. Chem., 1895, 17, 191.
5 Of. also Proc. Chem. Soc., 1901, 17, 205.
N2

180 ; REPORT— 1904.

Wedekind ! compared the rate of formation of quaternary compounds
from dimethylaniline and similar tertiary amines and various alkyl iodides.
In all cases methyl, benzyl], and allyl iodides react much more rapidly than
any others ; the order of their rapidity, however, depends on the amine
used.

This kind of effect is often attributed to ‘stereochemical obstruction ’
or ‘space filling,’ in the same way as the phenomena observed in the
esterification of diortho substituted benzoic acids by V. Meyer. There is
certainly an effect of this sort. Thus, for example, tribenzylamine,
(C,H,);N, is capable of reacting with methyl iodide ; dibenzylaniline (C,H)
(C,H;CH,)N is not ; and triphenylamine will not even react with hydro-
chloric acid. Again, the halides of normal alkyl groups invariably react
more rapidly than those of the corresponding iso groups. All the facts
cannot, however, be accounted for in this way. On such a view iodides
should react less rapidly than chlorides. Also Menschutkin ? finds that,
whereas substitution of an alkyl group in the a position in pyridine,
piperidine, or quinoline diminishes the velocity of reaction with alkyl
bromides, the introduction of the same group in the / or y position
increases the velocity.

Much more work of a systematic kind is needed before any general
conclusions on the subject can be drawn ; all that we can at present say
is that the rate of formation of an ammonium compound depends both on
the alkyl radicals already present in the amine, and also on that which is
to be added on to it.

(ii) Compounds of the Type Na,bX.

The first experiments made on compounds having three radicals
identical and one different were those of Meyer and Lecco already
mentioned : a very large number of similar experiments have failed to
produce isomerides of this type.

Le Bel* found that the chloroplatinate of benzyl-triethylammonium
hydroxide was the same whether produced from triethylamine and benzyl
chloride or from benzyl-diethylamine and ethyl iodide, and similarly with
that of trimethyl-propyl ammonium hydroxide or tripropylmethyl- ammo-
nium hydroxide, whereas that of trimethyl iso-butylammonium hydroxide
was found to exist in two different crystalline modifications, the one
being anisotropic needles which readily changed into octahedra; the
chloride of the same base also exhibits differences of a similar kind.
Similar differences were observed by Le Bel* in the chloroplatinate of
dimethylamine, and by Arzruni and others® in ethylamine hydrochloride,
tetramethyl ammonium chloride, m-xylidine hydrochloride, tropidine
chloroplatinate, and several other similar salts, Although the evidence is
insufficient to show that these differences are not due to isomerism, it is
highly probable that they are merely due to dimorphism.

Messrs. Schryver and Collie® found that only one chloroplatinate of
trimethyl-ethyl ammonium hydroxide, dimethyl] diethyl ammonium hydrox-
ide, and methyl-triethyl ammonium hydroxide could be prepared.

1 Stereochemie des fiinf. Stickstoffes, 1899, 18.

2 Jour. russ. phys. Chem. Gies., 1902, 34, 411.

3 Compt. rend., 1890, 110, 145; 1891, 112, 725; Bull. Soc. Chem., 1890 [3], 4, 104.
+ Compt. rend., 1893, 116, 513.

5 Cf, Lehmann, Molecular Physik, vol. i. pp. 177, 539, 599; Zeit. Kryst., vol. iii.
16. 6 Proc. Chem. Soc., 1891, vii. 39.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 181

Professor Kipping observed a particularly interesting kind of isomerism
among compounds of this type in which 6 and X both contain an asym-
metric carbon atom.' This isomerism has now been very fully investigated
in an admirable way by himself and his collaborators.”

Externally compensated (d. /) a-hydrindamine when treated with
d-brom-camphorsulphonic acid, with the corresponding chlor acid,

or with cis x camphanic acid, was found to give rise to unequal quantities
of two salts called the a and # salts, the 3 salt being that which is formed
in smaller quantity. These salts differ in crystalline form, in amount of
water of crystallisation, and often also in specific rotatory power ; these
differences are not removed by recrystallisation from hot water, and both
salts contain the inactive base.

It is unnecessary to discuss the large mass of detailed work which has
been done in the painstaking demonstration that only one explanation of
this isomerism is possible : * a brief summary of the conclusions will suffice.

It has been clearly shown that each of the two active hydrindamines,
on combining with one of the above-mentioned acids, gives rise to two
salts called ad and Sd and al and /3/ respectively, and that the original a
salt obtained from the d-/ base is a mixture of ad and al in the form of a
partially racemic compound, whereas the original 3 salt consists of a
mixture of the two /3 salts or even of all four salts; in this case it is
called a partially diracemic compound.

In some cases there is a striking similarity between the ad and /3d or
the a/ and {3 salts respectively, which may be isodimorphous and not
completely separable by crystallisation. The molecular rotatory powers
of the /3 series of salts in aqueous solution are frequently abnormal, which
may be due to incomplete electrolytic dissociation or to activity of the
nitrogen atom (see page 190).

Evidence of a similar kind as to the existence of isomerides has
been obtained for the brom-camphorsulphonates of benzylhydrindamine,!
methylhydrindamine,* and /-menthylamine,® and for the chlor-camphor-
sulphonate of d and/ methylhydrindamines,’ although in these cases it
seems impracticable to isolate the salts free from their isomerides.

The mandelates, tartrates, camphor-7 sulphonates, and camphor-a
sulphonates (Reychler) of these bases do not exhibit the same phenomena :
these salts appear to be homogeneous. This isomerism, though extremely
important from a theoretical point of view, appears not to be of general
occurrence.

1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, 861.

2 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1903, 83, 873, 889, 902.

% Trans. Chem. Soc., 1903, 88, 937, 1147.

+ Trams. Chem. Soc., 1901, 79, 430. 5 1903, 83, 918.

6 1904, 85, 65. 7 Tattersall, 1904, 85, 169

182 REPORT—1904.

(iii) Compounds of the type Nabe X.

Messrs. Schryver and Collie! prepared the chloroplatinate of methyl-
diethyl-isoamylammonium hydroxide from the iodides formed in the three
possible ways, and found that when the processes were carried out in the
cold, two crystalline modifications were obtained, an oblique and a pris-
matic, the former of which was unstable and readily passed into the
latter. This difference might easily be due to dimorphism, as in the case
of the compounds of the type Na,6 X.

The writer’ investigated the formation in two different ways of a
number of compounds with two identical radicals, and found that even
when the reaction was carried out in the cold, the products obtained were
in all cases the same. In a few instances the crude compounds differed
to a slight extent, and one might even be gummy while the other was
deposited in a crystalline state ; these differences always disappeared
when the substances separated from solutions. The d-camphor sulphonates
prepared from both products were the same.

All attempts to get isomeric piperidinium salts have also been unsuc-
cessful. Thus Menschutkin* found that ethyl-allyl-piperidinium iodide
produced in the two possible ways was the same and so also was the
chloroplatinate. Miss de Brereton Evans‘ obtained only one form of
ethyl-propyl-piperidinium iodide, the crystals of which, however, showed
enantiomorphism, and Wedekind’ obtained only one form of benzyl-
piperidinium iodide, methyl- and ethyl-acetates, and the corresponding
bromides

Aschan ® has investigated dipiperidinium derivatives, and though he
obtained only one form of N.N. ethylene dipiperidinium dimethy] diiodide
and the corresponding dibenzy] dichloride, found that two isomerides of
ethylene-propylene dipiperidinium dibromide and of ethylene-trimethylene
dipiperidinium dibromide and diiodide’ seem to exist.

The first of these compounds contains an asymmetric carbon atom :

OH. CH) +1: CHs—CHs;. CH,..CH,

oon Pine Tis yee
CH, CH, _C H——CH,| CH, CH,
Mae

Br CH, Br
whereas the others do not:
CH, CH, CH,

CH, CH, CH,

ares “e
be Retiee eA Now
OBS ¥ LY as
CH, CH, | CH,—CH,—CH,| CH, CH,

Br Br

! Proc. Chem. Soc., 1891, vii. 39.

2 Proce. Camb. Phil. Soe., 1901, 11, 111; Trans. Chem. Soc., 1903, 88, 1400.

® Zeit. phys. Chem., 1895, 17, 228; Ber., 1895, 28, 404.

4 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, 522. ; 5 Stereochemie, 58.
© Bev., 1899, 82, 988; Zeit. phys. Chem., 1908, 46, 304. 7 Loe, cit., 306.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 183

So far only a brief statement concerning these compounds has been
made, and no full description of their properties or crystalline form has been
given. The isomeric bromides differ in solubility in dilute alcohol (5:4 and
8-2) ; the iodides in solubility in water and also in their temperature of
decomposition.

With the exception of these compounds described by Aschan, which,
as will be seen later, must show isomerism, whatever view of their con-
figuration and mode of formation be adopted, no compounds of the type
under discussion have been shown to exist in isomeric forms, and it may
therefore be concluded that under normal conditions stable isomerides
cannot exist, the limit of ‘space-filling’ having been very nearly reached
in some of the compounds used by the writer.

iv) Compounds of the type NabcdX.
ip y

No systematic efforts had been made to obtain isomerides of com-
pounds of the above type before Wedekind’s experiments were undertaken.
Wedekind argued, from the experiments of Messrs. Schryver and Collie and
others, that the groups in ammonium compounds were mobile, and that
therefore isomerism could only exist when heavy groups were used and
when the limit of ‘ space-filling’ had nearly been reached.

The formation of phenyl-ethyl-methyl-allyl ammonium iodide in the
three possible ways,! namely (a) combination of methyl-ethyl aniline and
ally] iodide, (0) allyl-ethyl aniline and methyl iodide, and (c) allyl-methyl
aniline and ethyl iodide, showed that only one product was obtained,
though in the first case the compound was at once deposited in a
crystalline state ; whereas the other two combinations gave an amorphous
product which readily became crystalline on rubbing or on separating it
from solution. Similar phenomena were observed by the writer in the
formation of phenyl-benzyl-ethyl-methyl ammonium iodide.? The union of
benzyl iodide with ethyl-methyl aniline took place very readily and
yielded a gummy solid which, on separating from solution, became crystal-
line and identical with that obtained by the addition of methyl iodide,
or of ethyl iodide to the corresponding tertiary amines, which was
crystalline from the first.

The phenomena observed by Wedekind in the phenyl-benzyl-allyl-
methyl ammonium salts? are, however, of quite a different kind. This
compound was prepared by the union of (a) allyliodide and methyl-benzy]
aniline, (b) methyl iodide and benzyl-allyl aniline, and (c) benzyl iodide
and methyl-allyl aniline. Combinations (a) and (c) take place readily and
give rise to the same product, the a compound, which crystallises in the
prismatic system, melts at 140-142° C., and distils partly unchanged
under reduced pressure. Combination (b) takes place very slowly and
gives an oily product which is induced to erystallise only with great diffi-
culty and yields a very small quantity of a crystalline solid, the /? com-
pound. This compound crystallises in a different form (also of the
prismatic system), melts at 158-159° C., and distils unchanged under
reduced pressure without melting. The «a and 8 compounds could not be
transformed one into the other.

Isomeric a and (3 chlorides and bromides were also prepared, which

! Stereochemie, 53; Ber., 1903, 36, 3791.
2 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 224.
3 Stereochemie, 33-52; Ber., 1899, 32, 517, 3561

184 REPORT—1904.

differed in a similar way to the a and # iodides. Hantzsch and Horn !
prepared the a and / iodides and made experiments to exclude the possi-
bility of structural differences. Both iodides react as unsaturated bodies
toward alkaline permanganate, and on oxidation give formic acid,which
facts show that both are allyl compounds.

The writer has compared the properties of the 4 compound with those
of phenyl-methy1l-benzy]-propy] and zsopropyl ammonium iodides, and found
that it differs from both in melting-point and crystalline form, though in the
latter particular it has a slight resemblance to the zsopropyl compound.

No other case of a similar kind has been found, though Wedekind was
deceived by abnormal reactions into thinking that there were isomerides
of some other compounds. Thus the addition of allyl bromide to benzyl
isobutyl-N-methyl-acetate and of methyl-brom-acetate to benzyl-allyl-
isobutylamine gave rise to different products, the latter of which was
subsequently found to be a mixture.

Methyl-allyl-tetrahydroquinolinium iodide? prepared in two ways was
the same, and so with ethyl-benzyl-zsotetrahydroquinolinium iodide.*

The tetrahydroquinolinium derivatives produced by the addition of
methyl] iodide and of methyl- and ethyl-iodo-acetates to the corresponding
tertiary tetrahydroquinoline compounds and which were at first thought
to be isomeric * were afterwards ° found not to have the same composition.
Methyl] tetrahydroquinolinium N-methyl- and ethyl-acetate iodides were
produced by the first method, but the second gave a mixture of these with
kairolin hydriodide.

similar tetrahydroisoquinoline compound was obtained in one form
only.

Wedekind has also studied the formation of compounds in which two
asymmetric nitrogen atoms are present.’ Ethylene dikairolinium di-
iodide was prepared in two ways and found to be the same; ethylene
ditetrahydroquinolinium di-ethyl-acetate di-iodide, however, appears to be
different when prepared in the two possible ways ; the specimen formed by
the addition of iodo-acetic ester melts at 164-165° C., whereas that formed
by the addition of ethylene di-iodide melts at 50° C., with elimination of
one molecule of iodo-acetic ester. The analyses of these compounds are,
however, insufficient to prove identity, and it is possible that one of them
is a mixture.

Wedekind examined the stable compound to ascertain if it was homo-
geneous, and decided that it was. Hence, the analogy between asymme-
tric nitrogen and carbon does not seem to hold here—namely, that, when
two asymmetric atoms are produced, all four possible compounds should
also be produced and combine in pairs to give externally compensated
compounds separable by crystallisation.

(v) Optical Activity of Substituted Ammonium Compounds.

It was expected from analogy with carbon compounds that quinque-
valent nitrogen compounds, N ab cd X, would exist in optically active forms,
and repeated attempts were made to prepare such compounds before
definite success was attained.

Le Bel® submitted dilute aqueous solution of various salts of the type,
1 Ber., 1900, 35, 883. 2 Stereochemie, 75; loc. cit., 63.

8 Ber., 1901, 34, 3986 4 Stereochemie, 66. 5 Ber., 1902, 35, 178.
5 Ber., 1903, 36, 1158. 7 Ber., 1903, 36, 1165, 3796.8 ® Compt. rend., 112, 724.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 185

Na, b c X, and also two of the type, N abcd X—namely, methyl-ethyl-
propylamine hydrochloride, and methyl-ethyl-propyl-isobuty] ammonium
chloride—to the action of Penicilliwm glawewm. In the last case only the
solution acquired a small but fugitive rotatory power of 0°4°-0-5°; the
absence of activity in the other case was attributed to mobility of groups.

This result has been contradicted by Marckwald and Droste-Huelsdoff,!
but reaffirmed by Le Bel, with the addition of further details.”

Wedekind * made several unsuccessful attempts to resolve the a phenyl-
benzyl-allyl-methyl ammonium iodide, which was successfully resolved by
Messrs. Pope and Peachey ‘ by crystallising the camphorsulphonate from
non-hydroxylic solvents (acetone and ethyl acetate). The active com-
pounds were then more fully investigated by Messrs. Pope and Harvey.’
The d-camphorsulphonate of the d-base had the molecular rotatory power

M]p>=218° in dilute aqueous solution, the corresponding J/-1 salt had
M]|>= —211° and the iodides had [M],, about + 200° in chloroform.

The writer® also succeeded in resolving phenyl-benzyl-ethyl-methyl
ammonium iodide in a similar way. The d-d and /-1 camphorsulphonates
had [M]=+71°. The difference between the values of [M], for the
basic ions in these two cases, namely 160° (approximately), and 19°5° caused
by the replacement of the allyl by the ethyl! radical, is remarkable.

A number of other active compounds are now being examined by
Miss M. B. Thomas and the writer with a view of investigating the effect
of substitution on the rotatory power. In the series containing the radicals
phenyl, benzyl and methyl with propyl, isopropyl, isobuty1, and isoamy] the
rotatory power appears to increase with the molecular weight of the last-
mentioned radical, and in the last case far exceeds that of the allyl
compound.

That the resolution of ammonium compounds does not always take
place so readily as in the first case examined is evident from the writer’s
experiments,’ and the unsuccessful attempts of Wedekind® to resolve
p-tolyl-benzyl-allyl-methyl ammonium d-camphorsulphonate, a salt very
similar to that first resolved.

So far no cyclic ammonium compounds have been resolved, though
both « and (3 substituted pyridinium and piperidinium derivatives, and
tetrahydroquinolinium compounds should be capable of giving rise to optical
activity.°

All attempts to obtain optically active compounds of the type Na, bc X
have also been unsuccessful. Thus the writer ‘° examined a number of such
compounds, Messrs. Kipping and Barrowcliff ! examined some piperidinium
compounds, and Aschan !? tried to resolve the N-N ethylene-trimethylene
dipiperidinium compounds, though not in an entirely satisfactory way, but
in no case was there any indication of activity. Itis probable that all such
compounds are planisymmetric, and therefore incapable of giving rise to
optical activity.

1 Ber., 1899, 32, 560. 2 Compt. rend., 129, 548.

3 Stereochemie, 82. 4 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1899, '75, 1127.

> Trans. Chem. Soc., 1901, 79, 828.

® Trans. Chem. Soc., 1903, 83, 1418 ; 1904, 85, 223.

7 Loe. cit., 1405.

8 Zeit. phys. Chem., 1903, 45, 235.

® Trans. Chem. Soc., 1903, 88, 1415.

10 Loc, cit., 1903, 88, 1406. Cp. also Harvey, Trans, Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 412.
Loe. cit., 1903, 88, 1141. 12 Loc. cit.

186 REPORT—1904.

(vi) Compounds containing Asymmetric Carbon and Nitrogen Atoms.

The examination of these compounds was undertaken with a view of
establishing another analogy between asymmetric carbon and nitrogen
atoms, and it has been shown! that when an active tertiary amine (methyl
[amyl aniline) combines with an alkyl iodide (allyl or benzyl iodide),
unequal quantities of the two possible compounds are produced as anti-
cipated if the nitrogen behaved like a carbon atom.

The two compounds formed with benzyl iodide differ somewhat in
their solubility, but not enough to make a complete separation by
crystallisation feasible : this can be effected by means of the camphor-
sulphonates. One of the iodides is dextro- and the other is levo-rotatory ;
a solution of either in chloroform in the cold or in alcohol on warming
becomes converted into the other until a state of equilibrium is reached,
the change from one isomeride to the other being effected by the splitting
up of the salt into benzyl iodide and amine, which then recombine, as in
the racemisation of active nitrogen compounds in chloroform solution.

(vii) The Configuration of Quinguevalent Nitrogen Compounds.

(a) A fixed Configuration necessary.—The foregoing results demand a
stable configuration for the molecule of ammonium compounds, in which
the nitrogen atom is quinquevalent, and is attached to five univalent
atoms or groups.

Werner ? still adheres to a modification of the old ‘ molecular compound
hypothesis’ to account for the ammonium compounds, and regards the
existence of isomerism and optical activity as an objection to the view
generally accepted. Dr. J. C. Cain takes the same point of view,
regards the stability of the ammonium compounds towards alkalies as a
further objection, and proposes a new hypothesis in which ammonium
chloride is represented as H;N=CI—H. Two of the numerous important
objections to this view may be mentioned: first, there is not enough
evidence to show that compounds with the structure usually assigned to
ammonium salts would not be stable, and still less for concluding that
tervalent halogen derivatives would be stable; and, secondly, the
formule proposed to account for the isomeric hydrindamine salts—
namely, a,N=X—b and a,.5N=X—a—do not account for the mode of
formation of these salts, and the formule proposed for active nitrogen
compounds—namely, bedN=X—a—and acdN=X—b—are not optical
antimers, and could not by a single process be produced together in equal
quantities.

Five points cannot be arranged symmetrically around one point so as
to be interequivalent ; hence either one or two of the valencies of nitrogen
must be different from the others : this conclusion finds expression in all
the configurations proposed, and is supported by the facts. It has been
found impossible to prepare a quinquevalent nitrogen compound contain-
ing no electro-negative radical nor one containing more than two such
radicals.4

(b) Lhe ‘ Cubie Configuration.’—The first configuration proposed was

1 Jones, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1904, xii. 466.

2 Annalen, 1902, 322, 261.

3 Memoirs of the Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1904, 48, No. 14.
+ Lachmann, American Chem. Jowrn., 1896, 18, 372.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 187

the ‘cubic’ one suggested by van’t Hoff in 1878,! in which the nitrogen
atom is supposed to be at the centre of a cube and the five groups at five
corners, thus :

The disposition of the valencies would have to be altered to meet the
requirements of recent experiments.

The number of isomerides required by this configuration is usually
larger than by some of the others on account of the lower degree of
symmetry which it possesses, and, since it has no special advantages, little
use has been made of it.

(c) The ‘ Double Tetrahedron’ Configuration.—The next configuration
which was proposed is usually called the ‘double tetrahedron’ configuration
and associated with the name of Willgerodt.2 According to this view it
is assumed that the two new groups are attached at right angles to the
plane of the three already present, thus giving rise to an arrangement like a
double tetrahedron. This arrangement has the highest degree of symmetry

Fi4, 2.

4

>

of any ; it requires the existence of (1) two isomerides of the type Na,X—
namely, those in which a and 6 respectively occupy one apex while X
occupies the other ; (2) three isomerides of the type Na.bcX, one of
which should exist in optical antimers ; and (3) four isomerides of the
type NabedX, all of which should exist in optically active forms.

» Ansichten tiber Org. Chem., i. 80. 2 Journ. prakt. Chem., 1890, 41, 291.

188 REPORT—1904,

(d) The ‘ Pyramidal’ Configuration—Behrend! discussed other
possible arrangements of the five groups, and Bischoff” proposed the
‘ pyramidal’ configuration in which the five groups are supposed to be
situated at the angular points of a pyramid on a square base, the acidic
radical occupying the apex thus :

Fig. 3.

5

LOUD. oy aa

1 4

Considering this arrangement as originally suggested we should expect
(1) no isomerides of the type Na,bX ; (2) two isomerides of the type
Na,beX, one of which would be capable of existing in enantiomorphously
related forms ; and (3) three isomerides of the type NabcdX, all of which
should be capable of existing in optically active forms.

It is evident, however, that this view must be modified somewhat,
for, since it does not represent the three groups in tervalent nitrogen
compounds in one plane, there are three possibilities : (a) a change of
valency direction occurs ; (2) the acidic radical does not occupy the apex
(this assumption increases the number of possible isomerides very con-
siderably) ; (c) an interchange of position between two groups occurs
during the change of valency.

It is desirable to avoid the first assumption, if possible ; the last two
have been made by Professor Kipping to account for the isomerism of the
hydrindamine salts, and will be discussed in detail.

(e) Only the Pyramidal Configuration accounts for the Facts.—To
decide between these various views we have the following facts which
must be accounted for :

(1) The existence of stable, optically active compounds.

(2) The existence of the isomeric hydrindamine salts.

(3) The existence of isomerides of the type Na,bcX only in the case
recorded by Aschan, and the optical inactivity of all these compounds.

All the views account for (1), but the ‘double tetrahedron’ configura-
tion does not account for (2), since both the new groups introduced during
the change of valency are situated in the same plane symmetrically with
reference to the existing groups, and are interchangeable by rotation.*

1 Ber., 1890, 28, 454. 2 Ber., 1890, 23, 1972.
8 See Trans. Chem. Soc., 88, 949.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 189

This configuration may therefore be left out of consideration, and since
the ‘cubic’ has no advantages and some disadvantages, we shall confine
ourselves to the ‘ pyramidal,’ which may conventionally be represented as
a plane projection.

7
TEES

The way in which this configuration can be made to account for
(2) and (3) has already been discussed.! The argument, therefore, need
only be briefly stated.

In order to account for the existence of isomeric hydrindamine salts
it is necessary to make one of two assumptions (5) or (c) (above) as to the
manner in which the two new radicals, H and X, are attached to the
amine, all three groups in the latter being in one plane with the nitrogen
atom.

First H and X may be placed at the two unoccupied positions at the
base of the pyramid, the asymmetric group (a) being also at the base
(since if it occupy the apex no isomerism arises) ; the two salts would be
thus represented :

m@

fom

c

Fig. 5. FIG. 6.

He H x
S< i ><
a x a H

This assumption requires that the compound produced by the com'
bination of aX and N a 6 ¢ should have one of the configurations,

Figs 7%. Fig. 8.

Dd - Dd

which are enantiomorphously related and should be optically active.
This expectation cannot be experimentally realised.

1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 88, 1404.

190 REPORT—1904.

Secondly, it is assumed that, addition having taken place as before,
the radical X then changes its position with the hydrogen atom at the
apex of the pyramid, thus giving rise to a compound with the con-

Fig. 9.

ZN,

figuration (fig. 9) which would be one of the isomerides, while the untrans-
formed addition product would be the other (fig. 5 or 6).

On this view one isomeride (the untransformed product) is devoid of
a plane of symmetry, whereas the other is planisymmetric, one should
therefore have an activity due to the nitrogen atom, and this might
account for the abnormal rotatory power of the salts of the £ series.

This view will account (a) for the existence of one isomeride of Na,bcX
and its optical inactivity, since the original addition product (fig. 10) changes

Fi@g. 10. Fie. 11.

x
x

a

into a planisymmetric compound (fig. 11), and (6) for the inactivity of
piperidinium compounds, which would be represented thus:

Fia. 12. Fig. 13.
b CH, b CH,
\CH, “\CH2
: :
CH Xx CH3— a |
CH>----------- 4CH2 CH}----------- SoH,

the plane of the piperidine ring being supposed perpendicular to the plane
of the paper.

A difficulty arises with regard to compounds of the type, NabedX,
since they can be represented as giving rise to isomerides or not, accord-
ing to the position which the new radicals are supposed to take up with
reference to those already present.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 191

Since, in general, no isomerism arises, the process probably takes
place as follows :
Fig. 14.

Be SN

(abeN +dX) (adeN +X)

giving rise to the same product.

But in one case at least—namely, that of the a and £ phenyl-benzyl-
allyl-methyl ammonium salts—different products are formed. It is true
that the untransformed addition product might be expected to be an
isomeride, as in the case of the hydrindamine salts, even in compounds of
the type N a,bX and Na,bcX, and this may account for the labile amor-
phous products observed by Wedekind and the writer in some instances.
Such instances are, however, of quite a different order to the stable
isomerism of the a and f phenyl-benzyl-allyl-methy] ammonium salts ;
our knowledge is unfortunately insufficient to enable us to form any idea
of the reason for the unique position of those salts, and the following
suggestion as to their mode of production is simply tentative. Since
they are both stable it is better to regard these both as transformed
products which might arise thus :

Fig. 15.

De ;
DX Hy Ne Dé} H,

a ern. OH,N 40.111) (C,H;.C,;H,;.CH,N + C,;H,I)

The benzyl and allyl groups are regarded as the ones which inter
change their positions with the iodine atom to form the a compound.
The 3 compound might arise thus :

Fie, 16,
C3Hs

pe<[- aes
CeHs CgHs C7H7

(C,H;.C,H,.C,H,N + CH,I)

The benzyl radical] is regarded as more mobile than the allyl, which is
in accordance with observation. In all these cases the addition of the

192 REPORT—1904.

alkyl and acidic radicals in both the possible positions gives rise to a
mixture of optical antimers.

The isomerism observed by Wedekind in the diquinolinium compounds
if established by further work is readily accounted for, since it would be
expected that mobility would be diminished in these cases. Two exter-
nally compensated compounds ought to be produced, but since the pro-
duct was apparently homogeneous, the two compounds must either be
extremely similar or one of them must be formed in extremely small
quantities, as in the case of the mannose cyanhydrins.

The existence and properties of the isomeric ethylene-trimethylene
dipiperidinium dibromides discovered by Aschan are readily accounted for
by any one of the proposed configurations, though Aschan himself says : !
‘Das von van’t Hoff mit dem gewohnten Scharfsinn dieses Gelehrten
vorgeschlagene Modell fiir den pentavalenten Stickstoff ist die einzige mir
bekannte, welche die Existenz und Inaktivitaét der beiden untersuchten
Dipiperidid-Dibromide erkliren kann.’

With the aid of the pyramidal configuration these isomerides would
be represented thus :

Fie. 17.

Formed by the addition of trimethylene dibromide to ethylene dipiperidide :

Fig. 18.
Formed by the addition of ethylene dibromide to trimethylene dipiperidide :
oan CH

eG CH>
CH2s__ , CHa
CH3-~-.>

CHa Che As
CH3-"" _-°CHo
Che

“CH

Interchange of positions between the bromine atom and one of the
chains forming the central ring is not possible without almost complete
disintegration of the molecule, and is improbable for other reasons, so
that each bromine atom occupies a position at the base of the pyramid.

The planes of the piperidine rings are in each case represented as
perpendicular to the plane of the paper ; each compound has thus a plane
of symmetry in the plane of the paper and would be optically inactive.

Hence, the ‘ pyramidal’ configuration of Bischoff, with the assumptions
made as to the mode of formation of ammonium compounds from amines,

1 Toe. cit., 318.

ON THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. 193

is capable of accounting forall the observed phenomena. There are, how-
ever, a number of problems which still remain to be solved, notably, the
investigation of the conditions which determine the stability of isomeric
compounds such as the hydrindamine salts.

Notr.—Since the above was written Wedekind and Oberheide have
studied the question of isomerism in the paratoluidine series.! p-tolyl-
methyl-ethyl-allyl ammonium iodide was produced in two ways, and
p-tolyl-methyl-allyl-benzyl ammonium iodide was produced in three ways.
In this case the stable isomerism observed in the corresponding phenyl
compounds does not arise, and renders this still more difficult to under-
stand. These compounds, too, have resisted all attempts to resolve them
into their active constituents.

Dynamic Isomerism. By 'T. M. Lowry, D.Sc.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |

PAGE
I. Introductory and Historical . : , : : . . : . 193
Il. Lhe Nature of Dynamic Isomerism . : 2 2 7196
Ill. Zsomeric Changes in which Two Radicles are A i nterchanged é - 200
IV. Zsomeric Changes in which a Single Mobile Radicle is Transfer red . . 204
V. Optical Inversion ‘ - . 3 A . 211
VI. Chemical Properties of Dynamic Tromarides : 5 F : . 214
VIL. Physical Properties of Dynamic Isomerides ; i : “ - 3 2G
VIII. Reversible Polymeric Change . ° . 3 “ 5 - - . 223

I. Introductory and Historical.

Berzelius.—Almost simultaneously with the discovery of isomerism
the fact was recognised that isomeric compounds were sometimes capable
of being converted into one another: in fact Berzelius, who in 1831 had
introduced the term isomeric to express the relationship between tartaric
and racemic acids, found it necessary in the following year to introduce
the term metameric in order to distinguish those isomerides which differed
in type and were on that account easily convertible into one another.”
Berzelius’ conception of metameric compounds is very similar to that
which forms the subject of the present report, which deals with the phe-
nomena of dynamic isomerism or equilibrium between isomers.

Liebig and Wéohler.—Of the two examples quoted by Berzelius, one
(the isomerism of stannous sulphate, SnSO,, and basic stannic sulphite,
SnOSO,) has not been realised, and the other (the supposed isomerism
of cyanic and cyanuric acids) has proved to be an example of reversible
polymeric change. The conversion of ammonium cyanate into urea,
discovered by Liebig and Wéhler in 1828, is the earliest example of the
type pictured by Berzelius. It is of interest to note that the first organic
synthesis was effected with the aid of the first isomeric change.

Butlerow.—Little progress was made in the study of dynamic
isomerism until the doctrine of valency rendered possible the modern
development of structural chemistry. In the modern period the first and
most important contribution to the theory of dynamic isomerism is to be

1 Ber., 1904, 37, 2712.

2 Full quotations are given in Professor Armstrong’s article on ‘I omerism,’
Morley and Muir’s edition of Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry.

1904, )

194 REPORT—1904.

found in Butlerow’s paper ‘Ueber Isodibutylen,’’ a paper which is
remarkable in that it anticipated by a quarter of a century the views that
are generally held at the present day. Butlerow’s experiments showed
that in presence of sulphuric acid equilibrium is established between the
two olefines and the two isomeric alcohols formulated below, so that on
oxidising with chromic acid products were obtained characteristic of each

of these four substances :—

CH, eis 01 2 ik 0: ip Mey bss ay 91 CH, CH, CH,
goa’ 4 sf, a vA a Sit
CH C C(OHS C
| sree dine sls encaros bas ate es ecgegy
CH, ersgoeiicaeh 6) canada 6s: esiaietiemebeleieags 2
| | | i
CMe, CMe, CMe, CMe,

In no previous case had the existence of a reversible isomeric change been
demonstrated, and Butlerow fully realised the importance of his discovery.
At the end of his paper he suggested that a similar equilibrium between
isomers might exist even in the absence of any special catalytic agent and
that this would account for the formation of isomeric ethers from prussic acid

GHC. iNet BE GoM eet Bs 8 5 ioe CsH,.N 36 :
— __~_
ethyl cyanide prussic acid ethyl isocyanide

and for a number of other abnormal changes.

Subsequent investigations have fully demonstrated the correctness of
Butlerow’s theory since reversible isomeric changes have been found to
be of frequent occurrence, especially amongst the ketones and nitro-
compounds.

Isomeric change not spontaneous.—The only important modification of
Butlerow’s theory that has taken place depends on the proof that has
recently been given? that even the most easily convertible compounds
do not change spontaneously but that in all cases a catalytic agent is
necessary for the establishment of equilibrium. The necessity for a
third substance in order to bring about chemical change has been per-
sistently advocated by Armstrong and has been demonstrated experi-
mentally by Dixon, Baker and others in the combustion of carbon
monoxide and phosphorus, and in the union of hydrogen with oxygen
and with chlorine. Baker has further demonstrated the remarkable fact
that moisture is necessary not only for the (apparently direct) union of
ammonia and hydrogen chloride, but also for the dissociation of ammonium
chloride, which cannot be decomposed by heat alone. Recent observations
have extended the proof to the reversible isomeric change of nitro-
camphor and £-bromonitrocamphor and it has been found that even the
transference of a mobile hydrogen atom cannot take place within the
molecule, but is dependent on the formation of a complex molecular circuit.
It is therefore impossible to maintain any longer a distinction between
those isomerides which are only convertible in presence of a specially
added catalytic agent and those which find in the ordinary dirt of the
laboratory the catalytic agent that they need and which therefore appear
to change spontaneously.

1 Ann. 1877, 189, 44. 2 Lowry, Zrans. 1899, 75, 219.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 195

Abnormal Chemical Changes explained by Butlerow’s Theory.—Simul-
taneously with the development of the theory of dynamic isomerism a
large number of observations were being made which have only found a
satisfactory explanation in the fully developed theory. The formation
of two series of ethers from prussic acid was explained by Butlerow
in 1877. Baeyer in 1883 was able in a similar manner to account for

CO CO
aa EN PAGER
the existence of isomeric ethers C,H, CO and C,H, C.OEt
os

NEt
of isatin by supposing that one of them was derived from a labile pseudo-
isatin which was converted into ordinary isatin whenever attempts were
made to prepare it :—

co co
A \
C,H, CO or C,H, CoH
EY Oa oc 4
NH N

In the same way it is easy to account for the apparent identity of nitroso-
phenol and quinoneoxime by supposing that one of these compounds
undergoes isomeric change in the course of preparation :

_>
ON.C,H,OH or HON: 0,H,: 0.
<_——

Laar’s Theory.—In his paper, ‘ Ueber die Méglichkeit mehrerer Struk-
turformeln fiir dasselbe chemische Verbindung,’ Laar, in 1885, rendered
an important service by calling attention to the existence of a large
number of facts of this kind. Unfortunately he rejected the explanation
given above and put forward in its place his theory of tautomerism.
According to this theory the product obtained by the action of nitrous
acid on phenol, or of hydroxylamine on quinone, has actually not one but
both of the alternative constitutions formulated above, the hydrogen atom
oscillating between the two positions indicated in the formula

CH CH

cH cH CN iy

7O0C

POET O19 VE OY

in a manner comparable with the vibrations that give rise to light. The
incorrectness of Laar’s theory was proved when, in 1895 and the years
immediately following, it was found that the isomeric forms of several
ketones and nitro- compounds could be isolated in the solid state and were
only slowly converted into one another. The necessity for a catalytic
agent has also shown that the oscillation of the hydrogen atom is not an
intramolecular process but, like other chemical changes, can only take
place within a complex molecular circuit. The distinction between the
two theories is of importance at the present time, because it is not
inconceivable that tautomerism may actually exist as an intramolecular
phenomenon, though all the cases to which the term has hitherto been
applied:appear to be examples of dynamic isomerism.
02

196 REPORT—1904.

Physical Phenomena explained by Butlerow’s Theory.—In addition to
affording an explanation of many puzzling chemical changes the theory of
dynamic isomerism has proved exceptionally fertile when applied to
physical phenomena. Thus the gradual change of rotatory power which
takes place in freshly prepared solutions of many of the sugars was
observed as long ago as 1846 but has only recently been shown to be due
to the establishment of equilibrium between isomeric forms of the sugar.
The formation of violet salts from colourless violuric acid, of red and
yellow salts from colourless p-nitrophenol and of highly dextro-rotatory
salts from levo-rotatory nitrocamphor are due to similar changes or
structure. Again there is good reason to suppose that many of the
phenomena of luminosity are dependent on reversible isomeric change or
on the analogous reversible changes involved in association and dissociation.
This is almost certainly true of the fluorescence and phosphorescence or
organic compounds and there is reason to think that the flash of light
emitted when crystals of sugar or saccharin are crushed is also a mani-
festation of isomeric change.!

The bearing of Dynamic Tsomerism on Chemical and Physiological
Changes.—The mere presence of the mechanism necessary for dynamic
isomerism appears to facilitate chemical change and in many cases it is
probably an essential factor. Thus Lapworth has recently shown? that
the bromination of acetone is dependent on the presence of a minute
amount of the enolic form, the ketone itself being apparently unacted on
by the halogen. A similar explanation may be given of the great activity
of phenol and aniline as compared with benzene and of the inhibiting
influence of ortho- substitution. In this connection it is of interest to note
that the most important natural organic materials, such as the sugars
and the albuminoids, are very rich in those plastic groups which most
frequently give rise to dynamic isomerism and to this fact their great
activity may at least in part be attributed.

Il. The Natwre of Dynamic Isomerism.

1. Definition. Under the heading of dynamic isomerism are included
all those cases in which it is possible to establish a condition of equilibrium
between isomers. It may also be defined as a condition of reversible
isomeric change.? But if this definition is used it must be remembered that
reversal is largely a matter of conditions and that all isomeric changes
are probably accompanied by a certain amount of back-action, even though
this may be too small to be detected by the methods commonly used.

2. Equilibrium between Isomers is only possible in presence of a
third substance.—Proof of this was first obtained in the case of nitro-
camphor,‘ solutions of which in chloroform could sometimes be kept for
two or three weeks without undergoing change, although usually sufficient
impurity was present in the solution to bring about equilibrium between
the normal and pseudo forms in the course of a single week.

CH.NO C: NO.H
STEN ay Re: Be ae rg > Cae * [18 0
[82 %] 10 M\ co s 10 do [ %]

Normal nitrocamphor Pseudo-nitrocamphor

1 Armstrong and Lowry, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1903, 72, 258.
= Trans. Chem. Soc. 1904, 85, 30. 3 Lowry, Trans. 1899, 75, 235.
+ Lowry, ibid, p. 220.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 197

Similar observations have been made by Forster,! who found that a
solution in chloroform of enolic a-benzoyleamphor could be ‘ preserved in
darkness during twelve hours, exposed to bright sunlight during two
hours and even sown with a crystal of the ketonic isomeride’ without
undergoing change ; usually, however, six days were sufficient to bring
about the condition of equilibrium indicated in the equation

/PH COC Hs C.CO.C,H

[39 %) aah oh = aE Se De at [61 %)-

More recently it has been found possible to prepare solutions in benzene
containing a mixture of normal and pseudo £-bromonitrocamphor which
could be kept unchanged during several days in a graduated flask, but
reached a condition of equilibrium in a single day when brought into
contact with the softer glass of a polarimeter tube.? Of themselves, there-
fore, these isomerides are as stable as, for instance, are ethyl alcohol,
CH;.CH,.OH, and methyl ether, CH;.0.CH;, or methyl acetate,
CH;.CO.0.CH;, and propionic acid, CH;.CH,.CO.OH; but unlike these
latter substances they become isodynamic in presence of an almost incon-
ceivably minute amount of impurity. The addition to a solution of
nitrocamphor in benzene of 0:0001 per cent. of piperidine is sufficient to
- establish equilibrium in two or three hours.

3. An Lonising Solvent may promote Isomeric Change.—-Although in
the cases described neither benzene nor chloroform is capable of bringing
about isomeric change, it is possible that an ionising solvent may act as
the necessary ‘third substance.’ The isomeric change of nitrocamphor is
accelerated to some extent by acids as well as by alkalies, and in ionising
solvents the change is very rapid even when purified material is used ; as
pseudo-nitrocamphor is itself a strong acid it may well act under these
conditions as a catalytic agent. In the case of aqueous solutions of glucose
quantitative measurements have shown that the isomeric change cannot
be ascribed to acid or to basic impurities, whilst neutral salts retard
rather than accelerate the change ; the effect appears, therefore, to be
produced directly by the solvent, assisted, perhaps, by the feebly acid
properties of the glucose itself.?

4. Many substances only become Isodynamic at High Temperatures cr
in presence of a special Catalytic Agent.—Whilst it is now recognised that
the changes which Butlerow regarded as spontaneous are actually brought
about by a trace of acid or alkaline impurity or by an ionising solvent,
there are many substances which, like the isodibutylenes, only become
isodynamic under somewhat special conditions. Thus many sulphonic
acids, like Butlerow’s olefines, become isodynamic when dissolved in con-
centrated sulphuric acid ; again where isomeric change involves the trans-
ference of an alkyl group, it may often happen that an alkyl iodide or an
aluminium haloid is the only efficient agent. Apart from their great
scientific and commercial importance these cases of dynamic isomerism are
of interest as enabling isomerides to be directly balanced against one
another of which the relative stability could otherwise be determined only
indirectly from the heats of combustion. In other cases a reversible
isomeric change appears to set in spontaneously when the temperature is

1 Trans. 1901, 79, 999. 2 Lowry, Proc. 1903, 19, 131.
8 Lowry, Zrans. 1903, 88, 1314. :

198 REPORT—1904.

raised. A high temperature can scarcely do more than increase the
activity of the impurities present in the material but these may easily be
introduced at high temperature owing to incipient decomposition or to
action on the walls of the containing vessel.

5. Equilibrium is determined by the Velocities of Isomeric Change in
opposite directions.—The proportions of the isomerides in the ultimate
mixture is determined by the ratio of the velocities with which they
undergo isomeric change under the given conditions. If these velocities
are equal there will be 50 per cent. of each isomeride, but if one undergoes
change ninety-nine times as fast as the other, there will only be | per cent.
of it in the mixture. ‘Complete’ isomeric changes are merely limiting
cases in which one velocity is small compared to the other, and as it is
difficult to detect a back action in which the ratio of the velocities is greater
than 100 to 1, the distinction between complete and incomplete changes is of
very small importance. It may be added that solids are usually incapable
of undergoing isomeric change but if such a change should occur (owing,
for instance, to incipient fusion or to the presence of a trace of solvent),
it is usually complete, back action being possible only in the liquid or
gaseous state. Thus Walker and Hambly ' have shown that the conversion
of ammonium cyanate into urea, which is complete when the solution is
evaporated to dryness, is reversible in solution. In a normal solution at
59-6°, 14:4 per cent. of ammonium cyanate undergoes isomeric change in
a minute, and 0:0038 per cent. of urea. Equilibrium is reached when
there is 5 per cent. of cyanate and 95 per cent. of urea, as indicated by
the equation

[5 %] NH4.0.0 N 2 CO(NH,), [95 %].

The concentration of the ammonium cyanate is then only N/20, and
its velocity of change is reduced to half that in normal solution. Equi-
librium is reached when the ratio 95/5 of the concentrations is equal to
the ratio 7:2/0-0038 of the velocities of change in opposite directions.”

Ammonium cyanate changes slowly in aqueous solutions at ordinary
temperatures ; at 100° equilibrium is reached almost immediately. Am-
monium thiocyanate, on the other hand, does not change in aqueous
solution, but in the fused state at 170° it changes at about the same rate
as ammonium cyanate in aqueous solution at 60°. The predominance of
the thiocyanate in the equilibrium

[75-7 %] NH,S.C: N @ CS(NH,), [24:3 %]

is in marked contrast to the instability of the cyanate.

6. Isomeric Change proceeds according to a simple Logarithmic Law, and
the Period of Change is the same for different Isomerides.—The logarithmic
law has been verified in the case of glucose and other sugars,‘ in the case
of z-bromonitrocamphor’® and in many other instances. If, however,
one of the isomerides is an active catalyst, or if by reason of association or
dissociation only part of the material is in a condition to undergo isomeric
change, the velocity-constant may vary as the concentration changes. In
the absence of such disturbances the period of change must be the same

1 Trans. 1895, 67, 746.

2 For observations on the alkyl thiocyanates see Walker and Appleyard, Trans.
1896, 69, 193

$ Reynolds and Werner, Frans. 1903, 88, 1.

4 Osalca, Zit. phys. Chem. 1900 35, 661, 5 Lowry, Zrans. 1899, 75, 227.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 199

for the different isomerides, though large accidental discrepancies may
occur when isomeric change depends on a small amount of a third
substance. A fair agreement between the two periods was observed in
solutions in benzene of normal and pseudo z-bromonitrocamphor ! but
Forster’s curves for the two a-benzoylcamphors show a period twice as
great for the ketonic as for the enolic form.

7. Catalytic Agents alter the velocity of Isomeric Change but do not
disturb the Equilibriwm.—Schiff? supposed that in the case of ethyl
aceto-acetate

CH,.CO.CH,.CO.OEt 2 CH;.C(OH) : CH.CO.OEt

the material was converted by a trace of sodium ethoxide wholly into the
enolic, and by a trace of piperidine wholly into the ketonic, form. This
is impossible on theoretical grounds and has been disproved experi-
mentally in this and in other cases.* It therefore follows that catalytic
agents accelerate both isomeric changes in the same ratio.

8. The Equilibrium may be affected by the Solvent, Concentration and
Temperature.—The direct effect of these is probably small, but if there is
a tendency for one or both of the isomerides to polymerise, as in the case
of the nitroso- and many hydroxylic compounds, or to combine with the
solvent, as in the case of normal nitrocamphor dissolved in benzene, or to
combine with one another, as in the case of thiourea and ammonium
thiocyanate 4 or to become ionised, as in aqueous solutions of the cyanates
and pseudonitro- compounds, very marked effects may be indirectly
produced. Thus Wislicenus has shown ® that associating solvents and
high concentrations favour the formation of the (dimolecular) enolic form
of ethylic phenylformylacetate

CHO.CHPh.CO,Et @ HO.CH : CPh.CO,Et.

In the contrary direction, Perkin has shown® that high temperatures
increase the proportion of the ketonic form of the diketones, probably by
dissociating the dimolecular enolic forms.

The great increase in stability of ammonium cyanate in dilute aqueous
solution may be attributed to the large proportion of the salt which is
then in an ionised condition and only indirectly available for isomeric
change—

+ —
CO(NH,), 2 NH,.0.CN 2 NH, | OCN.

Thus Walker and Hambly’ have obtained evidence that at the dilution of
N/2000 ammonium cyanate and urea would be equally stable, and would
be present in equal proportions in the mixture. On somewhat similar
lines Hantzsch and Kinchenberger have contended ® that nitroform in
anhydrous solvents exists almost exclusively in the normal modification,
but that in aqueous solutions it is mainly in the ionised pseudo- modifica-
tion, psewdo-nitroform being one of the strongest known acids :

- +
CH(NO,), 2 (NO,),CH : NO,H 2 (NO,)CH : NO, | H.

! Loe. cit. 2 Ber, 1898, 31, 601.
$ See Schaum, Ber. 1898, 31, 1964; and Lowry, Trans. 1899, 75, 223.

4 Reynolds and Werner, loc. cit. 5 Ann. 1896, 291, 182.
® Trans. 1892, 61, 801. 7 Loe. cit.

8 Ber, 1899, 32, 628.

200 REPORT—1904.

9. The Ultimate Product of Isomeric Change is a Mixtwre.—It is
necessary to emphasise the fact that except when isomeric change is
complete the ultimate product is not a definite compound or a new
isomeride but merely a mixture. Thus if the ultimate product of the
isomeric change of glucose were a definite third isomeride, as has been
suggested by Lippmann,! by Tanret? and more recently by Simon,? it
would be impossible by mere crystallisation to reconvert it into the labile
a-glucose. So also if ammonium thiocyanate and thiourea were converted
completely into the compound 3AmCNS,CS(NH,),, postulated by Reynolds
and Werner, it would be impossible by mere cooling to crystallise from
the fused mass anything but the compound in question.

10. The Classification of Dynamic Isomerides.—Following Butlerow’s
example dynamic isomerides have usually been divided into two classes
according as isomeric change takes place ‘spontaneously’ or only under
special conditions. The ‘spontaneous’ changes have often been called
‘tautomeric,’ whilst the other group have been distinguished as ‘ ordinary ’
isomeric changes. Such a distinction may be convenient but cannot be
defended on any other ground, for the spontaneity of the change is not an
inherent property of the substance but depends on the presence or absence
of a catalytic agent in the dirt that normally accompanies it. It must
also be remembered that many isomeric changes which are not spontaneous
at ordinary temperatures appear to become so when the temperature is
raised, and the classification in question thus unconsciously involves an
arbitrary temperature limit. But although no satisfactory classification
of dynamic isomerides can be made on the basis of the readiness with which
they undergo change, it is nevertheless possible to distinguish two principal
groups, of which the second includes the majority of the so-called spon-
taneous changes.

These two groups are as follows :

A. Isomeric changes in which two radicles are interchanged, of which
neither can be split off alone as an ion. Closely related to this
group are a number of cases in which a double bond is shifted in
an unsaturated compound.

B. Isomeric changes in which a single radicle is transferred which
is capable in at least one of the isomerides of acting as an ion ; the
transference is accompanied by a rearrangement of bonds in the
molecule,

The fact that changes of these two types usually take place under
different conditions and in presence of different catalytic agents, goes far
to show that the distinction is not arbitrary but fundamental. These two
groups of changes are dealt with in the two following sections. Optical
inversion, which includes examples from both groups, is discussed under a
separate heading.

III. Lsomeriec Changes in which Two Radicles are Interchanged.

1. Interchange of Radicles in Aliphatic Compounds.—Butlerow’s
observation that the isodibutylenes are accompanied by isomeric alcohols
is of importance not only as affording an illustration of this type of

1 Ber. 1896, 29, 203. 2 Bull. Soc. Chen. 1896, iii. 16, 195.
3 0. R. 1901, 182, 487.

ON DYNAMIC 1SOMERISM. 201

dynamic isomerism but also because it proves that the interchange of H
and OH depends on the separation of a molecule of water. Changes of this
type frequently occur when alcohols are dissolved in sulphuric acid, as,
for instance, in the production of tertiary butyl derivatives from isobutyl
alcohol

HO.CH,.CHMe,2CH, : CMe, + H,O2CH;.CMe,.0H.

In the conversion of pinacone into pinacoline the reversible separation of
a molecule of water would account for the interchange of CH; and OH.

CMe,,OH Nr _,CHs.CMe,

| H,0 + ; ZH,O + CMe,.CO.CH,.
OMe,.0H HO.CMe% ~*~ HO.CMc OH ~ . ‘

A similar separation of HBr may be involved in the conversion, in
presence of aluminium bromide, of propyl into isopropyl bromide

CH,.CH,.CH,Br2 HBr + CH;.CH : CH,.2CH;.CHBr.CH,

whilst in the conversion of «a into y-bromoacetoacetic ester the inter-
mediate product would be a ring compound :

CH
CH, CO.CHBr.CO,Et? HBr + | *oH..CO,8t2.CH,Br.00.0H,.CO,Et.
co

2. Isomeric Change of Unsaturated Compounds.—This is merely
another phase of the preceding case, for the isomeric change depends on
association with H,O, H,SO,, or HBr, instead of on dissociation, and takes
place under similar conditions. Thus the undecyclenes, like Butlerow’s
octylenes, are in equilibrium in presence of sulphuric acid, the proportions
being indicated in the equation !

(49) CH, : CH.CH,.C,H,;2 CH,.CHOH.CH,.C,H,,2CH,.CH : CH.C,H,, (96 %).
At high temperatures changes of this type take place readily in contact
with platinum black or alumina, for instance,?

OH,
cH, | 2OCH,.CH:CH,;
\CH,

under conditions such as these the conversion probably depends on asso-
ciation with water, the activity of a trace of moisture being greatly
increased by the high temperature and the presence of the contact
substance. Isomeric changes of this kind are very frequent, especially
amongst the terpenes. They may lead either to the shifting of a double
bond, as in the conversion of dihydrocarvone into carvenone

CO.CH 00.CH
CH,.CHC : CHMe : CH, 2.CH,.CHZ No.cHMe,
CH,.CH, \GH,.CH,”

or to a rearrangement of the ring-system in the molecule, as when pinene
1 Thoms and Mannich, Ber. 1903, 36, 2544.

a Tanatar, Zeit. phys. Chem. 1902, 41, 735; Ipatieff and Huhn, Ber, 1903, 36,

202 REPORT—1904.

is converted through its hydrochloride into camphene or camphor into
carvenone.!

In the hexachlorocycloketopentenes, studied by Kister,? the shifting
of the double bond is accompanied by the transference of a halogen atom,
and equilibrium is established fairly rapidly at 210°, the necessary catalyst
being probably HCl,

COL: CCL OCLC,
*" CCl.CCl,” CCLCCI,” 76)

Included in this group are the stereoisomeric changes of unsaturated
compounds. The conversion of maleic into fumaric acid, which takes
place at ordinary temperatures in presence of HBr, is almost complete,

H.C.CO,H _ CO,H.C.H
Nl I
H.C.00,2° > H.0.00,H.

but the dibromotolanes which are convertible at 210° are almost equally
stable and are present in approximately equal quantities in the melt.’

C,H;.C.Br C,H,.C.Br

[48 9%] | Fs I [52%]
C,H;.C.Br Br.C.C,H;

In each case isomeric change may be due to association with HBr, though

another explanation is available in the case of maleic acid (compare p. 211).
Amongst nitrogen compounds similar equilibria are observed in the

stereoisomeric oximes 4 and the syn- and anti-diazo- compounds.”

3. Interchange of Radicles in Aromatic Compouwnds.—One of the most
characteristic properties of aromatic compounds is the ease with which
they undergo isomeric change, so that almost any radicle that can be
attached to the nitrogen of aniline or the oxygen of phenol can be subse-
quently interchanged with a hydrogen atom in the nucleus. In this way it
is possible to transfer radicles as diverse as the halogens, NO,, OH, 8O3H,
COPh, NHPh (semidine), PhNH, (benzidine), and (under somewhat forced
conditions) CH;. The ring-substituted compounds are very stable, and
the back action is usually slight, but as scarcely any attempt has yet been
made to study these changes from the standpoint of equilibrium, it is
impossible to say to what extent reversal occurs in any given case. Two
ring-substituted compounds may exhibit a well-defined equilibrium, and
such a case is found in the ethylxylenesulphide sulphonic acids,’ the
stable proportions in the mixture being indicated by the equation

CH, CH,
SO,H/\ /\S803H
[90-92 96] | | 2 | [10-8 94).
\ZCHs3 \/ZCHs3
SEt SEt
1 Bredt, Annalen, 1901, 814, 369; compare Armstrong and Lowry, 7Zvans. 1902,
81, 1469, and p. 214 of this report. 2 Zeit. phys. Chem. 1895, 18, 161.

3 Wislicenus, Dekanatschrift, Leipzig, 1890.

4 Cameron, J. phys. Chem. 1898, 2, 409; Carveth, ibid. 1899, 8, 437.

5 See Dr. Morgan’s report, Belfast 1902, and Hantzsch, Die Diazoverbindungen,
Ahren’s Sammlung, 1902. * Harker, Zhesis, London, 1903.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 203

The remarkable manner in which a small amount of o- acid persists in the
mixture formed on sulphonating toluene affords similar evidence that this
acid has a definite place in the equilibrium.

4. The Beckmann Change.—These interactions, in which an alkyl
group attached to carbon is interchanged with a negative radicle attached
to nitrogen, belong essentially to the group of isomeric changes now under
consideration. Such changes are most frequently observed amongst the
oximes and nitro- compounds, but a somewhat similar rearrangement must
be assumed to occur in the preparation of amines from amides by Hofmann’s
reaction and in the decomposition by heat of the acid azides. Although
the mechanism of the change is only imperfectly known,! the rearrange-
ment resembles very closely that by which radicles are transferred from
the side chain to the nucleus in aromatic compounds ; in each case isomeric
change is usually complete, and is brought about by acid rather than by
alkaline agents.2_ Thus, whilst alkaline catalysts greatly accelerate the
conversion of normal into pseudo- nitrocamphor, they do not bring about
any further change. Acid catalysts, on the other hand, are less powerful
in producing pseudo-nitrocamphor, but cause a further non reversible
rearrangement of the Beckmann type whereby the nitro-compound is
converted into camphory! oxime

NOH
ee Se Nae pk
| <— CeHi< | > C.H,, O
O \co alts. 9 Lat
5. Mechanism of Isomeric Changes involving an Interchange of
fadicles.—These changes appear to be electrolytic in the same sense as

the chlorination of ethane, in which the main constituents can act only as
depolarisers and the electrolyte is probably hydrogen chloride

=e
C,H, CH Cl C,H;Cl HCl
| —'+ | gives

H CIH Cl HCl HCl

The association of an olefine with HBr may thus take place in a closed
electrolytic circuit in which HBr is electrolysed

> >
R.C.H BrH Br R.CH Br H Br
| = nia atest 2!) Aap | — +
0. “EH er" Fo CHAE! “Bret
< <_

whilst the reverse dissociation might be effected by the passage of a
current in the opposite direction, giving rise either to the original or
to the isomeric olefine. So also in the aromatic series the conversion
of phenylchloroacetamide, C,H;.NCl.CO.CH, into p chloroacetanilide,
Cl.C;H,.NH.CO.CH;, may be regarded as taking place in a circuit

' See Steiglitz, Amer. Chem. Journ. 1896, 18, 751; 1903, 29, 49; Slossen, 1903, 29,
289; Steiglitz and Earle, 1903, 29, 399 and 412.

? The Hofmann reaction takes place in alkaline solution, but is not an isomeric
change, and can therefore hardly be quoted as an exception.

204 REPORT—1904.

in which hydrogen chloride is electrolysed. But when a methyl-group is
transferred there appears to be a complete separation of the radicle (e.g. as
CH,Cl) and subsequent recondensation, giving rise not only to isomerides,
but also to higher and lower homologues.

6. Influence of Catalytic Agents.—Isomeric changes of this type usually
take place only in presence of strong acids, whilst alkalies prevent rather
than assist the change,! as is shown by the stability of the salts derived
from labile sulphonic acids, diazohydroxides and oximes, and by the
readiness with which good yields of compounds such as phenylchloro-
acetamide and /3-phenylhydroxylamine are obtained by alkaline or neutral
methods of preparation. The conversion of ammonium cyanate into urea
may be regarded as due to the dissociation of the cyanate and recondensa-
tion of the resulting NH; and HCNO—

NH, CO NH,
Shave Cnet ; was (a aged CO ;

NH NH,/

whatever view be taken of this condensation it is evident that the ammonia
is resolved into the two radicles H and NH,, and so functions as an acid
rather than as a base ; there need therefore be no hesitation in classifying
this change with the dissociation and association of acids which characterise
this group of isomeric changes.

IV. Isomeric Changes in which a single Mobile Radicle is Transferred.

To this group belong all those cases in which a mobile hydrogen atom
is transferred from oxygen or sulphur to carbon or nitrogen, as in the
ketones, nitro- compounds and oximes, together with the few cases in
which it is possible to prepare isomeric salts from these. The transference
of an anion is less frequent but Hantzsch has described a number of cases
in which a mobile OH or CN group is transferred in precisely the same
way as the mobile hydrogen atom. The group of changes in which a
mobile hydrogen atom is transferred includes the most important cases of
dynamic isomerism and forms one of the most fully investigated, and at
the same time one of the most fertile, branches of organic chemistry ; the
great wealth of examples must be attributed to the neutral character of
the hydrogen atom, which is equally ready to play an inert part in a
hydrocarbon, or to associate itself with a powerful negative radicle in the
mineral and organic acids.

All the members of this group undergo isomeric change with great
readiness. This is probably due to the fact that in every case at least one
of the isomerides is an electrolyte, and so can take its place in an
electrolytic circuit instead of acting merely as a depolariser. Thus,
although it is difficult to think of pseudo-acetone as anything but an
unsaturated alcohol, the proximity of the double bond gives it at least
a superficial resemblance to acetic acid and probably confers upon it
distinct electrolytic properties :

oa oe
CH,.C0O.CH CH..C CH,.C
3 3 3 \cH, 3 Xo
Acetone Pseudo-acetone Acetic acid.

! Exceptions to this rule are found in cases in which an interchange of radicles
depends on a double ketoenolic change or on a reversible hydrolysis, as in the case
of a and 8 glucose.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 205

The relative stability of the isomerides, depending as it does on the ratios
of the velocities of change, is greatly influenced by substitution. The
introduction of negative groups appears always to favour the production of
the more acid isomeride.

1. Ketones.—The mono-ketones are almost wholly ketonic, but their
behaviour on bromination! and possibly their phosphorescence when
exposed to Tesla radiation, or after exposure at low temperatures to ultra-
violet light, indicates that even here a trace of enol may be present, The
introduction of the CO,Et group in ethylic acctoacetate makes its chemical
properties entirely different from those of acetone, but does not introduce
any large proportion of enol into the equilibrium.” Amongst the
diketones, however, ethyl acetylacetone, CH;,.CO.CHEt.CO.CH;, though
almost wholly ketonic at 95°, contains about one-third of enol at 19° ;
methyl acetylacetone, CH,.CO.CH.Me.CO.CH;, contains about one-eighth
of enol at 96°, and one-half at 16°; whilst acetylacetone itself,
CH,.CO.CH,.CO.CH,, contains about three-fourths of enol at 93° and
at 17° appears to contain a certain amount of a dienolic form

CH;.CO.CH,.CO.CH, 2 CH;.CO.CH : C(OH).CH; 2
CH, :C(OH).CH : C(OH).CH,

Similarly Claisen * found amongst the triketones an increasing tendency
to enolisation, as benzoyl was displaced by acetyl in the series

CHBz,, CHAcBz,, CHAc,.Bz, CH Ac.

Camphor, like acetone, is almost wholly ketonic, though it yields an

enolic benzoate, OHS |
NO.OBz
CHBr
a-Bromocamphor,0sH,. | , is only known in the ketonic form, but the
CO
flash of light that appears when the crystals are crushed is perhaps
an indication of the presence of a trace of the enolic form.
CH.CO,Et,

Hy, |
‘co
acetoacetate, is also mainly ketonic,’ but solutions of a-benzoyleamphor,

a ee:
CoH. | , contain 60 per cent. of the enolic isomeride.®
co :

, When boiled with benzoyl chloride.*

Ethyl camphocarboxylate, C, the analogue of ethyl

2. Aldehydes.—Enolisation of aldehyde only occurs when negative
radicles are introduced into the methyl group, as in ethers of pheny!-
formylacetic acid,’

oes oils
H.CO.CH{ _ @HO.CH : C
COR Nco.R

and formylacetoacetic acid.®

1 Lapworth, Trans. 1904, 85, 30. 2 Perkin, Zrans. 1892, 61, 801.
3 Ann. 1896, 291, 25. 4 Lees, Zrans. 1903, 88, 152.
5 Briihl, Ber. 1902, 35, 3510. 6 Forster, loc. cit.

7 Wislicenus, Ann. 1896, 291, 147; Lapworth and Hann, Trans. Chem. Soc. 1502,
81, 1491. 8 Ber, 1893, 26, 2730. ~

206 REPORT—1904.

2
Hydroxymethylene (formyl) ig is usually regarded as the enolic

modification, HO.CH : oxi IP ; "and formylacetylacetone,

H.CO. seo CH,),2HO.CH : C(CO.CH;)

is a stronger acid than acetic.

3. Esters.—The possibility of enolisation is indicated in the formule
assigned to ethylic sodiomalonate, EtO.CO.CH : C(OEt).ONa, and ethylic
sodiocyanacetate, CN .CH.C(OEt).ONa,? and is of importance in deter-
mining the optical inversion of carboxylic acids. In the case of ethylic
dicarboxyglutaconate, (CO,Et),C : CH.CH(CO,Et)., and ethylic isa-
conitate, CO,Et.CH : CH.CH(CO,Et),,? the ester itself gives a blue
coloration with ferric chloride and is at least partially enolic. The
green modification of ethylic succinosuccinate is not represented in a
satisfactory manner cde either of the conventional formule,

COH.CH,

ponerse doe CO,Et and CO,Et.c’ Sc.co, Et,
oes re, \cH,.COH”

but the colour would be accounted for if it were formulated as

OH: Et
staa og é Sa: OZ. “
HOY« ‘as@tGoH7...;>OB,:

and if this be correct the enolised ester is actually the stable form under
certain conditions.

4. Phenols.—The strong enolic character of the phenols is lessened
by substitution and by reduction, probably owing to the weakening

of the benzene ring. Psewdo-phenol, O : OL and pseudo-quinol,
a4

H
0:C,H K are as unstable as psewdo-camphor or pseudo-acetone, though

derivatives of this type are known,‘ hut dihydroresorcinol appears to
contain at least one keto-group and yields a dioxime, whilst phloroglucinol
yields a trioxime, though its absorption spectrum shows that it is almost
wholly enolic in solution.”

5. Amides.—These rarely, if ever, exist in an enolic form, even when
forming part of an aromatic ring as in isatin, the a and y pyridones
(hydroxypyridines),

CH.C(OH) CH.CH
cH? Sw and HO.cZ Sn,
\cH : CH 7% \cH : CH
1 Claisen, Ann. 1894, 281, 306. 2 J. F. Thorpe, Trans. 1900, 77, 923.

8 Guthzeit and Dressel, Ber. 1889, 22, 1418.

4 See especially Auwers, Ber. 1902, 35, 443455, who gives asummary of recent
work on the pseudo-quinols.

5 Hartley, Dobbie, and Lauder, 7rans. 1902, 81, 929.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 207

iy : CH
carbostyril (hydroxyquinoline), CoH | , and cyanuric acid,
N=C.0H

JN : COB)

HO.C

Nw.c(0H) 7
and Hartley, Dobbie, and Lauder have shown that this is probably the
ketonic form.! Cyanic and thiocyanic acids also yield isomeric esters,
but are only known in one form, apparently the ketonic.? Lees and
Shedden ? claim to have prepared the enolic form of acetyl-o-aminophenol,
HO.C,;H,.N : CMe.OH, but the great stability of the substance, which
does not appear to be convertible into the ketonic isomeride, is difficult to
reconcile with the formula they propose.

6. Witro- compounds.—These are influenced by substitution in a
similar manner to the ketones. Even in aqueous solution the conversion
of the pseudo into the normal form appears to be complete in the case
of nitromethane, H.CH,.NO,, nitroethane, CH;.CH,.NO,, phenylnitro-
methane, C,H;.CH,.NO,, and its p-bromo- and p-nitro- derivatives ; but
dinitroethane, NO,.CH,.NO,, gives a mixture of the normal and pseude
forms, and—in aqueous solution only (see p. 199)—acetylnitromethane
CH;.CO.CH,.NO,, benzoylnitromethane, C,;,H,.CO.CH,.NO,, bromodi-
nitromethane, NO,.CBrH.NO,, and trinitromethane, (NO,),CH.NO,,
appear to exist almost exclusively in the pseudo- form.4

Similar effects are produced in the camphor series, the nitro- com-
pounds of which have been examined both in ionising and in non-ionising
solvents. Nitrocamphane,

N. In all these cases only one modification is known,

CH,

C,H 14 é |
\CH.NO,,

passes in solution completely from the pseudo- into the normal form.®
Nitrocamphor,

CH.NO,
OC |

gives a mixture, and in 3- and z-bromonitrocamphor,

CH.NO,
CH, Br |
Noo,
the influence of the keto- group is so far reinforced by the bromine that
in the solid state the pseudo- is the stable form.®
7. Nitroso- compounds and Oximes.—The group >CH.NO appears
to be even more unstable than the pseudo-amide group —N : COH—.

1 Trans. 1899, 75, 640. 2 Hartley, Proc. Chem. Soc. 1899, 15, 46.
8 Trans. 1903, 88, 750-763.
* Hantzsch, Ber. 1899, 32, 607. 5 Forster, Trans. 1900, 77, 260.

6 The stability of the pseudo- form in the solid state is due to a decrease of solu-
bility, and not to any marked increase in the proportion present in solution.

208 REPORT—1904.

Schmidt! has prepared from trimethylethylene three nitroso- compounds,
which he formulates as

CMeH.NO CMeH.NO CMeH.NO
| | and :

|
CMe,.0.NO CMe;.0.NO, CMe,Cl

These are converted by heating or by alkalies into the isomeric oximes,
X.CMe,.CMe:NOH, but the change proceeds so slowly that there has
been some hesitation in accepting the formule proposed. The unexpected
behaviour of these nitroso- compounds is probably due to the stability of
the colourless polymerides, which must be resolved before isomeric change
can take place. Piloty’s chloronitrosoethane? behaves in a precisely
similar manner as indicated in the scheme

(CH,.CHCI.NO],220H;.CHCI.NO =”,.2CH;.CCl : NOH.

In the nitrosoaldehydrazones studied by Bamberger and Pemsel? the
conversion of the nitroso- compound into the oxime involves the change
of the hydrazone into an azo- compound, and the stability of the nitroso-
compound is greatly increased —

CH,.C(NO) : N.NH.C,H;—?CH;.C( : NOH).N : N.C,H;.
The further equilibrium between the hydroximes >C : NOH and
NH
pseudoximes >Cg | has been so little studied that no definite con-
O

clusions can be drawn as to the effects of substitution ; in the cases
studied by Dr. Whiteley * the stability of the two solid forms appears to
be determined mainly by their solubility, and nothing is known at
present of the proportions in which they are present in the solutions.

8. Other cases.—The alkyl cyanides are only known in one form, but
cyanocamphor appears to exist to some extent in the acid psewdo- form,

CH aN CC SINE
C,H vid OPEL
8 Ee <—Us do
and psewdo-cyanoform is an even stronger acid than psewdo-nitroform,”
CH(CN);2(CN),C :C : NH.

Dynamic isomerism is also common amongst the hydrazones and azo-
compounds and the amidines. A review of all the groups in which
dynamic isomerism has been observed is given by Wislicenus,® but the
examples quoted above will suffice to show the general character of the
observations that have been made.

9. Isodynamic salts.—Unlike hydrogen, the metallic radicles have a
strong tendency to attach themselves to the most negative groups in the
molecule, and isomeric change is usually both rapid and complete. By

1 Ber. 1903, 36, 1765. 2 Ber. 1902, 85, 3113.
3 Ber, 1903, 86, 57-84. * Trans. 1903, 83, 24.
5 Hantzsch and Ostwald, Ber. 1899, 32, 641.

6 ‘Ueber Tautomerie,’ Alzen’s Sammlung, 1898.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 209

taking advantage of their slight solubility, Titherley has recently prepared
the labile silver salts of benzamide and acetamide,
C;H;.CO.NHAg2C,H;.C(OAg) : NH,
CH;.CO.NHAg?CH;.C(OAg) : NH,
and Hantzsch has isolated the isodynamic forms of mercuric cyanurate.?
But whilst it is possible to prepare N and O salts from the amides, the
ketones appear to yield only enolic salts, and it is doubtful if metals
ever become directly linked to carbon except in the carbides and perhaps
the cyanides. Ethyl phenylformylacetate appears at first sight to be an
exception, since it yields two series of salts: the enolic sodium salt,
NaO.CH : CPh.CO,Et, prepared by the action of sodium on an ethereal
solution of the ester, is converted almost instantly when dissolved in
water, into an aldehydic isomeride, which gives no coloration with ferric
chloride ; on the other hand, the solid aldehydic copper salt, when
precipitated from aqueous solution, soon passes into an enolic isomeride,
The aldehydic salt has always been formulated as Na.CO.CHPh.CO,Et,
but there does not appear to be any precedent for the direct displacement
of aldehydic hydrogen by metals, and the difficulty entirely disappears if
the salt be regarded as derived from an enolised ester (see p, 206) ;

NaO.CH : CPh.CO,Et2H.CO.CPh : C(OEt).ONa,
(enolic salt) (aldehydic salt)

Dynamic isomerism is also possible, though not yet proved, amongst
simple inorganic salts like the sulphites

Na0.S0.0NaZNa.SO,.ONa.,

10, Transference of an Anion.—In the majority of organic compounds the
OH group is devoid of basic properties, and it is only in cases like the
ammonium, the sulphur, and the iodine bases that it is capable of functioning
as ananion. Occasionally, however, the necessary conditions are fulfilled,
and a state of equilibrium may be observed between an ammonium base and
an isomeric carbinol, the transference of the hydroxyl- group being exactly
comparable with that of the mobile hydrogen atom in the ketones and nitro-
compounds.* Thus Hantzsch has shown that phenylmethylacridinium
hydroxide, when liberated from its salts, is rapidly converted into the
neutral isomeric phenylmethylacridol, 4

+ 1 t
C,H. © PACA Pat
n¢ CoH Me | OH <..HO.CPh (OsHs .
Becrer ne 2 (GH, Ne
The case that has been most fully studied is that of the alkaloid
cotarnine,°®

+ a
CH : NMe|OH CH(OH), NM
Gree AOL ahaa of MELON Me
pp eas a | .
CH,. CH, CH, lor,
! Trans. 1901, 79, 409. ? Ber. 1902, 35, 2717.

* Hantzsch describes as pseudo- acids all those substances which, like the nitro-
paraflins, are themselves neutral, but yield salts derived from an isomeric acid.
Similarly psewdo- bases are neutral substances which combine with acids to form salts
of an isomeric base. Occasionally the cyano- derivatives (nitrils) of the pseudo-
bases (carbinols) can be converted into salt-like isomerides (substituted ammonium
cyanides), and these are therefore called pseudo- salts. ‘To these three cases Hantzsch
applies the term ‘ionie isomerism,’ * Hantzsch, Ber., 1899, 32, 575-600.

® Dobbie, Lauder, and Tinkler, Zrans. 1903, 83, 598.

1904, P

210 REPORT—1904.

The solid alkaloid appears to be the neutral carbinol, and persists in
this form when dissolved in ether or chloroform. When dissolved in
water or alcohol, however, it is converted largely into the ammonium-base
from which the acid salts are derived. The addition of methyl alcohol to
the ethereal solution causes a gradual change from the carbinol to the
basic form, but a reverse change is brought about by adding sodium
hydroxide to the aqueous solution.

A similar equilibrium is possible in the salts derived from cotarnine,
but the chloride is known only in the ammonium form and the cyanide only
in the carbinol form :

: ye
ee aaah Hom CH : NMe | ON
: 0,5,0

60x mes 3
CH, =“- CH, \CH,.CH,

+ aa

CHC]. NMe oe : NMe | Cl
[ cating | ts CHO |
CH, . CH, CH,. CH,

11. Influence of Catalytic Agents Unlike the isomeric changes of
Group A, which usually take place only in presence of an acid catalyst,
those involving the transference of a mobile hydrogen atom are cha-
racterised by an extraordinary sensitiveness to the catalytic action of
traces of alkalies. The instantaneous fall of rotatory power on adding a
small amount of ammonia to freshly prepared solutions of glucose was
noticed by O'Sullivan and Tompson in 1890," but it was not until some
years later that the dependence of the mutarotation on isomeric change
was demonstrated. Similar effects have been observed in the case of
nitrocamphor,? nitrocamphane,? benzoyleamphor,’ menthy] acetoacetate,
camphorquinone phenylhydrazone,” and the azo- derivatives of menthyl
acetoacetate,® and no exception has yet been discovered. The smaller
catalytic action of acids was first noticed in the mutarotary sugars,’ and
Osaka® has shown that whilst the influence of alkalies is proportional
to the concentration that of acids is proportional to the square root
only. The influence of acids on nitrocamphor was at first overlooked,°
though it is well marked in decinormal and centinormal solutions ; Lap-
worth was the first to show that acceleration by acids is character-
istic of this group of isomeric changes. An apparent exception occurs
in the case of camphorquinone phenylhydrazone, the mutarotation of which
is stopped by traces of acid. Neutral salts have no influence on the iso-
meric change of glucose,'? but greatly accelerate that of nitrocamphor.!!
This difference is probably due to the fact that pseudo-nitrocamphor is a
strong acid, and is able to compete for a base even against a mineral
acid.

1 Trans. 1890, 57, 920. 2 Loe. cit. p. 221. ;

3 Forster, Zrans. 1900, 77, 259. 4 Forster, Zrans. 1901, 79, 999.

5 Lapworth and Hann, Trans. 1902, 81, 1499 and 1508.

6 Lapworth, P7oc. 1903, 19, 149.

7 Levy, Zeit. phys. Chem. 1895, 17, 301; Trey, Zeit. phys. Chem. 1895, 18, 193;
1897, 22, 424.

8 Zeit. phys. Chem. 1900, 35, 661. ® Loe. cit. p. 221.

1 Lowry, Zrans. 1903, 83, 1317. 1 Loe, cit. p. 221.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 211

V. Optical Inversion.

When optical isomerides become isodynamic the resulting mixture is
inactive, for under normal conditions the d and / forms are equally stable.
At least in the case of carbon it appears to be impossible directly to alter
the point of attachment of the radicles, and the interchange on which the
inversion depends can only be effected ‘by an indirect process. In many
cases the inversion appears to be brought about by means of a double
keto-enolic isomeric change, the inactive ‘enolic form being in equilibrium
with both active forms. The proportion of enol is often exceedingly
small, and isomeric change must then be slow even under the most favour-
able conditions. If the mobile hydrogen atom is displaced by methyl the
inversion is no longer possible. Thus in the case of phenylglycollic acid,
which becomes inactive when heated alone,! or with dilute alkalies,? the
inversion: is probably effected through the intermediate inactive form
indicated in the equation

C,H, O,H;
Ho /CC CO.0H2HO °C: COW):

d-acid (50 per cent.) inactive enolic acid (tra ae fe acid (50 per ile )

CH. 4 /CO.OH

A similar explanation may be given of the conversion of maleic into
fumaric acid, since this also involves the inter change of H and CO,H.

Although changes of the keto-enolic type are exceedingly ceniiges to
alkaline catalysts “the optical inversion of acids is often brought about
more rapidly by acid catalysts, on account perhaps of the greater stability
of the ketonic form in the metallic salts. The esters (see p. 206) would
probably be racemised even more easily than the acids but for the fact
that it is impossible to introduce either acids or alkaline catalysts without
hydrolysing the ester. Kipping and Hunter ® have shown, however, that
although benzylmethylacetic acid, C,H;.CH,.CHMe.CO,H, is unchanged
when heated at 170° during two hours, the acid chloride is racemised
slowly at 70° and rapidly at 100°, and this may be taken to indicate
that the chloride, unlike the acid, contains an appreciable quantity of
enol.

d-Camphoric acid, which contains two asymmetric carbon atoms,
undergoes a reversible isomeric change when heated with water or with
a mixture of acetic and hydrochloric acids. Only one of the asymmetric
carbon atoms carries a hydrogen atom, and this is readily inverted, giving
vise to a mixture of d-camphoric and /-isocamphoric acids in unequal
proportions.

vy ,CO.OH
CX C<
mar : \co.0H Aer oe
ao WP OE, Ph itee
“ < oS
een fie
\cO0.0H \c0.0H
d-camphoric acid l-isocamphoric acid
' Lewkowitsch, Ber. 1883, 16, 2721.
2 Holleman, Rec. Trav. Chim. 1898, 17, 323. 3 Trans. 1903, 88, 1008.

P2

912 REPORT—1904.

The second asymmetric carbon atom is not inverted, and no /-camphoric
acid is produced, It is therefore possible, by merely converting into an
anhydride, to restore completely the original activity of the acid.

In d-tartaric acid both active carbon atoms can be inverted, giving
rise to meso-tartaric and /-tartaric acids. The rate of formation of the
meso- acid from the d+/ acid in presence of hydrochloric acid at 140°
is 1:9 time as great as that of the d+/ from the meso- acid, and
the proportions in the equilibrium are therefore those indicated in the
equation

Wi H ,CO.OH HO. 00.0H
Hise) 19 Ose. at Nea Yd
SeOMHS y= pr ee | NH
| CO.0H = | (COOH, = AM
Cx Cx Cz
Ho’ ~ NH HO? HO’ ~ \CoOH
d-acid 17:33 % meso- acid 65°4 % l- acid 17:3 %

The formation of the meso- acid involves a double, and that of the /- acid a
quadruple keto-enolic change, and the conversion is therefore exceedingly
slow, the proportions after heating during 42 hours at 155° being only
3°4%1 : 18 % meso : 78:6 %d.' The salts undergo similar isomeric
change when heated with an excess of alkali, but the proportions when
equilibrium is reached appear to be 38 % / : 24 % meso : 38 % d.

The reversible isomeric change which glwconic and allied acids undergo
when heated with quinoline or pyridine at 130°-150° ” is of importance, not
only in the synthesis of the sugars but also because of the proof it affords
that a definite mechanism is needed to bring about optical inversion, and
that apart from this it is impossible even to interchange the points of
attachment of an H and OH group. In each case only the terminal
CHOH group which carries the carboxyl is inverted, whereas if it were
possible by this drastic treatment to shake the remaining CHOH groups
the product would be a chaotic mixture of the sixteen acids which are
theoretically possible.

Closely related to the isomeric changes of the sugar-acids are those
which the hexoses themselves undergo in solution, and especially in
presence of alkalies. Glucose appears to exist in four isodynamic forms,’ of
which the stereoisomeric a and f (hydrogen-) glucosides are the dominant
forms and the aldehyde a minor constituent, the enol being present only
in traces. Owing to the moderate proportion of aldo-glucose present in-
the solution equilibrium is rapidly established between the a and B gluco-
sides. The enolic form is common to glucose, fructose, and mannose, and
the slow rate at which equilibrium is established between these three
sugars, even in the presence of considerable quantities of alkali,‘ is an

1 Holleman, Rec. Trav. Chim. 1898, 17, 66.

2 Fischer, Ber. 1894, 27, 3193.

3 Compare Zrans. 1903, 83, 1314. For the proof that the a and B glucose are the
parent substances of the « and £ glucosides, see E. F. Armstrong, Vans. 1903, 83, 1305,
and Behrend and Roth, Ann. 1904, 331, 359. With reference to the proportions of the
constituents in the mixture, see Lowry, Proc. 1904, 20, 108, For the dynamic
isomerism of the methyl glucosides and of the pentacetates, see Jungius, Proc. Kon.
Akad. Wet. Amsterdam, 1904, 99 and 779.

4 Lobry de Bruyn, Rec. Trav. Chim. 1895, 14, 201,

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. ols

indication of the minute proportion of enol in the mixture. It is of
interest to note that the complete equilibrium may include no less than
ten isomeric sugars.

/ CHOH CHO CHOH CH,OH CH,OH
| | | |
$e CHOH CHOH COH CO COH
0) | | |
\. CHOH CHOH CHOH CHOH / CHOH
Pe ge ie | SF Oya
\CH CHOH * CHOH CHOH CHIH
| | | | |
CHOH CHOH CHOH CHOH ‘CH
| | |
CH,0H CH,OH CH,OH CH,OH CHOH
a and B glucoside aldo-glucose enolic form keto-fructose a and f fructoside (?)
a and 6 mannoside (?) aldo-mannose of glucose,

mannose, and
fructose

The inversion of tetrahydro-B-naphthylamine, C,H re

CH,.CH,
involves the interchange of H and NH., and the readiness with which
it takes place at ordinary temperatures is in marked contrast with the
great stability of compounds containing the CHOH group. Itcanscarcely
be supposed that the replacement of OH by NH, destroys the fixity of the
four carbon valencies, and the isomeric change may perhaps depend on
the dissociation of an ammonium hydroxide base in the sense of the
equation

>CH.NH,+H,02>CH.NH,;.0H 2 H,0+ >C:NH, (inactive).
3 )

The salts do not appear to undergo optical inversion. Another case in
which the optical isomerides are in equilibrium at ordinary temperatures
is that of the d and / methylethylpropylstannic iodides,” in which isomeric
change probably depends on dissociation.

CH, I

Op eames ee cs rey ay 4:

These cases are of importance as indicating that the ‘spontaneous’
racemisation, frequently postulated in the so-called ‘chaotic’ molecules,
may actually exist as a limiting case of dynamic isomerism.

The optical inversion of camphor during sulphonation * necessitates
the rupture of one of the three chains which connect the asymmetric
carbon atoms, and occurs under conditions very similar to those which
actually lead to the production of carvenone.! The inactive dynamic
isomeride through which inversion is accomplished is perhaps the enolic
form of dihydroeucarvone, which, like dihydrocarvone and camphor itself,

1 Pope and Harvey, Jans. 1901, 79, 74. 2 Pope and Peachey, Proc. 1900, 16, 116.
3 Kipping and Pope, Trans. 1897,'71, 958. +4 Bredt, Annalen, 1901, 314, 369,

214 REPORT—1904.

may be produced by removing the elements of water from the alcohol
formulated below.!

CMe,0H CMe,
CH | |
eH’ | CH; /CH. Px
| CMa” | OM Pe CH, | CH, CH,
Cre | CO | | | |
*"\ OMe” = eee co. ©. AGH = geen
gig Se ~
CHMe CMe
Oimphor Intermediate alcohol Dihydroencaryone
(inactive enolic form)
+ t
CH, :CMe CHMe,
|
CH C
cH) SCH cu,’ oH
| LN Aes |
CH, C CH, co
ors Ze
CHMe CHMe
Dihydrocarvone Carvenone

VI. Chemical Properties of Dynamic Tsomerides.

The addition to a mixture of isomerides in equilibrium of an agent
which forms a stable compound with one isomeride brings about a
complete conversion into that form. Thus although ammonium cyanate can
be converted completely into urea by evaporating its aqueous solution,
the reverse change is readily brought about by digesting urea with silver -
nitrate.

(NH,),COZAmCNO>AgCNO

Again, nitrocamphor can be converted equally readily and completely
into the bromo- derivative of the normal form or the potassium salt of the
pseudo form.

; CH.NO, ye C:NO,H
GHC | LOHud |
CO
v Nitrocamphor \

CBr.NO, Soe : NO,K
CHC | e

CO CO
Bromo-derivative Potassium salt.

This formation of two types of derivatives is one of the most important
indications of dynamic isomerism, and is frequently observed even when
only one of the isomerides can be isolated. Thus camphor and other
ketones, which certainly do not yield more than the merest trace of
enol, are readily converted into enolic benzoates 2 when boiled with
benzoyl chloride ; again, although the conversion of pseudo into normal

* Armstrong and Lowry, Zrans. 1902, 81, 1469. * Lees, Trans. 1903, 838, 152,

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 215

nitrocamphane is so complete that the pseudo- form cannot be detected in
the equilibrium, no difficulty is experienced in reconverting it into the
potassium salt of the pseudo- form.

Chemical agents, therefore, give very little information as to the
nature of the equilibrium, and can only be used for separating the
constituents when isomeric change proceeds slowly under the prevail-
ing conditions. Thus no difficulty is experienced in separating ammonium
thiocyanate and thiourea or a mixture of sulphonic acids, because at
ordinary temperatures and in dilute solution these have no tendency to
pass into one another, and are, in fact, no longer isodynamic. So
also Kiister was able to separate the isomeric hexachlorocycloketo-
pentenes by converting the B- compound into the sparingly soluble anilide,
C,H;.NH.C,;Cl,0. In the case of substances such as those described in
Section IV., in which the transference of a mobile radicle takes place
with the utmost readiness under ordinary conditions and at atmospheric
temperatures, the majority of chemical agents are useless for this purpose,
especially as many of them have a very powerful catalytic action, and
greatly accelerate the isomeric change. The only agent that seems to
fulfil the necessary conditions is phenyl isocyanate,' which has little or no
catalytic action, and may even remove any moisture or acid impurity
already present in the solution ; experimentally it has been found that it
combines with phloroglucinol but not with ethyl succinosuccinate, indi-
eating that the former is enolic but the latter wholly ketonic ; the same
agent indicates that isatin is a ketone, since it gives a substituted urea
and not a urethane.

co reg tases aI
Pu’ CcOH kee H Sco >¢,H,Z co.
[° NyZF Shee Eich: 2" NOOR)”
Pseudo-isatin Tsatin

Benzylidene aniline, C,H,.CH : N.C,H,, although equally ready to com-
bine with ketones or enols, cannot be regarded as a trustworthy indicator,
for the addition of a trace of sodium ethoxide appears to determine
the formation of the enolic, whilst piperidine favours the formation of
the ketonic addition-product quite independently of the proportions of
ketone and enol present in the mixture.*

A different class of agent is typified by ferric chloride, which inter-
acts only with a minute proportion of the hydroxylic isomeride to form a
coloured ferric salt. If this were insoluble a complete conversion into
the hydroxylic form would ensue, but when it remains in solution it does
not seriously disturb the equilibrium, and so may serve to indicate the
proportion of hydroxyl present.

.CH,.CO.2 . CH : COH 2 .CH : C(OFeCl,).

In the case of the simple nitro-paraffins and isodynamic ketones ferric
chloride can be used to follow the gradual conversion of one form into
the other, but in the case of the nitro-ketones it has such a powerful
catalytic action that equilibrium is established immediately, and no differ-
ence can be detected either in the intensity of the colour or the rapidity

! Goldschmidt, Ber. 1890, 23, 257.

* This conclusion is in agreement with that arrived at by Hartley from a study
of the absorption spectra.

* Schiff, Ber. 1898, 31, 601,

216 REPORT—1904.

with which it is developed on adding ferric chloride to the normal and
pseudo forms of 7-bromonitrocamphor.!

Similar limitations are met with in the preparation of labile isomerides
by chemical methods. The hydroxylic forms of many diketones? and
nitroparaffins * can be prepared by acidifying a cold aqueous solution of
the sodium salt with dilute mineral acids. In these cases the addition of
a mineral acid is sufficient to eliminate the catalytic action of the base
originally present in the salt, but stronger acids like pseudo-nitrocamphor
are able to retain a proportion of the base even in competition with a
mineral acid, and in this case the catalytic action of neutral salts is so
great that the product is always a mixture of isomerides and not the
pseudo- form. This action of neutral salts appears to have been over-
looked by Hantzsch, who concluded that benzoy]nitromethane and bromo-
dinitromethane existed only in the hydroxylic form in aqueous solution,
a conclusion that was based entirely on the fact that no gradual decrease
of conductivity was observed in freshly prepared mixtures of the sodium
salts with hydrochloric acid.

Another method of preparing a labile isomeride is indicated by Forster,
who has succeeded in preparing the labile diketonic form of benzoyl-
camphor by boiling the enolic modification with formic acid, precipitating
with water, and rapidly crystallising from alcohol ;4 the method appears
to depend on the formation of an easily hydrolysed formy] derivative,

C(COPh)CHO
CHC |

and may perhaps be applicable in other cases.

VII. Physical Properties of Dynamic Isomerides.

1. Crystallography.—In the majority of cases dynamic isomerides are
substances of different types, and do not form isomorphous mixtures,
though this does not prevent the inclusion in a crystal of small amounts
of a dynamic isomeride or the staining of a colourless crystal by a coloured
isomeride. Thus normal z-bromonitrocamphor is tetragonal and has
a@:c=1 : 1:1002, whilst the pseudo- form is orthorhombic and has a :b : c=
1:1:2159:%° Again, although both forms of a-benzoyleamphor crystal-
lise in the orthorhombic system the ketone has a :b : c=0°7375 : 1 : 10224,
but the enol has a : 6 : c=0-9728 : 1 : 0°6550, and is hemihedral.®

2. Crystallisation of Fused Dynamic Isomerides.’—In the absence of

1 Lowry, 7rans. 1899, 75, 230.

2 Claisen, Ann. 1896, 291, 25; W. Wislicenus, Anm. 1896, 291, 147; Knorr,
Ann. 1896, 298, 70; J. Wislicenus, Ber. 1897, 30, 639; Sitz. Stchs. Ahad.
March 1, 1897; Rabe, Ber. 1899, 32, 84.

* Hantzsch and Schultze, Ber. 1896, 29, 699, 2251; Konowalow, ibid. p. 2193;
— Ree. Trav. Chim. 1895, 14, 121; 1896, 15, 356, 365; Forster, Zrans. 1900,

7, 258.

4 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1901, 79, 997. .

> Lapworth and Kipping, Tans. 1896, 304-322. § Forster, loc. cit.

7 The crystallisation of dynamic isomerides has been very fully discussed from
the standpoint of the phase rule by Bancroft (Journ. phys. Chem. 1898, 2, 143, 245),
by Roozeboom (Zeit. phys. Chem. 1899, 28, 289) and by Findlay (Trans. 1904, 85,
403), but some modification of the theory is necessary in order to allow for the
fact that dynamic isomerism is only possible in a tri- or tetra-molecular system,

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM, 217

dimorphism the freezing-point curve for a mixture of two isomerides
A and B has the well-known V-shaped form shown in the figure. When
equilibrium exists between them the melt has a definite composition GF,
which does not vary much with the temperature. The form that separates
first on cooling is determined by the intersection of F G with C DE; in the
figure this lies on the branch C D and the form A is the first to crystal-
lise. If crystallisation is slow or isomeric change rapid, the composition
of the liquid and the temperature will remain constant until the whole of
the substance has crystallised out in the form A. Slow cooling thus
brings about a complete isomeric change, whilst sudden chilling would
give a solid of the same composition as the liquid mixture G ; usually the
product will be intermediate in composition, but the exact proportions
will depend on the melting-points of the isomerides, the composition
of the liquid mixture, the velocity of isomeric change, and the rate of

Cc F
N
6
p E
» G
b
MN
3
m O
A COMPOS/T/ON 8

cooling. The temperature G at which one form is in stable equilibrium
with the liquid mixture is called the ‘equilibrium temperature,’! and is
readily determined as the temperature at which the substance remelts
after fusion.

3. Fusion. Isomeric Change of Solids. Stability Limits.— Each iso-
meride has a characteristic melting-point which is independent of isomeric
change. The melting-point of the stable isomeride which separates first
on cooling the melt is necessarily above the ‘equilibrium temperature,’
whilst that of the labile isomeride may be either above or below this
temperature. In the case of (- and z-bromonitrocamphor the constants
are :—

Ly B
m.p. of normal . 2 > . ’ se UE 2
m.p. of pseudo . 5 ; 2 : i F429 132°
‘equilibrium temperature . J - . 124° 100°

the pseudo being the stable form in each case. When the melting-point
lies above the equilibrium temperature it can be observed by rapidly
heating a crystal and noting the temperature at which it fuses ; if heated
slowly the crystal may melt gradually at a temperature only just above
the equilibrium temperature, but in this case the fusion is a consequence
of isomeric change, and will take place more and more slowly as the
purity of the substance is increased. If the melting-point lies below the
equilibrium temperature the fused substance will (if sufficiently impure to
permit of isomeric change) soon solidify owing to the separation of crystals

‘ Lowry, Trans, 1899, 75, 233,

218 REPORT—1904.

of the stable isomeride, which will again melt when the equilibrium tem-
perature is reached ; frequently the melting and resolidification proceed
simultaneously, and only a slight sintering is observed in the neighbour-
hood of the melting-point.

Although in the liquid state each isomeride is equally labile when
alone, and equally stable when equilibrium is attained, in the solid state
only one isomeride can be stabie at any given temperature, namely that
which has the least vapour pressure ; this is usually that which has the
highest melting-point, but the opposite case is not infrequently observed.
In the absence of a catalyst the labile isomeride may be preserved indefi-
nitely, and may even be fused without undergoing isomeric change, but
usually the change commences before the melting-point is reached, and
at a temperature. depending on the amount of impurity present in the
crystals. This temperature Knorr has described as the stability limit,!
but it cannot be regarded as a physical constant of the substance as
Knorr at first supposed, and his later work has shown that in the purified
material the stability limit becomes identical with the melting-point.?

4, Dissolution.—Each isomeride has a true solubility which is inde-
pendent of isomeric change, and may be determined by measuring the
concentration of the solution obtained when the solid and solvent have
been in contact during a period of time sufficient for saturation, but
not long enough for isomeric change to produce any marked effect.
Ultimately, however, a condition is reached in which the solution contains
a stable mixture of the isomerides and is saturated with regard to
one of them. The apparent or ultimate solubility® is thus dependent on
the true solubility and the composition of the mixture in equilibrium.

The measurement of the initial and final solubility affords a method
of determining the composition of the mixture. Thus in the case of
{-bromonitrocamphor the initial solubility at 10° C.is 2 grams per 100 c.c.
of benzene, and the final solubility 8 grams per 100 c.c. ; and it may,
therefore, be inferred that in the ultimate mixture the isomerides are
present in the ratio 1 : 3 approximately. The method has the advantage
of being applicable even when only one of the isomerides can be isolated.

5. Crystallisation from Solutions.—The form that separates first on
evaporating or cooling a solution is that which has the smallest apparent
solubility. Usually it will be the major constituent of the mixture, but
the minor constituent may separate if its true solubility is small. Slow
crystallisation will then result in complete isomeric change, whilst rapid
crystallisation will yield a mixture from which the constituents can
sometimes be separated by picking out the crystals mechanically.

The order of solubility can sometimes be reversed by changing the
temperature or the solvent, or both, and in this way it may be possible
to isolate and purify more than one isomeride. Thus Dr. Whiteley has
shown’ that the yellow hydroxylic modification of isonitrosomalonanilide
separates from chloroform or benzene, but the white pseudoxime from
ethyl acetate, methyl alcohol, ether, or acetic acid,

HO.N :C(CO.NHPh), _, so
(from hydrocarbons) + eal

(from oxygenated solvents).

C(CO.NHPh),

1 Ann. 1899, 306, 70 and 88.
? Wislicenus, ‘Ueber Tautomerie,’ footnote, p. 225. 3 Lowry, Trans. 1899, 75,231.
4 Lowry, Pree, 1903, 19, 156, 5 Trans. 1903, 88, 34.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 219

Precisely similar changes are observed in the case of isonitroso-p-
chlorobenzyl cyanide,

/Nul
CLC,H,.C(ON) : NOH 2 CLC,H,.C(ON) € ‘ (2),

which crystallises from alcohol or water in colourless needles, but passes
into a yellowish-green isomeride when kept or when crystallised from
petroleum. The sodium salt also exists in a colourless and a yellow form.'

In a somewhat similar manner Tanret ? by crystallising from alcohol
at a high temperature isolated a low-rotatory form of glucose isomeric
with that which separates at ordinary temperatures.

Piutti and Abati have recently prepared a white and a yellow
modification of p-methoxyphenylphthalimide,? which they regard as
merely dimorphous ; but the difference in colour and the behaviour on
heating indicate that the two forms are probably dynamic isomerides, and
may be formulated as the symmetrical and unsymmetrical imide,

CO C,H
C.H, aie N.C,H,.OMe 2 CO 2) we C : N.C,H,.0Me

(colourless) (yellow).

From boiling alcohol the yellow form separates, but the white form is
stable in contact with benzene at ordinary temperatures. In the case of
the reduced compound, p-methoxyphenyltetrahydrophthalimide,

co O,H
C,H, cay, N.O;H;.OMe 2 CO Xie *: © : N.C,H,.0Me,

the white form crystallises from all solvents below 70°, and the yellow
form above 70°; and this appears to be a fairly definite transition
temperature.

Polymorphism.-—If isomeric change is rapid the crystallisation of.
dynamic isomerides obeys the same laws that govern the crystallisation
of polymorphous substances, and it becomes very difficult to distinguish
the two phenomena. In at least two important cases dynamic isomerides
have been first described as mere polymorphs, and it is probable that in
other cases the polymorphism is due to differences in molecular structure.
A rearrangement of the molecules in the crystal can scarcely produce any
marked alteration in colour, and a difference so striking as that between
yellow and red mercuric iodide must be associated with some difference in
molecular structure.

6. Physical Methods of Studying Dynamic Isomerism. Mutarotation.—
(1) In some cases it is possible to determine whether a liquid substance is
a single compound or a mixture of isomerides in equilibrium by calculating
the physical constants of the possible isomerides and noting whether the
substance gives a value agreeing with one of these or intermediate in
magnitude. Unfortunately the constants that can be calculated are few
in number, and do not vary much in isomeric compounds ; moreover, the
accumulation of negative groups gives rise to abnormally high optical
constants, and the observed values often lie right outside the calculated

1 Zimmermann, J. pr. Chem. 1902, ii. 66, 353.
2 CLR, 1895, 120, 1060. 3 Ber. 1903, 36, 1000.

220 REPORT—1904.

limits. Statical methods of this kind are, therefore, of little use in detect-
ing dynamic isomerism, and their chief value consists in the information
that they give as to the constitution that must be assigned to the domi-
nant form of the parent substance and to its isomeric derivatives. Thus
Briihl,! by measuring the molecular refraction and dispersion, has shown
that hydroxymethylene (formyl) camphor is mainly enolic, but its bromo-
derivative has the aldehydic constitution ;—

C : CH.OH Pepe.
Cth |

and, again, that ethyl camphocarboxylate is mainly ketonic, whilst its
acetyl- derivative is enclic.?

CH.CO,Et 0.CO,Et
C,H, 7% HOSE pe Hold

8 LN | 8
co

Perkin? has also made use of the magnetic rotatory power, a property
that has the advantage of being much more sensitive to changes
of structure; thus, whilst the calculated molecular refractions of the
two forms of ethylic phenylformylacetate differ by less than 2 per
cent., the magnetic rotations of the two possible forms of ethyl
acetoacetate differ by 20 per cent. ; some of the results obtained by
this method have already been indicated (p. 203). (2) An analogous
method depends on the fact that the composition of the stable mixture
may be influenced to a very considerable extent by physical condi-
tions, and properties like the molecular refraction and the magnetic
rotation which are normally almost independent of temperature, solvent,
and concentration may vary widely when the material examined is
an isodynamic mixture. Such variations may indicate the existence of
dynamic isomerism,’ though similar effects are produced by reversible
polymeric change and by association with the solvent. (3) A more
sensitive method of detecting dynamic isomerism consists in following the
physical changes which accompany isomeric change. In the case of a
pure liquid compound the physical properties reach a constant value as
soon as the temperature and other physical conditions are steady, but the
existence of a time-factor is a sure indication of chemical change. Thus,
when ethylic acetoacetate is distilled the proportions of the isomerides are
altered, and some hours elapse before the substance recovers its normal
density,” though the total change only amounts to 0:0013 gram per c.c.
Since crystallisation normally results in the complete separation of one of
the isomerides a maximum amount of isomeric change is observed when
the crystals revert to the liquid state either by fusion or by dissolution.
Thus it is sometimes possible by repeated fusion to follow the gradual fall
in the melting-point as the homogeneous crystals revert to an equilibrium
mixture, but usually isomeric change is so rapid that a single fusion is
sufficient to bring about a condition of equilibrium. Dissolution has the
advantage that observations can be made at atmospheric temperatures,
and that isomeric change then proceeds much more slowly than in the
fused state, but the properties of the solute are often very seriously

1 Zeit. phys. Chem. 1900, 34, 31-61. 2 Ber. 1902, 35, 3510.
3 Trans. 1892, 61, 801. 4 Perkin, Briihl, Joc. cit.

5 Schaum, Ber. 1898, 31, 1964,

ON DYNAMIC. ISOMERISM. 221

disguised by admixture with the solvent. Thus it would be almost
impossible to detect with certainty the slight change in density or refrac-
tive index which would result from a partial isomeric change in solution,
and the change in magnetic rotatory power, though still appreciable,
would be much smaller than in a fused substance. For this reason the
method of dissolution only gives the best results when the physical
property utilised has a zero value in the case of the solvent, and differs
considerably in the different isomerides. These conditions are fulfilled by
(1) conductivity, (2) optical rotation, (3) solubility, (4) colour.

The electrical conductivity has been used with remarkable success by
Hantzsch,! who has followed the gradual decrease of conductivity in
solutions of the pseudo-nitroparafiins and similar compounds, freshly
prepared by mixing a solution of the sodium, barium, or silver salt with
a mineral acid-—e.g. :— *

atin sit +-— —i+
H Cl+CH,.CH : NO, Na2.Na Cl+CH,.CH : NO, H
ete
2Na 'Cl+CH,.CH,.NO,.

Unfortunately the method is somewhat limited in its application, and
cannot readily be applied to substances that are insoluble in water, or are
only feeble electrolytes.

Perhaps the most generally applicable method is that which consists
in observing the mutarotation of freshly prepared solutions of optically
active bodies. The isomerides usually differ widely in rotatory power,
and observations can be made in any solvent and in fairly dilute solution.
The rapidity and accuracy with which measurements can be made render
it possible to detect changes involving only a small percentage of the
material or taking place so rapidly that equilibrium is reached in the
course of a few minutes. Moreover, the conditions are such that the
behaviour of highly purified materials can be successfully investigated.
The method has already been applied in a large number of typical cases,
and can be extended to nearly every type of isomeric change.

Hitherto the solubility has only been utilised in a limited number of
cases,” but the method, though more tedious and perhaps less accurate
than those just described, is even more widely applicable, and has the
unique advantage that it gives information as to the proportions of the
isomerides in solution, even when only one of these can be isolated.

The recent observations of Dobbie, Lauder, and Tinkler on the ultra-
violet absorption-spectra of cotarnine * show that colowr may be made the
basis of a quantitative method, and the valuable results that have been
obtained justify the hope that the method will be applied in many other
cases.

7. Colour,—As a qualitative method the colour of dynamic isomerides
has proved most valuable in indicating the occurrence of isomeric change,
and it has the unique merit of rendering visible to the eye the progress of
isomeric change both in the solid and in the liquid state. Moreover,
since it has become possible to associate colour with definite types of
structure, and even roughly to predict the probable colour of a compound
having a given formula, it is often possible to determine, by means of the
colour, the constitutions that must be assigned to a series of solid

1 Ber. 1896, 29, 699, 2256; 1899, 32, 607, 628, 641.
2 Lowry, Proc. 1993, 19, 156; Proc. 1904, 20, 108. 3 Trans. 1903, 88, 598.

929, REPORT—1904.

isomerides. Thus it is noteworthy that the earliest indication of the
possible existence of hydroxylic pseudonitro compounds was based upon
observations of colour-change, and the suggestion made by Armstrong
in 1892,! in order to account for the coloured salts of the nitrophenols,
has been abundantly justified by the subsequent investigations of Nef,
Hantzsch, and others. According to this view the colourless ethers
have formule of the type EtO.C;H,.NO,, whilst the coloured salts are
formulated as O:C,H,:NO,K ; in the liquid state the nitrophenols
themselves may exist in both forms,

HO.C,H,.NO,50 : C,H, : NO,H,

but the colourless needles of p-nitrophenol must be represented by the
first, and the quinone-like crystals of o-nitrophenol by the second
formula.

Again, of the compounds represented by the formulee—

NH
(1) HO.C,H,NO (2) 0: C,H,: NOH (3) O: CHL |

6
the first should be blue or green like the o and p ethers, MeO.C,H,.NO ;*
the second should be red like the sodium salt, O:C,;H,: NONa, or
yellow like the benzoyl- derivative O: C,H, : NOBz, whilst the third
should be colourless like the pseudoquinols. The substance produced by
the action of nitrous acid on phenol or of hydroxylamine on quinone
separates from ether in green flakes, and gives a green solution in water,
alcohol, or ether, which must contain at least a considerable proportion
of the nitroso- compound (1); the colourless needles which separate
from aqueous solution may be a dimolecular form of the nitroso-
compound (p. 224), but must otherwise be represented by the third
formula.

The difference in colour between the yellow hydroximes and the
colourless pseudoximes, observed by Dr. Whiteley in the derivatives of
isonitrosomalonamide, has already been referred to ; a similar explanation
may be given of the colour-changes observed in violuric acid and its
salts (Hantzsch and Isherwood),

and in ethylic isonitrosocyanacetate and its salts *

NH
HON : C(CN).CO,Et Aes DO(EN).COLEt 5
Qe
in each case, however, the authors regard the coloured compounds as
—C—O
containing the group | | though this group would scarcely be
—C—N.OH,
likely to give rise to colour.
8. Absorption Spectra.—Whilst valuable results are obtained by
merely noting the colour of dynamic isomerides, data of much greater

1 Proc. Chem. Soc. 8, 101. 2 Baeyer and Knorr, Ber. 1902, 85, 3034.
3 Miiller, Bull. Soc. Chim. 1902, iii. 27, 1019.

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 293

value are afforded by a detailed study of their absorption spectra.
Attention has already been called to the observations of Hartley and of
Dobbie and Lauder, but further reference must be made to the recent
work of Baly and Desch.! These authors have shown that neither of the
ethyl- derivatives of ethyl acetoacetate give absorption bands, and con-
clude that the absorption of light by ethyl acetoacetate depends directly on
the occurrence of oscillatory isomeric change. They even suggest that the
intensity of the absorption band is a direct indication of the rate at which
the reversible isomeric change is proceeding. This theory of the origin
of colour is in accord with the fact that nearly all coloured substances
can be represented by two formule, and that colour is most frequent
amongst aromatic compounds in which a migration of the linkages is of
frequent occurrence. If this view should be confirmed by subsequent
observations it would form a most important application of the theory of
dynamic isomerism.

9. Luminosity—Whilst colour may perhaps depend only on the
selective absorption of light-energy by certain groups of atoms, many of
the phenomena of luminosity appear to be directly due to the inter-
* conversion of dynamic isomerides.”

The simplest of these is the flash of light that is sometimes observed
when a crystal is crushed or powdered, and which in organic compounds
is usually associated with one of the structures that give rise to dynamic
isomerism. Thus saccharine and menthylphenylformylacetate, which
give an exceedingly brilliant flash,* are normally ketonic compounds,
though their solutions may contain a trace of the labile enolic isomeride

1
o,f SN
tty
$0, ‘so, 7
CHO.CHPh.CO.R < HO.CH : CPh.CO,R.

During rapid crystallisation a small amount of the enolic form may
be entangled in the crystals, and the flash of light appears to be due to
the energy liberated when the labile form undergoes isomeric change at
the moment of crushing.

Fluorescence appears to be a modification of this phenomenon in which
the labile isomeride is continuously reproduced by the action of ultra-
violet light, and phosphorescence may be regarded as fluorescence
taking place in a viscous medium which will only permit a gradual rever-
sion to the stable form. The relationship between fluorescence and
dynamic isomerism has been discussed by Hewitt, and the nature of
phosphorescence may be illustrated by reference to the ketones, which
become brilliantly phosphorescent after exposure to ultra-violet light at
low temperatures (Dewar), probably owing to the liberation on warming
of energy stored up at low temperatures in the labile enolic form.

VIII. Reversible Polymeric Change.

Reversible polymeric changes obey nearly all the Jaws that govern
reversible isomeric change, and give rise to phenomena similar to those
that have been described in the preceding sections. But whilst reversible

1 Trans. 1904, 85, 1029.

* Armstrong and Lowry, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1903, 72, 258.

3 Pope, Trans. 1895, 67, 985; Lapworth, 77ans. 1902, 81, 1495.
* Proc. Chem. Soe. 1900, 16, 3; Zeit. phys. Chem. 1900, 84, 1.

>
<—
>

924 REPORT—1904.

isomeric changes are limited to a comparatively small group of substances,
reversible polymeric changes occur very frequently, not only in complex
organic compounds, but also in the simplest inorganic substances, includ-
ing even the elements. Perhaps the most notable difference consists in
the fact that equilibrium is largely influenced, and indeed mainly deter-
mined, by the temperature and pressure, conditions which produce only
small changes in the equilibrium between dynamic isomerides.

In most cases equilibrium is attained almost instantaneously. The
properties of freshly melted ice are perfectly normal, and the depolymeri-
sation of NO, is so rapid that it is not possible to detect any time-factor.
Amongst organic compounds, however, gradual changes have occasionally
been noticed. Formaldehyde shows a slow decrease of molecular weight
in freshly diluted solutions,! and freshly diluted or freshly cooled solutions
of gelatine only slowly assume their normal viscosity, The most striking
examples of gradual changes of this type are to be found amongst the
organic nitroso- compounds which exist in a blue or green monomolecular
and a colourless dimolecular form.2 In the case of nitrosobutane,
CMe.,;NO, Bamberger and Seligman* have plotted a complete curve
showing the gradual depolymerisation in a solution in benzene at the
freezing-point ; equilibrium is reached in four hours, and the decrease of
molecular weight proceeds simultaneously with the development of the
blue colour.

There is reason to believe, however, that under favourable conditions
gradual association and dissociation are not infrequent amongst simple
inorganic compounds. Only in this way can the remarkable facts
be explained that have been noted by many observers in studying the
critical phenomena of gases, and to which attention has recently been
called by Traube.t Thus, when liquid carbon dioxide is heated above its
critical temperature, the upper and lower layers of gas, though easily
miscible, remain distinct for a considerable period of time, and only
gradually diffuse into one another. Under apparently identical conditions
the density of the gas may vary in the ratio of 1 : 2°16. So also when the
gas is cooled from above its critical temperature, neither the liquid nor
the vapour has at first its normal density ; the meniscus is gradually dis-
placed through several centimetres, equilibrium being attained only
after a week has elapsed. Traube explains these results by assuming the
existence of ‘ gasogenic’ and ‘liquidogenic’ molecules, but the variation
of physical properties with time, to which reference has been so frequently
made in the preceding pages, affords clear evidence of the occurrence of
chemical change, and it can scarcely be doubted that the phenomena, uf
not due to inequalities of temperature or pressure, afford indications of a
reversible polymeric change similar in character to, but slower than,
those which take place so rapidly in the case of water and of nitrogen
peroxide.

' Inaug. Diss. Rostoch, Eschweiler ; Abst. 1890, 954.

* Meyer, Ber. 1888, 21, 507; 1896, 29, 94; Thiele, Abstr. 1894, i. 217; Baeyer,
Abstr. 1894, i. 252; Piloty, Ber, 1898, 81, 218, 221, 452, 457, 1878; 1902, 35, 3113;
1903, 36, 1297; Schmidt, Ber, 1903, 36, 1765; Bamberger and Rising, Ber. 1901,
84, 3877.

3 Ber. 19038, 36, 689. * Ann. d. Physik, 1902, 8, 2, 267.

MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-WEST YORKSHIRE. 225

The Movements of Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire.—
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W.
Warts (Chairman), Mr. A. R. DwerryHousE (Secretary), Pro-
fessor A. SMITHELLS, Rev. E. Jones, Mr. WaLTerR Morrison,
Mr. GrorGE Bray, Rev. W. Lower Carter, Mr. T. Fatr.ey,
Professor P. F. KENDALL, and Dr. J. E. Marr.

Tae Committee are carrying on the work in conjunction with a committee
of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

It will be remembered that at the Southport meeting the Committee
reported that the work of tracing the streams sinking on the slopes of the
Ingleboro’ massif was complete, with the exception of a few small streams,

These have now been traced, and the work of the Committee is there-
fore completed, with the exception of the boreholes at Turn Dub men-
tioned below.

The work done during the current year consists of tracing the fol-
lowing streams by means of fluorescein.

East Side of Ingleboro’.

1, The stream sinking at P 14,' near the shooting-box on the Allot-
ment, which had been unsuccessfully tested on several previous occasions,
was found to issue at Austwick Beck Head (S 28).

2. A small stream to the north of last, sinking at P 18, passes by
P 19, where the fluorescein was visible, to S 40, there joining the water
from P 25 and P 26, previously tested.

3. The small stream sinking at the ‘Washfold’ (P 52) on Park Fell
was found to communicate with the channel from Alum Pot to Footnaws
Hole (S 65), where the water was strongly coloured three days after the
fluorescein was introduced at P 52. Footnaws Hole, as has been pre-
viously shown, discharges in normal weather at Turn Dub (S 67).

West Side of Ingleboro’.

4. P93. The water from a group of small streams near Douk Cave
on Fenwick Lot, Souther Scales Fell, flows underground along the direc-
tion of the master joints in the limestone, and issues at S 106a, a small
spring below Eller Keld.

5. The water from P 97 and P 98 on Souther Scales Fell flows to a
small spring and cave known as Far Douk, but not marked on the 6-inch
Ordnance Map, P 95a, and then again goes underground to join the
river, somewhere on its underground course from Weathercote Cave to
God’s Bridge.

6. P 101 and P 102 on Black Shiver Moss receive the waters of two
small streams, the flow being to the lower end of Mere Gill Hole, where
it joins the waters of Mere Gill, and again goes underground. The further
course of this stream has been described in a previous report.

7. P 102a on the eastern edge of Lead Mines Moss, not marked on
the 6-inch map, receives a small stream in wet weather only.

This, on being tested with fluorescein, was found to communicate with
S 116 near the ‘ Engine Sheds’ at the Ingleton Granite Quarries.

' The letters and numbers refer to maps published in the previous reports of the
Committee.

1904. Q

226 REPORT—1904.

A number of boreholes have been put down in the neighbourhood of
Turn Dub (see previous reports), the result being that a thickness of from
7 to 8 feet of boulder clay has been proved below the present river-bed.

This, it is considered, is sufficient to account for the passage of the
underground water below the surface stream.

The boreholes are still in progress, and the Committee therefore
seek reappointment, with permission to retain the unexpended balance.

A full account of the work of the Committee will be published in the
Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Dr. WHEELTON
Hinp (Secretary), Mr. F. A. BatHer, Mr. G. C. Crick, Dr.
A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G. J.
HinpeE, Professor P. F. Kenpatu, Mr. R. Kinston, Mr. G. W.
LamPLuGH, Professor G. A. LEBour, Mr. B. N. Peacs, Mr. J. T.
Stopss, Mr. A. Srrawan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. (Drawn up
by the Secretary.)

TuE Secretary once again regrets that he has received no reports from the
large majority of the members of the Committee.

Work has been done by Mr. J. T. Stobbs in three districts. He has
again generously given his time, and therefore the grant is only debited
with travelling and out-of-pocket expenses.

It was found impossible owing to mining difficulties to work the
marine band which occurs in the North Staffordshire Coalfield below the
Gin Mine coal. But for the sum of a few shillings a trench was dug across
the strike and the beds were exposed in succession. The marine band
was exposed and some few fossils were collected, but the bed was much
weathered by proximity to the surface, and it was found inadvisable on
this account to make any prolonged search for fossils. However, the
position of the marine band with regard to the Gin Mine coal, a subject
on which in the course of years a curious error had arisen, was definitely
settled. Sections and a list of fossils obtained are given in Mr. Stobbs’s
report.

‘ As excavations for waterworks were being carried on in the Valley
of the Derwent Mr. Stobbs went there to examine the cuttings in the
Pendleside Series, the upper portion of which was then exposed. A
detailed report follows.

It was also thought good to examine the northern boundary of the
South Wales Coalfield, and as far as possible to collect from the small
coal workings, confined to single seams. In the recent resurvey of the
South Wales Coalfield paleontology does not seem to have had the
attention paid to it which it deserves. The grant therefore has only been
partially used, and the Committee ask that the balance may be retained
for future work.

Personally, while collecting in the Carboniferous district of the
Midlands, the Secretary has been examining the Devonian Carboniferous
succession in the south-west of Ireland and North Devon, the results of
which are expressed in a paper published in the ‘Geological Magazine’ for
August 1904.

It is well known that the Carboniferous Limestone in South-west

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 227

Treland gradually dies away south-west of Cork, and in the succession at
Old Head of Kinsale, and from that point westward no Limestone
whatever occurs, but instead there is a thick mass of Grits and Slates,
which have been called Lower Limestone Slates and Coomhola Grits.
It is also known that the passage up from the Devonian Grits to
Coomhola Grits is unbroken, and that the one series has no top and the
other has no base. The Coomhola Grits are, however, fossiliferous and
contain shells referred to Ptychopteria Damnonensis, Cucullea uni-
lateralis, species which occur in the Pilton and Marwood series of Devon-
shire. These beds are always classed as Upper Devonian in England, and
therefore it would be well for the same line to be drawn in Ireland. The
whole fauna from the Coomhola Grits should be re-examined, because I
think it probable that trilobites and other species have been referred to
Carboniferous forms on the supposition that the Coomhola beds were
Carboniferous. The Coomhola Grits are overlaid by the Lower Carboni-
ferous Slate, part of which is indeed of Carboniferous age, because it
contains Posidonomya Becheri. Here then is a point of great interest.
Beds with a Marwood and Pilton fauna are overlaid by grey shales and
then by black with P. Becher; and in North Devon the Pilton beds are
succeeded by the Lower Culm with P. Becheri in abundance in the Venn
Limestones. In both districts the Devonian Carboniferous succession,
apparently unbroken and conformable, is from Marwood and Pilton beds
to Pendleside Series, the Carboniferous Limestone being absent in each
locality ; and if there is no unconformity it follows that the Carboni-
ferous Limestone was never laid down in the North Devon, Cork, and
Kerry latitude.

Jukes considered that the Carboniferous Slate of South-west Ireland
was contemporaneous with the Carboniferous Limestone, and his views
are given at length, pp. 33-37 of the ‘ Memoir of the Geological Survey’
(Ireland), Explanations of Sheets 187, 195, 196 of the maps. He
visited North Devon and says: ‘TI saw that both lithologically and
palzontologically, bed for bed, and fossil for fossil, the Braunton and
Piltown rocks of Devon were identical with the Carboniferous slate of
Cork. The Marwood sandstones and the grey grits below them that
form.Baggypoint were obviously the same as our Coomhola Grits, and the
red and green rocks that rise up from beneath those rocks in Morte Bay
are exactly similar to the Upper Old Red Sandstone of large parts of the
west of County Cork.

‘But the Coal Measures’ (by which I suppose he means the Culm, and
I would that all subsequent geologists had recognised the Coal Measure
horizon of these beds) ‘of Devon rest on the Carboniferous slate without
intervention of any Carboniferous Limestone in its ordinary form, often
without any appearance of limestone at all.’ But he carries his argu-
ment too far, for he goes on to say: ‘If, however, we have Coal Measures
above and Old Red Sandstone below, the rocks between them must be of
the age of the Carboniferous Limestone.’

The Lower Culm is, I am convinced, of later age than the Carboniferous
Limestone, and is the homotaxial equivalent of the Pendleside series,
How comes it, therefore, that the Coomhola Grits and the grey portion of
the so-called Lower Carboniferous Slate are mapped as Carboniferous
instead of Upper Devonian ?

The view advanced by Jukes, that the Carboniferous Slate is con-
‘emporaneous with the Carboniferous Limestone, is probably correct, the

Q2

228 REPORT—1904.

slate consisting of two portions—the lower grey or Upper Devonian,
the upper black or Pendleside or Upper Carboniferous. There is no
evidence of an overlap, but it must be remembered that the rocks of
South-west Cork are nearly vertical, and have been much moved, and I
believe the Upper or Posidonomya beds and part of the Carboniferous
Limestone is a synclinal with the limbs absolutely in contact, so that the
beds in the centre are doubled on themselves.

During last winter Mr. J. G. Hamling, F.G.S8., of Barnstaple, kindly
sent me for examination a large suite of fossils collected from the Coddon
Hill beds of the Lower Culm. These so interested me that I felt it neces-
sary to visit the locality, which I did under his skilled guidance. The
Lower Culm of North Devon consists of two series of rocks, neither of
them apparently very thick, but much folded and repeated. The Coddon
Hill beds are thin laminated, white or fawn-coloured silicious beds, with
the following fauna :—

TRILOBITES—
*Phillipsia polleni? . : , : ‘ . H. Woodward.
- spatulata . : : . P . H. Woodward.
Proétus coddenensis . : : : : . H. Woodward.
*Paleacis humilis - : d : . Hinde.
Plewrodictywm dechanianum : 3 . Kayser.
Petrea, ck. P. pauciradialis : : ~ éehillsp;
* Productus plicatus . : : : : . Sarres.
* Chonetes laquessiana . E E : : . de Kon.
* Ortholetes crenestria . ; : : ; . Philly sp:
*Athyris ambigua.
ugk olecanites compressus . - ; : - Sow., sp.
+ mivololus ‘ ; ; : » }Phillsp:
Sphc Be sp.
*? Stroboceras sulcatus ‘ . ; . Phill. sp.
* 2? Nomismoceras spirorbis. or ees
*Chenocardiola footit . : ; : 5 . Baily, sp.
Radiolarians.

Crinoid stems.

Those species marked with an asterisk (*) occur in the lower part of
the Pendleside series.

The other beds of the Lower Culm are the Venn Limestones, a’ series
of black carbonaceous limestones, with

Posidonomya becheri, Low. Glyphioceras crenistria, Phill., sp.
Pseudamusiwm fibritloswm, Salter, sp. Py sphericum, Phill. sp.
Glyphioceras spirale, Phill., sp. Orthoceras sp.

It is a point of difference amongst writers on the Culm as to whether
the Posidonomya limestones are above or below the Coddon Hill beds.
I believe for stratigraphical reasons that the Coddon Hill beds are at the
base and the Venn Limestones succeed them, and also because the
Paleontological succession in Derbyshire has beds with Prolecanites
compressus at the base and Posidonomya Becheri immediately above

them. In my paper in the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ op. ae cit., I have -

gone into the stratigraphical question in detail.

Immediately overlying the Postdonomya beds, if I am correct, are a
series of Middle Culm grits, with occasional vegetable remains, what I
consider to be the homotaxial equivalents of the "Millstone Grit, because
they are intercalated between beds with Prolecanites compressus and
Posidonomya Becheri and the series of clays and shales which are well

a

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 229

seen at Instow, where in a bed of calcareous bullions the following
fossils occur :—

Gastrioceras listeri, Mart., sp. Pterinopecten papyraceus, Sow., sp.
; carbonarium, Vv. Buch. Posidoniella levis, Brown., sp.

Dimorphoceras gilbertsoni, Phill. Celacanthus elegans, Newb.

Orthoceras sp. Hlonichthys aitkeni, Traq.

The fauna is one which I regard as characteristic of the marine part
of the Gannister Series of the Lower Coal Measures.

The beds above the Instow series have a wonderfully familiar appear-
ance to one acquainted with the Coal Measures, and I am glad to say
that Mr. E. Newell Arber has read a paper at the Royal Society which
conclusively proves from the flora contained in them that the Culm-
bearing series round Bideford is of Middle Coal Measure age.

This is borne out by the occurrence of Carbonicola acuta at Roberts
quarry, near Bideford, immediately above a rich plant bed, with well-
preserved Middle Coal Measure ferns. It must remain at present an
open question whether the Carboniferous Limestone is represented in the
Culm series by a few feet of calcareous shales and a band or two of
limestone, which is seen on the foreshore near Fremington Station. The
limestone also being exposed at Fremington Pill Quarry is open to
question. The shales on the foreshore contain species of Brachiopoda,
which are common to the Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous.

There are, therefore, four life-zones in the Culm—

Zone of Carbonicola acuta and Zone of Posidonomya becherv.

Middle Coal Measure plants. » Prolecanites compressus.

Zone of Gastrioceras listeri and

G. carbonarium.
which definitely fix the age of the Culm of North Devon.

This fossil evidence is of importance from an economic view, for it
definitely shows that the beds of Culm are the representatives of the
coal seams, and that any occurrence of coal in Devonshire is altogether
improbable.

The line of strike of the Mendip anticlinal and the Coddon Hill
series have a similar relation to each other that the Carboniferous Lime-
stone of Cork and Killarney has to the Devonian Carboniferous succession
of the Old Head of Kinsale and Coomhola, and the absence of Carboniferous
Limestone south of a fairly definite line is noticed in Devonshire and
South-west Cork and Kerry. This condition of things points to a
similarity of physical causes in both areas.

An important paper by Mr. Vaughan, F.G.S., ‘On the Paleontological
Sequence of the Carboniferous Limestone of the Bristol Area,’ was read
before the Geological Society in June. The paper is not yet published,
and I hesitate to criticise it ; but in any Carboniferous area with which
IT am acquainted the fossils chosen by Mr. Vaughan as denoting zones
and sub-zones—with one exception, that of Modiola lata, a variety
probably of M. macadami—all occur together at several horizons.

To quote 3.— Productus semireticulatus, P. cora, Schizophoria
resupinata, and Spiriferina octoplicata occur practically at all horizons in
the same beds.

It is, however, a subject of congratulation that work is being com-
menced on palzontological lines in the Bristol and Mendip area.

The zonary divisions established by Mr. Vaughan are given in the
following table. (This is the form in which these divisions are finally set
out after emendation and further revision of a preliminary working system.)

230 REPORT—1904.

Zones Sub-zones and Horizons

€

D,) Lonsdaleia floriformis.

PSOE ENTE ; : { D,) Dibunophyllum cylindricum.

VISHAN

SEMINULA .

(
(
(S,) Productus cora (mut.).

(S,) Productus semireticulatus.

Nive

5

(Caninia-
(C) Syringothyris, sp. nov. Zone.)"

|

{ (Z,) Schizophoria resupinata.

ee ' | | (2) Spirifer aff. clathratus.

TOURNAISIAN

{ (K,) Spiriferina octoplicata.
DEEEEOBOP A) 2 . ; 1 (RK) Productus, sp. nov.
a

MopIoLa . ‘ : . (M) Modiola lata.
|

For example: Productus Cora, P. semireticulatus, and Schizophoria
resupinata range as high as the upper 300 feet of the Pendleside Series
in Cheshire. The first two fossils occur in the Calciferous Sandstone
Series of Fife, P. Cora in the Ardens limestone, and P. semireticulatus
and Schizophoria resupinata all through the Calciferous Sandstone Series.
All three of these fossils occur throughout the Yoredale Series of Wens-
leydale.

Spirvferina octoplicata is found with all the above species at Castleton
and Park Hill, Derbyshire, in the upper beds of the series, and in Fife
is found throughout the Carboniferous Limestone Series and as low down
as the encrinite bed in the Calciferous Limestone Series.

Lonsdaleia floriformis is not found in the upper beds of the limestone
in Derbyshire, but in the main or great limestone of Weardale occurs
with the three forms of Brachiopoda mentioned above.

Dibunophyllum cylindricum occurs in the Lower Limestone Series of
the West of Scotland with Lonsdaleia floriformis, and also some way
down in the Upper Limestone Series of the North-west of Ireland. It
will be a curious anomaly if the distribution of the species in the isolated
patch of Bristol and the Mendips is totally different from that which
obtains in all other districts of Great Britain.

Up to the present I have looked in vain for any species of organism
which denotes a definite Horizon in the Carboniferous Limestone Series of
Great Britain.

It must be noted that in Belgium the Viséan is characterised by the
presence of Productus giganteus, a shell absent in the Tournaisian.

1 Employed throughout the preliminary working system.

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 231

In the Midlands and Scotland P. gigantews occurs throughout the whole
of the Carboniferous Limestone Series, which makes it doubtful whether
there is any representative of the Tournai Limestone there.

In a paper published in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ December 4,
vol. v. p. 61, I referred to the anomalies of distribution throughout the
Carboniferous deposits of Europe of the various species of Brachiopoda
which have been stated to denote various horizons in Belgium and Russia.

Owing to the deep trenching, necessary for the construction of a
reservoir by the Derwent Valley Water Board in N. Derbyshire, an
unusual opportunity was presented of examining the upper portion of the
Pendleside Series, which consists mainly of dark laminated shales and
thin sandstones.

By the favour of Mr. E. Sandeman, M.Inst.C.E., we were enabled to
inspect the sections and the material which was being excavated on a
large scale, and to collect therefrom.

The lower trench, where the work of excavation was mostly proceed-
ing at the time, cuts at right angles the bottom of the valley of the
river Derwent, a little to the south of Hollinclough Farm, and the
following section was exposed at this point :—

Fie. 1.
ft. in.
1. Shales 7% 0
2. Grit 2 9
RK“
8. Shales, with five thin grit bands . Re 4 6
QA QQY
si :
5. Shales 29
6. Grit vf
7. Shale 4 0
8. Grit 1.3
9. Shale 3 0
10. Grit 6
11. Shale 5
12, Grit 5
13. Shale

932 REPORT— 1904.
LAER

14,
15.

16.
17.
18,

19,

43.

. Grit :
. Compact shale
. Argillaceous sandstone .

. Shale

. Grit

. Compact shale

. Thinly bedded grit
. Micaceous shale,
. Grit -

“sue ieee or =
fel)

. Shales with lenticles of grit .

. Grit
. Shale with thin pipes bi coal

. Grit
. Shale

. Grit

. Shale

. Grit in three beds . ‘

. Grit

. Micaceous shale
. Grit

. Shale

. Grit

. : . 5 . . . DSS NEO
RAs we :
. Shale with nodules . - 3 “ \

Grit
Shales

Grit, with large caleareous bullions
Shale, with large calcareous bullions .
Grit

Micaceous shales .

—=

Micaceous shale

ft. in.

ow Oo

e
=
oO oOo Be oOO o co ao ance

_
a
o

10
oo

Base not seen.

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 233

The bed ‘ 15. Shales’ was highly fossiliferous, yielding the following
forms :—

Orthoceras sp. Pterinopecten papyraceus, Calamites sp.
Goniatites, indeterminable species of. Postdoniella levis (large).

Resting on ‘18. Grit’ were numerous large ellipsoidal calcareous
bullions, some of which measured 2 ft. 6in. and 1 ft. 6 in. along their major
and minor axes respectively. Asa rule the bullions contained numerous
goniatites, and in one of them was found a fine specimen of Acrolepis
Hopkinst.

In ‘17. Shales’ Posidoniella levis and Glyphioceras reticulatum were
fairly abundant.

From ‘ 21. Shales’ Glyphioceras reticulatwm was collected.

‘25. Compact shale’ contained large Pterinopecten papyraceus and
Posidoniella levis in great numbers.

‘27. Micaceous shale’ contained Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella
levis, Orthoceras sp., and Goniatites of indeterminable species.

In the middle of ‘29. Shale’ was a layer containing Pterinopecten
papyraceus.

‘33. Shale’ contained Glyphioceras reticulatum.

‘35. Shales with lenticles of grit’ were very fossiliferous ; Posidoniella
levis, Pterinopecten papyraceus, Glyphioceras reticulatum, and Goniatite
sp. were collected.

‘41. Shale’ contained Calamites sp.

‘43, Micaceous shale’ contained fragmentary plant remains.

The upper trench had been similarly cut across R. Derwent, a short
distance above the Abbey Farm, in measures higher in the series, where
the shales were thinner and the grits were thicker and formed an
increasing proportion of the strata.

The succession revealed by these two trenches corresponds with the
shales and sandstones towards the base of the eastern scarp of Mam Tor,
near Castleton, Derbyshire.

The difficulty in getting continuous sections of Pendleside shales,
owing to their disturbed character and to the fact that they are commonly
exposed at the bottom of valleys, has been frequently observed. Some
light was thrown on the subject by the position of the beds in these
trenches. Figs. 2 and 3 show the relation of these disturbances to the
valley and hills, as seen in the lower trench, the same general features of
which were to be observed in the upper trench also.

The distance between the two trenches, measured in a straight line, is
about 1# mile, and the strata forming the bed of the river are thrown
into an anticlinal fold with subsidiary wrinklings in both instances.
These foldings are shown in fig. 3 to be confined to the strata near the
surface, which consist of the softer and more incoherent shales, whilst the
hard and thick grit (No. 42 in fig. 1) may be observed to have resisted
the crush movement and forms a fairly level floor to the excavation.

An examination of the ground renders improbable the idea that both
the trenches intersect the same anticline, and remembering that both
sections occur at the bottom of deep and narrow valleys one is forced to
regard the ‘ wrinkle’ and the valley itself as being related in some way
a8 cause and effect. There can be no doubt that considerable ‘side-
thrust’ would result from the weight of these hills, which naturally would
make itself felt most on those beds forming the bottom of the valley,

234 REPORT—1904.

which would, if insufficiently rigid, be crushed and crumpled, and thus
prepared for rapid erosion by the stream or river. So that whilst in the

Hig. 2.

ue.

LE no 42 Grit. (Fig.t)

Scales : Horizontal, 12 inches per mile.
Vertical, 400 feet per inch.

early stages the incipient valley induced the side-thrust of the hills, and
the consequent ‘ crushing’ of the measures in the way indicated, the latter

Fig. 3.

has undoubtedly reacted by powerfully promoting the deepening of the
valley.

Fig. 4.

E Nettlebank Pec

Scale : 2 chains per inch.

In the North Staffordshire Coalfield it was deemed desirable to find
the outcrop of a rich marine bed known to exist about the horizon of the

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 239

Gin Mine Coal. Permission to cut a trench for this purpose on their
estate near Smallthorne was kindly given by Messrs. R. Heath & Co., to
whom we are under great obligation. Our thanks are also due to Mr.
W. Lockett for assistance and advice.

The horizon was reached and its relation to the coal seam, and also its
succession of life-forms, exactly made out. This was of great importance,
since our previous conceptions required inversion. It was rather dis-
appointing, however, to find the richest part of the horizon, consisting of a
very impure and earthy limestone, to be so decomposed on the hillside,
where we were working, that the fossils were incapable of preservation,
and often of identification. So that the proposal to work the bed on a
larger scale at this point was abandoned. The general section is shown
in fig. 4, and the following is the succession of the measures constituting
the ‘ marine bed,’ together with the fossils restricted to each stratum, so
far as could be ascertained, viz. —

ft.
(1) Dark shale

(2) Impure limestone é : : ; Fe
(3) Dark shale . : : , ‘ : 2 oy hi

Cons

(1) contains—
Lingula mytiloides, Discina nitida.
(2) contains—

Productus semireticulatus, Athyris ambigua, Chonetes Laguessiana, Nucula
gibbosa, Ephippioceras costatum, Raphistoma junior, Plewronautilus armatus, Pleuro-
nautilus n. sp. (with tubercles).

(3) (upper layer) contains—

Archeocidaris Urei, crinoid ossicles, Loxonema sp., Turbonellina, cf. 7. formosa,
Orthoceras pygmaeus, Pseudamusium jfibrillosum, Nuculana acuta, Ctenvdonta
levirostris.

At base :—

Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella sulcata.

In South Wales collecting was done on the northern outcrop of the
Carboniferous rocks, and the opportunity was taken of examining the
‘patchworks’ of the Coal Measures in that district. There is no doubt
that great discrimination and experience are required in collecting from
‘patchworks,’ and serious errors have arisen in the past from the work of
spoil-heap collectors. This is the more to be regretted, since in no other
circumstances do we find such a quantity of material available for search
and inspection.

Owing to the personal uncertainty as to the name of the coal seam
from whose associated measures the fossils have been derived the position
of the ‘ patch’ where they were found will be given in terms of latitude
and longitude picked off the 1-inch Ordnance maps, so that the localities may
ae assistance to other workers. The horizons will be taken in descending
order.

A few feet below the outcrop of the Soap-vein on the patchworks,

236 REPORT—1904.

west of Rhymney (51° 45’ 35” N., 3° 18’ 5” W.), thereis a thin clayband
ironstone which contains in great abundance—

? Scaldia minuta or Estheria. Naiadites ?

This band should form a good index-bed.
Lower down on the same patchworks, near the horizon of the Elled
Coal, south of Brynpwllog (51° 45’ 45” N., 3° 18’ 0” W.) were found :—

Anthracomya modiolaris (common). Carbonicola acuta.

From the roof of the Ras Las Coal, No. 2 Pit, Fochrhiw, the following
were obtained :—

Carbonicola aquilina (common). Naiadites modiolaris.
Naiadites carinata 5

From the patchwork near Dowlais (51° 45’ 35’ N., 3° 20’ 15” W.), at
the horizon of the 9-foot coal, the following were collected :—

Anthracomya modiolaris. Naiadites carinata (common).
Carbonicola aquilina (common).

The Ras Las Coal has been regarded as identical with the 9-foot coal,
and the above lists support this correlation.

At a level near Hirwaun (51° 45/5" N., 3° 31/5" W.), about the horizon
of the Cnapiog Coal, fine specimens of Carbonicola robusta were abundant.

In the roof-shale of a thin coal (4 inches thick) which occurs above the
grit overlying the engine coal, where it outcrops south of Clydach Colliery,
the following plant remains were found :—

In an exposure of black shales in the W. bank of R. Rhymney, a few
yards north of Blaen Rhymney, were found—
Anthracomya pumila. Beyrichia arcuata.

Carbonicola acuta (numerous). Celacanthus lepturus.
Naiadites modiolaris.

These black shales are in the so-called Millstone Grit Series.

In dark shales in the same series of rocks a horizon, about 15 inches
thick, is exposed in the banks of the stream 8. of Garth (51° 46’ 15” N.,
3° 20' 65’ W.), and contains—

Carbonicola acuta (abundant). Carbonia sp.

A little higher in the series and farther up the stream to the east, in
dark shales, about 2 feet thick, the following list was obtained :—
Solenomya primaeva. Edmondia sp.

Ctenodonta laevirostris. Lingula mytiloides.
Nucula aequalis.

Higher again in the series, near Pitwellt Pond (51° 46’ 45” N

”?
3° 20’ 30’’ W.), another marine bed was seen, yielding—

Lingula mytiloides. Posidoniella laevis.
Quarries opposite Clydach on 8. side of R. Clydach showed the follow-

ing sequence in the Carboniferous Limestone .—

1. Blue limestone in thick beds, with thin black shales intervening.
2. Purple and green marl with calcareous nodules, 15 feet thick.
3. White limestone, oolitic and very pure.

—s

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 237

In the upper blue limestone, which is only used for road metal, the
following were collected :—

Productus hemisphericus. Lithostrotion aranaea,
ee semireticulatus. * sp.
Fenestella sp.
In the intervening black shales were obtained —

Leiopteria lunulata. Athyris ambigua.
Productus margaritaceus.

At a quarry at Blackrocks, in an oolitic portion of the limestone, is a
grit bed containing—

Athyris subtilita (abundant). Lithostrotion aranaea.
5 ambiqua.

In some of the very thin black shales are—
Productus hemisphericus. Athyris ambigua.

In the limestone beds at Morlais Quarries were found—

Productus cora (with spines). Euomphalus sp.
Fe » (without spines). Bellerophon sp.
Orthotetes crenistria. Lithostrotion sp.
Spirifer sp. Fragments of Brachiopods.
The limestone at Graig Fawr, near Cefn, contains in its upper beds—
Myalina sp. Spirifer sp.
Athyris ambigua (abundant). Huomphalus sp.
Orthis sp Macrocheilina acuta.
Orthotetes crenistria, Bellerophon sp.
Productus cora (abundant). Archeocidaris Urei (plate).
3 giganteus (young). Crinoids.
a longispinus.

Whilst it would be premature to generalise from what has been done
in South Wales, the remark may be ventured that in the Coal Measures,
so far as the subject has been worked, there is to be observed the same
order of succession of freshwater lamellibranchs which has already been
found in the North Staffordshire Coalfield ; and mention may also be made
of the apparent absence in South Wales of that fauna, which is so character-
istic of the Millstone Grit Series of the Midlands, in rocks which are
regarded as their equivalents, and which receive the same name.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Ninth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. EH. Marr (Chairman), Professor P. F. KENDALL
(Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. ©. E. De Rance,
Professor W. J. Sortuas, Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Rev. S. N.
Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. F, M. Burron, Mr. J. Lomas,
Mr. A. R. DwerryuHouse, Mr. J. W. StatHer, Mr. W. T. Tucker,
and Mr. F. W. Harmer, appointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles and to take measures for their preservation.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE most noteworthy records received during the current year are those
which are furnished by Mr. J. Lomas from Northamptonshire, Leicester-
shire, and Rutlandshire, the first and last mentioned counties appearing

238 REPORT—1904.

for the first time in the reports of the Committee ; and the very interesting
identifications of the source of certain beach-pebbles found near Cromer in
the course of an excursion during the meeting at Cambridge. On this
occasion Professor Sjogren and Professor Biackstrém, of Stockholm, identi-
fied a number of Scandinavian rocks, most of which were well known to
glacial workers in Yorkshire, though their place of origin was unknown.
These rocks include a cancrinite-syenite from Sarna in Dalecarlia, Sweden ;
quartz porphyry, also from Dalecarlia ; a fine-grained granitic rock which
is a common and widespread type in Sweden ; sparagmite conglomerate
from Scania; sparagmite sandstone and a series of hornblende-porphyrites
from the Christiania district.

Two pebbles were found, which the present writer identified as
trachytes from the south-east of Scotland, a determination which was con-
firmed by Dr. J. Horne, F.R.S.

The discovery of a fragment of pecten in a gravel-pit at Thirsk, by
Mr. J. E. Hall, of that town, is an interesting fact, as no shell-fragments
had. previously been recorded so far down the vale of York.

LANCASHIRE.
Reported by Mr. J. Lomas, A.R.C.S.

On banks of Yarrow River, above Simms’s Farm, Anglesark—
Dalbeattie granite, 4 feet by 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 2 inches

Winter Hill Stream.—1,120 feet O.D., boulders of Eskdale granite and
Lake District andesites.

New Road from Royston Cottage to Belmont.—1,100 feet above O.D.
and over.

Kinder Scout grit, very common, one 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet by 2 feet
6 inches.

Ditto, 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches by 4 feet.

Silurian grit, 1 foot.

Eskdale granite, 1 foot.

Ganister, 2 feet.

Lake District andesite.

Among many hundreds of boulders examined were an enormous
number of Carboniferous grits and sandstones, but no Mountain Lime-
stone.

NortTHAMPTONSHIRE.
Reported by Mr. J. Lomas, 4.&.C.8.
Gayton Clay-pit near Blisworth—

Chalky boulder clay, containing Chalk (red and white), Chalk ammonites,
flints (white, brown, and red), Bunter pebbles, Great Oolite, Keuper marl,
Hannington (new well in field) —
Chalk, grey flint, Carboniferous grit, Lias limestone, Great Oolite.

Paine’s Siding, Glendon, near Kettering—

In Chalky boulder clay many boulders of indurated Northampton Sands, some
3 feet in diameter; Trias pebbles, flints, Lincolnshire Limestone.

ho
(os)
Ne)

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

Rushton—

Mountain Limestone, with encrinites and brachiopods.
Carboniferous chert, Bunter pebbles, Chalk, and flints.

North of Great Oakley—
Mountain Limestone.
Nortuampton.—Corby Brickworks.—Large proportion of Carboni-
ferous boulders, including Mountain Limestone, chert, Millstone Grit,

and ganister. Lias limestone, Great Oolite, indurated Northampton
Sands, Trias pebbles, and one specimen of mica schist, 3 inches diameter.

Reported by Professor P. F. KENDALL.

Brick-pit near Racecourse (in Chalky boulder clay)—
Spilsby sandstone.

LEICESTERSHIRE.
Reported by Mr. J. Lomas.

East Norton Railway-cutting—

Carboniferous Limestone.

Millstone Grit.

Carboniferous chert.
Owston Gravel-pit—

Chalk, flints, Lias limestone, Oolite, Bunter pebbles.

Knossington.—Many boulders of Carboniferous limestone and Mill-
stone Grit.

Wymondham.—Old Brickworks near Station—

Mountain Limestone, Chalk, flints, Bunter pebbles.
Oolite, and many Lias limestones.
Coston Bridge—

Coarse dolerite, 3 feet diameter,
Fine-grained dolerite, 1 foot diameter.
Oolite, 2 feet diameter.

Mountain Limestone.

Marl-pit, near Saltby—

Great number of Bunter pebbles, Oolite; no Lias.

Quarry, behind Saltby Church (406 O.D.)—
Lincolnshire Oolite ; no Chalk.
Oolitic sandstone.

Wykeham.—Felsitic ash from Charnwood, 2 feet 6 inches diameter.
This boulder has been identified by Professor Bonney and is recorded in
the Survey Memoir.

24.0 REPORT—1904.

Near Grimston—

Mountain Limestone, Millstone Grit, Bunter pebbles, Trias sandstone with
concretions of barytes.
Lias limestone; no Oolite. A few pieces of Chalk and flints.

Ragdale—

Many boulders of Mount Sorrel granite, several over 2 feet in diameter. Mill-
stone Grit, Carboniferous sandstone, Lias limestone.

Near Haby—

Millstone Grit, Carboniferous sandstone and chert, Bunter pebbles, and a few
flints.

Thrussington Brickyard—

Boulder clay, with Triassic matrix in which bands of selenite have formed.

Numerous boulders of Keuper marl, with plant remains and pseudomorphs of
rock salt.

Bunter pebbles (some pitted), Lias limestone, no Oolite, Carboniferous lime-
stone and chert

Aylestone Sand-pit—

Mount Sorrel granite, some with wind-etched surfaces ; Carboniferous Lime-
stone and sandstone, Millstone Grit, much Keuper marl with pseudo-
morphs and plants.

A few Lias limestones and fossils; no Oolite. Coal; no Chalk.

Blaby Clay-pu—

Matrix of clay, almost pure Keuper marl, with bands of gypsum formed in
boulder clay.

Numerous Mount Sorrel granite, Carboniferous Limestone, Millstone Grit,
Carboniferous sandstone, tea-green marls, Triassic sandstone with
barytes. A few Lias fragments; no Oolite.

Enderby Granite-works—

Black Chalky boulder clay with Liassic matrix overlies, red boulder clay with
Mountain Limestone, granite and other rocks from the West.

Leicester Forest Brick-works—

Red boulder clay with much Keuper marl, coal, Millstone Grit, Carboniferous
sandstone, limestone and chert overlaid by Chalky boulder clay with
Liassic matrix, Chalk, flints, and (?) Carboniferous sandstone.

Thurmaston Brickyard—

Red marly boulder clay at base with Carboniferous chert and limestone,
Coal Measure sandstone and Millstone Grit, Keuper marls and Triassic
sandstone, above Chalky boulder clay with many Liassic limestones
and fossils.

RUTLANDSHIRE,

Reported by Mr. J. Lomas.

Langham, near Oakham (in sewer cutting)—
Middle Lias limestone,

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 241

Quarry, near Langham—

Grown boulder clay with dolerite, oolitic limestone, Carboniferous Limestone
and chert, Millstone Grit, Trias pebbles and flints.

NorrFouk.
Reported by Professor P, ¥, KenpDALt,
Beach from Cromer to Mundesley—
Rhomb porphyry; laurvikite (two varieties); cancrinite-syenite of Siarna,
Dalecarlia, Sweden; quartz porphyry, Dalecarlia; fine-grained granite,

Sweden; sparagmite sandstone, Scandinavia; sparagmite conglomerate,
Scania, Sweden ; hornblende-porphyrite, Christiania district, Norway.

YORKSHIRE BoutpEerR Committers, 1904.
Reported by Mr. E. HAwKEsSWworTHh.

Brompton and Osmotherley.— Between Brompton and Osmotherley,
3 miles N.E. of Northallerton, in sandy clay exposed in altering road—

Whin Sill, Shap granite, Lake District voleanic series (several varieties),
Carboniferous limestones and sandstones numerous, chert.

Hutu Grotocicat Socrery BouLpDER CoMMITTEE.
Tteported by Mr. G. W. B. Macrurx.

Raywell, near Hull.—In connection with the making of the new
reservoir at Raywell an interesting section has been exposed consisting
of boulder clay, 10 feet thick, resting on chalk 230 feet O.D. The boulder
clay appears to be in two divisions, a red upper clay and a blue or lead-
coloured lower clay. Among the erratics the following was recognised :—

Carboniferous Limestone, ganister, porphyrite, greywacke, basalt, &c.

South Cave.—tIn the fieid adjoining the railway, 300 yards east of the
railway station—

Carboniferous Limestone, Lower Lias.
Soft yellow sandstone, ganister, &c.
Reported by Mr. Tuos. SHEPPARD.
Kilnsea, near Spurn—
Two Mammoth teeth.
Reported by Mr. J. KE. Haut.

Thirsk.—In the town gravei-pit—
Fragment of Pecten.

1904. R

242 REPORT—1904.

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Fifteenth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Professor W. W. Watts (Secretary), Professor T. G.
Bonney, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Professor 8. H. REYNoLDs,
Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Dr. J. J. H. Traut, Mr. Goprrey
BineLey, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. J. G. Goop-
cHitD, Mr. WiLL1amM Gray, Mr. W. JERoME Harrison, Mr.
Robert Kinston, Mr. J. Str. J. Puivuirs, Mr. A. 8. Rem, Mr.
R. Wetcu, Mr. W. Wuraker, und Mr. H. B. Woopwarp.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tur Committee beg to report that once again the number of new photo-
graphs received during the year exceeds that of any previous year. The
accessions number 543; the total number in the collection is 4,314, and
the yearly average rises to 287. About 100 other photographs have been
received, but cannot be added to this year’s list.

The geographical scheme annexed shows that four counties are
removed from last year’s ‘black list’-—Cambridge, Kildare, Leitrim, and
Wicklow having now made contributions to the collection. ‘There are
still 21 non-contributing counties—two in England, one in Wales, seven
in Scotland, and eleven in Ireland.

To this year’s list Yorkshire makes, as so often before, the largest con-
tribution, 243 ; Norfolk follows with 43, Kent with 31, and Pembroke
with 30. Considerable additions are made to the lists of Buckingham,
Northampton, Suffolk, Fife, Linlithgow, Renfrew, Cork, and Sligo.

Previous Additions
see Collection | (1904) Total
ENGLAND—
Buckinghamshire . - j 8 5 13
Cambridgeshire : ; ; -_- 2 2
Cornwall . * 3 5 : 57 10 67
Cumberland . - : é 43 1 44
Devonshire : : : . 178 2 180
Hampshire : ; : = 36 11 47
Hertfordshire . : ; 15 5 20
Kent : : c ; 3] 81 31 112 |
Lancashire - é ‘ : 69 8 7 |
Leicestershire . : ‘ sae 144 4 148
Norfolk . 3 5 ; ae 67 43 110
Northamptonshire . ; | 6 12 18
Shropshire < 3 : : b4 1 55
Somersetshire . : 3 a 70 8 78
Suffolk . : 2 ee = 21 24 45
Surrey . : : : ; 64 4 58
Worcestershire ‘ : ? 26 1 27
Yorkshire : ‘ : a 604 243 847
Others . 3 : ; sal 775 = T715
Total - | 2,308 415 2,723

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 943

Previous Additions
Collection (1904) Total
|
WALES—
Anglesey . - : die 5 1 6
Carnarvonshire 3 : : 96 10 106
Pembrokeshire . 4 A é 15 30 45
Others . : P 5 - 134 — 134
Total . , 7 ; A 250 41 291
CHANNEL ISLANDS . 5 : 38 = 38
ISLE OF MAN . : 5 60 1 61
ScoTLAND—
Edinburgh : c : : 47 7 54
Fifeshire . 3 : ‘ ; 24 19 43
Haddingtonshire . ‘ : + 1 5
Linlithgow. : 3 : 2 3 5
Renfrewshire j =| 1 4 5
Stirlingshire . ; . : 15 3 18
Others . : ; A Au 329 —_— 329
Total . ; : ‘ | 422 37 459
IRELAND—
Antrim , 3 5 : a 273 5 278
Cork A 5 : ' Sit: 2 19 * 21
Down ‘ é : aul 98 | 7 105
Dublin. s 5 | 39 3 42
Kildare , 3 = 2 2
Leitrim : ‘ ¢ : — 2 2
Londonderry . ; : a 23 3 26
Sligo , 5 il 12
Wicklow . ‘ : 4 Poa = 1 1
Others . ¢ : { 3 157 — 157
Total . i 5 : ‘ 597 49 646
Rock STRUCTURES, Kc. . ; 96 — 96
SUMMARY.
ENGLAND, 4 4 : ; 2,308 415 2,723
WALES : 3 3 6 - 250 41 291
CHANNEL ISLANDS ._. At 38 — 38
IsLE OF MAN . i . r 60 1 61
ScoTLAND A : ; ; 422 37 459
IRELAND , é 3 E 597 49 646
Rock STRUCTURES, kc. . | 96 — 96
Total . 5 : F } 3,771 543 4,314

It is not easy to pick out any particular series of photographs for special
mention, but a set of seventeen prints from Mr. Charles C. Buckingham,
and two from Mr. De Vere, all taken under the auspices of the East Kent
Natural History Society, seem to be of exceptional interest. They
illustrate the course and tributaries of the Kentish river Stour, and their

R2

244, REPORT—1904.

association with the springs known as Bournes. Mr. Buckingham has
also photographed Reculvers Church from the same points of view as
Lyell’s famous pictures, and the result brings home the potency of marine
denudation and the need for coast defences.

Mr. R. Vowell Sherring, working in conjunction with the Bourne-
mouth and District Society of Natural Science, sends some beautiful
prints of the Bournemouth cliffs; Mr. Mellard Reade contributes some
excellent photographs of the well-known gypsum boulder of Crosby ; and
Mr. Topham a series {28m the gravels of Eye in Northamptonshire. The
rhythmical fretting of limestone by water in Hell Gill is illustrated by
Mr. Rodwell under circumstances of considerable difficulty, and the
marine destruction of the Scarborough landslips by Mr. Monckton.
Mr. Leach sends photographs of a mass of Carboniferous Limestone at
Tenby, supposed to show 10,000 specimens of Productus, and, curiously
enough, almost the same post brought a notice that ‘the Corporation have
for years been breaking up the stone for road repair, and are now in
possession of a steam stone-breaker which will in the course of time cause
this natural curiosity to disappear, unless some steps are taken to pre-
vent it.’

Messrs. Muff and Wright have taken an ideal set of photographs of the
raised beaches and platforms of Cork, which are buried under boulder-
clay, blown-sand, and ‘head ;’ Mr. Pledge continues to illustrate Mr.
Davies’s work on the Purbeck and Portland of the Haddenham district ;
Mr. Robarts sends further contributions on the geology of Kent
and Surrey from the Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society ;
and Mr. Plews gives the first photographs recorded from Cambridge-
shire.

The importance of the contributions of members of the Committee
will be realised from the fact that they are responsible for 426 photo-
graphs out of a total of 541. Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, one of the
earliest and most earnest of geological photographers, and perhaps the
pioneer of county photographic surveys, sends no less than 270 prints out
of his large collection of a lifetime. These comprise a large series of the
Yorkshire coast from Bridlington to Whitby, series from Cornwall,
Norfolk, and Suffolk, and our first connected set from the Cambrian
rocks of St. Davids. Mr. Bingley contributes 76 prints taken in
Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Anglesey, and Carnarvon. Professor
Reynolds’s work is well represented by illustrations from Hertfordshire,
the Carboniferous area of Somerset, and volcanic areas in Fife, Hadding-
ton, and Linlithgow. Last, but not least, Mr. Welch makes a valuable
gift of 35 prints taken in Lancashire and Ireland, in connection with the
work of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, and of Mr. Praeger and
Mr. Lamplugh. These include examples from Antrim and Cork, the
glacial and associated deposits of Down and Dublin, and phenomena
connected with limestones and caves in Sligo. One of the photo-
graphs is both botanical and geological, for it shows the formation of
tufa in a limestone-district through the agency of colonies of various
mosses.

To all the gentlemen named the Committee tender their best thanks,
as well as to the following, who have contributed less in amount, it is
true, but individual examples or series of high value: Mr. Epps, Mr.
G. T. Atchison, Mr. Hopkinson, Messrs. Abley and Griffith, Mr. Hodson,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 245

Professor Armstrong, Mr. Cobbold, Dr. Matley, Dr. Flett, Dr. Abbott,
and Mr. Smith.

Mr. Welch points out that one print registered last year (3289), the
cemented breccia of quartzite and slate at Howth, which contained bones
of mammals and fishes with land and marine shells, is now the only record
of an interesting geological fact, as the block has been washed away by
the sea.

The third and last issue of the published series of ‘ British Geological
Photographs’ was sent out to subscribers in May of this year. The com-
pletion and success of its first publication scheme marks an epoch in the
history of the Committee and the fulfilment of a long-cherished desire of
its founders.

Since the first meeting in 1890 the desirability of publishing a selected
series of geological photographs has been kept before the Committee, but
it was only in 1893 and 1894 that publishers were approached on the
subject. With one consent they recommended us to go elsewhere, and so
the matter was allowed to slumber till the Dover meeting in 1899. In
that year a Sub-Committee of selection, consisting of Professor Bonney
(Chairman), Professor Watts (Secretary and Editor), Professor Garwood,
Dr. Mill, Dr. Teall, and Mr. H. B. Woodward, was appointed, a self-
supporting subscription scheme drawn up, and a preliminary selection of
typical photographs made. One hundred and ninety-three subscribers
undertook to support a series which was to consist of issues of twenty photo-
graphs each year for three years. It was decided to issue the series in three
forms—unmounted half-plate platinotypes, mounted platinotypes, and
lantern slides—and each issue was to be accompanied by descriptive
letterpress.

Various unforeseen circumstances delayed the first issue, but it saw
the light in September 1902 ; issue ii. followed in July 1903, and the final
issue in May 1904. The actual series, as published, comprised seventy-
two photographs, fifty-one being standard half-plates, ten quarter-plates,
and eleven whole-plates, and an equal number of lantern slides. The sub-
jects ranged over most of the ordinary geologica] phenomena, the chief rock
formations, and many of the more important British localities. The nega-
tives were lent by thirty-four photographers, and a descriptive pamphlet
of forty-two pages was written by thirty-four contributors, amongst whom
are many of the most famous of contemporary British geologists. To
both geologists and photographers the Committee express their warmest
thanks.

The estimates on which the Sub-Committee worked proved to have
been well founded, and the annexed balance-sheet gives an account of all
receipts and expenditure to date. It shows a balance in favour of the
Committee of £95 13s. 2d., and a prospective profit of over £130 when
all outstanding accounts shall have been paid.

The balance-sheet, however, does not make one important point clear.
Eight whole-plate platinotypes and twelve slides beyond the number agreed
upon have been issued to subscribers. It is estimated that these addi-
tional photographs have cost £105. If this be added to the balance in
hand the total profit has been £235, of which one-half has been returned
to the subscribers and the other half retained by the Committee for the

purpose of carrying on the work for which it was originally established by
the Association.

24.6 REPORT—1904.

Balance-sheet, Publication Account, to August 18, 1904.

RECEIPTS. oS ete Lb

Printsonly . - 5 : : : : oo L480
Mounted prints. : : - : : - 19610 0
Slides . ‘ : : : : ‘ : Beret este (0
Prints and slides. ; 5 : : . pe es Ue)
Mounts and slides , : 5 . : : - 426-1050
Mounts and prints . 3 5 ; : : - TAB 7O
Prints, mounts and slides : : E i Pipa Ut beasts} 40)
821 17 0

Tess arrears unpaid ‘ : : : se Opie
Total : : 3 3 5 : . 78018 O

PAYMENTS,

CF i Py ol

Preliminary expenses and — oe 2h HOVERS
Copying negatives . : 5 : ; speeZl ira
Copyright and DRPCERSE, 5 E : : ‘ 619-0
Prints. iS ; : x - . 224 1 4
Mounts and mounting ‘ : ‘ 2 : See) dep sho
Albums and boxes . - 4 . : : ieee! 6
Slides and arr: é : : : ; a eLiG (Ome
Packing . : ; ; 3 = sey lGt 2 al
Carriage of parcels. : : : ‘ : sped So OHO
Printing and stationery . . . : ; phe UO. eee

Office expenses : : . ‘ A : . 7 6 43

Postage . : : : : oe OS
Renewing broken slides . - , 5 : Yona
Sets for new subscribers : ; ; ; . 2712 4
Interest on working capital . 2 LOO
Exhibition expenses (St. Louis and London) . ‘ 419 11

Balance transferred to Committee’s account

(£136 12s, 2d., less unpaid £4019s.) . a i9byLS 2
Total . ; : . * A - ap (SOELS GO

It was pointed out in the Report for last year that in its fourteen
years’ work of collecting and storing photographs, the Committee had
spent £101 10s. of the £130 granted to it by the Association. In
making a clear profit of £130 the Committee may congratulate itself on
having ‘earned its keep,’ and perhaps it is the only Committee of the
Association which has ever succeeded in literally doing so. But, besides
this, by scattering broadcast over the world typical photographs of geo-
logical features and phenomena it has rendered a service to geological, and
perhaps to geographical, teaching which cannot be well over-estimated.
The British Association photographs are forming the nucleus of dozens of
teaching-collections in the universities, schools, and museums of Britain ;
and numerous foreign subscribers write that they are only unable to sub-
scribe to a second series because they now want the funds to accumu-
late other examples from their own countries. It is not so difficult to
obtain geological photographs as it was fifteen years ago, for even the
ubiquitous picture post card is sometimes frankly geological.

Ata meeting of the Committee held in Cambridge on August 19,
1904, Dr. J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S., in the chair, it was unanimously agreed

That this Committee desires to record its admiration of the indefatigable
energy shown by its Secretary, both in carrying out the original aims
of the Committee and in bringing to a successful issue the publication

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 247

of a typical series of Geological Photographs, services to Geological Science
which cannot well be overestimated.’

About 100 intending subscribers to a new series have sent in their
names, and the Committee recommend that such a new series be under-
taken on the same terms as the last. With the smaller number of
subscribers, however, the margin is narrow, and while profit to the
Committee will be small, or absent, the subscribers will have to be content
with the ‘contract number’ of photographs. Possibly the number of
subscribers will increase when it is known that the new series will be
actually carried out.

Such a series will naturally be complete in itself, but it will also be
supplementary to the first series, and in no way a repetition of it. The
Committee would most warmly welcome any suggestions from subscribers
and others as to the best points to be considered in the new series.

Examples of the published series of photographs were shown at the
Exhibition arranged by the Geographical Association in London and the
provinces this year. Another set was sent by request to the Exhibition
at St. Louis, and it is proposed to present this collection to the Geographical
and Geological Department at Harvard University when the exhibition
closes. To this set a gold medal has been awarded in group 16.

The duplicate collection of slides has been exhibited and explained
within the year by Mr. Whitaker at the following local scientific
societies :—The Christ’s Hospital Natural History Society, the Greville
Place Literary Society, Maida Vale, the Stratford Congregational
Literary Society, and the Ashmolean Natural History Society, Oxford.

Applications by Local Societies for the loan of the duplicate collection
should be made to the Secretary. Either prints or slides, or both, can he
lent, with a descriptive account of the slides. The carriage and the
making good of any damage to slides or prints are expenses borne by the
borrowing society.

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed without a grant.

FIFTEENTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS,
Aveust 17, 1903, tro Auacust 12, 1904.

This list includes the geological photographs which have been
received by the Secretary of the Committee since the publication of the
last report. Photographers are asked to affix the registered numbers,
as given below, to their negatives for convenience of future reference.
Their own numbers are added in order to enable them to do so.

Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the local society
under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
print and on local circumstances over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photographs included
in this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications for per-
mission to reproduce them, should be addressed to the photographers direct.

It is recommended that, wherever the negative is suitable, the print be
made by the cold-bath platinotype process. The very best photographs
lose half their utility, and all their value as documentary evidence, unless
accurately described ; and the Secretary would be grateful if, whenever

248 REPORT—1904.

possible, such explanatory details as can be given were written on the forms
supplied by him for the purpose, and not on the back of the photograph
or elsewhere. Much labour and error of transcription would thereby be
saved. It is well, also, to use a permanent ink for this purpose. A local
number, by which the print and negative can be recognised, should be
written on the back of the photograph and on the top right-hand corner
of the form.

Copies of photographs should be sent wnmounted to W. W. Watts,
The University, Birmingham, and forms may be obtained from him.

The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—

L= Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole-plate.
1/4= Quarter-plate. 10;8 =10 inches by 8.
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10 =12 inches by 10, &c.

E signifies Enlargements.

* Indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the donors, or
obtained through the address given with the series. 3

LIST I.
ACCESSIONS IN 1905-1904.

ENGLAND.

BuckKINGHAMSHIRE.—Photographed by J. H. PLepGx, 115 Richmond
Road, Dalston, N.E. 1/2.
Regd.

INO.
4296 (B14) Cutting near Digg’s Upper Portland and Purbeck. 1903.
: Farm, Haddenham.
3756 (B15) Cutting N.W. of Had- River Gravel. 1903.
denham to Thame Road.
3757 (B16) Cutting S. of main road, Portlandian Pebble-bed. 1903.
Thame to Aylesbury, Had-
denham.
3758 (B17) Cutting S. of main road, Portland Beds. 1903.
Thame to Aylesbury, Had-
denham.
3759 (B18) Cutting S. of main road, Pebblé Bed in Portland. 1903.
Thame to Aylesbury, Had-
denham.

CambBripGEe.—Photographed by A. G. PLews, Pembroke College,
Cambridge. 1/4.

3760 ( ) Brick Pit at Gamlingay . Unconformity of Lower Greensand on
Ampthill Clay. 1902.

3761 ( ) = “A . Unconformity of Lower Greensana on
Ampthill Clay. 1903.

CornwatL.—LPhotographed by W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S.,
52 Claremont Koad, Handsworth, Birmingham. 7/5.

3762. (408) Cliffs N. of Newquay Devonian Rocks. 1894.

S763 (1097 F) ” ” Coast erosion.

38764 (420) Walrus Rock, N. of ‘A j
Newquay.

«ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

Regd.
oO.

8765 (1109F) The Porth, Newquay

3766 (1106F) % x

8767 (1105 F) N. side of the Porth,
Newquay.

3768 (1099F) 3 miles N. of Newquay

3769 (1528 F) Cliffs 3 to5 miles N. of
Newquay.

3770 (1096 F) Bedruthan Steps.

3771 (1116F) Bedruthan .

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST,

1894
‘The Norwegian.’
Rock chasm. .
Folded rocks “a

CuMBERLAND.— Photographed by G. T. Arcuison, M.A., LL.B.,

Holmwood, Sutton Coldfield.
4297 (67) Below Watendlath, Borrow-

dale.

1/2

‘The Devil’s Punchhowl.’ 1902.

DrvonsHirE.— Photographed by C. H. B. Epps, B.A., 95 Upper Tulse
Hill, SW. 5/4,

3772 (1150) Bathing Beach, Ilfra-
combe.

3773 (1151) Bathing Beach, Ilfra-
combe.

Isoclinal fold in slate, 1903.

Strain-slip cleavage on large scale. 1903.

Hampsuire (IsLE or WiGut).—Dhotographed by J. Hopkinson, F.G.S.,

Weetwocd, Watford.

3774 (14) Undercliff between
Lawrence and Ventnor.
(15) Undercliff between
Lawrence and Ventnor.

St.

3775 St.

1/4.
Bands of Chert in Upper Greensand.
1903.

Bands of Chert in Upper Greensand.
1903.

Photographed by R. VowEtt SuHeERRinG, /.L.S., Hallatrow, near Bristol.

Bournemouth and District Society of Natural Science,

4256 (1) Cliffs W. of Gordon Hotel
Steps, Southbourne, Bourne-
mouth,

4257 (2) E. of Gordon Hotel Steps,
Southbourne, Bournemouth.

4258 (3) E. of Gordon Hotel Steps,
Southbourne, Bournemouth.

4259 (4) Southbourne Cliffs, Bourne-
mouth.

4260 (5) Southbournce Cliffs, Bourne-
mouth.

4261 (6) Southbcurne Cliffs, Bourne-
mouth.

4262 (7) Southbourne Cliffs, Bourne-
mouth,

Photographed by W. E. ABLEY,

4264 (320) Three miles from Win-
chester, on road to Teters-
field.

4265 (321) Three miles from Win-
chester, on road to Peters-
field.

10/8.

Eocene Beds. 1904.

Lignite Bed above high-water mark, 1904.

Leaf Bed in situ. 1904.

Silver-sand Bed and cliff erosion. 1904,
Cliff erosion. 1904.
Sands and clays. 1904.

Kingsgate Street, Winchester. 1/1.

Broad, flat floor of Chalk combe and dry
watercourses at itshead. 1903.

Narrow valley in continuation of combe.
1903.

250. REPORT—1904. _

HERTFORDSHIRE.—Photographed by J. Hopkinson, F.G.S.,
Weetwood, Watford. 1/4.

3776 (16) Lane to Bottom Farm, Lane converted into river from December
Valley of the Bourne. 1903 to May 1904. 1904.
3777 (17) Gravel-pitin Bourne Valley Converted into pond from December 1903
to June1904. 1904,

Photographed by Professor 8. H. Rrynotps, I/A., F.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

3778 (A 14) Railway Cutting, Chor- Pipes and pockets of Gravel in Chalk.

ley Wood. 1908.

3779 (A15) Railway Cutting, Chor- Pipes and pockets of Gravel in Chalk.
ley Wood. 1903.

3780 (A 16) Railway Cutting, Chor- Pipes and pockets of Gravel in Chalk.
ley Wood. 19038.

Kent.—Photographed by N. F. Rozparts, F.G.S., 23 Oliver Grove,
South Norwood, S.E. 1/4.

3781 (28) Oldbury Hill, Ightham . Sandpit in Folkestone Beds. 1904.

Kent.—-Photographed by Cuarues C, Buckinauam, 13 York Road,
Canterbury. 1/4 and 1/2.

4266 (100) S.E. of Lenham . . Source of Great Stour. 1902.

4267 (101) ” e . ” ” ”

4268 (102) 1D A . Stream from spring at head of Great Stour.
1902.

4269 {03) 3 . . Lake formed where two sources of Great
Stour meet, 1902.

4270 (104) Great Stour leaving Lake. 1902.

4271 (105) Milton, near Canterbury « River Stour altering its course. 1902,

4272 (106) Marsh side 4 Bed of ancient Wantsum. 1902.

4273 (107) Postling . : 5 . Source of Hast Stour. 1902.

4274 (108) Etchen Hill. . Spring at head of Elham Nailbourne. 1903.

4277 (111) Kingstone ; . Course of Lesser Stour, 1903,

4278 (112) Patrixbourne . : 5 f 4 y

4279 (113) Bekesbourne . . ‘ “1 o> a

4280 (114) Eee si -

4281 (115) Near Bekesbourne = . Springs on course of Lesser Stour. 1903.

4282 (116) 3 . Stream from springs (4281). 1903.

4283 (117) Wickhambreaux . Lesser Stour banked up for power pur-
poses, 1903.

4284 (118) Lesser Stour at Seaton Mill. 1903.

4285 (119) Reculvers at high water From point of view of Lyell’s ‘ Principles,’
fig. 53. 1903.

4286 (120) " FH . From point of view of Lyell’s ‘ Principles,’
fig. 54. 1903.

4287 (121) Between Reculvers and Thanet Sands and Woolwich Beds. 1903.

Herne Bay.
4288 (122) Between Reculvers and - . =
Herne Bay.

4289 (123) Between Reculvers and Woolwich and Oldhaven Beds. 1903.
Herne Bay.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 251

Regd.

No.

4290 (124) Between Reculvers and Woolwich and Oldhaven Beds. 1903.
Herne Bay.

4291 (125) Between Reculvers and Oldhaven Gap. 1903.
Herne Bay.

4292 (126) Between Reculvers and Woolwich and Oldhaven Beds and London
Herne Bay. Clay. 1903.

4293 (127) Between Reculvers and London Clay crumbling over Oldhaven
Herne Bay. Beds. 1903.

4294 (128) Between Reculvers and London Clay. 1903.
Herne Bay.

4295 (129) Between Reculvers and 53 33 7
Herne Bay.

Photographed by T. Dz Vere, Belle Vue, Harbledown, Canterbury.

1/4
4275 (109) Lyminge . s ; . Springs at head of Elham Nailbourne.
1903.
4276 (110) Derringstone . . . Course of Lesser Stour, now being used as

a road. 1903.

LANCASHIRE.—* Photographed by R. Wetcn, Lonsdale Street,
Belfast. 1/1.

3782 (4102) Bispham Cliffs, Black- False-bedding in Glacial Sands and
pool. Gravels. 1903.

3783 (4105) Bispham Cliffs, Black- Cemented Glacial Sands and Gravel fallen
pool. on beach. 1903.

3784 (4103) Bispham Cliffs, Black- Cemented Glacial Sands and Gravel form-

pool. ing sea-stacks. 1903.
3785 (4104) Bispham Cliffs, Black- Fallen masses of Glacial Sands and
pool. Gravels. 1903.

*Photographed by Messrs. Harttey Brotuers, South Road, Waterloo,
and Presented by T. Metuarp Reape, 1.4.8. 1/1.

3786 ( ) Great Crosby . - . Gypsum boulder, 18 tons. 1898.
3787 ( ) ” - v - ” ” ”
3788 ( ) ” ” ” ”
3789 ( ) ” ” ” ”

LEICESTERSHIRE.—Photographed by A. G. PLews, Pembroke College,
Cambridge. 1/4.

38790 ( ) Charnwood Lodge Drive Cleaved Volcanic Agglomerate. 1903.

Photographed by Professor H. E, Armstrone, F.2.S., 55 Granville Park,
Lewisham. 1/2.

3755 ( ) Mountsorrel, Leicester . Terraced Granite surface under Keuper
Marl, 1903.

Photographed by G. Hopson, I.Inst.C.£., Loughborough. 1/1 and 1/4.

8791 ( ) One Barrow Quarry, Grit in Blackbrook Series. 1904.
Charnwood.

3792 ( ce near Shep- Masonry dam for reservoir. 1903?
shed,

Regd.
No.

3793
3794
3795
3796
3797
3798
3799
3800
3801

3802
3803
3804

3805
3806
3807
3808
3809
3810
3811

3812

3813

3814
3815
3816
3817
3818
3819
3820
3821
3822
3823

3824

REPORT—1904.

(6143) Se aen

(6144)

(6145) Cliffs, ‘Happisburgh :

(6146) Cliff 20 yards N. of Old
Kiln, Ostend, near Happis-
burgh.

(6147) Cliffs, near Bacton Gap .

(6148) Cliffs to N. of Bacton
G

ap.

(6149) Cliffs between Bacton
and Mundesley.

(6151) Cliffs between Bacton
and Mundesley.

(6152) Cliffs N. of Mundesley

(6153)

(6163) Cliffs, East Runton, near
Cromer.

(6160) Runton, near Cromer

(6161) —_,, i

(6162) __,,

(6159) Cliffs,
Sheringham.

(6157) Cliffs near Sheringham .

(6158)

(6155) Cliffs, ‘Weybourne :

(6156) Cliffs 8. of Weybourne

(6164) Sprowston Road, Norwich

(6165) Watling’s Pit, Sprowston,
Norwich.

(6166) Watling’s Pit, Sprowston,
Norwich.

(6167) Hellesdon, Norwich

” 2
Beeston, near

(6168) Mousehold Heath, Nor-
wich.

(6169) Plumstead Road, Nor-
wich.

(6171) bss a Crag Pit,
wich

(6172) Thorpe Crag Pit,
wich.

(6173) Woodlands Lane Quarry,
Norwich,

(6182) Forncett

Nor-
Nor-

(6183)

”

(6184) Tharston Furze Hill
(6185) 2

NorroiK.—Photographed by Goprray Binauey, Thornichurst,
Headingley, Leeds.

1/2.

Lower Till. 1903.

Laminated Beds in Lower Till. 1902,
Lower and Upper Till. 1903.
Contorted Beds resting on Till, 1903.

Till, Contorted Drift, and River Gravel.
1903.

Till, Contorted Drift, and River Gravel
1903.

Contorted Drift. 1903.

»” ”
Contorted Till.
Gravel Bea,

‘Forest Bed.’

Mass of Chalk in Contorted Drift.
Masses of Chalk in Contorted Drift.
Erratic of Chalk Marl. 1903.

1903.

Weybourne Crag on Chalk. 1903.
Contorted Drift. 1903.
Crag on disturbed Chalk. 1903.

Chalk Pit. 1903.” i

Glacial Sands and Gravels on Brick-earth.
1903.

Glacial Sands and Gravels on Brick-earth.
1908.

Chalky Boulder Clay with irregular de-
calcification. 1903.

‘Cannon-shot’ Gravel. 1903.

‘Cannon-shot’ Gravel on Contorted Glacial
Sands. 1903.

Chalk and Norwich Crag. 1903.

” ” ”

Lower Glacial Sand covered with Boulder
Clay. 1903.

Chalky Boulder Clay, with piece of Kim-
meridge Clay. 1903.

Chalky Boulder Clay, with piece of Kim-
meridge Clay. 1903.

Chalk, Crag, Westleton Beds, and Gravel.
1903.

Chalk, Crag, Westleton Beds, and Gravel.
1903.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 253

Photographed by W. Jerome Harrison, I.G'.S., 52 Claremont Road,
Handsworth, Birmingham. 7/95.

Regd.
No.
‘3825 (1826 F) Cliffs W. of Cromer . Large Boulder of Chalk embedded in
Drift. 1896.
3826 (1836 F) Pa . Contorted Drift. 1896.
3827 (1835 F) Runton Gap, near Sandy Drift. 49
Cromer.
8828 (1873 F) Cliffs at Beeston, near Contorted Drift. 3
Sheringham.

8829 (1890 F) Beeston Cliffs.
8830 (1832 F) E.of Sheringham .
8831 (1891 F) Sheringham Beach . Sea Defences
3832 (1831 F) W. of Sheringham . Pinnacle of Chalk in "Drift. 1896.
3833 (497) Cliff-endat Weybourne Chalk and Crag. 1896.

” ”

Photographed by E. Corprr, and Presented by T. SourmwE tt,
The Crescent, Norwich. 1/4.

3834 (_ ) Sidestrand Church . . Landslip. 1896,

Photographed by J. Carver, Unthank Road, Norwich. 1/4.
3835 (_ ) Sidestrand Church . . Landslip. 1896.

NortTHAMprTonsHire.— Photographed by C. H. Toruam, 110 York Road,
Montpelier, Bristol.

3836 (1) Eye. : ; . . False-bedded Gravel. 1896.

meat (C2) oih,5— es : : : . Current-bedded Sand and Gravel. 1896.

3838 (3) ,, 5 ° ; : . False-bedded Sand and Gravel. 1596

3839 (4) , . ; : ; . Coarse false-bedded Gravel. 1896. .

3840 (5) ,, : ; : : . Lenticular false-bedded Sand and Gravel.
1896.

3841 (6) ,, a ; : : . Sand-bed in Gravel. 1896.

3842 (7) 5 ; : : 5 . Deposition of Sand against Gravel ridges.
1896.

3843 (8) , . . . . ~~. False anticlines owing todeposition. 1896.

3844 (9) ,, ; : 3 , . High-angle false-bedding. 1896.

3845 (10) ,, z ; : : . Low angle false-bedding. 1896.

3846 (11) ,, ; : 3 : . Filled fissure and fault in Gravel. 1896.

3847 (12) ,, : : 5 : . Fissure in Gravel. 1896.

Suropsuire.—Photographed by E. 8S. Cossoup, F.G.S., Watling House,
Church Stretton. 1/4.

3848 (_ ) Belswardine Brook,Shine- Unconformity of Upper Llandovery Sand-
ton. stone on Shineton Shales. 1903.

Somrrser.—Photographed by Professor S. H. Reynoups, 1A4., £.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/2.

3849 (A 5) Middle Hope, Weston- Volcanic Rocks in Carboniferous Lime-
super-Mare, stone. 1903.

.3850 (A6) Middle Hope, Weston- Bedded Calcareous Tufts. 1903.
super-Mare.

254 REPORT—1904.

Regd.

No.

3851 (A7) Middle Hope, Weston- Tuffs and Limestone with Calcite veining.

super-Mare. 1904.

3852 (A 8) Spring Cove, near Weston JBasalt Flow in Carboniferous Limestone.
1904.

3853 (A 9) Spring Cove, near Weston Basalt Flow in Carboniferous Limestone.
1904.

3854 (A10) SpringCove,near Weston Basalt Flow in Carboniferous Limestone.
1904.

3855 (A12) South side of Cheddar Weathering along joints. 1904.
Gorge.
3856 (A13) Cheddar Gorge . . Carboniferous Limestone. 1903.

SurrotkK.—Photographed by Goprrey Bineiey, Thornichurst,
Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.

3857 (6178) Cliffs near Kessingland Current-bedding in Glacial Sands and
Gravels. 1903.
3858 (6175) Cliffs between Kessing- Chalky Boulder Clay, and Glacial Sands

land and Lowestoft. and Gravels. 1903.

3859 (6176) Cliffs between Kessing- Chalky Boulder Clay, and Glacial Sands
land and Lowestoft. and Gravels. 1903.

3860 (6177) Cliffs between Kessing- Chalky Boulder Clay, Glacial Sands, and
land and Lowestoft. ‘Forest bed.’ 1908.

3861 (6174) Pakefield Clay Pit, near Chalky Boulder Clay on Glacial Sands.
Lowestoft. 1903.

3862 (6179) South of Lowestoft . Pebble beach. 1903.

3863 (6181) Cliffs, Corton, N. of Chalky Boulder Clay, Sands and Gravels,
Lowestoft. and Brick-earth. 1903.

Photographed by W. Juxomm Harrison, 27.G.S., 52 Claremont Road,
Handsworth, Birmingham, 112.

3864 (273) Cliffs N. of Southwold . Orange-coloured Sands. 1901.

3865 (274) , * 5 . Orange and White Sands. 1901.
S866 (275) . 5; = . Pebble bed. 1901.
3867 (276) , - sy . Sands and Laminated Clays. 1901.
3868 (280) ,, 3 9 . Westleton Beds resting on Laminated
Clays. 1901.
3869 (282) ,, = = . ‘Crag’ with shells near base. 1901.
3870 (277) ,, 3 a : =
3871 (278) , » “ j ~
3872 (279) , 95 -- a re
3873 (281) ,, > 55 5 -
3874 (283) , » i : ;
3875 (284)

3876 (292) Cliffs} mile S. of League Glacial Sands and ‘Forest Bed.’ ,,
Hole, 8. of Gorleston.

3877 (294) Cliffs} mile 8. of League Glacial Sands on Loam. 1901,
Hole, 8. of Gorleston.

3878 (293) + mile N. of League Hole Glacial Sands. 3

3879 (295) 1 mileS. of Gorleston . Mid-glacial Sands. 1901,

3880 (296) 1 mile S.ofGorleston . rs 5 e

Surrey.—Photographed by N. F. Rosarts, /.G.8., 23 Oliver Grove,
South Norwood, S.E. 1/4.

3881 (21) Box Hill from Norbury Chalk escarpment. 1904.
ark,
3882 (25) Worms Heath Gravel Pit . Pipe of Clay in Oldhaven Pebble Beds.
1904,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Regd,
No.

3&8S (26) Worms Heath Gravel Pit .

3884 (27) Bughill Farm,Woldingham

Wokrcerstersuire.—Photographed by C. A. MArttey,
90 St. Lawrence Road, Clontarf, Dublin.

3885 (10) Wren’s Nest Hill, Dudley .

255

ae of Clay in Oldhaven Pebble Beds.
1904.

Outbreak of Croydon Bourne. 1904.

D.Sc, F.G.S.,
1/4.

Quarries and pillars in Wenlock Lime-
stone. 1901.

YorksuHirk.—Photographed by Goprrrey Bineiey, Thorniehurst,

Headingley, Leeds.

3836
3887
3888
3889
3890
3891
3892
3893

(6356) Spurn Head . .
(6358) __,, i: :
(6382) Cliffs N. of
Beacon.
(6383) Cliffs
Beacon.
(6378) Near Hasington -
_ (6381) Cliffs N. of Easington .
(6368) Out Newton, near
Withernsea.
(6369) Out
Withernsea.
(6370) Out
Withernsea,
(6371) Out
Withernsea.
(6372) Dimlington Cliffs .
(6373) ” eer
(6374) : -

(6375) us =
(6379) i *s

Kilnsea

near Kilnsea

Newton, near

Newton, near
3895
3896
3897
3898

3899
3900

3901
3902

3903
3904
3905
3906
3907
3908
3909
3910
3911

Newton, near

(6380)

(6296) Scarborough,
Drive.

(6322) Penny Farm Gill, near
Sedbergh.

(6324) Penny Farm Gill, near
Sedbergh.

(6237) Helm Gill, Dent Dale

els .
Marine

(6316) River Clough, Garsdale,
near Sedbergh.

(6319) Hebblethwaite Gill, Sed-
bergh.

(6232) Ganister Quarry, Mean-
wood Valley, Leeds,

(6260) Ganister Quarry, Mean-
wood Valley, Leeds.

(6262) Ganister Quarry, Mean-
wood Valley, Leeds.

(6259) Ganister Quarry, Mean-
wood Valley, Leeds.

Wye

Looking N. from Lighthouse. 1904.
Looking $.W. from Lighthouse. __,,

Looking towards Kilnsea Beacon. 1904.

Slipped and wasting cliff. 1904.

Purple Boulder Clay and Glacial Gravels.
1904.

Purple Boulder Clay and Glacial Gravels,
1904.

Purple Boulder Clay with slipped masses,
1904.

Hessle, Purple, Laminated, and Basement
Clays.

Coast erosion. 1904.

Basement and Purple Clays. 1904.

Hessle, Purple, Laminated and Basement
Clays. 1904.

Basement and Purple Clays. 1904.

Shelly Basement Clay capped with Purple
Clay. 1904.

Spring in cliff. 1904.

Fossiliferous Calcareous Grit. 1903.

Vertical Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.

” ” fs]

Lamprophyre Dyke in Coniston Limestone.
1904.

Carboniferous Conglomerate. 1904.
” ” ”

Overthrust Fault. 1903.

Folded Coal and Ganister. 1904.

256

REPORT—1904.

Photographed by J. H. Ropwe.t, Brooklyn Villa, New Manston,

Regd.
No.

3912

near Leeds.

( ) Hell Gill, Mallerstang.

Photographed by Louis Situ, Conisborough.

3913 (251) Conisborough .

1/2.

Fretting of Limestone by water.

1/2.

Undercut and weathered block of Mag-
nesian Limestone.

Photographed by W. JunomE Harrison, F.G.S., 52 Claremont Road,

3914
3915
3916
3917
3918
3919

3920
3921

3922
3923
3924
3925
3926
3927
3928
3929
3930
3931
3932
3933
3934
3935
3936

Handsworth, Birmingham.

(310 F) Balby Sandpit, near
Doncaster.

(311 F) Balby Sandpit, near
Doncaster.

(312 F) Balby Sandpit, near
Doncaster.

(313 F) Balby Sandpit, near
Doncaster.

(314 F) Warmsworth, near Don-

caster.

(315 F) Warmsworth, near Don-

caster.

(322 F) Adel Crags, near Leeds.

(476) Ackworth

(292 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(293 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(294 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(296 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(297 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(299 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(300 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(301 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(302 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(393 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(304 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(306 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(307 F) Brimham Rocks, Pate-
ley Bridge.

(373 F) Hilderthorpe, S. of
Bridlington.

(590) Hilderthorpe, 5S. of

Bridlington.

1/2, 7/5, and 1/1.

Bunter capped by Gravels. 1903.
Bunter Sandstone. 1903.

Bunter capped by Gravels. 1903.
Bunter. 1903.

Quarry in Magnesian Limestone. 1903.

” ” »”

Millstone Grit. 1903.

Grindstone Quarries
1903.

Wind erosion of Millstone Grit.

in Coal-measures.

1903.

” ” ” ”

Boulder Clay and Contorted Sands. 1898.

” ” ” ”

3971
3972
3973
3974
3975
3976
3977

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

(592) Hilderthorpe,
Bridlington.

(593) Hilderthorpe,
Bridlington.

(2079 F) Hilderthorpe, 8. of
Bridlington.

(885) Flamborough from near
Danes Dyke.

(387) Flamborough Head S.W.
of Danes Dyke.

(870 F) High Stacks,
borough.

(371 F) High Stacks,
borough.

(3872 F) High Stacks,
borough.

(882 F) Flamborough
near Hich Stacks.

(2067 F) Flamborough Head

(901) Flamborough Head,
N. side.

(367 F) Selwick
borough.

(369 F) Selwick
borough.

(865 F) Selwick
borough.

(866 F) Selwick
borough.

(884 F) Near
Flamborough.

(899) Near
Flamborough.

(891) North Sea Landing,
Flamborough.

(2066 F) North Sea Landing,
Flamborough.

(895) North
Flamborough.

(892) North Sea Landing,
W. side.

(896) North Sea Landing .

(385 F)

(2068 F) Ravine W. of North
Sea Landing.

(2076 F) Thornwick Bay, E. side.

(2075 F) “

(2073 F) Thornwick o :

(2069 1 ”

(2061 F) Speeton Gap.

(2064 F) Speeton Cliffs N. of # Gap

(2060 F) Speeton

(2059 F)

(2065 F) Filey, Cliffs 8. of

(451) Filey, Cliffs and Brigg

(227) Carr Naze, Filey

(228) ” ”

aay 5 3

(228)iinwe,, ;

(230) »

(224) Filey Brigg” -

(231) Filey Brigg and Cliffs

8S. of
8S. of

Flam-
Flam-
Flam-

Head,

Bay, Flam-

Bay, Flam-
Bay, Flam-
Bay, Flam-
Breil Point,

Breil Point,

Sea Landing,

1904.

Boulder Clay and Contorted Sands,

257

1898,

Boulder Clay under Laminated Loam.

Drift. 1898.

Chalk and Drift. 1898.’
Chalk capped by Drift.

Drift-filled river channel. it
Chalk and Drift. i

Sea Caves in Chalk. i

Chalk and Boulder Clay. -

‘Adam Rock.’ 1898.

‘ Eve Rock.’ . 1898.

‘ King and Queen Rocks.’

” ” ”

Chalk and Drift, Caves. “

” ” ”

Caves in Chalk. 1898.

Chalk Caves and Drift Plateau.

Entrance to Church Cave.

Chalk and Drift. 1898.

Drift. 1898.
Moraine, from Windmill. 1898.
”

Drift. 1898.

Boulder Clay. 1902.

Boulder Clay on Corallian Rocks.

Calcareous Grit. 1902.

1898.

1898,

1902.

s

: Corallian Rocks under Boulder Clay. 1902.

REPORT—1904.

(225) Filey, N. of Brigg
(232) Filey Brigg and Cliffs
es Gristhorpe Bay, 8. of
(447) ” ”

(446)

(455) Gristhorpe Bay

(45 0) ” ”

(453) esd
(457) “5 9

(448) Gristhorpe Bay, N. end
(456) Gristhorpe Bay ‘
(357) Cayton Bay, Scarborough
(356) ” ”
(358)

(862) Between Cayton and Car-
nelian Bays, Scarborough.
(3860) Between Cayton and Car-
nelian Bays, Scarborough.
(361) Between Cayton and Car-
nelian Bays, Scarborough.

(363) Carnelian Bay 5

(364) »

(323) Scarborough Bay

(322) ” ”

(319) x pea Ms

(318) White Nab, 8. of Scar-
borough.

(265) White Nab, S. of Scar-
borough.

(266) White Nab, 8S. of Scar-
borough.

(267) S.E. corner of White Nab.

(320) South of Nab, Scar-
borough.

(848) Scarborough, Castle Hill

(850) Scarborough, Castle Hill
from East Pier.

(830) Scarborough, Castle Hill
from East Pier.

(328) Scarborough, Castle Hill
from East Pier.

(300) Scarborough, Castle Hill
from East Pier.

(302) Scarborough, Castle Hill
from East Pier.

(305) Scarborough, Castle Hill
from East Pier.

(304) Scarborough, Castle Hill.

(803) i.

(301) Scarborough, Castle Hill,
N.E. face.

(244) Scarborough, Castle Hill,
N. side.

(251) Scarborough,
N. side.

(249) Scarborough, Castle Hill,

. side.

(243) Scarborough,

N. side.

Castle Hill,

Castle Hill,

Corallian Rocks. 1902.

Oxford Clay and Corallian. 1902.

” ” ”

Oolite Plant Beds. 1902.

. False-bedded Oolite Sandstones. 1902.
Oolite Plant Beds. 1902.
Boulder of Shap Granite. 1902.
Oolites. 1902. ;
Purple Boulder Clay. 1902.
Breaking waves. a
Oolite Sandstones, oi
” ” ”
Jointing in Oolite Sandstones. 1902.

Purple Boulder Clay with Striated Lime-
stone boulder in situ. 1902.

Boulder Clay and Oolite Sandstone, i902.

Lenticular Bedding in massive Sandstones.
1902.

Jointing in Oolite Sandstones. 1902.
Oolites. 1902.

Jointing in Oolite Sandstones. 1902.
Oolite Sandstones. 1902.

Denudation of Oolite Sandstones. 1902.
False-bedded Oolite Sandstone. 1902.

Kellaways Rock, Oxford Clay, and Coral-
lian Beds. 1897.

Kellaways Rock, Oxford Clay, and Coral-
lian Beds. 1902.

Kellaways Rock, Oxford Clay, and Coral-
lian Beds. 1902.

Kellaways Rock, Oxford Clay, and Coral-
lian Beds. 1902.

Kellaways Rock, Oxford Clay, and Coral-
lian Beds. 1902.

Kellaways Rock, Oxford Clay, and Coral-
lian Beds. 1902.

Kellaways Rock, Oxford Clay, and Coral-
lian Beds. 1902.

Kellaways Rock and Oxford Clay. 1902.

Oxfordian and Corallian Rocks. =

Corallian Rocks. 2

Oxfordian and Corallian Rocks. ys

Oxford Clay faulted against Corallian
Rocks, 1902.

Oxford Clay faulted against Corallian
Rocks. 1902.

Corallian Rocks. 1902.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

(351) Scarborough, Castle Hill,
West angle.

(250) Scarborough, Castle Hill,
N. side.

(354) Scarborough, Castle Hill. .

(325) Scarborough, Castle Hill,
N.W. side.

(289) Scarborough, Castle Hill.

(353) ” »

(355) 9 ”

(247) Scarborough, North Cliff.

(252) Cliffs at Peasholme,
N.W. of Scarborough.

(335) Scalby Beck

(255) %

(332)

(336) Mouth of Scalby Beck
(253) Scalby, near Scarborough.
(256) Scalby Beck . :
(296) Mouth of Scalby Beck
(254) Scalby j

(294) Scalby Beck

(2738)

(274) Coast N. of Scalby Beck .
(276) ” ”
(275) ” ”
(272)

(284) Cromer Point, N. of Scar-
borough.

(287) Near Cromer Point .

(286) North of Cromer Point

(268) Seamer Junction, near
Scarborough.

(269) Crossgates Quarry, Sea-
mer.
(270) Crossgates Quarry, Sea-
mer.
(283) Coast 8S. of Cloughton
Wyke.
(280) Coast S. of Cloughton
Wyke.
(281) Coast 8. of Cloughton
Wyke.
(285) Coast 8. of Cloughton
Wyke.
(282) Coast 8. of Cloughton

Wyke.
(310) Hayburn Wyke; Under-
cliff, South of.
oS nome! 8S. of Hayburn

(318) Hayburn Ue

(313) s

(307) is

(309) i

(315) i

(308) :

(312) e as Be
_ (306) ele

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Corallian Rocks.

Nodule
1902.

259

” ”
Bed in Lower Calcareous Grit.

Nodule Bed in Lower Calcareous Grit.

1902.
Oolites. 1902.

Oolites and Drift. 1902.

V-shaped ravine cut through Oolites and

Boulder Clay. 1902.
Cliffs of Boulder Clay. 1902.
Peak of Boulder Clay on Oolites.

”

Boulder Clay ‘on Oolites,

1902.

Pinnacle of Boulder Clay on Ovlites.

Stony Boulder Clay.

Ripple-marks in Oolite Sandstone.

Anticline in Oolites.
Oolites.

”

”

Oolites under Boulder Clay.
False-bedded Oolites.

Oolites.
Lenticular Sandstones in Oolites.
Boulder of Shap Granite.

Corallian Rocks.

Oolites.

Plain of Marine Erosion.

Oolite cliffs.
Landslips in Oolites,
Oolites.
Stream-course.
Double-waterfall.
Oolites.

Waterfall on shore.
Oolites.

”
Stream-course in Oolites.

82

REPORT—1904.

(314) Hayburn ere

(222) Pickering.

(215) Old Quarry near Castle,
Pickering.

(219) Old Quarry, W. side of
Valley, Pickering.

(216) Quarry S. of Newbridge,
Pickering.

(217) Quarry S. of Newbridge,
Pickering.

(220) Quarry 8. of Newbridge,
Pickering.

(223) Quarry S. of Newbridge,
Pickering.

(837) Thomason Force, Goath-
land.

(838) Thomason Force, Goath-
land.

(832) Robin Hood’s Bay

(1948 F) Cliffs near Saltwick

(1947 F) .,,

(1604 F) Cliffs E. of Whitby

(808)

(562) Cliffs 2 4 mile KE. of Whitby.

(463) East Cliff, Whitby .

(663) Cliffs E. of Whitby .

(566) East Cliff, Whitby .

(812) ” ”
(809) » »
(810) ”

(811) Whitby Old Town

(805) Whitby Harbour

(1932 F) Whitby Scaur

(1931 F) 5

(1929 F) $5

(567) os

(641) %9

(564) ‘

(464) -

(636) ”

(568) 5

(1930 F) 5

(565) 5 :

(827) Cliffs W. of Whitby .

(829) 2s

(484) Cliffs at ‘Upgang, W. of
Whitby.

(1578 F) Cliffs at Upgang, W. of
Whitby.

(488) Sandsend, N.W. of Whitby.

(828) Cliffs } mile W. of Whitby.

(594) Rigg Mill Beck, near
Whitby

(629) Cock Mill, 8. of ea :

(3837) Runswick

ES teenies

(571)

(573) Runswick Beach, N. ‘end .

(332 F) Cliffs between Kettleness
and Runswick.

(1941 F) Staithes, Cliffs 8. of

(1940 F) 7 Kast, Cliffs .

Oolites. 1902.
Corallian Rocks. >

” ”

” »

” ”

” ”

” ”

“a 1897

1895.

Oolite above Lias. 1897.
Lias and Oolites.

ee £ 1895.
Sea-cavesin Lias. 1897.

” ” ’
Oolites on Upper Lias. 1897.

” < ” ”
” P A 73
Landslip Line. Be

Lias and Oolites. =.

Upper Lias. ”
Lias at base of cliff. A;
Lias and Oolites. a

False-bedded Oolites. a
Drift upon Oolites. "
Drift, 80 to 100 feet. 1895.

Boulder Clay and Sands. 1895,

Lias. 1895.
Faulting. 1897.
1895.

Waterfall. ,,

Middle Lias. 1897.

Boulders on beach. 1897. -
Shap Boulder on beach. 1895.
Boulders.

Jet Mine in Lias. 1897.

Lias. %

Regd.
No.
4113
4114
4115
4116
4117
4118
4119

Photographed by H. W. Moncxton, 7.4
Temple, £. C.

4120
4121
4122
4123
4124
4125
4126
4127

4128

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

(1939 F) Staithes, East Cliff
(1942 F) Staithes

(585) »

(1943 F)

(842) Staithes, North Clift
(844) Staithes .

(843) Cliffs, Staithes.

(760) Osgodby Nab, N.W. End of
Cayton Bay.

(1834) Osgodby Nab, N.W. End
of Cayton Bay.

(1830) N.W. End of Cayton Bay.

GEER) 5, .
oe a :
(1833) Ss

(1554) Carnelian Bay, ‘hear Os-
godby Nab.

(1706) Carnelian Bay, near Os-
godby Nab.

(1702) Robin Hood’s Bay .

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 261

Lias 1897.
7 1895.
% 1897.

Middle Lias. ”

Lias.

Middle Lias, "

S., 3 Harcourt Buildings,

1/4.
Estuarine Series, resting on Milleport
Series. 1896.
Estuarine Series, resting on Milleport
Series, 1904.
Landslip of Boulder Clay. 1904.
” ” ”
” ” ”
Landslip of Boulder Clay. 1901.

Site of Landslip of Boulder Clay, now
washed away. 1902.
Boulder of Granite. 1902.

WALES.

ANGLESEY.—Photographed by Goprrny BiInGLEy, Thorniehurst,

4129

Headingley, Leeds.

(6236) South Stack Lighthouse,
Holyhead.

1/4.

Contortion. 1903.

Carnarvon.—Photographed by Goprrey BinGLey, Thornichurst,

4130
4131

4132
4133
4134
4135
4136
4137
4138
4139

ITeadingley, Leeds.

(6235) Diganwy, Llandudno
(6239) Quarry, Great Orme’s
Head, Llandudno.
(6240) Quarry near Summit,
Great Orme’s Head.
(6241) Quarry near
Great Orme’s Head.
(6242) Quarry near
Great Orme’s Head.
(6243) Quarry near
Great Orme’s Head.
(6245) Quarry near
Great Orme’s Head.
(6246) Quarry near Summit,
Great Orme’s Head.
(6247) Quarry near
Great Orme’s Head.
(6249) Quarry near
Great Orme’s Head.

Summit,
Summit,
Summit,

Summit,

Summit,

Summit,

1/4.

Glaciated Boulder. 1903.

Carboniferous Limestone. 1903.

Fossils in Carboniferous Limestone. 1903.

Carboniferous Limestone. 3

262 REPORT—1904.

PemBROKE.— Photographed by A. L. Leacu, 10 Withdale Road,
Plumstead, S.H. 1/2 and 1/4.

Regd.

No.

4140 (1) Tenby Quarry, 8.W. of town Carboniferous Limestone, with Productus.
1903.

4141 (2) = a Carboniferous Limestone, with Productus.
1903

Photographed by W. Jerome Harrison, £.G.S8., 52 Claremont Road,
Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/1.

4142 (749) Gasworks Section, Haver- Llandovery Rocks. 1897,
fordwest.
4143 (300 F) Caerbwdy Valley, St. Lower Cambrian Rocks. .
Davids.
4144 (302 F) Caerbwdy Valley, near Glacial ‘ Tail.’ -
Reservoir.
4145 (301 F) Caerbwdy Valley, St. Lower Cambrian Rocks. _,,
Davids.
4146 (307 F) Caerbwdy Valley, St. ” ” ”
Davids.
4147 (308 F) Caerbwdy Valley, St. ” ” ”
Davids.
4148 (305 F) Caerfai Cliffs, St. ne ” ”
Davids.
4149 (306 F) Caerfai Cliffs, St. : x
Davids.
4150 (732) St. Non’s Arch, St. Davids y * yy
4151 (732a)St.Non’s Bay, St. Davids % a +
4152 (733) ” ” ” ” ”
4153 (301 F) ” ” ” ” ”
4154 (311F) ,, ” ” ”
4155 (730) Cliffs S. of St. Davids. ” ” ”
4156 (734) Fs = : ” ” ”
4157 (735) ” ” ”
4158 (731) Mouth of Porthclais, St. h “5 ”
Davids.
4159 (747) Porthclais, St. Davids . < iy
4160 (303 F) Hs % : . ” ”
4161 (3823 F) ” ” ”
4162 (738) Ogof ‘Golchfa, St. Davids. * 55 33
4163 (743) Cambrian Conglomerate. ,,
4164 (316F) Porth- lisky, St. Davids . . Lower Cambrian Rocks. __,,
4165 (317F) Cliffs 8. of Porth-lisky. Marine denudation along joints. 1897.
4166 (318 F) . ”
4167 (739) Porth’ stinian, St. Davids : 3
4168 (740) Porth Trevethan @) ”
4169 (746) Whitesand Bay, St. Davids. Lingula Flags and Gabbro. re

THE ISLE OF MAN.

Photographed by C. A. Matury, D.Sc., F.G.S., 90 St. Lawrence Road,
Clontarf, Dublin. 1 if 4,

4170 (9) Langness, near Castleton . Unconformity, Carboniferous on Manx
Slates. 1901.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 263

SCOTLAND.

EpinsurGu.—Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoutps, 1.A., 7.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

Regd.

No.
4171 (A 17) Salisbury Crag ‘ . Scarp of Dolerite Sill. 1902,

4172 (A18) ‘ ree ; . Dolerite Sill in Carboniferous Rocks. 1902.
4173 (A 19) ” ” ° . . ” ” ” ”
4174 (A 20) A ah : . Carboniferous Rocks overlying Dolerite.

1902.

4175 (A21) o sy : . Spheroidal Dolerite. 1902.
4176 (A 22) i Feet ; . Columnar jointing in Dolerite. 1902.
4177 (A23) Arthur’s Seat . : . Coarse Tuff below Lion’s Haunch. 1902.

FirrsHire.—Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynotps, J/.A., F.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

4178 (A 24) By railway } mile W. of Brecciated Carboniferous Strata. 1902.
Burntisland Station.
4179 (A 25) Dodhead Quarry, Burnt- Sill of ‘White Trap.’ 1902

island.
4180 (A 26) Dodhead Quarry, Burnt- Finger of Dolerite (‘ White Trap’) in Car-
island. boniferous strata. 1902.
4181 (A 27) Dodhead Quarry, Burnt- ‘White Trap’ invading Carboniferous
island. Rocks. 1902.
4182 (A 28) W. of Kirkcaldy . . Overthrust faults in Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1902.
4183 (A 29) Shore, W. of Kirkcaldy . Overthrust faults in Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1902.
4184 (A 30) Shore, St. Monans . . Dyke in Agglomerate of ‘Neck.’ 1902.
4185 (A 31) Shore, Ardross : - Undercut Cliff of Sandstone and Shale with

thin Coals. 1902.
4186 (A 32) S.E. of Newark Castle, Small Volcanic ‘Neck.’ 1902.

Elie.
4187 (A 33) S.E. of Newark Castle, % _ ‘
Hlie.
4188 (A 34) Shore,S.W.ofSt.Monans Contorted Shale near Agglomerate of
‘Neck. 1902.
4189 (A 35) 5 Contorted Shale near Agglomerate of

‘Neck.’ 1902.
4190 (A 36) Shore, Pettycur, King- Columnar Basalt. 1902.

horn.

4191 (A 37) Shore, W. of Ardross . Dyke. 1902.

4192 (A 39) Shore, 4 mile E. of Amygdaloidal Basalt over Shales and
Kinghorn. Limestones. 1902.

4193 (A 40) Shore, 4 mile E. of Amygdaloidal Basalt over Shales and
Kinghorn. Limestones. 1902.

4194 (A 41) Elie E ; : . Agglomerate of ‘Neck.’ 1902.

4195 (A 42) ,, . : ‘ . = a a3

4196 (A 47) ,, : 5 2 . Ripple-marked Sand on shore. 1902.

Happineron.— Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynoups, V.A., F.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

4197 (A 46) Milsey Bay, North Ber- Agglomerate. 1902.
wick,

264 REPORT— 1904. 4

Linuitacow.—Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynoups, W.A., F.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

Regd.
No.
4198 (A 43) Hound Point i . Junction of Dolerite and underlying Sand-
stone. 1902.
4199 (A 44) ” . . Deposit of Cockles on Shore. 1902.
4200 (A 45) ty * : : 5 = 53 a

RENFREWSHIRE.—Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Rreynoups, I.A., F.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

4201 (A48) Shore,Gourock . . Contorted Gneiss, in boulder. 1902.
4202 (A49) Shore, W. of Gourock . Basalt dyke. 1902.

4203 (A50) ,, ae ee » ”

4204 (A56) ,, = ; . Marine pot-holes. 1902.

STIRLINGSHIRE.— Photographed by H. W. Monckton, F.G.S., 3 Harcourt
Buildings, Temple, B.C. 1/4.

4205 (471) Sauchie Craig, 3 miles Intrusive Dolerite on Carboniferous Lime-

8.W. of Stirling. stone Series. 1895.
4206 (1825) Sauchie Craig, 3 miles Intrusive Dolerite on Carboniferous Lime-
8.W. of Stirling. stone Series. 1903.
4207 (1826) Sauchie Craig, 3 miles Intrusive Dolerite on Carboniferous Lime-
8.W. of Stirling. stone Series. 1903.
IRELAND,

Antrim.—Photographed by C. A. Mattry, D.Sc., F.G.S., 90 St. Lawrence
Road, Clontarf, Dublin. 1/4.

4208 (4) Giant’s Causeway : . Straight and curved columns. 1903.
4209 (2) The Gobbins, Island Magee Basalt Lavas. 1903.
4210 (3) 3 iG Chalk and Basalt. 1903.

*Photographed by R. Wetcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1.
4211 (5205) Colin Glen, Belfast. - Yellow Sandstone, faulted against Glauco-
nitic Sand and Red Marl. 1903.

4212 (5234) Hill’s Port undercliff, Old drainage channel outlets in Chalk
Island Magee. cliff. 1902.

Corx.—* Photographed by R. Wutcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1.
4213 (5251) East Passage, Cork Har- Longitudinal and _ transverse valleys.

bour. 1904.

4214 (5252) Weavers Point, Cross- Anticline in Old Red Sandstone. 1904.
haven. :

4215 (5253) Weavers Point, Cross- Cleavage in contorted Old Red Sandstone.
haven. 1904,

4216 (5254) Near Weavers Point, Raised beach platform (preglacial) covered
Crosshaven. with beach and ‘head.’ 1904.

4247 (5255) Ringaskiddy Cliffs, Cork Cliff of Boulder Clay. 1904.
Harbour.

4218 (5256) Ballintemple Quarry, Massive Carboniferous Limestone with
ork, tesselated joints. 1904,

ee

Regd.
No.
4219

4220
4221

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

(5257) Ballintemple Quarry,
Cork.

(5258) Carrigrohane Cliffs

(5258*) cs

265

Chert Beds in Carboniferous Limestone.
1904.

Massive Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.

Rift in Carboniferous Limestone, filled
with Gravelly Drift. 1904.

Photographed by W. B. Wriaut, B.A., and H. B. Murr, B.A., F.G.S.,

4222

4223
4224
4225
4226

4227

4228
4229

4230
4231

Down.—*Photographed by R. Wetcn, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.

4232
4233
4234
4235
4236
4237

14 Hume Street, Dublin.

(23 RDS) 350 yards E. of Howe
Strand Coastguard Station,
Courtmacsherry Bay.

(24 RDS) Courtmacsherry Bay .

(24a) Courtmacsherry Bay

(25 RDS) Ringabella Bay, N.
side

(26 RDS) Nearly 500 yards EH.
of Howe Strand Coastguard
Station, Courtmacsherry Bay.

(27 RDS) 80 yards §. of Myrtle-
ville Cottage, entrance to
Cork Harbour.

(28 RDS) South side of Myrtle-
ville Bay.

(29 RDS) Clonakilty Bay, S.E.
of Ballinglanna Cove.

(30, RDS) 400 yards E. of
Simon’s Cove, Clonakilty sect
(31) Clonakilty Bay .

(5236) Annadale _‘ Terra-cotta
Works, Belfast.
(5237) Annadale Brickworks,

Belfast.

sap South Quarry, Scrabo
Hill

Ce ‘South Quarry, Scrabo
Hill
(5241) Golf Links, Carnalea

(5242) Near Carnalea Golf Links

1/2.

Pre-glacial raised beach platform, raised
beach, and overlying deposit. 1903.

Raised beach gravel and sand, overlain
by Boulder-clay. 1903.

Raised beach gravel and sand, overlain
by Boulder-clay. 1903.

Striated raised beach platform, overlain
by Boulder-clay. 1903.

Raised beach platform, Beach Sand, Lower
* Head,’ Boulder-clay, and Upper ‘ Head.’
1903.

Raised beach deposits resting on rock
platform and overlain by Lower ‘ Head.’
1903.

Blown-sand beneath Lower
1903.

Boulder-clay over beach gravel on rock
platform; also modern rock platform.
1903.

Cemented gravel on raised beach plat-
form. 1903.

Beach gravel on rock platform, overlain
by ‘Head.’ 1903.

‘Head.’

1/l.

Thin-bedded Sands and Laminated Clays.
1903.

Glacial Sands, Laminated Clay,
Boulder-clay. 1903.

Trias, veined and capped by sills of Dole-
rite and pierced by Dyke. 1903.

Trias, veined and capped by sills of Dole-
rite and pierced by Dyke. 1903.

Ordovician Greywacke and crushed Grap-
tolitic Shales; raised beach. 1903.

Ordovician Greywacke and crushed Grap-
tolitic Shales; raised beach. 1903.

and

Photographed by C. A. Martiry, D.Sc., F.G.S., 90 St. Lawrence Road,

4238

Dusuin.—* Photographed by R. Wricn, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.

4239

Clontarf, Dublin.

(5) Near Rostrevor .

(5225) Esker, Greenhills .

Cloughmore Boulder.

1/4.
1902.

1/1.

Irregular bedding of Gravels. 1902.

266 REPORT—1904.

Photographed by C. A. Matiey, D.Sc., F.G.S., 90 St. Lawrence Road,
Clontarf, Dublin. 1/4.

Regd.
No.
4240 (8) Needle Rock, Howth . . Quartzite stack. 1902.
4241 (1) Killiney Bay ; . . Granite, Cambrian Rocks, and Drift.
1902.
Kiipare.—Photographed by C. A. Matiey, D.Sc., F.G.S.,

90 St. Lawrence Road, Clontarf, Dublin. 1/4.
4242 (6) Poulaphouca Waterfall . Ordovician Slates. 1902.
4243 (7) sf 7 - ” ” ”

Leirrim.—*Photographed by R. Wutcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
1/1.

4244 (5249) ‘Swiss Valley,’ Glencar. Landslip Valley. 1904.
4245 (2061) ~ & ” ” ”

LonponDEerRyY.—* Photographed by R. Weucu, Lonsdale Street,
Belfast. 1/1.

4246 (5240) Downhill , . North-west edge of Basalt plateau 1903.
4247 (5229) Portstewart Dunes . Kitchen-midden Zones in Sand ys
4248 (5229x) ” ” ” ” ”

Siico.—* Photographed by R. Weucu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1.

4249 (5248) The Glen, Knocknarea . Narrow Glen determined by Landslide and
Joint-planes. 1904.

4250 (67p) is is . Mosses forming a Calcareous Tufa on
Limestone Cliff. 1904.

4251 (5245) Keshcorran Caves, Bally- Series of Bone-caves along lower edge of

mote. Upper Carboniferous Limestone. 1903.
4252 (5245x) Keshcorran Caves, Bal- Series of Bone-caves along lower edge of
lymote. Upper Carboniferous Limestone. 1903.
4253 (5246) Keshcorran Caves, Bally- Cave in well-jointed Carboniferous Lime-
mote. stone. 1903.
4254 (61p) Coffey Cave, Keshcorran. Cave in well-jointed Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1903.

4263 (5247) Main Cave, Keshcorran. Great pillar separating two mouths ; from
interior. 1903.

WicKxiow.—*Photographed by R. Wetcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
1/1.

4255 (5228) Summit, S. of Glenasmole Gully cut into disintegrated Granite under
Peat. 1904.

Well-sections in Cambridgeshire. By W. Wurraker, B.A., FR.S.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Tue well-sections of Cambridgeshire have been duly noted in seven of the
nine Geological Survey Memoirs that deal with the county, as follows :—

1878. ‘The Geology of the N.W. Part of Essex . . . with Parts of
Cambridgeshire...’ (Sheet 47 of the map,) Five wells,

os

WELL-SECTIONS IN CAMBRIDGESHIRE. 267

1881. ‘The Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge.’ (Sheet 51
S.W. of the map, with part of 51 N.W.) Ninety-one wells.

1886. ‘The Geology of the country between and south of Bury St.
Edmunds and Newmarket.’ (Sheet 51 8.E. of the map.) Eleven wells.

1891. ‘The Geology of Parts of Cambridgeshire and of Suffolk.’
(Sheet 51 N.E. of the map, with part of 51 N.W.) Nineteen wells.

1893. ‘The Geology of South-western Norfolk and of Northern Cam-
bridgeshire.’ (Sheet 65 of the map.) Eleven wells.

1900, 1904. ‘The Cretaceous Rocks of Britain,’ vol. i. and vol. iii.
Two wells. :

The earlier Memoir, the ‘Geology of the Fenland’ (1877), does not
refer to Cambridgeshire wells.

Ido not know of any further accounts of wells in the county having
appeared ; but (chiefly through the kindness of the late Mr. Ingold, well-
sinker, of Bishops Stortford) descriptions of twenty-one wells have come to
hand, and the meeting of the British Association at Cambridge seems to
be a favourable time for making them public.

With the 139 already published, they bring the total to 160. No one
of them is of any great depth or of special interest, but taken all together
they form a useful addition to our knowledge of the county.

The figures for thickness and depth are for feet.
[Words in these brackets have been added by the writer. ]

Balsham. Pusiic WELL NEAR THE ScHoots. 1896.
Shaft, bricked for 50 feet. Made and communicated by Mr. G. Incoup.

Water at 1534 feet.
Thickness Depth
5 2 y

Made ground ‘ : 2
Grey clay 3) 5
Brown clay . 5 10
[Boulder Clay] ] Bineclay. 1 2 30 40
Brown clay . ‘ 5 45
Chalk . ; : 25 70
[Upper Chalk] Hard clunch . : 2 72
Chalk . ; . 29 101
[? Chalk Rock] . Very hard clunch . 4 105
Hard chalk . : 50 155
[Middle Chalk] Hard clunch . 1 156
Chalk . : - 33 1594

Mr. JukEs-BrowneE notes the very hard bed as Chalk Rock with doubt.

Bottisham. Poxice Srarion.

Communicated by Mr. W. M. Fawcett, County Surveyor, from informa-
tion from the Contractor, Mr. Lack of Cottenham.

Thickness Depth
2 2

Made earth F F 6 hs

Chalk marl . 24 26
[Lower Chalk] { Ginch . | 59 85
Gault (blue clay) . 5 ; . 112 197

[Lower] Greensand : - - 27 224

268 REPORT—1904.

Bourn. East Hunts WATERWORKS, CLOSE TO OLD NortaH Roap
RaiLway Station. 1888 ?

Communicated by Mr. M. Froukes.

Shaft and cylinders 169% feet, the rest bored.
Water-level, 100 feet down ; lowered 45 feet, by pumping at the rate
of about 60 to 70 gallons a minute, in 1888. In 1896 only 28 gallons a

minute pumped.
Thickness Depth

Boulder clay [probably includes. gault]. 164 164
[Lower Greensand] Sand ; ; 8} 1723
[2 what] Soft blue clay . : ‘ A 202 193

If the clay be Kimeridge or Oxford Clay, the Gault must here cut
down deeply into the Lower. Greensand, or there must be a deep hollow
of Boulder Clay.

Cambridge. In rue Yarp or Messrs. Foster & Co., Corn
MERCHANTS, AT THE RaILway STATION.

Communicated by Mr. W. M. Fawczrr, County Surveyor, from informa-
tion from the Contractor, Mr, Lack of Cottenham.

Thickness Depth

Made earth (soil and gravel) . 13 13
Chalk Marl canes and grey). 4 17
[Chalk Marl] { Clunch , 322 492
Gault (Blue clay) . : 5 3 é ee s0s 180
[ Lower] Greensand - : ; : - 28 208

Cambridge. Mr. Epwarps’ Brewery.
Made and communicated by Messrs. Ister & Co,
Water-level, 18} feet below the surface in the bore-tube.
Supply, 500 gallons a minute, with hand-pump.

Thickness Depth
Well, the rest bored 5 : : ‘ —_ 5

Gravel . ; ; F 6 ll
Gault [clay] 5 Be 134

[Gault] A Rock 5 pha | 135
Dead green ‘sand : 4 139

P Rock and sand . 2 141

[Lower Greensand] Rese ; 5 6 147
Sani . ; 13 160

Castle Camps. Pusitic Weti. 1896.
Shaft. Made and communicated by Mr. G. INGouD.

Water at 115 feet.
Thickness Depth

Made ground : j 3 3
Blue clay 3 6
Yellow clay 4 10
Brown clay . 7 17
Chalky rubble. 6 23
[Boulder Clay] Blue clay 2 62 85
Light-grey clay . 5 90
Hurrock (chalky rubble). 2 92
Blue and light-grey clay 26 118
Hurrock (chalky rubble) with water 2 120

level 162 feet down.

WELL-SECTIONS IN CAMBRIDGESHIRE

Castle Camps.

Borina By ROADSIDE, NEAR MALTING.

269

Made and communicated by Mr. G. INcoup.

Yellow clay .
Blue clay

[Boulder Clay] Blue sandy loam

Blue clay ; hard layer of flints at 27 feet

Cherry Hinton. Nerurr Hatt (13

1884,
Thickness Depth
4 4
7 11
7 18
2 40

MILE 8.W. oF THE CHURCH).

Made and communicated by Mr. G. INcoup,

1. Shaft 32 feet, the rest bored.

Soil : ee 3
Hard, loose clunch

[Lower Chalk] | Chalk marl
Coprolite-bed

Gault

Hard, green, sandy clay
Black, sandy clay
Hard, rocky greensand
Rock, very hard

[Gault, 1423 rf

[Lower Green- Sand.
sand, 503 feet] | Rock, very hard
Hard sand

1893-94.
Water rose to within 40 feet of the surface.

Sand, changing from light to dark green

2. Seventy yards N.E. of 1.

Clunch 4
[Lower Chalk] | Chalk marl
Coprolite-bed

Gault

Plentiful supply.
Thickness Depth
4 4
41 45
442 893
12 903
1364 227
2 229
42 2333
7 2403
12 242
2 244
14 2453
23 248
36 284
1893.

Shaft 20 feet, the rest bored.
"| 82 feet

10 inches

9 feet 2 inches

92 feet.

Mr. Juxes-Browye remarks that both sites are above the outcrop of

the Totternhoe Stone, as drawn on the published 1-inch map (51 8.W.).

Cheveley. Stup Farm, Mr. Cooprr’s.
Made and communicated by Messrs. IsteR & Co.

Lined with 85 feet of tubes of 6 inches diameter, 12 feet down.
Supply about 1,200 gallons an hour.

Well (the rest bored)

Blue clay and chalk .

Blue clay and flints .
Blue clay and chalk .

[Boulder Clay] Red rock [? boulder].

Blue clay, chalk, and flints
Blue clay and flints c

Red clay and flints
Hard chalk and flints
Soft dry chalk .

Soft dry chalk and flints

[Upper Chalk] ~ Soft dry chalk

Blue clay and flints .

Hard chalk and flints

Very hard chalk and flints 6

Hard chalk and flints

Water-

Thickness Depth
oo 20
22 42
5 17

7 54

3 57

3 B78
103 68

3 71

+ 75
20 95
10 105
57 162
ed 199
eel 250
256

7) 66 312

270 REPORT—1904.

Cottenham. Pusiic Suppty, 8.W. oF THE VILLAGE. 1898.
Communicated by Mr. W. B. FFouKes.

About 17 feet above Ordnance Datum. Shaft of 8 feet diameter.
Water-level 24 feet down.

Loose clay . 20
[Gault n{ Rock we heh 3
2

| 25 feet.
[Lower] Greensand .

1
Dullingham. Marine, near Rainway Station. 1876.
Made and communicated by Mr. G. INGOLD.

Water at 146 feet.

Soil . , - ; 5 a
* Soft chalk, no flints . 50 }|160 feet.
Chalk. { Hard chalk, no flints . 107

Linton. 1. Ponick Sratrion. 1894. 2. Vicarace. 1896,
Made and communicated by Mr. G. INcoup.
1. Old well 12 feet, the rest bored. Water-level, 8 feet down.
2. Boring. Water 15 feet down, good supply.

1. 2.
Gravel . 12 9
Chalk | 108 } 120 feet { 44}

Melbourn. Potice SraTioN IN THE MIDDLE OF THE VILLAGE, JUST
BEHIND Inn. 1894.

Made and communicated by Mr. G. Incoup.
A boring, tubed for 41 feet.
Water-level, 144 feet down. Yield, 5 gallons a minute.
Thickness Depth
2 2

Soil : 4 5 : 3 j “ : ,
Brown, sandy chalk, with thin layers

of clunch . : , : 4 . 12 14

Hard grey chalk [? Totternhoe Stone] 15 29

Hard clunch . : 1 30

[Lower Chalk] Light-brown chalk, with layers of

clunch, changing gradually to the
next below 5 F : 3 ; 15 45
Slate-coloured chalk marl . : ; 38 83

Pampisford. THe VICARAGE.
Made and communicated by Mr. G. Incotp.
Thickness Depth
= 2 2

Made ground : : : F
; Hard white chalk. : 43 45
Light-brown clunch . 15 60
: Softer brown chalk . 107 167
[Middle ae 1ko Hard clunch . 5 : 3 170
Eeower Chale Light-brown chalk é 6 176
Blue marly chalk . : 4 180

Brown chalk . 5 : 10 190

WELL-SECTIONS IN CAMBRIDGESHIRE, 271

Sawston. Mr. Evans’ Corracrs. 1885,

Bored and communicated by Mr. G. Incoup.
Thickness Depth
2 2

Mould = ‘ 4 3 ‘
: Gravel . 3 : : 5 7
PPTL] 7 A) cutlets anniorann 62) tend 9
; Hard yellow chalk : 11 20
[i Middle ang 41 Softer white chalk | 20 40
J Grey chalk . . : 70 110

Shelford. A mite E. or Station. Dr. Gaskent’s. 1891.
Made and communicated by Mr. G. Incoup.

Water-level, 86} feet down.
Thickness Depth
75

Loose chalk . 75

Solid clunch . 6 81
[Lower Chalk" goft chalk . 7 88

Hard chalk . 30 118

West Wickham. On THE GREEN, NEAR THE WuHitTe Hart Inn. 1884.
Made and communicated by Mr. G. Incoup,

Some water at 20 feet, more at 36 feet.

{ Blue clay Si
[Boulder Clay] ; Brownclay . 2 } 40 feet.
{ Blue clay . 35

West Wratting. By Roapsipz, on THE Common. 1885.
Bored and communicated by Mr. G, Incoup.
Boulder Clay, 51 feet. No water.
Whittlesford. Pusnic Wetu. 1886.
Bored and communicated by Mr. G. Inco.

Water-level 11 feet down.
Thickness Depth

: ( Gravel , ‘ ij : P 14 14
[Drift] { Brown marl ; F ‘ , 10 24
White chalk, brown in places. 31 55

Chalk . 4 Loose chalk ; . : : 2 yh
White chalk : : i ~ 28 85

The following is an addition to a description in the Memoir on
‘The Geology of Parts of Cambridgeshire and of Suffolk’ (1891).

Newmarket. Waterworks.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Istrr & Co.

Made ground *, s08
Dry chalk . 20

[Chalk] | Chalk , 45 [ 90 feet.
Clunch . 22

272 REPORT—1904.

Investigation of the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, and at various localities in the Kast Riding of Yorkshure.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LaMPpLuGH (Chair-
man), Mr. J. W. SraTHer (Secretary), Dr. TrEMpEstT ANDERSON,
Professor J. W. Carr, Rev. W. L. Carrer, Mr. A. R. Dwerry-
HOUSE, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H. Howartu, Rev. W.
JOHNSON, Professor P. F. Kenpauu, Mr. E. T. Newton, Mr. H. M.
PLATNAUER, Mr. CLEMENT REID, and Mr. THoMAS SHEPPARD.

Owine to circumstances it has only been found possible during the
present year to complete the investigation of the deposits at Kirmington
and Great Limber, but it is hoped in the future to extend operations to
Bielbecks and several other sections that require further elucidation.

Kirmington Section.

The work on this important section, which was begun last year, has
now been carried to a successful conclusion ; and the results show that in
some respects this section has no known parallel in English drift
sections. It will be remembered that, as described in last year’s report,
a brickyard is worked at this place in a mass of warp or clay containing
estuarine shells with a freshwater bed at its base, and that this deposit is
overlain by a bed of coarse flinty shingle, above which in one part of the
pit there is found a few feet of red stony clay believed to be a boulder
clay. The boring last year proved the presence of a glacial clay at some
depth beneath the warp. The chief object of our investigation has been
to discover the relationship of the fossiliferous warp to the Glacial
Series, and to carry the boring through the superficial deposits to the
chalk, which was not reached last year.

During June of the present year a new boring was carried out under
the personal supervision of the Chairman and Secretary, with the assist-
ance of Mr. G. W. B. Macturk. Mr. Villiers, well engineer, of Beverley,
undertook to put down the boring, and the Committee desire to express
their indebtedness to him for the ready manner in which, at considerable
personal inconvenience, he met their wishes as to the time and conditions
of the work.

In order to secure a section in another part of the pit, the site of the
new boring was fixed at a point 80 yards north-east of last year’s boring.
Although at the spot chosen the warp used for brickmaking had been
excavated to a depth of 5 feet below the level of its base at the former
site, this material was passed through in the new boring to a further
depth of 3 feet, so that its base is here 8 feet below its position in
the former boring. The total depth attained by the new boring, com-
bined with the height of the open section, was 96 feet, or 41 feet lower
than was reached last year. The surface of the chalk lay much deeper
than was anticipated, and the borings seem to prove that the surface
features of the locality are not due to the presence of chalk, as hitherto
supposed, but that the rising ground has been formed by the erosion of a
thick and complex mass of drift.

The diameter of the second boring was at first 4 inches, narrowing

ON FOSSILIFEROUS DRIFT DEPOSITS AT KIRMINGTON, LINCOLNSHIRE. 273

to 3 inches at a depth of 15 feet. It was found necessary to line the
boring with tubes throughout.

The section seen in the brickyard and proved in the borehole was as
follows :—

Surface soil (at 95 feet above O.D.) J
Clay with foreign stones (see NoTH A) . : .
Well-worn shingle, principally of battered flin‘s . : :
Laminated warp with estuarine shells, and at its base a thin
seam of peat associated with a sandy warp containing
freshwater shells in one part of the pit (see NoTE B) mil 3)
Clean yellow sand, with pebbles of chalk and flint 4 ee
Red clay passing downwards into tough reddish-brown clay 7
Purple clay, streaked with silt and loam, passing downwards
into tough purple clay with small stones including some
erratics (see NOTE C) . 0
Stoneless purple clay - 5 : : 2 : stl
Stoneless yellow clay . “ j : : : ¢ =) wuld
4
5

oun

—

Flinty gravel . : : - . : :

Yellow clay and loam with small drift pebbles : :

Yellow sand, full of well-rounded quartz grains and specks
ofchalk . ; : : : ; : ;

Yellow sand and laminated clay . : : ; : :

Tough compact lead-coloured clay, with a few small foreign
pebbles (see NoTH D). : , , :

Tough yellow clay streaked with chalk

Solid chalk and flint ‘ 5

Z| oow oo onaoon

Total

lor)

Note A.—Among the erratic stones which this clay contains the following were
identified: Basalt, porphyrites, rhomb-porphyry, grits, &c.

Nore B.—Mr. Clement Reid records from this bed Serobicularia piperata, Rissoa
ulve, Tellina balthica, Cardiwn edule, Mactra subtruncata, Mytilus edulis, and
abundant foraminifera (see ‘Mem. Geol. Survey, Holderness,’ p. 58).

Mr. Reid has examined the plant remains obtained by the Committee
from the band at the base of the warp and reports as follows: ‘The
plant remains obtained by Mr. Stather from the peaty warp belong to the
following species :—

Ranunculus sceleratus, Linn. Atriplex ?

Bupatorium cannabinum, Linn. Zannichellia pedunculata, Reichb.
Aster Tripolium, Linn. Scirpus setaceus, Linn.

Lapsana communis, Linn. a maritimus, Linn.

Mentha aquatica, Linn, i sp.

Labiate (wuch crushed) Carex incurva, Lightf.

‘The list is a small one, but it indicates estuarine conditions, and
suggests a sub-arctic climate. With one exception the plants are still to
be found in the neighbourhood of the Humber ; but one of them, Carex
incurva, is a sea-coast sedge not now ranging south of Holy Isle.

‘A striking peculiarity of the deposit is the abundant remains of the
estuarine sedge, Scirpus maritimus, a plant which, growing out of a few
inches of water, tends to form a thick belt through which few drifted
seeds would find their way. In view of the abundance of this sedge in
the bed now examined and of the like-growing reed, Phragmites communas,
in the deposit which I searched some years ago, the small number of
other plants yet detected is not surprising. Land plants are only repre-
sented by two fruits of Zapsana, perhaps brought by birds. These fruits
of oa as well as those of the sea-aster, are considerably smaller

: T

274, REPORT—1904.

than my recent specimens, but I have not yet had an opportunity of
comparing them with fruits of the same species near their northern limit.’

From the fresh-water shell-bed associated with the peat Mr. E. T.
Newton has determined Planorbis spirorbis, Bithynia tentaculata, with
probably Candona (an Entom.).

Nort C.—In general appearance this clay resembles the purple clay of Holderness.
Among the pebbles washed out of 30 1b. of the clay brought up by the augur,
chalk and flint greatly predominate, but the following rocks were also represented :
Red Chalk, black flint, Spilsby sandstone, ferruginous pebbles, quartz, basalt, and
porphyrites, besides many undeterminable small pebbles.

Note D.—This clay is hard and tough and very different from A and C both in
texture and colour. It resembles in colour the basement clay of Holderness. The
pebbles are smaller in size than in C, and there is a still higher proportion of chalk
and flint. Among the erratic pebbles the following are recognisable :—Basalt,
porphyrite, sandstone, black flint, grit, quartz, &c.

Great Limber Section.

A boring was also put down under the supervision of Mr. G. W. B.
Macturk, who kindly undertook to aid the Committee in this manner, at
the Great Limber brickyard, three miles south-east of Kirmington, where
there is a further development of warp and sand, believed by Mr. C. Reid
to be of the same age as the Kirmington deposit, though no fossils have
been found in it. The section seen in the brickyard and proved in the
boring was as follows :-—

Ft. In.

Surface soil and clay with stones (at 110 feet above O.D.) 4 0
Loamy sand contorted and mixed with warp . : 4 0
Laminated blue warp with sandy streaks 10 0
Pan . : F ; 1 3
Current bedded sand 4 9
Sharp sand . ‘ : 3 : , S 0
Flint, sand, and rounded chalk pebbles . 5 0
Solid chalk with flints 5 ‘ f 1 0
Total 38 0

In comparing this section with the one at Kirmington it should be
noted, (1) that no shells have been found in the laminated warp at Limber ;
(2) that the warp does not rest on glacial clays; and (3) that the base of
the Limber warp is 92 feet above O.D., or 28 feet higher than that of
Kirmington.

It would be premature to discuss the problems raised by these inter-
esting sections until the work of the Committee has been carried further.
For the present, therefore, we desire only to record the data thus far
obtained.

The thanks of the Committee are due to Mr. W. H. Crofts and
Mr. G. W. B. Macturk for practical kelp in many ways ; also to the Earl
of Yarborough (landlord), E, P. Hankey, Esq. (agent), and the occupiers
of the brickyards—Mr. Hervey and Mr. Jno. Housan—for permission to
put down the borings.

The Committee request to be reappointed, with power to use the
unexpended balance of last year’s grant. a

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 275

Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.
—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A.
Herpman (Chairman), Mr. J. Lomas (Secretary), Professor W. W.
Warts, Professor P. F. KENDALL, and Messrs. H. C. BEASLEY,
E. T. Newton, A. C. Sewarp, and W. A. E. UssHer. (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)

(PuAtvES III.-VI.)

THE work of the Committee has been continued during the past year,
and reports have been received from Mr. H. C. Beasley on ‘Footprints
from the Trias, Part II,’ dealing with Rhynchosauroid and Chelonoid
forms ; from Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S., on ‘ The Triassic Fossils (excluding
Rhetic) in the Museum of the Geological Survey at Jermyn Street,
London ;’ and from Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., on‘ The British
Triassic Fossils in the British Museum.’

Complete lists of the Triassic fossils in the two great London museums
are included in the reports, together with notes on the more interesting
forms, and valuable references are given to works and papers in which the
specimens are described or noticed.

In the next report the Committee hopes to present similar lists and
notes from museums in the provinces. Assistance in this direction has
already been promised, and some progress has been made towards tracing
types and interesting specimens stored in public and private collections.

Tt is essential that the fossils should be correctly named, and those
who have the keeping of them are reminded that any specimens sent to
the Secretary will be acknowledged and returned after they have been
submitted to specialists for determination.

I. Report on Footprints from the Trias, Part Ll.
By H. C. Brasney.

Rhynchosauroid Forms. D 1-5 and KE.

In the first portion of this report footprints more or less resembling
those originally attributed to the Cheirotherium were described. It is
proposed to deal next with those bearing some resemblance to the foot-
prints attributed to the Rhynchosaurus, and for which the term Rhyncho-
sauroid has been suggested.

We are met with some little difficulty at the outset owing to the fact
that no figures were given of the footprints described by Dr. O. D. Ward,'
and which were referred to by Professor Owen,’ in his paper on Rhyncho-
sawrus articeps, neither has the writer been able to find in the Shrewsbury
Museum or elsewhere, up to the present, the type specimens. It is not
easy to find any example that will exactly tally with the description

1 British Association Report, 1839, ‘On Footprints and Ripplemarks of the New
Red Sandstone of Grimshill, Shropshire,’ by O. D. Ward, M.D.

2 Trans. Camb. Phil. Society, vol. vii. p. 355, April 11, 1842. ‘ Description of an
Extinct Lacertian Reptile, Rhynchosaurus articeps (Owen), of which the bones and
footprints characterise the Upper New Red Sandstone of Grimshill, near Shrews-
bury, by Richard Owen, F.G.5., Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of
Surgeons,’ eS

Te

276 REPORT—1904.

either at Grimshill or in other Lower Keuper exposures. Dr. Ward says
‘the footmarks differ from those of Cheirotherium in having only three
toes armed with long nails directed forwards and not spreading out, and
one hind toe, pointing backwards, having a long claw. No impression of
the ball of the foot in this example, but in another there are three toes
and a depression for the ball not unlike that of a dog.’ Owen in his
paper compares them with the footprints from Shrewley, described by
Murchison and Strickland, but says ‘ they differ from them’ (the Shrewley
prints) ‘in giving more distinct terminations to the terminal claws and
less distinct impressions of the connecting web. The innermost toe is
more diminutive, and there is an impression, always at a definite distance
from the fore toes, of a hind toe pointing backwards, and which seems to
have only touched the ground with its point.’ The Shrewley prints will
be dealt with later, but it may be noted that in our Lower Keuper Sand-
stones in Cheshire and Shropshire no definite trace of webbing on this
form has been observed (the Shrewley prints, it should be noted, are
from the Upper Keuper Sandstones). It is also difficult to recognise in
them the backward pointing digit. A three-toed print is in Mr, Beeby
Thompson’s collection with a mark in the rear, which it has been thought
may represent the point of a backward-pointing toe. A somewhat
smaller but similar print has been found at Runcorn with a mark in the
same position in the rear, but several similar marks are scattered close to
the print, and in no case have they quite the appearance of the print of a
claw. Another print of the same form, but with a short toe projecting
at right angles to the rest of the foot, comes from Storeton. These seem
to be varieties of the print described as D 1.!

D 1. A four-toed print of which frequently the impression of only

three toes is preserved; these three, presumably II-IV, gradually

taper from the roots to the ungual termination, the

breadth about the middle being 5 mm. when the

length is 35 mm. They gradually decrease in size

from IV-II. Where I is present it is much shorter

than the others, but seems to vary in relative size,

being in some prints more than one-half the length of

II, at others not a quarter that size ; all the digits

are terminated by sharp claws; the three digits lie

more frequently side by side, though sometimes they

/) diverge, andI usually diverges most. The usual length

\ of the print is 3 or 4 cm., but occasionally instances

are met with showing much smallerimpressions. The

impression of V has been noticed occasionally. The

proximal ends of the digits are often in actual contact, but they are also

frequently found with a slight space intervening. There is no trace of the

‘ball’ mentioned by Dr. Ward, or any portion of the foot beyond the

digits themselves. The width of the print at the base of the three digits is
about equal to half the length of the middle or III digit (pl iii.).

A very noticeable feature in these prints is a frequent lateral curva-
ture with the concavity towards the inner side, and the claws are bent
aside in this direction as if unable readily to penetrate the mud in which
the impressions were made.

Where the digits lie close side by side the cast of the impressions is

i er

! All the figures are natural size, except E, p, 279.

British Association, 74th Report, Cambridge, 1904.] [Puats III.

/

Slab of dark red sandstone from Runcorn, with natural casts of D1.
About one-fourth actual size.

From photograph by Mr. James Ware, of Liverpool.
Collection of Mr. H, C. BEASLEY.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

British Association, T4th Report, Cambridge, 1904.] [Puate IV.

Fic. 1.—Natural casts of D2 from Daresbury.
About four-fifths natural size.

From photograph by Mr, Richard Epmonps, of Liverpool.
Dr, Ricker’s Collection, Museum of Liverpool University.

Fic. 2.—Natural casts of E from Storeton.
About two-thirds natural size.

From photograph by Mr. RicHARD EpMoNDs, of Liverpool.
Collection of Mr. H. C, BEASLEY.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 277

strongly convex, as if the middle of the digits sank more deeply into the
mud than their roots or terminations, the digits themselves being bent
backwards.

When the claws are bent sideways they frequently present a triangular
impression, as if much compressed laterally ; there is, however, a possibility
of this being the result of movement.

A much larger print with quite the same character is occasionally
found with the IV digit measuring over 6 cm. in length. It also shows
the same lateral bend of the digits and claws. It is, however, not advis-
able to separate it from the type just described, and it may be included
under D1. The frequent absence of any trace of the V digit may either
be caused by its being too short to touch the ground, or it may have been
turned backwards and only occasionally have left traces of its presence.

D 2. There is another form found frequently in the Runcorn district,
and occasionally at Storeton and elsewhere, in which
the digits are about the same length as in D 1, but
are not half the thickness, and are more widely
separated at the base. A small but typical example
is in the Museum of the University of Liverpool,
and was obtained by the late Dr. Ricketts from

Daresbury. It shows the five toes, and a little in
its rear there is the impression of the corresponding
forefoot, or rather what we may suppose to be such,
which agrees with it in form, but is somewhat less
than one-half the size. In this example the digits

D2. 2.

at

are quite straight, but they are often found bent,
and with a sharp flexing of the joints of the
phalanges which contrasts strongly with the more
regular curvature of D 1 (pl. iv., fig. 1).
The digits often have blunt, slightly thickened terminations, and no
trace of a claw. This feature seems to occur
very frequently in footprints, and it is uncertain D3. 4-—Left pes.
whether it implies a difference in structure or
is merely the result of a movement of the ex-
tremity when the print was made.
D 3. A third form, in some respects resem-
bling these, has been found in South Staffordshire
by Mr. Beeby Thompson in beds rather higher
in the Lower Keuper than the footprint beds of
Cheshire. It differs principally from D 1 in the
form of the V digit. The first is also rather
longer than in D 1 and 2.
The prints are described and figured by Dr.
A. 8. Woodward (‘Geol. Mag.,’ N.S., Decade
IV., vol. ix., pp. 213-217, May 1902). He says:
‘The total length of the fore-foot is 0:04 M.,
and the maximum breadth 0:025 M. As in
the hind-foot, the terminal phalanges are very
distinctly shown to have the form of sharp
claws, and the V digit is slightly opposed to
the remainder. The joints of digits I to III
are well seen, and comprise respectively two, three, and four phalanges ;
but digits I and V are unfortunately indistinct.

278 REPORT— 1904.

‘The hind-foot is -relatively more elongated than the fore-foot, and
measures approximately 0-07 M. in length and 0-038 M. in maximum
breadth. The first four toes successively increase in size outwards, but
the fifth is very small—perhaps, indeed, the smallest. The number of
phalanges is two, three, or four in digits I to III respectively, and
specimen No. 2 (footprint) shows clearly there are five in digit TV. The
palm of the foot, so to speak, is of considerable length, and in the hind-
foot much narrowed posteriorly.’ A small form about 25 mm. in length,
very closely resembling this, has been noticed from Runcorn on slabs in
University Museum, Liverpool, and a less perfect one in the Warrington
Museum from the same place.

This form differs from D 1 in the greater length of the I digit, in the
presence of the impression of the palm which is never seen in the im-
pressions D 1 and 2, in the opposable V digit, and also in the well-marked
joints of the phalanges. Digits IJ-IV would, however, certainly
coincide with many of the imperfect D1 prints. This print is fairly
common in the Keuper in South Staffordshire, though seldom found
nearly so perfect as those described above.

Dr. Woodward suggests that these prints may be referred to Rhyncho-
saurus. He also refers to the slab from the Upper Keuper of Shrewley,
Warwickshire, described and figured by Murchison and Strickland,' and
now in the Warwick Museum, as footprints of Rhynchosaurus. This
slab, owing to its long exposure in the museum, has become deficient in
the detail, but from a lithograph issued many years ago and from a sketch
made in 1897 it is clear that it differs from D3. There are nine distinct
pairs of feet, and in every case the fore and hind feet are side by side, the
latter, the larger print, being on the outside, whereas in the South Stafford-
shire example the manus is in a line with and considerably in advance
of the pes. In the Shrewley slab the digits I-IV of the hind foot are
distinctly webbed, and there is no trace on any of the impressions of a
fifth digit.

D 4. In including these under the Rhynchosauroid prints they may be
distinguished as D4. Pes only four digits shown, decreasing in size from

II to [V—all terminated by claws—distinct

D4, 7—Left pes. mark of webbing connecting the digits claws
projecting beyond it; total length of print,
4 cm. ; breadth, 25 mm.

Manus, three stout toes only shown, with
indistinct webbing ; total length, 2 em.

These prints are interesting, as, besides
giving a complete series, there is a line between
the rows of impressions the whole length of the
slab, apparently caused by the dragging of a
tail. In the forms D1 and 3 the writer has
failed to see any certain trace of webbing,
though others have thought they have seen
indications. It must be borne in mind that

the example we have from Shrewley is from a bed of sandstone in the
Upper Keuper, underneath which the Rev. P. B. Brodie has noticed the
presence of shells of Lamellibranch Mollusca, and in the same bed of
sandstone casts of Hstheria minutia are frequent ; so that the conditions

1 Trans. Geol, Society, 2nd series, vol. v. p. 339, plate xxviii.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 279

were different from those under which the Lower Keuper sandstones were
formed.

This form might be compared with Sawrichnites rittlerianus (Hoch-
stetter), represented by a cast in the British Museum of Natural History
(R 1474) from the Lower Permian of Semil, Bohemia. The quarry at
Shrewley has yielded many other prints which still require working out.

D 5. A print of rather different proportions may conveniently be in-
cluded in this group, as there is a possibility of its repre-
senting the corresponding manus to one of the foregoing
forms. It has not yet been seen in such a position as
altogether to warrant such an assumption, though it is
generally associated with prints of D 1.

In D 5: Only four digits are usually shown,
No. IV, about 2 cm. in length, being the longest.
No. I is the shortest, 1 cm. The breadth of IV in the
widest part is 4 mm.

The digits are divergent, tapering, and somewhat laterally curved.
They are in contact at the roots (the articulation with the metacarpals 4),
which are marked by the presence of round pads. The width of the
impression here is 15 mm.

This form will be seen to differ from D 1 not only in its smaller size
but in its greater proportional breadth and the more rapid taper of the
digits.

"E. There is a small footprint described! as E=Rhynchosaurus mint-
mus (Morton).

This was first described from fairly perfect examples of both pes and
manus from Storeton, and afterwards a complete series of
seven pairs of the same prints was found at Runcorn. E. 2.—Left

Pes: The outer digit, probably IV, is the longest, * pes.

10 mm., on the inner side of II, and slightly in the rear is
a very short hallux. h

II-IV are divergent, curve inwards, and terminate in
sharp claws. They frequently have very blunt ends; from
the centre of each a fine sharp claw projects. There is no
distinct mark of a claw on the hallux. The breadth of N
the footprint across the proximal ends of the digits is
1 em. (pl. iv., fig. 2).

The manus, represented by four detached toes, is much smaller than
the pes, being 5 mm. long by 7 mm. broad. The digits are less diver-
gent than those of the pes ; their diminutive size prevents the recognition
of any details in a coarse material like sandstone.

In neither the pes nor manus is there any trace of webbing. On the
Runcorn slab there are four pairs of impressions of right feet and three
of left. The impressions of a fore and hind foot are in every case side by
side, the hind foot being on the outside, with an interval of about a centi-
metre between it and the manus. The length from one of the feet to
the next impression in front is 10 cm., and a line drawn outside the hind
— one side would be 6 cm. distant from a corresponding line outside

e left.

This is a very common form, and its size varies greatly, some prints of

the pes reaching 2 em. in length. The form of the print also varies very

D5. 1—Manus?

1

' Proce. Liv. Geol. Society, vol. vii. 1895, p. 402.

280 REPORT—1904.

much, a variation probably due to mechanical causes and not to any
difference in the form of the foot. A form rather longer than the type
is seen on slabs from Coven, South Staffordshire, in the Victoria Institute,
Worcester, and in the Liverpool Museum.

Chelonoid Forms. F 1-2.

The distinguishing features of the prints included in this group are
the presence of a distinct palmar surface covering a large portion of the
area of the print and of short strongly clawed digits.

Fil. j. F 1. The most common and also the simplest form
nan that has been seen consists of an oval gently rounded

n 5 A
i surface measuring about one inch by three-quarters

of an inch, with marks of four or five claws a little
in front of the longer margin. This is fairly common
both at Runcorn and Storeton ; the best example
is in a slab from Storeton, in the Bootle Museum,
No. 9, which is nearly covered with them. The
original label is still attached, ‘ Footmarks from
Storeton of Lizards and Tortoises, Natural History Society.’ It is
identical with Sawrichnites perlatus | (Fritsch), and Mr. Morton includes
it in his Chelone ? subrotundus.
F 2. This is a much less simple form, and presents some difficulties of
interpretation. It consists of an irregular oblong about the same size
as the oval of F 1, divided into regions by slight
F 2. 41,.—Manus? depressions : from the front of this project four
short cylindrical parallel digits, and a fifth’ in-
distinctly marked is often present. Each digit
is armed with a strong, sharp claw, having a
. slight protuberance at its base. The claws
are almost sickle-shaped, and appear to have
pointed obliquely upwards, but there is a diffi-
culty in making out their normal position.
The best example seen is from Storeton
(pl. v.). It measures 30 mm. wide by 33 mm.
from the posterior margin of the print to the
outer boundary of the claws. The length of the
IT digit to the root of the claws is 5 mm., and the claw itself about 7 mm.
Although the slab of stone is of considerable size, it unfortunately con-
tains but this one recognisable print of this form. From other speci-
mens it would seem to make a track 8 inches wide with length of
stride 9 inches, the right and left prints alternating. Further observa-
tions are required to confirm this. There is a large slab showing these
prints in the Liverpool Museum. Some prints have recently been found
at Runcorn of approximately the same size, but with the digits fully 1 cm.
long, not including the claw, or twice the length of the type. The same
elongation of the digit is also seen on a slab in Liverpool University
Museum, whilst in another print close by, apparently made by the same
individual, the digits are of the typical proportions.
The general appearance of the prints suggests a burrowing habit and
a resemblance to the foot of the common mole. It was described and
figured by the writer in 1897,” together with a note from Professor Seeley
! Letter to the writer,
2 Observations regarding a Footprint from the Keuper Sandstone at Storeton,

British Association, 74th Report, Cambridge, 1904.] [PuatE V.

Slab of grey sandstone from Storeton, with casts of F2, D1, &c.,
and tracks of Invertebrates. About one-third actual size.

Fio.n photograph by Mr. JAMES WAITE, of Liverpool.
Collection of Mr. H. C, BrasLery.

Ulustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

[Puatr VI

British Association, 74th Report, Cambridge, 1904.]

Skull of Capitosaurus stantonensis, from Stanton, North Statfordshire.
Naiural History Museum, South Kensington

About half natural size.

ea the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 281

on the apparent structure of the foot, pointing out its resemblance to
that of an Anomodont reptile. Mr. Morton includes this form also in
Chelone subrotundus. The print is, however, so different from F 1 that
it is advisable to distinguish it as F 2.

Prints of this form are occasionally found with the posterior margins
of two prints in contact and the digits pointing outwards. This is
probably the origin of very peculiar print described and figured by
Dr. Black from Weston.!

The Chelonoid forms will also include the footprints described and
figured by Dr. Duncan,” from Dumfriesshire, and several of those in Sir
William Jardine’s work on the ‘Ichnology of Allandale’ as well as many
of the Elgin footprints. The examination of the Scotch footprints is not
concluded, and their description must be deferred.

Incerte Sedis. I and M.

There are many forms which can hardly be included in any of the
groups that have been dealt with, but which may be described here.

I. This form was described and figured in 1894 by Mr. O. W. Jeffs,?
from a specimen now in Chester Museum (No. 129, from Storeton), and
mentioned by Mr. Morton as Rhynchosaurus tumidus and
also described and figured by the writer‘ in 1898 from the ne?
Chester and other examples.

A small four-toed print about 25 mm. long by about
half that width. Three stout fleshy digits lie close and
parallel to each other, and a fourth much shorter digit on
one side somewhat in the rear of the adjoining one. All
the digits have blunt extremities beyond which project fine
sharp claws. The divisions between the digits are usually
very indistinct, but appear to be rather more than half the total length
of the print. The posterior margin is not very well defined.

There are a number of very small footprints which are M. }.-
too imperfect generally to be described in detail ; one,
however, found at Hilton Beck, Westmoreland (St. Bees
Sandstone), and at Runcorn, might be noticed here.

M. A very small print of triangular outline, the apex
being the heel, three stout toes, the middle one rather longer
than the others, which diverge equally on either side ; no traces of claws ;
length of middle digit more than half that of the whole print ; length of
print 5 mm. Spread of the toes at the distal extremities 4 mm.

There remain for further investigation many other prints from the
Lower Keuper as well as those from the Upper Keuper and those from
Scotland. The tracks of invertebrates are very numerous (pl. v.), and

with a Note on the probable Structure of the Foot by Professor H. G. Seeley, F.G.8.,
&e., by H. C. Beasley, Zrans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. xi. p. 179, pl. vii. (1896-97).

‘ Observations on a Slab of New Red Sandstone from the Quarries of Weston,
near Runcorn, Cheshire. Certain Impressions of Footprints in other Marking, by
J. Black, M.D., Q.J.G@.S., November 1845, p. 479.

* An Account of the Tracks and Footmarks of Animals found impressed on Sand-
stone in the Quarry of Corncockle Muir in Dumfriesshire, by Rev. H. Duncan, D.D.,
Minister of Ruthwell, 7rans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xi. 1828.

* Journal Liverpool Geological Association, vol. xiv.

* Proc. Liverpool Geological Society, vol. viii. p. 234.

282 REPORT—1904.

though their origin is very uncertain it is advisable that they should be
recorded.

Nore.—Mr. Morton, in his appendix to the ‘Geology of the Country
around Liverpool,’ p. 299, gives names to six forms which he thinks
cover all the footprints found in the district. He left a collection made
by him of photographs, prints, and drawings of footprints, to which he
has attached the names given by him, so that there is no difficulty in
correlating his species with those described in this report, viz.—

Cheirotherium storetonense = A I, II & III.
3 minus = BI& II.
Rhynchosaurus _articeps = Dew:
iB ? minimus = E.
PA ? tumidus = als
Chelone ? subrotundus = F,

II. Notes on the Triassic Fossils (excluding Rhetic) in the Museum of the
Geological Survey at Jermyn Street, London. By EK. T. Newron,
FRS., F.GS.

The number of Triassic fossils (excluding those from the Rhetic
deposits) preserved in this museum is not great, but some of them are of
exceptional interest.

Among the imperfect plant remains Volizia is the only genus that
has been recognised, and the specimens are by no means satisfactory.

The little crustacean Lstheria minuta is represented by examples from
several localities.

Marine mollusca had not been recognised in the English Trias until
about eleven years ago, when Mr. Percy Richards discovered specimens in
a greenish gritty clay at Shrewley, near Warwick, which he presented to
this museum. Other examples were obtained by the late Rev. P. B. Brodie,
which are now in the British Museum at South Kensington. The two
series formed the basis of Mr, R. B. Newton’s paper in the ‘Journal of
Conchology,’ vol. vii. 1894.

The remains of fishes are fairly abundant in the Trias, Elasmobranchs
and Ganoids being represented in this collection, the former by spines
and teeth and the latter by more or less perfect bodies. The unique
Dipteronotus cyphus from the Keuper of Bromsgrove calls for special
notice, as it is the type of the genus and species which was described by
Egerton in 1854, and the form does not appear to have been again
met with during the fifty years that have passed since that paper was
published.

There is a portion of a lower jaw of a Labyrinthodon from the Lower
Keuper of Cubbington, Warwickshire, described by Huxley in 1859 in
the Memoirs Geol. Survey, ‘The Warwickshire Coal-field,’ p. 56, which
may be the same species as that described by Professor Seeley in 1876 in
the ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ under the name of Labyrinthodon Lavist ;
but our specimen is somewhat larger, and Huxley thought it indicated a
jaw two feet in length.

The museum possesses numerous remains of Stagonolepis Robertsoni
from the Elgin Sandstone of Lossiemouth, specimens which were described
by Huxley in the ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ for 1859 and in the Geol.
Survey Monograph, III. : ‘ Crocodilian Remains found in the Elgin Sand-
stones.’ These remains consist largely of hollow moulds in blocks of

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 283

sandstone, and many of the casts made from these are figured in the
above-mentioned works. —~

Other forms that have been described and figured by Huxley in the
‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ for 1869 and 1870, and are preserved in this
museum, are Paleosawrus cylindrodon, Teratosaurus (Zanclodon), and
Hyperodapedon Gordoni.

The remarkable horned reptile Liginia mirabilis, from the Triassic
sandstone of Cutties Hillock, near Elgin, as well as several species of the
Dicynodonts Gordonia and Geikia from the same locality, described in
the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1893, are represented in the museum
by the original casts (taken from the natural moulds in sandstone) which
were figured in the plates accompanying the above-mentioned paper.
The original sandstone mould of Gezkia is also here, but the other moulds
are in the Survey collection at Edinburgh or in the Elgin Museum.

Two other forms from the Triassic sandstone of Spynie and Lossie-
mouth, which were described in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1894
under the names of Ornithosuchus Woodwardi, N., and LErpetosuchus
Granti, N., are likewise here represented by the original casts from which
the figures were drawn, the sandstone specimens themselves being in the
British Museum at South Kensington.

Two slabs of footprints from the Elgin Sandstone of Cummingstone,
near Elgin, figured by Huxley in the ‘ Memoir of the Geological Survey,’
above mentioned, are also preserved in this museum.

The following isa list of all the species from the Trias (excluding
Rhetic) represented in this museum, with the localities from which they
were obtained. The figured specimens are indicated, and references are
given. F.—Figured ; T.=Type.

PLANT.
Name Formation Locality
Voltzia ‘ : 5 ‘ . Keuper : . Ashley Heath, Market Dray-
ton.
” : . Upper Keuper . Pendock, Worcester.
Fucoidal remains 4 : ef * . Rowington, Warwick.
Plant remains. : : - Keuper . Bromsgrove.
” . : ; ‘ : y F . Fulford Quarry, Longton.
CRUSTACEA,
Estheria minuta, Alberti . . Lower Keuper . Alderley Edge, Manchester.
» re oi ’ ‘ . Keuper . . Buttermill Hill, Needwood
Forest.
a Seas : : . “brie, ; . High House, Warwick.
” 30 ous ; ; . Upper Keuper . Hill End, 1 mile N.W. of
Pendock.
” sweke : : be RETASs. : . Morton Bagot.
” Ties : . . Upper Keuper . Newent, Gloucester.
” aie 3 : : = Us . Pendock, Ledbury.
” ” : : 2 3 t. . Shrewley, Warwick.
” sae : ; > Kenuper . . Fulford Quarry, Longton.
MOLLUSCA.,

T. Nucula keuperina, R.B.N., Upper Keuper . Shrewley, Warwick.
figured ‘Journ. Conch.,’ vol.
vii. 1894, p. 413,

T. Pholadomya Richardsi, R.B.N.,
figured Joe, cit., p. 412,

” 9 = ” ”

284,

Name
Hybodus (Sphenonchus)

” ”

Acrodus heuperinus, Murch.

(teeth).

(Hybodus) keuperinus
(spines).

Sagenodus sp. eee “oe cast .

Coprolites . :

Paleoniscoid fish : :

Dictyopyge catopteru, Ag. . ;

F. Semionotus. Figured by E. T.
Newton, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., vol. xliii, 1887, pl. xxii.
fig. 8.

REPORT—1904.

PISCES.
Formation
Trias .
Upper Keuper

” ”

Trias Hf sine
Upper Keuper

Keuper

Upper Keuper
Keuper i
Upper Keuper

Trias .

Lower Keuper

Upper Keuper
Bunter
Upper Keuper

T. Dipteronotus cyphus, Eger- Keuper
ton. Type. of genus and sp.
figured by Egerton, ‘ Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. x. 1854,
pl. xi.
AMPHIBTA.,

Labyrinthodont jaw, mentioned Lower Keuper
by Huxley in‘Mem. Geol. Sury.
Warwickshire Coal-field,’ p. 56

Labyrinthodont . Upper Keuper
+ (tooth) - BS
a f Lower Keuper
3 (scute) Keuper

F. Stagonolepis Robertsoni, nu-
merous specimens figured by
Huxley in the ‘Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xv. 1859, pl.
xiv. and in ‘Mem. Geol.
Surv.,’ Monograph III. ‘ Croco-
dilian Remains found in Elgin
Sandstones.’

Dinosaurian jaws.

F. Paleéosaurus cylindrodon, fig-
ured by Huxley, ‘Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxvi. 1870, pl.
ili. fig. 4.

¥. Teratosaurus (Zanclodon), fig-
ured by Huxley, loc. cit., pl. iii.
fig. 11.

Thecodontosaurus :

~ F. Hyperodapedon Gordoni, fig-

ured by Huxley, ‘ Quart. Journ.

Geol. Soc., vol. xxv. 1869, p.

145.

REPTILTIA.,
Tash.

Trias ?
Lower Keuper

Keuper

Lower Keuper

Locality
High House, Warwick.
Hill End, 1 mile N.W. of
Pendock.
Shrewley, Warwick.

Pendock, Worcester.

High House, Warwick.

Moor Court, 4 mile N. of Pen-
dock.

Blagdon, Somerset.

Pendock, Ledbury.

Shrewley, Warwick.

Near Frome?

Moor Court, $ mile N. of Pen-
dock.

Spynie, Elgin.

Coton End, Warwick.

Colwick Wood, Nottingham.

Roan Hill, Tyrone.

Colwick Wood, Nottingham.

Bromsgrove,

Subbington, Warwickshire.

Shrewley.

Glover’s Hill Cutting, Ripple,
Worcester.

Coton End, Warwick.

Near Frome ?

Lossiemouth, near Elgin.

Kenilworth.
Coton End, Warwick.

Bristol.
Coton End, Warwick.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 285

Name Formation Locality
Hyperodapedon Gordoni, men- Trias . : . Otter River, Budleigh Salter-
tioned by Huxley, loc. cit., ton, Devon.
pp. 141, 146, 148
T. Elginia mirabilis; Newton. Trias . : . Cutties Hillock, Elgin.
T. Gordonia Traquairi; ,, rae F ; A Pe
TS ds Huxleyana; ,, AL Ae : : - .
i: A Duffiana; ,, ht ae . a s *
Hi + Juddiana; ,, sy 2 é : 5 a
T. ” sp. i ” ” p . . ” ”

All the above species of Elginia and Gordonia are represented by the gutta.
percha cast from which the figures were drawn. The original moulds in sandstone
are either in the Geological Survey Museum at Edinburgh or in the Elgin Museum
See ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol. clxxxiv. (1893), B, p. 431, pls. xxvi.—xli.

T. Geihia elginensis, Newton. Trias . : . Cutties Hillock, Elgin.
The sandstone mould as well
as the gutta-percha cast from
which the figures were drawn.
See ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol. clxxxiv.
B, 1893, pl. xxxvi.
T. Ornithosuchus Woodwardi, ‘Trias . d . Spynie, near Elgin.
Newton. Castin gutta percha,
from which the drawings were
made. The original specimen
is in the British Museum at
South Kensington. See ‘Phil.
Trans.,’ vol. clxxxv. 1894, B,
p. 586, pls. liv._lvi.
T. Erpetosuchus Granti, New- Trias . : . Lossiemouth, near Elgin.
ton. Casts in gutta percha,
from which the figures were
drawn. ‘The original mould in
sandstone is now in the British
Museum at South Kensington.
See ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol. clxxxv.
B, 1894, p. 574, pl. liii.

FOOTPRINTS.

Footprints . ; : : . Lower Keuper . Storeton, Cheshire.
Rhynchosaurus . ‘ : : is
F. Slabs of footprints of several Trias .

sizes from less than an inch to

nearly 8 inches long. See

‘Mem. Geol. Surv.,’ Mono-

graph III., pls. xiv., xv., and

XXvi., and ‘Quart. Journ.

Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xv. 1859, pl.

xiv,, figs. 4, 5.

”

” ”
Cummingstone, near Elgin.

III. List of British Triassie Fossils in British Museum.
By Dr. A.Smira Woopwarp, /.2.8., F.GS., F.Z.S.

REPTILIA,
Erpetosuchus Granti . . E.T. Newton, ‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol. clxxxv. B, 1894, p. 574,
pl. liii.

Impressions of skull and portions of the skeleton, the
type specimens (R. 3,139) from the Trias of Lossie-
mouth or Spynie, near Elgin.

Hyperodapedon Gordoni » Huxley, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc.,’ vol, xv., 1859,
p. 435.

286

Hyperodapedon Gordoni

Ornithosuchus Woodwardi

Rhynchosaurus articeps

Stenometopon Taylori
Stagonolepis Robertsoni

Telenpeton elginense

Capitosaurus stuntonensis

,

REPORT—1904.

Skull and skeleton (R. 699) described by Huxley in
‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xliii. p. 675,
pl. xxvi., woodcuts land 4; also Burckhardt, ‘ Geol.
Mag.,’ 1900, pp. 486 and 529.

Portions of mandible (R. 3,138) figured by Huxley,
op. cit., figs. 7 and 8.

Fragments of skull (R. 3,137) noticed by Huxley in
‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv., 1869, figs. 7
and 8.

Portions of skull (R. 3,140) described and figured by
Boulenger in ‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol. excvi. B, 1903,
p. 175, pl. xi. Portions of skeleton (R. 3,148).

From the Trias of Lossiemouth, near Elgin.

K. T. Newton, ‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol. clxxxv. B, 1894,
p. 586, pls. liv.—lvi.

Skull and portions of skeleton, the type specimens
(R. 2,409, 2,410). Portionsofskeleton (R.3,142),some
figured by Boulenger in ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol. excvi. B,
1903, pl. xv. Portions of skull and skeleton (R. 3,143)
figured by Boulenger, tom. cit., pl. xiv.

? Portions of skull and skeleton (R. 3,149) Trias of
Spynie, near Elgin.

Owen, ‘Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc.,’ vol. vii. 1842,
p. 355.

Skull and parts of mandible (R. 1,236) described and
figured by Huxley in ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’
vol. xliii. 1867, p. 689, pl. xxvii., fig. 1, and wood-
cuts 2 and 5.

Portions of skeleton of same individual as last
(R. 1,238). Right pes fig. by Huxley, loc. cit.,
pl. xxvii. fig. 5. Portion of skeleton (R. 1,239)
figured by Huxley, Joc. cit., pl. xxvii. figs. 2-4.
Palatal portion of skull (R. 1,237). Caudal region
(R. 1,240). Limb (R. 1,241). From the Keuper of
Grinshill, Shropshire.

Boulenger, ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol. excvi. B, 1903, p. 178,
pls. xli. and xiii.

Skull and portions of skeleton, type specimens.
Trias of Lossiemouth, near Elgin.

Agassiz, ‘Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles du
Vieux Grés Rouge,’ 1844, p. 139.

Numerous impressions of scutes and some fragments
of bone. ‘Trias, Lossiemouth, near Elgin.

Mantell, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. vili. 1852,
p. 100.

Skeleton (R. 3,136) described and figured by Huxley
in ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxiii. 1867,
pp. 77-84, text figures A-H.

Also Boulenger in ‘Proc. Zool. Soce., vol. i. 1904
(not yet published). Skull and skeleton (R. 3,144)
described by Boulenger, tom. cit. Imperfect skull
(R. 3,147) described by Boulenger, tom. cit. Trias,
Lossiemouth, near Elgin.

LABYRINTHODONTIA.

A. 5. Woodward, ‘ Proc. Zool, Soc.,’ 1904, vol. ii. (not
yet published). Preliminary notice by J. Ward,
‘Trans. N. Staffs Field Club,’ Feb. 22, 1900,
pls. iv. and v.

Type. A skull from the Lower Keuper of Stanton,
near Norbury, North Staffordshire, -

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 287

Capitosaurus stantonensis

Acrodus (?) heuperinus .

Ceratodus levissimus

Dictyopyge catoptera

Dictyopyge superstes

Phebodus Brodiei

Semionotus Brodiei

Estheria minuta

Thracia (?) Brodiei.
Pholadomya (?) Richardsi
Nucula heuperina ,

The block of sandstone containing the skull was
split along the plane of the cranial roof, leaving
most of the roof bones adherent to one slab, while
the impression of these with the rest of the skull
remained in the counter-part slab, as shown by the
photograph (plate vi.). The skull is distinguished
from that of all known species of the genus by the
shape of the occipital border and auditory notches,
as also by other characters.

PISCES.

(Murchison and Strickland.) A. 8. Woodward, Catal.
Foss. Fishes, B.M., pt. i, 1889, p. 281, pl. xiii,
figs. 1 and 2; ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (6), vol. iii.
1889, p. 297, pl. xiv., figs. 1-3, and Joe. cit., vol. xii.
1893, p. 283, pl. x., fig. 5.

Teeth and dorsal fin-spines and cephalic spines from
Upper Keuper of Pendock, Ripple, and Burgehill,
Worcestershire ; from Shrewley and Rowington,
Warwickshire.

L. C. Miall, Siren. and Crossopt. Ganoids, pl. i.
(‘ Pal. Soc.,’ 1878), p. 32, pl. v., fig. 2; A. S. Wood-
ward, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (6), vol. xii. 1893,
p. 282, pl. x., fig. 1. ;

Two teeth, the type from Upper Keuper of Ripple,
Worcestershire ; the other from Lower Keuper of
Coton End, Warwick.

(Agassiz.) R. H. Traquair, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’
vol, xxxiii., 1877, p. 567. Palg@oniscus catopterus,
Agassiz, ‘ Poiss. Foss.,’ vol. ii., pt. i, p. 303 (name
only), and Egerton, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’
vol. xiv., 1858, pl. xi., fig. 4.

Shoals of fishes from Keuper, Roan Hill, Tyrone.

(Egerton.) K. A. von Zittel, ‘Handb. Palzont.,’
vol. iii., 1887, p.203. Paleoniscus superstes, Kgerton,
‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xiv. 1858, p. 164,
pl. xi., figs. 1-3.

Type: A fish from Upper Keuper of Rowington.

A. S. Woodward, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (6), vol. xii,
1893, p. 282, pl. x., figs. 2-4.

Type: Teeth from Upper Keuper of Shrewley,
Warwickshire.

E. T. Newton, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xliii.
1887, p. 538, pl. xxii., figs. 1-8.

Type: Imperfect fishes from Upper Keuper of
Shrewley, Warwickshire.

CRUSTACEA.

(Alberti.)

From Keuper of Alderley Edge, Cheshire ; Shrewley,
Warwickshire; and Pendock, Worcestershire. Also
from ‘ Trias near Shrewsbury.’

MOLLUSCA.

R. B. Newton.

R. B. Newton.

R. B. Newton.

Type specimens presenting a marine facies, described

by R. B. Newton, ‘Note on some Molluscan
Remains lately discovered in the English Keuper,'
‘Journ. Oonchology,’ 1894, vol. vii. p. 408,

288 REPORT—1904..

Nucula keuperina . : . From Upper Keuper, Shrewley, Warwickshire, asso-
ciated in the matrix with Acrodus keuperinus and
Estheria minuta.

PLANTA,

Canpolithes, sp. . : . Seward, ‘ Catalogue Mesozoic Plants,’ B.M., pt. iv.
1904, p. 7.
From Keuper of Longdon and Rowington, Warwick-
shire. Also indeterminate fragments of Coniferz
from Keuper of Rewington and Leicester.

Idenvale Caves, Co. Clare.-—Final Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. R. F. Scuarrr (Chairman), Mr. R. L. PRAEGER (Secretary),
Mr, G. Correy, Professor G. A. J. CoLz, Professor D. J. Cun-
NinGHAM, Mr. G. W. Lamptucy, Mr. McHenry, and Mr. R. J.
UssHER, appointed to explore Irish Caves. (Drawn up by the
Chairman. )

Since our last report was submitted to the British Association, Mr. Ussher
has completed the excavations of the extensive caves of Edenvale, co.
Clare, and sent altogether a collection of more than 50,000 bones to be
named. Besides these there were flints and implements used by primi-
tive man and relics of various periods on which it is proposed to submit
a detailed report to the Royal Irish Academy during next winter.

Mr. Ussher has explored other districts of Ireland with the view to
continuing the cave researches, but this Committee do not propose to
apply for a further grant.

The Edenvale remains have not been fully determined, but so far
they have yielded the following species :—

Man . E . (Homo sapiens) Arctic Lemming. (Dicrostonyx torqua-
Bats . : . (Several species) tus)

Hedgehog . . (Frinaceus ewropeus) Domestic Ox . (Bos tawrus)
Domestic Cat . (Felis domestica) Domestic Sheep. (Ovis aries)

Wild Cat. . (Felis caligata) | Domestic Goat . (Capra egag7rus)

Dog . : . (Canis familiaris) Domestic Pig . (Sus serafa domestica)
Hox: : . (Vulpes alopex) Wild Pig . . (Sus serofa ferus)
Trish Stoat . . (Putorius hibernicus) | Red Deer . . (Cervus elaphus)
Marten : . (Mustela martes) Giant Deer . (Megaceros giganteus)
Bear ~~ : . (Ursus arctos) Reindeer . . (Rangifer twrandus)
Badger : . (Meles taxus) | Horse : . (Eqs caballis)
Arctic Hare . (Lepus timidus) | Birds . C . (Many species)
Rabbit : . (Lepus cuniculus) Frog . : . (Rana temporaria)
Trish Rat. . (Mus hibernicus) Fishes ; . (Several species)
Field-mouse . (Mus sylvaticus) Land Mollusca . (Many species)

The Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the Development of the
Frog.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. F. R.
WELDON (Chairman), Mr. J. W. JENKINSON (Secretary), and
Professor 8. J. Hickson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue object of this investigation is to discover whether the distortion of
development, or monstrosity, produced by growing the eggs of the frog in
a certain concentration (about 0°6 per cent.) of common salt solution is
due to the physical—increased osmotic pressure—or chemical properties
of the solution, or both.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG. 289

The monstrosity consists in (J) the failure of the blastopore to close,
so that a large persistent yolk-plug is produced ; and (2) the failure of the
medullary folds to close either (a) throughout, or (3) partially, generally
in the region of the brain, so that a sort of anencephalous monster
results.

With this object the eggs have been grown in solutions whose con-
centration is isotonic with that of a 0°625 per cent. solution of sodium
chloride, of the following substances :—

(1) Chlorides of potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium,
barium, strontium ;

(2) Bromides of these seven bases and of sodium ;

(3) Todides of sodium, potassium, lithium, and ammonium ;

(4) Sulphates of sodium, lithium, ammonium, and magnesium ;

(5) Nitrates of sodium, lithium, ammonium, potassium, magnesium,
strontium, and calcium ;

(6) Cane sugar and dextrose ;

(7) Urea.

The external characters of the embryos produced in these solutions
have been determined ; the microscopical examination of sections is in
progress. The results obtained, as far as they can at present be stated,
are these. The effects produced by the above solutions on the develop-
ment of the frog may be divided into four classes :

I. Chlorides of ammonium, strontium, barium, calcium ; bromides of
ammonium, strontiwm, barium, calciwm, and magnesium, iodides of
lithium, ammonium, and potassium ; nitrates of ammonium, calcium, and
strontium.

In all these the egg dies at a comparatively early stage, sometimes
auring segmentation, sometimes when the dorsal lip of the blastopore has
just appeared ; occasionally a very irregular circular lip may be completed.

The large yolk-cells seem to be affected first, the small animal cells
continuing to divide for some time ; but as the normal overgrowth of
cells at the lip of the blastopore is prevented, the roof of the segmentation
cavity is thrown into folds and wrinkles. Mesoderm cells are formed at
the equator of the egg, but thrown into the segmentation cavity.

Ultimately all the cells and their nuclei undergo disintegration and
degeneration: they are found lying in a coagulum— easily visible to the
naked eye—produced by the fusion and liquefaction of yolk-granules. It
seems possible that the salts enter the tissues and there form with the
carbonic acid given off by the cells insoluble carbonates, as bubbles are
given off when the eggs are placed in hydrochloric acid.

II. The egg loses its power of elongating in the direction of the longi-
tudinal axis of the embryo, that is, remains spherical or nearly so ;
differentiation of the germ-layers and of the organs of the embryo
proceeds nevertheless.

This effect is produced by chlorides of potassium and lithium, bromides
of sodium, potassium and lithium, iodide of sodium, sulphates of lithiwm
and ammonium, and nitrates of lithium and potassium.

In all these a large circular blastopore is formed enclosing a corre-
spondingly large yolk-plug. This yolk-plug is only very slowly withdrawn,
if at all. The medullary folds may or may not close. There is variation in this

1904. U

290 REPORT—1904.

respect not only between embryos grown in different solutions, but
even between those grown in one and the same medium. There is a
spacious bilateral archenteron extending in front of the dorsal lip of the
blastopore:

The mesoderm is formed in the usual manner, partly from cells in the
neighbourhood of the blastoporic lip, partly by differentiation of yolk-
cells which have been pushed into the segmentation cavity. This cavity
is obliterated.

The notochord is not formed in quite the normal fashion, that is, by
the splitting off of a rod of cells from the roof of the archenteron. Its
formation in these monsters recalls the mode of its origin in the Urodela,
Gymnophiona, and Petromyzon ; a median strip of the whole thickness
of the roof of the archenteron is folded off, while cells from the sides grow
beneath this to complete the definitive roof of the gut.

The following organs are formed, though their development is often
abnormal ; as, for example, when the cavity of the optic vesicleis reduced
to a narrow slit :—

The suckers; the optic vesicles, but not the lens; the auditory
vesicle ; the infundibulum ; the pituitary body; the neural crest, with
the vagus and trigeminus ganglia; the protovertebree ; a trace of the
splanchnoceel ; the liver diverticulum.

Normal histological differentiation may set in, for example, in the
cells of the suckers and of the notochord.

The notochord seems to retain its capacity of growth in the direction
of its long axis ; it becomes bent and twisted in both a vertical and a
horizontal plane.

Ultimately degeneration and disintegration of the embryonic tissues
sets in. The parts most commonly affected first are the medullary
groove (or tube), the lips of the blastopore (when this has not closed),
and the general ectoderm. Later the yolk-cells become altered and die.

These changes are as follows :—

(1) Grey degeneration, seen usually in the medullary groove. The
cells protrude above the surface ; the pigment retreats to the inner end,
leaving the cells white ; the cells fall out.

(2) Wrinkling and pitting of the surface. The ectoderm is thrown
into folds ; the cells are cast out.

(3) Liquefaction of the yolk-cells by fusion of yolk-granules.

This cellular disintegration is accompanied by degeneration of the
nuclei.

It is a common occurrence for these dying embryos to become con-
stricted into two parts, one portion being pushed bodily through the
vitelline membrane into the jelly as an ex-ovate.

III. The embryo is able to elongate, but development is abnormal,
particularly in the closure of the blastopore and medullary folds.
Degeneration and death eventually follow.

(a) Sodium chloride and sodium nitrate.

There is a large persistent yolk-plug.
The medullary folds fail to close, most frequently in the region of the
brain. The floor of the medullary groove here undergoes the process of

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG. 291

grey degeneration already referred to. The lips of the blastopore are
often similarly affected.

The yolk-cells in the interior degenerate and liquefy ; the liquefied
mass may burst through the ectoderm and spread over the surface. In
spite of this, differentiation of the organs of the body proceeds until the
embryo dies.

Suckers, gills, tail (often double), pituitary body, optic vesicles, lens,
infundibulum, auditory vesicle, neural crest. with the vagus and trigeminus
ganglia ; protovertebre, pronephric thickening, and liver diverticulum are
all formed.

The notochord is formed in the same abnormal way as described
under II., and is bent and twisted.

(B) Magnesium chloride, magnesium sulphate, and magnesium nitrate,
cane sugar and dextrose.

The blastopore closes, though slowly ; the medullary folds do not.

In the magnesium salts the brain alone remains open ; in the sugars
the entire length of the medullary folds. The exposed part in all cases
undergoes grey degeneration.

All the organs mentioned under (a) are developed, and in addition
the pericardium, together with a few endocardial cells.

The tail is better developed and the embryos longer.

IV. Development is nearly or quite normal ; wrea and sodium sulphate.

In the former the blastopore and medullary folds close, though more
slowly than usual.

The organs already referred to are all formed ; in addition, the heart
and pericardium, the pronephros, the splanchnoccel, the dorsal aortz and
posterior cardinal and vitelline veins, and the subnotochordal rod.

The notochord, though arising in the abnormal fashion observed in
other cases, has well-differentiated, vacuolated cells. The myotome cells
are elongate and multinucleate.

Eventually the embryos die.

The cells of the central nervous system and of the ectoderm degenerate.

Mesoderm and yolk-cells swell up ; the latter indeed often produce
a hernia-like ventral swelling behind the liver, subsequently bursting
through the body-wall at this point.

In sodiwm sulphate, on the other hand, development appears to be
perfectly normal, and'to proceed at the normal rate. The tadpoles will
live in the solution for many weeks.

As the work is still incomplete it would be premature to offer any
explanations or conclusions. At the same time it may be pointed out
that the facts seem to contradict Bataillon’s assertion that the distorted
development of the sodium chloride monster is solely the effect of the
increase in the osmotic pressure. More probably the phenomena are to
be attributed to the poisonous properties of the substances employed,
even in the case of the sugars, the differences being due to differences in
the permeability of the tissues of the embryo.

The Committee ask to be reappointed in order that the microscopical
investigation may be brought to a satisfactory conclusion.

292 REPORT—1904.

The Probability of Ankylostoma becoming a Permanent Inhabitant of
our Coal Mines in the event of its introduction.—Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. G. H. F. NurratL (Chairman),
G. P. Broper (Secretary), Dr. A. E. Boycott, Dr. J. 8. HaLpane,
and A. E. SHIPLEY.

SUMMARY.

THERE are many channels by which Ankylostoma might be introduced
into British coal-mines.

The conditions found underground in these mines are such that the
worm would, in many cases, at any rate, probably become firmly established.

In view of the expense and difficulty of eradicating the worm from
any mine in which it has become established, it is of the greatest
importance that preventive measures should be undertaken without
delay. Complete eradication does not yet appear to have been ever
accomplished.

The necessary prevention is best accomplished by the provision of
proper sanitary accommodation in the main roads underground and at the
pit’s mouth, by regulations to prevent pollution of the pit by human
feces, and by the establishment of a limited quarantine system for work-
people from infected areas, with compulsory notification of cases to the
Home Office.

Importance of the Question.

The economic importance of Ankylostoma is very great. In many
tropical countries it is one of the chief causes of death ; thus in Porto
Rico more than one-fifth of all deaths are due to this worm disease. In
this country the underground workings of mines afford the necessary
tropical conditions of temperature, and in this way provide situations in
which the worm is capable of flourishing. In the Westphalian coalfield
the disease became prominent about four years ago, and many cases of
illness occurred. The number of men who were thus incapacitated from
work was observed to be increasing rapidly ; in consequence very exten-
sive efforts have been made to stamp out the disease. Hospitals were
built, a special staff of doctors provided, all the men were specially
examined ; those who were found to be infected were not allowed to work
underground, and were all treated in the hospitals until they were free
from the worm. It is impossible to state exactly even the direct expense
of all these measures, but the figure certainly amounts to several hundred
thousand pounds.

When it is remembered that 650,000 men are employed underground
in the coal-mines of Great Britain, and that it has been found that in a
badly infected mine 80 per cent. of the men may have the disease, the
gravity of the question is apparent. By the incidence of such an epi-
demic both employers and workpeople must be seriously affected, not
only in the measure of the number of men seriously ill, but also of the far
greater number who have no obvious symptoms, but an impaired efficiency
for work.

The sanitary arrangements in Westphalia have been carried out very

ANKYLOSTOMA (MINERS’ WORM). 293

thoroughly and energetically, but it has not been found possible com-
pletely to eradicate the worm. The number of infected men has been
greatly reduced, but a small percentage remains who still harbour the
worm. This small percentage remains about the same in spite of the con-
tinuance of treatment, and is, of course, always capable of introducing
the disease into any fresh mine or of reinfecting the mine to any extent
if preventive measures were relaxed.

Before considering the probability of the spread of Ankylostoma in
this country it is necessary to point out that we have hardly any definite
information as to its complete absence at the present time. Only one case
of the disease has been recorded in a British coal-mine, but the worm may
well be present to a limited degree without causing obvious illness. A
latent infection of this kind, owing to some small change in the tem-
perature or the moisture of a mine, may increase to a serious epidemic
at any time, or may be carried to other pits where more favourable
conditions may lead to the most disastrous results. No evidence of the
presence of the worm has been found in the few collieries which have been
systematically examined, but it must not be assumed too readily that it is
completely absent.

Is there a Probability of Ankylostoma becoming established in
British Coal-mines ?

(A) Possible Sources of Infection.

(1) The worm is endemic among the general population in nearly
all tropical and sub-tropical countries (Southern Asia, Africa,
South America, West Indies, &c.) and parts of North America,
Australia, and in Europe south of the Alps, and in Hungary.

(2) It is present among underground workers in the Westphalian
coalfield and in the French and Belgian coal-mines.

(3) It is present in the Cornish tin-mines, at any rate in the Cam-
borne district.

The infection may thus be easily introduced into this country from
the tropics and Southern Europe by returned miners, or even by those
who have not followed any underground employment abroad (soldiers,
navvies, &c.); and from Germany, Belgium, France, and the Cornish
mines by underground workers. Cases have been recorded in Lanarkshire
and in Belfast in the persons of soldiers, and in the former case a man
was actually working as a miner when his illness attracted attention.
A large number of Poles are employed in the Lanarkshire coalfield, some
of whom may have worked in Westphalia or Hungary, and Italians
have lately been introduced into a metalliferous mine in the North of
England.

(B) Conditions found wndergrownd in British Coal-mines which
would influence the establishment of the Worm.

The conditions of temperature on the surface are such that practically
the worm cannot spread among the ordinary population in this country.
In summer the eggs may hatch and the larve develop to the infective
stage in the open air, but any small danger which might arise from this
source is rendered negligible by the almost universal use amongst all
classes in this country of arrangements for the proper disposal of excreta.

294. REPORT—190 4.

In underground workings, however, the temperature, &e., are fre-
quently such that the eggs will quickly hatch and the larve develop ;
there are very seldom any ‘sanitary arrangements,’ and the darkness
renders it difficult to avoid coming into contact with fecal material.

(1) Lemperature.—There is need of much more collected information
respecting the actual temperatures found in coal-mines. It would, how-
ever, appear that a temperature of 70° F. or more is found in parts of
most pits, while temperatures of 80° F’. are not uncommon.

The eggs may hatch and the larve reach the encapsuled stage at any
temperature from 60° F. to about 95°-100° F. ; the optimum temperature
seems to be about 75°-80°. Below 60° the eggs may occasionally hatch,
but the larve will not grow to the infective stage.

Once the larve have reached the infective stage they seem to be
largely indifferent as to temperature : they certainly live longer at room
temperature than at 98°, but not longer than at about 70° F.

(2) Moistwre.—Some water is to be found about all mines ; even if
there is very little standing water in the roads there is enough to produce
a muddy condition at places. The worm cannot be propagated in com-
plete absence of moisture, and the larve are soon killed by drying ; but
parts, at any rate, of most mines are sufficiently wet to allow the larve to
grow freely.

On the other hand there may be too much water to allow the eggs to
hatch. Eggs contained in feces covered with a shallow layer of water
will not produce larvee at any temperature. Once hatched, however, the
larvee flourish in water.

(3) Hilth.—Coal-mines appear to be a good deal cleaner, from a sani-
tary point of view, than metalliferous mines. This is in part due to the
fact that at the face feces are generally deposited in the goaf! and
covered with coal dust ; and in part to the greater prevalence of dust
and to the larger area.

There is, however, no failure of sufficient fecal contamination. In
many instances small partly disused roads are made use of by the men
for the purpose of relieving their bowels. This usage is particularly
dangerous.

Duration of the Infection in Man.

Well-authenticated cases of infection, lasting more than six years after
the last possible contact with infected materials, have been recorded.

Viability of the Worm in Mines.

Encapsuled larve have lived in the Gordon Laboratory for twelve
months (still alive) at 68° F. There is no direct evidence as to how
long they may live underground, but in water obtained from two North
Staffordshire mines they suffered no ill effect, and were observed for several
weeks.

Natural Conditions in Mines which are unfavourable to the Worm.

Parts of all, and nearly the whole of some mines, fail to produce the
combination of dampness and warmth favourable to the hatching of eggs.
' The ‘goaf’ or ‘gob’ is the worked part of a mine, where the coal has been

removed, The supporting timbers are withdrawn, and the roof is allowed to close
on to the floor.

ANKYLOSTOMA (MINERS’ WORM). 295

But if the eggs cannot hatch in certain parts which are too cool, the
larve can be brought to these parts either on the boots, &c., or by the
flow of water.

There is no evidence to show that any substance in the coal is dele-
terious to the worm, though weathered coal might contain such products.
Tf the water is salt (as it is at Levant Mine) protection seems to be
secured ; but traces of the heavy metals (iron, copper) do not seem to be
harmful.

Nothing is known of any natural enemies. In some mines the fecal
deposits, wood, &c., show an abundant fauna, most commonly dipterous
larvee and small nematodes other than Ankylostoma.

It might be supposed that in the case of a species in which a single
female produces millions (probably many millions) of eggs some specific
enemy would have been developed—some organism whose special charac-
ters enabled it to live on the highly nutritious contents of the eggs, or
on the newly hatched larve. But if such a hostile species has been
evolved it is in the tropical and sub-tropical home of Ankylostoma that it
should be sought for, not in the temperate zone. In the mud of a
British coal-mine the limited number of species of animals and plants are
either from the surface above, or have been brought with the timber from
uninfected countries. It is possible, therefore, that in a warm and moist
coal-mine in Great Britain the conditions are actually more favourable to
the uncontested life of the larvee than even in the tropics. It would not be
out of harmony with any known facts to suppose that a single pair of
worms might give rise in one generation to a progeny equal in number
to the population of the British Islands.

(C) Preventive Measures.
(a) In non-infected mines.

1. A sufficient supply of sanitary pails, combined with a rigid system
of inspection and cleaning, is all that is necessary if the use of these con-
veniences can be enforced. The habit of defecating underground at all
should be discouraged as much as possible : much may be done in this way
by providing proper and well-looked-after accommodation at the pit’s
mouth. In dry mines the feces can probably be safely disposed of by
burying them under coal dust in the goaf; but in all cases permanent
roads and stations should be provided with conveniences.

2, Examination of fresh hands. All men applying for work who have
ever worked in tropical or South European countries, or in mines where
the worm is known to be present, should be rejected till it is shown that
they do not harbour the worm. It is useless doing this unless their state
of health is entirely disregarded ; it is of no moment whether they are or
have been ill or not, since perfectly healthy persons may carry the worm
and be capable of infecting a mine. Some sort of quarantine list should
be made. At the present it would include Cornwall, Westphalia,
the French and Belgian coalfields, South European and all tropical
countries.

3. Reduction of temperature and moisture is difficult, in most cases
quite impracticable, and not necessary if proper sanitary and quarantine
regulations are made and carried out. Any reduction in the moisture is,
moreover, not unattended with danger from explosions.

There should be no difficulty in introducing a proper system of

296 REPORT—1904.

sanitary accommodation if the genuine sympathy of both the mine
owners and the men’s representatives could be secured. The additional
expense in providing and looking after the pails, &c., would be relatively
small, and in the larger pits should be practically inappreciable. In an
English colliery employing 2,000 underground hands the excreta from the
men on the working roads have for the last four years been disposed of
by the use of 100 movable pans, emptied on the spoil-heap once a week
and recharged for use with coal dust and a disinfectant fluid. The total
cost is found to come to about ll. a week, and it is stated that the
fouling of the roads has now ceased.

The number of hands which it would be necessary to examine indi-
vidually would never be large. There is no need to examine men who
live in England and are fresh to mining, or who have worked in a mine
which is known to be free from the worm. In most English coalfields
these would include the great majority of the men. The method of
examination by means of blood-films affords a fairly satisfactory method
to which the men have no objection. It seems probable that many
medical officers of mines are not competent to undertake the necessary
investigations ; there would, however, be no difficulty in making arrange-
ments with pathological and public-health laboratories such as have been
established in many parts of England. It is only in accordance with the
general policy of the country as to public health that the expenses of
such examinations should be provided, in part at least, out of public
funds.

(b) In infected mines.

The conditions here are altogether different, and may require the
most drastic and expensive measures of universal examination and treat-
ment combined with anything that may be practicable in the way of
cooling, drying, and disinfecting the mine. The great efforts made on
the Continent thoroughly to disinfect infected mines, and their partial
success, have been referred to in our opening paragraphs. Particulars
will be found in the Blue Books and other recent publications dealing
with the subject.!

There is no evidence as yet of any natural process which would cause
Ankylostoma to disappear from a mine in which it had once found a home.
Total desertion of the mine by human beings would presumably have
this effect, but it would appear necessary that such desertion should last
not less than a year. And from the experience of the Westphalian and
other European coaltields it would appear probable that, if Ankylostoma
should ever thoroughly take possession of one of the many warm and
moist British coal-mines, it will not be eliminated except by the invention
of even more efficient disinfection than the drastic and expensive pro-
cesses enjoined on the coal-masters by the German Government.

' See, inter alia, Parliamentary Paper [Cd. 1671], 1903 and [Cd. 1843] 1903;
special supplement to the Colliery Guardian, November 6, 1903; Boycott and
Haldane in the Journal of Hygiene, vol. iii. p. 95; vol. iv. p. 73 ; Boycott, ibid. p. 437.

OCCUPATION OF A TABLE AT THE MARINE LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH. 297

Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. Garstana (Chairman and
Secretary), Professor KE. Ray Lanxester, Mr. A. SepGwicKk, Pro-
fessor S. H. Vines, and Professor W. F. R. WELDON.

Miss Icerna Sous, of Newnham College, Cambridge, occupied the
British Association’s table at the Plymouth Laboratory from Sep-
tember 1 to September 29, 1903, during which period she carried out an
investigation on the development of spicules in Amphiwra elegans.

Mr. W. Woodland, B.Sc., of University College, London, applied for
the use of the Association’s table at Plymouth in the spring of the present
year. This application could not be granted, owing to the fact that in
the absence of the usual grant of money the Committee had no power to
nominate to the table for more than one month in the year, the period for
which the British Association has the right of nomination as a ‘ Founder’
of the Marine Biological Association.

By the kindness of Dr. Allen, Director of the Plymouth Laboratory,
Mr. Woodland was, however, accommodated at the Laboratory gratuitously
during April, where he carried out a further investigation on the develop-
ment of spicules in Echinoderms, more particularly in Lchinus esculentus
and Thyone.

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 10/., in order
that they may be in a position to appoint competent investigators to
work at the Plymouth Laboratory for at least three months in the year.

Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F. A. BATHER
(Secretary), Dr. P. L. Scuater, Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING, and
De. W . EH. Hoye,

Tue recording of literature by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn has proceeded
regularly, though more slowly. The purchase of rare books has been
continued in a most satisfactory manner. These, after serving the
recorder’s purpose, are invariably offered first*to the Trustees of the British
Museum. If not purchased by them, care is taken that they shall be
purchased by some other public library, so as to be available to students
for the future. In this way a small fund has been long maintained for
acquiring otherwise inaccessible volumes, and the Association grant is left
free for the actual work.

The enormous number of nomina nuda met with in the literature
between 1801-1850 involves a vast amount of labour, uninteresting, but
none the less necessary, seeing that one of the chief objects of this index
is to enable the student to find any name, whether valid or invalid, of
which he is in search. The extent of the undertaking may be inferred
from a single example. It appears that Dejean, the coleopterologist, is
responsible in his catalogues for no fewer than 22,399 names, every one of
which has to be recorded and checked, not only with four editions of his
own work, but also with the diagnoses and names of his contemporaries
and later authors,

298 ~ REPORT—1904.

The Committee have to report with deep regret the death of Mr.
Robert McLachlan, a colleague who followed the work with the keenest
interest.

The Committee desire to be reappointed, with the addition of the
name of the Hon. Walter Rothschild, who has kindly consented to
serve, and urgently press for a further grant of 100/., so that more
rapid progress may be possible.

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Fourteenth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor NEwTon (Chairman), Mr. Davip
SmarP (Secretary), Dr. W.'T. BLanrorp, Professor 8. J. Hickson,
Dr. P. L. Scuater, Dr. F. Du Cane Gopman, and Mr. Epagar
A. SMITH.

Tue Committee was appointed in 1890 and has since been annually
reappointed.

Since the last report, Vol. III., Pt. 4, of the ‘ Fauna Hawaiiensis’ has
been published by the Committee, and also the part dealing with Verte-
brata, by Mr. Perkins, mentioned in the last report.

The Microlepidoptera have been studied by Lord Walsingham,
and it is expected that his report on them will shortly be completed.
Some further progress has been made with the examination of the
Coleoptera, but the working out of this Order of Insects still remains
a difficulty.

The Committee asks for reappointment without a grant.

Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.—Fifth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. A. Sep@wick (Chairman), Mr. J. STanLey
GARDINER (Secretary), Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister,
Mr. Francis Darwin, Dr. S. F. Harmer, and Professors A.
Macatister, W. A. HerpMan, and 8. J. Hickson.

THE Committee have received the following report from Mr. Stanley
Gardiner, who has had charge of the work : —

During the year two parts of ‘The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive
and Laccadive Archipelagoes’ have been published, viz. Parts II. and IIT.
of Vol. II. They contain reports by Mr. Edgar Smith, on the Marine
Mollusca; Mr. R. C. Punnett, on the Enteropneusta; Mr. L. A.
Borradaile, on various Crustacea; the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing on the
Isopoda ; Mr. E. T. Browne, on the Hydromeduse ; Mr. Forster-Cooper,
on the Antipatharia; Mr. R I. Pocock, on the Arachnida; and by
Mr. Stanley Gardiner, on the Variation of the Madreporaria and the
Astraeide.

Part IV., completing Vol. IT., is in hand, and will contain among others,
papers by Professor 8. J. Hickson, on the Gorgonians and Pennatulids ;
“Professor Coutiére (of Paris), on the Alphaeidz (about seventy species) ;
Surgeon-Major Alcock, on the Paguride ; Mr. L. A. Borradaile, on the
Hydroids ; Mr. A. O. Walker, on the Amphipoda; Mr, A. E. Shipley,

ON CORAL REEFS OF THE INDIAN REGION. 299

on the Parasites ; and Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner, on the remainder of the
Madreporaria.

Papers are also expected from Dr. Hoyle, on the Cephalopoda ; Dr.
Norris Wolfenden, on the Copepoda ; Mr. Forster-Cooper, on the Ptero-
poda ; Professor Topsent (of Rennes), on the Sponges, ce.

It is proposed to summarise the zoological results in respect to the
distribution of marine animals in a Supplementary Part, to be issued in
1906, when the accounts of certain other groups will have been published.
This will be sent gratis to subscribers. The seven parts of the Fauna
and Geography already published form a sufficient guarantee that the
work will be properly completed, and the Committee consider that they
may now be dissolved,

Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor S. J. Hickson (Chairman), Dr. W. E.
Hoye (Secretary), Dr. F. F. Buackman, Mr. J. S. Garprvner,
Professor W. A. HerpMan, Mr. A. C. Sewarp, Professor C. S.
SHERRINGTON, and Mr. A. G. TAaNSLEY, appointed to conduct an
investigation into the Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands.

Tue Committee report that they have been in communication with the
authorities of the Bermuda Biological Station for Research, and have
been in readiness to co-operate should an opportunity have arisen. They
regret, however, that such has not been the case, as no naturalist from
this country has applied for facilities to work in the Bermudas.

Dr. J. E. Duerden, who hoped to have been able to undertake this
work, found himself unable to do so. The Committee suggest that they
should be reappointed, but do not ask for a grant.

Colour-phystology of the Higher Crustacea.—First Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor 8. J. Hickson (Chairman), Dr.
F. W. Gamsie (Secretary), Dr. W. E. Hoyie, and Mr. F. W.
KEEBLE, appointed to enable Dr. F. W. Gamble and Mr. Keeble
to conduct Researches in the Colour-physiology of the Higher
Crustacea.

Durine the present summer Messrs. Gamble and Keeble have completed
a further spell of work on the colour-physiology of the higher crustacea.
By the aid of the grant allotted to this research, apparatus has been
bought for the experimental investigation of the chromatophores and their
contained pigments and fats in Hippolyte varians ; but as the most suit-
able apparatus has only lately been found after a series of trials, the
present Report is of an interim and not of a final nature.

But although the work is still proceeding, Dr. Gamble reports as
follows on the results obtained up to the present time. The apparatus has
been set up in Mr. Keeble’s laboratory at Trégastel, Cétes-du-Nord, France,
with a view of determining (i) the influence of light and darkness on the
development of the pigments of Hippolyte ; (ii) the comparative suscep-
tibility of Hippolyte at different periods of life ; (iii) the origin and

300 REPORT—1904.

significance of the chromatophoric fat discovered and described by Messrs.
Keeble and Gamble.

The results of this year’s investigations, incomplete as they are, show
(i) that starting with the almost colourless (z.e., adolescent) stage with
which Hippolyte begins its colour-history, continued darkness induces the
formation of red pigment even in the absence of food ; a conclusion that
has bearings of considerable interest in relation to deep-sea and Arctic
crustacea,

(ii) Further, the colourless stage is one of great susceptibility. By
appropriate coloured screens, a green or brown tint is rapidly induced ;
whereas, in adults, the pigmentary system gives way far less readily.
This susceptibility explains to a large extent the way in which Hippolyte
grows into its surroundings.

(iii) Finally, the origin and fate of the chromatophoric fat has been
tested by a couple of experiments. The results are not yet completely
worked out, and Mr. Keeble is at present engaged upon a further attempt
to solve this difficult problem. But the results show that in such colour-
varieties of Hippolyte as green, brown, and pink, there is under natural
conditions a production of colourless fat in the chromatophores ; and
that when food is withheld this chromatophoric fat is drawn upon.

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor 8. J. Hickson (Chairman),
Mr. J. EH. S. Moore (Secretary), Dr. E. Ray LAnKeEsteEr, Professor
W. F. R. Wetpon, Professor G. B. Howes, Mr. A. SEpGwick,
and Professor W. C. McIntosH.

Tue Committee report that during the session Mr. Goodrich occupied the
table for a period of one month, and investigated the anatomy of the
Chlorhemid and the excretory organs of Enteropneusta, and that Miss
Vickers occupied the table for two months and carried on some investiga-
tions on Alge. The Committee ask for reappointment, with a grant of
1000.

Report on the Occupation of the Table, by E. 8. Goopricu.

I have to thank the Committee of the British Association for the use
of the table at the Naples Zoological Station during one month last
Christmas 1903-04.

During this short stay most of the time was spent in a search for true
nephridia in Balanoglossus. The search, however, was unsuccessful, and
so far no definite excretory organs have been found in the Enteropneusta.

The rest of my time was occupied in the study of the anatomy of the
Chlorhemid, a group of Polychete worms which is very incompletely
known. I succeeded in obtaining a considerable amount of valuable
material, and hope shortly to publish some account of my researches.

British Association, 74th Report, Cambridge, 1904.] [Puate VII.

Fie. 2.—Roll Waves spontaneously formed in the Conduit of the Griinnbach.

Illustrating the Report on Terrestrial Surface Waves.

ON TERRESTRIAL SURFACE WAVES AND WAVE-LIKE SURFACES. 301

Terrestrial Surface Waves and Wave-like Surfauces.—Fourth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Scorr Kent (Chairman),
Dr. VauGHAN CornisH (Secretary), Lieut.-Col. F. BatLey, Mr.
JOHN MILNE, and Mr. W. H. WHEELER. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

[PLATE VII.]

Tue Committee record with deep regret the death of Mr. E. A. Floyer,
M.R.A.S., Mem. Inst. Egypt, a Member of this Committee, who was
especially interested in the study of desert sand-dunes. A list of his
principal writings upon this and other subjects, compiled by Dr. Cornish,
has appeared in the ‘Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ May 1904.!
In the last report some account was given of observations upon the
Bore of the river Severn, and of the waves in the Whirlpool Rapids of
Niagara River. Further observations upon waves in rivers and upon
kindred phenomena in waterfalls were commenced in May last in
Switzerland, as well as observations upon Steps and Ledges produced by
the Movement of Soil upon a Slope. The work is still in progress, but a
preliminary account may here be given of one kind of wave of special
interest now being kept under observation in the Guntenbach and
Griinnbach streams, which flow in the latter part of their course in open
paved conduits into the Thunersee. Each terminates in a_ waterfall
which is not steady, nor merely flickering, but is affected by a regular
cadence having a period of several seconds. In the case of the Griinnbach
the phenomenon is easily visible at the distance of a mile with the naked
eye. The amount of water at maximum is fully one-third greater than
at minimum. This cadence is due to the arrival of waves resembling a
bore, but travelling down channel more rapidly than the current flows.
These it is proposed to call Roll Waves, from a name which a correspon-
dent gives to a wave of similar form which sometimes occurs in the river
Tees. Itis the form, as far as can be judged by written and verbal
accounts unaccompanied by photographs, in which sudden floods some-
times travel down a river, as in the recent destructive flood at Nikko,
Japan. The remarkable thing about these waves in the Guntenbach and
Griinnbach, however, is their periodicity, and the fact that they are
spontaneously evolved without the co-operation of any special quickening,
or checking, or sudden swelling of the current. They appear to depend
mostly upon the shallowness of the stream (and therefore require a fairly
smooth bottom), in conjunction probably with considerable swiftness.
The ordinary quick throbbing of the current (to which the present writer
has often referred) gives rise in these very shallow streams to ‘long
waves’ whose amplitude is an appreciable fraction of the depth of the
stream. The greater of these, therefore, move more rapidly than those of
lesser amplitude, and can actually be seen to catch them up. They do
not, however, pass them by, but, on the contrary, incorporate them; and
thus the original small, rapid, irregular throb of the stream is changed, as
the stream flows on, into a slow and nearly regular cadence. The period
becomes longer and more regular in the lower reaches of the conduits, as
can best be observed in the Griinnbach, of which the conduit is longer and

* Dr, Cernish’s completed paper ‘On the Dimensions of Deep-sea Waves and their
Relation to Meteorological and Geographical Conditions’ has appeared in the
Geographical Journal for May 1904.

302 REPORT—1904.

more smoothly paved, with nearly vertical sides. The whole process is a
beautiful example of the evolution of large waves of regular period from
small, irregular disturbances, and its observation, under the simplified
condition of a straight conduit, is likely to assist in the more difficult
task of observing waves in natural rivers where the phenomena are more
irregular.

The photography of wave phenomena has been continued and ex-
tended in this as in former years. A selection of enlargements has been
sent, by request, as part of the British Photography Exhibit, to the
St. Louis Exhibition.

The Committee ask for reappointment.

On the Accuracy and Comparability of British and Foreign Statistics
of International Trade.—Report of the Convmittee, consisting of
Dr. E. Cannan (Chairman), Dr. B. GinsBurG (Secretary), Mr. A. L.
Bow ey, Professor 8. J. CHAPMAN, Sir R. Girren, and Mr. R. H.
INGLIS PALGRAVE.

Tur Committee have added Mr. A. J. Sargent to their number. Mr. Pal-
grave has unfortunately been unable to take part in their proceedings.
The Committee have made such inquiries as proved possible at the Board
of Trade, and of persons actually engaged in commerce, and have examined
and tabulated the information contained in the official statements of trade
of various countries. The main sources of their information are given
below.

The Committee decided to restrict their inquiries for the present year
to the following countries: United Kingdom, United States, Germany,
France, Belgium, Holland, Russia, and Austria. They also decided to
consider mainly questions of value rather than of quantity. They divide
their report under the following ten headings :—

A. Definition of international trade.

B. Methods of estimating value.

C. Registration of origin and destination.

D. Changes in A, B, and C in recent years.

E. The discrepancies between statistics published by different
countries.

F. Relation of total of exports to the produce of a country.

G. Relation of the statistics of imports and exports to the balance
of trade.

H. Accuracy of the figures of the United Kingdom.

J. Conclusion and suggestions.

K. Bibliography.

A. Definition of International Trade.

At first sight it seems a simple matter to define foreign or inter-
national trade. To the ordinary apprehension it would appear that a
complete account of international trade would give, in the first place,
particulars of the quantity and value of every kind of goods crossing
international frontiers in each direction. There is little difficulty in
imagining an ideal world in which it would be quite easy to collect and
publish such statistics, but in the actual world things are not nearly so

ON BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 303

simple. Even the position of the national frontier is not always what we
should expect ; for example, trade between France and Corsica, and
between the United States and Hawaii or Porto Rico, is domestic trade ;
though trade between France and Algeria, and between the United States
and the Philippines, is international trade. This is a simple matter
compared with the complication introduced by the existence of free
zones, like the free port of Hamburg in Germany, and that of Copenhagen
in Denmark. Yet the position of the customs frontier is among the least

of our difficulties.

We can easily imagine a world in which international trade, or goods
carried across a national frontier, fell into four distinct classes, as

follows :—

Imports.

Class 1.—Goods imported which will
be used or consumed at home.

Class 2.—Materials and components
imported in order to be made up in the
country and then exported.

Class 3.—Goods imported which will
be sold for export without change of
form.

Class 4.—Gvoods simply passing into
the country on their way to another

Exports.
Goods produced at home and ex-
ported.
Manufactured articles made up of
foreign materials and exported.

Goods of foreign origin exported after
purchase and sale within the country.

The same goods passing out of the
country.

country without changing ownership
within it.

The first is sometimes called ‘ special trade,’ the second ‘improvement
trade’ (Veredelungsverkehr), the third may be called entrepdt trade, and
the fourth ‘transit and transhipment trade.’ The sum of the four may
be called ‘ general trade,’ or this title may be confined to the sum of the
first three.

In the real world, however, these four classes are not sharply divided
by distinct and easily ascertainable lines of demarcation. It is often
impossible for anyone to say for certain when an article is imported,
whether it belongs to the first, second, or third class. When an
article is exported the exporter has frequently no exact knowledge as
to its origin, and when it is made up of various components or ingredients,
part of domestic origin and part of foreign origin, it becomes impossible
to classify it under the first or second head without adopting some
arbitrary standard as to the degree in which a commodity must contain
foreign ingredients before it can be classified as of foreign origin. Again,
the distinction between the third and fourth class is a slight one, not
always easy to verify. Finally, the fourth class is not very distinctly
divided from goods carried in ships past the country instead of into the
country and out of it. No one would propose to reckon in the transit
trade all the goods in ships which have simply passed through the
territorial waters of a country, nor even those in ships which have called
at a port to coal; but as to what exact amount of detention and
manipulation in port is required to constitute arrival and departure of
goods, considerable difference of opinion may legitimately prevail.

As the benefit derived from international division of Jabour or
localisation of industry is frequently very small, it is often the case that
transactions in Class 4 are just as advantageous to a country as trans-
actions in Class 1, but popular opinion tends to regard the ‘ special trade’ as
more important than the ‘improvement trade,’ the improvement trade as

304 REPORT—1904.

more important than the entrepdt trade, and the entrepédt trade as more
important than the transit trade. Consequently, most countries have been
in the habit of devoting more attention to the earlier classes than to the
later, and the result has been that the statistics of the later classes are
not sufficiently complete to allow of useful comparison between the totals
for all four classes.

The unfortunate result of this is that we cannot keep clear of questions
of classification in the comparison of statistics of international trade. We
have to compare totals which confessedly do not include all imports (all
things carried in) and all exports (all things carried out), but only a
portion of them, and the different countries do not agree as to what
portion should be included.

It is becoming the practice to call the portion of foreign trade of which
the more detailed statistics are kept, the ‘special trade,’ and the whole or
any larger portion of foreign trade of which any statistics of totals
(quantity or value or both), the ‘ general trade,’ but the distinction is not
always applicable, and is sometimes confusing.

In the United Kingdom the largest total for imports includes every-
thing except gold and silver and goods for transhipment,' the largest
total for exports (‘British and Foreign and Colonial produce’) includes
everything except gold and silver and goods transhipped.' The tran-
shipment trade and imports and exports of bullion are given sepa-
rately. The grand total of exports just described is divided into totals
for ‘British produce’ and for ‘Foreign and Colonial produce,’ the
information as to the division being obtained from the exporters—British
produce meaning, apparently, not only everything grown, but also every-
thing manufactured in the United Kingdom, whether composed in part
or wholly of foreign materials or not. The grand total of imports is
divided, so far as quantities are concerned, into totals ‘retained for home
consumption’ and re-exports. Thus, if the smaller totals be taken as
‘special’ and the larger as ‘ general’ trade, it may be said that the United
Kingdom special trade includes our ideal Classes 1 and 2, and the general
trade Classes 1, 2, and 3. 5

The United States arrangement is the same in theory, but instead of
the home consumption being ascertained by deducting quantities re-
exported as declared by the exporters from the total imported, it is taken
simply as the quantity and value ‘entered for consumption’ at the
customs warehouse or barrier. The Committee are inquiring as to the
exact treatment of re-exports. ri

France includes in the ‘general trade’ everything coming in or goin
out, except gold and silver, so that her grand totals include all four of Boe
ideal classes. In ‘special trade’ she includes only Class 1, and such part
of Class 2 as has paid duty ; but sugar is treated exceptionally, all imports
and exports being included. Soke P

The German ‘special trade’ totals include Classes 1 and 2, and such
part of 3 and 4 as are not liable to duty and have not been dealared for
re-export ; ‘general trade’ totals include in addition foreign goods re-
exported after they have been in the customs warehouse. Trade with the
small districts (in Hamburg, &c.) which are free of duties is regarded as
foreign trade. Duty-free material for shipbuilding is not included in an
of the returns, nor goods sent abroad to undergo a manufacturing ese

! A small quantity of these goods passes from port to port under customs control

ON BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 3805

and be returned. Many changes have been made in these definitions (see
Section D below).

Belgium follows France as a general trade ; her special trade includes
Classes 1, 2, and 3.

Holland also follows France as to general trade, but compiles no
returns of value for it. As to special trade, the Dutch returns include
Classes 1, 2, 3, and, it is said, much of 4.

Russia includes Classes 1, 2, and 3 in special trade.

Austria includes Classes 1 and 3. Neither Russia nor Austria compiles
totals of general trade.

Attention may be specially called to the general absence of adequate
distinction between home and foreign produce in exports. In the case of
duty-free goods, the foreign produce is in general included in special
exports, a category generally supposed to include home produce only ; if
dutiable goods have paid duty and are then re-exported, they are also
included as home produce. Thus France includes 44,000,000 francs’
worth of cotton in her special exports. The lines of division are deter-
mined rather by fiscal circumstances than by economic principles.

Table showing roughly what classes of goods (see above, p. 303) are included in the
Return of Special Trade of various countries,

2 : Imports: Classes 1, 2, and 3.
erated Kinedom { eer : Classes 1 and 2.
OSA. . c . Classes 1, 2, and 3 (if duty free).
France . x . Class 1, and Classes 2, 3, and 4 if duty has been paid, or if
they are not distinguished by importers from Class ], and
all sugar in Class 2.

Germany : . Classes 1, 2,and most of those parts of Classes 3 and 4 which
are duty free.

Belgium : . Classes 1, 2, 3.

Holland. d . Classes 1, 2,3, and a large part of 4 not adequately dis-
tinguished.

Russia . "i . Classes 1, 2, and 3.

Austria . ; . Classes 1 and 3.

B. Methods of Estimating Value.

The typical method of valuing imports and exports is as follows.

A permanent commission estimates the prices of all the main articles
of trade year by year, and values all exports and imports by the price-list
thus established. The list at the end of one year is used for the monthly
returns of the following, but the annual returns are adjusted for the change
of prices in the year in question averaged through the year. The goods
are valued as at the moment of crossing the frontier.

The main exception is the United States, which values imports at their
price at the port of shipment in the country of origin. Thus, Bradford
goods exported to the United States are entered in their accounts at their
value at Liverpool.

France and Belgium began to estimate values on the typical method
in 1847, Austria in 1877, Germany in 1879. In Germany an allowance
is made for tare, the value entered being that of the goods without their
packings. In Belgium some goods are entered by the shippers by their
values alone, no quantity, tale, or measurement being given ; in these
cases the values declared hy the importer or exporter are accepted after
scrutiny.

1904. x

306 REPORT—1904.

Holland enters values as declared by shippers for dutiable goods, but
the official values on which the rest of her trade statistics are based come
from a fixed list many years out of date,! and her trade statistics have not
the connotation as those of other nations for this reason.

In Russia the values of goods are declared and compared with trade
price-lists under expert advice.

The United Kingdom takes declared values, but in many cases the
figures are adjusted as described below.

The adjustment of values to values at crossing the land frontier must
be arbitrary, and there may be uncertainty at what point goods coming
by sea are valued. It is quite uncertain how goods not on the official
list, or not capable of brief description, would be valued in Germany,
France, &c. ; presumably some form of declared value must be used.?

In the United States imports are entered at the vaiue ready for
shipment declared to the American Consul at the place of exportation.
The values entered are those given on the invoices before inspection or
appraisement for customs purposes. Exports of home produce, &c., are
entered at the market value at the time and place of shipment, re-exports
at their import value.

It should be noticed that official values of exports have no necessarily
close connection with the values actually realised abroad and remitted for
separate consignments. They assume too great a uniformity in value.
Also, there must be great error in pricing goods according to their
description in all those cases where the goods are not seen and examined.
Thus, the values affixed according to the official list to goods which do not
pay duty, seem in most cases to be liable to considerable error.

C. Registration of Origin and Destination.

The classification of imports and exports according to origin is in a
state of hopeless confusion. It is sometimes held that goods should be
credited to the country where they are paid for ; thus, eggs from Austria
sent to England on an order made to Austria should be credited to Austria,
and not to Germany, Holland, or Belgium, through which they pass,
while Swiss wines ordered of a Paris wine merchant should be credited to
Paris. The place for payment is in very many branches of trade not the
country of origin, and this plan, if carried out, would show the balance of
trade but not its channels. The country of origin is not easily definable.
A cargo of rails ordered by an English merchant to be shipped at Antwerp
and delivered in Yokohama, may be duly credited either to Belgium or
England, according to definition ; but if raw cotton is shipped from U.S.A,

1 The list in use is still in the main that framed in 1868, which was based on a
still older list.

2 The following semi-official communication throws interesting light on this
point: ‘In general there is no special difficulty in fitting unusual imports into one
or other of the headings specially provided in the accounts. When, in course of
time, the article becomes important, a new heading is reserved for it. ‘hus motor-
cycles were formerly grouped as “ other cycles” in the French accounts, and turbines
as “ machines and parts thereof of wrought iron or other common metal” in the
German accounts. These articles now have separate values allotted to them.

As regards pictures, the French accounts provide that objets de collection shall be
valued at their declared value, and pictures are apparently classed under this head.
On the other hand, in the German accounts, all pictures are entered by weight and
valued accordingly, viz. at 20 marks per kilogram in 1901 and 25 marks per kilogram
in 1902 and 1903.’

he ae

ON BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 307

to England, spun in Lancashire, woven in Germany, and exported through
Austria to Turkey, which is the country of origin? Jt is quite impossible
to draw the line, even in theory, between simple transhipment and com-
plete manufacture, and we are driven by necessity aud convenience to
tabulate goods according to the place at which they are paid for, thus
increasing out of reason the trade statistics of entrepét countries.

Most of the countries dealt with make an effort to enter goods accord-
ing to the place from which they are shipped on a through bill of lading,
or to which they go by a direct (rail and steamship) trade route. Thus,
Swiss goods exported through Germany to Liverpool would be given in the
Swiss statistics as exported to England, though their ultimate destination
might be the United States. Imports are credited, so far as known, to
the country from which they started on a through journey, but very
frequently, when transported by sea, simply to the port at which they
were shipped. The papers available for customs inspection very frequently
do not show whence the goods came or where they were ordered, but only
the place from which they made a through journey ; and the actual
purchaser may very likely not know the real source.

In some countries no attempt is made to get over these difficulties,
and goods are credited simply to the country whose frontier they first
cross or over which they came, whether by sea or land ; no country succeeds
in getting any homogeneous or exact returns by any other method. In
the United States the statistics profess to relate simply to the country
whence the goods are imported or to which they are exported, and it is not
clear whether the country of origin or ultimate destination is meant or not.

France has endeavoured to get the real destination or origin since
1870.' The result is that goods by rail are credited to the place of con-
signment, goods by road or canal to the adjacent country, and goods by
sea to the port of shipment or of lading, unless it is known that at these
ports the goods were only transhipped ; except in the case of known
through lines of trade, when the goods are credited to their destination or
origin as far as is known. Much trade between U.S.A. and France is
probably counted in her returns as with England.

In Germany an attempt is made to get the real destination or origin.
This is considered to be the place to or from which the goods travel in
unbroken transit, or with immediate transhipment.

In Belgium an attempt is made to get the real origin and ultimate
destination, but with very imperfect results, the overland trade being
frequently credited to the wrong country.

In Holland no attempt is made in the case of goods leaving or entering
the country by land, to get the real origin or destination ; but goods,
whether by rail, road, river, or canal, are simply credited to the adjoining
country. Goods by sea are credited to the port for which the vessel
cleared, or from which she last cleared.

In Austria, since 1890, the intention has been to credit goods to the
country of origin or destination, but how far this intention has been
carried out is not known.

In Russia goods are credited to the country whose frontier they first
pass or over which they arrive.

In the United Kingdom the place from which imported goods have
been shipped and the real destination of exports are aimed at, with results
discussed below.

1 See Zableau Décennal du Commerce de la France, 1887-1896, p. xvii.
x2

808 REPORT—1904.

D. Changes in A, B, and C in recent years.

United Kingdom.—Value of ships and boats (new), with their
machinery, has been included among the value of exports of home pro-
duce in 1899 and subsequent years. Changes were made in systems of
valuation and tabulation in 1854 and 1870.

United States.—Since 1898 the statistics given in the British Statis-
tical Abstract for Foreign Countries are sometimes for the year ending
June 30 and sometimes for the calendar year.' Great care must be
exercised to know which is quoted in particular lists. Porto Rico and
Hawaii have been regarded as part of U.S.A. in trade statistics since
July 1, 1900. The Philippines are still treated as foreign.

From 1866 to 1883 the values of imports included their whole cost up
to their arrival in U.S.A., together with a commission of at least 24 per
cent. From July 1, 1883, the values were taken as those at the place of
manufacture before being packed ; since August 1, 1890, the value has
been taken of the goods packed and delivered at the port ready for ship-
ment, but no sea freight is included.

France.—There have been no changes of importance since 1847, except
that the registration of goods, according to origin and destination, has
been improving since 1870. Before 1895, provisions taken on board ships
for use in the voyage were regarded as exports to the countries for which the
ships were bound ; they are now entered separately as ‘ Provisions de bord.’

Austria.—In 1885 goods were credited to the adjacent country, over
whose frontier they passed ; in 1895 the real origin and destination were
entered. The date of the change appears to have been 1890, when the
trade returns were reformed.

Belgium.—tThe value of rough diamonds imported, and cut diamonds
exported, has been included only since 1897. Revised instructions as to
registration of origin and destination were issued in 1882 and 1897, but
these made no change in principle.

The Committee know of no changes in the methods of dealing with
trade statistics of Holland or Russia.

Germany.—Changes have been so frequent and so complicated, that it
is a matter of the greatest difficulty to compare year with year. In 1879
the whole system of the trade statistics was transformed, and comparisons
hetween years before and after that date are practically impossible.”

Before 1884 ‘a large class of imports and exports were specifically
excluded, namely, all articles imported free of duty for working up and
for exportation in a more finished condition (improvement trade).’3 For
some time after 1884 separate totals were given for ‘special trade,’
including and excluding improvement trade, while the ‘ general trade’
totals included it. Since 1897 only the inclusive total has been published.
Great care must therefore be exercised before using these totals in
deciding how this trade is treated.4

1 Compare the 28th and 29th numbers.

2? See ‘Waarenverkehr des Deutschen Zollgebiets mit dem Auslande im Jahre
1880,’ I. Theil,.and the translation in C. 8211, p. 70. ,

3 Quoted from C. 5597, which contains a translation of the regulations for col-
lecting and tabulating German statistics (with definitions of special trade, &c.),
which have been for the most part in force from 1880 till the present date.

* See Cd. 1199, p. 10 note, and No. 131 of 1904, p. 3 and p. 8 note, for the corrections
necessary since 1897.

ON BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 309)

From 1897 the values of ships exported or imported have been included
in special and general trades.

Changes of tariff have frequently affected the inclusion of commodities
under one or other of the totals, as can be seen by examining the defini-
tions given in A above ; there seems no possibility of estimating their effect.

Considerable changes took effect in 1889, when parts of Hamburg,
Bremen, and other less important districts, hitherto treated as foreign,
were included in the Zollgebiet. At the same time transit trade was
excluded from general imports and exports.

General.—Comparisons year with year in the statistics of most of the
countries discussed are liable to be vitiated (1) by changes in fiscal laws by
which goods are transferred from the free to the dutiable list, and therefore
(see remarks under A) from general to special trade in the enumerations ;
(2) by the continual alteration in trade routes, by which goods may
appear in the statistics of, say, France instead of Germany, without
any change in their origin or destination, and for reasons already
explained affect the ‘special’ as well as the ‘general’ trades of these
countries ;' (3) by the varying success with which goods are credited to
their countries of origin and of destination.

While it is very unfortunate that such confusion exists, it is clear that
few of the difficulties so far discussed are due to inaccuracy in the actual
returns. In most countries the statistics are compiled primarily in that
way which is most useful for their fiscal purposes, and secondarily in such
a way as to give information to their own people. No two countries are
in quite similar commericial situations, or have identical fiscal policies,
and the non-comparability of statistics naturally results. The most per-
fectly accurate statistics readily lead to inaccurate deductions, when their
origin, nature, and limitations are not thoroughly understood.

NOTE TO SECTION D.
The following statistics indicate the relative importance to be attached
to the changes described :—
United Kingdom.
1=£1,000,000.
|

—— | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 | 1902 1903
|
| |
Value of Ships Exported Saal la Wont Cis Ih te Sel 59 4:3
Value of Total Exports, home pro- |
duce (including above) . P 264°5 291°2 | 280'0 | 283-4 290°9
United States.
1= $1,000,000.
= 1899 1900 — 1899 | 1900
Value of Exports to Value of Imports from
Porto Rico . 2°6 43 Porto Rico . 3:2 31
Hawaii : 9:0 13-1 Hawaii n 178 20°77
Value of Total Ex- Value of Total Im-
ports ee ports (including
above) . 1203:9 13708 above) . . ‘ 6971 8149-9

For examples of this sort see the Report on Tariff Wars (Cd. 1938).

310 REPORT—1904.

Belgium.
1 =1,000,000 francs.
— 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901
Value of Exports of Cut Diamonds 58 67 67 43 44
Value of Total Exports (including
above) One 3 ms . 1,626 1,787 1,949 1,923 1,828
Value of Imports of Rough Dia-
monds : 55 60 60 40 42
Value of Total Imports (inclnding
above) . . . . 1,873 2,045 2,260 2,216 2,221
{
Germany.
1=1,000,000 marks, .
Imports : Special Trade Exports : Special Trade
Year
From Hanse For P To Hanse After :
Towns Improvement Residue Towns Improvement Residue
1881 572 _ 2,391 630 _ 2,347
1882 552 _ 2,577 685 _ 2,505
1883 556 _ 2,708 725 _ 2,547
1884 557 62 2,704 770 82 2,434
1885 502 | 57 2,442 | 693 78 2,167
1886 493 | 57 2,395 | 756 79 2,229
1887 537 61 | 2,588 | 826 89 2,309
1888 518 | 59 2,773 791 91 2,415
1899 50 96 3,965 105 135 3,062
1890 17 96 | 4,145 105 132 3,223
Excluding improve- Including improve- || Excluding improve- Including improve-
ment trade and ships | ment trade and ships || ment trade and ships | ment trade and ships
|
1895 4,121 — 3,318 —
1896 4,307 = 3,525 =
1897 4,524 4,681 3,500 3,635
1898 4,958 5,081 3,619 3,757
1899 5,345 5,483 4,069 4,207
1900 5,637 5,766 4,448 4,611
1901 5,309 5,421 4,309 4,431
1902 5,514 5,631 4,559 4,678

E. The Discrepancies between Statistics published by Different
Countries.

Many attempts have been made to reconcile the statistics of different
countries, but invariably without success. For examples see the official
publications, ‘Trade between the United Kingdom and France,’ 1881,
‘Trade of the United Kingdom with Germany,’ 1904, and ‘ Reports on
Tariff Wars between certain European States,’ 1904 ; see also Sir Robert
Giffen’s paper on the ‘Use of Import and Export Statistics,’ 1882, and
Mr. Ellinger’s papers in the ‘Economic Review,’ 1902, and at the Man-
chester Statistical Society, 1904 (see Section J below).

In no case that the Committee know of do the values registered by
country X of goods imported from country Y correspond at all closely
with the values registered by Y as exported to X.

As just explained, it is not in general necessary to assume inaccuracy

ON BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 311

in the returns to account for this, for the differences in methods of tabula-
tion necessarily cause very great discrepancies. Take the case of England
and Belgium. We valued our exports of home produce exported to
Belgium at 11,000,000/. sterling, and of foreign produce at 4,000,000/.
in 1900. Belgium valued what she received at 300,000,000 francs, say
12,000,000/., in her special trade. Of the goods we send to Belgium,
a great part would no doubt pass on to other countries, and in spite of
regulations much of this would be entered as going to Belgium only.
Indeed, the English exporter might not know its destination beyond an
agent at Antwerp. On the other hand, the Belgian importer would credit
part of the 4,000,000/. which we described as foreign produce to the
United Kingdom, and only part to the real country of origin. Such
illustrations might be multiplied indefinitely. The reader is referred to
the papers just named for analyses of special cases.

In addition to questions of destination, the method of valuation causes
differences, especially where official values linger behind market values.

Again, goods leaving X for Y may not be delivered in Y in the
same year, or they may remain in the customs warehouse of Y for many
months ; exact correspondence year by year is therefore not to be ex-
pected. It follows that we do not know the value of our export trade,
even if we assume the statements to be made correctly, to any of those
countries where transit trade is of importance, and even when we group
them together, there is much uncertainty ;! nor can we use the statistics
of foreign countries to check our own. Similar remarks apply to imports.
Further, we cannot estimate the total international trade of the world,
or of the main groups of countries, for neither the general trade nor the
special trade is defined in the same way in different countries, and the
totals cannot therefore correctly be added.

In the previous paragraphs it is assumed that the returns of quantities
and values are correctly made. Below, we show reason to think that this
is not invariably the case in the United Kingdom. We have no means
of investigating the accuracy of the statistics of foreign countries in
general ; but the process of valuation seems very faulty where official
values are employed, and declared values are subject to bias, especially as
they are found for the most part in the case of dutiable goods. The following
comparison of the returns of trade between Europe and the United States
shows how far we can obtain agreement in a case where, if the returns
were accurate as to value and destination, there should apparently be close
correspondence. ‘This instance is taken because the basis of valuation is
very nearly the same in the exporting and importing countries, for freight
is not included in either.

We put all Europe, so far as figures are available, together in order,
to avoid confusion of origin. The visible sources of error are the inclu-
sion of Italian exports to Canada, which cannot be separated, and possibly
of some Asiatic produce going from Russian Asiatic ports ; some goods
registered in Europe as going to the United States may be there treated
as in transit for Canada or elsewhere ; while some European trade to
Canada may find its way into the United States ; and in the table is
included 666,000,000 (for the ten years) value of foreign goods re-
exported by us, counted in our trade, and in many cases in continental

‘ On this point see the warnings pretixed to the Board of Trade Accounts of
Loreiyn Urade, and alluded to in Ca, 1761, pp. vi, 3, and 4.

a l2 REPORT—1904.

trade also. It will be observed that neither the amounts nor the dates
of change correspond at all closely ; that, in fact, we should not know
from inspection of the figures that they related nominally to the same
phenomena ; and that we can only obtain an agreement even within 5 per
cent. when we take the totals for ten years, giving the various errors the
best chance of neutralising one another.

Import Trade of U.S.A. from certain European Countries (i) as Registered by
the Exporting Countries, and (ii) as estimated in U.S.A, Statistics.

1=$1,000,000.

a =
Year ia ites |1890 ‘1891 1892 j1398 ‘1894 11895 1896 11897 1898 ‘1899 1900| 10 years

5 | | | | i ins ~— are *
‘copesigee acre 448 | 387 394/355 | 307 | 426 | 355 | 386 | 329 | 395 | =: |Acselee
Gi). —.. | 448 | 447| 390 | 456| 293 381 | 416 | 427 | 303 | 399 | 447 | f 2/8?
Adjusted | 447 409 434 B48 352) 404/424 344 367 431 | _- | 3'960
| ' | ] i}

The U.S.A. accounts are made up to June 30 each year. The third
line in above table is obtained thus : For 1893, dof 45644 of 293=348,
assuming that about two months elapse between the valuing of the goods
in Europe and their entry in the U.S.A. records.

The trade between the United Kingdom and U.S.A. is shown in the
following table :—
1= $1,000,000.

Year . : . » |1890 si No pea 1893 | 1894 1895
|

l Bees 7 ‘ |
11896 1897 11898 1899 10 years
| | i
U.K, Accounts.
|

Exports from U.K.—
Foreign produce ./| 68| 65

72 f
Home produce - | 154] 182) 127,115} 90
U.S.A. Accounts.
Imports received of | | |

produce of U.K,
adjusted for dates. | 192 169/174 133 | 142

| [ee ee TG |
79| 54| 71| G5) 79) 666
| 95/101] 71| 88| 1,103

| }
|
|

167 | 169 | 129 130 149 1,554

F, Relation of Total of Exports to the Produce of a Country.

The relation of the total special exports of a country to the value of
the produce of home capital and labour contained in those exports is very
complex. There is no evident & priorz connection between the two ; the
value of exports may go up because imported raw material or partly
manufactured goods have risen in value, while the home contribution has
gone down or vice versd. In the comparatively rare cases of commodities,
where the whole value is due to home labour or capital, the connection i3
closer ; but even here we should often have to pay regard to the cost
of imports used in the implements of manufacture, such as imported
machines, coal, &e.

There are in general no official published data which make it possible to

1 Austria, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, France, United Kingdom,
Belgium, Holland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Russia (European and Asiatic
ports). In exports from Italy are included those to Canada. Exports of foreign
produce of the United Kingdom are included as exports from England.

ON BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 318

subtract the values of imported goods contained in exports, and it would be
necessary to obtain separate estimates from those conversant with each
important trade before we could deal with exports as relating to the produce
of home industry (on this point see Memorandum 23 in Cd. 1761). We
know of no similar estimate for other countries. The Belgian, German,
and French treatment of their ‘improvement trade’ add greatly to the
difficulties in those countries. While it is illogical to use the total values
of exports to measure the real progress of production or manufacture for
export before we have an estimate such as described, it is permissible to
use the values of particular commodities for such a purpose, in some
cases where we have sufficient means of allowing for the possible causes
of error. In all cases we are much more likely to come to correct
conclusions when we are making a comparison of rates of change, whether
for two countries or for one country in two periods, than when we are
making comparisons of absolute amount.

G. Relation of the Statistics of Imports and Kxports to the Balance
of Trade.

The Committee do not propose to deal in detail with the causes of the
difference between the total values of imports and exports, as they have
been the subject of so much recent and, in some cases, well-informed
discussion ; but they wish to emphasise the importance of the definitions
of trade and the methods of valuing it discussed in Sections A and B.
The totals to be taken are those of General Trade when it includes the
whole of Classes 1, 2, and 3 with or without 4; Class 4 enters equally
on the two sides of the account, and it is immaterial whether it is
included or not.

The method of valuation is very important. The value may be taken
as any one of those in the following example :—

£

Value of goods manufactured in inland town in country X . p PAWS ey
AY », packed and ready for delivery in country X . ; . 1,005=a,

nf », at exporting agent’s warehouse at portinX . - 1,010=2,

re » on board at port in X » S : : : . . LOIZ=a,

pe » insured for sea transit at port in : ‘ , > LOltSa;

a » on board at port in country Y . fs : . s -. 1,050=2a;
delivered to customer in country Y . : 1,055 =a,

[Assuming that duty, if any, has been subtracted from ‘the last total. ]

Of the sum paid by the customer in Y, 1,012/. will be received by
various persons in X, and 5/. (#,;—a,) is divided among various persons
in Y. As regards the country X, the total services up to 1,012/. at least
must be paid by money or its equivalent from abroad; as regards the
country Y, not more than 1,050/. is to be paid by exporting money or its
equivalent. The intermediate 38/. (~;—x,) may be due to X or Y or
other countries. In most trade accounts the value x, would be taken for
exports and «, for imports. In U.S.A. 2, is taken for imports ; in
Germany x, is taken for imports, but an allowance is made for part of
Ha—2).

There isa risk that part of «;—a, may be included in imports (if
market values are taken), while part of x,;—a, may be omitted ; part of
*4—a, may be omitted from, or part of w,—«, included in, exports if
manufacturers’ invoices are the basis.

314 REPORT—1904.

In balancing imports and exports, every part of x,—a#, must be
accounted for—that is, it must be known how each part is dealt with.
How far the trade accounts of the United Kingdom allow this is dis-
cussed in the next section.

H. The Accuracy of the Figures of the United Kingdom.

Having described the meaning of the statistics published by the
various countries and their relations to two of the problems (sections F
and G) for which they are often used, the next question to be considered
is how far the figures published really represent the facts. We have no
means of knowing the correctness of the figures published by foreign
countries, and will confine ourselves to considering the possible insufficien-
cies or inaccuracies in those published by our Board of Trade.

Quantities and Description.

Imports.—Dutiable goods are weighed and measured with the utmost
exactness. Free goods are in general weighed or measured at the docks,
and the invoice return is generally checked by the customs-house official,
who obtains the exact return from the importing agent after the goods are
examined. Corrected returns of this sort are sent to the Statistical
Department in large numbers.

Exports.—These are not checked except (by way of test) in a percent-
age of cases. There is no doubt great possibility of carelessness on the
part of exporters ; where an invoice is incorrect for any reason, it is not
likely they will go to the trouble of making another and different state-
ment for the sake of statistical accuracy, if they can avoid it. It does
not follow, however, that in general reliance may not be placed upon the
returns where the exporters have no motive to deceive. Stories which
we have no reason to doubt, have reached us as to intentional mis-
statement in regard to particular articles of trade, but we have no means
of verifying them and estimating what weight should be attached to this
source of error.

Description of goods.—The Board of Trade classification allows the
possibility of a great change in quality without any corresponding change
in the category under which goods are described. Thus, cotton cloth
is only registered by length, and a thousand willion yards are given
under one heading ; but cloth is not of uniform width, fineness, weight, or
finish, and, in particular, cloth is often split after manufacture into half-
widths. This process would double the quantitative return without any
appreciable increase in the labour spent on the goods.

In the case of woollen cloth, there is a more complete subdivision
into heavy and light, broad and narrow, but goods may undergo great
improvement in quality, weight, fineness, and finish without crossing the
arbitrary line dividing narrow from broad, &ec., and therefore without
showing any difference in the returns. A careful examination of the
statistics of the woollen exports shows that there has probably been a very
considerable increase in quality without any increase shown in the
returns.! Similar difficulties probably occur in very many other trades.

1 See ‘An Inquiry in the Woollen and Worsted Trades,’ by C. Ogden and
P. T. Macaulay, Bradford (1903).

ON BRITISH AND FORKIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 815

The bills of entry, published daily with accounts of the ships entered
and cleared, and their cargoes, are based on the same information as that
used by the Statistical Department in their published returns ; these
bills are much used and valued by the merchants concerned, who are in a
position to know the facts, and this would not be the case if they were
not found to be substantially accurate. The bills give the values of those
goods only whose quantities or numbers are not returned to the customs ;
they therefore supply no check on prices declared.

Values.

The declared values of imports and exports are constantly tested
at the Statistical Department by market price-lists. It is found that
in general values of particular commodities as declared are confined
within a small range, and agree with the lists. Directly any unusual
price is shown on the declaration, inquiry is' made as to its cause. In
general, then, the goods are entered at their correct value, and changes of
price have instantly their effect on the trade returns. For this reason
our statistics should show greater fluctuations month by month than those
of the continental countries. There are even some cases where two
invoices of exports are made, one pro formd for the foreign customs, and
one of the true value for our own Statistical Department.

While this method tends to give correct returns for the main lines of
important and easily described commodities, it is clear that when goods
are out of the common run, or are not capable of succinct description,
the Department is at the mercy of the declarer. Whether values are
official or declared, uncommon goods are likely to be valued wrongly.

Lxports—In the case of exports, there is a tendency to give a cif.
price instead of f.o.b. It is supposed that the export trade done on ac.if.
basis is increasing in magnitude. Theinland manufacturer makes out his
invoice on this basis. The exporting agent has no other information, and
the f.0.b. price is never known. On the other hand, when goods are sent
on consignment for sale, the price entered, whether by the agent or by the
Statistical Department, is likely to be the market price, and not to
include the price of placing the goods on board. Lastly, the manufacturer
may enter his values at the inland market price, or at the value on the
docks before lading, and this may not be corrected in all cases by the
exporting agent.

Imports.—Goods on consignment for sale, which form a very consider-
able proportion of our imports, are valued in the returns at their market
price. This includes the cost of landing and delivery. All imported
wool is priced in this way, the basis being the prices realised at six weekly
sales, and this price is used for the six weeks after the sale, and so lags
behind its true rate. Again, goods may be invoiced so as to include in
their price delivery at an inland town. Lastly, it is said that the value
of goods sent from a foreign firm to an agent in England in some cases
are artificially increased, so as to show no profit and escape income-tax.

In the case of exports, there being no check except comparison with
price-lists, entries can be filled up with any degree of carelessness so long
as they do not show any abnormal deviation in price. In the case of
imports, miscellaneous goods, or goods imported in small quantities, or
those whose value is uncertain till they are sold, are valued almost by
guess-work,

316 REPORT—1904.

It would appear that the Statistical Department is mainly dependent
on the values stated in manufacturers’ invoices, that in general no second
invoice is made for statistical purposes, and that such a change in custom
as of offering goods to foreign customers on a c.if. instead of f o.b. basis
would increase the apparent value of exports without any real change.

A very large trade in precious stoues, to a great extent transit to
Amsterdam, is said to be carried on, and entered very imperfectly in
imports and exports. The Cape Government state the value of diamonds
exported from them to England, e.g., as 5,380,300/. in 1902. The English
import total only includes 46,841/. in that year. If any substantial quan-
tity of precious stones is, as is supposed, imported into and kept in
England, they are not included in our trade returns, and affect the
balance of trade.

The Committee have not enough evidence to know whether, on the
whole, exports or imports are under-valued or over-valued in relation to
their values as defined by the Board of Trade.

Destination and Origin.

As regards exports, on the form which has to be filled in, the final
destination, or rather the place to which the goods are consigned, has
been asked for many years ; but in Parliamentary Return 131 of 1904 it
is admitted that this space has not always been accurately filled up. An
appeal is made in that paper to chambers of commerce and merchants to
pay more attention to this statement.

It is to be noted that Switzerland and Bolivia, having no seaboard,
have as yet no separate place in our trade returns.

As regards imports there are admittedly very many errors, and it has
been practically impossible hitherto to know the origin of those goods
which come from countries doing a large transit trade. In the current
year 1904, an extra question has been asked on the import form and on
the re-export form, asking for the country whence the goods were con-
signed as distinct from the country from which the goods were shipped
on a through bill. It is intended to publish a supplementary table in the
annual statement of trade, containing any information which this new
heading brings to light, without as yet altering the existing tabulation.

The Committee welcome this as a step in advance.

J. Conclusion and Suggestions.

The Committee are much impressed by the extreme difficulty of hand-
ling statistics of International Trade, even when dealing with the reports
of the United Kingdom whose genesis and meaning are well known to
them. They recommend extreme caution in using any such statistics, for
even when regard is paid to all the definitions, limitations, and sources of
error analysed above, it is not at all easy to know within what limits of
error the statistics may be trusted. Itis possible, however, to discriminate,
and to state that some of the difficulties are comparatively unimportant.
The treatment of improvement trade is a small matter. The differences in
method of estimating values in the United Kingdom, France, Germany,
Russia, and Austria should not have much effect when a period of more
than a year is in question, while the methods of Holland and U.S.A.
make comparison of their statistics with those of other countries very

ON BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 317

difficult, The inaccuracies in price statements in the United Kingdom
are probably of not much importance in the main lines of goods, and the
aggregate value is not much affected. It is probably safe to compare the
records of total imports and total exports in particular countries with
their own previous records, if we pay the necessary attention to the
changes discussed in Section D above. In Germany we cannot go back
beyond 1880. ‘There is a widespread distrust of the trade statistics of
U.S.A. We can compare the rates of increase in one country with those
of another more safely than we can compare the actual amounts in par-
ticular years. On the other hand, we cannot at all easily compare either
the total special or the total general trades of one country with those of
another. We cannot divide a country’s exports into those of home pro-
duce and of foreign produce in any systematic way. We cannot, however
we group countries together or analyse the figures, use the statistics repre-
senting the total trade between two countries or two groups of countries,
except in the roughest way, for purposes which would not be affected by
a great percentage error.

The Committee make the following suggestions, which should rather
be regarded as statements of the kind of information they have specially
felt the want of, and which does not seem impossible to obtain, than as
final expressions of opinion as to the best way of remedying the defects
in our knowledge. They, however, attach considerable importance to

No. 6.

1. That the Board of Trade should make an inquiry, to whatever extent
and in whatever way proves practicable, as to the prevalence of erroneous
statements, especially of value of exports.

2. That the Board of Trade should make an estimate of the extent to
which export trade is done on a c.if. basis, and as to whether any
source of error is introduced in the published values by this development.

3. That in the same way an estimate should be made as to the over-
valuation of imports when they are valued at market prices.

4, That the classification of goods by quantity and quality at present
in use is not perfect, and that the Board of Trade should consult the
chambers of commerce and others as to the methods of improving it.

5, That it should be considered whether exports of textile goods
cannot be entered in some way which will give more detailed information,
and make the returns more easily comparable with those of foreign
countries.

6. It is very advisable for the sake of the public who use the official
publications that a reasoned statement relating to the accuracy and exact
meaning of the returns should be inserted in every Annual Statement of
Trade, and in a more contracted form in the Statistical Abstract for the
United Kingdom and in the Monthly Returns. In the same way a careful
and brief criticism of the meaning and accuracy of the statistics of trade
of foreign countries should be inserted in the Statistical Abstract for the
Principal and other Foreign Countries. As it is, it is a matter of the
very greatest difficulty for even the educated public to attach the right
meaning to the official returns.

The Committee regard with satisfaction the steps the Board of Trade
have taken in Cd. 1761 and No. 131 of 1904 to inform the public on these
matters, and trust that publications of this nature will continue to be
issued,

318 REPORT—1904.

If the Committee are reappointed they will be able to develop and
extend the analysis they have already made, but they wish to represent
that the inquiry is far too involved and difficult for them to carry to
a complete issue, and that it should properly be taken up by the Govern-
ment department concerned.

K. Bibliography.

The Committee append a list of the papers consulted in their investi-
gations. They have found their labours considerably lightened by the
reports drawn up by Sir Alfred Bateman for the International Institute
of Statistics, in the volumes named below.

‘The Official Trade and Navigation Statistics,’ Bourne, ‘ Stat. Soc. Journ.’ 1872.

Bulletin de l'Institut International de Statistique, vol. ii. p. 294; vol. xi. pp. 138
and 59; vol. xii. pp. 121 and 71.

‘The Use of Import and Export Statistics,’ Giffen, ‘Stat. Soc. Journ.’ 1882, and
Essays in Finance (2nd series).

‘Thirty Years’ Export Trade, B. Ellinger,’ ‘ Econ. Review,’ 1902.

‘Value and Comparability of English and German Foreign Trade Statistics,’
B. Ellinger, Manchester Stat. Soc. (Read March 1904.)

Statistical Abstracts for the United Kingdom. (Annual.)

Statistical Abstracts for Foreign Countries. (Annual.)

Trade and Navigation Returns of the United Kingdom. (Monthly and Annual.)

’ Waarenverkehr des Deutschen Zollgebiets mit dem Auslande. (Annual.)

Tableau général du Commerce et de la Navigation de la France. (Annual.)

Tableau Décennal du Commerce de la France, 1887-1896.

Tableau général du Commerce de la Belgique avec les Pays étrangers. (Annual.)

Holland—Statistiek van den In-, Uit-, en Doorvoer over het Jaar 1902 (and simi-
larly for previous years).

The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of U.S. a (Annual. )

The Statesman’s Year-book.

Purliamentary Papers, §c.

Trade between the United Kingdom and France: No. 405 of 1881.

Statistics of the Foreign Trade of Germany: C. 5597 of 1888.

British Trade and Production 1854-1895: C. 8211 of 1896 (p. 70).

Comparative Statistics of Population ... in the United Kingdom and some
leading Foreign Countries: C. 8322 of 1897, and Cd. 1199 of 1902.

British and Foreign Trade and Industry : Cd. 1761 of 1903.

Tariff Wars between certain European States: Cd. 1938 of 1904.

Trade of the United Kingdom with Germany: No. 131 of 1904.

The Tidal Régime of the Mersey.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Lord Kenvin (Chairman), Mr. J. N. SHOOLBRED (Secretary),
and Professors GEORGE H. Darwin, OsBoRNE REYNOLDS, HELE-
Suaw, and W. C. Unwin, appointed to obtain information respect-
ing the Tidal Régime of the River Mersey, with the object of sub-
matting the data so obtained to Harmonic Analysis.

Since the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board have for the last sixty years
been entrusted by Parliament with the charting, lighting, and buoying
of the River Mersey, and have also under their charge the various gauges

THE TIDAL REGIME OF THE MERSEY. 319

along the tidal portion of that river, the Committee considered that
they would be in possession of the most accurate and authentic records
respecting the tidal action which has been, and is at present, taking
place in the Mersey. The Committee therefore instructed the Secre-
tary to communicate with the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board to
ascertain what information they would be prepared to afford to the
Committee.

It may not be out of place here to refer to the causes which have
led to the appointment of this Committee. During the past thirty
years several communications, and reports of Committees, connected
with tides in the River Mersey have been presented to the Associa-
tion. In 1885 Professor George Darwin communicated to the Royal
Society a paper, summarising the results of the Harmonic Analysis of
the Tides at various points—amongst others Liverpool—between 1857
and 1870.

It is well known that of recent years, commencing in 1890, great
improvements, by dredging, have been gradually carried out in the entrance
to the Mersey and in the approach-channels to Liverpool. In this way
about eighty million tons of sand have been removed, and about 16 feet
of additional depth over the bar, at the seaward entrance, have been
secured for the navigation. The gradual extension of the dock and other
river walls of late years have also provided for the tidal flow, a smoother
and more regular channel in the Mersey.

It was therefore thought possible that the form of the tidal wave might
have been somewhat affected by these causes, and that it might be ad-
visable, in the interests of science, to verify again by means of the most
recent tidal records the results previously arrived at, by the Harmonic
Analysis of the Liverpool tides of some forty years ago. Hence the
appointment of the present Committee.

The Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, when approached by the
Secretary of this Committee, intimated through their General Manager,
Mr. Miles K. Burton, that it would afford them much pleasure to assist
the Committee in any way they could ; and they directed their Marine
Surveyor, Commander Henry Belam, R.N., to afford the Committee access
to any documents which might be deemed desirable, in order to further
the objects of the Committee.

After some further correspondence it was decided that ‘The Register
of Tides at the George’s Pier, Liverpool, for the year 1902’ would
be best suited for Harmonic Analysis; and these records were ac-
cordingly handed by the Marine Surveyor to the Secretary for that
purpose.

Mr. Edward Roberts, of the ‘ Nautical Almanac’ Office, well known
in connection with Tidal Harmonic Analysis, who had carried out the
calculations of the previous investigations into the Liverpool tides of
1857 to 1860 and 1866 to 1870, was good enough to offer the Committee
to investigate the tidal registers of 1902, free of expense to them, so far
as was necessary to ascertain whether there was any material difference
between the results for the later period, and those of the two earlier
ones.

This offer of Mr. Edward Roberts having been accepted by the Com-
mittee, with thanks, the ‘Register of Tides at the George’s Pier,
Liverpool, for 1902,’ above referred to, was handed to him. Although it
was only towards the end of May that it was found possible to do so, yet

320 REPORT—1904,
Mr. Roberts has been good enough to send to the Committee, for the pur-
pose of their present report, the following communication :—
The Harmonic Analysis of the Tides at George’s Pier, Liverpool, for 1902.
The following is the Analysis of 8, and M. Series of Liverpool, 1902 :—

A (Mean Tidal Range) = 4-952 feet above O.D.S.
a f H—3:188 feet M pre feet

“2 « —11° 32’ “2 | « —326° 45’

S H—0:043 feet M H—0'111 feet
4 { Kk —307° 4’ 3 | « —319° 0’

M { H—0'657 feet
4 |on —244° 2!

N.B.—The ‘ «’s are referred to Green- M { H—0'180 feet
wich Meridian, as before. 6 | « —353° 6’
8 | « —248° 6!

These figures are subject to revision, but can be taken correct for present com-
parison. I have found a few misreadings of the Tide Gauge Diagrams; it is possible
that there may be a few more, but I have not time now to go thoroughly again
through all the figures.

It will be seen that the above are almost the exact means of the previous two sets
of three and four years, previously analysed; so that it may be assumed that the
tides at George’s Pier have undergone scarcely any change during the last forty years.

Eltham, August 4, 1904.

Comparison of Tidal Diagrams of Different Periods.

The Marine Surveyor, in addition to the Register of the Liverpool
Tides for 1902 dealt with by Harmonic Analysis by Mr. Edward
Roberts, was good enough to place at the disposal of the Committee a
number of tidal curves, taken by the various self-registering gauges
established by the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, at different points
throughout the tidal portion of the river, from the Bar to Warrington.
A part of these tidal curves, limited in number, owing to shortness of
time, were selected by the Secretary for comparison.

The several periods for comparison being 1903 as representing the
present dredged state of the Bar, and the improved conditions of the tidal
flow in the river ; 1893 as presenting the conditions immediately before
those improvements were commenced ; and 1874 as representing a still
earlier period. When, as it happened, tidal observations had been carried
out under the persona] superintendence of the Secretary on certain tides,
at points in the higher reaches of the river where self-registering gauges
have since been established. These results, together with the records of
the two then existing Mersey Docks and Harbour Board gauges, at
Hilbre Island, and at George’s Pier, afforded a complete series of points
identical with those of the later dates of 1893 and of 1903.

The tides selected for comparison were the equinoctial springs and
neaps, of the vernal equinox, in the years just indicated, and the records
were those of the gauges at Hilbre (the Bar), George’s Pier, Eastham
(Manchester Ship Canal entrance), Garston, Stanlaw Point, Widnes,
Fidlers Ferry, and Warrington. These gauges embrace the entire tidal
establishment of the River Mersey.

The tidal curves, at each particular gauge, showed that no material
change had occurred, during the thirty years so compared, either in the
range of the tide or in the form of the curve. However, in the extreme
upper reaches of the narrow fluvial portion, the tidal stream set in earlier

THE TIDAL REGIME OF THE MERSEY. 321

in the flow, and remained somewhat later during the ebb, in 1903 than in
1893 and 1894. This is probably due to the increased facility afforded
for the ingress of the flood tide by the deepening of the bar.

That this advance in the time of ingress of the current did not show
itself in the lower and deeper reaches of the river might be explained by
the fact, that the quantity of water entering is small compared with the
much larger quantity already there. But in the fluvial portions of the
river, above referred to, the amount of water brought by the tidal current
must be considerable, compared with the land water in those parts of the
river.

In any case the result of this comparison of tidal curves representing
an interval of thirty years, and extending over the whole tidal portion of
the Mersey, confirms what the Harmonic Analysis indicates for the tides
of Liverpool itself.

The Committee desire to be allowed to present the thanks of the
Association to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, and to their
officials the General Manager and the Marine Surveyor, for their
courtesy in having placed so much information at the disposal of the
Committee in order to assist them in carrying out the objects for which
they were appointed. Likewise the Committee wish to record their
best thanks to Mr. Edward Roberts for having, at considerable incon-
venience to himself, afforded them the information above referred to as
to the Harmonic Analysis of the Liverpool tides of 1902.

In conclusion, the Committee desire to put on record its gratitude to
Mr. Shoolbred for his care in preparing the preceding Report ; and,
generally, for all the time and thought which he has devoted to the inves-
tigation of the subject submitted to it by the British Association.

Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir JoHn Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L.
Myres (Secretary), Mr. R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. A. J. Evans,
Mr. D. G. Hoaarrn, Professor A. MAcALisTER, and Professor
W. Ripceway.

PAGE
APPENDIX: Excavations at Knossos, Crete, 1904. By Dr. ARTHUR J EVANS. 322

Tur Committee report that of the grant assigned to them at the South-
port meeting of the Association the sum allocated to archeological research
at Knossos has been paid over, as usual, to the Cretan Exploration Fund,
and expended in furthering the exvavations of Dr. Arthur J. Evans,
whose report on the season of 1904 is appended.

The sum, which was allocated to ethnological research, was put at the
disposal of Mr. W. L. H. Duckworth for the investigation of the physical
characters of the ancient and modern population of Crete on the same
conditions as last year. Mr. Duckworth, however, was not able to arrange
to revisit Crete, as he had proposed, in the season of 1904, but the Com-
mittee have every hope that he may be able to resume his observations
there at an early date. A further grant is asked in aid of this branch of
the Committee’s work.

The work at Knossos also continues to promise results of the highest
scientific importance, and the Committee therefore ask to be reappointed,
with a further grant.

1904, Y

322 REPORT—1904.

APPENDIX.
Excavations at Knossos, Crete, 1904. By Dr. ArrHur J. Evans.

The campaign of 1904 at Knossos had a threefold objective :—(1) the
continued exploration of the lower strata of the palace itself; (2) the
further investigation of dependencies lying beyond what may be called
the inner enceinte ; and (3) the search for the tombs.

(1) The researches within the palace area have been very extensive.
Methodical explorations of the strata below the later floor levels have
thrown much light on the earlier history of the site. A variety of new
data have been acquired for distinguishing the first and second periods
of the later palace, and fresh light has been thrown on constructions
belonging to an earlier palace. The evidence of an earlier front to the
west of the Central Court has become clear. New stone repositories have
come to light and the original doorways of the West Magazines. In the
north-west quarter further deep-walled pits have been opened out. A
very important section has been cut below the pavement of the West
Court revealing a succession of Middle or Early Mindan floor-levels,
together with their characteristic ceramic relics. Below this, again, some
seven metres of Neolithic layers were explored.

In some cists of the West Magazine were found fragments of wall
paintings that had adorned an upper hall on this side. Portions of a
pillar shrine were represented on these, showing fetish double axes stuck
into the columns. Other fragments referred to scenes of the bull-ring
and crowds of spectators. A great analogy is thus presented to the
‘miniature’ frescoes found in 1900.

In the north-east part of the site some of the great pithoi belonging
to a magazine of the earlier palace have been built up. These are larger
than any vessels of the kind yet discovered, attaining a height of over
two metres. The magazines have been roofed over for their preservation.

(2) A Minéan roadway paved with fine slabs has been traced running
westwards from the Theatral Area for a distance of over 200 metres. The
work here has been very severe, as the pavement lay at a depth of nearly
twenty feet below the surface, and involved the clearing away of a mass
of later structures of no account. Pits sunk to the north of this line,
moreover, revealed the existence of important Minéan buildings, and in
order to make a preliminary exploration of these a wide cutting had to be
carried out in this direction. The traces of important structures have
been thus brought to light, which derive extraordinary interest from their
associations. A rich deposit of inscribed clay tablets was here found
referring to the royal chariots and weapons. Near one of these, mention-
ing a store of 8,640 arrows, were found the remains of two officially
sealed chests containing a large number of carbonised arrows with small
bronze heads. It is possible, therefore, that the structures form part of
the royal arsenal. At this point, owing to the difficulty and expense of
the work, and the advance of the season, the excavation had to be broken
up. It is most necessary, however, that this promising area, extending
along the newly discovered roadway, should be fully explored. Owing to
the vast mass of earth to be removed a Décauville railway will be
probably necessary.

(3) On a hill about a mile north of the palace a considerable cemetery

ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 323

was discovered. One hundred tombs were here opened, the contents of
which showed that the bulk of them belonged to the period immediately
succeeding the fall of the palace. The civilisation was, however, still
high, and the character of the art displayed by the relics found showed
the unbroken tradition of the Later Palace Style. Among the objects
brought to light were a number of bronze vessels, implements, and arms,
including swords, some of them nearly a metre in length. One of the
shorter swords has a gold-plated handle engraved with a masterly design
of lions hunting wild goats. The jewellery and gems discovered were of
the typical ‘mature Mycenzean’ class, and a scarab found in one of the
graves is of a Late Eighteenth Dynasty type. Among the painted ware
‘stirrup vases’ were specially abundant, some with magnificent decorative
designs. The tombs were of three main classes: (a) Chamber tombs cut
in the soft rock and approached in each case by a dromos ; in many cases
these contained clay coffins, in which the dead had been deposited in cists,
their knees drawn towards the chin. (6) Shaft graves, each with a lesser
cavity below, containing the extended skeleton, and with a roofing of
stone slabs. (c) Pits giving access to a walled cavity in the side below ;
these also contained extended skeletons. Unfortunately, owing to the
character of the soil, the bones were much decayed, and only in a few
cases has it been possible to secure specimens for examination. <A certain
number of skulls are to be sent to England.

On a high level called Sopata, about two miles north again of this
cemetery and forming a continuation of the same range, a still more
important sepulchral monument was discovered. This consisted of a
square chamber, about 8 by 6 metres in dimensions, constructed of lime-
stone blocks, and with the side walls arching in ‘Cyclopean’ fashion
towards a high gable, though unfortunately the upper part had been
quarried away. The back wall was provided with a central cell opposite
the blocked entrance. ‘This entrance, arched on the same horizontal
principle, communicated with a lofty entrance hall of similar construction,
in the side walls of which, facing each other, were two cells that had
been used for sepulchral purposes. A second blocked archway led from
this hall to the imposing rock-cut dromos. In the floor of the main
chamber was a pit grave covered with slabs. Its contents had been rifled
for metal objects in antiquity, but a gold hairpin, parts of two silver
vases, and a large bronze mirror remained to attest the former wealth of
such. A large number of other relics were found scattered about,
including repeated clay impressions of what may have been a royal seal.
Specially remarkable among the stone vessels is a porphyry bowl of
Minéan workmanship but recalling in material and execution that of
the Early Egyptian dynasties. Many imported Egyptian alabastra were
alse found, showing the survival of Middle Empire forms beside others
of Early Eighteenth Dynasty type. Beads of lapis lazuli were also found,
and pendants of the same material, showing a close imitation of Egyptian
models. Four large painted ‘amphoras’ illustrate the fine ‘ architectonic’
style of the later Palace of Knossos, in connection with which the
great sepulchral monument must itself be brought. The form of this
mausoleum, with its square chamber, is unique, and contrasts with that
of the tholos tombs of mainland Greece. The position in which it lies
commands the whole South Aigean to Melos and Santorin, and Central
Crete from Dicta to Ida. It was tempting to recognise in it the traditional
tomb of Idomeneus ; but though further researches in its immediate

Y¥2

324: REPORT—1904.

vicinity led to the discovery of a rock-cut chamber-tomb containing con-
temporary relics, it was hardly considerable enough to be taken for that
of Merionés, which tradition placed beside the other.

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Siath Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins (Secretary), Sir Joun Evans, Dr. Arntaur J. Evans,
Mr. Henry Batrour, Mr. C. H. Reap, and Mr. A. Bute.
(Drawn up by Mr. ArtHuR BuLuLErD and Mr. H. Sr. Georce
GRAY.)

AFTER an interval of five years the excavations at the Lake Village, near

Glastonbury, were reopened in the spring of this year. Digging began

on May 17 and was continued until June 10, under the joint super-

intendence of Mr. Arthur Bulleid and Mr. H.St. George Gray. The site,
discovered in March 1892, was systematically explored annually for
seven years, when more than one quarter remained unexamined. With

the exception of the partial excavation of two dwelling-mounds (Nos. 55

and 74), undertaken by Mr. Gray during the meeting of the Somerset-

shire Archeological Society at Glastonbury in 1902,’ no digging has
been done.

It has recently been decided by the Local Committee at Glastonbury
to excavate the remaining part of the village, and it is intended to con-
tinue the exploration for one month in each year until the work is finished.
Although the number of dwelling-mounds left for future examination is
comparatively small,” it will be seen from the accompanying plan of the
village that the area of ground to be dug is large, and under favourable
circumstances will take at least two seasons more to excavate.

It is proposed to publish an illustrated paper on this and every subse-
quent year’s work in the ‘Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archological
Society.’ As soon as the examination of the site is complete, arrange-
ments will be made to publish, as speedily as possible, a full and detailed
account of the whole excavations, and a ‘ Publication Committee’ of the
Glastonbury Antiquarian Society has been formed to consider the most
suitable way of carrying this out. The account to be published will pro-
bably take the form of a quarto volume, fully illustrated with plans and
sections, and with drawings and photographs of the objects discovered.
Although the greater part of the work will be dealt with by the explorers,
it is proposed to invite specialists to write chapters on sections relating to
subjects in which they are eminent.

The ground excavated this year is situated at the north-east part of
the village. Work began with the examination of Mounds 57 and 58,
partially explored in 1896. Digging was afterwards continued south-
wards and included the examination of Mounds 54, 55, 78, and portions
of 64 and 79, left from a previous year. The area of ground between these
mounds was also carefully excavated, and the remaining piece of the
palisading discovered to the east of Mound 54 completes the uncovering of

the boundary of the village.
Rain prevented work during two whole days ; consequently, the area

1 Described and figured by Mr. Gray in the Proc. Som, Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc

vol. xlviii, pt. 2. :
2 Twelve complete, and portions of several other, dwelling-mounds.

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. oa)

of ground dug was not quite so large as was anticipated. It having been
ascertained that the magnetic deviation for Glastonbury on January 1, 1904,
was 17° 1’ west of true north, a north point was drawn on the large plan
bearing the date 1904. Levels were taken in various parts of the field
this year, by means of which it was ascertained that the eastern side of
the village is 16 inches higher than the western side.

Sectional plans were made of the more important dwellings by Mr.
Bulleid, and some excellent photographs were taken of the hearths and
other interesting portions of the excavations by Mr. Gray.

Mound 57.—This mound, situated near the north-east margin of the

LAKE VILLAGE
NEAR GLASTONBURY.

ome PALISADING,
@ DWELLING MOUNDS.
A EXCAVATED 1904.
B uNEXPLORED GROUND,

0 8 16232 48 EF 60 C EXCAVATED 1392 To 1599.

SCALE iM FLET

AB90%,

village, was 28 feet in diameter, with an elevation of 16 inches at the
centre above the surrounding level ground. It was composed of four
floors, the total thickness of the clay being 3 feet 74 inches. The sub-
structure supporting the floors consisted of layers of clay and brushwood
and a heterogeneous mass of timber, stones, peat, and lumps of blue clay,
together measuring from 3 feet to 4 feet deep. Hearths were found
on the third and fourth floors during the season of 1896. There were
signs of fire and charcoal on the two upper floors, but no distinct hearth
could be discovered.

326 REPORT—1904.

Among the chief objects found in this dwelling were F 364, H 284.

Mound 58.—Situated close to the N.N.E. border of the village, and
to the west of Mound 57. This dwelling-mound, 27 feet across from east
to west, was composed of two floors, the total thickness of the clay being
15 inches. Well-preserved hearths were found on both floors, the upper
made of clay, the lower of gravel. The latter was photographed from the
N.E. and from the8.8.W. The substructure was not well arranged, except
under the east side of the mound, where the pieces of timber were
placed parallel, in a north and south direction.

The most important objects were B 374, E 191, F 362, F 363,
H 285, K 27, P 163, S 31, 8 32, 8 33.

Mound 79.—This mound was composed of three floors, the total
thickness of the clay being 21 inches. The surface of the lower floor was
partially covered by small water-worn stones. No distinct hearth was
noticed on either floor, although each layer bore evidence of fire. The sub-
structure consisted of a layer of brushwood, kept in place by numerous small
piles and some larger pieces of timber placed side by side east and west.

The only finds of importance were H 288, I 88.

Mound 78.—This mound was 24 feet across east and west, and
composed of three floors of clay, not easily distinguishable. The
total thickness of clay near the centre was 2 feet. Pieces of flooring-
boards were noticed on the surface of the second floor ; these were lying
lengthways in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction. The
hearth, photographed from the south, belonging to the upper floor was a
circular platform of clay 4 feet in diameter, in a good state of preserva-
tion. At an average distance of 18 inches from the south-west, south-
east, and north-east points of the margin of the hearth there were three
slabs of lias resting on the surface of the clay floor, placed at right
angles and equidistant, so as to form two sides of a square. If a fourth
slab ever existed at the north-west angle it was not discovered. Nothing
particularly noteworthy was noticed in the substructure.

The chief finds from Mound 78 were B 375, D 71, E 192, E 193,
E 196, F 365, F 366, F 367, H 287, H 290, H 291, H 293, S 34, 8 35,
8 36, 8 37.

Mound 55.—This mound, with a diameter 36 feet east and west,
was composed of two floors, the area of the upper being considerably
the greater. The hearth belonging to the upper floor was of baked
clay, not well defined. Placed at varying distances from it were seven
large blocks of water-worn sandstone, arranged roughly in a semicircle.
The eastern margin of the same floor was covered with small rubble
stone and overlapped by the clay floors of Mound 56. The second
floor was of small extent, but noteworthy for the hearth, photographed
from the east and from the north-east, which was quite complete and in an
excellent state of preservation. It had previously been uncovered in
1902. The hearth was made of baked clay, covered with a layer of mortar-
like substance. It was of circular outline with bevelled sides, average
diameter at base 5 feet, at top 33 feet, height about 9 inches. A plan
and section of this hearth is givenin Plate I. accompanying Mr. H. St. G.
Gray’s paper, ‘Proc. Som. Arch. Soc.,’ vol. xlviii. pt. 2. The substructure
supporting the clay was well marked at the north and north-east edges of
the mound. Several incomplete lines of wattle-work were uncovered among
the brushwood underlying the east and south-east sides of the dwelling.

The most interesting finds were B 372 (1902), B 373 (1902), D 70

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 327

(1902), E 190 (1902), E194, E 195, F 361 (1902), F 368, G 22, H 286,
H 289, K 28, L 36 (1902), M 35, P 162 (1902), P 164, P 165, Q 39, T 11.

Mound 54.—A small mound, composed of two floors having a diameter
(east and west) of 16 feet. The hearths were of baked clay, but of no
particular interest. The area of flat ground surrounding the dwelling-
mound was unusually large and partially occupied by patches of rubble-
stone ; these were chiefly situated near the south, south-east, and north-
west sides of the mound. The ground to the north of the mound was
firm, and few piles were met with during the examination of the peat. A
number of tree stumps placed horizontally were found embedded in the
superficial layers of peat and black earth, some of the logs distinctly show-
ing the cut of an adze. The ground south of the mound was much softer,
and an average number of piles was observed. The palisading lying to
the east of Mound 54 chiefly consisted of a single line of posts.

The numbered objects found on or near Mound 54 were A 4, B 377,
B 378, E 197, Q 40, 8 38, 8 39.

Mounds 51 and 53.—The northern margins of these mounds were cut
into, and the remaining portions await completion next season.

The objects found near these mounds were B 379, F 369, F 370,
H 294, H 295, Q 41, W 166, W 167.

Mound 64.—A small portion of the eastern margin of this mound was
exainined and completed ; it yielded little of interest beyond the following
objects, B 376, H 292, N 7.

List oF Ossects Founp.

Amber. (A.)

4.1 Small bead, max. ext. diam. 7°5 mm., length 4°3 mm.; with flattened ends and
bevelled edges. Mound 54,1904. Previously an amber bead was found in 1892, and
another and fragment of a third in 1893.

Glass. (G.)

22. Bead of white glass, with sinuous grooves running round the sides, the
grooves being filled up with light-yellow fused glass; ext. diam. 11:2 mm., length
10 mm. Mound 55, 1904. This is the first piece of yellow glass found in the
village.

Tin. (L.)
36. Lump of tin, weight 14 oz. avoirdupois. Mound 55, 1902.

Bronze. (E).

190. Object which may have served the purpose of a buckle, as it certainly
suggests a junction between strap-ends. Mound 55, 1902. (Figured in ‘ Proc. Som.
Arch. Soc.,’ vol. xlviii, pt. 2, pl. iii. fig. 3.)

191. Spiral finger-ring, composed of flat wire 2°3 mm. in width. Several similar
ones have been found in the village. Mound 58, 1904.

192. Massive buckle, or ornament for strap-end, of D-shaped design, probably
connected with horse-harness. The lobe-shaped knobs are typical of the Late Celtic
period. It weighs 1 oz. avoirdupois. Mound 78, 1904. There is a similar buckle,
but larger, from Knowle Hill, Bawdrip, Somerset, in Taunton Castle Museum.

193. Small ring with overlapping ends, possibly a link of a chain; ext. measure-
ment, 10 by 11°55 mm. Mound 78, 1904.

194. Tubular piece of bronze in four fragments, taking the form of a curve (about
one-third of a complete circle). Made from rolled sheet-bronze. Mound 55, 1904.

1 These figures represent the numbers of the ‘ finds,’ from the commencement of
the excavations, under the various headings.

328 REPORT—1904.

195. Small ring, ext. diam. 15-5 mm.—too small for a finger-ring. Mound 55,
1904.

196. Small nail, length 12°6 mm., with flat circular head. Mound 78, 1904.

197. Rivet, diam. 10 mm., height 6°5 mm. ; of a common type at the village, and
of the character of those with which the bronze bowl is studded. Mound 54, 1904.

Iron. (J.)

88. Adze, in two pieces; with socket still filled by the end of the wooden shafts
much corroded. Mound 78, 1904. Two or three similar implements have previously
been found in the village.

Kimmeridge Shale. (K.)

27. Portion of the rim of a turned vase or bowl, which was 9} in. in diameter at
the mouth. The vessel had a beaded lip externally, the lip being bevelled off
inwards and ornamented on the top by two parallel grooves. The parallel striations
caused by the lathe are well seen. Mound 58, 1904.

28. Fragment of a large ring or armlet. Mound 55, 1904.

Human Bone. (M.)
35, Fragment of parietal bone, found in Mound 55, 1904.

Animal Bone.’ (N.)
7. Several beaver teeth. Mound 64, 1904.

Tusk. (T.)

11. Boar’s tusk, with perforation at the root end for suspension. Mound 55,
1904.

Baked Clay. (D.)

70. Ball of light reddish-brown clay, almost circular, with indentations which
appear to have been caused by the impress of the thumb and fingers. Mound 55,
1902. (Figured in ‘ Proc. Som. Arch. Soc.,’ vol. xlviii. pt. 2, pl. iii. fig. 9.) A some-
what similar but flatter piece of clay was found this year.

71. Ball of clay, similar to a spindle-whorl, except that the hole only extends
partly through the object. Mound 78,1904. Another found at the same place is
included under the heading of ‘ Spindle-whorls.’ Portion of another was found this
year.

Three small balls and fragments of clay, two having cylindrical holes extending
partly through the objects. 1904.

Only sixteen sling-bullets were found this year, and one in 1902; they were
» mostly of fusiform shape.

Flint. (F.)

361. Small nodule of flint with natural perforation. Mound 55, 1902.

362. Small, roughly chipped implement. Mound 58, 1904.

363. Flake. Mound 58, 1904.

365. Duckbill-shaped scraper. Mound 78, 1904.

366. Small worked scraper. Mound 78, 1904.

367. Pointed flint, with secondary chipping, exhibiting signs of prolonged use.
Mound 78, 1904.

368. Worked knife, with dorsal ridge and of triangular section. Mound 55,1904.

370. Long flake with two worked saw-like edges. Mound 51, 1904.

In addition to the above, thirty fragments of flint and worked flakes were found,
including a core in Mound 55.

* Several wheelbarrows-full of fragmentary animal remains were collected from
the excavations this year.

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 329

Antler. (H.)

284. Cheek-piece of horse’s bit, with two cylindrical perforations; similar to
several others found previously in the village. Mound 57, 1904.

285. Another smaller piece, similar to 292 as regards both ends. Mound 58, 1904.

286. Roe-deer antler finely worked to a smooth point, and probably used as a
modelling-tool in decorating pottery. Mound 55, 1904.

287. End of deer’s tine, with one large transverse cylindrical hole; perhaps a
cheek-piece of horse’s bit. Mound 79, 1904.

288. Small fragment of worked antler, of circular plan and 15°5 mm. long; of
unknown use. Mound 78, 1904.

289. Implement of unknown use—a roughly made peg with a large head, consist-
ing of the complete section of the antler. Mound 55, 1904.

290. Piece of antler with squared ends and of oval cross-section; probably the
handle of a heavy iron knife. Mound 78, 1904.

291. Weaving-comb, which originally had nine teeth, the two outer ones being now
deficient. At the other end it has a circular perforation for suspension. The comb
is decorated with incised dot-and-circle ornaments in thirty-five places, without any
systematic arrangement. Mound 78, 1904.

292. Large piece of antler about 9 in. long; very smooth from prolonged use at
and near the point ; the broad end shows the marks of the saw. Mound 64, 1904.

293. Small fragment of roe-deer antler. Mound 78, 1904.

294. Plain weaving-comb, having ten small teeth, all more or less broken.
Mound 51, 1904.

295. A slender tine of deer showing little signs of having been worked.
Mound 51, 1904.

Bone Objects. (B.)

372. Dentated end of a long-handled weaving-comb, which had twelve teeth in
its complete state. It is a very wide example (49 mm.). Ornamented with crossed
lines and circle-and-dot pattern. Mound 55,1902. (Figured in ‘ Proc. Som. Arch.
Soc.,’ vol. xlviii. pt. 2, pl. iii. fig. 7.) .-

373. Metatarsus of sheep or goat, with condyles cut off at one end; at the
articular end, an oval hole at top and another on side close to end. It could have
been used as a kind of shuttle-spool in weaving—the thread being drawn off the
bone as required for the weft and passing through the hole to prevent the unravel-
ling of the wound-on thread. Mound 55,1902. (Figured in ‘ Proc. Som. Arch. Soc.,’
vol. xlviii. pt. 2, pl. iii. fig. 8.)

374. Fragment of bone, showing part of a rough perforation. Mound 58, 1904,

375. Two, similar to No. 373. Mound 78, 1904. A dozen or two of these objects
have been found in the village.

376. Complete needle, more or less pointed at both ends; very much polished
from continual use ; length, 62 mm. The width of the needle increases from both
ends towards the eye, which is circular (3 mm. in diam.). Mound 64, 1904.

377 and 378. Two pieces of metacarpal or metatarsal bones of sheep or goat,
each about 1 inches long and each having three transverse circular holes through the
bone on the flat sides. Probably used in weaving ; a lady who has seen them states
that she has observed similar objects of bone used by weavers in the North of
England, but she could not explain their precise purpose. Mound 54, 1904.

379. Perforated head of femur (? human) ; perhaps a spindle-whorl. Mound 33,
1904.

Stone Objects. (8.)
(Other than complete Spindle-whorls and Querns).

31, 32, 33. Small, flat, circular, polished pebbles, generally supposed to have
been used in games. Mound 58, 1904.

34 and 35. Two flat, almost circular, discs of sandstone ; probably spindle-whorls
in process of formation. Mound 78, 1904.

36. Thin, flat, smooth piece of sandstone, with incipient hole ; perhaps a spindle-
whorl in process of manufacture, although the object—in its present state—is, in
plan, an irregular oval. Mound 78, 1904.

37. Large and fairly thick sandstone disc, with incipient hole in centre of one
face ; probably intended for a spindle-whorl. Mound 78, 1904.

330 REPORT—1904.,

38 and 39. Two round discs of sandstone, both having incipient central holes, as if
ultimately intended for spindle-whorls. Mound 54, 1904.

Two burnishers were also found this year, a whetstone in Mound 54, and two
smooth pebbles of oval form in Mound 55.

Spindle-whorls. (W.)

165. Ball of baked clay with hole extending partly through the object.
Mound 78, 1904. (See No. 71, under ‘ Baked Clay.’)

166. Sandstone spindle-whorl. Mound 53, 1904.

167. Flat sandstone spindle-whorl. Mound 53, 1904.

A small complete clay whorl was also found this year, and half of a baked clay
spindle- whorl.

Querns. (Q.)

39. Lower stone of a nearly circular quern, averaging 12} inches in diam. at
top. Mound 55, 1904.

40. Upper stone of saddle-shaped quern, length 11Zinches. Mound 54, 1904.

41. Fragment of upper circular quern. Mound 53, 1904.

Pottery. (P.)
163. Ornamental pot or bowl, found in about forty pieces, but now completely
restored ; height 43 inches; max. diam. 7}inches; diam. at lip 6 inches. The decoration

consists of a horizontal band of cross-hatching about 1 inch below the lip. Mound 58,
1904.

164. Small shallow earthenware pot, height 1 inch, ex. diam. at lip 24 inches.
Probably used for mixing colouring matter. Mound 55, 1904.

165. About one-half of a highly ornamented black pottery vessel or bowl, height
42 inches. Ornamented over the greater part of the surface with chevrons and bands of
cross-hatching ; there are no curvilinear lines in the decoration. The pottery averages
7 mm. in thickness, and the pot is similar in form to No. 163. Mound 55, 1904.

Several hundreds of fragments of pottery were found this year, as in
previous years, but the proportional number of decorated fragments to
those with no ornamentation was below the average this year. Nearly
all the pottery was lathe-turned, but half a blackish-brown pot, found near
Mound 55 (height 3 inches), was hand-made, and of such a rude character
that if it had been found with relics of the Bronze Age we should pro-
bably have had no hesitation in assigning it to that period. Chevrons
and zigzag patterns predominated this year, and there was a paucity of
curvilinear designs. It is hoped that the pottery designs of 1904 will be
figured in the ‘ Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archeological Society’
later on. (Vol. 50.)

Peas were found in some quantities in Mound 58, red colouring matter
in Mounds 54 and 58, and vivianite at the bottom of Mound 57.

Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland.— Report
of a Committee consisting of Professor D. J. CunNINGHAM (Chair-
man), Mr. J. Gray (Secretary), Mr. N. ANNANDALE, Dr. A. C.
Happon, Dr. C. 8S. Myers, Mr. J. L. Myres, Professor A. F.
Dixon, Mr. E. N. Fauuaize, Mr. RanpaLtt Maclver, Professor
J. Symineton, and Dr. WaTERSTON.

APPENDIX: Pigmentation Survey of the School Children of Scotland . ; : "335

Since the meeting at Southport in 1903 the Authropometric Committee

have been engaged in drawing up a standard list of dimensions to be

measured. Considerable progress has been made with this work, but as it

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 331

is not yet complete it is not considered desirable to make a special report
upon it at the present time.

The Committee recommended in their last report that steps should be
taken to establish an Anthropometric Bureau with the view of organising
continuous anthropometric work throughout the British Isles. This re-
commendation has recently acquired new interest from the appointment
during the past year of an Inter-departmental Committee to inquire into
the question of alleged physical deterioration of the people. This Com-
mittee, shortly after its appointment, put itself in communication with the
Anthropometric Committee of this section, and the chairman and the
secretary were asked to give evidence before it.

As part of this evidence, the chairman and the secretary submitted
a scheme for the establishment of an Anthropometric Bureau and the
carrying out of a continuous Anthropometric Survey of the United
Kingdom by the State.

The following memorandum with reference to this scheme has been
drawn up by the chairman (Professor Cunningham) :

Scheme for the Establishment of a Central Anthropometrical Bureau.

In the report upon the alleged physical deterioration of the people
which was submitted by the Royal College of Physicians to the Home
Office (July 27, 1903), the following opinion is expressed: ‘Could an
inquiry be made into the present physical condition of the nation, it is
self-evident that it would be of great value; but one dealing with a
portion only of the population would be likely to lead to error.’ With
this view I fully concur, but I would go further and insist that for the
purpose of the present inquiry it would be necessary that this examination
into the physical characters of the people should be continuous and
carried out on a permanent basis. It is only by such a measure that
statistics could be accumulated which would enable us to note the
upward or downward tendency of the national physique. Valuable as the
results of the British Association Committee of 1878-1883 are, it is
no disparagement of its work to say that these results are admittedly
incomplete. In its final report the Committee itself alludes to this, and
expresses regret that the time and funds at its disposal are not sufficient
to enable it to prosecute its inquiries to the end it had in view. Indeed,
all the Committee claims to have done is to have laid a substantial
foundation for a further and more exhaustive study of the physical
condition of the people.

That the time has come when this more extended inquiry is urgently
called for is self-evident, and it is with this end in view that I would
urge the importance of establishing a Central Anthropometrical Bureau
supported by Government and commissioned to carry out this work.

I would venture to suggest the framework upon which such a scheme
could be constructed, and shall deal with this matter under the headings of :

I. Hon. Consultative Committee.
II. The Bureau.
III. Surveyors or Measurers.

I. Consultative Committee.

To obtain absolute uniformity in the methods of procedure in each of
the three countries, it would be advisable to appoint an Hon. Consultative

332 REPORT— 1904.

Committee. This Committee should consist of three members—one from
each of the three divisions of the United Kingdom. These appointments
should be honorary, but the ordinary allowances for travelling expenses
should be granted.

The members of the Committee should be anthropologists of acknow-
ledged reputation who are acquainted with the structure of the human
body and the laws which regulate its development and growth. They
should be likewise men of weight and influence. It might be possible to
carry out the work in England and Scotland without such local repre-
sentatives, but I do not think that it would be possible to do so in Ireland ;
and indeed I consider that in each of the three countries the inquiry could
be much more advantageously prosecuted by having a Committee of this
kind co-operating with the permanent officials of the Bureau.

The duties of this Committee would be:

(a) To determine the measurements and observations to be made.

(6) To determine the instruments to be employed.

(c) To construct in connection with the Director of the Central Bureau
the form of card on which the observations are to be recorded.

(d) Each in his own country to advise and assist the permanent officers
in any cases of difficulty that may arise.

Il. Central Bureau.

The Central Bureau should be established in London, and should be
organised as a Committee of the Privy Council

It would probably be necessary to appoint a Director and Deputy
Director. One of these should be an anthropologist acquainted with the
anatomy and development of the human body, and with experience in
anthropometrical work ; the other should be a statistician trained in the
methods of Professor Karl Pearson.

A Statistical Department would also require to be organised in the
Bureau. The work carried out in this office would be the following :

(a) To keep the standard instruments and issue all the instruments
required in the inquiry.

(b) To issue the cards on which the observations are to be recorded to
those engaged in the measuring, &c.

(c) To arrange surprise visits at intervals to different schools, &c.,
with the view of determining whether the results of the surveyors are
accurate.

(d) To receive the cards after they have been filled up, classify them,
prepare the requisite statistical tables, and publish a yearly report.

(e) To form in London a centre where the different classes of the
people may be measured, and the centre in England where the surveyors
or measurers may be instructed in the methods of making their observa-
tions, and in those anatomical details which are requisite for the acquisition
of accurate results.

(f) To disseminate information on anthropometrical work, and create
an interest in the public in regard to the importance of maintaining the
national physique.

III. Surveyors or Measurers.

The real ditficulty in devising a working scheme consists in deter-
mining how the measurements are to be carried out. If the labours of

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 39393

the Bureau were to be confined to school children, the matter would be
easy enough. All that would be necessary would be that one teacher in
each school (or, in the case of schools where there are boys and girls, a
male and a female teacher) should be instructed in the methods and made
responsible to return at stated periods the cards which they have filled up.

Such a limited conception of the functions of the Bureau, however,
could not be entertained. If the full measure of good is to be obtained,
and if precise information is to be attained regarding the national physique
and its tendencies, it will certainly be necessary to measure and test large
samples of the adult people of defined districts every ten years or so.
This renders it essential that a staff of surveyors or measurers should be
maintained. It is needless to conceal the fact that in all probability it
will not be easy to induce the people of all classes to submit to the
investigation. In the work which was carried out in Ireland this was a
constant source of trouble, and in many cases, even with the assistance of
the parish priest, it was only possible to obtain a comparatively small
number of observations. Still, were the Bureau established and the
Government thereby to indicate its interest in the work, the investigation
(in England and Scotland at least) would be placed upon a more favour-
able footing. Further, the operations in the schools would familiarise the
people with the methods, while the example shown by the better-educated
classes would conduce to remove prejudice on this matter.

One point would certainly require to be attended to, viz., that an
equal number of male and female surveyors be appointed, so that both in
schools and in the adult survey each sex might be measured by surveyors
of a corresponding sex.

I am afraid to hazard an opinion upon the number of surveyors that
would be required. Probably thirty would be sufficient for the three
countries.

The following memorandum on the statistical aspect of the scheme for
an Anthropometric Survey of the United Kingdom has been drawn up
by the secretary (Mr. J. Gray).

The following table shows the statistics of population, schools, and
scholars in the United Kingdom :

Population No. of Schools No. on Scholars per
(1901). | (Primary). _ Register. /L00Population.
England. : : . 32,527,843 | 20,153 5,881,278 18
Scotland . 5 A . 4,472,103 3,145 768,598 17:2
Ireland . 5 . . 4,458,775 8,712 737,086 16°5
41,458,721 | 32,010 7,386,962 | M.17:2

For the purposes of the Survey the United Kingdom would be divided
into 400 districts, each containing on an average 100,000 persons. In
thinly populated rural districts the number may be smaller, and in large
towns the number may be greater.

In each of these districts 18,500 persons are in the primary schools,
and 81,500 are adults or very young children. Let us say 80,000 adults
are available for measurement in each district.

Let us suppose that a sample of 2,000 adults is measured in each
district ; the total number of adults to be measured will be 400 x 2,000
=800,000.

304 REPORT—1904.

In the case of school children we must measure a sample of 1,000-
2,000 for each age interval of 12 months. The total number of school
(ese? = 18,467. Dividing this number
into 12 age groups each of 1 year, each group will contain 1,539. This
number is only just a sufficient sample. Hence, it follows that it will be
necessary to measure the whole of the children in the primary schools.
There are also a number of children in addition to this in the secondary
schools.

Approximately it will be necessary to measure

800,000 adults.
8,000,000 schooi children.

children in each district is

Each district should be measured once in ten years. In order to keep
the staff constantly employed, the measuring of the whole population may
be spread over the whole ten-year period. It will be necessary therefore
to measure per annum

80,000 adults
and 800,000 school children

Taking 250 working days per annum, it will be necessary to measure

bie, A0vdiabrines

320 adults per day,
and 3,200 school children per day.

If we have a staff of 20 surveyors it will be necessary that each
surveyor measures

16 adults and 160 school children per day.

This, I think, allowing for unavoidable delays in getting at the per-
sons to be measured, is a reasonable amount of work to expect from one
surveyor per day, assuming that only four dimensions are measured.

It has been suggested that instead of whole-time surveyors, teachers
should be employed part of their time in measuring the children in their
own schools.

Permanent surveyors, being constantly employed at the same work,
and frequently tested by superintendent surveyors, would measure very
much more accurately and probably at less cost to the State than the
teachers.

The objections which apply to teachers would apply in a less degree
to factory inspectors. If these men in the course of their ordinary duties
come frequently to London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, the cost of in-
structing them would thus be materially reduced. But owing to the fact
that only part of their time could be devoted to measurement, more sets
of instruments would be required, and their skill would be inferior to that
of permanent surveyors.

An approximate estimate of the cost of whole-time and part-time
surveyors shows clearly, I think, that the employment of a specially
trained permanent staff of surveyors to carry out the whole anthropo-
metric survey, instead of employing teachers, factory inspectors, or other
existing officials, will be much more economical and much more efficient.

In the Appendix is given a record of some of the anthropometric work
which has been carried out or initiated in the United Kingdom in the

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 385

past year. The record does not profess to be complete, as it contains
only such work as happens to have been brought under the notice of
the secretary. The Committee express a hope that persons engaged in
anthropometric work will send a short account to the secretary for in-
sertion in future reports of the Committee. Several school managers and
teachers have addressed inquiries to the Committee with the view of
getting instructions for carrying out anthropometric work in their schools.
In some cases practical instruction has been given to these applicants,
and, in others, written instructions.

The Committee again beg to acknowledge the assistance given by the
Anthropological Institute in providing headquarters for the Committee,
and in granting permission to hold meetings in their rooms.

The Committee desire to be reappointed with instructions to continue
the work indicated in the above Report. As the grant of 5/. made to
the Committee two years ago has now been expended, and as it will
probably be considered advisable to prepare blocks of the human figure
showing the points between which measurements are to be made, an
expenditure over and above the ordinary expenditure for secretarial work
will be necessary. The Committee, if reappointed, ask for a grant of 101,

APPENDIX.

Pigmentation Survey of the School Children of Scotland—A survey
of the hair and eye colours of the school children in Scotland has been
carried out during the past year by the Scottish school teachers, under
the direction of a Committee consisting of Sir William Turner, Professor
R. W. Reid, Mr. J. Gray, and Mr. J. F. Tocher. The schedules with
instructions, and circulars containing a statement of the objects, were
sent out on the 7th December, 1903, to all the 3,150 primary schools in
Scotland. By the end of December 700 returns had been sent in by
the teachers. Up to the present time over 2,300 returns, representing
530,000 children, or about 70 per cent. of the whole, have been received.
The teachers have taken up this scheme with the greatest enthusiasm
and have shown great interest in the objects and progress of the survey.
The analysis of the statistics is now being proceeded with. The data
obtained will be available for the determination of races and the study
of the laws of heredity.

Physical Characters and Morbid Proclivities—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall
has published a paper on the results of an important investigation on the
above subject in the St. Bartholomew’s Hospital Reports, vol. xxxix. This
deals with a study of the physical characters of hospital patients, taken
chiefly from the medical wards of St. Bartholomew’s, Brompton, and the
North-Eastern Children’s Hospitals. The observations on hair and eye
colour were made on about 8,000 patients, on stature on 2,000, and on head
form on 400. At the same time some observations were made on the
number of generations each individual had lived in London.

The conclusions arrived at were :—

1, That the average head form seemed to be much the same both in
hospital patients and healthy individuals, and that no differences were to
be found among patients suffering from different groups of disorders.

2. That patients suffering from rheumatism and heart disease were on
the average a little taller than the general population in the sphere of

336 REPORT—1904.

attraction of the hospital, while patients suffering from pulmonary
tuberculosis, nervous diseases, and cancer were shorter than the general
average.

3. That the average stature both of hospital patients and their
visitors decreased with each successive generation of city life.

4, That blonde traits are associated with acute rheumatism, its sequel
and congeners.

5. That brunette traits are associated with pulmonary tuberculosis,
nervous diseases, and cancer.

6. These observations were supplemented by others on small numbers
only, from various parts of the British Isles, but the tendency was found
to be everywhere in the same direction.

7. That medical patients in children’s hospitals are fairer than healthy
children from the same area.

8. That brunette traits increased with successive generations of city
life among the visitors to patients in hospitals, but not among the patients
themselves.

9, That the geographical distribution of disease in the British Isles
and on the Continent suggests some relation between the frequency of
physical types and the rate of mortality from the diseases of special
selection mentioned above.

Measurements of the Insane.—During the past year a survey of the
physical characters of the inmates of lunatic asylums in Scotland has
been carried out by Mr. J. F. Tocher, with the assistance of two trained
assistants. The survey is due to the suggestion of Dr. J. Macpherson,
one of the Commissioners of Lunacy for Scotland, through whose good
offices every facility was given by the authorities for making the observa-
tions. Altogether 4,436 males and 3,951 females have up to date been
measured, the characters noted being the following : (1) maximum head
length ; (2) maximum head breadth; (3) auricular head height ;
(4) stature ; (5) shape of nose; (6) hair and eye colours. The nature
of the mental affection was also noted. The actual data, giving a
complete record of individual measurements, will shortly be pubiished,'
and also an analysis of the statistics, and some observations on the nature
of the results obtained.? The instruments used were Gray’s sliding
callipers and head height meter.

Measurements of School Childven.—Five hundred school children in
Aberdeenshire and 500 in Glasgow have been measured by Messrs.
J. F. Tocher and R. Tocher. The same measurements were made as on
the lunatics, and in addition measurements of the curvature of the
cornea and the visual acuity of the children were made. The instrument
used to determine the corneal curvature was a Hardy ophthalometer.

Measurements in Dorsetshire.—At the invitation of Mr. Baxter of
Sherborne a number of the peasantry of North Dorsetshire have been
measured by Mr. J. Gray. Length, breadth, and height of head, minimum
frontal breadth, and auricular radii to the nasion and the alveolar points
were measured. Mr. Baxter, who has been personally instructed in the
art of making measurements, is continuing the work, and when sufficient
statistical data have been accumulated a paper on the results will be
offered to the Anthropological Institute. -

1 By the Henderson Trust.
2 This paper will appear in Biometrika.

ANTHROPUMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAJN AND IRELAND. 9337

Gipsies.—Mr. McCormick, who applied to the Secretary of the
Anthropometric Committee for instructions, has commenced aiong with
Dr. McKie a series of measurements on the gipsies in the Border Counties
of Scotland. As we already possess measurements of old Border families
by the late Dr. Gregor, a comparison of these with gipsies will be
interesting.

Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.— Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. A. J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres
(Secretary), Professor BoyD Dawkuys, Mr. E. W. Brasroox, und
Mr. T. AsHBy, appointed to co-operate with Local Committees in
Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.

Tur Committee was appointed at Southport in 1903 with the object of
assisting excavators of Roman sites in Britain to deal with the sub-
sidiary problems of paleontology or non-Roman archeology which pre-
sent themselves not infrequently in the course of an excavation which
has primarily a Roman objective.

The Committee has accordingly made itself acquainted with the
course of the excavations which have been in progress on Roman sites
during the past year. and has been favoured in certain cases with summary
reports of their work, an abstract of which is given in Appendices A
and B. ,

After full discussion of the circumstances thus brought to its notice,
the Committee has decided to offer grants in aid of special researches on
certain sites as follows:

A, At Silchester : (a) to continue the careful examination of the wells
found in the course of the work, with special reference to the
stratification of their contents, and to the identification of the
remains of plants and animals which may be found therein.

(6) To investigate in detail the remains of the wall and ditch, with
special reference to the relation in which the irregular wall-
outline stands to the rectangular street-plan within it.

B. At Caerwent: (a) To examine the contents of wells in the same
manner as at Silchester.

(6) To determine the age and construction of the mound and ditch
by cutting a complete section, or otherwise.

The Committee is satisfied, from the experience of its first year’s work-
ing, that the method of co-operation which has been adopted has justified
itself, and accordingly asks to be reappointed, with a further grant.

APPENDIX A.
Excavations at Silchester, 1903-4.

The excavations of 1903 were begun on May 15, and continued without
break until October 31. Despite the exceptionally wet season a con-
siderable amount of ground was explored, and the discoveries were
decidedly above the average.

The area of the excavations was a triangular portion of the large field,
covering most of the southern half of the town, immediately south-west
of insula XXXII., explored in 1902.

1904. Zz

338 REPORT—1904.

The southern part of this ground contained the foundations of at
least six buildings and part of another. Three of these were houses of
the corridor type, but they did not present any novel features. To the
north of these buildings the trenches early disclosed traces of another of
very considerable dimensions, the clearance of which was not completed
until late in September.

This building formed, apparently, the principal baths of the Roman
town. It consisted of a block of many chambers, measuring about 145
feet from north to south and nearly 100 feet from east to west, and
including all the usual parts of a Roman bathing establishment. It has
undergone various alterations which make its architectural history more
than usually interesting.

Attached to the northern end of the baths was a courtyard or cloister,
with covered alleys, by which it was approached. Time did not permit of
this being fully explored last year, but the further examination of it has
been the first work of the season of 1904.

The area excavated in 1903 did not contain many pits, and owing to
the saturated state of the ground it was impossible to clear out more than
a few on the higher level. The number of miscellaneous finds for the
year was therefore inconsiderable. The exploration of the baths yielded
a number of interesting architectural fragments, including a small altar,
portions of capitals and bases, part of a large basin of Purbeck marble,
and other worked pieces of the same material, and some singular pieces
of metal.

The search for remains of plants, &c., in the filling-in of the pits and
wells, which has been pursued with such conspicuous success during the
last six years, has been continued by Mr. A. H. Lyell. The results have
been examined by Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., who has identified the
seeds of several more plants not hitherto known to have been introduced
into this country so early as the Roman period.

A detailed account of all the discoveries was laid before the Society
of Antiquaries on June 9, and will be published in ‘ Archzologia.’ A
special exhibition of the antiquities, &c., found was held, as in former
years, at Burlington House, by kind permission of the Society of Anti-
quaries, from June 13 to June 25 inclusive.

The excavations of 1904 have been confined to the completion of the
work on the baths. The whole of the entrance court has been exposed,
and is found to have been paved with stone slabs and surrounded by
covered ambulatories. It has been enlarged from its original limits by
lengthening it eastwards and westwards, and by adding on the north-east
a large latrine. There is also interesting evidence, in the form of a
sleeper-wall, with some of the bases im situ, of an original pillared
portico ; but this was abolished when the present street-lines were laid
out, because it lay in the line of a street.

This street seems to have bordered, or cut through, a large pond or
reservoir west of the courtyard of the baths, and its margin was protected
throughout by camp-shedding or lines of piles, which may have carried a
wall. No walls were encountered, but samples have been kept of the
contents of the drains and latrine, which may yield curious and interest-
ing results. Care is taken to secure samples from every pit and well, and
Mr. Clement Reid has now been able to identify 130 distinct species of
plants which van be proved by these excavations to have been growing
in and about the Romano-British town during its existence.

(ws)
[oN]
oO

EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN.

APPENDIX B.
Hxcavations at Caerwent, 1903-4.

The excavations on the site of Caerwent (Venta Silwrwm)—a small
Romano-British country-town, enclosed by a rectangle of walls of about
400 by 300 yards—have been carried on every summer since 1899, and
in 1902-3 during the winter also ; and reports on them are regularly
presented to the Society of Antiquaries and published in ‘ Archzologia ’
(vol. lvii., Part IJ. onwards). A paper was also presented by Mr. T.
Ashby, jun., to the British Association in 1903, ‘ Proc. Brit. Assoc.,’ South-
port, 1903, p. 806 ; printed more fully in ‘ Man,’ 1904, p. 69.

Hitherto a little more than one quarter of the ancient city has been
laid bare, but the greater part of the excavations has been filled in
again. Thelocal Committee hopes eventually to explore all those parts
of the site which are not occupied by the houses and gardens of the
modern village.

A temporary museum exists on the site ; but a considerable propor-
tion of the objects which are found will eventually be deposited in the
Corporation Museum at Newport, Monmouthshire.

A well which was explored in 1903 yielded some interesting speci-
mens of plants, which have been examined and described by Mr. A. H.
Lyell, F.S.A., and Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S. Another well has been
discovered, from which it seems likely that similar plant remains may be
recovered ; but it has not yet been explored. The cost of opening such
wells is considerable, as the men expect extra pay, and have also to be
insured against accidents. There is, moreover, need for a good deal of
pumping while the work is going on.

Two discoveries made in the excavations of 1904 deserve brief notice
here. The first is that of the South Gate of the city: it corresponds in
plan and in size almost absolutely with the North Gate, and the inner
arch is in a very fair state of preservation. Like the other gate, it has
been blocked up in Roman times, an aperture having been left for the
egress of a drain. It was generally supposed to have stood where a
modern farm road crosses the line of the south wall, some remains of the
gate which were actually visible having been taken to be the traces of
the attachment of a bastion tower. None of those who have written upon
the topography of Caerwent seems to have suspected the truth which a
few hours’ digging made clear.

The other discovery is that of the base of a statue dedicated to Mars
(with the epithet Lenws[si]ve Ocelus ere and the Nwmina Augus-
torwm (under the names of Lenus, . . ., Ocelws, and Vellawnus) by M.
Nonius Romanus. It bears the date A.v. 152. It had been used as
building material in a cross-wall of late date.

Anthropometric Investigations among the Native Troops of the Egyptian
Army.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Mac-
ALISTER (Chairman), Dr. C. S. Myers (Secretary), Sir Joun Evans,
and Professor D. J. CunnincHamM. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE Committee have to report the following progress in the elaboration
of the anthropometric data which were acquired during the year 1901-2
in Egypt and the Soudan.

22

340 REPORT—1904

The cards of the 1,005 Egyptian fellahin measured have been sorted
into provinces, and their measurements have been carefully copied out
and collated, province by province, ready for publication. The cephalic
and nasal indices have been determined, wherever possible, for each indi-
vidual. The Copts have been considered separately from the Mahommedan
population. Individuals whose parents belong to different provinces
have been set apart in a ‘mixed’ group. Averages have been struck of
the stature, maximal and minimal chest- and calf-measurements for the
Mahommedans of each province and for the Copts.

Certain measurements, the length, breadth, and horizontal circum-
ference of the head, the cephalic and nasal indices, have been studied in
greater detail with the object of obtaining the coefficients of variability
and correlation for various districts. Such data have great biological
interest, seeing that the anthropometric material now available from
Egypt covers a range of some seven thousand years. The variabilities of
certain provinces have been compared inter se, and with (a) Professor
Petrie’s prehistoric Nakada skeletons measured by Miss Fawcett, Dr.
Warren, and others ; (8) a series of Theban mummy-skeletons ; (y) a
series of modern Cairo skeletons from the museums at Leipzig.

The modern population of the Kena province shows slightly less
variability and correlation in head, length, and breadth and slightly
greater variability in cephalic index than the ‘ prehistoric’ Nakada popu-
lation of this province. It may well be, therefore, that the homogeneity
of the Upper Egyptians has not been seriously disturbed during the last
seven thousand years ; but this conclusion cannot be regarded as certain
until the variability of other measurements has been similarly studied.
The greater variability of Theban mummies would be easily explicable on
the ground of racial impurities in so famous and populous a city as ancient
Thebes. The objection that modern conscripts are not representative of
the Egyptian population, owing to the influence of stringent selection in
stature and chest-measurement, may be disallowed on various grounds.
There is no evidence either of correlation between stature and cephalic
index or of the infiltration of a taller race into Egypt. Moreover, stature
depends, as is well known, upon climate and nutrition as well as upon
heredity. Lastly, the tallest Nakada individuals show even slightly
greater variability in the above measurements than does the general
population.

The Coptic population appears to be decidedly more variable than the
Mahommedan. This surprising result, if confirmed by investigation of
further points of comparison, may be due to the greater struggle for exist-
ence for so many centuries besetting a small Christian in the midst of a
Moslem population. It may be that the chance of survival is greatest for
those who show the most tendency to variation, so that the Copts, in spite
of their freedom from relatively modern Arab admixture, still show greater
variability than the Mahommedans. They appear actually to be more
variable than the ‘mixed’ group of Mahommedans, but to be distinctly
less variable than the modern Cairene series, town populations, as might
be expected, always showing the most marked heterogeneity.

ON ANTHROPOLOGICAL TEACHING. 341

Anthropological Teaching.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. B. TyLor (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary),
Professor A. MacauisTErR, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. C. H. Reap,
Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. F. W. Rupier, Dr. R. Munro, Professor
Furspers Perriz, Mr. H. Linc Rots, and Professor D. J.
CUNNINGHAM, appointed to inquire into the present stute of Anthro-
pological Teaching in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.

Tue Committee desire to acknowledge with thanks the replies to their
inquiries, which have been received from some seventy universities and
colleges.

A preliminary survey of the data thus collected is made at the
Cambridge Meeting informally ; but the reduction of the material in
the hands of the Committee to uniform and intelligible shape is a work
of some difficulty, and makes it necessary to postpone the publication of
the full report until next year.

The State of Solution of Proteids.—Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Hauuipurton (Chairman), Professor
Waymouta Rew (Secretary), and Professor EK. A. SCHAFER,
appointed to investigate the State of Solution of Proteids.

In the last report evidence was given for the cases of ovalbumin,
serum albumin, and globulin that the so-called solutions of these
substances are really hydrosols, i.e., extremely fine suspensions in water,
the evidence being that carefully prepared fluids containing these sub-
stances exert no osmotic pressure upon a membrane impermeable to the
proteid when water is exhibited on the opposite side.

It was also mentioned that by collecting the washings during prepara-
tion of the proteids mentioned, removing the salts, and boiling down in
vacuo at 25°-30° C., a fluid quite free of proteid could be obtained, which
gave a lasting osmotic pressure on a formalised gelatine membrane.

The experiments of the past session have been devoted to finding a
non-proteid substance to which gelatine is impermeable, though in true
solution, which might account for the osmotic pressure of serum against
its filtrate through gelatine, a pressure ascribed by Starling and Moore to
serum proteids which my past experiments indicate are not in solution at
all, and therefore not liable for the pressure noted by these observers.

The material gained by washing serum proteids has been too small in
amount to permit of satisfactory analyses, so that a series of substances
likely to occur in sera (fresh or stale) have been employed for osmometric
observation.

The following substances all gave negative results : Calcic phosphate,
calcic sulphate, sodic phosphates, sodic chloride, sodic carbonate, serum
ash, soap, peptone, urea, glucose, indol, tyrosine, leucine, tryptophane,
choline, glycerophosphates of sodium and calcium, acid hydrolysis
products of proteid (fibrin), dialysed extractum caves! All these sub-
stances went through the membrane and so gave no lasting pressure.

342 REPORT—1904.

Many of them were tried in the presence of osmotic pressure-free proteid,
but again the results were negative.

Finally two nucleic acids (prepared quite free of proteid), the one from
yeast, the other from thymus gland (adenylic acid of Kossel and Neumann),
were found in neutral solution in sodic or ammonium hydrate to give a
lasting osmotic pressure on the membrane used in the proteid experiments.
It is, of course, not maintained that nucleic acid is the substance which
gives rise to the osmotic pressure of serum against its filtrate through
gelatine, but the result indicates that such a gelatine membrane may be
quite impermeable to certain substances in true solution.

Other experiments have been conducted with a specially purified
caseinogen taken up in lime water to form the so-called neutral and basic
calcium caseinogenates. The former clotted with rennin and became more
opalescent at 40° C., clearing again on cooling.

Neither of these preparations gave any osmotic pressure, and are there-
fore considered as hydrosols and not as true solutions.

Finally a series of experiments with hemoglobin have been instituted,
but are not yet completed. The spectrophotometer has been used
throughout, and no product used for osmometric work unless giving the
Hiner constants in two regions of the spectrum. The onset of warmer
weather and the removal of the laboratory to other premises have put an
end to the further prosecution of this part of the work, but it is intended
to take it up again next session.

The Physiological Hffects of Peptone and its Precursors when Introduced
into the Circulation.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor EH. A. ScHAFER (Chairman), Professor W. H.
THompPson (Secretary), Professor R. Boyce, and Professor C. 8.
SHERRINGTON.

Tur METABOLISM OF ARGININ.

In previous experiments it had been ascertained that arginin in the form
of a neutral solution of its carbonate may be injected into the circulation
of a dog without producing harmful, or, indeed, any pronounced effects.
It proved inert as regards blood pressure, and had no immediate influence
upon urinary secretion, beyond that which could be attributed to the
solvent employed.

In the following experiments arginin was administered to dogs either
hypodermically or with the food, and its effects upon nitrogenous meta-
bolism observed. When submitted to the action of barium hydrate, arginin
readily undergoes hydrolytic cleavage, and yields urea and ornithin (di-
amido-valerianic acid).

/NEL NH: CH,.NH,
= + (CH»)»
ONH Toe Hiss a OHH
\NH.CH, \NH, Coigene
(CH). ri:
CH.NH,
CO.OH

That is to say, half the nitrogen of arginin appears as urea and half as

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 3843

di-amido-valerianic acid (ornithin), or, of the 192 parts by weight of arginin
and water, 60 parts appear as urea and 132 parts as di-amido-valerianic
acid. With these facts in view the following experiments were performed, in
some of which the substance was administered hypodermically, in the others
with the food. The same animals were used for both sets of experiments,
the two forms of administration being carried out consecutively on each
animal, an interval of some days being allowed between.

The conclusions which may be deduced from the results so far obtained
are as follows :

1. Feeding with arginin as chloride or carbonate gives rise to an
increased excretion of nitrogen in the urine, chiefly as urea.

2. For every 100 parts of nitrogen administered as arginin with food,
72°8 to 96:3 parts reappear in the form of urea. But, as stated, when
transformed in the laboratory only half the nitrogen appears as urea,
the other half as ornithin.

3. In the animal body ornithin, therefore, is either not formed, or, if
so, is largely reconverted into urea.

4. Much the same effects are obtained when arginin is administered
by subcutaneous injection, except that more nitrogen is excreted in the
urine than could have been derived from the arginin.

5. The excess of nitrogen thus excreted cannot be attributed to the

action of the solvent employed. One must therefore conclude that
arginin, thus administered, stimulates nitrogenous metabolism.
_ 6. The ‘urea-nitrogen quotient’ (relation of urea-nitrogen to total
nitrogen) is increased during arginin administration, thus bearing out the
conclusion that a large percentage of the arginin nitrogen is converted
into urea.

7. No arginin nitrogen is excreted with the feces.

8. In one experiment glycosuria followed the administration of
arginin.

Metabolism of the Tisswes.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor GotcH (Chairman), Mr. J. Barcrorr (Secretary),
Sir Micwaeu Foster, and Professor STARLING.

THe work undertaken under the auspices of this Committee has con-
cerned itself with the gaseous and nitrogenous exchange of certain glands
—to wit, the salivary glands, the kidneys, and the pancreas.

The blood gases of the salivary glands had already been worked out,
and within the year results have been obtained of a similar nature for
the pancreas and for the kidney.

In each case it appears that functional activity is always, under
normal circumstances, accompanied by a large increase in the oxygen
taken from the blood.

Taking eight comparisons of the blood coming from and going to the
pancreas, it appeared that the resting gland, or rather the tail of the resting
pancreas, uses up ‘25 ¢.c. of oxygen per minute, while the same portion,
secreting under the stimulus of secretin, uses up *92c¢.c. of oxygen per
minute. As the average rate of blood flow through the gland was the
same in both cases, we seem justified in concluding that the oxygen used
up was due to the activity of the organ.

Our experiments on the pancreas have been performed both by the

344. REPORT—1904.

ferricyanide method and by the pump, i.e, by methods of a wholly
different nature and on a different scale, the former method requiring
lc.e. for each analysis, the latter 10c.c.

In the case of the kidney we have obtained results of a similar
character. The amount of oxygen taken in by the kidneys when they are
not secreting, or scarcely secreting, is of the order of *5 c.c. per minute ;
but in the injection of a saline diuretic, or urea, the oxygen taken in
rapidly rises, and we have in one case got an exchange of 15 c.c. per
minute. This is an isolated case, but an intake of the order of 5 c.c.
per minute does not seem to be exceptional in cases of rapid diuresis.

We performed several experiments to see whether the effests of a
diuretic could be observed on the general respiration, and, on the whole,
with negative results. The respiration becomes too much upset from other
causes. These experiments gave us data for calculating what ratio the
oxygen taken in by the kidneys, as previously determined, bore to the whole
oxygen exchange of the dog. In the case of our last experiment a dog of
the size we used would absorb about 60 e.c. of oxygen per minute. Its
kidneys were using up 6 c.c. during diuresis—a tenth of the whole oxygen
intake.

We have not only noted the volume of the urine secreted, but also
the ‘ work’ done, as indicated by the freezing-points of the urine and the
serum. So far we have found that increase of oxygen and increase of
work go hand in hand.

Our experiments on the nitrogenous balance-sheets have not yet got
past the stage of suiting the methods available to the purposes in hand..
Messrs. Laidlaw and Mottram have been working at the possibilities of
Kjeldahl’s method and Gottlieb’s methods respectively.

The oxidation taking place in any of the three glands named, the
submaxillary, the pancreas, or the kidney, is many times greater than
would be indicated by their mass.

The Respiration of Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. MarsHaLt Warp (Chairman), Mr. H. WaGrEr
(Secretary), Mr. F. Darwin, and Professor J. B. FarMEr.

THE money placed at the disposal of this Committee (15/7. in 1901 and
12/7. in 1903) has been expended on apparatus for researches carried out
by Dr. F. F. Blackman and Miss G. L. C. Matthaei. These researches
deal quantitatively with the effect of temperature and light upon CO,-
assimilation by green leaves. The relation between this process and
temperature has been worked out in detail by Miss Matthaei, and the
full account will be found in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ of the
Royal Society, Series B, vol. exevii. 1904, pp. 47-105.

In this work attention was paid to several important points which
had been neglected by previous workers. Of these, one is that all the
leaves shall have been kept before the experiment under similar condi-
tions of illumination and temperature ; and another, that the real internal
temperature of the leaf under investigation shall be known. When work-
ing with intense light, which necessarily heats up the leaf considerably,
it was found practicable to arrive at the leaf-temperature thermo-
electrically by inserting a fine thermo-junction into the substance of
the leaf.

:

ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS. 345

Taking these precautions, a satisfactory series of estimations through
a range of temperature from — 6° C. to + 45° C. was obtained.

The general conclusion is that there exists for each temperature a
maximal assimilation specific to that temperature. The amount of light
required to produce the specific maximal assimilation varies directly with
the magnitude of the maximum. When this is once reached further
increase in the illumination or in the amount of CO, supplied produces
no longer any augmentation of the assimilation.

The amount is just determinable at — 6° C., and then rises rapidly
with higher temperatures, giving a curve which is convex to the tempera-
ture abscissa. The curve is similar to the accepted curves for the effect
of temperature on respiration, and it rises more and more steeply at
higher temperatures—certainly up to 38°C.

At temperatures about this point the leaf is not capable of maintain-
ing its initial high rate of assimilation for any long time, so that the
values obtained for successive hourly estimations with the same leaf form
a rapidly declining series. The higher the temperature the shorter the
duration of the period of maximal assimilation, and it becomes experi-
mentally impossible with hourly estimations to obtain the maximal value
at temperatures close to the fatal temperature of 45° C. The final
numbers actually obtained, which can be only swb-maximal, show a
conventional ‘optimum’ at a temperature about 38° C., with a subsequent
very rapid decline.

The relation between CO,-assimilation and various intensities of
natural illumination has been worked out by Dr. Blackman and Miss
Matthaei conjointly. The detailed research is in course of publication,
but it may be stated here that determinations have been made of the
assimilatory value of the natural illumination at dawn, at midday, in sun
and shade, during rain and storm, and at dusk. It is shown that the
diffuse light of the whole heaven compares favourably with feeble direct
sunshine as an illuminant. Estimations have also been made of the
exact fraction of sunshine which is required to produce the specific
maximal amounts of assimilation for a given temperature (50° C.) both
with cherry-laurel leaves and with leaves of Helianthus tuberosus.

From these and other determinations it seems to follow that equal
areas of different leaves (though of very dissimilar types) require iden-
tical amounts of light te produce the same amounts of CO,-assimilation.

Botanical Photcgraphs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor L. C, MIALL (Chairman), Professor F, E. Weiss (Secretary),
Mr. Francis Darwin, and Mr. A. G. TANSLEY, on the Registrution
of Photographs of Botanical Interest.

Firty photographs have been added this year to the Register, which now
contains 230 photographs. The additions have been contributed by the
Rev. T. A. Lea, Mr. Francis J. Lewis, Professor F. W. Oliver, Mr. A. G.
Tansley, and Mr. Arthur Reid. They illustrate some of the botanical
features of the British coast and British moorlands, the flora of the
Alps, and of the Mediterranean, and are the type of photograph of which
it will be very useful to have a record.

346 REPORT—1904.

The additional grant obtained from the Association has been expended
in providing mounts and binders for storing the photographs, and also
for the purchase and printing of cards to make a classified catalogue, in
addition to the Register. The completion of this catalogue has occupied
some considerable time on the part of the Secretary, but it was felt that
the catalogue would make the collection more serviceable by facilitating
reference to any particular photograph.

As some inquiries have been received regarding the photographs
which have already been registered, the Committee suggest that the
list of photographs now registered might be printed by the Associa-
tion and circulated among members of the Association, corresponding
societies, and donors of photographs. By this means the usefulness of the
Register would be increased, and the owners of photographs of botanica!
interest would become acquainted with the scope of the Register, and would
also learn what photographs might usefully be added to the list.

Kuperimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor H. MarsaatL Warp (Chair-
man), Mr. A. C. SEwarp (Secretary), Professor J. B. FARMER,
and Dr. D. Sarr.

Report to the Committee by W. Bateson, M.A., FBS.

In January 1904 Mr. R. C. Punnett, Fellow of Gonville and Caius
College, came into partnership in these experiments, and from that date
the work has been carried on jointly. The Sweet Pea work has been done
jointly with Miss Saunders also. Besides poultry and sweet peas, on
which we now report, preliminary trials with other subjects are in
progress.

I. Pouttrry.—Colouwrs.—Some complex cases are under investigation,
and respecting these a report is deferred.

The case of the Andalusian fowl has been studied in detail. It appears
that the typical blue colour is a heterozygous character, the gametes
bearing black or a splashed white in approximately equal numbers. The
extracted black is pure. The white probably can split again, giving off a
purer white.

The colour, Brown-breasted, with purple face, is dominant over Black-
breasted (practically Gallus bankiva) strongly in 9 2, weakly in oo.
The segregation, judged on the down, is nearly perfect. The adult
colours are not yet worked out.

Combs.—The relation of the four forms, rose (7), pea (p), rose-pea
(rp)= Malay ‘ Walnut,’ and single (s) has formed a main subject of our
work ; 7 and p are each dominant over s ; 7 Xp gives rp ; rp is dominant
over all. 7p, whether formed directly by crossing pure 7 x pure », or
indirectly by crossing rs x ps, gives off four types of gametes, 7, p, 7p, 8,
in approximately equal numbers. The origin of s here is uncertain. It
seems to be connected with the failure of segregation in the case of the
rp gametes. rpxrp therefore produces ten actual types of birds, dis-
tributed thus in appearance, 9rp, 37, 3p, 1s. rp xs gives on an average
equal numbers of all four visible types. Of the five possible types of rp
birds, four have been found experimentally. It is not yet known if

ON EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEREDITY. 347

rp.s is distinguishable from 7. p. Extracted r and p of course are pure
from rp, and from p and 7 respectively.
The scheme of descent is as follows :—

TXS pxs
TS ox ps
ee
TS Tp x TP i SS
Lez _ lpp irp7p Iss
27s 2ps 277.8
27pr
27p.p
2rp
Seca
Te « Tp TPXs
om
Ips
1 1 1 ile
ee uctaze ee a a
27727
27pPp
2rp

In view of these facts we are determining the condition of thorough-
bred Malays in respect of comb. Of the five types which theory shows
to be possible, four have been found in pure Malays or Malay Bantams
(proved by crosses with s), Malay breeders often get p birds from pure-
bred rp, and such p birds are not able to transmit 7 or rp. It is, however,
doubtful whether r and s birds occur in pure breeding, a fact which
raises a distinct problem not yet solved. We suspect the existence of a
complexity dependent on sexual differentiation.

Il. Sweer Peas.—Shapes.—‘ Cupids’ and ‘Snapdragons’ Mendelize
simply. Long and round pollens do the same, but in certain families
there is some problematical coupling with colour.

Colour.—Numerous lines of experiment are being followed. The
following case illustrates the nature of the work : E. Henderson (white) .

348 REPORT—1904.

round pollen x ditto ditto long pollen gives (usually) purple F,. F., some-
times has only three colour-types—purple, red bicolor, white ; but others
have five—purple, purple-picotee, red bicolor, red-tinged white, white.
On the purple side the great majority have Jong pollen, while of the reds
most have rownd. Statistical relations not yet determined. The whites
are 3 long : 1 round.

Some coloured F, plants give in F; no whites ; and, though the point
is not yet proved, the presumption is that some failure of segregation
occurs in gametes of F,. The other possibility is that this phenomenon
is due to simultaneous homozygosis of independent allelomorphs.

A family from Lady Penzance x E. Henderson (long), showed abortion
of anthers in certain F, individuals. The ¢ cells may be fertile. This
sterility on ¢g side has Mendelian inheritance; but, probably as a
fortuitous accident, the ratio approaches 4 fertile : 1 sterile (instead of
3:1). With rare exceptions, coloured types with dark axils are fertile,
light axils going with sterility. Hence the fertile whites (though light
axilled) must bear the character ‘ dark axil,’ a point which can be proved
next year.

The following scheme shows the probable distribution of forms :

(Pink) Lady Penzance x E. Henderson, long (White)

Purple F,
k | ;
| | | |
Coloured dark Coloured light White White
axil fertile axil sterile fertile sterile
3 1
= —M_—__€_—_———
1

The Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of the Work
of Instruction in Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON (Chairman), Mr. E. Wuite
Watts (Secretary), Mr. HE. W. Brasproox, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,
Professor L. ©. Miauu, and Miss Marruanp.

THE Committee had in co-operation with them in their investigations and
deliberations the valuable assistance of Dr. OC. Childs, Mr. Felix Clay,
Dr. Clement Dukes, Miss Findlay, Miss Ravenhill, Dr. Rivers, Mr. J.
Russell, Dr. C. Shelly, and Dr. Sydney Stephenson.

During the year the new Education Act has come into force, and
many of the new educational authorities, in arranging their work for the
coming session, are devoting considerable attention to the question of the
training of teachers. The Regulations issued in July by the Board of
Education for the training of teachers set out under their professional
training, as the sum of the whole matter, the following weighty recom-
mendations,

‘The students ought to have an adequate knowledge of school hygiene.
They should understand the general conditions necessary for making a
building or a room healthy and for keeping it so, and they should be well
acquainted with the rules of personal health, and, so far as possible, with
the psychological principles upon which these rules are based. In the

CONDITIONS OF HEALTH ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING ON INSTRUCTION. 349

case of women students, the nutritive value of foodstuffs in connection
with their cost in the market, and in relation to the needs of young
children, should be known in outline, even though the student may not
be specially qualified in domestic economy. Only thus will they know
how to conduct the school as a whole with the greatest profit to the
health and bodily development of the scholars, and how to adapt the
instruction to the limitations which are imposed in some cases by
the feeble health of the children or by the poverty or neglect of their
parents.’

In the prefatory memorandum to the Regulations it is stated that ‘ The
student should, therefore, be so trained as to be capable, subsequently, as
a teacher, of comparing and contrasting the phenomena of life and
energy in nature as they offer themselves in the particular neighbourhood
and conditions in which he and his scholars may find themselves ; and
this will not be achieved merely by the systematic sequence of any formal
syllabus of Nature study, which may prove to have been in no way related
to the conditions of what are ultimately the teacher’s surroundings. His
own systematic study must be within the field of natural science in its
strictest sense ; the more he knows of this, the better will be his equip-
ment, provided he can bring this knowledge to bear upon the phenomena
which surround man wherever he may be, and which shape or obstruct
his relations with other animate or inanimate beings, and provided he
uses his scientific training and knowledge as an aid in encouraging the
children to observe for themselves facts, and their relations to other facts,
rather than as a means for instructing them in what they should see or
look for.

‘{t is the duty of the training colleges to see that each intending
teacher shall devote some portion of his period of training to study in
which the method above described shall be thoroughly, even laboriously,
carried out. To apply such principles to the whole instruction of a
training college is not feasible in existing circumstances, and the extent
to which it is possible in any particular college must necessarily depend
on the qualifications of the staff and the resources, in the form of libraries,
practising schools, laboratories, &c., available for the use of the students.
But it should be remembered in every case that the student who has built
up for himself, on the best foundation he can find, a series of conclusions,
each of which has been submitted to the most searching tests his means
enable him to apply, will have acquired an insight into the true nature
of knowledge which no other process of instruction can furnish. Even
though that part of his mental equipment which is deeply impressed
with this special character may lie within narrow limits, the student will
have learnt by trial the value of rigorous inquiry, he will have gained
the power to revise and correct his own knowledge when time brings
wider experience and riper judgment, and he will have acquired an outlook
upon the mental processes concerned in the growth of knowledge in the
individual mind, which will be of lasting service to him in his professional
work as a teacher.

‘Every training college, therefore, should attempt, even if it be only
in a limited degree, to conduct its instruction, in as many branches of the
curriculum as possible, in such a way that there shall be in the case of
each student some range of knowledge within which there is no fact and
no inference from facts, which has not been subjected to the severest test
at his command.’

350 REPORT—1904.

No subject will offer a better field for this, the process of tested
knowledge, than the subject of school hygiene, for while it offers excellent
opportunities for practical work and testing methods, it co-ordinates with
nearly all other branches of the teacher’s work, and affords an amount
of diversity and adaptability which would make its adoption practicable
in nearly all colleges ; and, if adopted, would give a living groundwork to
educational methods which, to be successful, must be based on the con-
ditions of health essential to carrying on the work of instruction in
schools.

It is obvious that the teaching of the laws of health in schools will
have little effect in training the scholar in the observance of these laws
unless they are observed and practised in the conduct of the school, and
such training can only be accomplished where the teachers have themselves
been trained by practical and experimental work to understand (1) How
the laws of health enter into every department of school life, the mental
and moral as well as the physical ; (2) That the subject is one that must
be inculcated in the child by observation and experiment.

It appeared, therefore, that one of the most useful subjects to which
the Committee could devote this year’s report would be the setting out of
the essential points to be included in a curriculum for the practical
training of teachers in school hygiene, and the following report has been
prepared by the Sub-Committee for this purpose.

APPENDIX.

The members of the Sub-Committee appointed to consider ‘The
Teachers : What they should know of Physical, Mental, Structural, and
Administrative Hygiene,’ were imbued with the conviction that no
class of the community has more widespread influence on the rising
generation, and that it is, therefore, essential that all teachers alike,
primary and secondary, be required to show proof of a practical acquaint-
ance with the elements of hygiene. (1) In order, directly or indirectly,
to train children of both sexes and all social grades to look at health
questions with intelligent eyes, and to instil into them that sound know-
ledge of the rules which govern healthy life which is set forth as a funda-
mental principle of education by the Board of Education ; (2) That the
teaching profession may contribute its quota to the maintenance of good
conditions of cleanliness, light, ventilation, and so forth in schools, to the
provision of suitable equipment, and, above all, to the formation of good
physical, mental, and moral habits among the pupils.

The subject being one of great scope and of some complexity, the
Committee confined themselves to the definition of the minimum of infor-
mation essential, in their opinion, for every teacher, male and female,
leaving to a future occasion all consideration of the wider knowledge
indispensable for specialist inspectors or instructors.

The appended scheme sets forth briefly this minimum standard of
knowledge, which, however, to be employed to advantage, demands as a
basis a previous study of general elementary science, including biology,
to the extent set out, for example, in the Regulations and Syllabus for the
Acting Teachers’ Certificate Examination, 1904.

The Committee lay special stress upon this foundation, the possession

CONDITIONS OF HEALTH ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING ON INSTRUCTION, 351

of which has been proved by experience to place the subsequent study of
hygiene in its right light. Hygiene is then perceived to be a summing-up
of other sciences, and of their application to the demands of daily life ;
theories can be verified by observation and experiment, while a new
dignity is added to the routine duties of existence. Of equal importance
is the inclusion of the elements of human physiology in the scheme on
instruction. Without some comprehension of the functions of the body,
and a realisation upon what conditions the adequate performance of these
functions depend, the student of hygiene is exposed to two dangers : on
the one hand he is disposed toa contemptuous attitude towards the details
which, rightly regulated, promote vigour and well-being ; on the other, he
becomes a prey to fads and quackery bringing contempt on his cause and
useless limitations to his powers and influence.

Further, it will be noted that prominence is given, wherever possible, to
the study of the normal conditions of life, more especially of child life.
Beyond recognition of certain abnormal signs, which should be as soon as
possible reported to the medical officer, the teacher is not concerned with
pathology. Itis upona high standard of health, not upon morbid departures
therefrom, that the mind of school managers and scholars should be con-
centrated. Neither must the study of hygiene with teachers and children
be confined to its personal, or even to its scholastic aspects. Too often its
intimate bearing upon every relation and condition of life is overlooked—a
serious matter in these days of the extension of local government. A
permanent interest must be aroused in the means for promoting hygienic
conditions among all grades of society. The teaching profession must
realise that no child can be considered equipped for the responsibilities or
for the stress of modern life without a sound knowledge of hygienic prin-
ciples. In secondary schools it will be the governing classes of the
immediate future upon whom the teachers’ influence will be brought to
bear ; in primary schools, the practice of good habits under difficulties
and of loyal co-operation with local health authorities must be emphasised ;
while in both the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, whether
domestic or municipal, must be indicated by example and precept.

To this end the Committee desire to refer to the methods by which
teachers should acquire the fundamental knowledge indicated.

Theoretical study of hygiene alone rarely stimulates practical applica-
tion or awakens real conviction of its truths. Not alone should the
teacher’s course of study be planned upon practical lines, but the tests
applied at its conclusion should be of a similar character. Power to
observe and ability to suggest should be required, and personal acquaint-
ance with appliances and methods, personal, domestic, and scholastic,
should be demanded.

HYGIENE FOR ScHooL TEACHERS

I. Elementary Human Physiology in relation to Hygiene.—Elementary
structure of the human body. Phases of development. General survey
of its various systems (nervous, circulatory, respiratory, osseous, muscular,
digestive, and excretory), with special reference to the nervous system and
organs of sense, including especially vision, nose breathing, and voice
production.

II. Food and Beverages.—Nature and varieties. Standard diets as
applicable to different ages.

302 REPORT—1904.

III. Personal Hygiene.—The influence on personal development of
cleanliness, clothing, and proportion of work, recreation and rest.

IV. The Relation of the Individual to Life in Dwelling-house and
School.—Essentials of a healthy home—e.g. aspect, soil, altitude, pre-
cautions against dampness and ground air. Warming, ventilation, and
lighting. Importance of sunlight, fresh air, and pure food. Sanitary
appliances and house drainage. Household cleanliness and the removal
of refuse. Mutual interests, duties and responsibilities of men and
women.

V. The Special Hygiene of Childhood.—General knowledge of con-
ditions influencing growth and development. Care and feeding of infants
and young children. Influence of mental training on health and bodily
development. Formation of habits.

VI. School Hygiene.—General arrangement of schools (grouping of
rooms, playgrounds). Distribution and storage of water (filters, drinking-
vessels). Ventilation ; floor-space, cubic space ; methods, natural and
artificial. Warming (various methods). Lighting (natural and artificial).
Drainage and sanitary appliances. School furniture (in relation to
posture and school management). Books (printing-type). Decoration of
schools. Physical conditions affecting health in schools. Periods of work
and rest suitable to children of different ages. Recognition of naturally
dull and defective children. School accidents ; simple methods of render-
ing first-aid ; the more obvious signs of fatigue, ill-health, and commencing
illness, An elementary knowledge of infectious and parasitic diseases of
symptoms of scarlet-fever, measles, small-pox, chicken-pox, diphtheria,
mumps, ophthalmia, whooping cough. Methods of propagation and pre-
vention. Nature and uses of disinfectants, of deodorants, and of anti-
septics.

PYVIL Public Hygiene.—The relation of the individual to the com-
munity in matters affecting health.

There are several other branches of school hygiene which the Com-
mittee have set out for investigation, which they hope to include in a
later report. The Committee therefore desire to be reappointed, and ask
for a grant of 5/.

Studies suitable for Elementary Schools—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir Partie Maanus (Chairman), Mr. W. M. HELLER
(Secretary), Sir W. DE W. Asney, Mr. R. H. Apiz, Professor
H. E. ArmstroneG, Miss A. J. Cooper, Miss L. J. CuarKe, Mr.
GEORGE FLETCHER, Professor R. A. GREGORY, Principal GRIFFITHS,
Mr. A. D. Hau, Mr. A. J. Hersertson, Dr. C. W. KIMMINS,
Professor J. Perry, Mrs. W. N. Suaw, Professor A. SMITHELLS,
Dr. Luoyp Snare, Principal RercHeL, Mr. H. Ricnarpson, Mr.
HaroLp WaGER, and Professor W. W. Warts, appointed to report
upon the vourses of Haperimental, Observational, and Practical
Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools.

Nature Study the Foundation of Scientific Training.

We regard the direct study of Nature as the sound foundation of all
scientific training. The more training in scientific research the teacher
has had the better. If he has only been getting up book-work in the

ON STUDIES SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 350

hope of passing examinations his influence may be less helpful. Where
the teacher is not in sympathy with scientific methods of inquiry he
cannot be expected to see how to put the children on the right road.

Tur TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

At present there are three agencies at work : (A) Saturday classes,
(Bs) summer meetings (for existing teachers) ; (c) the training college
course. A general elementary science course which includes some botany
is now compulsory. Nature study, gardening, &c., can be taken as
special subjects in the second year. Not many training colleges took
up the subject in 1903, and even those were much discouraged by the
magnitude of the work involved in the syllabuses which were attempted.
In our judgment every training college should give such scientific
instruction in the method of observation and experiment that the future
schoolmaster would be put on the right track, and could later on work
out his own subject. Teaching may be wholly opposed to the spirit we
strive to inculcate if Nature study is treated as another, and a very
cumbrous, subject to be got up for examination. The training college
student is very heavily taxed ; he does not need more new subjects ; he
does need to be taught the right method of going to work.

It is important that the instruction should not become stereotyped,
and a course for teachers will gain in freshness if worked out anew each
year. Great insistence should be laid upon the laboratory work, and all
knowledge should be derived from the study of actual specimens. Mere
text-book learning in the training college is like poison at the fountain-
head.

Conditions of School Work.

In advising as to what work should be chosen, we must consider the
conditions under which work in elementary schools is done. Some of
these conditions are named in order that they may be altered ; others in
order that advice may be practicable.

The size of the class, if too large, may make it difficult to organise any
work of a new character—anything different from sitting at desks,
listening, answering in chorus, writing from dictation, learning by rote,
or working sums of a monotonous character.

The size of the class is a most important consideration if we wish the
children themselves to carry on experimental work. Hxperience points
to from twenty to twenty-four pupils doing practical work in a laboratory
as quite enough for one teacher.

The country teacher does not feel the number of children so great a
difficulty as their inequality of attainment, which makes it difficult even
to teach more than a very few at once, and then only whilst others are
marking time. If one teacher is called upon to teach a great variety of
subjects, it is not reasonable to expect him to be an expert in each.
Teachers should be encouraged to take as their special subjects whatever
they can do best. Hence in the country we may find poetry in one
school, history in another, gardening in a third,

1904. AA

354. REPORT—1904.

Interest and Discipline.

Any novelty will arouse an evanescent curiosity in a school. We seek
a permanent interest. Only on condition that their best efforts are
expected can we hope to command the respect of our scholars and to
maintain their keen interest. The teacher must know what he wants his
pupils to do, and must find out whether they do it.

With new work it may be difficult to gauge their capacity, but every
effort should be made to set definite work and to check it. There should
be plenty for everyone to do, and plenty of interest in reserve. This
means, for instance, that the supply of botanical material must be
liberal.

The dictation of notes and the copying of diagrams from books or
from the blackboard we condemn. We think that a good deal of time
is now being wasted on dictation and copying, to the great prejudice of
the name and fame of Nature study. The children should be asked
questions ; not told things ; and their verbal answers may be used to
draw up a description of the object before them. Afterwards they may
try to do the like for themselves.

Drawing from natural objects is an admirable exercise in observation.
If the first attempts of the class are disappointing the teacher may put
his drawing on the blackboard before them, then rub it off, and ask them
to try again from the specimen.

In training a class to manipulate experiments it is a good plan to ask
children in turn to come up and try to do things before the class. In
this way interest is stimulated, attention is drawn to probable mistakes,
and the teacher feels when the class is ready to start individual work.

The Object-lesson to be Developed.

Any development of Nature teaching in the schools finds an easy
starting-point in the object-lesson. But the object must be present if the
lesson is to be real. If the elephant can only be represented by a picture,
that is a reason for giving lessons about something else until it is possible
to adjourn to a menagerie. Where flowers or stones are required let them
be provided in sufficient quantity to give every child a specimen. Let
these be distributed at once, so that the children may start with their
own observations. This will require training, and the teacher will spend
much time in discussing what is seen with the children.

A good way of ensuring that children do really observe is to ask them
to make drawings from the specimens in front of them. Drawings can
be more rapidly corrected by the teacher than written accounts: but
written accounts should also be asked for. Whilst the drawing is being
done there ought not to be any sketch on the blackboard which would
serve as a guide.

Syllabus.

We have no syllabus to offer: there is no old syllabus to which we
wish to adhere, nor any new one which we wish to put in its place. Any
teacher who wishes for a syllabus will find that plenty of good ones have
been published already by the Board of Education, and any teacher who
has found the spirit in which to study Nature will be able to make a
better syllabus for himself new every year.

ON STUDIES SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 355

Salvation will not come by any syllabus ; and of every syllabus we
would say :—

‘This syllabus must be regarded as suggestive only, and not inclusive.
Every teacher should be free to take part of the syllabus in detail rather
than the whole superficially, and free also to go outside the syllabus. A
syllabus may be useful as a humble servant, but it is a very bad
master.’

The danger of a syllabus is lest the general topics prescribed, such as
types of fruit, inflorescences, shapes of leaves, should be studied in
advance of the real concrete plant. At the top of a botany syllabus we
would put : ‘This syllabus is intended to be suggestive only. All the
work should be done from the actual living specimens. Accurate drawing
should be an important feature. Even in large classes each pupil can
have specimens of seeds, seedlings, flowers, &c. The pupil himself, if
possible, should carry on the experiments. Outdoor work should supple-
ment the work in the schoolroom. At all times plants should be studied
as living things and not as dead material.’ The rest of the syllabus may
be left to the discretion of the teacher ; so too with physiography. ‘This
syllabus should be illustrated by perpetual reference to the school district
—indoors by experiments, out of doors by walks and excursions in the
neighbourhood.’

The teacher who is planning his lessons some months beforehand will
therefore require a calendar indicating what topics are likely to be in
season. Gardeners’ calendars are given away as advertisements by several
firms of seedsmen. The current Whitaker, or better still the ‘ Nautical
Almanac,’ gives warning of impending celestial events. The average
time of flowering of wild plants has been observed and indexed under
the heading ‘ Phenology.’ Several naturalists’ calendars have been pub-
lished. A farmer’s year-book will be useful in the country. From these
and from his own experience a teacher can compile a calendar of pos-
sible topics from which to choose his lessons.

The Seasons.

Several teachers of repute have recently drawn attention to the cycle
of the seasons as the best ruling idea for the arrangement of any scheme
of Nature lessons. And this we heartily endorse ; there can be no better
guarantee that the teaching will really be based on observation and
experiment. In summer there is endless material. In winter it is more
difficult to realise the opportunities of the moment ; but the long nights
favour astronomy, the bare earth suggests geology, the weather is always
a source of anxiety, the frost without and fire within suggest lessons on
heat and cold. As much as possible of the summer botany course should
be unloaded on to the earliest weeks of spring whilst twigs are bare.

For younger children the topic for the object-lesson may very well be
chosen from week to week, and may depend simply on what is most
available ; for the upper standards teachers will rightly wish to plan
some more systematic course. But this plan should retain some elasticity
in order to fit with the season. If the different stages of the opening
chestnut bud are to be watched, they must be seized almost to a day, and
yet one year they may open a fortnight before or after their date on the
previous year. If the natural order Rosacew is being studied, we must
remember to gather roses while we may.

AA2

356

JANUARY.

Trees ; twigs, branches, bark. Ever-

greens.

Snow. Ice.
FEBRUARY.

Bulbs, corns, tubers.

Catkins.

The lengthening day.

Flooded rivers.
MARCH.

Development of birds.

Seeds and seedlings.

Wind. Equinox. Spring tide.

moon,

View from hill-top. Making maps.
APRIL.

Opening buds.

Rain. Clouds.

Flowers. Migrant birds. Birds’ nests.
May.

Frost.

Full

Experiments on plants. Rate of
growth.

Development of hen’s eggs in incuba-
tor.

Tnsect life. Bees.

Dew.

REPORT—1904.

JUNE.
Experiments on plants.
Butterflies.
Pollination of flowers.
Longest day. Solstice.
Hay-making.
JULY.
Plants.
Caterpillars.
AUGUST.
Heather.
Chrysalis.
SEPTEMBER.
Harvest.
Seeds and seed-distribution.
Equinox. Shortening days.
OCTOBER.
Fruits. Germination of seeds.
Falling leaves. Rain. Rivers.
Planets and constellations.
NOVEMBER.
Fog.
Stones.
DECEMBER.
Snow. Ice. Frost.
Solstice. Shortest day.

Assimilation.

The Living Plant.

The study of the living plant from the experimental side may be
regarded as suitable for elementary schools. It satisfies the following

important requirements :—

(i) It can be made experimental, and most of the experiments are

such as can be repeated by the pupils.

The experiments are often of a

continuous character and afford some training in measurement and

recording.
experiments.

Tt is wise to emphasise the quantitative side of many of the

(ii) The subject forms a connected series of lessons, the later work
developing originally out of the earlier.
(iii) The experimental teaching in school is easily linked to the out-

door life of field and hedgerow with which country children are familiar.
Again, it is readily illustrated by practical examples drawn from the work
on the garden and on the farm, so that the children learn that school
work may have a bearing on their after life.

While plant life forms a very generally suitable indoor subject for
elementary schools, there should be a good deal of flexibility about the
nature of the accompanying outdoor work. With some teachers garden-
ing, with others field botany or geology, forms the accompaniment. The
teacher should be encouraged to develop a speciality according to his own
tastes and the advantages or restrictions of his locality. Thus for a
school among osier-beds the natural history of the willow is an admirable
subject.

Out of Doors.

Tt is now within the power of all elementary teachers to take the
school out of doors for a lesson and to count it in the time-table,
Inspectors are sympathetic, and it is frequently done.

ON STUDIES SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 357

Every syllabus that includes the shadow of a stick at noon or the
nightly turning of the Great Bear about the Pole prescribes topics which
it may be impossible to treat practically in lessons held at 2.30 in the
afternoon. But this is just the reason why the routine of school work
may suitably be broken to allow children to witness exceptional natural
phenomena—a great flood, a high tide, or an eclipse of the sun—-
phenomena whose times of occurrence are not within our control.

In schools which possess a garden much can be done by the children
init. Simple experiments in assimilation, pollination, grafting, &c., can
be tried. Where classification is studied the making of order beds by the
children is a great assistance. When it is impossible to work in a garden,
experiments may be carried on in window-boxes.

Excursions should be made to Janes and fields at all times of the
year. Even in towns it is possible to study the branching of trees and
unfolding of buds and to become familiar with the aspects of different
trees in winter, spring, and summer.

To give definiteness to outdoor work some questions to be answered
may be set before starting a walk, and answers to them written out
afterwards.

Access to the Country.

Is it not possible that some city teachers, anxious to gain in Nature
lore, would find that a few years spent in working at a country school
would give them invaluable opportunities of studying things in the open
which previously they bad only heard of in lectures or read about in
books ?

The extent to which the children of the city may be usefully and
economically transported to the country for purposes of education remains
largely unexplored. The Sunday schools have demonstrated the possi-
bility of taking large numbers into the country for a single day’s outing.
The Children’s Country Holiday Fund and the various seaside camps
held during the summer show how to arrange for a few weeks of holiday.

These arrangements have in view chiefly the great need for fresh air
and holiday. But of definite, directed educational use of the country we
hear little as yet. The question of extending the advantages of a country
boarding-school education to the children of the poor is coming up for
discussion. One large city is already casting longing eyes on the country
schoolhouses standing empty during the holiday weeks whilst the town
children pine for fresh air. A good deal might be done by hearty co-
operation between city ard county educational authorities. Schemes are
mooted for sending out whole classes of city children under their own
teachers for a few weeks at a country school. Some voluntary help and
organisation, with special funds subscribed ad hoc, will probably be
necessary to carry these schemes through.

We hear of one London Board school taking its scholars far afield,
and a provincia] Board school has shown what brilliant use may be made
of the school journey. Some of cur secondary schools are emphatic as
to the usefulness of such journeys lasting more than one day. In Swit-
zerland they have a much more recognised place as a part of general
education. In our own elementary schools the difficulties are largely
financial.

358 REPORT—1904.

Incidental Teaching.

Those who are not naturalists by hobby may do much to encourage
children by giving their moral support to the simple interests of the way-
side. Children may be encouraged to bring curiosities with them to
school. Many schools now have a rack of bottles to receive wild flowers
picked on the way to school; a slate reserved for Nature notes, where
the first scholar who sees a swallow may enter the fact. Pots of growing
seedlings may occupy the window-sills. Aquariums are always interest-
ing, and a caterpillar cage might be tried.

We hesitate to say much about school museums, unless they are to be
annually burnt. Their use is in the making, not in the keeping. The
course of instruction should be based upon specimens which may be
handled freely, and, if necessary, pulled to pieces. But there is great use
in a small glass case where objects brought in by the scholars may be
placed at once and where every one may see them. This would become
a ‘collection of instructive labels illustrated by appropriate specimens.’
But not for long ; the contents must be changed more often than a shop
window if interest is to be maintained.

Collections.

The collecting instinct is sufficiently strong at the ages we are
discussing. The collector is often a naturalist in embryo ; he is therefore
to be judiciously led into the paths of progress. In certain directions—
notably birds’-nesting—restraint more than encouragement may seem
necessary ; but numerous recent books illustrated by photographs of
birds’ nests show the possibility of teaching children to watch without
destroying. The general line is to wean a boy gently from mere collecting
to collecting with a purpose ; to collecting and observing, and then to the
collection of observations in a notebook kept for the purpose. Collecting
is a great help to accuracy of observation, and the boy who brings back a
collection of pebbles from the seashore or of grasses from a hayfield will
know far more about what he carries in his hand than a schoolfellow who
has never troubled to pick up anything. Children may be encouraged to
try how many different sorts of wild roses they can find along a country
lane, and to write notes on their differences.

The collecting instinct is a great motive power, if rightly directed.
It should be used to solve special problems. And if prizes are offered,
they need not be for the largest or best collection of wild flowers, but for
collections illustrating insect pollination, or seed dispersal, or climbing
plants.

Books.

We agree in thinking that books should only play a very subordinate
part in teaching intended to bring elementary school children into first-
hand contact with facts.

For boys over fourteen, attending a secondary school, ready to do
some evening preparation and coming from homes where the cost of books
is not too overwhelming, the answer would be different ; but the caution
that their first introduction should be to the real thing becomes even
more important. We do not suppose that, at the ages of twelve to four-

a

a” - == =.

ON STUDIES SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 359

teen, children can usefully be set to learn lessons from any book which
has not previously been explained to them.

A natural history reading-book should never be accepted as Nature
study in school. Many a teacher, feeling his own ignorance, may be glad
to use such a book to rouse an interest in what he feels himself incom-
petent to teach. There are many such books which might suitably be
put into school libraries or given as prizes ; to name dead authors only,
we might mention Wood’s ‘Common Objects of the Country,’ Waterton’s
‘Essays on Natural History,’ White’s ‘ Natural History of Selborne,’ and
Buckland’s ‘ Curiosities of Natural History.’

Voluntary Help.

It is just in the country schools, where it is impossible to expect the
professional teachers to be specialists in every department at once, that
we are most likely to appeal successfully to local residents for help.
Leave from the squire to see his new agricultural machinery, a visit
to any well-kept flower garden or apiary, help to the pupil-teachers in
naming flowers, gifts of books to the school library—any of these would
be a great assistance. The difficulties are often personal and real—the
teachers know best when the children are interested and when they are
tired—and ail help extended to the teachers gets through to the children.
We want to enlist for the elementary schools the same kind of help from
enthusiastic governors, parents, old scholars, and friends which has already
done so much for the secondary school. There is already a Society for
encouraging work in this direction—Secretary, Miss Isabel Fry, 8r Oxford
and Cambridge Mansions, N.W.

Local Natural History Societies.

The Committee of the Corresponding Societies inform us that they
are anxious to know how they can best assist Nature study in schools.
We suggest for their consideration—

(i) There are many members of these societies who are also members
of the local education authorities, who could therefore do much to bring
the best ideals of teaching to the knowledge of their colleagues, and
whose personal influence would lubricate any organisation or arrangement
that might be necessary to carry out these ideals—for instance, in getting
flowers from the parks supplied to the schools.

(ii) The present is an opportune moment for these societies to bring
the advantages of membership to the knowledge of elementary school
teachers. They need help in new studies, and the personal goodwill and
companionship of local naturalists will often be useful.

Schools for Educational Experiments.

In advising as to the best work for public elementary schools we
ought to look for ideals among the ‘preparatory schools,’ where boys of
the same ages are being taught under conditions which ought to favour
individual initiative and enterprise. These schools are dominated by the
entrance and scholarship examinations of the public schools. We are
glad to notice that Elementary Science has been made an optional sub-
ject in the new ‘Common Examination for Entrance to Public Schools.’

360 REPORT—1904.

It is of great importance that any such paper should encourage great
elasticity of treatment in the schools—as might be done by giving some
choice of questions—and still more important that the questions should
involve direct observation of Nature, a personal acquaintance with simple
manipulations, and a thoughtful consideration of everyday occurrences.
Arithmetic, mechanics, and botanical bookwork we do not commend as
either experiment or observation.

Criticisms.

Some serious defects which have been noticed in Nature study teach-
ing as at present conducted are :—

(i) An attempt is made to cover too much ground, hence experiments
and measurements are shirked because they take time and involve pre-
paration on the part of the teacher. Experiments are described instead
of performed, and a drawing on the blackboard takes the place of realities.
This is the commonest and most vicious defect in such teaching.

(ii) Unsuitable subjects are often taken, especially with the idea of
being practical. It is no use dictating notes on haymaking to a class
when there is no opportunity of seeing the process carried out.

(iii) On the other hand, there is a great lack of system. A lesson on
opening buds is followed by one on tadpoles or on the motions of the
moon. ‘The topics are all in season in March, but for Upper Standards
we think the course should become more systematic.

(iv) When a definite course is chosen it is often overloaded with
classification. The teacher seems to have the fear of a possible examiner
before him, and is afraid to omit anything. Sciénce is too often supposed
to consist of big words. ‘Amaryllis, fruit, a bilocular loculicidal inferior
capsule’ need not appear in the notebook of a boy of thirteen.

Influence of Examinations.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. H. KE. Armsrrone (Chairman), Mr. R. A. GREGORY (Secretary),
the Bishop of HEREFoRD, Sir Micuaet Foster, Sir P. Maanus,
Sir A. W. Rtcker, Sir O. J. LopGr, Mr. H. W. Eve, Mr. W. A.
SHENSTONE, Mr. W. D. Eaaar, Professor MarsHaLtL Warp,
Mr. F. H. NEvILue, Mrs. W. N. SHaw, and Dr. C. W. Kimmins.

ALTHOUGH there is a strong consensus of opinion as to the evil effects
produced by the existing system of examinations, very diverse views are
held as to the remedies which should be introduced ; and it may not be
easy to secure acceptance of modifications which would make it possible to
direct the education afforded by schools into really effective channels.
Success can only be secured by the growth of a sound public opinion on
such matters. Meanwhile there are many forces at work tending to
bring about improvement. The conditions laid down by the Board of
Education for admission to the register of teachers are likely to affect
both teachers and schools in no slight degree: by leading those who
intend to take up the work of teaching to undergo special training for
their office, and by bringing schools under inspection in order that they
may secure recognition. Moreover, many of the new education authori-
ties are displaying marked interest in the problems of education,

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 361

The question of examinations has entered upon a new phase, and a
more hopeful situation has been created by the issue, on July 12 last, by
the Board of Education, Whitehall, of suggestions for a system of school
certificates which have been submitted to the Board by the Consultative
Committee. It is to be noted that the Board refrain, in offering the
scheme for public criticism, from the expression of any view as to the
desirability or feasibility of the proposals—and are not at present com-
mitted to any action in the matter,

The Scotch Education Department has long granted leaving certi-
ficates in single subjects ; since 1902 it has given certificates for success
in groups of subjects. There is a tendency more and more to correlate
examination with inspection, and to call in the services of the teachers as
well as to take into account the work done by scholars during their school
career.

Examinations are held under the Centra] Welsh Board of Intermediate
Education, and upon them certificates are granted which meet with a limited
amount of recognition in lieu of other examinations. The majority of the
members of the Board are actively engaged in the management of the
schools under the jurisdiction of the Board, the headmasters and head-
mistresses having special representation. It is said to be the aim of the
Board that every school should, as far as possible, be examined on a
curriculum of its own choice ; schools may accordingly, in each year,
submit alternatives to the syllabuses of the Board in all or any of the
subjects.

Some of the examinations held by the Oxford Delegacy of Local
Examinations, the Cambridge Syndicate of Local Examinations, and the
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, serve the purpose
of leaving certificates in a measure, inasmuch as they carry exemp-
tion from certain qualifying examinations ; but these examinations are
conducted by boards unconnected with the schools, and do not take into
cognisance the work of the scholars.

The University of London has recently put in operation a scheme for
the award of leaving certificates to scholars in schools under inspection
approved by the University.

In none of the English examinations is the opinion of the teacher of
the pupil’s abilities taken into account in the manner customary in the
the German Abiturienten-Examen. An interesting account, by Professor
M. E. Sadler, of the manner in which this examination is conducted in
the secondary schools of Prussia, will be found in Vol. V. of the Report
of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, 1894.

In the United States certain of the universities have taken a step far
in advance of European practice by admitting (without examination)
pupils from recognised high schools.!

To facilitate comparison, the proposals of the Consultative Committee
are printed hereafter in full, together with notes on the Scotch leaving
certificate, the London University scheme, and the remarks made by
Professors.

1 Principal Reichel and Dr. Gregory Foster in the Mosely Commission Report on
the American accrediting system.

362 REPORT— 1904.

Proposals of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education
Jor a System of School Certificates.

THE following letter, addressed by the Secretary of the Consultative
Committee to the Secretary of the Board of Education on June 1,
1904, explains the origin of the proposals :—

‘I am directed by the Consultative Committee to forward the follow-
Ing statement in answer to the Board’s reference of 20th March, 1902.
The Committee think it may be well to give a short account of what has
taken place in connection with that reference.

‘ Towards the end of 1901 the Board of Education received a letter
from the General Medical Council, forwarding a memorial addressed to
that Council by the Head Masters’ Conference. The memorial had also
been sent to—

‘The Pharmaceutical Society, the Incorporated Law Society, the
Royal Institute of British Architects, the Institution of Civil Engineers,
the Institute of Actuaries, the Institute of Chartered Accountants, the
Society of Accountants.

‘Its object was to draw attention to the grave inconvenience and waste
of time caused by the multiplicity of examinations for entrance into pro-
fessions. It pointed out that five of the bodies named held examinations
of this kind themselves, which, although substantially identical in standard,
were altogether diverse in the details of their requirements. The effects
of this diversity were very serious, not only to schools, by rendering it
impossible for boys working for the different examinations to be taught
together, but also to the education of the boys preparing for the examina-
tions, by depriving them of regular class instruction during their pre-
paration. It was also observed that although these five bodies, as well as
the others which do not examine, publish lists of examining bodies whose
certificates they accept, the relief given was very partial, as no two lists
were the same.

‘The Head Masters’ Conference suggested the institution of a single
examination, to be held at centres three times a year ; also that if possible
a list of equivalents to this examination should be arranged for, to be
adopted in common by all the bodies. They proposed that a conference
should be held between representatives of the Councils concerned, of the
Universities, the Board of Education, the Head Masters’ Conference, and
the Incorporated Association of Head Masters for the purpose of devising
a scheme to put their suggestions into effect.

‘The Board referred the correspondence to the Consultative Com-
mittee for their advice. Some specific questions in relation to the
reference were framed by the Board, and the Committee were asked to
answer them. On an examination of the matter, after collecting the
necessary information, the Committee found that it was impossible for
them to answer the Board’s questions in a really satisfactory way without
formulating their views on the best method of testing the instruction
given in a secondary school, as it appeared to them that this was at the
root of the whole subject. On this account it appeared to the Committee
that the first step required was to ascertain the general attitude of those
whom a change in the present system would chiefly affect—namely, the

ON THE INFLUENCE OF BXAMINATIONS. 363

Universities and the teaching profession—as well as that of professional
bodies concerned. The Committee therefore suggested that the reference
originally made to them might be extended so as to include the general
question. The Board, after conferring with the Committee, authorised
them to make all necessary inquiries. The Board promised to give their
careful consideration to any scheme which might be drawn up as a result,
only stipulating that it should be clearly understood and explained that
they did not engage themselves to take any action, if action on their part
was proposed, and must not be regarded as committed to an endorsement
of any proposals made by the Committee. Although sympathising in the
desire of the Committee to reduce the number of examinations, the Board
were obliged to view the question not on its own merits alone, but in
connection with the whole of their educational policy.

‘Under the Board’s sanction the three undermentioned Conferences
were arranged and held by the Committee during the year 1903 :—

‘(1) Held on the 8th and 9th May with representatives of the
following Universities :—

‘ Birmingham University, Cambridge University, Durham University,
London University, Oxford University, Victoria University.

*(2) Held on the 2nd July, 1903, with representatives of the follow-
ing associations of teachers :—

‘Head Masters’ Conference, Association of Head Masters, Association
of Head Mistresses.

*(3) Held on the 4th December, 1903, with representatives of the
following professional bodies :—

‘Society of Accountants, Institute of Actuaries, Royal Institute of
British Architects, Institute of Bankers, Institute of Chemistry, Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, General Medical Council, Pharmaceutical
Society.

A representative from the War Office and one from the Civil Service
Commission also attended this Conference.

‘At these Conferences a provisional scheme for the institution of
school certificate examinations, which had been drawn up by the Com-
mittee, was used as a basis of discussion. The views expressed at the
first Conference gave ground for making certain modifications in this
scheme ; the modified scheme was discussed at the two last Conferences
without alteration.

‘Two more Conferences of a similar character were held in the early
part of the present year.

‘(4) On the 25th of February with representatives of the College
of Preceptors.

*(5) On the 25th of February with representatives of the Private
Schools Association.

‘The Committee have also had the advantage of hearing the evidence
of Mr. J. Struthers, of the Scotch Education Department, who gave them
some interesting information relating to the working of the Leaving
Certificate system of the Department.

364 REPORT—1904.

‘ After careful consideration of the opinions expressed at these Con
ferences and of the present circumstances of secondary schools in the
country, they have drawn up the annexed scheme containing proposals
for a system of school certificates for England.

‘In framing the proposals due consideration has been given to the
position of the various bodies by which the work of examination is now
carried on, both in relation to the present and to the future.

‘The Committee have considered a very large number of minor points
on which they do not here report, as they believe that a broad outline of
their proposals not too much cumbered with details is, for the present at
any rate, what is required. They submit these proposals in the confident
belief that the adoption of the plan suggested would result in very
substantial benefits to secondary and higher education in this country.’

The following are the proposals of the Committee :—

The Consultative Committee are of opinion :—

(1) That, with the object of diminishing the multiplicity of examina-
tions affecting secondary schools, and of providing a test of adequate
general education which may be widely accepted, a general system of
school certificates is desirable.

The well-known term ‘ Leaving Certificate’ has been purposely avoided
because it is to some extent misleading and is not unfrequently misunder-
stood,

(2) That it is not desirable that examinations for such certificates
should be conducted by means of papers set for the whole country from
a single central organisation.

This clause must be read together with clause (6). It will be found
that it is not the intention of these proposals to ignore the influence of
the State in the supervision of a general system of examinations. On the
other hand, it is important to prevent the evils which would almost
certainly arise from the State having the sole responsibility in the matter.
The desirability of bringing the examining body into closer relation with
the teacher being recognised, it is obvious that in dealing with a popula-
tion of more than 30,000,000 and a large number and great variety of
schools, this object can only be effectively attained by the establishment
of more than one examining body. The success of the Scottish and Welsh
systems seems to be largely due to the limited number of schools with
which they have to deal.

(3) That such examinations should be controlled by a recognised
examining body, which should be either (1) a University, or (2) a com-
bination of Universities, or (3) an Examination Board representative of a
University or Universities and of the local authorities which are prepared
to co-operate with them. It is desirable that whatever the examining
body may be, teachers of schools should, where possible, be represented,
and with regard to (3), that every such Board should contain a Jarge
academic element.

The proposal to form in some cases Boards representing local authori-
ties and teachers in the schools as well as Universities may afford an
opportunity for making an important new departure. Those local

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 365

authorities especially which aid the schools and may perhaps pay the
examination fees may be glad to be associated with a neighbouring
University. There is further a growing body of public opinion in favour
of associating the teachers in the schools with duties of this kind.

No general rule can be laid down requiring a school to be examined
by a particular examining body. It may often be desirable that a school
should be examined by the University or Board of the district in which
it is situate. On the other hand a school may prefer to preserve or to
create a connection with one of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, or
London. It is recognised that it would not be desirable, if it were
possible, to disregard the non-local character of these Universities, or
the position which their examinations occupy all over the country. The
proposals are based on the assumption that it will ultimately be best for
the secondary schools which are maintained or largely aided by local
authorities to look to provincial examining bodies for the organisation of
their examinations, and it is not improbable that local authorities may
prefer their doing so ; but in any case there will be a period of transition
during which the new system and the existing University examinations
will run side by side for all classes of schools, and the higher secondary
schools will doubtless always retain complete liberty in the choice of their
examining body.

(4) That recognition of these examining bodies should mean recogni-
tion by the Board of Education, acting on the advice of the Consultative
Committee.

(5) That the following conditions should be required from schools
which present candidates for school certificates :—

(a) Periodical Inspection. Whether this inspection be conducted by
officers of the Board of Education, or by a University or other organisa-
tion recognised under Section 3 of the Board of Education Act, 1899, the
report of the inspection should be communicated to the examining body.

(6) The communication of the course of studies pursued in the school
to the examining body.

That an examining body should be at liberty to decline to examine
a school if the result of the inspection has not been, in their opinion,
satisfactory ; or if the course of studies is such as they are not able to
approve.

It is considered that in this connection inspection and examination
should be treated as complementary one to ths other. Inspection is
required, in the first place to enable the examining body to judge whether
a school is fitted to be admitted to the benefits of the system ; but it
is also required to enable the examiners to understand the aims and
characters of the different schools, and so, on the one hand, to prevent the
examination from becoming mechanical and rigid, and on the other to
check any tendency in the school to direct its efforts too exclusively to
success in the examination.

(6) That a Central.Board should be established for England (excluding,
for the present, Wales and Monmouth), consisting of representatives from
the Board of Education and from the different examining bodies, whose
duty should be to co-ordinate and control the standards of these exami-
nations, to secure the interchangeability of certificates, and to consider

366 REPORT—1904.

and as far as possible to adjust the relations of the examining bodies and
their spheres of external action.

Although absolute identity of standard between examinations con-
ducted by different bodies and in different places may be an impossible
ideal, practical equivalence can probably be secured. Further, more than
one combination of subjects may be held to represent a good general
education. It will be the duty of the Central Board to see that a suffi-
cient minimum standard is maintained in each subject, so that certificates
including these subjects, wherever given, may possess a generally recog-
nised and interchangeable value, and further, that these certificates
represent in each case a good general education.

(7) That the Board of Education should constitute this Central
Board as soon as, in their opinion, a sufficient number of recognised
examining bodies have signified their willingness to be represented there-
upon, and should take all steps that may be necessary to procure the
acceptance of the certificates by the professional bodies.

(8) That since an examination held with the co-operation of the
school in which a scholar has been taught is more likely to lead to a just
estimate of the knowledge which he possesses than one held entirely by an
outside body, the examination should be conducted in each school by
external and internal examiners, representing respectively the examining
body and the school staff.

(9) That the course of the work pursued by a scholar during his school
career should be recorded and reported on by his teachers, and that this
school record and report should be available for reference in deciding his
fitness or unfitness to obtain a certificate.

The suggestion here is that an examiner, in any case in which he
desires to do so, should be able to judge of the character of a candidate’s
school career. The school records and reports need not be of uniform
pattern. What is required is that such materials shall be accessible as
will enable an examiner to judge whether the scholar’s school career has
been satisfactory or not. These materials will include, at the least, the
curriculum of all the classes which a candidate has attended, a note of
the time he spent in each, and periodical reports of his industry, regu-
larity, and progress.

(10) That the headmaster or headmistress of the school should certify
that the candidate has received instruction during the necessary period,
and is, in his or her opinion, fit to enter for the examination.

(11) That the external examiner or examiners should have control of
the examination, and should have a veto on the passing of any candidate.

(12) That the papers should be set by the external examiner, after
consultation with the internal examiner.

This consultation does not necessarily involve a series of personal
interviews previous to the examination. Full information as to the
courses of study pursued by the candidate would in the first instance be
supplied to the examining body for the information of the external
examiner. The books read, whether in English, classical, or foreign
literature, and the courses of history or geography studied, the practical
work done, &c., would thus be reported. The internal examiner, also,
would suggest series of questions, or indicate points upon which, in his

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 367

opinion, questions should be set ; and in general the two examiners would
correspond on the subject-matter of the examination paper. The paper
should, however, be finally made up by the external examiner on his own
responsibility.

(13) That the allocation of work in reading and marking papers
should be determined by the examining body, provided that papers which
are near the minimum pass mark should be considered by both examiners.

(14) That oral and practical examinations should be conducted by
the external and internal examiners acting in concert, who should, subject
to Section 11, jointly assess the mark for each candidate in this part of any
examination,

(15) That in language examinations no special books should be pre-
scribed, but that passages should be included from the books used in the
school as well as unseen passages. Thatan oral examination should always
be held in the case of modern languages.

(16) That there should be a senior certificate for pupils who have
received not less than four years’ instruction in a school orschools accepted
for examination under Section (5).

That there should be a junior certificate limited to pupils under sixteen
years of age who have received not less than three years’ instruction in a
school or schools accepted for examination under Section (5).

With reference to the number of years of instruction required, it will
be desirable at first to give some latitude to the Central Board.

(17) That no certificates for honours or marks for special distinction
should be given, but that it should be open to the examiners to recommend
the award of scholarships within a school or group of schools when called
upon to do so.

(18) That scholars who are in a school which, in the opinion of the
Board of Education, is unable to conform to these regulations, might be

allowed to enter for the examinations under special regulations approved
by the Central Board.

The Leaving Certificates of the Scotch Education Department.

These certificates are not awarded on the results of an examination
alone, but, in addition, the Department require to be satisfied that the
course of instruction followed by candidates has been of adequate range
and quality, and that proper attention has been paid to those elements
of the curriculum which do not admit of being tested by examination
papers.

This is ascertained by inspection of schools where candidates are at
work, including oral examination by the inspector.

A Leaving Certificate examination is held annually at a number of
centres, usually the schools from which candidates are presented.

In the case of subjects other than science and drawing, the examina-
tion is a written one held in June at all centres simultaneously.

The papers in any subject are the same at all centres.

There are three standards in the written examination : Lower, Higher,
and Honours Grade.

The examinations in science and drawing are based more directly on the

curriculum and work of schools, care being taken to preserve uniformity
of standard.

368 REPORT—1904.

The science examination is chiefly oral and practical ; at that in draw-
ing, previous work at the school is taken into consideration. Both are
conducted by inspectors or persons specially appointed, and are held at
the schools themselves at convenient dates towards the end of the summer
session.

There is only one grade of examination in science and drawing.

The Leaving Certificate examinations in these various grades are open
to the pupils of all schools under the inspection of the Department—i.e.
practically all schools, elementary or secondary, in Scotland; but the
Leaving Certificate proper, subsequently referred to, is intended solely for
pupils who do not propose to return to school.

Two kinds of certificate are issued :—

(1) The Leaving Certificate (proper).
(2) The Intermediate Certificate.

The certificates (a) show the subjects and grades of subject in which
the examination has been passed ; (b) do not bear any special endorse-
ment of ability to converse in a modern language ; but no certificate for
modern languages is issued to the pupils of a school in which the inspector
reports that this side of the instruction has been neglected, or in which
pronunciation has been found to be unsatisfactory.

The Leaving Certificate (proper) is intended to mark the completion
of a full course of secondary education. It is limited to pupils above
seventeen years of age on October 1 in the year in which they pass the last
of the written examinations that would fall to be recorded on the face of
the certificate. Applicants must also have received instruction at some
recognised school for not less than four years. It may be regarded as
about equivalent to Matriculation Standard, in some respects it is higher. !

Candidates must pass in four subjects of the Higher Grade Standard
or in three of the Higher Grade Standard and two of the Lower. English
and Mathematics are compulsory. At least one language other than
English must be taken.

Science only counts as one subject.

The Intermediate Certificate is intended to meet the case of schools
which are not able to retain their pupils long enough to enable them to
complete a full course of secondary education. It is limited to pupils
above fifteen years of age who have received instruction at some recognised
school for not less than two years.

Candidates for the Intermediate Certificate must have passed in four
subjects, at least one of these subjects being in the Higher Grade Standard.
Otherwise the conditions are similar to those prescribed for the Leaving
Certificate (proper).

The Leaving Certificate and the Intermediate Certificate are accepted
in lieu of preliminary examinations by the following bodies :—

The Lords of Council and Session (for the purposes of the Law Agents
Act) ;

The University of Oxford ;

The University of Cambridge ;

! Tt is acknowledged to be higher than the Preliminary Examination of the
Scotch Universities, and in some subjects approximates to the standard required for

the University degree.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 369

The Joint Board of the Scottish Universities for the Preliminary
Examination ;

The General Medical Council ;

The Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh ;

The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ;

The Society of Solicitors before the Supreme Courts ;

The Chartered Accountants of Scotland ;

The London Chamber of Commerce ;

Girton College, Cambridge ; and

Royal Holloway College, Englefield Green, Surrey.

Generally these equivalents take account only of the individual subjects
recorded on the certificate. All Leaving Certificates would be accepted,
but candidates holding Intermediate Certificates only might also be
accepted on account of the individual passes secured by them.

Detailed information with respect to these certificates is given in the
Annual Report of the Committee of Council on Education in Scotland,
1901-2, vide pages 383-407 and pages 315, 316.

University or Lonpon.

Regulations for the School Huamination (Matriculation and Higher
Standard) and for the School-leaving Certificate.

(1) The University is prepared to award School-leaving Certificates
under the following conditions to pupils on leaving school who have satis-
fied the following conditions :—

(i) Have pursued an approved course of study for a period of years
at a school under inspection approved by the University.

If the school is not actually inspected by the University within the
year, or if the school has never been inspected by the University, it will
be required as a condition of entering candidates for the School-leaving
Certificate to pay a fee of 5/. This will cover the visit of the inspector
to hold an oral examination, and for the present this will be accepted by
the University as satisfying the above condition as to inspection.

(ii) Have in the School Examination attained a standard at least
equal to that of the Matriculation Examination in the requisite subjects,
have satisfied an oral test in Modern Languages and in any other subject
that may be thought desirable, and have passed in accordance with the
Regulations of the Matriculation Examination affecting the subjects to be
taken. (See extract from Matriculation Regulations, p. 372.)

It is not contemplated by the University that pupils should neces-
sarily, or even generally, leave school as soon as they have passed the
School Examination (Matriculation Standard). The School-leaving Cer-
tificate will not be awarded until the pupil has qualified to be registered as
a matriculated student of the University and is about to leave school.

(2) Any school desiring to present pupils for the School-leaving Certi-
ficate will be required to submit to the University a general statement of
the complete course of instruction given in the school, and also the curri-
culum of study pursued by the candidates. In judging the adequacy
of the curriculum for the purpose of the certificate, the University will
take into consideration its suitablility to the school and pupils concerned

1904. BB

370 REPORT—1904.

having regard to the width and completeness of the course of study as
a whole and not merely to its compliance with the requirements of the
Matriculation Examination. In consequence the University may, in
arranging the Scheme of Examination with any school, limit the options
as compared with those open to individual candidates at the Matriculation
Examination, and may, with the consent of the authorities of the school,
require additional subjects or papers to be taken.
(3) The School Examination may be conducted either—

(a) By means of the Matriculation Examination Papers or equivalent
papers, together with any additional papers of the same standard that
may be found necessary in relation to the school curriculum, or

(6) By Special Advanced Papers of Higher Standard set for particular
schools, groups of schools or groups of candidates in a_ particular
school ;

together with, both in the case of (a) and in that of (d), an oral ex-
amination in certain subjects, especially Modern Languages.

(4) The Special Advanced Papers will be set in one or more subjects
in cases where the University is of opinion that adequate evidence has
been adduced that the standard attained by the school in such subject or
subjects is markedly higher than that of the corresponding subject of the
Matriculation Examination.

(5) Any pupil in a school at which Special Advanced Papers are set
for the School Examination will, if unusual merit is displayed in those
papers, have a mark of distinction affixed to his name, indicating the
subject or subjects in which he has distinguished himself. In this case
the certificate shall be described as a Certificate with Distinction in the
subject or subjects in question.

(6) The five subjects required to satisfy the Matriculation Regulations
must be taken at one and the same time, but a candidate who in any one
examination has passed in all the subjects required to make his certificate
equivalent to the Matriculation Examination, shall at any subsequent
examinations be allowed to take such additional subject or subjects, or
such Special Advanced Paper or Papers, as the authorities of the school
may approve. The fact that he has passed in such additional subject or
subjects or Special Advanced Paper or Papers, together with any marks
of distinction he may have obtained, shall be indicated on his certificate
or in an appendix thereto.

(7) Any pupil who has passed the School Examination (Matriculation
Standard) and who has thereafter passed an Intermediate Examination
while still a pupil at the school, shall be entitled to have this fact
endorsed on his certificate.

(8) Any pupil who has passed the School Examination with a view to
the School-leaving Certificate, will be entitled although not leaving school
to be registered as a matriculated student of the University without
further examination or payment, provided he has attained at least the age
of sixteen years.

(9) Any pupil who has not entered for all of the subjects required, or
- has not passed the examination in all of them, shall be entitled to have
his attainments set out on a document which will state the subjects in
which the pupil has reached the approved standard, but this shall in no
case be accepted in lieu of any part of the Matriculation Examination, or
of the School Examination with a view to the School-leaving Certificate.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 371

(10) The course of study pursued by the pupil at the school, his age,
the period during which he has attended, and the subjects in which he
has reached the standard required by the University, will be stated on
the School-leaving Certificate, which shall only be presented to him when
he actually leaves the school.

(11) Any pupil at a school inspected by the University who—

(a) Distinguishes himself in any form of manual, artistic, or technical
skill ; or

(6) Displays any form of general or special capacity not tested by the
examination ;

may, if it is desired by the authorities of the school, have a note to this
effect added to his certificate.

If desired, the University will undertake to examine in Music and
Drawing, and to indicate on the certificate proficiency in these subjects.!

(12) In cases where the Matriculation Examination Papers are used
for the purpose of the School Examination (Matriculation Standard) the
examination will be held on the same days, at the same hours, and under
the same conditions as an ordinary Matriculation Examination, and the
school may for that purpose become a subordinate centre for the exami-
nation, provided there shall be a sufficient number of candidates from
the school, and certain conditions are fulfilled. The University will be
prepared in order to meet the wishes of a school or group of schools, to
hold a School Examination at a time other than that of the ordinary
Matriculation Examination or the time fixed for a regular School Exami-
nation, provided the whole cost of such special examination is borne by
the school or group of schools.

(13) The University has appointed a small Board of Inspectors, con-
sisting of persons largely experienced in teaching, who act as Moderators
for the Matriculation Examination, and are at the same time responsible
for maintaining the standard of the School-leaving Certificate.

(14) The University is prepared to co-operate with local authorities
not only by undertaking the inspection of schools which are under the
control of such authorities, but also by reporting on the result of the
School Examination with a view to the award of any scholarships and
exhibitions offered by such authorities. A small additional fee will in this
latter case be charged to meet the cost of a second revision of the papers
by the University Examiners, with a view to the candidates being placed
in order of merit.

The University will offer to the Governing Bodies of those schools at
which Special Advanced Papers are taken similar facilities for the award
of school scholarships and prizes.

(15) The authorities of any school at which the School Examination
either of Matriculation Standard or Higher Standard is to be held, should
obtain from the Registrar of the University Extension Board a form of
entry for each candidate, which must be returned duly filled in six weeks
before the date on which the examination will begin, accompanied in
each case by a certificate of birth or other evidence as to age. At the
same time the fee of 2/. for each candidate must be paid, unless the
school has entered into an arrangement with the University as to the

' Fuller particulars as to Music and Drawing will be found in the Regulations for
the Inspection of Schools.

BB2

872 REPORT—1904.

inclusive payment covering inspection and examinations referred to in
the Regulations for the Inspection and Examination of Schools.

(16) Each candidate for the School Examination either of Matriculation
Standard or Higher Standard will be required to pay a fee of 2/., and, if
successful, his name will, upon the production of satisfactory evidence that
he has attained the age of sixteen years, thereupon be placed upon the
Register of the University as a matriculated student.

An additional charge of 2/7. will be made for each Special Advanced
Paper set at a school. If two, three, or four schools are associated in
taking the same Special Advanced Papers the fee of 2/7. per paper will be
divided between them. If more than four are so associated each school
will be charged 10s. for every Special Paper.

A school not inspected within the year by the University will be
required, as a condition of entering candidates for the School Examina-
tion, to pay a fee of 5/.' and to be responsible for the fee and expenses of
the superintendent appointed to supervise the examination, should the
University think it necessary to appoint one, and a sufficient number of
candidates must be entered or the equivalent in fees be paid. If a school,
however, is at the same time inspected by the University, the inspection
fee will cover the above charge of 5/., and no limitation will be placed
upon the minimum number of candidates required to be entered. In this
case also the oral examination of candidates will be conducted by the
inspectors as a part of the inspection, and the inspectors may take into
account the results of the School Examination in making their report
upon the school.

Extracts FROM THE MATRICULATION REGULATIONS.

Candidates shall not be approved by the Examiners unless they have
shown a competent knowledge in each of the following five subjects,
according to the details specified under the several heads :—

(1) English. One paper of three hours.

(2) Elementary Mathematics. Two papers of three hours each.

(3) Latin, or Elementary Mechanics, or Elementary Physics (Heat,
Light, and Sound), or Elementary Chemistry, or Elementary Botany. One
paper of three hours in each subject.

(4) and (5) Two of the following subjects, neither of which has already
been taken under Section (3). One paper of three hours in each subject.
If Latin be not taken, one of the other subjects selected must be another
Language from the List, either ancient or modern :—

Then follows a list of subjects in the various departments of study.

In addition to the list of Science Subjects there given, ‘ General
Elementary Science,’ including practical work, may be taken for the
School Examination by schools possessing adequate facilities for practical
work.

The American Accrediting System.

The following is the account given by Principal Reichel in the

Mosely Commission Report :—

‘The accrediting system is the method by which the Universities in
the Middle West and West admit pupils from “accredited” or recognised

! This will cover the cost of the oral examination.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 373

High Schools without entrance examination. It began in 1872 at the
University of Michigan (Ann Arbor), and was the result of the drawing
together of the State University and the State High Schools for the
purpose of mutual support. At first a committee of the professors paid
an annual visit to the school and conducted a complete inspection and
examination. Soon this visit became triennial, and was confined to
inspection ; finally, as the work grew still heavier, it was taken over by
a special University inspector, who reported to the heads of the depart-
ments in the University. The inspector visits the schools without
previous notification, and his inquiry is exhaustive. If his report is
satisfactory the High School is “accredited” for three years. Graduates
from such an “accredited ” school are admitted to the University without
examination if certified by the principal of the school as having studied the
subjects required by the University and recommended by him as capable
of pursuing University study with profit. The responsibility is thus thrown
on the school, the reputation of which depends on certified students
proving satisfactory, for a certified student breaking down is liable to be
sent back. So strongly do the schools feel the responsibility that numbers
of students go up and pass the entrance examination whom their principals
have refused to certify. The advantages claimed for this system are :—

‘ For the University.—(1) That the standard of the certified student is
higher. This is shown by the figures of the first nine years’ working of
the system, based on 1,000 students and 10,000 acts of examination.
(2) The attendance is increased owing to the interest aroused amongst
the High School pupils by the visit of the University inspector.

‘ For the Schools,—The visits of the inspector are a powerful stimulus
(i) to the teachers, with whom he holds conferences, discussing difficulties
and making and hearing suggestions ; (ii) to the pupils, in whom it
arouses a spirit of inquiry about the University and lends dignity and
importance to their work ; (iii) to the localities, which think much more
of their school and are more ready to support it if it bears the stamp of
University approval. Finally, it provides governing bodies with an easy
test of school efficiency.

‘The number of schools accredited by the University of Michigan,
originally sixteen, has now risen to 250. As compared with the rival
system of entrance by examination only, which is maintained by the
Eastern Universities, it possesses the great educational advantage of
leaving the schools a freer hand in the choice of curriculum, and the still
greater one of removing the well-known evils which attend the preparation
by one set of men for examinations conducted by another set. On the
whole the private schools, so far as I have been able to learn, favour the
examination method, on the ground that it is a stimulus to work and
provides a useful standard. At a conference held at Baltimore in 1902
by the colleges and preparatory schools of the Middle States and Maryland
the subject was debated at length. Five of the speakers were against the
examination system, including James E. Russell, the Dean of Columbia
Teachers’ College, New York, and only two in favour of it. The balance
of argument was overwhelmingly against, the main points being :—

*(1) That the head of a school must be a better judge of the capacities
of his pupils, whose work he has seen for years, than an examiner who
views it on a single occasion and under normal conditions.

3874 REPORT—1904.

‘(2) That the preparation for outside examinations has a ruinous effect
on the system of instruction.

‘ The arguments of its supporters, on the other hand, implied incapacity,
or slackness, on the part of the school teacher.

‘In Minnesota the work of inspection is carried out, not by the
University, but by a State High School Board, of which the University
president is chairman, and which appoints a High School inspector.
This system is closely parallel to that of the Central Welsh Board in its
relation to the Secondary Schools of Wales. The attitude of the private
schools may be explained by the fact that their pupils are largely the
sons of rich parents and less prone to exertion, and that outside pressure
is therefore welcomed as an ally.

‘At a juncture when new Universities and new Secondary Schools
are being called into existence in England no feature of American
education seems to offer more helpful suggestions than the accrediting
system of the Middle West.’

The following statement, taken from the same source, is by Professor
Gregory Foster :—

‘It is a fundamental principle in American Universities that the
man who is fit to teach is also to be trusted to examine his own students.
The external examiner and the external examination system is practi-
cally unknown in the United States. The teachers are free, and being
free they are enabled to give to their courses a breadth and depth that
would be impossible were they hampered by the knowledge that their
students were to be tested by examiners who knew little or nothing of
them.

‘The tests and examinations for undergraduate students leading to the
bachelors’ degrees are conducted almost entirely by the individual teachers,
and with the most satisfactory results. There may be abuses from time
to time by individual teachers, but, as far as I was able to discover, the
evils resulting from such occasional abuses are less great and certainly
less widespread than the evils of the examination systems of the
British Universities. In the Universities of the States there seemed
to be an atmosphere of quiet study and scholarly work which is
apparently continuous throughout the session, and remains undisturbed
by feverish bursts of cramming that characterise British colleges and
Universities.

‘The American system requires elaborate daily care and guiding,
watching, and recording of students’ progress, but that care probably does
not involve a greater expenditure of energy than the organisation of the
unwieldy examination system of this country. Moreover, as it is spread
over a large period it cannot involve the terrible weariness that is brought
about by the British system.

‘ From the point of view of the student, I have no hesitation in saying
that the result is far better. When the American scheme is well carried
out it ensures continuous and steady work. It makes “slacking” impossible,
and thus prevents waste of time during some of the most critical and
valuable years of a young man’s life.

‘The influence on the teacher is no less salutary ; the American teacher
thinks of his functions as a teacher and director of studies, while the
British teacher is driven by force of circumstances to conceive and direct

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 375

his work entirely in terms of examination. As long as examinations
control the teaching, whether in Universities or schools in this country, so
long will the teaching continue to be academic in the worst sense of the
word, cribbed, cabined, and contined.

‘From what I saw in America I am convinced that in the free system
of teaching that exists there, even the week-kneed teacher gives stronger
guidance to his pupils and produces better educational results than we do.
The reason of this is obvious when we consider that in the American
system the teacher is judged by the standard that he makes for himself,
while with us the teacher has a standard imposed upon him by the
examining body round the corner, which is almost inevitably a standard
that tests whether the pupils have obtained the information to be found
in certain prescribed books. For the English teacher with a prescribed
amount of work to be got through in a certain time, whether such work
is suited to the ability of the class or to the teacher’s powers, life is a
continual rush. There is no time to deal in educational fashion with the
mistakes of his pupils ; they are simply told that they are wrong and one
of the others is set to put them right. Whereas for the American teacher
life is in comparison a leisurely one. He makes as much if not more
educational value out of the blunders of his weaker pupils as out of the
correct answers of the stronger ones. He cares for the development of
his class as a whole, and not mainly for that of those who will do him the
most credit in answering the questions of an outsider.

‘The degree to which examination by external bodies or examiners are
regarded as baneful both to the pupil and for educational organisation is
shown by the fact that they only exist for the purposes of professional
qualifications in certain States and for the purposes of admission to
Universities and colleges in certain other States. Even where they exist
the evils that have been so strongly felt in this country have been largely
guarded against. Thus an examination board has been formed by the
Association of Colleges and Preparatory (7.e. preparatory for the colleges
and Universities) Schools of the Middle States and Maryland for the
purpose of instituting a common standard for admission to the colleges
belonging to the association and of holding one examination for the
purpose of that admission. Great care has been taken that the examiners
in each case shal] be experienced teachers, and inasmuch as the examina-
tion for admission to college is the test of the work done in the preparatory
school, a large proportion of the examiners consists of masters who have
been teaching in one or other such school.

‘The papers set by this examination board seem to me on the whole
admirable and well calculated to stimulate good teaching. While this
has been done in the East in order to obviate the occurrence of many
examinations, and in order to remove the difficulties that beset the old-
fashioned Matriculation Examination which was mainly set by college or
University professors in the Middle West, an even more significant system
known as the accrediting system has been originated, and this system is
rapidly spreading into the East. The accrediting system seems to have
originated at the State University of Michigan, and to be largely due
to the wisdom and foresight of President Angel. The old system of
Matriculation Examination was not only found to be an unsatisfactory
test of the pupils, but was found to be an actual bar to any satisfactory
relations between the Universities and colleges and the schools. The
University of Michigan determined, therefore, to institute a list of high

376 REPORT—1904.

schools, to be known as “accredited schools,” from which schools pupils
who presented certificates of having satisfactorily passed the full four
years’ high school course would be received without examination into the
University. One of the University professors of education has for his
main function the visitation of schools with a view of testing their fitness
to be placed on the accredited list. He is from time to time assisted by
his professorial colleagues, who inspect the schools from the point of view
of their special subjects. Schools that are found satisfactory in all respects
are placed on the accredited list ; others have their deficiencies pointed
out to them, and are told that when these are remedied they, too, will be
put on the list.

‘When a school has been placed on the list it is still subject to inspec-
tion. It receives a report from the University upon each student that it
sends thereto at the end of his first session or first semester, as the case
may be. The University reserves to itself the right to refuse a student
who is found to be insufficiently prepared to go on with his studies, and
also the right to withdraw from the accredited list the name of any school
that is proved by the pupils that it sends up to have an unsatisfactory
standard. The result of this is that in the States where it has been
adopted the whole educational system has been unified and strengthened.
The University is lookéd up to as a counsellor and friend of the schools ;
the University teachers iearn much by continued intercourse with their
scholastic colleagues and vice versd.

‘In this way the barriers that exist in many countries between the
various grades and teachers are rapidly being removed, and, what is even
more important, the teaching of all classes of teachers is thereby made
more direct, more stimulating and attractive, to the students. Here and
there I met teachers who disliked the accrediting system and preferred
the old examination system, but the vast majority were strongly in favour
of the former. They pointed out that no system that had been, or as far
as they could see, could ever be devised, would ensure that all the students
entering a given class in a given year at the University would all approxi-
mately start with the same amount of training and learning.

‘ At the same time the accrediting system, as against the older system,
leaves the teacher and the taught free, and thereby stimulates better
training. So strong is the feeling in favour of this system in the Middle
West that even entrance scholarships to the colleges and Universities
are awarded by it. The entrance scholarships are allotted among the
accredited schools, each school taking its turn, and receiving as nearly as
possible the number of scholarships proportioned to its own number of
students, and to the number who proceed from the school to the Univer-
sity.

af The evidence given by Professor Harper in favour of the system was
very striking. He said that when he left Yale to go to Chicago he was
opposed to the accrediting system, but that experience in the Middle
West had led him to change his opinion, and that now he is a firm
believer in it. In order further to extend the system, and to prevent
needless repetition of work, the State Universities of the Middle West
propose to draw up a list of the schools that can be accredited by all of
them. The standard for this joint list is to be somewhat higher than the
standard adopted by the Universities singly for their several lists. As I
have already said, the system is gaining favour in the East, and with the
exception of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia Universities it has,

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 377

I understand, been adopted more or less by all the Eastern colleges and
Universities. This is a signal triumph and evidence of the value of a
course of study of fixed duration, carefully graded and carefully watched
at every turn, over the sort of racehorse method that turns our schools
into training grounds for the examination race that occupies a few days
at the end of a boy’s school career, and upon which his future is made to
depend to an alarming extent. This system is perhaps one of the most
noteworthy contributions of America to educational progress. Its adop-
tion indicates that America at all events realises that education is a slow
process which must be spread over certain fixed periods of time, that there
are no short cuts, that even though the boy may have acquired the
requisite information to answer the questions of an outside examiner, it
does not follow that he has been satisfactorily educated to the standard
that that examination is supposed to represent. It is only another
instance of the responsibility and consequently of the dignity that is cast
upon the teacher. To dignify the teaching profession is a certain way of
making it strong. To deprive it of dignity by showing lack of trust in
it by all sorts of rules and regulations and by outside restrictions and
examinations is a sure way to degrade it.’

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. W. Wurraker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. RuDLER
(Secretary), Sir Joun Evans, Rey. J. O. Bevan, Dr. Horace T.
Brown, Dr. VaucHan CornisH, Mr. T. V. Homes, Mr. J. Hop-
KINsON, Professor R. Metpoua, Dr. H. R. Mini, Mr. C. H. Reap,
Rev. T. R. R. Srepsinc, Professor W. W. Watts, and the
GENERAL OFFICERS. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue Corresponding Societies Committee have to report that during the
past year the Quekett Microscopical Club and the Southport Literary
and Philosophical Society have been added to the list of Societies in
correspondence with the British Association.

The Committee have had under consideration the suggestions which
were brought before the Conference of Delegates at Southport by Mr.
William Cole, of the Essex Field Club, with regard to Exploration and
Registration Work for certain local Societies. With Mr. Cole’s general
objects the Committee cordially sympathise, and they have recommended
that local Societies should make it a part of their systematic work to
enter upon the 6-inch Ordnance maps of their respective districts
any natural features and archeological remains which are not indicated
thereon. With regard, however, to the suggestion that the County
Councils should be asked to allocate an annual sum to the central scientific
Society of each county for the purpose of carrying out the work of local
exploration and registration, the Committee have felt that it is not within
their power to take any action.

The Committee have also considered a suggestion from the Rev. E. P.
Knubley with reference to the assistance which local Societies might
render to teachers anxious to introduce Nature-Study into their schools.
In accordance with this suggestion, the Committee strongly recommend
that the Corresponding Societies should assist, by scientific advice and other-
wise, those teachers in elementary and secondary schools who are taking

378 REPORT—1904.

up such work. It is understood that a Committee of the Section of
Educational Science will submit a Report on the subject of Nature-Study
at the Cambridge Meeting; and in view of such a Report the Committee
consider that, at present, it would be premature to discuss details, and
consequently content themselves with commending the subject as one well
worthy of the attention of the Corresponding Societies. It is satisfactory
to learn that certain Societies have already undertaken such work. Thus,
the Halifax Scientific Society reports that it has sought to promote Nature-
Study by giving lectures to children and scientific aid to teachers; whilst
the Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society reports that it is
furnishing loan-collections of natural-history objects to schools, and has
further assisted educational work by means of addresses.

The usual appeal has been made to the various Corresponding Societies
for suggestions as to subjects suitable for discussion at the forthcoming
Conference of Delegates. In response to this request the Hertfordshire
Natural History Society has suggested that it would be desirable to
discuss the question of the conformity of the publications of the Societies
with certain bibliographical requirements. The Committee consider that
this is a subject of much practical utility, and Mr. John Hopkinson, a
member of the Committee and editor of the ‘ Transactions ’ of the Hertford-
shire Society, has undertaken to bring the subject forward at Cambridge.

Dr. Tempest Anderson, who will act as Vice-Chairman of the Confer-
ence of Delegates, and the Rev. W. Johnson, representing the Yorkshire
Philosophical Society, have suggested the importance of discussing the
best method of utilising Local Museums in connection with Elementary
and other Public Schools. The Committee agree that this is an important
subject worthy of the attention of the Corresponding Societies, and Mr.
Johnson has consented to open a discussion on the subject by reading
a paper at the Cambridge Conference.

The Committee have heard with satisfaction that several Societies,
acting on a suggestion made last year, have appointed Standing British
Association Committees, but it is perhaps as yet too early to learn the
result of such action. Only twelve of the affiliated Societies, in returning
the schedules which are sent out annually, have reported that they have
been able to do any original work during the past year. It appears that
most of the work undertaken has been of a botanical character, relating
principally to local botanical surveys.

Without suggesting further subjects for research, the Committee desire
to urge upon the representatives of the various local Societies the desir-
ability of taking up some of the subjects already set forth in former
Annual Reports of the Committee. Moreover, it is desirable that the
Societies should endeavour, as far as possible, to assist the work of the
various Committees of the British Association which are appointed in
connection with its several Sections. Some of these Committees, it is
true, have already been indebted for such aid, but it is believed that there
are many other Committees which might receive substantial help if the
local Societies would undertake the work with enthusiasm.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 379

Report of the Conferences of Delegates of Corresponding Societies

held at Cambridge, August 18 and 23, 1904.

Chairman . . Principal E. H. Griffiths, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S,
Vice-Chairman . Tempest Anderson, M.D., B.Sc.

Secretary. . EF. W. Rudler, 1.8.0.

The Conferences were held on Thursday, August 18, and Tuesday,

August 23, at 3 o'clock p.m., in the Lecture Room, Gonville and Caius
College.

The following Corresponding Societies nominated Delegates to repre-

sent them at the Conferences. The attendance of the Delegates is
indicated in the list by the figures 1 and 2 placed in the margin opposite
to the name of each Society, and referring respectively to the first and
second meetings. Where no figure is shown it will be understood that
the Delegate did not attend.!

ie a)

a

ee RR

fot

wm wpe Www

List of Societies sending Delegates.

Andersonian Naturalists’ Society . Mrs. Ewing.
Ashmolean Natural History Society of | G.Glarides: Druces MA
Oxfordshire, {ee asic
Bath Natural History and Antiqua- | + ‘
ree ya } Rev. C. W. Shickle, M.A., F.S.A.
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club . W. J. Fennell.
Belfast Natural History and Philoso- | py ofessor Gregg Wilson, D.Se.
phical Society.
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club , G. P. Hughes, F.R.G.S.
Birmingham and Midland Institute
Scientific Society. } Pards, Wakgon:
Birmingham Natural History and 3 i
Philosophical Society. } Blenbuer Bion Ese:
Bristol Naturalists’ Society : Peed Gell gl ne
Buchan Field Club. : : Jt Hh hocher sil G,
Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club Professor W. W. Watts, F.R.S.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society ; . A, H. Trow.
Chester Society of Natural Science, : ,
Literature, and Art. } BO. ANetK CRs Hae
Croydon Natural History and Scien- A a z
Lee alerts } W. F. Stanley, F.G.S.
Dorset Natural History and Anti-) , e
quarian Field Club. Clement Reid, F.R.S.
Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club . . Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.
East Kent Scientific and Natural eae
Histo Eocists \ A. 8. Reid, M.A.
Edinburgh Geological Society . . David Tait.
Essex Field Club - ‘ 5 . F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Glasgow Royal Philosophical Society Professor Archibald Barr, D.Sc.
Glasgow Natural History Society . Peter Ewing, F.L.S.
Halifax Scientific Society . co . W. Ackroyd, F.I.C.
Hampshire Field Club and Arc

hzeo- }
logical Society. ‘i T. W. Shore, F.G.S.

1 The attendances are taken from the Attendance-book, which each Delegate

is expected to sign on entering the Conference.

380

REPORT—1904.

1 2 Haslem «>:Microscope and Natural | poy G. B. Stallworthy

1

eee

bo

bo bo

bo

to

bo

History Society.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society Percy Manning, M.A., F.S.A.
Holmesdale Natural History Club. Miss Ethel Sargant.
Hull Geological Society . . J. W. Stather, F.G.S,
mee ares and Field Naturalists’ | T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Institution of Mining Engineers 5 eee G. M. Capell.

Isle of Man Natural History and ] ,,,
Antiquarian Society. | Professor W. A. Herdman, F.R.S,

Leeds Geological Association . . Professor P, F. Kendall, F.G.S.
Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific

Ananciatiga, \ H. C. Marsh.
Liverpool Geographical Society . . Captain Phillips, R.N.
Liverpool Geological Society . . Joseph Lomas, F.G.S.
vines Nobis alge alae se \ Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Manchester Geographical Society . H. Yule Oldham, M.A.
Manchester Microscopical Society . F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.S.
Manchester Statistical Society . . Professor §. J. Chapman, M.A.

Marlborough College Natural History \ E. Meyrick, F.B.S

Society. J nae CRE
Midland Counties Institution of En-

neat \ Rev. G, M. Capell.
Midland Institute of Mining, Civil,

and Mechanical Engineers. \ Rom, G, Me Gape
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ } arian arate

Society. pes
Northamptonshire Natural History \

Society and Field Club. j
North of England Institute of Mining

and Mechanical Engineers. }

Beeby Thompson, ¥.G.S8.
Rey. G. M. Capell.

North Staffordshire Field Club . . W.D. Spanton, F.R.C.S.
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society . Professor J. W. Carr, M.A., F.L.S.
Paisley Philosophical Institution . John Woodrow,

Perthshire Society of Natural Science A. S. Reid, M.A.

Quekett Microscopical Club, London . John Hopkinson, F.L.S.
ea Literary and peice R. Ashworth, D.Sc.
Se oe ae dt, Soe anata

a rocietiee on Of Belentife) Rev, R, A: Bullen, BAL, FILLS.
Tyneside Geographical Society . . Herbert Shaw, F.R.G.S.
Te GONE ek mien a neleere, eG
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club - Rey. J. O. Bevan, M.A,, F.S.A.
pe alas and Polytechnic } Roy Wo JohneonoE se
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union . . W. West, F.L.S.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society . Dr. Tempest Anderson, B.Sc.

First Conference, September 8.

This Conference was presided over by Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S.
The Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by Mr. Whitaker,

E.R.S.,

the Rev. J. O. Bevan, the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S., Pro-

fessor W. W. Watts, F.R.S., Mr. J. Hopkinson, and Mr. Rudler.
The Chairman, as an old Cambridge man, offered a cordial welcome to
_the Delegates, and acknowledged the courtesy of the Master and Fellows

——

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 38]

of Gonville and Caius College in having placed some extremely convenient
rooms at the disposal of the Delegates.

The Secretary then read the Report of the Corresponding Societies
Committee, which was adopted.

The Chairman, before proceeding to deliver his Address, remarked that
his object on that occasion was more to promote discussion and arouse
attention on certain matters than to obtain any very definite expression
of opinion. He proposed, after having read his Address, that there should
be a discussion on the points raised therein, but perhaps any definite con-
clusion had better be reserved until the second meeting.

Principal Grittiths then read the following Address :—

Tassume that the chief object of these Conferences is the quickening of
general interest in the study of Natural Science and in the work of the
British Association. Our duties are not those of a Section, but rather those
of the husbandman who prepares the ground in the hope and belief that
the Sections may hereafter reap the harvest ; or, to vary the image, we
are here to study the machinery rather than its products.

A study of the Reports of the Conferences of the Delegates of Corre-
sponding Societies from the time that such Conferences were officially
instituted in 1884 leaves the impression, at all events upon my mind, that
the results have scarcely been commensurate with the expectations of
those who instituted this body, or with the possibilities presented by the
situation.

It is stated—I believe on good authority—that there are in this king-
dom something like 500 Scientific Societies with a total membership
approaching 100,000, and that at the present time both the number of
Societies and of the members thereof is steadily increasing. I think we
may say without hesitation that the general interest of the British public
in science is greater now than at any previous time in our history.
Nevertheless the number of Societies affiliated to the British Association
is but a small proportion of the total, and I am afraid that of many of those
it may be said that the connection is nominal rather than real.

Sir Norman Lockyer, in his Address at Southport, spoke as follows :—

‘We not only, then, have a scientific Parliament competent to deal
with all matters, including those of national importance, relating to
science, but machinery for influencing all new councils and committees
dealing with local matters, the functions of which are daily becoming
more important.

‘The machinery might consist of our Corresponding Societies. We
already have afliliated to us seventy Societies with a membership of 25,000.
Were this number increased so as to include every Scientific Society in the
Empire, metropolitan and provincial, we might eventually hope for a
membership of half a million.’

This of course is an impressive statement, but the weight thereof
depends very greatly on the real meaning of the expression ‘atftiliated
to us.’

Is this affiliation a real thing? Let us see what it means in practice.
A Society consisting, perhaps, like the one I represent, of between 400
and 500 members, nominates one Delegate. Of the Delegates thus
appointed it would appear from our past records that not more than some
fifty or sixty per cent. present themselves at our meetings; and, although
there is evidence that the action of some few Societies has been directly
influenced by our proceedings, I confess that the results can hardly be

3882 REPORT—1904.

considered satisfactory when we contemplate the elaborate machinery by
which they have been obtained and the labours of those who have kept
the machinery in action. I trust the Delegates will not suppose that I
am endeavouring to belittle the importance of these Conferences. I
believe that, rightly directed, we have here a body which may become an
immense power for good, and that this child, which I am afraid is regarded
by some as the Cinderella of the family, may grow to be one of the greatest
of the daughters of the Association.

Whatever may be our opinion on the fiscal question, or the extent to
which we are suffering from the competition of other nations, men of all
parties will, I trust, be at one in the belief that, whatever remedies may
be suggested, there is urgent need of better education in science, as well as
of more scientific education. Not only is the comparative pace of our
competitors increasing, but unfortunately they have, as pointed out by
Sir N. Lockyer, gained upon us at the start. Our immediate duty is to
place the needs of higher scientific education before the people of this
kingdom. Once convince ‘the man in the street’ that his business pro-
sperity, nay, his very wages, are adversely affected by our inadequate
system of higher education, and our difficulties will speedily vanish !

Consider a somewhat parallel case. You may remember how some
fifteen to twenty-five years ago a number of able and enthusiastic men suc-
ceeded in convincing the British voter that his safety and prosperity
depended upon an eflicient Navy, and how, since the time that this convic-
tion was brought home to the minds of our countrymen, no difficulty has
been experienced in obtaining the funds necessary to create a Navy com-
mensurate with our needs.

Let us profit by this example. Our rulers are, I believe, already
convinced of the advisability of rendering increased assistance to the
cause of scientific investigation, but they cannot loosen the Imperial
purse-stripgs until they know that the country is prepared to acquiesce in
a liberal policy.

Our task is that of ‘spade work,’ and should be even a less heavy one
than that undertaken by our naval reformers, for we can show that, once
established, a satisfactory system of high scientific education, so far from
being a cause of continual outlay, will add to the wealth and prosperity of
our country.

But it may be asked, ‘What has all this to do with the constitution of
this body?’ I think the connection is evident. If we could supply the
links which would bind together all the Scientific Societies of this kingdom,
so that in matters of national importance they would move as a united
body, it would be difficult to overestimate the influence which could be
thus exerted, for it is certain that amongst the members of these local
Societies are included many of the most intelligent and influential men in
their respective districts. At present, however, apart from their interest
in natural science, these local Societies have little in common. We may
picture them as a scattered heap of iron filings, and we want the British
Association to be the magnet which, placed in their midst, will transform
the confused assemblage into a field of symmetry and beauty.

The work of local Societies is of two kinds: one may be termed educa-
tional, the other technical. In the latter I include actual observational
and investigational work. I confess that, at the present time, I regard
the former as the more important branch. The work is educational, not
only in arousing intelligent interest in the facts of natural science and

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 383

quickening in the individual the power of observation, but also in pro-
moting the missionary spirit which will enable the members to excite the
interest and sympathy of their neighbours. It is possible that our present
constitution does not attach sutlicient importance to this educational part
of the work. I refer especially to Regulation I., which confines the right
of representation at this Conference to those Societies which publish
proceedings. Now it is very doubtful if publication is the best test of
merit. My own impression is that we have ‘too much cry’ for the amownt
of ‘wool,’ and if we exclude from our deliberations all those Societies
whose circumstances or inclinations have caused them to refrain from
adding to the mass of literature under which there is danger of our being
smothered, it is possible that we are excluding the very bodies whose
sympathy and interest we should most wish to encourage. If we are to
lay down some criterion, I would suggest that of membership rather than
that of quantity of print.

It is true that as the Delegates become ew-officio members of the
General Committee of the Association some guarantee ought to be given
that those who receive this privilege have some real knowledge of, and
interest in, natural science. This difficulty might be met by the establish-
ment of two classes—namely, affiliated and associated Societies. Delegates
from affiliated Societies (those which undertake local investigations and
publish the results) might continue to receive, as at present, the privilege
of membership of the General Committee ; whereas Delegates from the
associated Societies might be invited to take part in the deliberations of
these Conferences and to receive copies of the reports, &c., without
becoming members of the General Committee. Any local Society which
has existed for a period of, say, three years, and numbers not fewer than
fifty members, might well receive the right of appointing a representative.
Surely we desire to throw our doors as wide open as possible ; surely we
wish to give every encouragement to all scientific Societies, but more
especially to those working under difficulties, to strengthen the hands of
their promoters and to ask their aid and assistance in our deliberations.
Moreover, it is precisely those Societies with narrow means, and whose
members are possibly drawn from the working classes, that can be of the
greatest use to us. They are missionaries situated where we most want
them, and preaching to the unconverted. This yearly meeting of single
Delegates from a few of the leading Societies, although an admirable
nucleus, is not sufficient to produce crystallisation of the scientific interests
in solution in the population of this kingdom. We want more frequent
means of intercommunication, more power of directing individual move-
ments towards one common object. I suggest that all associated and
affiliated Societies should be asked to make a small contribution (to some
extent proportional to their numbers) in order to defray the expenses of a
Journal of Corresponding Societies, which would be published at stated
intervals, An annual contribution at the rate of, say, 5s. per fifty
members would, with our present constituency, produce a sum exceeding
100/. per annum, and if the suggestion as to the addition of associated
Societies be accepted, I believe this sum would soon be more than doubled.
The Council of the British Association might well be asked to contribute
an annual grant during, say, the first three years ; after which interval I
believe the scheme might become self-supporting. Such a journal should
start on very unambitious lines : it should contain a list of the meetings
which have taken place since the preceding week, the titles (merely) of

384 REPORT—1904.

any papers which had been read, and official notices from any Societies
which wished to call attention to work requiring co-operation, or to points
upon which information was desired. The great use of such a journal
would be that, at any time, it would be possible to unite all the connected
Societies in common action for the attainment of some purpose of national
or scientific importance ; and if this journal was edited under the auspices
of the British Association, the connection with the Central Body would
be brought home in a very real manner to the members of this scattered
constituency. Few Societies would grudge this small contribution of
scarcely more than one penny per annum per member. I am aware that
many objections could be urged against such a scheme ; but I donot think
that the difficulties are insurmountable, and, once surmounted, a great step
would have been taken towards the utilisation of that general interest in
natural science of which the best evidence is to be found in the growth,
the numbers, the variety, and the labours of the local Societies of this
kingdom.

I trust it will be understood that I make these suggestions with great
diftidence. I have taken no part in the work of these Conferences in the
past, and it was therefore with considerable hesitation that I accepted
the honour of nomination as your Chairman to-day.

The circumstances under which I have been placed during the past
two years, however, have strongly impressed upon me the possibilities placed
at our disposal by the existence of local Societies. I am living in the midst
of a great working-class population, and have been brought in contact
with the workers in the coal mines of Glamorgan and Monmouth. I am
also serving on educational and other bodies in which these workers are
largely represented. At first it appeared to me that any demands for
assistance for higher scientific education or research were regarded with
indifference ; but I have found that when the facts of the situation were
placed before the men or their representatives, when it was pointed out to
them how greatly their employment and their interests were dependent on
the results obtained by scientific investigations, their attitude of indiffer-
ence—if not of suspicion—was replaced by one of sympathy and good will.
Our local Societies have it in their power to bring such facts home to the
people of this country, and, great as are the services which the British
Association has rendered in the past, I believe if it can accomplish the
task of uniting the activities of our local Societies in one common effort,
it will not be reckoned amongst the least of the achievements of the
Association. Having tendered this apology for my audacity, I now
venture to ask the Delegates to give their consideration to the following
proposals, it being understood that, even if the principles therein conveyed
are approved of, these proposals will require redrafting, and that conse-
quent ones connected with matters of detail will require careful con-
sideration :—

(1) That any Society which undertakes local scientific investigation
and publishes the results may become a Society affiliated to the British
Association,

(2) That the Delegates of such Societies shall be members of the
General Committee.

(3) That any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging the study
of natural knowledge which has existed for three years and numbers not
fewer than fifty members may become a Society associated with the British
Association.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 885

(4) That all associated Societies shall have the right to appoint a
Delegate to attend the Annual Conference, and that such Delegates shall
have all the rights of those appointed by the affiliated Societies, except
that of membership of the General Committee.

(5) That all affiliated or associated Societies shall contribute annually
the sum of at least 5s. for each fifty members, and that the funds thus
obtained be utilised for the purposes of a ‘Journal of Corresponding
Societies.’

(6) [In case proposition (5) is approved :]

That the Council of the British Association be requested to make an
annual grant towards the expenses of such a Journal on the understanding
that such grants shall cease if the Journal become self-supporting.

Mr. W. Whitaker, in opening the discussion, remarked that he had
listened to this Address with very great pleasure, and was glad to find
that the Chairman had been thinking on almost the same lines as he had
himself for a few weeks. The speaker wished to bring before the meet-
ing the terms on which Societies are affiliated, because it seemed to him
that the time had come when it might be well to reconsider those terms
and perhaps revise them. The existing rule is that they should take all
Societies who publish original work. That rule is fixed by the General
Committee. On the face of it, it was a very good rule indeed, and it
had worked very well so far ; but the speaker was faced a few weeks ago
with this difficulty. Visiting a Society in a fairly out-of-the-way country
place he found it did not publish anything but the bare Annual Report.
Yet it had a splendid museum. This was kept in very good order, with
the specimens properly labelled. Why did not that Society publish ? One
reason was that it had spent all its money on the museum. Did they not
think it had done quite as well in keeping up that museum as if it had pub-
lished ? It seemed to him that work of that sort ought to be encouraged,
He suggested that, after discussion here, the Delegates should request the
British Association Committee of the Corresponding Societies to consider
_ the terms on which Societies are affiliated. He was sure those members
of the Committee who were present would be glad to act on the lines
which the Delegates desired. Whether they adopted or not all the propo-
sitions the Chairman had brought forward was another question altogether,
The speaker differed very much from him in details, but on the general
principle he entirely agreed with him, and hoped something would be done
to enforce that general principle and widen their bounds by letting them
take in many Societies who really do very good work, although they publish
but little.

Sir Norman Lockyer said he had listened with great pleasure to the
Chairman’s remarks, and, like the previous speaker, he felt that his
pleasure was all the greater because they corresponded closely with some
of his own views. Last year he attended the Conference at Southport
chiefly to learn how the suggestion in his Presidential Address as to the
formation of a great scientific organisation would be received by the
Delegates. He might now explain that a British Science Guild was
being started, quite independently of the British Association ; and it
seemed to him that the Guild could work absolutely shoulder to shoulder
with the Societies in the extension of their interests. He was rejoiced to
hear the proposal that there should be more frequent communication
between the representatives of the Societies than is afforded by the

1904, cc

3886 REPORT—1904.

Annual Meeting of the Delegates. He could quite understand that
there might be numerous questions cropping up in the course of the year
which it would be very desirable to discuss in Conference. He felt cer-
tain that many of the Societies would see that, in addition to the work
which they were now doing, it was necessary in the interests of science to
influence the man who has to vote, not only in the County Councils, but
in the House of Commons.

Mr. P. Ewing (Glasgow) spoke in support of the suggestions made by
the Chairman.

The Rev. G. B. Stallworthy (Haslemere) said he had very strong faith
in the value of the local Societies, and also in the connection between the
local Societies and the British Association. He felt very grateful for the
pressure put upon the Societies by headquarters to make them do some-
thing. This year they had succeeded at Haslemere in publishing two
papers, but they were rather dry: one was a catalogue of fungi. Only
about five per cent. of the members purchase such things. For all that,
it had had a very healthy influence upon a small circle of the members.
A practical suggestion the speaker was about to make was this, that
possibly a Central Committee might consider whether it were possible to
appoint a dozen responsible gentlemen who would visit these local
Societies. A few of the Delegates attend the British Association, and
they are able to interest just a few round about them; but the interest
would be very greatly increased and deepened if a gentleman representing
the British Association would come to the local Society with a message
from headquarters. That message would reach the great majority of
those who attend meetings. He did not regard it as a very practical test
as to whether they had a museum or not. Some Societies do not own
a museum, because there is already a museum existing in their locality.
He thought that if admission to the Association depended upon the
recommendation of one of these officials, who would come down, say, once
annually or two years in succession, and report upon the nature of the
Society, the kind of work done, and the healthiness of it, such a report by
a responsible inspector appointed by the Council might be an important
factor in determining the question of admission of the Society.

Dr. G. Abbott (Tunbridge Wells) wished to support the suggestion
just put forward. To his mind the solution of many of the difficulties
that were felt would depend on the formation of unions of the Societies
in different districts of the country. If there were a union of the Societies
in four or five counties, very many more of those Societies would send
Delegates to these meetings. One of the chief advantages of the union
with which he was connected, the South-Eastern Union, was that it had
brought the Societies together. They had got to know men who were
giving good lectures, and who were prepared to repeat them. In that
way many friendships had been formed and many Societies had been
strengthened.

The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing called attention to one departure from
precedent which he thought was of the very highest value. Last year the ~
Delegates were honoured by the attendance at this Conference of the
President of the Association. This year again they had the presence of
the outgoing President. What he wished to insist upon was this, that
they should if possible persuade all Presidents and outgoing Presidents
to do as Sir Norman Lockyer had done. He hoped that next year
Mr. Balfour would take care to honour the Congress with his company.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 387

He was sure that would give a very great access of dignity to this Con-
ference of Delegates. In the ‘ Daily Journal’ they had a long list of the
Sectional Committees, but no list of the Delegates of the Corresponding
Societies! One other point. He was very gratified indeed to hear the
Chairman’s suggestion to recognise the association of Societies inde-
pendently of publication. If communications were of importance they
should be published by some great Central Society, and if unimportant
they were perhaps better left unpublished.

Mr. A. O. Walker, referring to the suggested payment of 5s. per fifty
members, said he represented a Society which had a thousand members,
and accordingly on these terms their subscription would be 5/.a year. He
was sure they could never afford it.

Mr. Theodore Reunert (Johannesburg) stated that he had the honour
to be President of the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science, which would act as an: agency of the British Association on
the occasion of their visit to South Africa in 1905, He then explained
briefly what is the present state of things in South Africa scientifically.
The South African Association was formed three years ago in Cape Town,
during the war, with Sir David Gill as the first President; and it now
has members all over South Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambesi,
who number something like two thousand. Perhaps it would interest the
meeting to hear that one of the most gratifying features of this new South
African Association was the hearty and sympathetic support which it had
received from the various Governments of South Africa. On the occasion
of its first annual meeting in Cape Town the Government of Cape Colony
voted something like 400/. to defray the whole cost of publishing their
first year’s proceedings. The Government of the Transvaal Colony, on.
the occasion of their second annual meeting, voted a similar sum for the
publication of that year’s proceedings, and the various Governments among
them have voted 6,000/. towards assisting in the expense of the British
Association’s visit in 1905.

Mr. H. Reid (South African Association for the Advancement of
Science) thought that a great deal of the lack of general interest in science
may be due to want of help and encouragement from the central bodies
in dealing with local Societies.

The discussion of the Chairman’s Address was then adjourned until
the next meeting.

In answer to a question by Captain Dubois Phillips, R.N., the Secre-
tary said that the question of the reduction of railway rates for members
of scientific societies had been under the discussion of the Committee, but
no definite result had yet been attained. It was a matter involving con.
siderable difficulty.

The Chairman said he thought that naturalists should be treated as
generously as anglers. He thought the most effective way of taking
action would be to ask the Committee to draw up a statement and
forward it to all the affiliated Societies with a request that they would
sign it, so that there would be united representation from all parts of the
country. He believed that if the Presidents and Secretaries signed a

‘ The names of the Delegates are printed in a conspicuous position in the List of
Members, and before the conclusion of the Cambridge Meeting a List of Delegates
appeared also in the ‘ Daily Journal’ in response to the appeal above recorded.

co 2

088 REPORT—1904,

statement and sent it to the managers of the railways, they would probably
effect their purpose. He suggested that the Delegates should ask the
Committee if they could see their way to discuss this matter, and, if pos-
sible, draw up a memorial.

Dr. Abbott proposed that the matter should be referred to the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee to consider and take action. This was
seconded and agreed to.

It was resolved that an application should be made to the Committee
of Recommendations, asking for the reappointment of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, with a grant of 25/.

The Rey. W. Johnson, B.A., B.Sc. (Yorkshire Philosophical Society),
introduced the following subject :—

The Utilisation of Local Musewms, with Special Reference to Schools.

The selection of this subject for discussion is probably due to certain
remarks made at the Southport meeting last year, when it was hinted
that the local museum was often the dumping ground of curious finds for
which room could not be provided by the discoverers, instead of being the
centre of living interest and new growth. I presume the Association
regards the local Societies as feeders, and therefore puts on us the duty of
laying the foundation of the scientific habit, and of providing the means
of satisfying the longing for more insight into nature. It will be at once
apparent that the subject has certain limitations. We must confine our-
selves almost entirely to the natural-history side of science study, partly
because the general interest of workers lies there, and partly because the
local museums lack storage-room for specimens suitable for illustration of
the other branches.

In discussing the question of ‘The Utilisation of Local Museums,’ in
connection with the science work of our school, I lay down the following
propositions ; (1) a great amount of material lies buzzed in local museums ;
(2) it needs proper description and exhibition to make it available for the
use of young students ; (3) it is very desirable that /oca/ natural history,
rather than general science, should be illustrated and studied in this con-
nection.

Collecting, merely for possession of a collection, has been sufficiently
disparaged without our adding another word of condemnation. When a
young student approaches a specimen, a mere label is often inadequate
to attract and inform him. Therefore it is necessary that a more or less
detailed description, with drawings of separate parts, should be placed with
the specimens side by side in order that there may be no mistake. The
method adopted in the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, is,
in my opinion, most effective to this end. There the admirable handbooks,
issued in each section are taken paragraph by paragraph, and each state-
ment made in the whole description is represented by a real object by
its side, so marked by coloured papers, arrows, and guiding lines that a
student who works through the cases in succession follows a natural
sequence of treatment under scientific guidance. I have often thought
that local museums have failed in developing the scientific habit because
they have given undue prominence to what is special or rare. Now a
beginner wants help in identifying what is common or elementary, for
when, on going out on his field-days, he discovers none of the rarities dis-

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 389

played in his museum, he is too apt to think that none of his work is
worth the trouble, and may be checked at the start in the proper classitica-
tion of his work.

Having made it my aim to visit local museums wherever possible, I
am able to speak at first hand of the hopeless confusion which misleads
and repels, in spite of the abundance of most valuable material. Some
Yorkshire museums need immediate reclassification and arrangement.

I would propose that each town should have a strictly limited collec-
tion of the natural objects which are commonly found in that area ; that
the flora and fauna should be separate ; that the district in which each is
to be found should be indicated ; that, in the case of the flora, the months
during which the plants may be found should be added, and that detailed
descriptions by competent persons should be attached ; that in every
museum there should be a large geological map of the area, with suitable
vertical sections, showing the connection between the underground condi-
tions and the variety of life on the surface.

I should like to see in each museum a collection of the natural orders
of plants, pressed specimens obtained locally and easily accessible to indi-
vidual students, in order that the flora of the district might be within
the knowledge of each boy and girl educated in the area. So, too, with
the rocks. There should be a complete series of hand specimens of rocks
illustrating the succession of strata in the neighbourhood, and, if the
rocks are fossiliferous, or capable of economic use, then the fossils should
be associated with the rocks and the economic products exhibited and
explained. Each section should be kept in its own room for separate use.

This small teaching collection need interfere in no respect at all with
the general purpose of the museum as the receptacle of objects of interest
of all kinds ; but would ensure, to all who wished it, a proper start on
right lines, and would engender in them a keen desire to proceed to a wider
knowledge of that branch which interests them.

Now comes the question whether we should take the specimens to the
classes in schools, or take the classes to the specimens in the museums.
Personally I am in favour of the latter. I have watched with interest
the growth of the latter plan in Leeds, where excellent results appear to
be accruing from the admirable lectures and demonstrations of the Curator
of the Leeds Museum, Mr. Crowther. But, apart from the evident success
of this scheme, it would teach the young student to regard the museum
as the centre of his work, and having been taken there by his teachers
for the work of a course, he would soon be found there on his own
account, searching for himself answers to questions which have arisen
from his own work ; and every museum would become the training ground
of a new set of investigators. It may be asked, when can time be found
for all this? And that really is a serious question. Yet there is a good
answer. During the winter holidays afternoon demonstrations could be
given in every centre without dislocating any time-table ; and as there is,
I believe, a strong tendency to reduce the demands of ‘home lessons’
a course of evening demonstrations during term could be no heavy inflic-
tion on the children, and would be welcomed alike by them and their
parents.

Now, presuming we have the contents of our museums in order, so
reduced in number as not to be bewildering, and so definitely described
as to be intelligible, we should easily be able to get the young student to
take interest in them. By taking our classes to the museum we should,

890 REPORT—1904.

at any rate, teach him the way to the museum. It would accustom him
to the idea of resorting to a definite place for the solution of his difficul-
ties. It would make the museum the centre of distribution for much
useful knowledge, whereas it is too often a swamp in which the streams
of knowledge lose themselves. If we could ensure on the part of the
teachers a definite acquaintance with the contents of the museums, it
would be easy for them in the course of their lessons to refer their pupils
to specimens which more fully illustrate the matter under discussion, and
thus the grafting of one upon the other would be effected. I am not
quite sure whether it would be better to depend on the curators of the
museums (or of sections of the museums) for the descriptions or demon-
strations, or to attempt to put this on the teachers of the schools. The
advantage of the former course would be the intimate acquaintance with
the subject and with the specimens of the museum ; of the latter a better
acquaintance with the students and their powers, and probably a better
aptitude for imparting knowledge due to professional training. If, as is,
I believe, the case with the Curator of the Leeds Museum, these qualities
can be found combined in the curator, I should have no hesitation about
entrusting the whole of the work to him.

I imagine that one of the greatest difficulties likely to be met with in
the utilisation of our museums will be that of continuity of work, for if
frequent changes take place in these offices, the development of the work
must suffer from want of sequence. It would probably be wiser to
secure, if possible, the attention and care of the science teachers of our
schools. We should thus gain the double advantage of a definite interest
in a science, and a definite interest in the schools which are using the
museum and the course of work. The increasing number of science
teachers is a guarantee of a continuous supply of curators.

Especially do I think it advisable and desirable that a course of, say,
four or five lectures should be given during the winter holidays on the
elementary laws of meteorology, with an explanation of the instruments
which are used for obtaining weather records, both how they are made
and how they are used, together with the chief corrections which are
needed to ensure an accurate result. In many museums these instruments
are accessible to the public, and a knowledge of their use ought to be
common property.

There appear to be, in connection with museums, few rooms which are
capable of accommodating a class of students for demonstrations. This
is an obvious defect, if anything more than individual work is to be
attempted, and one of the first improvements to be effected by our
museum trustees will be the provision of such rooms with lanterns,
screens, and lecture-room appliances adequate for the proper accomplish-
ment of this work.

I ought to say one word as to the cost of this new development.
Many of the curatorships of our museums are honorary, and some carry a
mere acknowledgment of work done. We all like to think of education
as so attractive in itself, and so far producing in our pupils a thirst for
more knowledge gained in a freer and larger way than is possible in
schools. Moreover, we wish the museums to be the centres of diffusion
of knowledge and the meeting-place of kindred spirits. There appears to
be no good reason to be urged against the view that the State should, for
services of this kind well rendered, provide an adequate sum for recom-
pense, and it should be possible for our local authorities to hand over an

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 391

adequate sum to the trustees of local museums which are willing thus
directly to help forward and expand the higher science teaching of our
schools, corresponding control being, of course, in every case given for the
proper disbursement of the assigned money. This work is at any rate
as well worthy of such support as are free libraries, or municipal bands,
or art-galleries, to which, of course, I have not the slightest objection.

Summing up my points, I should like the great interest in Nature study
which has lately sprung up to be linked definitely with the museums, that
these may help the movement and in return be helped themselves ; that
the provision made by curators should be wisely curtailed and definitely
directed ; that the professional instinct and pride of the science teachers
should be called upon to assist in a great work ; and that the success of
the movement should not be imperilled by the premature uprising of the
false economist, who has had no opportunity of seeing what other nations
can do, and who wishes to appraise the value of any work by its immediate
value in current coin.

Mr. G. P. Hughes (Warwickshire Naturalists’ Club) said that the paper
which had been read had come most opportunely in his case, for it dealt
with a subject which had occupied his thoughts and attention for some
time past. He dwelt on the importance of giving an interest to the
younger generation in country places, and of getting the minds of the young
people trained to the industrial interests which they must follow out in
after life. If the children of the labouring classes were merely taught a
few of the ordinary lessons of schools, then interest would not be directed
towards what their future life is likely to be. Heheld that schoolmasters
should have some acquaintance with scientific pursuits, and by the aid of
museums, which in many parts of the country were dormant, these children
might be brought gradually to take a much keener interest in their future
life than they do at the present moment.

The Rev. G. Capell remarked that he had been a school-manager for
about thirty-four years, and had always felt that the difficulty was that
no science was introduced by which the minds of the children could be
trained and so fitted for the pursuits they were afterwards to enter into.
He had been in a district in the North of France, and was immensely
struck by the care taken by the French Government to train children in a
knowledge of those pursuits which they were to follow in after life. There
is a most elaborate system of teaching, including, in addition to scientific
training, the practical use of the machinery which they will have to use
in cultivating the land and in various other industries. In Germany it is
the same. The children’s minds are trained practically and scientifically.
That is what we want more of in England ; the practical and the scien-
tific should go together. The difficulty is that schoolmasters have not
been trained in that way themselves. The speaker thought that attention
must be directed to this in future, and the museums would be wonderfully
useful in helping masters in order that they might be better prepared to
instruct the children.

Mr. F. W. Rudler (Essex Field Club) explained that when in 1891
the Museuins Association held its annual meeting in Cambridge, he
ventured to refer to the difficulties incidental to museum-demonstration ;
and he was glad to find that a method somewhat similar to that which he
suggested had been successfully carried out at Leeds. He held that the
demonstration should usually be given in a separate lecture-room, and be

892 REPORT—1904.

followed by adjournment to the museum. Every museum should be
associated with a theatre provided with lantern and other necessary appli-
ances. The interest of the museum-question in connection with the
Delegates at this Conference seemed to centre in the point of contact
between the local museum and the local Society. How could the one assist
the other? The speaker referred to the excellent practice in certain
museums of exhibiting fresh wild flowers with instructive labels—a source
of much interest to young visitors. This, he held, was a department of
work which could well be undertaken by the local Natural History Society.
Ladies of leisure, taking an intelligent interest in botany, might assist the
curator by undertaking to contribute a constant supply of fresh specimens
and to furnish them with appropriate labels. Such labels, judiciously
written, might convey much useful knowledge in a pleasant form, and
would be read and copied by intelligent children. Although it is a great
thing to bring the children to the museum, it must be remembered that
there is another aspect of the question : the museum may be taken with
excellent results to the children. He therefore advocated the circulation
of small loan-cabinets of simple specimens—which might be arranged and
distributed by the Natural History Society to the schools. The local
Society might do much to relieve the curator, who was generally much over-
worked and very much under-paid. Every effort to increase the useful-
ness of the museum laid additional work upon his shoulders; and the
speaker was glad that Mr. Johnson had proposed that museum-demonstra-
tions to schools should be adequately paid for.

Mr. Hopkinson referred to the Hertfordshire County Museum. At
least one half of the 200 or 300 visitors per week were school children.
They came in from the Board schools during meal-times, and quickly
detected any additions made to the collections, which showed that they
took avery great interest in the museum. Sometimes they brought all
sorts of things they had collected, but at first almost worthless. For
instance, they brought shells with the living animals in them. They
were then instructed how to remove them, and were now bringing clean
shells and sometimes really good specimens of the different varieties of
land mollusca. This showed how a museum would attract children, and
no doubt produce good educational results.

The Rey. R. Ashington Bullen observed that, in the little parish
where he lived, about a quarter of an acre of land was rented and the
children were being taught agricultural pursuits. He did not think that
they must take a pessimistic view of the education of the children in the
country districts, for he believed that a great deal was going on there
about which people in general know nothing.

Mr. Whitaker remarked that, being lately in a little village in Shrop-
shire, he had a conversation with a woman who told him that they
encouraged the children not only to collect, but to bring in objects to
the school, where they were kept in a case for a certain time. It occurred
to him that this was an excellent method of interesting the children and
developing a taste for museums.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 398

Second Conference, August 23, 1904.

Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S., in the chair, followed by Dr.
Tempest Anderson, B.Sc.

The Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by Mr. W.
Whitaker, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Mr. John
Hopkinson, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr. 'T. V. Holmes, and Mr. F. W. Rudler.

Principal Griffiths, in opening the proceedings, said that he had
ventured to take a certain kind of action of his own initiative since their
last meeting, which he was going to ask the Conference to be good
enough, if they thought fit, to confirm. He thought the remarks that
were made on the proposal which he put before the Congress from the
chair at the last meeting led to the conclusion that the Delegates would
uphold, and were in sympathy with, the view that we ought to bring a
larger number of our Societies into touch with the British Association,
and that the union between the Society and the British Association
should be a more real one than it is at present. The speaker ventured
to translate the opinion of the meeting as that, and there was no voice to
the contrary. On the other hand the question he put forward of the
possibility of establishing a ‘Journal of Corresponding Societies’ was
obviously one on which there were many differences of opinion ; but in
any case, it must be remembered that the Conference could take no action
without the Council of the Association. The Chairman thought it was
inadvisable to put things off until next year, because it would be very
difficult to get anything like the ordinary business done then, and unless
he had submitted a recommendation to the Committee of Recommenda-
tions before its meeting yesterday, all opportunity of doing anything
would have been practically lost for the next two years. Therefore, on
his own responsibility—and he stated at the time that it was on his own
responsibility—he handed in a notice to go on the agenda paper of the
Committee of Recommendations to the following effect :—

‘That a Committee be appointed, consisting of members of the
Council of the Association, together with representatives of the Corre-
sponding Societies, to consider the present relation between the British
Association and local Scientific Societies.

‘That the Committee be empowered to make suggestions to the
Council with a view to the greater utilisation of the connection between
the Association and the affiliated Societies, and the extension of affiliation
to other Societies which are at present excluded under Regulation JI.’

It would greatly strengthen his hands in the Committee to which he
was then going if the Delegates would empower him to say that they
supported the resolution. Of course it would commit the Delegates to
nothing, because it was only asking for a committee to inquire into the
whole matter, and unless this action were taken immediately nothing
practically could be done for two years. He therefore asked the
Delegates to intimate, unless they had any opposition to offer, by a show
of hands that he had their authority to present this resolution.

The resolution was carried unanimously and with applause.

The Chairman then said that if this were agreed to by the Com-
mittee of Recommendations it would be necessary for the Delegates to
appoint representatives to meet the members of the Council in this

394 REPORT—1904.

matter. Therefore he would ask the Delegates that afternoon to pass
a formal resolution that, if this resolution were adopted by the General
Committee, certain persons be appointed as representatives of the
Delegates upon that Committee. It would be for that meeting to suggest
the names. He suggested that they should not appoint too many, and
that they should be such as would be fairly certain to attend the
meetings.

After a hearty vote of thanks had been passed to the Chairman for
the action he had taken, he vacated the chair in favour of Dr. Tempest
Anderson.

It was unanimously resolved that, if the resolution referred to were
passed by the General Committee, the following Delegates be appointed as
representatives of the Corresponding Societies on the proposed Com-
mittee—namely, the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates, Principal
E. H. Griffiths ; the Chairman of the Corresponding Societies Committee,
Mr. W. Whitaker ; and the Secretary of the Committee and of the Con-
ference, Mr. F. W. Rudler.

Mr. John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.8., introduced the following
subject :—

On the Conformity of the Publications of Scientific Societies with certain
Bibliographical Requirements.

A few years ago I suggested for discussion at our Conference the
subject of Dew-ponds ; and although we had a very interesting discussion
upon them I heard it remarked that it was scarcely of sufficient general
interest to the Corresponding Societies.

The subject of my remarks on the present occasion should be of
interest to all our Societies, and it is an eminently practical one ; but I
must confess that it is drier than Dew-ponds are, or should be. I will
introduce it by giving a recent experience of my own, chiefly as an
illustration of the requirement that the title of a paper should give as
clear an idea of its contents as can be given in a few words.

IT am compiling, for a work to be published by the Ray Society, a
Bibliography of the Freshwater Rhizopoda. I knew that in the ‘Monthly
Microscopical Journal,’ for ten years the organ of the Royal Micro-
scopical Society, there was a paper on a presumed freshwater rhizopod
from the New Forest to which the name Pseudo ameba violacea had
been given, but I could not remember the title of the paper or the
author’s name. I searched the indexes to twenty volumes under the
catch-words ‘ Protozoa,’ ‘ Rhizopoda,’ ‘ Pseudo-ameba,’ ‘ Freshwater,’ and
‘ New Forest.’ Under not one of these could I find a reference to the
paper, and it was only by turning over the pages that the plate illustrat-
ing it caught my eye in vol.x. The paper is by Dr. R. L. Maddox,
and its title is ‘On an Organism found in Fresh-pond Water.’ It is
indexed only under ‘ Maddox’ and ‘Organism.’ There are three faults
here to which I wish to draw your attention. One is the absence of a
table of contents and of a list of the plates. Such a table is, or should
be, very much shorter than an index, and it enables a paper on any
particular subject to be found much more readily than by the index.
Another is the meagre indexing ; and the third is the unsatisfactory title
of the paper. The newly-proposed genus does not appear in either title or
index, there is no indication of the kind of organism—believed to be

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 395

a rhizopod—nor of the locality in which it was found. ‘The title should
have been something like this ; ‘On Pseudo-ameba violacea, a presumed
new Freshwater Rhizopod from the New Forest,’ and the principal words
in this title, at least, should have been indexed.

I need scarcely explain how all who write similar papers, and all
editors of the publications of Scientific Societies, may apply this criti-
cism and relieve the labours of others, especially of compilers of biblio-
graphies.

I have examined the bound volumes of most of your publications at
the Office of the Association, and I find that the majority have the very
serious fault that the date of publication of the several numbers, or parts,
of which they are composed, is not given. The dates may have been, and
probably in most cases were, on the covers ; but the covers are not bound
up in the volumes, as they ought to have been—the first leaf at least—
which would give date and contents, and should preferably be bound at
the end of each volume. When the dates are not given in the bound
volume it is impossible to ascertain when any particular paper was pub-
lished, and therefore impossible to enter it in a bibliography as it should
be entered. This may be of great importance in questions of priority.
The month and year of issue of each separate part of which the volume
consists, with the number of the first and last page in each part, should
always be printed after the title-page or table of contents and list of
plates ; thus, for example—

Part I., pp. 1-18 . = . : . + October 1904.
4 EL9;, 492805 ix=xvi = 4 : . January 1905.

This might obviate the necessity, if not the advisability, of binding the
covers.

A volume sometimes appears without an index, more often without a
table of contents and a list of the plates or other illustrations. Occasion-
ally the index is placed at the beginning of the volume; it should
always be at the cnd. In one case at least a table of contenis is called
an index ; in another that abomination, a collection of separate indexes,
is called ‘indices,’ a term which should be restricted to its mathematical
signification.

A frequent fault is the separate pagination of a thin publication,
usually called ‘ Annual Report and Proceedings,’ or ‘Annual Report and
Transactions,’ the first part of which titles is superfluous. When, say,
ten of these, of perhaps thirty pages or so each, are bound together to
form a volume, how difficult it is to ascertain their contents, how difficult
it would be to satisfactorily index the volume! Much rarer is the fault
of making a volume so thick that it has to be bound in two.

Occasionally the name of an author is given thus: ‘Mr. Myth read
the following Paper on Sea-serpents.’ Initials should always be given.
Occasionally the name of an author is omitted altogether. This is the
case with an annual meteorological report which appears in a very useful
publication called a ‘ Record of Bare Facts,’ issued by an energetic Corre-
sponding Society,

Now a few words about reprints. I receive one. It is paged 1 to 4.
It is stated, on the cover only, to be from the proceedings of a certain
Society, neither volume nor date being given. I wish to enter it in a
bibliographical list. Reference to the publication from which it is reprinted
is absolutely necessary. I cannot find it in any London library.

396 REPORT—1904.

Eventually I get the required information from the Secretary of the
Society. The reprint has not only been re-paged, but the position of the
type on the pages has been altered so as to get into four pages a paper
running into five—a great temptation certainly. But in all reprints,
except perhaps reports of proceedings which would never have to be
entered in a bibliography, the original pagination should be retained, and
the title of the publication, the volume, and the date —month and year—
should be printed on the paper, as well as on the cover, so that it remains
if the cover be taken off, as for binding.

There is one other point I should like to impress upon you. Your
proceedings should be published ; that is, it should be possible to purchase
them. They are then amenable to the copyright laws ; copies have to be
presented to five libraries—one in London, one in Oxford, one in Cam-
bridge, one in Edinburgh, and one in Dublin. That in London is the
British Museum Library ; and even if you only print and do not publish
your proceedings, a copy should be sent there. This is a point I cannot
too strongly urge.

We possess, at the Office of the Association, a very valuable and
unique collection of the Proceedings of the Corresponding Societies. I
hope that it will in future be kept intact, and that by more extensive and
convenient premises being acquired by the Association it may be possible
to improve its arrangement and make it more accessible than it is at
present, and I also think that an effort should be made to get replaced
certain publications which some years ago were lent and lost, so that
every paper catalogued in the Reports of the Association may be readily
referred to, for some of them are not now to be found in London, not even
in the library of our greatest national institution, the British Museum.

Mr. W. Whitaker said he should like to support what Mr. Hopkinson
had stated. The speaker had wasted much time in trying to find where
a paper came from in order that he might be able to quote it properly,
and in many instances he had taken his separate copy to a library where
the journal existed and collated it himself with the original. When one
has to republish a paper it is inconceivably inconvenient to shift the
type, as printers will do. Societies and editors of papers should make
printers understand that they cannot do as they like in these matters. Mr.
Hopkinson spoke of the Library of the British Museum. Not long ago
the speaker sent some annual reports of a provincial Society to the British
Museum and they were returned! They were not entered at Stationers’
Hall, and were not wanted at the Museum. The Library is so full that
little things formerly received cannot be accepted now.

The Rey. T. R. R. Stebbing thought that if sent tothe British Museum
at South Kensington they would be received most gratefully.

Mr. Whitaker observed that that is a different thing. He thought
the Trustees of the future would very much regret the action of the
Trustees of the present, because these thin pamphlets become so difficult
to get hold of in years to come. He hoped the Delegates would notice
what Mr. Hopkinson had said, and try to get the Societies to adopt some
kind of system in editing. There is an opinion about that anyone can
edit a journal. That is the greatest mistake possible. It requires a
good deal of technical knowledge. A man can be a good writer and good
reader, and yet make the worst possible editor. He had told several
Societies of these defects and they had been remedied. It is for the

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 397

good of the Societies that the Delegates should try to get their journals
printed in a regular orthodox fashion, with contents in front and index
at the end. And do not go re-paging from No. 1 every single yearly
issue. A Society which he had represented had committed this error for
the last four years, and had occasioned him much inconvenience. The
parts should be paged continuously, so that they may form a much more
dignified kind of volume. When each part is paged separately, the only
thing to be done is to put, in binding them, a stiff piece of coloured paper
between each number and the next, otherwise it takes a long time to
find any particular part.

Mr. T. W. Shore (Hampshire Field Club) said that as one who worked
a good deal in the British Museum he thought they might do a little more
than Mr, Whitaker had suggested. He had not had any experience of
the publication of pamphlets, but he did know the extreme use of them,
having been for some eight years a constant worker in the reading-room.
He thought that the Delegates, as a Conference, might represent to the
authorities of the British Museum that they were losing some out-of-the-
way information of a very valuable kind in some of the Societies’
publications ; and might ask them to reconsider their position, and to
receive the publications, however small, of any Society.

The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing said that his own experience was that the
Museum had not got room for its books and pamphlets, and did not care
for any more. Moreover, if these pamphlets are filed there, you have to
wait perhaps half or three-quarters of an hour before you get what you
want. But if you go to the British Museum at South Kensington,
and apply to the Librarian there, you probably get whatever you want
in two or three minutes. The speaker knew that instead of rejecting
pamphlets and reports and transactions every possible trouble was taken
at Kensington to collect them. They are there all brought together
in a small compass ; but if they go to Bloomsbury the messenger may
have to travel miles before he alights upon what is wanted. There
was one point he thought Mr. Hopkinson intended to insist upon, and
that was the form of reports and transactions. It is extremely incon-
venient to have different sizes. You do not know how to bind them up.
He believed that the Royal Society itself was going to change the form
of its proceedings, and he thought if our Societies were to apply in a
modest way to the large London Societies for advice as to the form it is
best to adopt, a uniform size might be adopted which would be a very
considerable advantage for our book-shelves.

Dr. G. Abbott inquired to what extent the Library of the British
Association was used. He was suspicious that really the volumes sent
there would be very much more appreciated if they were sent to South
Kensington. Perhaps, however, both could be supplied.

Mr, J. F. Tocher (Buchan Field Club) remarked that he had listened
with great pleasure to Mr. Hopkinson’s paper, and thought that an en-
deavour should be made to carry out some of his suggestions. As editor
of the transactions of a Corresponding Society, he had felt guilty as to
one or two points with regard to the publication. In his Society they did
not put the number of the volume upon reprints. Otherwise he thought
the Buchan Field Club attended to most of the points that were brought
out. So far as the form of the transactions was concerned, he thought
they would experience some difficulty with the Corresponding Societies.
In the North of Scotland they had at least half a dozen Societies and half

3898 REPORT—1904.

a dozen different forms of transactions. He thought there would be great
difficulty in getting Societies to agree to any particular form unless the
British Association gave them a definite standard form in which to publish
their transactions.

The Vice-Chairman (Dr. Tempest Anderson) said that the size of
publications was one of the most pressing importance. He had been
getting a considerable quantity of literature on the Martinique eruptions.
The variety of sizes of these publications was heartrending. It was
almost impossible to find anything approaching uniformity. When you
take the magazine articles it is astonishing how much more uniformity
prevails. Here, said the speaker, is the ‘Geographical Journal.’ That
is probably one of the best sizes, but it is about half an inch too narrow.
The corresponding journal in America is half an inch wider, and is able
to have really good plates put in. The Journal of the Geographical
Society cramps the size, and in these days of photography the extra half-
inch improves the scale wonderfully. However, though the Royal Society,
for instance, were to recommend all the other Societies to adopt uniformity,
it is certain we should never get the public at large to press for an
aiteration in the size of their favourite magazines. He thought the size
of the ‘Century’ was about the average size of the magazines, and it would
be very much better if all magazines were to keep to that size. As it is
practically impossible to get the magazines to change their form, he con-
sidered it would be a good thing if Societies would adopt the average
size of the magazines and keep to it. He complained that the two Guide-
books for the British Association meeting were each of a different size.
Then the excursion programmes, which one would like to bind up as
souvenirs of this meeting, were yet again of a different size.

Mr. Hopkinson, in reply, said he had purposely excluded all reference
to the size of publications, because that had been thoroughly discussed
some years ago by a very influential committee, whose Report was
presented at the Ipswich Meeting of the British Association in 1895
(p. 77), Demy octavo (83 inches by 52 inches) or demy quarto (11} inches
by 87 inches) was the size recommended by the Committee. The smaller
size was that of the British Association Reports and of the publications
of a very large number of other Societies.

Mr. Stebbing rather thought that public opinion had considerably
changed since the date of this Report, and that a larger size was now
wanted.

Mr. Hopkinson said that it had at all events been decided as the
standard size of the British Association, and he did not think it would be of
any use to discuss the subject further. | With regard, however, to sending
the proceedings of Societies to the British Museum, he remarked that every-
thing published in this country ought to be sent there—to the National
Library—for in order to consult books we did not want to go to South
Kensington, which is miles away. He admitted that Mr. B. B. Wood-
ward had done excellent work in endeavouring to get the whole of the
publications of the Societies, and he hoped that the Delegates would send
their publications there also; but still they must not omit the British
Museum in Bloomsbury. Mr. Hopkinson proceeded to refér to the assist-
ance he had received from the Library Catalogue of the Natural History
Museum in his search for information which he had been unable to
obtain at the British Museum owing to the latter having neglected to bind
the covers of a book issued in parts, and he urged the importance of

~~ nn

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 399

binding the covers of scientific magazines to preserve the lists of contents
as well as the dates of issue. He regretted to find that the British
Museum, instead of binding the first cover of each number had lately
only bound the cover of the first part and the last part, usually the one
in January and the other in December. The only other point Mr.
Hopkinson wished to draw attention to was this, that the Office of the
British Association was, after all, the best place at which the transactions
of the Corresponding Societies could be kept. Every year the titles of a
selected list of papers from these transactions are published in the Report
of the British Association, and if anyone wants to refer to a paper in that
list he knows at once where it can be seen—at the Office of the Association.
Therefore he thought it was most important that the publications should
be kept there, where they are bound and carefully preserved, the cost of
binding them being defrayed out of the annual grant to the Corresponding
Societies Committee.

The Reports of the Delegates from the various Sections were then
received.

Dr. H. R. Mill, representing Section A, explained that this Section
was composed this year, as it had been for some time past, of two Sub-
sections. ‘The Conference of Delegates naturally came more immediately
- into contact with the Sub-section called, for want of a better name,
Cosmical Physics, and the Committee of that Section desired him to
convey to the Delegates their feeling of the value of the work that had
been done by the Corresponding Societies. Although there was no
specific question to be laid by the Section before the Delegates, the repre-
sentative was given a free hand to make any remarks he considered
appropriate to the occasion. He would refer only to meteorological
observations. A number of the Societies represented there, notably those
with which Mr. Hopkinson and Mr. Whitaker were connected, had given
a great deal of attention to this question of meteorology, and had pub-
lished each year a most admirable meteorological report of the areas they
dealt with. A number of other Societies dealt with the same subject
nearly as completely, and others in a more fragmentary fashion, but there
was room for a great deal of improvement. The Royal Meteorological
Society was endeavouring to improve the position of this country in this
respect, to increase the interest in observation, and to direct it sys-
tematically. They had sent outa circular in which four questions were put
to the Fellows of the Society. When these were brought before the local
Societies the speaker trusted that the Delegates would reinforce the action
of the Fellows of the Royal Meteorological Society who approached them,
and would at any rate discuss the matter. If they needed any information
on the subject they should refer either to the Assistant-Secretary, Mr.
Marriott, to the speaker, or to any of the officials of the Society, and that
information would be furnished. He hoped on a future occasion it might
be possible to make more definite suggestions than at present. The subject
was one of great interest. The observations were easily made, and when
brought together could be put to excellent scientific use.

Mr. Whitaker (Section C) explained that it was the joint desire of
the Geographical and Geological Sections to get a Committee appointed
to determine and record the exact significance of local terms applied to
topographical and geographical objects. All members of the Correspond-
ing Societies must meet with such terms, and the Delegates are naturally

4.00 REPORT—1904.

the very people to help in this matter. They should record these words
and send them up to the Secretary of the Committee or to the Secretary
of the British Association, As an example, Mr. Whitaker said that when
he was working in the neighbourhood of Southampton there was one term
that he heard confined to a little district round Southampton ; a term
applied to the bleached top of a gravel, which was known there as
‘skyone.’ Howit is spelt and what it is derived from he had not the least
idea ; but the name had a definite meaning there,and an economic mean-
ing, because that particular sort of gravel was used for a particular object.
It was interesting and ought to be recorded. Every one of the Delegates
would find in their own districts some such terms, sometimes spread over
a county, sometimes over a small district, sometimes over three or four
counties, and it would be desirable to get at what they really meant and
how they had been derived. He thought it would be interesting not only
to geographers and geologists, but to students of folklore and similar
subjects.

The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing explained that Section D had appointed
a Sub-Committee, which eventually drew up the following report :—

‘ August 22, 1904.

‘A meeting of the Sub-Committee appointed to prepare a reply to
a letter from Mr. Rudler was held to-day. Messrs. Stebbing, Knubley,
and Bles were present.

‘It appears that several subjects for work by local Societies have been
proposed to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies by
representatives of Section D at former meetings without producing any
substantial results.

‘Four subjects suggested already are :

‘1. Cave faunas : report to Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Ephraim Lodge,
The Common, Tunbridge Wells.

‘2. Zoological changes on a given plot of land during the year:
report to Professor Miall, The University, Leeds.

‘3. Compilation of local faunas. A complete working scheme has
been prepared, and is actually in operation in some localities. For par-
ticulars of schedules, &c., apply to Mr. Edward J. Bles, The University,
Glasgow.

‘4, Systematic observations on the micro-organisms of a given pond
or ditch : report to Professor West, Agricultural College, Cirencester.

‘In addition to the above the Sub-Committee suggest the two
following subjects :

‘5. Overland lines of migration of birds: report to Rev. E. P.
Knubley, Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

‘6. Collection of slugs from all parts of the British Isles: apply for
information to Mr. W. Denison Roebuck, Hyde Park Road, Leeds.’

Mr. Stebbing mentioned, in conclusion, that he would be much
indebted to any member who lived in the neighbourhood of caves through
which there might be flowing streams if they would let him have some
information concerning the same and the fauna, and if there happened to
be crustaceans he would like to have specimens.

Dr. Herbertson (Section E) said that after Mr. Whitaker’s clear state-
ment little remained for him to add to the request that the Corresponding

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 401

Societies should send to the Joint Committee of Section E and Section C
information as to the local names of geographical and topographical forms.
But there was one other point he should like to bring before the members
of the Corresponding Societies, and that was the desirability of sending to
the Royal Geographical Society reports and copies of any of their publi-
cations which contained papers dealing with questions of distribution, so
that these might be noticed in the Bibliography of Geography which is
prepared by the Librarian of the Society. Extracts of some of the papers
might then appear in the Monthly Notes, and thus be communicated to
the geographers of this country.

Miss Ethel Sargant said that she was not the representative of
Section K, but Mr. Stebbing had asked her to report as to the information
she had received with regard to orchids in reply to the appeal which had
been made on a former occasion. The only communication she had
received was from a Tunbridge Wells member. She had also, after many
inquiries, got a little information with regard to the leaves of orchids ;
but none about the seedlings, respecting which information had been also
solicited.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan moved a vote of thanks to the Master and
Fellows of Gonville and Caius College for the services they had rendered
to the Conference by enabling them to meet in that interesting room and
allowing them likewise to gather in the small library, which some of them
had taken advantage of. There were various reasons why they should
give that vote ; one was that the College had introduced them to the
information that Humility and Virtue lead to Honour.

Mr. Hembry cordially seconded the vote, and the motion was carried
with enthusiasm.

The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing moved, and Mr. Hopkinson seconded,
a vote of thanks to the Chairman, which was carried with applause and
briefly acknowledged.

1904. DD

1904.

REPORT:

4.02

-pesdoig pu suorjoesuely,

“Aypenuue ‘suojqoesuery,
*A]TBUOISBD00 “Oz
‘Silomeyy [eloedg, £ A[.103

-ienb ,‘4svingeN xossqy,

‘A[[BWOISBO00 ‘suOTJOBSUBAT,

“AyTenuue ‘suorovsuery,
“Ayyenuue ‘suonovsuery,

“AyTenuue ‘suonoesuery,
“ATrenuue “410doexy
‘ATYq Wout ,“4sTyenqeN Ysuy ,

“Ayyenuue ‘ssurpos01g
“ATTenuUe ‘su0ry

-OBSUBIT, PUB SsJuUIpss001g
“ATTenuTe

‘suonovsuvly, pue 410dey
“Atenuue

‘sBulpsaor1g pue 410dexy

“ATenUUe ‘suooRsuR.1y,
“Aypenuue ‘sqouy oreg

JO plooay pus suoTJOBsULIY,
*AT[BUOISed00 suOTZ

-OBSUBIT, ‘g1odey penuuy

“Al[enuue ‘suomorsuvasy,

“ATTenuue ‘ssurpasaoo1g

“AT[enUUe ‘ssuTpsado01g
“Ayenuue ‘suo1yBArosqO
[BOLs0[OIOAAZePT JO spso0day

“Ayyentue ‘qnipO,siste1n4e Ny
aATYSYOIMA Tog oy4 Jo A109S1 yy
“ATTenuue
‘ssUIpesod01g + pues 410dey
“ATTenuue
‘ssUIpeeo01g pues 410dery

“AT[enUuUe ‘ssurpoooo01g

“AT[BU0IsBO00 ‘s;eULy

SuolBor[qng Jo onssy
Jo Aouonberg pure 91417,

“PO "SL
“SOL

“SST

“9g
“P9 "SBT
"PO ‘SL
“SOT
"p9 "8% oyeloossy
"8q
“SOT
“S01
ier
“sq
“SGT
"89
9
“sq
“SOT

oe Toa
*89 °2T
“SOL
“9g
“ST IT
“SOL
“PO “8B

uwondraiosqng
Tsnauy

amon
ouoN
auoN
amon
"PY “SOT
“PO “8S
ouoNn
amon ‘oossy
“sq
“SOT
aon
amo Ny
auoN
auoNn
“sq
ouoN
“sq
sq

au0N
amon
ouoNy
"8q
auoON
“sq
auoNt

80\T
eowelqUg

L168
09%
008
86
006
OSL
601
PST
19€
006
96
TLOT
OSP
89T
013
OLT
6ST

PLT
OFT
00%
GLE
GPG
08

196

sIoqMoyy
30 "ON

eweswU Ly Vv gague

‘suepiep [rqduuey & ‘soy “xoTy
MOSSEL H ‘SUIBEPT-10}MaNT

‘BiayjedeQ + ‘qoopanyy Avpouvg *¢
XOssy ‘[ITH ysinyyong ‘peoy Many
surddg ‘ppysurdg ‘ejop wernt

UIs[q ‘UOpI0y 'g “"Y

aS Wa “Wh ‘a1ang

somer “qsINquipy ‘ssurpling erpuy
euIMogyseq ‘proxy

asaLLOp “eprepuy ‘ploypeg *f “
Arnqaiayuep

‘TWH leorpeyy ey ‘tepuvy “y

urqnq ‘puvyery Jo

Areriqyy [euoyeN ‘yourH “A\ ep ‘f
qosiog ‘advivo1, Aaqqy

TOUT “VW ‘aiyueg qzoqteR “Ao

eL00W “M *H *uopdory “eA oTqng
Ystus0p ‘gq Uyor ‘aouezZueg

‘SsuIpiing oqnug ‘umesny eqs,
pxeoqdeys “fA pus UTI

‘dD ‘qaiseyyO ‘umasnyy, aouaaso1y
Pips “queose1p

§,Me1pUY 492 “S"W ‘Weeqg We M
Arnqsmerys

*qoor}S oT}8vQ ye “4sellog “A “H
quoery,-W0-u04

-Ing “pvoy je1ompeg ¢ ‘T9480 “Tg
peoy10j0g

*‘qaerqg joduyo ¢ “OTT ‘Aeqoor, wa *¢
109SI1g ‘591109

Aysroatug “Wy ‘spjoudey “H “sg
“VW A015 ‘a “AM pur [Teys
ABA "dM “meysuruag ‘yo013g

DADISUON SANG MIBYO WOT YOUAIONy
MEY sUIMIITg 400139 osTpereg “4suy

PULP PUB “wg ‘[TeaAsserQ peayTy
eIYSHOIMIeg ‘uoyAy Jo

esueyy “C'd ‘WOxTV "TWP *f ‘AeY
“LIQ SOWMVE PUB 103807

‘HN ‘orenbg eSel[op ‘unesnyy
‘WIWW ‘sunox

‘W ‘HW ‘erenbg eseijop ‘wnesnyy
q9e8q “WoNNZYSUy OBTZUELDg pus

Arereqvy yekoy ‘prwM pleysuey ‘¢
JOqSIN “7, pus ouojsuyor qouleg

“I ‘“MOSSBIH ‘yoog eF100n F0Z

Areyo100g Jo ssorppy
pue ouBN 10 s10z1enb-peoxy

oe

* "00g ‘Joa MOZsepy
+ 8 8 sy xossg
* ‘o0ssy “10g “4VT ULSI
* + 908 "T0389 ‘QUID
* "009 “H *N ournoqyseq
* ‘008 *H 'N ‘SqUeyf ‘H
ji * "O04 'N Unqnd
* ‘0 'dV"H'N yos10q
* 9009 "H 'N wopsorp
* "009 *[08H “YL "“MUIOD
* log "JEN "00g IeqyseqO
* + ‘008 “GUN UIpIED
"OH TBA *A9S 3 “TRO
‘00g "Wory “HN “gang
* *O ‘HW ueyong
+ * 009 9BN 109SI1g
“00S ‘Id “H *N “UL
"008
“TOS *98UT “PH 2 “CII
* QNIO *FeN “YSyorM tog
- ‘Oi “FEN ISB
“00S "Id *H ‘N 988192
* “O'E V°H'N Wee
‘00g “JBN UeIUOsepuy

SIFLL peyetAciqqy

‘GO6GI-FOGL 40f uounr0ssp ysurug ay) fo sayowog Burpuodsess0— ay],

898T ‘Jo A,aT00g [BoIZo[oaH ‘moFsepy
“ * * 088T ‘ANID prea xessqy
UOTyBlooss V OIZUETOS

pus AreioqvyT orrysfe10yy pue uLsiy

Pest “Aja}00g [vorsofoay ysmmquipy
L981

‘£qo100g £10481 [BINgVN eUINOg sey
L981 ‘Ajo100g £10481

[VINJVN PUB OVIQUOIOgG quay ysUq

SS8T “A010 PIOW SqstTeangeN UTTQua
9181 ‘QNID Ped werrenb

“guy pue Al0jsIpW [eINyeN 4yos10q
OL8T ‘Aa1008 O91}

-Welog puvAIOISIH [vingVN wopsoID
FIST ‘Jo

Ayatoog [eo1sooap pesoy ‘[[eMu109
TST 2V¥ pue ‘emqvsoqry

‘QOUSI0g [BAINJVN JO AJoIO0S 1048049

* LOST ‘Ayoroog ,sqsteinqeN YIprep
£681 ‘QnIO

Plena AA[VA WieAeg puB oopBisH
948 “Aq@1009 [volsojowyory pus

AIOWSTAE [BINJBN 4UOIT-u0-uoyng

* £88 ‘ANI plea usyong
* Z98T ‘Aqazoog ,sqst[eangeN [Oystg

898T ‘Aqo100g reorydosonty

pus A10481 [eINgENY WeysuMUIIg
698T ‘AqaTOOg oTyUeIOg

94NFI4SUT PUL[PIT pus wWeysurustg

TS8T “ANID, SStTeINqVN OTTYysyOLATEg

S981 “ANID PION S9SITeAIN4e Ny WSey[og
1281 ‘Ayot00g [vorydos

-OTTUd pue Alojsty yernyeN qseyog
S981 ‘NID Pel weraenb

“ay pus AroqstH [BIngeN Weg
9881

‘Ajoloog ,SISI[VINjeN UWelmosiepuy

UOlyepunog JO o48q pus opsty [nT

403

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

*ATYIUOU's1VOULSUG SULT
jo ‘ysuy jo suorovsuviy,
“ATG uOUL
‘srsouLsugq «= BUTI, jo
WOI4NAYSUT JO SUOTJOVSUBLT,

*A]Tenuue ‘4.10dey

“AyTenuue ‘suoroesuely,

*“ATpenuue
‘q1odey puke suororsuery,

“ATqQ UO ‘suOTJOVSURAY,
“Aqquom ‘Ayders
‘ Ajraqaenb ‘[eusnor
*ATTBLUUOTG,
wort Ux

“Ayenuus ‘ssutpsso01g
“ATTenuae
‘rodey pues suonoBsuBy,

-09),

‘qa euluUeyy

“ATTenuue
‘qzodoy pues suoTjoesuBAy,

*Apreok-j[ey ‘suomovsuvsy,
-A|[BUOIsBON0 ‘suOTJORSUBLT,
*AT[BUOISBONO ‘suOTJOVSUBLT,
-Aypenuue ‘jeuimor
*A[[eMOTsv900 ‘SMOTJORSUBAT,
“A[qyuou ‘smorjoesue.y,
“AyTrenuue ‘suooesaery,
“ATpenuue ‘suoroRsuery,
‘stead 90174
Io 04 AIVAO ‘sBuUIpavo01g
“rok
B SOUT} Noy ‘suoTJO"SURLY,
-Ajyeuorsvooo sxodvg
eouerog *{ ATjenuue “410dexy
-Aypenuue ‘ssurpeso1g
“S}MOU OMY
AIOAS ,“4STTBINFVN XENTEH,

-Aypenuus ‘sduypeeoorg

“SOT “2T
“80% S}uOpNnys }
pus soy B1oossy
S*pg'sTg stoq may,
“sg pus "sg

*P9 “SOT

"59

71
"pg'soT Soqeloossy

|S °SL ‘7 Stoquioyy

"Sg pus "pg "sy
“S13
*p9'SOT 807810088 Y
“ST ‘71 Stoquioy,
"PO “SOT SUEpnys
pue ‘soy-u0ON
“ST ‘21 JUOPIsoy
*‘P9'SOT SOYBIDOSSY
OST ‘7 S1eq me yy
"99
“sq
wat
"9g
euoN
"9g
"3g
“Sg PUB "SOT
“SOT

8G
TAMU UT

“P9*SL
"PO *8S

nity ye

au NT

auONT

“SLIT

“PO “ST
“Pd “SOT

“sq
auoN
euoN
"P9 "SB
avon

auoN

au0N
auoNy
ouoON
auoN
auoN
auoNn
auON
auoN
| e9uoN
“SOT

ouoN

ouoN

euoON

“SLIT

“sg pUR SOT |

|

008
SQUBPNYS 2
‘sayeloossy
“SQmoN OZ
096

01Z

F6L
£66
00L
0ZT
99

00L

989
Soqeloossy “Pp
"SQMONT £88

06

¥8

00T

961

08's

OST

QL

80T

002

00F

09

OST
000‘T

ooryg 410qTV

Aosureg ‘400149 4aes0iy
‘sooWO SUIUT ‘TUF “HM “IL

Aqioq
‘sIMoT patty “)

* yotAOTY ‘ ‘e8e[[0D Ysnor0q [Ve],
qaqysoTour yy

‘o0m99 yIOK g ‘AIOZeIH e10poeyy,
Jaqsoqouryy
‘eduey AoTreq AA “pBoy WOZSUTTIOMW
‘uosdwouy, ‘H *VY pus ‘epig ssoyt

‘gaaryg qaoqteH gt ‘duns ‘9 ‘t
‘unl ‘asuoy, *¢ pur yureg "A

“Ioysoyouvyy ‘yooryg uoyeq uyor ¢
reysoqouryy ‘oseuosieg s,A1eyy

“49 OL ‘peew “H ‘f pue UsemMNZ “Wy
uvyy Joost ‘Aas

-mey ‘yueg spAoyy ‘aoseqoy "mL
asnoy

OVUM “VM ‘TOIgNYsUT [eAOYy
joodzeary “Sspig S,eAvors1ey FT

“wa ‘sda stoquq *O ‘a ‘ydep

yoodzsary ‘yareq WoZog ‘onusAy
wmeysuryong F ‘4jouuy “A OD “W

SsuUBAT “WY ‘AM ‘“UInesnyy Woryer0d109
spee'T

‘peoy ysodmor F1z “loNINE “Wf

suosieg 109[@M “Spae'T'oqngt4SsUyT Mey
arqnq ‘499139
YMomsopoW gE “WBIPIO “H ‘0

pue oUIyT eT “WN ‘Ad ‘WosMeT “MM
SSoUIOAUT

e048 UsIH 6c ‘ATGOINIO “ND ‘H
oud y-Wodn-9]9S8BOMa NT

TPH TAeN ‘uMoIg mOeM “A
1

‘canesnyy euL “Spa ‘preddeyg “1
‘ A TMH

900149 SNOT 91 “’S"H iT “TONF"IS"M “LC
TITUPOY ‘pBoy soqesua Ty

‘serra oSoqepny[g { ‘Aqstaq “a *D
pr0yqye MA ‘WOWINY “VY

pue ‘suvqry “99 “S'T'd ‘sqqtyo ‘HV
Aoring ‘peeypuly

‘osuByy omy, ‘Aqqt0MI1"819 ‘A “H “AW

uojdueyqynog

‘sould xossng ¢ “y's'd ‘ered “M
IAI “{ "pvoy Wostarey ‘su100y

s,Aqot00g [worydosoryg pus A1e1041'T
MOSSBLH ‘490149

Ww 106 ‘susieg puvpory AC

=

* ‘BU 4SUl PURTPITT

* — *4suy 4UN0Q "PHL
"008 "H ‘N 'T100 “A181
* 90g 4u9g “"qouRyL

9 00g “OIL ‘Wousyy
* "009 “TIL 100D ‘qoue yy
R "209 ‘d094H "GouRyy
‘008 °V'H'N wey JO 'T
* 009 ‘Toa4y ToodzoaryT

* ‘90g "3004 [oodr0aAryT

= **009 ‘Wf [OOd10ATT
*00§ *IITd “FT 104800107
*O08SY "10S ‘0D "JBN Sp20'T
* — ‘908SY *[004) spoa'T
* *ptepery "00g *9895
* "90g "log SsSoTIOAUT
; * "Sug ‘UIP, “4SsUl
: ‘O'N ‘TPS 10H
" * "908 *109D TINH
* ‘0 °H 'N 9TepseuoH
* * "008 *H ‘"N 8}10H
‘00g
‘HN ‘OM exouaisey
*"O °H syuvH
‘S'S Xej18H
* 008 “Td “Hd Aosse[H

69ST ‘SLOOUIZay [voTUBQOOT, pue
“TIATO ‘SULoTT, JO o9nqWsUT puslpiW

TL8T ‘sto0ursag

JO UOT{NFASUT SeryUNOH pueIpI
P9BT ‘Aqa100g £104

“SIT [RANQEN aZaT[oH ySsnox0qiavypL

SE8T ‘AjoFO0g [¥O}4817879 Lo}SoTOUBLL

, 088T
Ayqatoog peordoosorory roysoyouryy
8E8I ‘Ajo1005
SUIUI, pues [woTso[oaxy) Toysoyouryy
: F881
Aqotoog jeoryders0ay roqsoyouvyy
6LET ‘Aqot00g wertenby ty
pus AToqstH yeinyeN ‘Jo o[sy ‘avy

* sagt ‘AqoT00g [eoTZoloe4 [ood19AryT
T68T ‘Aqot00g [eoryderZ004 joodzaeary

GST ‘Aqot00g Sulsr90UISUy [ood10AT]
Gest ‘AjoT00g [vo

-tydosojiqd pwe Are10j1] 10380010]
898T ‘WOIyBIOOSsY OUT}

-aalog DUB QUID ,SISITBINIeN spae'T

E181 ‘WOIYBIOOssy [voTsojoay spoo'T

LPT ‘Jo Ayoro0g Armd

“Ul [Bog pue [eorsiyeig “puspoty
9181 ‘QNIO DION

pus Ayajoog oyMueIOg sseuIZAU]
688T

‘srasulsug SUTUTy, jo worqng4suy
988T ‘anIO

APSTCANGBN PLT Pus oyrzuotos [INH

A * 1881 ‘Aqojoog yeorsojoepH TINH
L981

‘qniQ A10}SIR [eINAVN s[epsemjoH
GLB ‘QNIO PletT puw Ayer0

-0g £10481 [BANQVNY o11Ysp10j410H
Ayato0g £10481

ye1n48 NC pus odoosoiorpy or0uIO|Se Ay
* g@ggt ‘Aqo1I00g [BoISOT

~O@YOIY pUB QUIN Pll eatqsduey

* — PL8T ‘Aqotoog opyueyos xeztTeH
ZO8T ‘Jo
Agoyoog [woyqdosoryg eAoy ‘Mossel

EE a ss. Se ee 1 ee

o*

*Aypenuue “q.10dey

“ATUUOUL .“4SI[BAINgVN OL »
{Ayenuue ‘suomoesuvty,

-Aypenuue ‘ssurpeeoorg
“A][BIUUEIq ‘SMOTZOVSUBIY,

ATTeNUUes ‘ss atpedoo1g

“Alyenuue ‘Teurno pr

“AyTTenuue ‘suoovsuv1y,
“ATQQUoUL
‘saeoulsug 4=SurUIyy ~=jo
UOIIN4I4SU] JO SUOTJOVsUBLy,

“<Tjenuwe ‘ssurpseorg
“Ayypenuue

4SITeINge NY U194seq-TINOG ,

*AT[BUOISsvON0 ‘suOTJOSHeL],

1904.

“Ayenuue ‘ssutpasoo01g
*Ay193.18nb
<4SI[@INye NT qeyseqooy ,

*A[[BIUUIq ‘SuOTJOVSUBAT,

REPORT

“AjrvoA-J] ey ‘peunor

‘Ay[BNUUB ‘OOIg pus ‘suUBIy,
*AT[eMoIseo00 “sqQ [BOTsoT
-oloajeyy * ATpenuue 44.10dexy

“Aypenuue “q10dey

“Ayyenuue ‘suoyovsuesy,

*Aj19041eNb ‘yeurnor
“A[Tenuue

‘suoljovsusry, pue 410doy
“ATW UOUL's109 Us US ULOT yy

jo ‘4suy jo suolousueay,

“Alyenuue ‘suoToBsUeLy,

404

suoTeorqnd JO onssy
jo Aouenbeiy pues a9tL

‘16

"Pd “SOL
“SET
“SOL
"9g

"sg PUB SOT

SIBTIOP &

‘SIS PUB"PO "STE
“sq
“sg UINUIUIL

‘16

"P9801
ae
ae
“SOL
"9 "sg
"D9 "SL
se

‘STS
“SOL
“9g

‘SGP PUB ‘SGZ
"8g

mo14draosqng
[enuuy

euoN

ouoN

ouoN
“SOL

"PO “SB

ouoNr
auton

“P9 “SOT
PUB 'sT “IT

ouoN
auoN

auoN

"PQ “SOI
au0N
auoN
auoN
"D9 “8B

a

"D9 "8G

auoN
auoN
"8g
amon
auoN

aa
aouBaqUg

03+
S09 BI0OssSY
os9°s pue
00F
PBL
OFS

66

008‘T
Gol

8L1
T91

S81}21009 Gh

L06

S19
G81
8hS
O8&
668
00g
881

09%
002
69%
00F'T
992

3 IoqUIOy,
Jo "ON

ISTIQUA “A “O pus wos
-lepuy ysedtay iq ‘y10X ‘umesnyy

‘SD

‘prsddeyg *y, ‘aH ‘mnesnyy on
PleyINW ‘woydoH

“Sd “WI “109180 JOMOT ULM *AOIT
aLOOW [1099 “H *psojyaroH

‘AIBIQUT aarq ‘ULOOY GQuiO edoyjoo
Arquaao0y ‘suidvayo

88019 ‘459M "OQ “OIMI MA ‘uanesnyy
‘SOW “Vd “Megs 90q
~1aH ‘eUAT,-00-ayysvoMoN ‘ospug

seleg ‘eynqgysuyt yeorydersoo4y
SUarT[0D

‘aL ‘SulplMg eynqysuy uvipeueG

Wey SULMIATG “499.149 []e MeN

& “TOMI ‘ygIUIg JepusxeTy
qaodqqnog

soy Of ‘suuqysiwy “H 'V
BuryjoM ‘osvavora paojasg

“v'q ‘UalINg UoISuIySy "Ye ‘ANY
uAOy, edvp ‘amoesnyy

uBoIyy Ynog “AIwWO ‘NW ‘YD
- ouLL'O
pus ‘TeABOM *M “WT AOY ‘aqmvag

“HL 190-9FT *“aoyuney, ‘alse omy,
rayseqooy

‘asnoyH uepury ‘yIt0oMdeyH uyor
aBpyooy “Aoe199 ployee

SOL “OS'd ‘yIOMYsy plvurdey “¢
ployee AM ‘yoa4g yrwur

Teg ‘eIITA Surpeay ‘puspreg “y

‘oueyT

* WOSIIT'L'S “Weg Joong Avy,

| Agisreg ‘oovtg Aqunog ¢ ‘1euprey *p

MBySUl}ION ‘9591109
Aqsteatun “WW ‘IV AM “L JO1d
"S'Td ‘Wy1vyV “AN pus
“W'W “10990d “0 “W ‘Jold ‘aud,
-U0-a]JsvoMeN ‘uINasNy_, yooouvy_L
moqdureyyIoN ‘apereg
HVT WRT ¢2 “VW ‘UOXId "N ‘H

* —- syeqg ‘ou0gs ‘Mepelg SIIOM “AA
eufy-uodn-9[3sBoMe N

‘TH eTAoN ‘UMOIg UO9TeM “TL
TOIMIO NT

‘arenbg §,Ue[oH “4g ‘WOSTOYOIN “Vy “AA

Areqaioeg Jo ssorppy
pUuB sUBN IO soqzenb-pyey

**00§ ‘IIUd ‘Sx0R

WOU “4B ‘syIOX

‘00g ‘A[Og ‘100-9 'syI0X

‘Od ‘N edoqjooM
‘OW VN “48

“00g "3004 opiseucy,

"00g ‘I4S'V 07U0I0J,

“SUg "qSUT "BRIS “sg
"009

‘Ma "HIT yzodyynog

* + moTmy ‘g's
"008 [Nd Weoryy “g

‘009 "HN *V ‘U8}08,tl0g

* "OQ *N doqsaqoory

009 TOY “IVT erupyooy

* qui 930xen%
‘TOS ‘'N *909 "sqgA10g

“qsUl “TU Aosteg
* ‘008 "FBN "990N

008 "H *N “qmnyytoN
005 *H ‘N 8}UvyyION
* "0 "Tt "HIS °N
. “qsuy Police ‘N

"209 "9BN ‘AION “ION

OTL peywracqay

*(panuywoo) 0% ‘SHILHIOOS PNIGNOaAsTALOO

: 6281

TOST ‘MOLUQ .SIsyVINgBN oATYSyIOK
LE8I ‘Aqeto0g orn

-yooq dog pues [vorsoloey aatqsy.10 x
198

‘quip PPM .SystrwmyzeN edoyjoo
FIST “ANID PION ,8}stSoTowyo

“AVY pus SISI[BINJVN I11YSyOIMas M

1881 ‘Ajet00g [voryders0ay apisauAy,

$8sr |

Jo Aqo100g [vormoUoASWy ‘ozUOJOT,

AOS ‘stoouLsug |

SUIUIP, JO O9N}YsUT oaTySIogso0

-10M\ ISB pus oirysployeyg qynog
401009 [worqdos

-O1a pus Aavreqiy yaodyqnog
968T ‘seyqa100g

oyyueIog JO uolUQ U1eqseq-q4N0S
LL8I ‘Aqa10

“OS [worydosolyd wvonyy yynog

6FSI ‘Aqotoog AroystH [B.n4yBN
pue [eolsojowyory os11ysjosieut0g

SL8T ANIO SISI[BANGUN 1ayseT[90y
8L8T “Aqoro0g
opyueIog pus ArvreyryT slepyooy

* G98T “anIO 1eo1doosor0ry 440x9nh
L981 ‘e0ue

“0G [BANJVN JO AJot00g aaTYysyqIEg
8081

“‘moyqngiysuy [vorydosopryg Aolsivd
6981

‘Aqoloog $= SIST[VINgVN uTeIsu1qI ONT
jo Ayato0g A104
“SIH [einjey ‘sud -uodn-a[4seo

-MON pus ‘UlBYyAng ‘pusisequnyy.0N
9181 “ANID Plead puw Aqo100g9

ALOT, [eINAVNY oarysuoydmeyyz10N

ANID Ped erysplogers Y410 NT
ZGSI ‘SlosULsUG [volUByooyy pus
SUTUT JO 09N914SU] pul suq Jo 4.10 N

6981 “Ajorooy
SISHTBINJEN YOIMAON pus HlOyION

WOWEPUNOT Jo vg pus ETITT 1g

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 405

Catalogue of the more important Papers, and especially those referring
to Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending May 31, 1904.

*,* This Catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of
the Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

Aten, H. Stantey. The Theory of Ions or Electrons. ‘ Proc. Glasgow R. Phil.
Soc.’ xxxiv. 106-115. 1903.

AsHwortH, J. R. Weather Warnings. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ vir.
97-100. 1903.

Brack, W.G. Rainfall in 1901 (Edinburgh Central District). ‘Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xvirr. 163-164. 1903.

BRigHTON anD Hove Naturat History and PuitosopuicaL Society. Meteor-
ology of Brighton, July 1902 to June 1905. ‘ Rep. Brighton N.H. Phil. Soc.
1902-1903,’ 32, 1903.

CaMPBELL-BayaRD, F. Meteorological Report for 1902. ‘Trans. Croydon N. H.
Sci. Soe, 1902-1903, 63-70, and Appendices of Tables, 50 pp. 1903.

CaRaDoc AND SEVERN VaLLEY Fienp Cxivus. Meteorological Notes, 1903.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No, 13, 48-54. [1904.]

Cortinewoop, E. J. Meteorological Record for 1901 at Lilburn Tower, North-
umberland. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvi11. 178, 1908.

Craw, J. H. Notes of Rainfall and Temperature at West Foulden and Rawburn,
1901. ‘History Berwicksh. Nat. Club, xvim. 177. 1903.

CRESSWELL, ALFRED. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at the
Observatory of the Birmingham and Midland Institute, Edgbaston, 1903.
‘Birm, and Mid. Inst. Sci. Soc.’ 30 pp. 1904.

Eaton, H. 8. Returns of Rainfall, &c., in Dorset in 1902. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xxtv. 56-65. 1903.

Fryer, Dr. ALFRED C. A Dust-fall in the South-west of England. ‘ Proc.
Bristol Nat. Soc.’ x. 88-89. 19038.

Gray, Prof. ANDREW. Entropy. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxiv. 116-124.
1903.

Grey, GeorcE. Record of Barometer at Milfield, Northumberland, in 1901.
‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv111. 176. 1903.

GrirFitH, GrorcE L. Notes of Surveys and Levellings in Canada, ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvi. 552-564. 1904.

Haresaum, H. W.G. The Common-sense Doctrine of Furnace-draught. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 700-716. 1908.

Heyrwoop, H. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District, 1902, ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxvr. 1-19. 1904,

Horxtnson, Joun. Meteorological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the
Year 1902. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 218-221. 1908.
—— Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the Year 1902. ‘Trans. Herts

N. H. Soc’ x1. 227-2385. 1908.

—— Some Recent Storms and Floods in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.
Soc.’ x1. 289-244, 1903.

and Frank Larcumore. The Meteor of the 138th of July 1902. ‘Trans.
Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1, 244. 1903.

Lanper, A. Meteorological Notes for the Year ending September 30, 1903.
‘Trans. E, Kent 8. N. H. Soc.’ m1. 29-32. 1903.

oleae Batpwin. Croydon Bourne Flows, 44 pp. ‘Croydon N. H. Sci. Soe.’

904.

Marxuam, OC, A., and R. T. D.Smrru. Meteorological Report.—Observers’ Notes,

‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ x11. 79-85, 113-119, 1903; 146-152, 1904.

4.06 REPORT—1904.

MartortH, Dr. R. Results of Experiments on Table Mountain for Ascertaining
the Amount of Moisture Deposited from the South-east Clouds. ‘Trans. S.
African Phil. Soc.’ x1v. 403-408. 1903.

Mawtey, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Ebbammers observed in Hertford-
shire during the Year 1902. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 41-48. 1904.
Mracuem, F. G. (8. Staff. Inst.) Underground Temperatures. ‘Trans, Inst.

Min. Eng.’ xxv. 267-275. 1904.

Meryricx, E. Meteorological Observations, 1903. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 52, 84-104. 1904.

MircHutt, Rey. J.C. Results of Meteorological Observations taken in Chester.
during 1902. ‘Report Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 1902-1903,’ 12-18. 1903.

—— Results of Meteorological Observations taken in Chester during 1908.
‘Report Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 1903-1904,’ 14-20. 1904.

Muir, Dr. THomas. Factorizable Continuants. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’
xy. 29-39. 1904.

—— Developments of a Pfaffian. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ xv. 35-41.
1904.

MourrHxad, R. F. Divergence and Divergive Power in Elementary Optics.
‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxtv. 250-256. 1903.

Prox, J. W. The Corpuscular Theories of Gravitation. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil.
Soc.’ xxxtv. 17-44. 1903.

Preston, A. W. Meteorological Notes, 1902. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’
vit. 528-535, 1903.

Stewart, C. M. <A Note on the Quantities given in Dr. Marloth’s Paper ‘On the
Moisture Deposited from the South-east Clouds.’ ‘Trans. S. African Phil.
Soe.’ xrv. 413-417. 1904.

Surron, J. R. An Introduction to the Study of South African Rainfall. ‘Trans.
8. African Phil. Soc.’ xv. 1-28. 1904.

THacKkER, S. L. The Dynamics of the Winding Engine. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’
xxvi. 445-464. 1904,

Txompson, Prof. G. R. (Mid. Inst. Eng.) The Transmission of Errors in Traverse
Surveying. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvi. 75-86. 1903.

Wauiretry, J. Meteorological Table for the Year 1903 (Halifax). ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ viir. 96. 1904.

—— Table of Rainfall in Halifax for Twelve Years. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vr1t.
100. 1904.

Table of Adopted Mean Temperature in Halifax for Twelve Years. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ vim1. 101. 1904.

Wuurron, James. Meteorological Notes, and Remarks upon the Weather during
the Year 1901, with its General Effects upon Vegetation. ‘Trans, Glasgow
N. H, Soe” vr. 313-329. 1903.

Winecent, Harry F. Presidential Address, ‘The Theory of Three-colour
Photography.’ ‘Rochester Naturalist, 111. 217-222. 1904.

YORKSHIRE PHILOSOPHICAL Sociuty. Meteorological Record for the Year 1903.
‘Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for 1903,’ 16-21. 1904.

Youne, E. W. Observations on the Flight of Birds and the Mechanics of Flight.
‘Trans, S. African Phil. Soc.’ xrv. 419-423, 1904.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Brand, Mark (Mining Inst. Scot.). Calcination of Blackband Ironstone at
Dumbreck. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxy. 253-258. 1904.

Britrain, J. H. Manchester's Contribution to the Chemistry of the Nineteenth
Century. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ vir. 4-9. 1903.

Brown, Joun. The Liquefaction of Gases. (Inaugural Address.) ‘ Proc. Belfast
N. H. Phil. Soc. 1902-19038,’ 21-29. 1908.

srs ge F. W. Underground Fires. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’ xxv. 724-748,
903.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.07

Knzean, Dr. P. Q. The Chemistry of some Common Plants. ‘The Naturalist
for 1903, 229-232. 1903.

Morir, J. J. (N. Eng. Inst. Eng.) An Improved Forced Method of Treatment of
Low-grade Copper Ores. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvr. 40-44. 1903.

Prennineton, W. H. A Lancashire Chemist [John Mercer]. ‘Trans. Rochdale
Lit. Sci. Soc.’ viz. 21-25, 1908.

Section C,—GEOLOGY.

AnpreEws, Miss Mary K. Notes on some Igneous Rocks in Down and Antrim,
‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1902-1903,’ 51-57. 1903.

ArseErR, E. A. N. (N. Eng. Inst.) The Use of Carboniferous Plants as Zonal
Indices. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 371-380. 1904.

Batpwin, Watter. Selinurus bellulus from Sparth, Rochdale. ‘Trans, Manch.
Geol. Min. Soc.’ xxvi11. 198-202. 1203.

Barnes, J. On a Fossil Polyzoa from the Mountain Limestone, Castleton.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Min. Soc.’ xxvui1. 248-244, 1903.

— The Microscopic Structure of Mountain Limestone. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic.
Soe. 1902,’ 88-46. 1903.

Bzastny, H. C. Some Lithographs of Footprints, &c., from Storeton, issued by
the Liverpool Natural History Society about 1839. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol.
Soe.’ rx. 284-287. 1908.

Bracx, Dr. W. G. Gold Mining in the Transvaal. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Min.
Soe.’ xxviiI. 234-239, 1903.

Botton, H. The Paleontology of the Lancashire Coal Measures. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geol. Min. Soc,’ xxviir. 378-415. 1904.

Burns, Davin (N. Eng, Inst. Eng.). The Gypsum of the Eden Valley. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 410-428, 1903.

Burton, F. M. Rhcetic Beds at Lincoln, ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 335-336,
1903.

Capman, Joun (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). The Occurrence, Mode of Working, and
Treatment of the Ironstones found in the North Staffordshire Coalfield.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvr. 106-119. 1903.

CaRraDoo AND SEVERN VALLEY Frerp Crus. Geological Notes, 1903. ‘ Record
of Bare Facts, No. 18, 41-42. [1904.]

Crarxse, W.G. The Meres of Wretham Heath. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’
vit. 499-511. 1903.

Coxtins, J. H. Notes on the Principal Lead-bearing Lodes of the West of
England. ‘Trans. Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 683-718. 1903.

— Anniversary Address. [The Mining Industry of Cornwall.] ‘Trans.
Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 728-736. 1904.

Crorts, W. H. Notes on the Alexandra Dock Extension, Hull. ‘Trans. Hull
Geol. Soe.’ v. 57-62. 1903.

Cupworta, W. Carboniferous Vegetation at Bradford. ‘The Naturalist for
1903,’ 266-267. 1903.

Daxyns, J. R. Notes on the Glacial Phenomena of part of Wharfedale, near
Grassington, from my MS. written in 1878. ‘Proc. Yorks, Geol. Poly. Soc.’
xy. 62-58, 1903.

Dickinson, JosepH. Cohesion of Strata overcome by Pressure and other Causes.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Min. Soc.’ xxvii. 875-376, 1904.

Durron, G. H. Notes on Glacial and Alluvial Deposits near Cardiff. ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxv1. 109-115, 1904.

Epwarps, W, The Surface Geology of Cheshire in its relation to Agriculture.
‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ rx. 292-301. 1903.

Foster, C. Lz Neve. Anniversary Address. [The Connexion between Place-
ae and Mineral Deposits.] ‘Trans. R. Cornwall Geol. Soc.’ x11. 625-635,

4.08 REPORT—1904.

Fox, Howarp. Some Coast Sections in the Parish of St. Minyer. ‘Trans. Corn-
wall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 651-682. 1908.

—— Supplementary Notes on some Coast Sections in the Parish of St. Minver.
‘Trans, Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 747-752. 1904.

Supplementary Notes on the Distribution of Fossils on the North Coast of
Cornwall, South of the Camel. ‘Trans. Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 753-759.
1904.

Hatirax Screntiric Socrery. Lozal Records in Natural History, 1903 (Geology).
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 91. 1904.

Harker, ALFRED. Chemical Data for the Rocks of the English Lake District.
‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xv. 59-69. 19038.

HaweE tt, Rev. J. An Oolitic Plant Bed in North Cleveland, ‘The Naturalist
for 1908,’ 312-317. 1903.

Hay, Rev. W.C. A Description of the Ground Excavated in Laying the Water-
mains at East and West Ayton, near Scarborough. ‘ Report Yorks. Phil.
Soe. for 1903,’ 84-88. 1904.

Homers, T. V. On some Greywethers at Grays Thurrock, Essex. ‘Essex
Naturalist,’ x1. 197-202. 1904.

Howarp, F.T. The Origin of the Physical Features of South Wales, ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxvi. 21-51. 1904.

—— Notes on Glacial Action in Brecknockshire and Adjoining Districts. ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxvi. 92-108. 1904.

HowartH, JAmEs H. Notes on Boulder Markings on Mr. Kendall’s Map of the
Glacier Lakes in the Cleveland Hills. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soe.’ xv. 46—
51. 1903.

Huptuston, W. H. Chesil Beach. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C,’ xxiv. 1-9.
1903.

Jounson, J.P. The Paleolithic Period in the Thames Basin. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
xu. 97-110, 1908.

KENDALL, Percy F, The Glacier Lakes of Cleveland. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly.
Soc.’ xv. 1-45. 1903.

——and J. Howartn. The Yorkshire Boulder Committee and its Seven-
teenth Year’s Work, 1902-1903. ‘The Naturalist for 1904,’ 13-18, 1904.

LampitucH, G. W. Land Shells in the Infra-glacial Chalk-rubble at Sewerby,
near Bridlington. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xv. 91-95. 1903.

Lomas, J. Quartz Dykes near Foxdale, Isle of Man. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soe.’
Ix. 288-291. 1903.

Lonzs, Dr. T. E. On some Fossiliferous Post-Tertiary Beds exposed at the Gas-
works, Watford. ‘Trans. Herts. N. H. Soc.’ x1r. 17-20. 1904.

MacAtister, Donatp A. A Cross-Section and some Notes on the Tin and
Copper Deposits of Camborne, with special reference to the Limits of Produc-
tive Ore Ground. ‘Trans. Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 773-795. 1904.

Macraren, J. Matcorm (N. Eng. Inst. Eng.). The Occurrence of Gold in Great
Britain and Ireland. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxy. 435-508. 1908.

Macwarr, Perper. The Building of the Grampians. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil.
Soc.’ xxx1v. 147-224. 1903.

Mittert, F. W. Note on the Faujasine of the Tertiary Beds of St. Erth. ‘Trans.
Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 718-719. 1903.

Moors, C.C. The Study of the Volume Composition of Rocks (Part 2). The
Examination of an Igneous Intrusion. (Presidential Address.) ‘ Proc. Liver-
pool Geol. Soc.’ rx. 247-283. 1903.

Moors, J. R. Notes on Geological Plant Distribution around Desborough.
‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ x11. 72-73. 1903.

Pracu, B. N. Notes for the Field Excursion to Melrose. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol.
Poly. Soe.’ xv. 154-16]. 1903.

Pearce, Ricnarp. A Trachytic Boulder. ‘Trans. Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x11.
760. 1904.

Pxrarsk, J. WALTER. Luxemburg and its Iron Ore Deposits. ‘Trans, Inst. Min,
Eng.’ xxv. 580-589. 1903.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 409

Pearson, R. The Discovery of Natural Gas in Sussex: Heathfield District.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvi. 494-503. 1904.

PosrLetHwaite, J. (N. Eng. Inst.) The Geology of the English Lake District.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 802-3828. 1904.

Preston, Henry. Notes on the Geology and Archeology of the Caythorpe and
Leadenham District. ‘The Naturalist for 1903, 253-254. 1903.

Rogers, A. The Geological History of the Gouritz River System. ‘Trans.
S. African Phil. Soc.’ x1v. 375-384. 1903.

Sawyer, A. R. Further Remarks on the Portuguese Manica Goldfield. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 637-642. 1903.

Scuwarz, E. H. L. An Unrecognised Agent in the Deformation of Rocks.
‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ xtv. 385-402. 1903.

Scorr, H. Kirpurn. The Mineral Resources of the State of Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 510-524, 1903.

SHEPPARD, THomas. Some Local Borings. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’ v. 62-65.
1903.

—— Bibliography, 1900. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’ v. 65-66. 1903.

— Yorkshire Naturalists at Cowthorpe. ‘The Naturalist for 19038,’ 196-200.
1903.

—— Bibliography: Geology and Paleontology, 1901. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
413-416, 463-473. 1903.

SHort, A. Renpiz. A New Theory of the Cotham Marble. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat.
Soe,’ x. 185-149. 1903.

Srmeson, J. B. The Probability of Finding Workable Seams of Coal in the
Carboniferous Limestone or Bernician Formation, beneath the Regular Coal-
measures of Northumberland and Durham, with an Account of a Recent Deep
Boring made, in Chopwell Woods, below the Brockwell Seam. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxv. 549-563. 1903.

Suupson, WILLIAM. Record and Comparison of Three Deep Borings in the Mill-
stone Grit Rocks at Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist, vu. 21-27. 1903.
‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xv. 79-90. 1908.

StarHer, J. W. Quartzite Pebbles on the Yorkshire Wolds. ‘The Naturalist
for 1904,’ 9-11. 1904.

Surciirrs, RicnHarp. Erratic and Water-worn Stones found in Fireclay in the
Hartley Bank Colliery, Horbury, ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Min. Soc.’ xxvimt.
229-230. 1903.

Surctrrre, W.H. A Geological Ramble in Scotland. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci.
Soe.’ vir, 80-46. 1903.

Surron, W. J. The Geology and Mining of Vancouver Island. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geoi. Min. Soc.’ xxvirr. 3807-314, 1904.

Tompson, Beesy. The Junction Beds of the Upper Lias and Inferior Oolite in
Northamptonshire. Part II. ‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soc’ x11, 54-69.
1903.

TutcHerR, J. W. The Lower Oolites near Bristol. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat Soe.’
x. 150-168. 1903.

VaueHan, A. Notes on the Corals and Brachiopods obtained from the Avon
Section, and preserved in the Stoddart Collection. ‘ Proc, Bristol Nat. Soc.’
x. 90-134. 1903.

Waker, W. E. (N. Eng. Inst. Eng.) Hematite Deposits and Hematite
Mining in West Cumberland. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 292-298. 1904.

WELLBURN, Engar D. On some New Species of Fossil Fish from the Millstone
Grit Rocks, with an Amended List of Genera and Species. ‘ Proc. Yorks.
Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xv. 70-78. 19038.

Wuittey, Rev. D. Gara. <A Plea for the Study of Cornish Quaternary Geology.
‘Trans. Cornwall R. Geol. Soc.’ x1r. 761-772. 1904.

Woopwarp, Dr. Henry. East Anglian Geology—Historical Sketch. Dawn
of the Science of Geology. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 477-498. 1903.

Woopwarp, H. B. Notes on the Occurrence of Natural Gas at Heathfield,
Sussex. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng, xxv. 717-723. 1903.

410 REPORT—1904.

Wootacott, D. An Explanation of the Claxheugh Section, co. Durham. ‘Trans.
Northumb. N. H. Soe.’ xrv. 211-221. 1903.

Wricut, JosppH. The Micro-fauna of the Boulder Clay, with some Remarks
on the Movement of Glaciers. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1902-1903,’
47-50. 1903.

—— The Foraminifera of the Boulder Clay of Knock Glen, co. Down, ‘ Proc.
Belfast Nat. F.C.’ v. 59-63. 1904.

— Foraminiferal Boulder Clay from Woodburn, Carrickfergus. ‘ Proc. Belfast
Nat. F.C.’ vy. 109-114. 1904.

Section D.—Zoouoey.

Armitt, Miss Mary L. River Flies as the Food of the Pied Flycatcher and
other Birds. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 349-350. 1903.

Artxins, F. M. Pond Life. ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’ m1. 201-212. 1903.

BALLANTYNE, JOHN. Occurrence of Strex gigas, Linn., and Sirex juvencus, Linn.,
in Bute and Arran. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ vi. 8305-807. 1903.

BaRravpd, P. J, Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire in the Year
1902. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x1z. 21-25, 1904.

Bickerton, Witt1AM. A Review of Hertfordshire Ornithology. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H. Soe.’ x11. 26-32. 1904.

—— Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1902. ‘Trans.
Herts N. H, Soc.’ x11. 33-40. 1904.

BiAckBuRN, Rey. E. P. Dispersal of Shells by Beetles. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N.
Club,’ mr. 101. 1903.

BuackBuRN, Jutiet V. Observations on Rooks. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 292.
1903.

Bracksurn, W. The Alcyonaria. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1902, 57-64. 1903.

BuLooMFIELD, Rey. HE. N. Norfolk Diptera. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir.
541-551. 1903.

Boutt, J. W. Preliminary List of Micro-lepidoptera occurring within eight
miles of Hull. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F'. N. Club,’ 11. 102-103. 1908.

Brapy, Dr. G. 8. Notes on Entomostraca found at the Roots of Laminariz.
‘Trans. Northumb. N. H. Soc.’ 1. 3-9. 1904.

Brain, J. Pied Flycatcher in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1903, 254-255.
1903.

BromEHnaD, C. N. Malacological Report. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soe.’
No. 52, 79-81. 1904.

Carrp, W. J. Plankton, with special reference to the Buchan Coast. ‘Trans.
Buchan F. C.’ vir. 184-204, 1903.

CaRADoc AND SEVERN VALLEY Fretp Cxus. Zoological Notes, 1903. ‘ Record
of Bare Facts,’ No. 18, 26-37. [1904.]

—— Entomological Notes, 1903. ‘ Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 13, 38-40. [1904.]

Carr, Prof. J. W. Nottinghamshire Crustacea and Arachnida. ‘Report Nott.
Nat. Soc. 1902-1903,’ 61-67. 1904.

Casratiain, A. Birds and Flowers of Bath and its Neighbourhood, with the
Periods of their First Singing and Flowering in the year 1902. ‘ Proc. Bath
N. H. A. F.C.’ x. 289-242, 1908.

Corram, ArTHUR. Notes on the Habits of some of our Lepidopterous Insects.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 222-226. 1903.

CRABTREE, A. Grey-headed Wagtail in Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir.
97-98. 1904.

CrowtHer, J. E. A List of the Mollusca of the Parish of Halifax. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ vit. 48-52. 1908.

Crump, W.B. The Roosting Habits of Rooks. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 37-38,
1903.

and Others. A Spring Diary, 1903. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 32-34. 1903.

Cummines, S.G. A few Bird Notes for the Year. ‘Report Chester Soc. Nat.
Sci. 1902-1903, 10. 1903.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. rh

Datz, C. W. The Mammalia of Dorsetshire. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. ©,’
xxiv. 18-33. 1903.

Dent, Francis. Notes on Report of the Essex Bird Protection Society, 1903.
‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x111. 194-196. 1904.

Distant, W. L. On South African Tingidide and other Heteropterous Rhyn-
chota. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soe.’ xrv. 425-486, 1904.

Epprvr, Rey. T. B. Notes on Wiltshire Insects outside the Marlborough District.
‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 52, 71-78. 1904.

Forrest, H. E. The Birds of North-west Wales and South-east Ireland.
‘Trans. Car. and Sey. Vall. F. C.’ 111. 92-97. 1903.

— Common Mistakes in Natural History. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev. Vall. F.C.’
mr. 111-118. 1908.

Gemurtt, Dr. J. F. Ichthyonema grayi (Gemmill and vy. Linstow). ‘Trans.
Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ vi. 299-801. 1603.

Grorcz, C. F. New British Water Mites. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 215-216,
304, 1903.

Lincolnshire Fresh-water Mites. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 252, 324, 421—
422, 1903.

GiitanpERs, A. T. Notes on Miscellaneous Arboreal Insects. ‘Trans. Manch.
Mie. Soc., 1902,’ 72-80. 1908.

Hatrrax Screntiric Socrery. Local Records in Natural History, 1908. ‘ Hali-
fax Naturalist,’ vit. 85-90. 1904.

Hattmay, Epwarp. Dark Varieties of Moths. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 81—
83. 1903.

Hey, Rey. W.C. Shore-collecting near Scarborough and Filey. ‘The Naturalist
for 1908,’ 344-348. 1903.

— Mutilla Europa near Scarborough: an Addition to the Yorkshire Fauna.
‘The Naturalist for 19038,’ 455. 1903.

Hickson, Prof. 8. J. The Mechanics of Development. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.
1902,’ 28-37. 1908.

Hotmzs, W. Murton. Foraminifera from the Gault at Merstham. ‘Trans.
Croydon N. H. Sci. Soc. 1902-1903,’ 34-40. 1908.

Jurrrey, Wm. R. Entomological Notes from Ashford. ‘Trans. E. Kent,
S. N. H. Soc.’ 111. 25. 1904.

Knuw, H. Wacuis. North of England Pseudoscorpions. ‘The Naturalist for
1903,’ 293-300. 1903.

—— Note on a Two-banded Shell of Helicigona arbustorum from Wensleydale.
‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 341-342. 1903.

— Snails and Spiders on Towers. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 342-343.
1903.

Kyicut, Rev. G. A. F. A Visit to the Outer Hebrides in search of Mollusca.
‘Trans. Perthsh. Soc. N. Sci.’ 11. 193-217. 1903,

Lanz, A.C. Jottings on Bird Life. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vi. 56-57. 1903.

Luney, Frank. Some Additions to the Norwich Castle Museum in 1902.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ viz. 571-572. 1908.

Lewis, E. J. The Oak Galls and Gall Insects (Cynipide) of Epping Forest.
Part II.: Descriptive and Faunistic. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 188-174.
1903.

Lorrnovss, T. A. Xylophasia zollikofert at Middlesbrough: another Addition
to the Yorkshire List. ‘The Naturalist for 1903, 456. 1905

Mactean, Kennetu. Birds and Mammals in the Bowes District. ‘The Naturalist
for 1903, 356-857. 1903.

Mavpson, B. Coleoptera Notes. ‘Trans. E. Kent S. N. H. Soe.’ 1. 24, 1904.

Murx, Atpx. On the Fishes of the North-East Coast. ‘Trans. Northumb. N. H.
Soc.’ 1. 35-88. 1904.

Meyricr, E. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soe.’ No, 52, 85-44. 1904,

Ornithological List. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 52, 45-48.

1904.

412 REPORT—1904.

Morrat, C. B. (Dublin N. F.C.) The Spring Rivalry of Birds: Some Views on
the Limit to Multiplication. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xt. 152-156. 1903,

Moss, Rev. A. Mines. Three Weeks’ Holiday among the Butterflies of Switzer-
land—July 5th to 30th, 1902. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 445-452.
1903.

Patmer, Mervyn G. Our Mothsat Home. ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’ 11. 213-216,
223-233. 1903, 1904.

Patrerson, A. Natural History Notes from Yarmouth, 1902-1903. ‘ Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 566-571. 1903.

Petron, T. The Marine Fauna of the Humber District and the Holderness Coast.
‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. Club,’ mr. 27-41. 1903.

—— Some Holderness Myxomycetes. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 839-341. 1903.

—— Marine Zoology at Filey. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 351-352. 1903.

—— Shore-collecting at Withernsea, &e. ‘The Naturalist for 1904,’ 19-22.
1904.

PicKARD-CAMBRIDGE, Rey.O. On New and Rare British Spiders. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N.H. A. F.C. xxtv. 129-171. 1908.

PickLEs, Harotp. Trapping on the Moors. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 78-79.
1903.

Procer, T. W., and D. R. Parerson. Ornithological Notes, ‘Trans, Cardiff
Nat. Soe.’ xxxvi. 126-131. 1904,

Purcett, Dr. W. F. Description of a remarkable Termitophilous Isopod.
‘Trans. S, African Phil. Soc.’ xtv. 409-411. 1908.

Ricuarpson, Netson M. Report on First Appearances of Birds, Insects, &c.,
and the First Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1902. ‘ Proc. Dorset N.
H. A. F, C. xxiv. 178-187. 1903.

Rorsuck, W. D. Notes on the Mollusca of the Bowes Excursion. ‘The
Naturalist for 1903,’ 357-358. 1903.

SHEPPARD, THomas. Yorkshire Naturalists at Filey. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
241-251. 1903.

— Yorkshire Naturalists at Goathland. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 300-803.
1903,

— Yorkshire Naturalists at Wharncliffe. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 397-404.
1903

Sorsy, Dr. H.C. On the Preservation of Marine Animals. ‘The Naturalist for
19038,’ 437-440. 1903.

StarnrortH, T., and H. E, Jounson. Third List of East Yorkshire Coleoptera.
‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. Club, 11. 108-110. 1903.

SrepHenson, T. Birds of the Goathland District. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
336. 1903.

Tompson, M. L. Yorkshire Coleoptera in 1902. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
405-406. 19083.

Tuck, W. H. Entomological Notes for 1902. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’
vir. 626-527. 1903.

Ussunr, R. J. Birds and their Breeding Habits. ‘Proc. Belfast Nat. F. C.’
v. 98-103. 1904.

Want, E. W. The Birds of Bempton Cliffs. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. Club,’
m1. 1-26. 1903.

Waker, A.O, Atmospheric Moisture as a Factor in Distribution. ‘South-
Eastern Naturalist for 1903,’ 48-47. 1908.

Wess, SypNEY, Capt. McDaxrn, and Grorer Gray. The Diminution and
Disappearance of the South-Eastern Fauna and Flora within the Memory of
Present Observers. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1903,’ 48-60. 1903.

WauirttncHam, Rev. G. W. Lepidoptera in Northamptonshire in 1902.
‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ x11. 70-71. 1908.

Wauyrtr, W. Our Smallest Birds and their Habits. ‘Trans. Perthsh. Soe.
N. Sci.’ 111. 238-245, 1908.

Witson, Prof. Greee. Recent Fishery Research. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil.
Soc, 1902-1903,’ 30-38. 19038.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 413

Winears, Rev. W. J. Durham Diptera, ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 269-288.
1903.

Woopwarp, Dr. Huyry. The Distribution of Life in Antarctic Lands. (Pre-
sidential Address.) ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 429-444, 1903,

Yates, Harry. Notes on the Succession of Organisms Found in the Tow-net at
Port Erin. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1902, 65-66. 1908.

Section H.—GEOGRAPHY.

Apamson, D. B. Colonel Pedro Portillo's Expedition (Peru). ‘Trans. Liverpool
Geog. Soc. 1903,’ 14-23, 1904.
BuckincHam, ©. Features of the River Stour. ‘Trans. E. Kent S. N. H. Soe.’

mr. 14-16. 1904.
Cnavwicx, H.M. Argentine Notes. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ vi. 80-89.
19038

Coreuuoun, A. R. Siam: Present and Future. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xrx.
23-27. 1903.

Epps, James, jun. A Trip to the West Indies. ‘Trans. Croydon N. H. Sci. Soe.
1902-1903,’ 1-25. 1903.

Herpert, J. WH. Iceland and its Volcanic Phenomena. ‘Report Nott. Nat.
Soe. 1902-1903,’ 19-42, 1904.

Insxipp, P.S. Rhodesia. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ x1x. 73-84, 1904.

Portitto, PEDRO, translated by H. Guirtaume. The Peruvian Amazonian Basin,
with its Prospects for Commerce and Colonization. ‘Journal Manch. Geog.
Soe.’ xviit. 153-162. 1903.

Reep, J. H. Little England Beyond Wales. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xix.
85-99. 1904.

Rircurs, Joun. The Horizon from Corsiehill. ‘ Trans. Perthsh. Soe. N. Sci.’ m1.
245-248. 1903.

Saunpers, James. On the Shrinkage of the Upper Sources of the River Lea.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 227-235. 1903.

Swappon, J. A Visit to Lisbon and the Canary Islands. ‘ Journal Manch. Geog.
Soe.’ xix. 33-41. 1903.

Section F.-—Economic SciENCE AND STATISTICS.

Barter, Wm. F. Presidential Address: Ireland Since the Famine.—A Sketch of
Fifty Years’ Economic and Legislative Changes. ‘ Journal Stat. Soe. Ireland,’
x1, 129-154. 1904.

Brown, Ricuarp. Early Scottish Joint-Stock Companies. ‘Proc. Glasgow
R. Phil. Soc.’ xxx1v. 225-249. 1903.

Carron, R. P. Decrees by Default in Civil Bill Courts in Ireland. ‘ Journal Stat.
Soe. Ireland, x1. 174-181. 1904.

Onatmnrs, Dr. A. K. The Death-Rate in One-Apartment Houses: An Enquiry
based on the Census Returns of 1901. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxIv.
125-146. 1903.

Cuarman, Prof. S. J. The Conditions and Consequences of Market Develop-
ments in the Cotton Trade. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc. 1902-1903,’ 49-67.
1903.

Farxiner, ©. L. The Forestry Question considered Historically. ‘Journal Stat.
Soe. Ireland,’ x1, 156-173. 1904.

Jacosy, Gusray. The German Tariff Maze and Most-favoured-Nation Systems.
‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc. 1902-1903,’ 69-95. 1908.

Krnanan, G. H. The Re-development of the Slate Trade in Ireland. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng,’ xxv. 670-677. 1903.

Lawson, Dr. Witt1am. Licensing and Public House Reform in Ireland, ‘ Jour-
nal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ xz. 185-196. 1904.

414 REPORT—1904.

Marueson, Dr. R. E. The Housing of the People of Ireland during the period
1841-1901. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x1. 196-212. 1904,

Murray, Atzx. The Glasgow Corporation Accounts, with special reference to
Depreciation and Sinking Funds. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc. xxx1y. 79-
105. 1903.

Scorr, Frep, The Case for a Ministry of Health. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.,
1902-1903, 97-176. 1903.

Scorr- Exxiot, Prof. G. F. Can the British Empire be made Self-supporting P
‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc. xxxtv. 257-271. 1903.

Suaw, J. J. Suggested Improvements in County Court Procedure. ‘Journal
Stat. Soc. Treland,’ x1. 181-184. 1904.

Wetton, THomas A. Notes on the Census Report (1901) for the County of
Lancaster. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc. 1902-1903, 1-48. 1903.

Wiae, J. T. Notes on the Herring Fishery of 1902. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soc.’ vir. 536-541. 1908.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

AcKERMANN, A. 8. E, Pneumatic and Electric Locomotives in and about Coal
Mines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 529-538, 1903.

Barman, H. D. D. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.) The Riedler Pump. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxv. 238-248, 1903.

Best, W. (S. Staff. Inst. Eng.) A Magnetic Unlocking and Electrically-ignited
Safety-lamp. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxy. 265. 1904.

Bortase, Wa. H. (N. Eng. Inst.) Description of the Lead-ore Washing-plant at
the Greenside Mines, Patterdale. trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 331-338.
1904.

Braga, Guo. H. (N. Eng. Inst.) Granite-quarrying, Sett-making, and Crushing ;
and the Manufacture of Concrete Flags and Granitic Tiles. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxv. 340-352, 1904.

OHARLTON, Wittiam. Use of Racket and other Hand-machine Drills in the
Cleveland Mines. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 526-534. 1903.

Cormack, A. CAMPBELL. Electric Plaut Failures, their Origin and Prevention
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 548-571. 1908.

Deacon, M. Notes on Glapweel Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxvi. 512-
523. 1904.

Favutps, AtpxaAnDER (Mining Inst. Scot.) Mine Dams. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxvi. 184-138. 1903.

Fryar, J. W. (Mid. Count. Inst. Eng.) Sherwood Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxv. 134-136. 1903.

Sherwood Colliery Sinking. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvi. 475-480, 1904.

Garrortu, W.E. The Application of Coal-cutting Machines and the resulting
Lines of Induced Fractures in the Roof and Coal. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Min.
Soe.’ xxvii. 203-228. 1903.

Gitcarist, J. R. Garfield Railway and Incline. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv.
572-578. 1908.

HuprLewuitr, W. H. (Mid. Count. Inst. Eng.) Sinking of the Rhein-Preussen
Colliery, Nos. IV. and V. Shafts. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 148-151.
1903.

Hirp, F. The Electrical Driving of Winding Gears. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xxv. 592-608. 1903.

Jounson, W. H. A Machine for Testing Miners’ Safety-lamps. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Min, Soc.’ xxvirt. 342-350. 1904.

Kerr, G. D. (N. Eng. Inst.) Air Compression by Water Power: The Installa-
tion at the Belmont Gold Mine. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 206-211. 1903.

Leracu, C. C. Superheated Steam at Seghill Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.
xxiv. 538-543. 1903.

Mortar, W. A. (Mid. Count. Inst. Eng.) Mining in Manchuria. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxv. 1389-145. 1903.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 415

Norru oF Enetanp Institute or Mining AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. Report
of the Committee upon Mechanical Coal-cutting. Separate Pamphlet, 41 pp.
and two plates. 1903.

Surpson, Ros. R. (N. Eng. Inst. Eng.) Well Sinking in the Punjab. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvi. 47-50. 1903.

Syeppon, J. Batrour (Min. Inst. Eng.) Description of the Duddingston Shale
Mines and the Niddrie Castle Crude Oil Works. ‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’
XxvI. 122-133. 1903.

Swattow, F. C. Coal-mining in Warwickshire, with Special Reference to the
Use of Stanley Coal-heading Machines in the Rapid Development and Working
of the Nuneaton Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxvi, 530-545. 1904.

Tonen, ALFRED J. Coal-cutting by Electricity. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Min.
Soc,’ xxviii. 354-364. 1904.

Watmistey, A.T. International Communication. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist
for 1903,’ 61-67, 1903.

Watson, ANDREW (Mining Inst. Scot.). Stuffing-boxes Dispensed with on
Engines and Pumps, ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 259-261. 1904.

Winstantey, G.H. The Mechanical Equipment of Collieries. ‘Trans, Manch.
Geol, Min. Soc.’ xxvuir, 422-450. 1904.

Woopwortzi, B. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.) Condensing Plant for Winding Engines
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 156-158, 1903.

Yarz, T. P. Ossornz. Electric Power Distribution by Continuous Current for
Mining and General Purposes in North Wales. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv.
616-629. 1903.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Appresy, E. J. Notes on Ancient Stone Crosses of Somerset. ‘Proc. Bath
N. H. A. F, C/ x. 192-208. 1903.

Buiizn, Rev. R. A. A late Keltic Cemetery at Harlyn Bay. ‘ South-Eastern
Naturalist for 1903, 27-42. 1903.

Cuincu, GrorGE. Recent Discoveries at Waddon, Surrey. ‘Trans. Croydon
N. H. Sci. Soe. 1902-1903,’ 40-48. 1903.

Corzs, FR. The Stone Circles of the North-East of Scotland. ‘Trans, Buchan
F. C. vir. 205-238. 19083.

C[mosstanp], C., and J.T. J[oriey]. Some Place-Names and their Meanings.
‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ viz. 85-387. 1903.

Crump, W. B. Two Dialect Names and their Use. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ vir.
53-55. 1908.

Dryon, James. The Study of the Criminal. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxrv.
45-62. 1903.

Gerorez, T. J. The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Kettering. ‘Journal Northants
N. H. Soe.’ x11. 121-127. 1904.

Gizave, J.J. The RomanWall near Hexham. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xix.
13-22, 1908.

Grirritu, Rev. Joun. Some Rhondda Cairns. ‘Trans, Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxv1.
118-125. 1904.

Kaunnarp, A.S. Notes on a Palxolith from Grays, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
xr. 112-113. 1903.

Marcu, Dr. H.Cottny. The Problem of Lynchets. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.
xxv. 66-92. 1903.

Meyrick, E. Anthropometrical Report. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’
No. 52, 105-130. 1904.

Mortimer, J. R. Notes on some Prehistoric Jet Ornaments from East York-
shire. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 201-207. 1903.

Russet, Miss. Crailing or Traverlinn and some other Old Names. ‘History
Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvi 142-145. 19083.

Srarrorp, W. The Maintenance of the Erect Posture. ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc.
1902-1903,’ 48-52. 1904.

416 REPORT—1904.

SrantEy, Wu. F. Example of a Perfect Flint Implement, supposed to be of the
Period of the First Dynasty of Egypt; and of Two Karly Mirrors in Copper,
found in recent Excavations at Abydos. ‘Trans. Croydon N. H. Sci. Soc. 1902-
1903, 48-51. 1903.

SUTCLIFFE, Ns H. The Place-name ‘Low.’ ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ viz.
1-3. 1903.

SyprenHam, 8. Bath Token Issues of the Eighteenth Century. ‘Proc. Bath
N.H. A.F.C’ 207-238. 1903,

Tuomas, T. H. Some Folk-lore of South Wales. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’
xxxvi. 52-64, 1904.

Ussuer, R. J. Evidence of the Caves. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1902-
1903,’ 85-40. 1903.

Section I.—PuHysioLoey.

Bett, Dr. J. V. A Point of View. [Progress in Medical Science.] ‘Rochester
Naturalist,’ m1. 192-198. 1903.

Hatpane, Dr. J. S. Miners’ Anemia, or Ankylostomiasis. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxy. 643-656. 1903.

MacCormac, Dr. J. H. Heredity in its relation to the Nervous System. ‘ Proc.
Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1902-1903, 41-46. 1903.

Mnasnam, Miss C. E.C. Malaria and the Mosquito, ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’
tir. 185-191. 1903.

Pucks, Dr. 8S. H. Malaria and the Mosquito. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev, Vall. F.C.’
mr. 113-114. 1903.

Section K.—BorTany.

Barngs, J. The Potato Plant. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1902,’ 83-91. 1908.

Bennett, ARTHUR. Notes on Cheshire Plants. ‘The Naturalist for 1904,’
22-23. 1904.

—— Host Plants of Broom Rapes. ‘The Naturalist for 1904,’ 25. 1904,

Distribution of Peucedanum palustre and Lathyrus palustris in Britain.

‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 467-476. 1903.

Pyrola rotundifolia, L., in East Anglia. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’
vir. 512-518. 1903.

BioomrFreLp, Rey. E. N. Hepaticze of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’
vit. 552-557. 1908.

Botvus, Dr. Harry, and Major A. H. Wottey-Dop. A List of the Flowering
Plants and Ferns of the Cape Peninsula, with Notes on some of the Critical
Species. ‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ x1v. 207-373. 1903.

Brirron, C. E. South Essex Brambles. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 191-1938.
1904.

Carapoc AND SeveRN VALLEY Fin~p Crus. Botanical Notes, 1903. ‘ Record
of Bare Facts,’ No. 18, 5-25. [1904.]

Cavnrs, F. Some Points in the Biology of Hepatic (continuation). ‘The
Naturalist for 1903, 208-215. 1908.

Notes on Yorkshire Bryophytes. I. Petalophyllum Ralfsui. ‘ The Naturalist
for 1908, 327-334. 1903. II. Pallavicinia Flotowiana. ‘The Naturalist
for 1903,’ 441-444, 451-455. 1903.

Coatrs, Hpnry. Seasonal Notes. (Opening Address.) ‘Proc. Perthsh. Soc. Nat.
Sci.’ 111. exxxv-cxlivy. 1903.

CrosstanD, CHARLES. The Flora of Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ App. 225-
316. 1903-1904.

— The Distribution and Associations of Mosses and Hepatics in the Parish of
Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist, viz. 66-72. 1903.

—— Fungus Foray at Helmsley. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 425-486, 1903.

and J. NespHam. Woodland Studies: II The Flora of a Stream Course.

‘Halifax Naturalist, vir. 45-47. 1908.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 417

Crump, W. B. A Botanical Map of S.W. Yorkshire. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’
viii. 28-31. 1903.

and C, Crosstand. The Flora. of the Parish of Halifax. ‘Halifax
Naturalist,’ vi11. i—viii., lx.-lxxvi., 289-3816. 1904.

Dixon, H. N. Supplementary List of Norfolk Mosses. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
Nat. Soe.’ vit. 558-565. 1903.

— The Cultivation of Native Orchids. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’
xi. 102, 1903.

—— New and Rare County Mosses. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ x1. 103-
104. 19038,

—— Phenological Observations, 1902, ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ x11, 128-
129, 1904.

Ewine, Prerer. Report on the State of the Alpine Flora in Breadalbane during
the last week of July 1902. ‘Trans, Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ vi. 330-332,
1903,

Ewine, Mrs. Prrer. Arctic Plants from the Dovrefjeld, Norway, ‘ Trans,
Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ vi. 307-313. 1903.

Farran, Jonny, The Flowering Plants of Bowes. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
359,

Gisss, THomas. Fungi of Bowes. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 373-875. 1903.

Destructive Fungi in Wharncliffe Woods. ‘The Naturalist for 1904, 18,
1904.

Gorp1ne, Joun. A Domesticated Microbe. ‘ Report Nott. Nat. Soc, 1902-
1903,’ 538-60. 1904.

Grinpon, Lzro H. Palm Trees and their Products. ‘Trans. Manch. Mice. Soe.
1902,’ 47-48. 1903.

— The Eucalyptus. ‘Trans. Manch. Mie. Soc. 1902,’ 92-93. 1903,

Hammonp, W. H. Nature Notes, principally Botanical, for 1903, ‘ Trans,
FE. Kent 8S. N. H. Soe.’ 111. 26-27. 1904.

Hearn, J. W. Travelling Seeds, ‘Trans. Car. and Sev, Vall. F, C. 1. 87-90,
1903.

Hewett, F. Notes on the Botany of the Isle of Thanet for 1903. ‘Trans,
E, Kent S. N. U1. Soc.’ m1. 26, 1904.

InenaM, WILLIAM. Scapania calcicola, a new British Hepatic. ‘The Naturalist
for 1904,’ 11-12. 1904.

—— Mosses and Hepatics of Bowes and District. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
369-372. 1903.

Lygx1, Dr, Jonn. The Bacteria, or Schizomycetes, and their place in the Natural
System. ‘Trans. Perthsh. Soc. N. Sci.’ 11. 223-238, 1903.

Meyrick, E. Report of the Botanical Section, ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’
No, 52, 26-34. 1904.

Mites, Mary L. A Ramble on the Moor at Blair Athol, ‘Trans. Perthsh. Soe,
N. Sci.,’ 11. 217-228. 1908.

Parsons, Dr. H. FRANKLIN. On the Flora of Hayes Common, ‘Trans. Croydon
N. H. Sci. Soc., 1902-1903,’ 52-62. 1903.

Paxton, GrorcE, Mistletoe. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.,’ vr. 301-304. 1903.

Puitip, R. H. Additions to the List of the Diatomacez of the Hull District,
‘Trans, Hull Sci. F. N. Club,’ 117. 110-114, 1908.,

— R.H. Diatoms in Hotham Carrs, near North Cave. ‘The Naturalist for
1903,’ 256. 1903.

— Diatoms at Bowes. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 375-376, 1903.

Pyzsus, W. M. Anniversary Addresses, 1902, 1903, ‘Trans. Northumb, N. H,
Soc.,’ xv. 169-207, 241-281. 1903.

Rostnson, J. F, Addenda to the Flora of the East Riding. ‘Trans, Hull Sci.
F. N. Club,’ m1. 98-100. 1903.

Sareant, Miss Eruen. The Seedlings of Geophytes. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist
for 1903,’ 22-26, 1903.

Starter, M. B. Moss and Hepatics in Greta Dale. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,
372-873. 1903,

1904, EE

418 REPORT---1904.

Surrn, Dr. Witt1am G. Notes on the Vegetation of Ponds, ‘The Naturalist
for 1903,’ 389-396. 1903.

THomeson, Rev. W. E. A List of Plants gathered on a small strip of the North
Coast of Norfolk in the Year 1902. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.,’ vir. 514-
525. 1903.

Trait, Prof. J. W. H. Plants of the Braes of Gight. ‘ Trans. Buchan F. C.’ vit.
183. 1903.

Wauurtpon, J. A. Botanical Notes from the Lancashire Coast. ‘The Naturalist
for 19038,’ 457-458. 1903.

Wixxinson, Henry J. Catalogue of British Plants in the Herbarium of the
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.—Part X. ‘Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for
1902,’ 33-56, 1904.

Wituis, H.G. The Epidermis and Stomata of Plants under various Conditions.
“Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1902, 49-56. 1903.

Wooprurre-Pracock, Rev. E. A., and Miss 8. C. Stow. Lincolnshire Galls
(conclusion). ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 305-806. 1903.

YoRKSHIRE NatuRa.ists’ Unton, Members of the. New Fungi. ‘The Naturalist
for 1904, 1-8. 1904.

Section L.—EpDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

Hensuaw, A. M. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.) Presidential Address. [The Educa-
tion of a Mining Engineer.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 99-105. 1904.
Kerr, Dr. J.G. Public Expenditure in the Fostering of Commercial and Indus-

trial Education. ‘ Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc,’ xxxtv. 638-78. 1903.

OBITUARY.
Bett, James. .By Dr. C. T. Vachell. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxvr. 20,
1904

Crick, W. D. By Beeby Thompson, ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc,’ xm. 134-
144. 1904.

ETHERIDGE, Ropert. By Beeby Thompson. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’
xu. 145, 1904.

GetpaRT, Hersert D, ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 573-576. 1903.

Mitne-Home, Colonel Davin, of Wedderburn (late Organising Secretary of the
Club). By Commander F. M. Norman, R.N. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat.
Club,’ xvii. 163-170. 1903.

Stuart, CHaries, M.D. By Commander F. M. Norman, R.N. ‘ History Ber-
wicksh, Nat, Club, xvi11. 171-175. 19038.

THasDALE, WAsHINGaTON. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 417-418. 1908.

a ' , a ae

rad |

7

Hiei de RAOTTONS “TUE 10: 2AOLTOMALAE

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—Proressor Horace Lamps, M.A.,
PED EBS.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Tux losses sustained by mathematical science in the past twelvemonth have
perhaps not been so numerous as in some years, but they include at least one name
of world-wide import. Those of us who were students of Mathematics thirty or
forty years ago will recall the delight which we felt in reading the geometrical
treatises of George Salmon, and the brilliant contrast which they exhibited with
most of the current text-books of that time. It was from him that many of us
first learned that a great mathematical theory does not consist of a series of
detached propositions carefully labelled and arranged like specimens on the shelves
of a museum, but that it forms an organic whole, instinct with life, and with
unlimited possibilities of future development. As systematic expositions of the
actual state of the science, in which enthusiasm for what is new is tempered by a
due respect for what is old, and in which new and old are brought into harmonious
relation with each other, these treatises stand almost unrivalled. Whether in
the originals, or in the guise of translations, they are accounted as classics in every
university of the world. So far as British universities are concerned, they have
formed the starting-point of a whole series of works conceived in a similar spirit,
though naturally not always crowned by the same success. The necessity for this
kind of work grows, indeed, continually; the modern fragmentary fashion of
original publication and the numerous channels through which it takes place
make it difficult for anyone to become initiated into a new scientific theory unless
he takes it up at the very beginning and follows it diligently throughout its course,
backwards and forwards, over rough ground and smooth. The classical style of
memoir, after the manner of Lagrange, or Poisson, or Gauss, complete in itself and
deliberately composed like a work of art, is continually becoming rarer. It is
therefore more and more essential that from time to time some one should come
forward to sort out and arrange the accumulated material, rejecting what has
proved unimportant, and welding the rest into a connected system. There is
perhaps a tendency to assume that such work is of secondary importance, and can
be safely left to subordinate hands. But in reality it makes severe demands on
even the highest powers; and when these have been available the result has often
done more for the progress of science than the composition of a dozen monographs
on isolated points. For proof one need only point to the treatises of Salmon
himself, or recall (in another field) the debt which we owe to such books as the
‘ Treatise on Natural Philosophy’ and the ‘Theory of Sound,’ whose authors are
happily with us.

A modest but most valuable worker has passed away in the person of Professor
Allman. His treatise on the history of Greek Geometry, full of learning and

4.22 REPORT—1904.

sound mathematical perception, is written with great simplicity and an entire
absence of pedantry or dogmatism. It ranks, I believe, with the best that has
been done in the subject. It is to be regretted that, as an historian, he leaves so few
successors among British mathematicians. We have amongst us, asa result of
our system of university education, many men of trained mathematical faculty
and of a scholarly turn of mind, with much of the necessary linguistic equipment,
who feel, however, no special vocation for the details of recent mathematical
research. Might not some of this ability be turned to a field, by no means
exhausted, ‘where the severity of mathematical truth is tempered by the human
interest attaching to the lives, the vicissitudes, and even the passions and the
strife of its devotees, who through many errors and perplexities have contrived to
keep alive and trim the sacred flame, and to hand it on burning ever clearer and
brighter ?

a another province we have to record the loss of Dr. Isaac Roberts, a dis-
tinguished example of the class of non-professional investigators who have left so
deep a mark on British science, and on Astronomy in particular. None of us can
be unaware of his long and enthusiastic devotion to celestial photography, of the
beauty and delicacy of the results which he achieved, and of the wealth of
unsuspected detail which they brought to light.

Finally, we have to lament the death, within the last few days, of Professor
Everett, whose name will always be associated with one of the most successful
tasks which the British Association has taken in hand—viz. the promotion of a
uniform system of dynamical and electrical units. He acted as Reporter to the
Committee which was entrusted with this question, and by his handbook on
‘Units and Physical Constants’ he has done more perhaps than anyone else to
popularise and establish its recommendations. He was well known to most of us
as a bright and genial presence at these meetings, and contributed numerous
interesting papers on optical and other subjects. Ie was happy in retaining his
scientific faculties undimmed to the last, and was engaged up to the time of his
death on some problems of a geometrical kind, on point-assemblages, suggested by
the study of the recent speculations of Professor Osborne Reynolds.

Of the various subjects which fall within the scope of this Section there is
no difficulty in naming that which at the present time excites the widest interest.
The phenomena of Radioactivity, Ionisation of Gases, and so on, are not only
startling and sensational in themselves, they have suggested most wonderful and
far-reaching speculations, and, whatever be the future of these particular theories,
they are bound in any case deeply to influence our views on fundamental
points of chemistry and physics. No reference to this subject would be satis-
factory without a word of homage to the unsurpassed patience and skill in the
devising of new experimental methods to meet new and subtle conditions which
it has evoked. It will be felt as a matter of legitimate pride by many present
that the University of Cambridge has been so conspicuously associated with this
work. It would therefore have been natural and appropriate that this Chair should
have been occupied, this year above others, by one who could have given us a
survey of the facts as they at present stand, and of their bearing, so far as can be
discerned, on other and older branches of physics. Whether from the experimental
or from the more theoretical and philosophical standpoint, there would have been
no difficulty in finding an exponent of unrivalled authority. But it has been
otherwise ordered, and you and I must make the best of it. If the subject cannot
be further dealt with for the moment, we have the satisfaction of knowing that it
will in due course engage the attention of the Section, and that we may look
forward to interesting and stimulating discussions, in which we trust the many
distinguished foreign physicists who honour us by their presence will take an
active part.

It is, I believe, not an unknown thing for your President to look up the
records of previous meetings in search of inspiration, and possibly of an example.
I have myself not had to look very far, for I found that when the British
Association last met in Cambridge, in the year 1862, this Section was presided
over by Stokes, and moreover that the Address which he gave was probably the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 423

shortest ever made on such an occasion, for it occupies only half a page of the report,
and took, I should say, some three or four minutes to deliver. It would be to the
advantage of the business of the meeting, and to my own great relief, if I had the
courage to follow so attractive a precedent ; but I fear that the tradition which
has since established itself is too strong for me to break without presumption.
I will turn, therefore, to a theme which, I think, naturally presents itself—viz.,
a consideration of the place occupied by Stokes in the development of Mathe-
matical Physics. It is not proposed to attempt an examination or appreciation
of his own individual achievements; this has lately been done by more than one
hand, and in the most authoritative manner. But it is part of the greatness
of the man that his work can be reviewed from more than one standpoint.
What I wish to direct attention to on this occasion is the historical or evolu-
tionary relation in which he stands to predecessors and followers in the above
field.

The early years of Stokes’s life were the closing years of a mighty generation
of mathematicians and mathematical physicists. When he came to manhood,
Lagrange, Laplace, Poisson, Fourier, Fresnel, Ampére, had but lately passed
away. Cauchy alone of this race of giants was still alive and productive. It is
upon these men that we must look as the immediate intellectual ancestors of
Stokes, for, although Gauss and IF. Neumann were in their full vigour, the
interaction of German and English science was at that time not very great. It is
noteworthy, however, that the development. of the modern German school of
mathematical physics, represented by Helmholtz and Kirchhoff, in linear
succession to Neumann, ran in many respects closely parallel to the work of Stokes
and his followers.

When the foundations of Analytical Dynamics had been laid by Euler and
d’Alembert, the first important application was naturally to the problems of
Gravitational Astronomy; this formed, of course, the chief work of Laplace,
Lagrange, and others. Afterwards came the theoretical study of Elasticity,
Conduction of Heat, Statical Electricity, and Magnetism, The investigations in
Elasticity were undertaken mainly in relation to Physical Optics, with the hope
of finding a material medium capable of conveying transverse vibrations, and of
accounting also for the various phenomena of reflection, refraction, and double
refraction. It has often been pointed out, as characteristic of the French school
referred to, that their physical speculations were largely influenced by ideas trans-
ferred from Astronomy ; as, for instance, in the conception of a solid body as made
up of discrete particles acting on one another at a distance with forces in the lines
joining them, which formed the basis of most of their work on Elasticity and
Optics. The difficulty of carrying out these ideas in a logical manner were
enormous, and the strict course of mathematical deduction had to be replaced by
more or less precarious assumptions. The detailed study of the geometry of a
continuous deformable medium which was instituted by Cauchy was a first step
towards liberating the theory from arbitrary and unnecessary hypothesis; but it
was reserved for Green, the immediate predecessor of Stokes among English
mathematicians, to carry out this process completely and independently, with the
help of Lagrange’s general dynamical methods, which here found their first
application to questions of physics outside the ordinary Dynamics of rigid bodies
and fluids. The modern school of English physicists, since the time of Green and
Stokes, have consistently endeavoured to make out, in any given class of phenomena,
how much can be recognised as a manifestation of general dynamical principles,
independent of the particular mechanism which may be at work. One of the
most striking examples of this was the identification by Maxwell of the laws of
Electromagnetism with the dynamical equations of Lagrange. It would, however,
be going too far to claim this tendency as the exclusive characteristic of English
physicists ; for example, the elastic investigations of Green and Stokes have their
parallel in the independent though later work of Kirchhoff; and the beautiful
theory of dynamical systems with latent motion which we owe to Lord Kelvin
stands in a very similar relation to the work of Helmholtz and Hertz.

But perhaps the most important and characteristic feature in the mathematical

4.2.4, REPORT—-1904,

work of the later school is its increasing relation to and association with experi-
ment. In the days when the chief applications of Mathematics were to the pro-
blems of Gravitational Astronomy, the mathematician might well take his materials
at second hand ; and in some respects the division of labour was, and still may be,
of advantage. The same thing holds ina measure of the problems of ordinary
Dynamics, where some practical knowledge of the subject-matter is within the
reach of everyone. But when we pass to the more recondite phenomena of
Physical Optics, Acoustics, and Electricity, it hardly needs the demonstrations
which have involuntarily been given to show that the theoretical treatment
must tend to degenerate into the pursuit of academic subtleties unless it is con-
stantly vivified by direct contact with reality. Stokes, at all events, with little
guidance or encouragement from his immediate environment, made himself from
the first practically acquainted with the subjects he treated. Generations of
Cambridge students recall the enthusiasm which characterised his experimental
demonstrations in Optics, These appealed to us all; but some of us, I am afraid,
under the influence of the academic ideas of the time, thought it a little unneces-
sary to show practically that the height of the lecture-room could be measured by
the barometer, or to verify the calculated period of oscillation of water in a tank
by actually timing the waves with the help of the image of a candle-flame
reflected at the surface.

The practical character of the mathematical work of Stokes and his followers
is shown especially in the constant effort to reduce the solution of a physical
problem to a quantitative form. A conspicuous instance is furnished by the
labour and skill which he devoted, from this point of view, to the theory of the
Bessel’s Function, which presents itself so frequently in important questions of
Optics, Electricity, and Acoustics, but is so refractory to ordinary methods of
treatment. It is now generally accepted that an analytical solution of a physical
* question, however elegant it may be made to appear by means of a judicious nota-
tion, is not complete so long as the results are given merely in terms of functions
defined by infinite series or definite integrals, and cannot be exhibited in a
numerical or graphical form. This view did not originate, of course, with
Stokes; it is clearly indicated, for instance, in the works of Fourier and Poinsot,
but no previous writer had, I think, acted upon it so consistently and thoroughly.

We have had so many striking examples of the fruitfulness of the combination
of great mathematical and experimental powers that the question may well be
raised, whether there is any longer a reason for maintaining in our’minds a dis-
tinction between mathematical and experimental physics, or at all events whether
these should be looked upon as separate provinces which may conveniently be
assigned to different sets of labourers. It may be held that the highest physical
research will demand in the future the possession of both kinds of faculty, We
must be careful, however, how we erect barriers which would exclude a Lagrange
on the one side or a Faraday on the other. There are many mansions in the
palace of physical science, and work for various types of mind. A zealous, or over-
zealous, mathematician might indeed make out something of a case if he were to
contend that, after all, the greatest work of such men as Stokes, Kirchhoff, and
Maxwell was mathematical rather than experimental in its complexion. An
argument which asks us to leave out of account such things as the investigation of
Fluorescence, the discovery of Spectrum Analysis, and the measurement of the
Viscosity of Gases, may well seem audacious; but a survey of the collected works of
these writers will show how much, of the very highest quality and import, would
remain. However this may be, the essential point, which cannot, I think, be con-
tested, is this, that if these men had been condemned and restricted to a mere
book knowledge of the subjects which they have treated with such marvellous
analytical ability, the very soul of their work would have been taken away. I
have ventured to dwell upon this point because, although I am myself disposed to
plead for the continued recognition of mathematical physics as a fairly separate
field, I feel strongly that the traditional kind of education given to our professed
mathematical students does not tend to its most effectual cultivation. This
education is apt to be one-sided, and too much divorced from the study of tangible

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 4.25

things. Even the student whose tastes lie mainly in the direction of pure mathe-
watics would profit, I think, by a wider scientific traiing. A long list of
instances might be given to show that the most fruitful ideas in pure mathematics
have been suggested by the study of physical problems. In the words of Fourier,
who did so much to fulfil his own saying, ‘ L’étude approfondie de la nature est la
source la plus féconde des découvertes mathématiques. Non-seulement cette
étude, en offrant aux recherches un but déterminé, a l’avantage d’exclure les
questions vyagues et les calculs sans issue; elle est encore un moyen assuré de
former l’analyse elle-méme, et d’en découvrir les éléments qu'il nous importe le plus
de connaitre, et que cette science doit toujours conserver : ces éléments fondamentaux
sont ceux qui se reproduisent dans tous les effets naturels.’

Another characteristic of the past century of applied mathematics is that
it was, on the whole, the age of linear equations. The analytical armoury
fashioned by Lagrange, Poisson, Fourier, and others, though subject, of course,
to continual improvement and development, has served the turn of a long line of
successors. The predominance of linear equations, in most of the physical sub-
jects referred to, rests on the fact that the changes are treated as infinitely
small, The theory of small oscillations, in particular, runs as a thread
through a great part of the literature of the period in question. It has suggested
many important analytical results, and still gives the best and simplest in-
tuitive foundation for a whole class of theorems which are otherwise hard to
comprehend in their various relations, such as Fourier’s theorem, Laplace’s
expansion, Bessel’s functions, and the like. Moreover, the interest of the subject,
whether mathematical or physical, is not yet exhausted ; many important problems
in Optics and Acoustics, for example, still await solution. The general theory has
in comparatively recent times received an unexpected extension (to the case of
‘latent motions’) at the hands of Lord Kelvin; and Lord Rayleigh, by his con-
tinual additions to it, shows that, in his view, it is still incomplete.

When the restriction to infinitely small motions is abandoned, the problems
become of course much more arduous. The whole theory, for instance, of tho
normal modes of vibration which is so important in Acoustics, and even in Music,
disappears. The researches hitherto made in this direction have, moreover,
encountered difficulties of a less patent character. It is conceivable that the
modern analytical methods which have been developed in Astronomy may have
an application to these questions. It would appear that there is an opening here
for the mathematician; at all events, the numerical or graphical solution of any
one of the numerous problems that could be suggested would be of the highest
interest. One problem of the kind is already classical—the theory of steep
water-waves discussed by Stokes; but even here the point of view has perhaps
been rather artificially restricted. The question proposed by him, the determina-~
tion of the possible form of waves of permanent type, like the problem of periodic
orbits in Astronomy, is very interesting mathematically, and forms a natural
starting-point for investigation ; but it does not exhaust what is most important for
us to know in the matter. Observation may suggest the existence of such waves as
a fact ; but no reason has been given, so far as I know, why free water-waves should
tend to assume a form consistent with permanence, or be influenced in their
progress by considerations of geometrical simplicity.

I have tried to indicate the kind of continuity of subject-matter, method, and
spirit which runs through the work of the whole school of mathematical physicists
of which Stokes may be taken as the represeutative. It is no less interesting,
I think, to examine the points of contrast with more recent tendencies. These
relate not so much to subject-matter and method as to the general mental
attitude towards the problems of Nature. Mathematical and physical science
haye become markedly introspective. The investigators of the classical school, as
it may perhaps be styled, were animated by a simple and vigorous faith; they
sought as a matter of course for a mechanical explanation of phenomena, and had
no misgivings as to the trustiness of the analytical weapons which they wielded.
But now the physicist and the mathematician alike are in trouble about their
souls, We have discussions on the principles of mechanics, on the founda-

4.26 REPORT—1904,

tions of geometry, on the logic of the most rudimentary arithmetical processes, as
well as of the more artificial operations of the Calculus. These discussions are
legitimate and inevitable, and have led to some results which are now widely
accepted. Although they were carried on to a great extent independently, the
questions involved will, I think, be found to be ultimately very closely connected.
Their common nexus is, perhaps, to be traced in the physiological ideas of which
Helmholtz was the most conspicuous exponent. To many minds such discussions
are repellent, in that they seem to venture on the uncertain ground of philosophy.
But, as a matter of fact, the current views on these subjects have been arrived
at by men who have gone to work in their own way, often in entire ignorance
of what philosophers have thought on such subjects. It may be maintained,
indeed, that the mathematician or the physicist, as such, has no special concern
with philosophy, any more than the engineer or the geographer. Nor, although
this is a matter for their own judgment, would it appear that philosophers
have very much to gain by a special study of the methods of mathematical or
physical reasoning, since the problems with which they are chiefly concerned are
presented to them in a much less artificial form in the circumstances of ordinary
life. As regards the present topic I would put the matter in this way, that
between Mathematics and Physics on the one hand and Philosophy on the other
there lies an undefined borderland, and that the mathematician has been engaged
in setting things in order, as he is entitled to do, on his own side of the boundary.

From this point of view, it would be of interest to trace in detail the
relationships of the three currents of speculation which have been referred to.
At one time I was tempted to take this as the subject of my Address; but,
although I still think the enterprise a possible one, I have been forced to recognise
that it demands a better equipment than I can pretend to. I can only
venture to put before you some of my tangled thoughts on the matter, trusting
that some future occupant of this Chair may be induced to take up the question
and treat it in a more illuminating manner.

If we look back for a moment to the views currently entertained not so very
long ago by mathematicians and physicists, we shall find, I think, that the preva-
lent conception of the world was that it was constructed on some sort of absolute
geometrical plan, and that the changes in it proceeded according to precise laws;
that, although the principles of mechanics might be imperfectly stated in our
text-books, at all events such principles existed, and were ascertainable, and, when
properly formulated, would possess the definiteness and precision which were held
to characterise, say, the postulates of Euclid. Some writers have maintained,
indeed, that the principles in question were finally laid down by Newton, and have
occasionally used language which suggests that any fuller understanding of them
was a mere matter of interpretation of the text. But, as Hertz has remarked,
most of the great writers on Dynamics betray, involuntarily, a certain malaise
when explaining the principles, and hurry over this part of their task as quickly
as is consistent with dignity. They are not really at their ease until, having
established their equations somehow, they can proceed to build securely on these.
This has led some people to the view that the laws of Nature are merely a system
of differential equations; it may be remarked in passing that this is very much
the position in which we actually stand in some of the more recent theories of
Electricity. As regards Dynamics, when once the critical movement had set in,
it was easy to show that one presentation after another was logically defective
and confused ; and no satisfactory standpoint was reached until it was recognised
that in the classical Dynamics we do not deal immediately with real bodies at
all, but with certain conventional and highly idealised representations of them,
which we combine according to arbitrary rules, in the hope that if these rules be
judiciously framed the varying combinations will image to us what is of most
interest in some of the simpler and more important phenomena. The changed
point of view is often associated with the publication of Kirchhoff’s lectures on
Mechanics in 1876, where it is laid down in the opening sentence that the problem
of Mechanics is to describe the motions which occur in Nature completely and in
the simplest manner. This statement must not be taken too literally; at all

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 427

events, a fuller, and I think a clearer, account of the province and the method of
Abstract Dynamics is given in a review of the second edition of Thomson and
Tait, which was one of the last things penned by Maxwell, in 1879.1 A
‘complete’ description of even the simplest natural phenomenon is an obvious
impossibility ; and, were it possible, it would be uninteresting as well as useless,
for it would take an incalculable time to peruse. Some process of selection
and idealisation is inevitable if we are to gain any intelligent comprehension
of events. Thus, in Astronomy we replace a planet by a so-called material
particle—i.c.,a mathematical point associated with a suitable numerical coefticient.
All the properties of the body are here ignored except those of position and mass,
in which alone we are at the moment interested. The whole course of physical
science and the language in which its results are expressed have been largely
determined by the fact that the ideal images of Geometry were already at hand
at its service. The ideal representations have the advantage that, unlike the real
objects, definite and accurate statements can be made about them. © Thustwo lines
in a geometrical figure can be pronounced to be equal or unequal, and the state-
ment is in either case absolute. It is no doubt hard to divest oneself entirely
of the notion conveyed in the phrase det 6 Oeds yewperpel, that definite geome-
trical magnitudes and relations are at the back of phenomena. It is recognised
indeed that all our measurements are necessarily to some degree uncertain, but
this is usually attributed to our own limitations and those of our instruments
rather than to the ultimate vagueness of the entity which it is sought to
measure, Everyone will grant, however, that the distance between two clouds,
for instance, is not a definable magnitude; and the distance of the earth from the
sun, and even the length of a wave of light, are in precisely the same case,
The notion in question is a convenient fiction, and is a striking testimony to the
ascendency which Greek Mathematics have gained over our minds, but I do not
think that more can be said forit. It is, at any rate, not verified by the expe-
rience of those who actually undertake physical measurements. The more refined
the means employed, the more vague and elusive does the supposed magnitude
become; the judgment flickers and wavers, until at last in a sort of despair some
result is put down, not in the belief that it is exact, but with the feeling that it
is the best we can make of the matter. A practical measurement is in fact a
classification; we assign a magnitude tc a certain category, which may be
narrowly limited, but which has in any case a certain breadth.

By a frank process of idealisation a logical system of Abstract Dynamics can
doubtless be built up, on the lines sketched by Maxwell in the passage referred
to. Such difficulties as remain are handed over to Geometry. But we cannot
stop in this position ; we are constrained to examine the nature and the origin of
the conceptions of Geometry itself. By many of us, I imagine, the first sugges-
tion that these conceptions are to be traced to an empirical source was received
with something of indignation and scorn; it was an outrage on the science which
we had been led to look upon as divine. Most of us have, however, been forced at
length to acquiesce in the view that Geometry, like Mechanics, is an applied science
that it gives us merely an ingenious and convenient symbolic representation of the
relations of actual bodies; and that, whatever may be the @ prior? forms of intuition,
the science as we have it could never have been developed except for the accident
(if I may so term it) that we live in a world in which rigid or approximately rigid
bodies are conspicuous objects. On this view the most refined geometrical demon-
stration can be resolved into a series of imagined experiments performed with such
bodies, or rather with their conventional representations.

It is to be lamented that one of the most interesting chapters in the history of
science is a blank; I mean that which would have unfolded the rise and growth
of our system of ideal Geometry. The finished edifice is before us, but the record
of the efforts by which the various stones were fitted into their places is hope-
lessly lost. The few fragments of professed history which we possess were edited
long after the achievement.

' Na‘ure, vol, xx. p. 213; Scientifie Papers, vol. ii. p. 776.

4.28 REPORT—1904,

It is commonly reckoned that the first rude beginnings of Geometry date from
the Egyptians. I am inclined to think that in one sense the matter is to be
placed much further back, and that the dawn of geometric ideas is to be traced
among the prehistoric races who carved rough but thoroughly artistic outlines of
animals on their weapons. I do not know whether the matter has attracted
serious speculation, but I have myself been led to wonder how men first arrived
at the notion of an outline drawing. The primitive sketches referred to imme-
diately convey to the experienced mind the idea of a reindeer or the like; but
in reality the representation is purely conventional, and is expressed in a lan-
guage which has to be learned. For nothing could be more unlike the actual
reindeer than the few scratches drawn on the surface of a bone; and it is of
course familiar to ourselves that it is only after a time, and by an insensible
process of education, that very young children come to understand the meaning
of an outline. Whoever he was, the man who first projected the world into two
dimensions, and proceeded to fence off that part of it which was reindeer from
that which was not, was certainly under the influence of a geometrical idea, and
had his feet in the path which was to culminate in the refined idealisations of the
Greeks, As to the manner in which these latter were developed, the only indica-
tion of tradition is that some propositions were arrived at first in a more empirical
or intuitional, and afterwards in a more intellectual way. So long as points had
size, lines had breadth, and surfaces thickness, there could be no question of exact
relations between the various elements of a figure, any more than is the case with
the realities which they represent. But the Greek mind loved definiteness, and
discovered that if we agree to speak of lines as if they had no breadth, and so
on, exact statements became possible. If any one scientific invention can claim pre-
eminence over all others, I should be inclined myself to erect a monument to the
unknown inventor of the mathematical point, as the supreme type of that process
of abstraction which has been a necessary condition of scientific work from the very
beginning.

It is possible, however, to uphold the importance of the part which Abstract
Geometry has played, and must still play, in the evolution of scientific concep-
tions, without committing ourselves to a defence, on all points, of the traditional
presentment. The consistency and completeness of the usual system of defini-
tions, axioms, and postulates has often been questioned; and quite recently a
- more thorough-going analysis of the logical elements of the subject than has ever
before been attempted has been made by Hilbert. The matter is a subtle one,
and a general agreement on such points is as yet hardly possible. The basis for
such an agreement may perhaps ultimately be found in a more explicit recognition
of the empirical source of the fundamental conceptions. This would tend, at all
events, to mitigate the rigour of the demands which are sometimes made for
logical perfection.

Even more important in some respects are the questions which have arisen in
connection with the applications of Geometry to purposes of graphical representa-
tion. It is not necessary to dwell on the great assistance which this method has
rendered in such subjects as Physics and Engineering. The pure mathematician,
for his part, will freely testify to the influence which it has exercised in the
development of most branches of Analysis; for example, we owe to it all the
leading ideas of the Calculus. Modern analysts have discovered, however, that
Geometry may be a snare as well as a guide. In the mere act of drawing a curve
to represent an analytical function we make unconsciously a host of assumptions
which are difficult not merely to prove, but even to formulate precisely. It is now
sought to establish the whole fabric of mathematical analysis on a strictly arith-
metical basis. To those who were trained in an earlier school, the results so far are
in appearance somewhat forbidding. If the shade of one of the great analysts of a
century ago could revisit the glimpses of the moon, his feelings would, I think, be
akin to those of the traveller to some medieval town, who finds the buildings he
came to see obscured by scaffolding, and is told that the ancient monuments are
all in process of repair. It is to be hoped that a good deal of this obstruction is
only temporary, that most of the scaffolding will eventually be cleared away, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 429

that the edifices when they reappear will not be entirely transformed, but will
still retain something of their historic outlines. It would be contrary to the
spirit of this Address to undervalue in any way the critical examination and
revision of principles; we must acknowledge that it tends ultimately to simpli-
fication, to the clearing up of issues, and the reconciliation of apparent. contradic-
tions. But it would be a misfortune if this process were to absorb too large a
share of the attention of mathematicians, or were allowed to set too high a
standard of logical completeness, In this particular matter of the ‘ arithmetisa-
tion of Mathematics’ there is, I think, a danger in these respects. As regards the
latter point, a traveller who refuses to pass over a bridge until he has personally
tested the soundness of every part of it is not likely to go very far; something
must be risked, even in Mathematics, It is notorious that even in this realm of
‘exact’ thought discovery has often been in advance of strict logic, as in the
theory of imaginaries, for example, and in the whole province of analysis of which
Fourier’s theorem is the type. And it might even be claimed that the services
which Geometry has rendered to other sciences have been almost as great in virtue
of the questions which it implicitly begs as of those which it resolves.

I would venture, with some trepidation, to go one step further. Mathema-
ticians love to build on as definite a foundation as possible, and from this point of
view the notion of the integral number, on which (we are told) the Mathematics
of the future are to be based, is very attractive. But, as an instrument for the
study of Nature, is it really more fundamental than the geometrical notions which
it is to supersede? The accounts of primitive peoples would seem to show that,
in the generality which is a necessary condition for this purpose, it is in no less
degree artificial and acquired. Moreover, does not the act of enumeration, as
applied to actual things, involve the same process of selection and idealisa-
tion which we have already met with in other cases? As an illustration, suppose
we were to try to count the number of drops of water inacloud, I am not
thinking of the mere practical difficulties of enumeration, or even of the more
pertinent fact that it is hard to say where the cloud begins or ends. Waiving
these points, it is obvious that there must be transitional stages between a more
or less dense group of molecules and a drop, and in the case of some of these
aggregates it would only be by an arbitrary exercise of judgment that they
would be assigned to one category rather than to the other, In whatever form
we meet with it, the very notion of counting involves the highly artificial con-
ception of a number of objects which for some purposes are treated as absolutely
alike, whilst yet they can be distinguished,

The net result of the preceding survey is that the systems of Geometry, of
Mechanics, and even of Arithmetic, on which we base our study of Nature, are all
contrivances of the same general kind; they consist of series of abstractions and
conventions devised to represent, or rather to symbolise, what is most interesting
and most accessible to us in the world of phenomena, And the progress of
science consists in a great measure in the improvement, the development, and the
simplification of these artificial conceptions, so that their scope may be wider and
the representation more complete. The best in this kind are but shadows, but we
may continually do something to amend them.

As compared with the older view, the function of physical science is seen to be
much more modest than was at one time supposed. We no longer hope by levers
and screws to pluck out the heart of the mystery of the universe. But there are
compensations, The conception of the physical world as a mechanism, con-
structed on a rigid mathematical plan, whose most intimate details might possibly
some day be guessed, was, I think, somewhat depressing. We have been led to
recognise that the formal and mathematical element is of our own introduction;
that it is merely the apparatus by which we map out our knowledge, and
has no more objective reality than the circles of latitude and longitude on the
sun, A distinguished writer not very long ago speculated on the possibility
of the scientific mine being worked out within no distant period. Recent dis-
coveries seem to have put back this possibility indefinitely; and the tendency of
modern speculation as to the nature of scientific knowledge should be to banish

4.30 REPORT—1904.

it altogether. The world remains a more wonderful place than ever; we may be
sure that it abounds in riches not yet dreamed of; and, although we cannot hope
ever to explore its innermost recesses, we may be confident that it will supply
tasks in abundance for the scientific mind for ages to come.

One significant result of the modern tendency is that we no longer with the
same obstinacy demand a mechanical explanation of the phenomena of Light and
Electricity, especially since it has been made clear that if one mechanical explana-
tion is possible, there will be an infinity of others. Some minds, indeed, revelling
in their new-found freedom, have attempted to disestablish ordinary or ‘ vulgar’
matter altogether. I may refer to a certain treatise which, by some accident,
does not bear its proper title of ‘ AXther and zo Matter,’ and to the elaborate
investigations of Professor Osborne Reynolds, which present the same peculiarity,
although the basis is different. Speculations of this nature have, however, been
so recently and (if I may say it) so brilliantly dealt with by Professor Poynting
before this Section that there is little excuse for dwelling further on them now.
I will only advert to the question whether, as some suggest, physical science
should definitely abandon the attempt to construct mechanical theories in the
older sense. The question would appear to be very similar to this, whether we
should abandon the use of graphical methods in analysis? In either csae we run
the risk of introducing extraneous elements, possibly of a misleading character ;
but the gain in vividness of perception and in suggestiveness is so great that we
are not likely to forego it, by excess of prudence, in one case more than in the
other.

We have travelled some distance from Stokes and the mathematical physics
of half a century ago. May I add a few observations which might perhaps have
claimed his sympathy? They are in substance anything but new, although I do
not find them easy. to express. We have most of us frankly adopted the empirical
attitude in physical science ; it has justified itself abundantly in the past, and has
more and more forced itself upon us. We have given up the notion of causation,
except asa convenient phrase; what were once called laws of Nature are now
simply rules by which we can tell more or less accurately what will be the conse-
quences of a given state of things. We cannot help asking, How is it that such
rules are possible? A rule is invented in the first instance to sum up in a com-
pact form a number of past experiences; but we apply it with little hesitation,
and generally with success, to the prediction of new and sometimes strange ones.
Thus the law of gravitation indicates the existence of Neptune; and Fresnel’s
wave-surface gives us the quite unsuspected phenomenon of conical refraction.
Why does Nature make a point of honouring our cheques in this manner ; or, to
put the matter ina more dignified form, how comes it that, in the words of
Schiller,
‘Mit dem Genius steht die Natur im ewigen Bunde,

Was der eine verspricht, leistet die andre gewiss’ ?

The question is as old as science, and the modern tendencies with which we have
been occupied have only added point to it. It is plain that physical science as
such has no answer; its policy indeed has been to retreat from a territory which
it could not securely occupy. We are told in some quarters that it is vain to
lock for an answer anywhere. But the mind of man is not wholly given over
to physical science, and will not be content for ever to leave the question alone.
It will persist in its obstinate questionings, and, however hopeless the attempt
to unravel the mystery may be deemed, physical science, powerless to assist, has
no right to condemn it.

I would like, in conclusion, to read to you a characteristic passage from
that Address of Stokes in 1862 which has formed the starting-point of this dis-

course :—-

‘In this Section, more perhaps than in any other, we have frequently to deal
with subjects of a very abstract character, which in many cases cau be mastered

1 Applied by Sir J. Herschel to the discovery of Neptune.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 431

only by patient study, at leisure, of what has been written. The question may
not unnaturally be asked, If investigations of this kind can best be followed by
quiet study in one’s own room, what is the use of bringing them forward in a
Sectional meeting at all? I believe that good may be done by public mention, in
a meeting like the present, of even somewhat abstract investigations; but whether
good is thus done, or the audience merely wearied to no purpose, depends upon the
judiciousness of the person by whom the investigation is brought forward,’

It might be urged that these remarks are as pertinent now as they were forty
years ago, but I will leave them on their own weighty authority. I will not myself
venture to emphasise them, lest some of my hearers should be tempted to retort
that the warning might well be borne in mind, not only in the ordinary pro-
ceedings of the Section, but in the composition of a Presidential Address !

The following Papers were read :—

1. Thermal Dilatation of Conpressed Hydrogen.
By A. W. Witkowski.

The experiments of which the results are quoted below were undertaken with
the view of obtaining data necessary for the construction of isothermals of
hydrogen, down to the lowest available temperatures. The immediate object of
these determinations was the volume-coefficient of dilatation a, as depending on
pressure and temperature, a being defined by the equation v =v, (1 + 44), in which
vo and v denote the volumes of any quantity of hydrogen, measured both under a
constant pressure of p atmospheres, at the temperature of melting ice, and 0
(Centigrade, constant volume, hydrogen scale) degrees respectively. The method of
experimenting was similar in principle to that used in the author’s previous
researches on atmospheric air.1 A summary of the most reliable results, as far as
they go up to now, is contained in the following table, illustrated by the annexed

diagram.

Pressure | Temperature @
= +100? | +207 | -77° | ie | tae | —190°
Values of 10° x a.

1 36671) — == —_ _ 367-2?

10 3646 364-7 365-2 365°6 366°8 369-0
20 362°9 363°2 3640 3649 36771 3719
30 3611 361°6 362°9 3640 367°2 374:1

40 359°4 360°2 3618 363°1 367:0 375'8
50 3576 358°7 360°8 362°1 366°4 377:0

60 355 8 357°1 — 361'1 3652 3775

1 Régnault.
* Travers and Senter (Brit. Assoc. Rep, 1901).

The last figure is expected to be uncertain, probably by less than five units.

1 Cracow Acad. Rozpramy, vol. xxiii. 1891.

Thewmal Datation

cormpreied hydrogen

(volume coeff. at wont. pence)

REPORT—1904,

T CAE
Pe rs ei
Hn
nil

ne a ee
HEE PEE
CA
ec

COAT
CCAP
Fin aie a
reese ae
COCA
CAC
COO
Ser eennn
BVA AVAVAYAy A |

Pa A Voy AA 7

BRN SaAn

EEE EH
fel oi ee cligieel cats sl chee teeaee lS
oe | Per elo ae ee |
SESERRGOMED-osRRERE Se
GE Sam hey 0 4 ce
ei A Aime (te
Tt dete la] lends alg
| 1

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 433

2, Huperiments to decide whether the Ether moves with the Earth.
By Professor W. WIEN.

In the theory of electro-dynamics, founded by H. A. Lorentz on the hypothesis
of electrons, the questions as to a possible influence of the earth’s motion on optic
and electric phenomena are of the greatest importance. A short time ago, it
seemed dubious whether the theory was able to overcome the difficulties of the
negative result of the well-known experiments of Michelson and Morley, Lord
Rayleigh, Brare, Trouton, and Noble. But the recent assumption of Lorentz that
the electrons have the form of an ellipsoid, the relation of the axes being depen-
dent upon the velocity—-Mr. Searle has called such ellipsoids Heaviside ellipsoids
—leads to the conclusion that all optical experiments in which a part of the
system is made dark by interference or rotation of the plane of polarisation should
give a negative result, One must of course make the hypothesis that all forces
and all masses follow the general electro-magnetic laws, and that we have to
consider only electro-magnetic phenomena. I myself! pronounced the opinion some
years ago that it may be of the utmost consequence to found mechanics, too, on the
general equations of the electro-magnetic field, and to define the mass as the

M,

electro-magnetic mass of the charged Heaviside ellipsoids, regarded as the
constituents of all material bodies.

Taking this point of view, it seems to me that no results could be expected
from the experiments with the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light, from
which the earlier theory of Lorentz led us to expect an influence of the earth’s
motion of the first order. (nthe other hand, I found that the common theory
of dispersion gives a positive result of the Michelson-Morley experiment if the
rays go through water instead of air. This result cannot be annulled by the
FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction hypothesis. But the recent theory of Lorentz
expects a negative result in this case too, andI must confess that I have no further
hope that we should find anything of a positive effect from those optical or elec-
trical observations.

But from one experiment it seems to me that, independent of all theory, a
positive result should be expected if the ether does not move at all with the earth.
The experiment lies exactly on the limit that by extreme accuracy could be
observed, and I do not know whether it is possible or not with our present means
of observation.

If we measure the velocity of light, using Fourault’s method, but in such a
manner that the ray of light does not go back along the same path, we should

1 And Prof, Larmor has had the same idea.

1904, FF

A834 REPORT-—1904.

find a difference in the velocity of light according to whether we make the ray
go in the same direction as the earth or in the opposite.

Such a measurement of the velocity of light would be only possible when we
use two mirrors at a great distance from each other which rotate with the same
angular velocity.

Let A, be a source of light going through a diaphragm D and falling on the
mirror M,, whence it is reflected to the second mirror M,. The ray goes after
reflection from this mirror to D,. Another ray coming from the source A, takes
the same path, and, since both mirrors remain at rest, comes to A,. But if the
mirrors rotate in the same phase the ray requires time to traverse the long distance
a and finds the mirror M, in a changed position, so that the ray does not come to
A,, but makes an angle with the direction M, A,. The observation of this angle
gives us the velocity of light as it is well known in Fourault’s method. Reversely
the ray coming from A, will not go to A,, but makes an angle with the direction
M,A,, depending also upon the velocity of light.

But both the values of this velocity could not be the same if the earth moves
in the direction M, M.,.

For in the time that the light needs to go from M, to M,, the mirror M, has
changed its place and increased the distance from a to a+ a. Let cbe the velocity
of light, » that of earth, then we have

The time of the ray between M, and M, is therefore “_, and for the opposite

ray between M, and M, eet Thus we should find a difference in the time which

the two rays need to travel over the distance a in the amount of 2” ofthe value,
ce

that ig Bv0D

It seems that the best observations of the velocity of light have obtained a
greater accuracy than we need here But we ought to remember that the diffi-
culties of these proposed experiments are far greater, because the mirrors M, and
M, have to rotate with the same velocity. On the other hand, this agreement has
to last only a short time, and every difference of the angular velocity could be
detected by a change in the direction of the ray. That is the reason why I
hope the difficulties may be overcome, like many others, by the experience of a
physicist like Mr. Michelson, and I am glad to draw attention to this problem.

3. Preliminary Note on the Tangential Stress due to Light incident
obliquely on an Absorbing Surface. By Professor J. H. Poynrine,
D.Se., LBS.

The existence of pressure on a surface, due to the incidence of a normal beam
of light, first deduced as a consequence of the electromagnetic theory by Maxwell,
has been fully confirmed by the experiments of Lebedew, and quite independently
by the exact work of Nichols and Hull. These experiments show that the
pressure exists, and that it is equal to the energy per c.c., or to the energy density
in the incident beam.

In so far as it produces this pressure, we may regard the beam as a stream of
momentum, the direction of the momentum being along the line of propagation,
and the amount of monientum passing per second through unit area cross section
of the beam being equal to the density of the energy in it. Let E denote this
energy density. If the beam is inclined at @ to the normal to a surface on which
it falls, the momentum stream on to unit area of the surface is Ecos 6 per second,
and this is the force which the beam will exert in its own direction. If the beam
is entirely absorbed, the result is a pressure Ecos? @ along the normal, and a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 435

tangential stress on the plane of incidence Ksin 6cos@=4 Esin20. If » of the
incident beam is reflected, the normal pressure is (1+)Ecos?0@ and the

tangential stress is et TE sin 26.1. When there is absorption, the tangential

stress has a maximum value at 45° if » is constant. When there is no absorption
the tangential stress disappears.

The tangential stress is much more easily detected than the normal pressure,
for the action of the gas surrounding the surface is normal to it, and is with
difficulty disentangled from the normal light pressure. But the gas action is at
right angles to the tangential stress, and it is merely necessary to arrange a
surface, free to move in its own plane, to eliminate the action of the normal forces
and to reveal the tangential stress.

With the assistance of my colleague, Dr. Guy Barlow, to whom I am much
indebted for help in the work, I have made the following experiment to show
the existence of the stress.

Two circular glass discs, each 2°75 sq. cm. area, were fixed at the ends of a
horizontal light glass rod 5 cm. long, the discs being perpendicular to the rod and
fixed to it at their highest points. One of the discs was lampblacked and the
other silvered. The rod was placed in a light wire cradle and suspended by a
fine quartz fibre about 25 cm. long in a brass case with glazed sides. On the
cradle was a mirror, by which deflections could be observed with a telescope on a
millimetre scale 1‘8 metres.distant. The moment of inertia of the system was
2°35 gm. cm’, and the time of vibration was 146 seconds. A deflection of
1 scale division therefore corresponded to a tangential force on a disc of about
one two-millionth of a degree-—more exactly ‘483 x 10-5,

The air was pumped from the case till the pressure was less than 1 cm, of
mercury. At this pressure the irregularity of the disturbances, due to the
residual gas, is very greatly reduced. A parallel beam of light from a Nernst
lamp was then directed so as to be incident obliquely on the lampblacked disc.
From the arrangement of the discs it is obvious that a uniformly distributed
normal force would have no moment tending to twist the system, while a
tangential force would have a moment and would twistit. In all cases the disc
moved away from the source of light. The deflection was a maximum when the
incidence was not very far from 45° and fell off on each side of the maximum
value. As there are various sources of error not yet removed, we have not made
a complete series of measurements, but have only made sure that the effect is of
the order to be expected from the theory, by finding the deflection for an
angle of 45°.

The beam from the Nernst lamp, when incident at 45°, turned the rod through
16°5 scale divisions. Assuming total absorption, the tangential force should be
$ Esin 26 x area of disc = 3 E x 2°75,

Equating to the value of the force given by the deflection, viz. 0-483 x 10-5
x 16°35, we have H=5'8 x 10-6.

The same beam was then directed on to a small lampblacked silver disc of
known heat capacity, through a glass plate of thickness equal to that of the side
of the case. ‘The initial rise of temperature per second was measured by a
thermo-junction of constantan wire soldered to the disc. The energy density of
_ the stream was thus found to be EH =6'5 x 10-°, +

The agreement of the two values is quite as close as could be expected in so
rough a determination.

When the beam was directed on to the silver dise at the other end of the
torsion rod the deflection was much less, as was to be expected.

We have also made some qualitative experiments with a blackened glass
cylinder—a ring cut from a test tube—suspended by a quartz fibre with its axes
vertical. When a beam fell on this in any direction, not along a diameter, there
was always a twist. in the direction corresponding to the tangential stress,

1 These expressions are given in ‘ Radiation in the Solar System,’ Phil. Zrans. A
vol. 202, p. 539. : :

Lf
Los
nw

436 REPORT—1904.

4. The Reaction of the Radiation on a Moving Electron.
By Professor M. ABRAHAM.

The moving electron gives rise to an electromagnetic field which exerts a force
on the electron. For velocities small compared with the velocity of light, the
expression for this force is

(1) ReaK/ + RU +o .
where the first term
(2) Ki/= — Ho §

is equal to the vector of acceleration multiplied by the electromaguetic mass, the
existence of which was first suggested by J. J. Thomson in 1881.
The second term

(3) R,""=

first given by H. A. Lorentz, is a dissipative force, coming from the reaction of
the radiation.

Indeed, if you consider a motion of the electron, in which the vector velocity
g is constant up to the time ¢,, and after the time ¢,, but which has an acceleration
during the interval ¢,<¢<¢,, the work done during this interval by the force
K7”” is

[ae 3K =b | “dt 3.
1 1
As g=0 for ¢,, ¢,, integration by parts gives
no 2
(4) | ae g R= —b | ae Pe pore

where W,, is the energy, calculated by J. Larmor and others, which the waves
formed during the interval ¢,<¢<#, carry with them, Therefore §;’’ may be
called the dissipative force exerted by the radiation on a slowly moving
electron.

The electrons emitted by radio-active bodies are moving with very high
velocities. The experiments of W. Kaufmann show that the 8-rays of radium are
negative electrons with velocities greater than two-thirds of the velocity of light,
and, if F. Laschen is right, the so-called y-rays contain electrons moving with
nearly the velocity of light, and maybe the velocity of light itself is attained,
The theory therefore must be extended to the general case of rapid motion, where
/ —B is smaller than, but not small compared with 1.

c
As to the first term §;’, I have previously given the general value

pes Cs

() R’= OP,

where © is the vector of the electromagnetic momentum which the electron
carries with it. From this formula I get the general expression for the electro-
magnetic mass. The ‘longitudinal mass,’ corresponding to acceleration in the
direction of motion, is

—dG

(6) oe G=(®),
while the ‘transverse mass’ which comes into play in the case of deviation of
B-rays is

(7) $1

For slow motion, in which the momentum is a linear function of the velocity,
the two masses are equal, but in general they are different.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 437

The value of the momentum depends of course on the shape of the electron.
I will not discuss this matter in detail, because the second force of which I shall
speak is independent of the shape and size of the electron. It is closely connected
with the radiation of a point-change by the relations

(8) | “dt 38; = ~ Wary
1

(9) | ae RK, =—-G,,,
1

where W,,, G,, are the radiated energy and the radiated momentum respectively,
They are given by

y a2 (7a (9 4 9)”
Wi=22 | (9°, G8)") |
‘a sag a tel a
r 26 (74, 9 (8, (aH) )
a= ag | de 218+ 8571,
(11) Wom 3e3 [ae 318 +'3 |
with c®=1— £?.

I gave these values in ‘ Annalen der Physik 10,’ p. 156, 1903, the paper being
sent in on October 23, 1902. The same formulee have keen found independently
by O. Heaviside, ‘ Nature,’ 6 T., p. 6, November 6, 1902.

Now the required force §;'’, substituted in (8) and (9), must give these values
of W,,, G,,. Wecan show that with these conditions &;” is determined com-
pletely, if we take into consideration that the complete value §; of the reaction
of the field can be regarded as an expansion in ascending powers of 4, G, .. .,
and that the general value of #;’’ must be of the same dimensions as 6g without
containing a power of the radius as factor. The most general expression of this
sort is zero, if it gives zero both for radiated energy and radiated momentum.
From this it follows that the proposed problem has only one solution.

This solution is

(12) Hy’ =35 {3 9099) , 2900), Salo

Ro et CK |

Indeed, you get

kK c? K®

gi’ =0{99 208),

\

and, because §=o for ¢,, ¢,, integration by parts gives
fi2298- — (ae (8+ 90)"
TK 1 kK cK |
hence

fae g 8," = —b fae { + (9) |,

Kt oe? KS

in agreement with (10).
On the other hand, you get by integration by parts

fae {8 +389 ae (28 +5808) , 40090),

ed deri i Gace Ba A

kK cK
Therefore the time integral of #;’’ is equal to — G,,.

Hence (12) is the general expression of the reaction of the radiation ona
point-charge, moving with a velocity smaller than the velocity of light.

Consider some examples.

2
a. Uniform Motion along a Cirele—You have § 1 9, §= —9Z,, r being the
=

radius of the circle.
Equation (12) gives

438 REPORT— 1904.

That is a frictional force opposite to the direction of motion. It is proportional
to the square of the curvature of the path, or to the square of the intensity of the
transverse magnetic field producing the circular motion. Near the velocity of
light, when « is very small, the force increases rapidly.

b. Uniform Motion along an Helix.—Put g=9,+9,, where g, is the constant
velocity along the axis of the screw, g, the projection of g to a plane perpendicular
to the axis. Let 7 be the radius of thecircle, described with velocity g,.
Consider that g=4, is perpendicular both to g, and g,, and that

2

§-%=-9,%,
you get
4
§4=0,49= -2;
hence
RK ie ~b/ oe fF _§g ah,
: KT GK 7

Putting
: hg, cs =B,, B,°+B,?=P,

ce ec

you can write

RK," = —b4, faite —ba, 92° 1-B,*).

Rage

The first term gives a force resisting the rectilinear motion 9g, along the axis
of the helix, the second term a force resisting the circular motion g,. When the
electron moves rapidly through a homogeneous magnetic field both forces come
into play.

5. Quantitative Determination of the Anomalous Dispersion of Sodiwm
Vapour.' By Professor R. W. Woop.

6. On the Dynamical Significance of Kundt’s Law of Anomalous Dispersion.
Ly Professor J. Larmor, Sec. B.S.

It was pointed out that the energy of a train of approximately homogeneous
radiation must be propagated forwards; on the principles of O. Reynolds and
Rayleigh this requires that the group-velocity must be positive, provided there is
no absorption. Thus, outside an absorption-band the index of refraction must
always increase with increasing frequency of the wave-train. Inside the absorp-
tion-band the argument does not apply, but the curve of dispersion there bends
round so as to connect the two arcs, both with upward trend, on the two sides of
the band. These are the features of actual dispersion-curves to which Kundt
drew attention.

7. On the Relation of the Rintgen Radiation to Ordinary Light.
By Professor J. Larmor, Sec. RWS.

Arguments were offered in support of the view advanced by Sir George Stokes
(‘ Wilde Lecture,’ Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester, 1897) that a single radiant
pulse, incident on a molecular medium, would not suffer regular refraction. As
natural radiation consists of a succession of pulses, propagated from molecular
shocks occurring at the surface of the incandescent solid or liquid radiator, it
becomes necessary on this view to specify some kind of regularity in the shocks,
in order to explain refraction and dispersion. It is held that a statistical regu-

* Appeared in full in the Phil, Mag., viii. p. 293.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 439

larity, such as is connected in molecular theory (¢9. gas theory) by the
existence at each point of a definite temperature, is adequate for this purpose.
On the other hand, if the Réntgen rays consist of absolutely independent pulses,
devoid of all regularity in their succession, thus comparable to the traffic
along a street or to the fire of a skirmishing company of soldiers, they would
undergo no regular refraction.

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.
The following Papers were read :—

1. A Fragment of Elementary Mathematics. By Professor F. Morury.

The text-books of elementary analytical geometry are introductory to Projective
Geometry. It is easy to work out an analytic introduction to Inversive Geometry,
and such an introduction is, I have found, of much interest to students at an early
stage, because it connects very directly with the class of facts handled in Euclid or
his substitutes, or in such books as Casey’s ‘ Sequel to Euclid,’ and also because the
algebra is transparent, the geometric operations being in evidence. And such an
introduction is of value to students later on in the geometric side of the theory of
functions of a complex number, and in vector analysis,

We work in a plane with reflexions in lines, two reflexions being a rotation.
The operation of rotating may be called a turn (or ort, Heaviside), and denoted
by ¢. A turn is thus a complex number of absolute value or length unity, but
there is no necessity to speak of complex numbers. By itself, ¢ may be thought of
as a point on a base circle of unit radius. The centre of this circle is the base
point or origin ; a fixed line through the base point is the base line or axis of reals.
The reflexion of a point « in the base line may be denoted by x or y as is
convenient ; this reflexion is the conjugate of «.

The map-equation of a line is

a

t= P|
Se

and forms of the conjugate equation of a line are
vja+azja=l,
a+t?x=pt.
It is important here to note that between a point « and its reflexion 2, in this
line we have the relation
vlat+e2,/a=1.
A similar remark applies to circles—namely, that the conjugate equation

VL-ALX-aX= p*
is a special case of the relation x z,—a x, —a x= p*, which connects inverse points.
After adequate explanation of these preliminaries, we have next (1) the metrical
theory of the n-lines, including in particular convenient proofs of the known
metrical facts of the triangle; and (2) the theory of rational curves, such curves
as, for example, the “imagon type:

v=a polynomial in ¢;

o=¥

the hyperbola type:

Bias
t -¢’

44.0 REPORT—1904.

the parabola type :

Ep eal AG

@ —#)*”

the curves given by
Qotnta,U 4+ ...+a =0,

where a, and a, _, are conjugate and one of these pairs varies with /.

2. Peano’s Symbolic Method. By A. N. Wurrenzand, F.R.S,

“3. The Theory of Linear Partial Differential Equations.
By Major P. A. MacManoy, Se.D., FBS.

4, On the Roots of the Characteristic Equation of a Linear Substitution.
By T. J. Pa. Bromwicn.

The equation in 2,

| 4, iA, M4, 2 + + +3 Gyn =0,
| Ga, 1) @o,a—-A, « + +) Aan
i : - 8 /
Gn, 19 En, 2 + + 43 Gy,n—Xr |

or, let us say briefly, a—A =0, has been much discussed. It is known that the
roots are real if @ is a symmetric matrix; pure imaginaries (or zero) if a@ is an
alternate matrix ; and that the absolute value of all the roots is unity in case a
represents an orthogonal substitution.

If no information is available about special relations amongst the letters a, it
is no longer possible to make such definite statements. The following theorem
throws some light on the general case :—

Write b,, .=3(y, s+ As, y)5 Cr, s=3(G;, s— as, ,) 80 that the matrix b is symmetric
and ¢ 1s alternate ; let the roots of \b— =0 be a,, ay, ay, where a,>a,>... >ay;
and let the roots of ec— =0 be + ty,, £7 «+ +9 E Mp, Wherey,>yo> +--+.» >yYp>O0.
Then the veal part of any root of a~d =0 hes between a, and a,; and the absolute
value of the imaginary part is not greater than y,.

The first part of this theorem is due to Bendixson;' the second seems to be
new.

Hitherto all the letters a, , have been taken to be real; if they are complex a
modification of the theorem is necessary. Let the accented letter a’,,, represent
the conjugate complex to a,,,. Then write

by c= Gy, gt Cs, 5), Ch e—a(Gr,s—Os »);
so that the matrices 6, c have the property expressed by the equations
hs SU ESS oe
Tt is known that the two equations in A,
\b-—rA =0, e~rA =0,

have real roots in consequence of the property just stated: denote these roots by
By, Boy « « «y Bn ANd yy Yoy « + +» Yn TeSpectively, and suppose them again arranged
in order of magnitude. Then the equation a—\ =0 has the property that the real

' Ofversigt af K. Vet. Akad. Férh. Stockholm, 1900; Acta Mathematica, t. 25,
1902, p. 359,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 441

part of any root lies between B, and Bn, and the absolute value of the imaginary
part hes between y, and yn.

The first part of this theorem is due to Hirsch,' but the second seems new.

I have attempted also to obtain some connection between the invariant factors
of the determinant |~—A! and those of? |b—Ac|, but hitherto without success.
I have constructed, however, certain examples which show that the connection (if
there is one) cannot be obtained by any very simple method,

5. On the Zeroes of Two Classes of Taylor Series. By G. H. Harpy.

The problem of obtaining reasonably precise information as to the nature of
the zeroes of an integral function defined by a Taylor series is one which may
fairly be said to be generally impracticable, at any rate with the analytical
machinery at present at our disposal. The utmost which has been accomplished
in this direction is the determination of certain limits for the increase (crozssance)
of the moduli of the zeroes when corresponding limits for the increase of the
coefficients are given, these limits being found by the determination, as a pre-
liminary step, of limits for the increase of the function itself. For this reason it
seems to me that the results proved in this paper may be of interest to those who
are engaged in the study of the general theory of integral functions, They are
essentially results concerning particular cases, but they are very much more precise
than any results so far furnished by any of the general theorems.

Of the two classes of functions dealt with, the second is perhaps the more
interesting in itself. On the other hand, the determination of the zeroes of the
first class seems of more theoretical interest, as being effected directly from the
Taylor series, whereas in dealing with the second class a preliminary transformation
of the series into the more easily manipulated form of a definite integral seems to
be essential.

A. Functions formed by selecting terms from the exponential serties.—The
general form of such functions is

X APY
AO) pp pies
ae ACO
where (7) is a positive and continually increasing function which is integral for

all integral values of x. It is easy to see that (in the ordinary notation) all such
functions satisfy the inequalities

Ke" |/r SM (r) Se".

Moreover, if the increase of (x) is regular and sufficiently rapid, the nature of
the zeroes associated with the essential singularity at infinity may be determined
with much precision. The essence of the proof is to determine a series of circles
on each of which the behaviour of f(A) is completely dominated by that of one
term.

Suppose, e.7.,° p(z)=n*. Then it can be proved that if

As |
(N°)!
ia

where |e. as Hence it follows that, round the circle 7 = N°,

1 Acta Mathematica, |.c., p. 367.

? Since the invariant factors of |/—A| and |¢—A| are known to be linear, it seems
quite hopeless to make any connection between these and 'a—A\,

* The increase of ~(”) =n? is not quite rapid enough, | ’

r=N3, N7N, fO)= Dt ea)

442 REPORT—1904.

and from this it is an immediate consequence that the number of zeroes inside the
circle is exactly N°’, Again, between the circles r = N? and r=(N +1)?

de
f(r) = anit +6) + wen +e).

The 3N?+5N +1 zeroes which lie between the circles are given by the formula

AN+

r=N? + = NP Pies

= ee).
3N?+3N+1

(4=0,1,...8N?+3N), p being very small. A more precise approximation to r
would not be difficult, but seems superfluous,
The analysis is practically the same for more general forms of (mn), and may
be applied to other functions of the forms
Sy” > ve
ip(m)} {p() 39’
&e.
B. The function

fae, New oe

Si(np + lyn!
Concerning this function I have arrived at the following results :—
i. If p and a are positive, and a region, D, of the plane be defined by the
inequalities —or< as es 6,< an, then

A
Sa p NY = Gay"! +€),
where e, is a function of A, which tends uniformly to zero when A tends to
along any path inside D, and \~* is real on the real axis.
ii. If D’ is the image of D in the imaginary axis

Dispos ly
f(a, p, 4) = —P*(—A) pf{log (—A)}*-“(1 +.)
PT

1
in D’, (—d)? and {log (—X)}*-1 being real on the (negative) real axis.
ill, Ifp and a are positive and a integral the zeroes of f(a, p,X) which lie
above the real axis tend to the points

far i EG
(« ey) log (2hm) + (a—1) log log &

1
4 =
+ log Gs [ (2x sti NM oh 37 («+ 5) |,

where / is a large positive integer.

iv. If, on the other hand, a is zero or a negative integer f(a, p, d) has but a
finite number of zeroes, which are all real and negative, reducing in fact to the
product of e* by a polynomial. I have no doubt that the restriction introduced in
li. that a is integral is quite unnecessary, and that the formula holds for all real
values of a save negative integral values, with a slight modification when a is
negative. But I have not been able to prove this rigorously.

The function

ao

— rn
=

nn!

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 443

may be treated similarly, and so may other functions formed from the sine-function
as f(a, p,) is from the exponential function. Among various generalisations
which may be made I may mention the following :—

If ©(u) is real and continuous throughout (0,1), the zeroes of the integral

function
1

1
1
: | Ou” @(u)du (p>),
Py

which lie above the real axis, tend to the points

fi) log (Qk) + log (=) + log at

+i[ Qk +1)0 +37(1 +)|.

6. Binary Canon Extension. By Lieut.-Col, ALLAN CunnincuaM, FF,

The author has prepared a table showing the least Residues (R), both + and —
of the powers of 2 (say of 2°), for all prime moduli (p), and also for all power of
prime moduli (p*), up to p or p* > 10,000; the range of « is from « ¢{ the
modulus up to 2 = 70.

Thus it gives at sight the factors > 10,000 of (2*+ R), and of (2"+2*-* + 1)
up to x = 70 (when Ris small), With some subsidiary work many other forms
may be factorised, various congruences may be solved, and the Haupt-exponents
(€) of small bases (a@) may be found, ze. the least values (€) giving af = + 1
(mod p or p*).

This table is an extension of the author’s Binary Canon (published in 1900)
which extended only to moduli > 1000.

7. On the Theory of Transfinite Numbers. By Dr. BE. W. Hosson, FAS.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

SUB-SECTION oF ASTRONOMY AND CosmicaL Prysics.
CHATRMAN—SriR Joun Extor, K.C.LE., M.A., F.R.S.

The Chairman delivered the following Address :—

When the suggestion was made to me that I should preside over this important
sub-Section my first thoughts prompted me to decline the honour. The position
had been filled during the past two years by two distinguished physicists, both of
whom had dealt chiefly with the problems and the position of meteorological
science, and hence I thought that it should be offered to some representative of
cosmical physics. I also doubted whether an official meteorologist whose time has
been chiefly given up to duties of administration could have anything of interest to
communicate to you. However, on fuiler consideration it occurred to me that I
might be able to place before you some features of Indian meteorology leading up
to and assigning, as I hope, adequate reasons for the study of a portion of the field
of tropical meteorology as a whole.

My Address consists of three parts, viz. :—

1. A brief sketch of the broad features of the meteorology of India in their
relations to the general meteorology of the Indo-oceanic region.

44,4, REPORT—1904.

2. Statement of abnormal features of the meteorology of that area for the
unique period 1892-1902 illustrating the remarks in the preceding sketch.

3. Suggestion of the co-ordination of the meteorological observations of the
British Empire and the creation of a central office for the investigation of problems
of general meteorology.

India is the most typical example of monsoon conditions, that is, of opposite air
movementsof six-monthly period which, in its case, depend on the annual temperature
changes in the sea and land areas of the Indian Ocean and continent of Asia. The
monsoon conditions in India are intensified by its unique position and topography.
It projects southwards into the Indian seas over 15° of latitude, and is protected
northwards by the vast barrier of the Himalaya Mountain range and Thibetan
plateau. The axis of the Himalayan range is at least 2,000 miles in length and
has an average elevation of over 20,000 feet. ‘The extent of country over 10,000
feet in elevation to the north of India is from 300 to 500 miles in width. These
figures will give some idea of the magnitude of India’s northern barrier.

During one period of the year there is an outflow in the lower atmosphere from
land to sea. The direction of the lower air drift in India is determined in part by
the lie of the mountains and river valleys, and is from north-east over the greater
part of the Indian seas. January is the month most typical of this air movement
and of the accompanying weather conditions.

During another portion of the year the lower horizontal air movement is from
sea to land. This movement is much steadier and more powerful and influential
in every respect than the former. July and August are the months most repre-
sentative of the totality of the weather conditions of this period,

Conditions similar to those of January prevail in their entirety from about the
middle of December to the end of February or middle of March—the period known
in India as the cold weather or cool season. The lower horizontal air movement
in India during the period has its origin in Upper India, where it is very feeble,
and whence it increases seawards and is of moderate force in the Bay of Bengal
(mean force 2 to 3, Beaufort scale) and the Arabian Sea (mean, 2 to 4). It is fed to
acertain extent by drift down the river valleys, and passes in the North-west India
frontier hill ranges. There is, on the other hand, no general drift down the
Himalayan river valleys or across the main ranges from Central Asia, The normal
air movement in the Western Himalayas (and perhaps the whole range) is an
alternating up and down, or day-and-night movement, depending upon the diurnal
heating and cooling of the plains of Northern India, Hence India (in its lower air
movement) is at this time completely shut off from Central Asia.

The lower air movement is continued over the Indian seas southwards to a
region of vertical movement over a narrow belt a little to the south of the equator.
This belt is also the goal of the lower air movement of the south-east trades
circulation at this time. The equatorial belt of calms is hence the termination of
the lower air movement of the south-east trades and north-east monsoon. It
is chiefly an area of uptake, and of outflow northwards and southwards, to
replace the lower air in flow from the distant south and north. The influx to the
Indian land area occurs chiefly or entirely in the upper and (perhaps) middle
atmosphere. There is also, as indicated by the wind directions in the lower
Assam and Burma hills, an influx from the adjacent seas in the upper portion of the
lower atmosphere.' The diurnal land and sea breezes alternate with great regularity
on the west coast south of Gujarat during this period, but probably do not contri-
bute to the general upper influx compensating in part or whole the lower outflow.

The circulation over the Indo-oceanic region hence consists at this time of two
semi-independent circulations, with a common sink or goal for the lower air
movement, which shifts with the season and with the relative strengths of the
two movements. It is hence probable that they react on each other to some
extent, and possible that general abnormal actions may affect the two similarly.

' In India the lower atmosphere may be defined as from 0 to 5,000 feet, the
middle atmosphere from 5,000 to 15,000 or 20,000 feet, and the upper atmosphere
above 20,000 feet,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 445

The normal weather during the period is similar to that which obtains in anti-
cyclonic periods during the summer in Central Europe—viz., the prevalence of light
winds, with clear or lightly clouded skies, low humidity, moderate temperature,
and large diurnal range of temperature, with a bracing, exhilarating atmosphere.

It is interesting to note that the air movement in India itself is from opposite
directions in Northern India and the peninsula, with a belt of unsteady movement
over the area of the Vindhya and Satpura hill ranges. The variations of weather
conditions from the normal are as a rule inverse in these two regions—viz., Extra-
tropical and Tropical India.

The season of the opposite air movement is present in its most complete form in
July and August, and lasts from the beginning or middle of June to the middle or
end of September. It commences as a lower air movement in an anticyclonic
region overthe South Indian Ocean, and is thence continued northwards to Abyssinia,
South Arabia, India, and Burma. Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan (where
dry hot north-west winds chiefly prevail) are outside the field of this movement.
~The direction of the movement is from south, with more or less easting to the
south of the equator, and with more or less westing to the north of the equator,
dependent in part upon the earth’s rotation and in part upon local conditions and
the influence of neighbouring land areas, and hence more effective in the Bay of
Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. ‘This lower air current advances over an extensive
tropical oceanic region before it reaches Southern Asia, and hence arrives charged
with vast stores of aqueous vapour, which it discharges chiefly over the peninsulas
of Southern Asia and the mountain region of Abyssinia.

The regions of rainfall indicate the areas of upward movement terminating the
lower advance of the current. The circulation is undoubtedly maintained in large
part by the release or addition of energy due to the condensation of its enormous
stores of aqueous vapour. The lower air movement is of very considerable eleva-
tion, estimated at 15,000 to 20,000 feet in India. Above it is the outward upper
return movement, in part only compensatory, and in part probably slowly filling
up the Central and Southern Asian low-pressure region. The movement exhibits
some interesting features in India, due to the fact that of the three areas to which
it is mainly determined India alone is subject to a double influx from two sea
areas in opposite directions. The current from the Arabian Sea passes eastwards
across the Malabar, Konkan, and North Bombay coasts, the peninsula and
Central India. The Bengal current is deflected in the north of the Bay of
Bengal, and advances in a westerly direction up the Gangetic plain. Between
the areas or fields of the two currents (roughly proportional to their relative
strength and importance—viz., about 2 to 1) is a debatable area of variable
winds and low pressure. This trough of low pressure varies in position
with the relative strengths of the two currents. The cyclonic storms of the
period, which are of comparatively frequent occurrence, advance along the trough.
Tt is hence a factor of considerable importance in determining the distribution of
the rainfall of the period. The trough is purely a resultant of the peculiar con-
ditions of the air movement, and is not in cause of that movement; in other
words, it is determined by it, and does not determine it.

The transformation of the double circulation of the north-east monsoon period
into the single circulation of the south-west monsoon over the Indo-oceanic region
next requires consideration. It is evident that the chief stages in this change are
(1) the discontinuance of the vertical movement over the equatorial belt ; (2) the
extension of the trade winds of the south-east trades across the equatorial belt,
with an accompanying increase of pressure and of horizontal air movement ; (3)
the continuance of that northerly movement over the Indian seas into the peninsulas
of Southern Asia.

The marine data of the Indian seas collected during the past fifteen years
establish fully that this transformation is primarily due to actions in the Indian
Ocean, producing a movement resembling in many respects that of a bore or storm
wave. The actual transition may hence be described as catastrophic, due to
impulsive action.

It is preceded in India by a period of preparation (as it may be termed), when

44.6- REPORT—1904.

pressure and other conditions are slowly established in Southern Asia, which
directly contribute to the advance of the monsoon winds over the Indian seas,
but which in no way assist the preliminary burst across the equator, the first stage
towards the establishment of the south-west monsoon circulation.

This preliminary period is the hot-weather season, lasting from about the
middle of March to the middle of June (on the average in Northern India),
During this period temperature increases rapidly until the last week in May or
first week of June, when maximum day temperatures ranging between 120° and
125° are usually recorded in the driest and hottest interior districts of Northern
and Central India. Pressure decreases part passu in the heated land areas of
Southern Asia, which become areas of low pressure and indraught relative to the
neighbouring seas. The indraught only extends to a comparatively short distance
landwards and seawards from the coasts, more especially in the larger sea area,
the Arabian Sea, over the centre of which light variable or northerly winds obtain
even immediately before the advance of the monsoon currents. In the interior of
Northern and in Central India exceedingly dry and hot westerly winds prevail
with great steadiness.

The weather in India during this period depends almost entirely upon local
thermal actions and contrasts of temperature and humidity conditions. Skies are
generally free from cloud, but the air is more or less charged with dust and is
excessively dry (humidities of 1 to 5 being of occasional occurrence in North-
western India).

The characteristic features of the dry season are hence most strikingly exhibited
immediately before the advent of the wet monsoon. There is no gradual change
over the greater part of India from one to the other such as would occur if the
furnace, or Central Asia hot area, theory were correct. Over small isolated
portions of India, including Tenasserim, Arakan, Lower Burma, Assam, Bengal,
and Malabar, thunderstorms giving more or less heavy downpours occur in
increasing frequency during the period. The rainfall is considerable to large in
amount in these areas, and is of much agricultural value in some districts—e.g., in
Assam for the tea crop. In those areas the transition to the rainy season is much
less abrupt and spasmodic, the chief differences being that the rainfall in the wet
season is more general and frequent, larger in amount, and rarely accompanies
thunderstorms.

The transformation from the hot weather to the rains is usually effected between
the 1st and 15th of June. It commences in the equatorial belt with a consider-
able increase of pressure and air movement accompanying a strong rush of
southerly winds, the continuation of south-east trade winds, across the equator.
If the burst be sufficiently strong the rush is continued northwards over the
Indian seas as a wave of disturbance, squally weather, heavy rain, and much
violent electric discharge or action, invading areas characterised previously by
light and variable winds and fine weather. The disturbance usually increases
with its northward advance, and frequently, when it reaches lat. 12° to 16° N., it
concentrates into a cyclonic storm. Such a storm almost invariably marks the
commencement of the monsoon in the Bay of Bengal, and in about two out of
five years in the Arabian Sea. The advancing humid currents in the rear of these
initial cyclonic storms or waves of disturbance march over the sea areas in a few
days, and thence cross the coasts towards which they are determined by the low-
pressure regions in the land areas of Southern Asia, where they produce an almost
complete reversal or transformation of the weather conditions, the result of which
is that moderately high temperature and small diurnal range of temperature, great
humidity frequently approaching saturation, much cloud, and frequent rain obtain
for the next three months over the greater part of India, until, in fact, the middle
or end of September.

The reverse change—viz., the withdrawal of the humid south-west currents—
then commences, and is a slow process, requiring usually from two to three months
for its completion.

This is due to a gradual decrease of strength, and hence to a fairly continuous
contraction of the field of the current, and also of its elevation or thickness. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 447

current first withdraws from North-Western India, being replaced by light,
variable, or north-westerly land winds. These land winds increase in extension
and volume with the continued contraction of the south-west monsoon current.
The more important phases of the contraction and withdrawal of that circulation
from India are of especial interest. The first phase, the retreat of the current
from North-Western India, accompanies a rise of pressure over the Persian area
and North- Western India, with a shift of the trough of low pressure from W.N.W.
to N. or N.E. and corresponding change of direction of the average tracks of the
storms of the period. This is followed after a short period of rain in North-Eastern
India and Burma by a rise of pressure in Assam, Upper Burma, and Bengal, and
the withdrawal of the monsoon current from those areas. The current then recurves
over the centre of the Bay, in the same manner as during the monsoon proper
over the north of the Bay and Bengal, and is directed or determined to the west
or Madras coast of the Bay, which hence receives frequent rain during a short
period of about two months—the rainy season of the eastern and southern parts of
the peninsula south of Orissa and Ganjam.

These rains were formerly described as accompanying the setting in of the
north-east monsoon on the Madras coast. That, however, is a misnomer, as the
true north-east monsoon winds are dry land winds, and the rain-giving winds of
this period in Madras are those of the south-west monsoon in its retreat or con-
traction down the Bay. The period during which this rainfall occurs is hence
now usually termed the retreating south-west monsoon.

The year in India may hence be divided into two monsoons of nearly equal
length, viz.:—

(a) The north-east or dry monsoon.
(6) The south-west or wet monsoon,

The first terms are based on the general direction of the air movement in the
Indian seas during the periods, and the second on the most prominent feature of
the weather in India itself. Of an average annual total rainfall of 41 inches
(according to the most trustworthy calculation), at least 85 per cent. falls during
the wet season, and only 16 per cent. during the dry season.

The dry monsoon in India is subdivided into— +

1, The cold-weather period.

2. The hot-weather period or transitional period of preparation for the south-
west monsoon.

_ The wet monsoon is subdivided into—

1, The south-west monsoon proper, or period of general rains.
2. The period of the retreating south-west monsoon and gradual slow establish.
ment of the dry monsoon,

Each of these periods practically covers three months,

One of the most noteworthy features of the meteorology of India not referred
to in the previous statement is that the storms of each period—viz., the cold-
weather period, the hot-weather period, and the wet monsoon—are characteristic
and special to the period. They are all in the broadest sense of the word cyclonic
in character; but they originate under different conditions and exhibit very
different features in each of those periods.

The disturbances of the cold weather are large shallow depressions which
originate in the upper humid return current of the north-east monsoon circulation
chiefly in the Persian plateau region, and which drift eastward with a slight
southing across Extra-tropical India. Storms do not occur south of the Deccan
or peninsula-dividing ranges during this period. These storms are chiefly
remarkable for the frequent development of stationary secondary depressions
in the Punjab, usually of much greater intensity than the primaries; a feature of
which, I believe, there is no parallel elsewhere. They are of great importance,
as they give the main snow supply to the Western Himalayas and the light but

4.4.8 REPORT—1904.

general occasional rain required for the wheat and other cold-weather crops of
Northern India,

The storms of the hot weather are local disturbances of very limited extent,
usually in large areas of slight depression, and are occasionally of remarkable
intensity and great violence. In the areas to which the local sea winds of
the period extend (more especially Bengal and Assam) they occur chiefly as local
thunderstorms with violent winds and brief heavy downpours of rain, but some-
times as tornadoes rivalling those of certain districts of the United States in inten-
sity and destructiveness. In the dry interior they occur as dust-storms, usually
without rain, and are most violent in the driest districts, including Sind, the
Punjab, and Rajputana. Occasionally, when the convective movement is especially
vigorous, they develop into hailstorms of great intensity. The rainfall accom-
panying these hot-weather storms is of little general agricultural value except in
the tea districts of Assam and Bengal.

Finally, the wet monsoon is characterised by the frequent occurrence of
cyclonic storms of every degree of intensity and of very varying extent. The
great majority of them originate in sea areas of nearly uniform temperature as
disturbances in a massive current highly charged with aqueous vapour and subject
to large variations of intensity and extension. The more prominent features of
these storms, more especially of the most violent, including the hurricane winds,
excessive rainfall, and the phenomena of the central calm and the accompanying
storm wave, are too well known to require description. The chief importance of
these storms, of which an average of about ten (of different degrees of intensity)
occur every year during this period, arises from the manner in which they modify
the distribution of the rainfall, discharging it abundantly over the districts traversed
by the storms at the expense of the districts outside of their field.

The most important and variable feature of the weather in India from the
practical standpoint is rainfall. Its value depends upon its amount and occurrence
in relation to the needs of the staple crops. The measurement of rainfall is
carried out, on a uniform system, at upwards of 2,500 rain-gauge stations. The
average distribution of rainfall, month by month and for each season, has been
determined from the data of about 2,000 stations. It should, however, be recog-
nised that the probability that the rainfall will conform exactly to this distri-
bution in any year is nil. Average rainfall charts represent a distribution about
which the actual varies from district to district more or less considerably, the
local variation for prolonged periods being practically compensatory. Such mean
or normal data and charts are undoubtedly of value, more especially for the deter-
mination of rainfall anomalies and their relations to pressure, temperature, and
other anomalies. There is apparently a tendency to assign a greater value to these
charts of mean rainfall distribution than they deserve. Charts showing the
amount and time distribution of the rainfall best suited for the requirements of
the staple crops would—for India at least—be more interesting and valuable.
This is a work that I regret has, for various reasons, not yet been carried out by
the Indian Meteorological Department.

In most regions in India a moderate variation (positive or negative) in the
amount of the rainfall is of comparatively small importance, more especially if the
precipitation occurs in amount and at intervals suited to the requirements of the
crops. During the thirty-year period 1874-1903 there were six years in which
the distribution of rainfall affected to a serious extent the crop returns over large
areas, and the rainfall was not compensatory. In four of these years the drought
was so severe and widely spread as to occasion famine, with its attendant calamities,
over large areas. Severe droughts and famines occur at very irregular intervals,
A noteworthy feature is that they frequently follow in pairs separated by intervals
of two to four years.

The previous statement of the meteorology of India has indicated the chief
conditions which affect the crop returns seriously or disastrously over large areas
in India. They may be summed up briefly as follows ;—

(az) The dry monsoon. Absence or unusual feebleness of cold-weather storms.
(6) The wet monsoon, General feebleness of the monsoon current, due either

—- - - -

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 449

to corresponding feebleness of the south-east trades, or to unusual diversion to
East Africa, or local feebleness in a part of India due to local conditions, or to
abnormal diversion to other rainfall areas in South Asia. These conditions give
rise in the areas affected to one or more of the following features :—

(1) Prolonged delay in the commencement of the rains.

(2) Scanty rainfall during the season, with prolonged periods of fine, clear, hot
weather.

(8) Early termination of the rains.

These features areas a rule more marked in the drier districts of the interior
than in the coast districts. The effect on crop production is greatest and most
disastrous in the following areas :—

(1) Central Burma.

2) The Deccan, including the Bombay and Madras Deccan districts, and
Hyderabad.

(8) North-Western and Central India, more especially the South Punjab, East
Rajputana, and the United Provinces.

The following important inferences are based upon the preceding presentation
of facts and the experience of the past thirty years :—

(1) The lower air movement of the south-west monsoon is the northward
extension of the lower movement of the south-east trades. The latter is a
permanent feature of the Indo-oceanic region, and the former a periodic inya-
sion of the Southern Asian seas and peninsulas initiated over equatorial regions
and propagated northwards to the southern mountain barrier of the Central Asian

lateau.
fi (2) The primary factors determining this impulse across the equator (the first
stage of the establishment of the south-west monsoon) are to be sought in the
permanent field of the south-east trades, and are not due to actions in the heated
areas of Southern or Central Asia, 2

(8) The pressure conditions in the heated areas of Southern Asia and North-
East Africa determine the direction, volume, and intensity of the advance over
the Indian seas to what may be termed three competing areas for rainfall (viz.,
Abyssinia, India, and Burma), These conditions are hence important factors in
the third stage of the advance of the south-west monsoon current.

(4) The movement when fully established by these actions over the Southern
Asian seas and peninsulas is continued—Ist, by the momentum of the lower
circulation ; 2ndly, by the release of energy accompanying aqueous vapour condensa-
tion ; and 3rdly, by thermal actions in Southern Asia, due to direct solar activity.
The termination of the lower horizontal current by vertical movement occurs
irregularly over the areas of frequent heavy rain in Southern Asia and Abyssinia,
and not over a heated area in Central Asia.

(5) The total volume of aqueous vapour brought up by this circulation not only
varies in amount from month to month during the season, but also from year to
year. The largest variations (seasonal and annual) depend chiefly, if not
entirely, upon actions in the source of supply—viz., the Indian Ocean. If
those actions determine an increased or diminished supply across the equator
into the Indian seas, there is a corresponding variation in the total precipitation of
the three competing areas. Amongst such causes and actions may be prolonged
and untimely diversion of the south-east trades into East Africa, as in 1896,
or general weakness of the air movement over the Indian Ocean, probably
eying a displacement and decreased intensity of the southern anticyclone,
as in 1899,

(6) The relative distribution of the total rainfall in the three areas of discharge
of the aqueous vapour of the monsoon currents probably depends upon the relative
intensities of the pressure conditions established during the hot weather,
which are continued for a part or the whole of the monsoon by actions depending

1904, G@

A5O REPORT—1904.

on the rainfall resulting from the initial pressure conditions—an example of the
persistence of meteorological conditions and actions which is a prominent
feature of Indian meteorology. The total rainfall of each of the three areas may
differ considerably from the normal, but there may be partial or complete compen-
sation on the whole. Thus it is the general (but not the invariable) rule that the
rainfall variations in Burma and Assam are usually inverse to those of North-
Western India and also of India as a whole.

(7) The distribution of the rainfall in any one of the three competing areas
(but more especially in India as the largest) may vary widely from the normal—
considerable deficiency in some areas accompanying considerable excess in others.
This in India is undoubtedly due to local conditions—e.g., local excess or deficiency
of pressure at the commencement of the period and established during the previous
hot weather. These pressure variations usually accompany abnormally prolonged
and heavy snowfall or very scanty snowfall in the Western Himalayas.

(8) Loeal or general drought in India during the south-west monsoon may
hence be due to—

(a) General weakness of the south-east trades circulation.

(6) Diversion of an unusually large proportion of the south-east trades to
South-East or East Africa during the monsoon period.
_ fe) Larger diversion than usual of the monsoon currents to Burma or Abys-
sinia.

(d) Very unequal distribution in India itself, due to local conditions esta-
blished during the antecedent hot weather.

These factors are given in the probable order of their importance.

(9) Scanty rainfall or drought during the dry season or north-east monsoon in
Northern India results from absence or unusual feebleness of the cold weather
storms which are the sources of rainfall at that time.

(10) The most prolonged and severe droughts in North-Western and Central
India are due to the partial or complete failure of the rainfall of at least two
seasons in succession.

(11) As the two circulations in the Indian oceanic region have a common goal
in the dry season (more especially from December to March), it is probable that
variations in the strength of one circulation (more especially the larger) will
modify the field and strength of the other circulation. It appears that this rela-
tion would be shown mest strongly between the southern circulation and the
upper movement of the northern circulation. And, as cold weather storms are
disturbances in that upper movement, it is possible—if not probable—that the
larger variations in the number and intensity of the cold-weather storms and
the amount of the cold weather precipitation may be related to conditions in
the south-east trades regions.

(12) There appears to be little or no relation between the position and intensity
of the Central Asian anticyclone and the number of the cold-weather storms
and rainfall of Northern India in any season.

The meteorology of the period 1892-1902 is of especial interest for its con-
firmation of the above inferences, more especially the phenomena of the variations
of rainfall in India and the causes or actions to which they are due. The year
1891 was noteworthy for a severe local famine in Rajputana and the adjacent
districts to the north and east consequent on prolonged and excessive snowfall in
the Western Himalayas during the winter of 1890-91. The following gives a brief
nay of the more prominent feature of the meteorology of this unique
period :—

1. The eleven-year period 1892-1902 corresponds in length to the sun-spot
period, and it may be divided into two periods of unequal length—a short period
of excessive rain and a long period of deficient precipitation. The maximum of
the first period was in 1893. The second period had three strongly marked
minima in 1896, 1899, and 1901, that of 1899 being the absolute minimum, The

following table gives, for convenience of reference, data of the mean annual and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 451

seasonal variations of rainfall of the Indian land area for each year of the
period :—

Variation of Mean Actual Rainfall of Period from Normal.

South-west
| Cold Weather : | Hot Weather : Coreiee
ae | danuaryand | March to May | — Period: Mihele eee
February | June to
| December
1891 . 5 : + 0°34 +0°37 — 425 — 354
1892 . : : —0°39 —0°21 + 5°69 | + 5:09
1893 . . Zl} +1:63 + 2°72 | + 4:72 | + 9:07
1894 . ; 4 + 0°48 —0°76 + 6°75 + 6:47
1895 . 5 : —0:01 — 0:23 | — 1:95 — 2:19
1896 . : : —0'42 —0°82 | — 8°59 | — 4:83
1897 . : : —0:01 —0:12 — 0:02 | — O15
1898 . : : +0°50 —1-:00 + 0:93 + 0°43
1899 . : 3 —0°38 +058 — 11°34 | —11:14
1900 . : : —0:02 — 0:25 — 0:26 |; — O57
1901 . . ; +147 —0-48 — 6:12 i) a3
1902 . : ; —0:57 +016 — 164 — 2:05
Normal roughly . 1 inch 5 inches 35 inches 41 inches

2. The following gives the chief features of the rainfall of the first period,
1892-4 :—

(a) The excess was almost as marked in the dry as in the wet season.
This is strongly shown in the year 1893 of maximum excess.

(6) The excess was on the whole more strongly exhibited in the field of the
Bombay than of the Bengal current.

(ce) The rainfall of the dry season was as markedly in excess in Perfia, Balu-
chistan, Afghanistan, and the Himalayan area as in Northern India.

(d) The maximum height of the Nile floods (in September) was above the
average. They were abnormally high in 1892 and 1894.

(¢) The rains were favourable over Australia and South Africa during this
period, according to the reports received in India.

(7) Hence, as a general inference, the rainfall was in general excess in each
year of the period over the Indo-oceanic region, and not only in the south-west
but also in the north-east monsoon in Southern Asia.

3, The chief features of the rainfall of the second period, 1895-1902, in the
Indo-oceanic region were as follows :—

(a) The rainfall was as deficient relatively to the normal in the cold weather
as in the rains or wet season.

(6) The cold-weather or winter precipitation was almost continuously in
marked defect in Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Afyhanistan, Baluchistan, the Hima-
layan area, and South Thibet. The opposite variation obtained in Central Asia, as
is shown by available data for Tashkend, Samarcand, Irkutsk, and other stations.

(c) The storms of the cold weather were fewer in number and feebler in
character in each year of the period than on the average of the preceding sixteen
years 1876-91.

(d) The south-west monsoon rainfall was most largely in defect in the
interior districts served by the Bombay current.

(e) There was a marked tendency in each year for late commencement and
early withdrawal of the monsoon currents, and for deficient rainfall through-
out the whole season over the greater part of India. These features were very
pronounced in the years 1896, 1899, and 1901.

Q@Ga2

452 REPORT—1904.

(f) The most remarkable feature of the period was that the region to the
south of the equator, including South and East Africa, Mauritius, and Australia,
was similarly affected.

In India the years 1896 and 1899 were years of severe drought, followed by
famine over very large areas. The area in which the crops failed more or less
completely was about 250,000 square miles in extent in 1896 and 500,000 square
miles in 1899. In the 1899-1900 famine upwards of 6,500,000 people were on
famine relief for several months. The loss of cattle due to failure of water and
fodder was very great, numbering many millions. In some districts from 90 to
95 per cent. of the cattle died off from slow starvation and want of water. In
New South Wales and Queensland almost continuous drought prevailed from
1896 to 1902. It is estimated that over fifty millions of sheep, value 12,500,000/.,
were lost in New South Wales during these seven years of drought.

Mr. Hutchins, Conservator of Forests, Cape Town, states that drought pre-
vailed more or less persistently over the Karoo region in South Africa from 1896
to 1908, and that cattle and sheep perished by millions. He also states that the
drought extended to British Central Africa from 1898 to 1903.

The previous statements evidence the continuity, extension, and intensity of the
drought.

The Nile floods followed very closely the variations of the rainfall in Western
India. The floods of the years 1899 and 1901 were both amongst the lowest on
record, This shows that the rainfall in the Abyssinian region was more or less
generally in defect during the period and most largely in the years 1899 and 1901,
when the rainfall of the Bombay current was very deficient.

Hence, as a general inference, the period 1895-1902 was characterised by
more or less persistent deficiency of rainfall over practically the whole Indo-
oceanic area (including Abyssinia). The economic results in the dry interior
districts of India, South Africa, and Australia were the same—large loss of cattle
and great loss of capital. The drought in Southern Asia was as marked in the
north-east as in the south-west monsoon, and hence the variation was not
seasonal but general.

The variations of temperature, humidity, and cloud in India during the whole
period were large and in direct accordance with the rainfall. In other words,
during the period 1892-94 the air was damper, with lower temperature than usual
and cloud above the normal. On the other hand, from 1895 to 1902 temperature
was steadily in excess, cloud less than usual, and humidity below the normal.

The most remarkable variation was that of the solar radiation as indicated by
observations of the solar radiation thermometer (black bulb zm vacuo).

The most interesting feature of the meteorology of the period 1892-1902 is
that the variations of the solar insolation are the inverse of those which might
have been expected from the cloud and humidity data. In other words, solar
radiation was in excess in the period of increased humidity and cloud, and in
defect during the greater part of the period of drought, decreased humidity, and
cloud. The series of eight curves exhibited, out of a larger number prepared from
the data of a number of stations in India at which these observations are
carefully recorded, show the most important facts, and indicate that there was a
continuous decrease of insolation on the average of all stations from 1891 to 1902.
The curves for Aden, Calcutta, and Leh, it will be seen, agree in their most
important features. The observations are quite concordant and probably represent
a most important feature of the period. They indicate either a continuous and
considerable decrease of emission of solar energy during the period, or unusually
large absorption in the upper atmosphere. In order to decide this question
comparison is necessary with similar data for other large areas, as, for example,
Europe and North America, It is, however, clear that in India the insolation
data of this unique period are of exceptional interest and value.

The preceding statements have shown that variations of rainfall for prolonged
periods similar in character have occurred, and may hence occur again, over the very
laree area including the Southern Asian peninsulas, East and South Africa,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 453

Australia, and, perhaps, the Indian Ocean, The abnormal actions or conditions
giving rise to these large and prolonged variations must hence be persistent for long
periods, and be effective over the whole of that extensive area, and hence cannot
be inferred with certainty from the examination of the data of one small portion of
the area atfected—e.g., India. The variations undoubtedly accompany variations in
the complete atmospheric circulation over the Indo-oceanic area, and the effective
forces or actions must be such as to influence the whole movement in a similar
manner in the two monsoons or seasons of inverse conditions in Southern Asia,
This inference furnishes a very strong reason for the conclusion that the meteoro-
logy of the whole area similarly affected from 1892 to 1902 should be studied as a
whole, and not in fragmentary detail by various weather bureaus, and, as at present,
without any co-ordination of the results of these bureaus.

The discussion has also indicated that the south-west monsoon current is a
periodic or intermittent extension of the permanent circulation of the south-east
trades to the peninsulas of Southern Asia, and also that variations in the strength,
volume, and direction of movement of the latter affect the extension, volume,
aqueous vapour contents, and precipitation of the south-west monsoon currents in
Burma, India, and Abyssinia. This fact further emphasises the necessity for the
co-ordination and systematisation of the work of observation in the Indo-oceanic
meteorological province and the continuous and systematic examination and dis-
cussion of observations for the whole of that area.

It is, of course, possible that it may be necessary to extend this work to a
larger area than the Indo-oceanic region, For Sir Norman Lockyer and Dr.
Lockyer have shown that similar pressure variations to those of Bombay occur
over a large portion of the Eastern Hemisphere, and variations of opposite
a (similar to those of Cordova) over a considerable part of the Western Hemi-
sphere.

The Indian Meteorological Department, with the sanction of the Government of
India, is now arranging to collect and tabulate data for the whole area between the
Central Asian winter anticyclone and the permanent South Indian Ocean anti-
cyclone, and to utilise the information for the investigation of the causes of the
large and general variations of rainfall in Burma and India from year to year.
This extension of its labour is recognised as necessary for the improvement of the
seasonal forecasts, an important feature of the work of the Department the value
and importance of which are fully recognised by the Government of India.

Possibly the practice of the Indian Meteorological Department in the preparation
and issue of long-period or seasonal forecasts is considered to be not only
unscientific, but not justified by comparison with facts. Professor Cleveland
Abbé, in his paper on ‘The Physical Basis of Long-range Weather Forecasts,’
expresses his opinion that ‘ we are warranted in saying that during the thirteen
years (1888-1900) the only real failure has been that of the prediction of the
monsoon season of 1899, the year of phenomenally great drought in that country.’
This opinion is probably more favourable than I should myself give, but it is the
opinion of an independent meteorologist eminently qualified to give a judgment in
the matter.

My own opinion with respect to weather forecasts is that there appears to be
too strong a desire for absolute accuracy, possibly due to public and newspaper
criticism. Certainty is not possible in weatber forecasts based on imperfect
information, and in which the introduction of a single unknown factor in regions
beyond observation—e.g.,the upper or middle atmosphere—may completely alter the
course of events. Percentages of success are an inadequate measure of the utility
of forecasts. To be of real value as estimates of utility they should be calculated
rather on the information required, and which might be reasonably expected,
than on that actually given.

It appears to me that the striving after perfection in short-period forecasts to
the exclusion of other claims is impeding the extension and progress of meteorology
in other useful directions. It is absolutely essential that officials preparing or
utilising forecasts should recognise that every forecast is based on imperfect
information and experience, and hence that all important forecasts should be

454 REPORT—1904.

expressed as probabilities, and, whenever desirable, an estimate of the value of each
probability be given.

The Government of India desires to have these seasonal forecasts, and has
ordered its Meteorological Department to furnish them. The Government
encourages the work, provides the additional means required by the Department
for its proper performance, and issues the forecasts only to those who will use
them as probabilities for practical guidance. ’

The importance of the work of seasonal forecasting in India may be judged
from the following remarks :—

India is almost exclusively an agricultural country, with a population of
nearly 300 millions. The material prosperity of practically the whole people is
determined by the amount and distribution of the periodic rains. The variations
in the amount and period of the rains are occasionally so great as to produce the
most disastrous results in the staple crops over large areas. In 1899, for example,
the crops failed more or less completely over an area several times the extent of
England.

“There is probably no country where the meteorological problems, of which
these rainfall variations form one feature, are of greater interest or more practical
importance. The daily weather and rainfall reports are studied during the greater
part of the year with the closest attention by the officials, from the Viceroy
downwards.

The Government is hence keenly interested in meteorological observation and
investigation, and is most anxious to improve its meteorological service and utilise
it for practical purposes, of which seasonal forecasting is one of the most
important. To give two examples. A reassuring forecast at a critical period,
followed by its realisation, might be of the greatest value to the agricultural
population of a large province, as well as to the local and Imperial Governments.
Again, a statement or forecast the probability of which was, say, at least 10 to 1
that the rains would fail more or less completely during a season over a large
area might enable the Government to carry out early prudential measures for relief
in the most economical and effective manner with the means at its disposal, The
preparation and issue of seasonal forecasts will hence, I am confident, be in the
future, as in the past, one of the most important duties of the Indian Meteoro-
logical Department.

There are several points in connection with weather forecasting in India
which it is desirable should be borne in mind. ‘The first is that weather in
India is distinguished rather by the massiveness, intensity, and persistence of
abnormal features than by the frequency and rapid succession of important
weather changes. It is chiefly on this account that daily weather forecasts, even
if they could be communicated with the necessary rapidity, are of no value to the
Indian agricultural population. Also, the empirical knowledge of the significance
of the important variations as factors determining or indicating future weather
accumulates much more slowly than in Europe, and it is hence doubly important
that in India the empirical knowledge derived from very limited experience should
be, so far as possible, regulated and controlled by theory and scientific knowledge.
It shonld also be remembered that there are large differences between the
meteorology of tropical and temperate regions, and also between the relation of
crops to weather in India and England. ‘The instincts, habits, beliefs, education
of the body of the people in England and India also differ very widely. Hence
the possibilities of the practical applications of meteorological science in India
cannot be judged from the European standard, and may from that standpoint be
unique.

The possibilities of usefulness of the work of seasonal or long-period forecasting
in India are almost unlimited. To be acceptable and useful to the agricultural
population of areas liable to drought they should be fairly accurate with respect
to the dates of commencement and termination of the periodic rains, their general
character, and the probable occurrence of prolonged breaks likely to be injurious
to the chief food crops. If the forecasts were found to be fairly reliable in these
respects, it is quite certain that the agricultural population would value them and

—— Se

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 455

use them. Indications of a growing belief in the utility and value of this feature
of the work of the Department by the people in different parts of India are not
wanting.

The Government of India have sanctioned large changes in its Meteorological
Department in order to enable it to carry out the extensions of work that recent
experience has shown to be desirable. The Department is kept in touch with
scientific opinion and judgment at home through the Observatories Committee of
the Royal Society. ‘The relations to other scientific departments in India are
maintained by a special committee termed the Board of Scientific Advice. The
scientific staff has been largely increased. The solar physics observatory at
Kodaikanal and the magnetic observatory at Bombay have been placed under the
Meteorological Department with a view to the complete co-ordination of the depart-
ments of scientific investigation for which they are maintained. Observational data
for the whole Indo-oceanic area are now being collected and tabulated with a view to
the early publication of daily and monthly weather reports and charts of that area.

The objects of this last extension have already been indicated. It will afford
the Indian meteorologists the data necessary for the investigation of the extension
and intensity of the more important variations in the meteorology of the whole
region, to correlate the abnormal features in the atmospheric circulation over the
area, and more especially to ascertain the causes of the occasional failure of the
monsoon rains in India. Finally, it will, it is hoped, enable the Department to
collect the information and acquire the additional experience necessary in order to
render the seasonal forecasts more reliable and satisfactory than they have been
during the past six or seven years,

The area to be dealt with (viz., the Indo-oceanic area) is partially covered by
a number of independent meteorological systems, including those of Egypt, East,
Central, and South Africa, Ceylon, Mauritius, the Straits Settlements, and
Australia. Large areas, as, for example, Arabia, Persia, Afghanistan, Thibet, and
the greater number of the islands of the Indian Ocean, are now almost completely
unrepresented.

The departments controlling these systems work independently of each other,
chiefly for local objects, and are in no way officially correlated or affiliated. Their
methods of observation and of discussion and publication of meteorological data
differ largely. It is hence difficult, if not almost impossible, to make satisfactory
comparisons of the data, and trace out for the work of current meteorology the
extension or field of similar variations, their relations to each other, and their
probable influence on the future weather.

The work which should be carried out in order that the investigation of the
meteorology of the Indo-oceanic area might he effective and as complete as possible
includes the following : —

(1) The extension of the field of observation by the establishment of observa-
tories in unrepresented areas, and the systematic collection of marine meteorological
data for the oceanic area.

(2) The collection and tabulation of the data necessary to give an adequate
view of the larger abnormal features of the meteorology of the whole area.

(3) The direction by some authoritative body of the registration, collection,
and tabulation of observations by similar methods in order to furnish strictly
comparable data for discussion.

(4) The preparation of summaries of data required as preliminary to the work
of discussion, and for the information of the officers controlling the work of
observation in the contributory areas. The earliest publication of the data should
be regarded as essential for the use of officers issuing seasonal forecasts.

(5) The scientific discussion of all the larger abnormal features in any consider-
able part of the area and their correlation to corresponding or compensatory
variations in the remainder of the area by a central office furnished with an
adequate staff.

(6) Possibly, sufficient authority on the part of the central office to initiate
special observations required for the elucidation of special features for which there
are no arrangements in the general work of the various systems.

456 REPORT—1904.

The Indian Meteorological Department is making preparations to carry out a
portion of this work ; and will undoubtedly do the best it can single-handed with
its limited means. It cannot do the work fully and as it ought to be done. It
can do nothing which requires authoritative control over the remaining meteoro-
logical systems in the Indo-oceanic field. It is collecting information from those
who are willing to supply it, and will utilise it for its special purposes.

It isevident the work can only be carried out fully by the co-operation of the
various systems subject to limited control by a central office with acknowledged
imperial or general authority behind it. The most important part of the work
from the standpoint of the science of meteorology is the comparison and discussion
of the whole body of observations. The constitution, position, and authority of
the central office is hence of the greatest importance. It is quite certain that
none of the meteorological systems directly concerned can provide such a central
office. If the work is to be carried out fully and systematically it can only be
arranged for in England, and by the English Government assuming the general
direction and control. At the present time a section of the English Meteoro-
logical Office is devoted to the study of oceanic meteorology for the information of
mariners. Another section should be created for the study of imperial meteorology
for the benefit of its dependencies and colonies. I have reason to believe that the
Government of India would contribute its share towards the cost of this extension
of work.

In the preceding remarks are given the chief reasons for an important exten-
sion of work now in progress in the Indian Meteorological Department, an exten-
sion which can only be carried out imperfectly by that Department, but which
could be performed with most valuable scientific results by the co-ordination of
the labours of the weather bureaus concerned, with a central institution or in-
vestigating office in England under Government control,

Perhaps I may be permitted, from my Indian experience, to add some general
remarks bearing on the methods and progress of meteorological inquiry.

In India the collection and publication of accurate current data relating to
rainfall and temperature is required for the information of Government in its
various Departments. The collection and examination of pressure and wind
data by a central office with a view to the issue of storm and flood warnings is
equally necessary. This work may, perhaps, be described as pertaining to
descriptive or economic meteorology.

Economic meteorology, so long as it deals only with actual facts of observa-
tion, is not a science. Forecasts belong to the same department or branch of
meteorology. They may be based on scientific theory and be obtained by
scientific methods or the utilisation of empirical knowledge. The latter method is
probably sufficient for by far the greater part of short-period forecast work, but
the final development of that work and the preparation of long-period forecasts
require the application of exact scientific methods and knowledge. And it is,
perhaps, not too much to say that the extension of the range or period of fore-
casts is a measure of the progress of meteorology as a science. India, by the
simplicity and massiveness of its meteorological changes (and perhaps Australia
and Africa), appears to be best suited for the earliest experiments in this work,

India is, however, poor, not only in material wealth and capital as compared
with England, but also in the appliances and means of scientific investigation,
and hence looks to England for assistance and guidance in scientific matters,
Unfortunately, England lags behind, not only the United States and Germany,
but even behind India, in the important field of scientific meteorological inquiry.
Tt will suffice to give a single illustration of the anomalous and inferior position
which England takes in such matters.

All meteorologists and scientific men generally are agreed that the exploration
of the middle and upper atmosphere by any available means—e.g., kites, balloons,
&c.—is of the utmost importance at the present stage of meteorological inquiry.
The United States, France, and Germany have taken up the work vigorously.
The English Meteorological Office is unable, for want of funds, to share or take
any part in the work. The force of scientific and public opinion is apparently

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 457

powerless to move the English Government to grant an extra five hundred pounds
annually for this work. The English Government, on the other hand, some time
ago suggested that the Indian Meteorological Department should assist. The
Government of India, recognising the importance of the work, has provided the
funds and sanctioned the arrangements necessary in order that its Meteorological
Department may march with the most progressive nations in this investigation.

India has no body of voluntary observers or independent scientific workers
and investigators. Whatever is required to be done to extend practical and
theoretical meteorology can only be effected by the Government Department to
which that work is assigned, with the sanction and at the cost of the Government
—which naturally considers chiefly its practical wants in relation to its limited
resources. It is, from one point of view, a painful if not quite an unexpected
experience to me, on my retirement, to find that the Government of India is,
in its attitude towards meteorological inquiry, more advanced, more liberal
and far-sighted than the English Government, and that England has not yet
taken up seriously the work of scientific meteorological investigation. There are
undoubtedly too many observations and too little serious discussion of observations.
The time has arrived when investigation should go hand in hand with accurate
observation, and should direct and suggest the work of observation, and also that
the sciences directly related to meteorology should be considered concurrently with
it. There are undoubtedly definite relations between certain classes of solar
phenomena and phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. The probability of definite
relations between solar and terrestrial meteorological phenomena is also generally
admitted.

Data for the determination of these relations are being rapidly accumulated,
and numerous problems connected therewith are waiting and ripe for investigation.
They are too large and complex to be undertaken by present English methods,
and can only be attacked by a body of trained investigators under arrangements_
securing the continuity of method and thought requisite for the prolonged
systematic inquiry gradually leading up to their complete solution,

It would hence be desirable to enlarge the scope of the central institution
I have suggested, so as to include in its field of labour the investigation of the
relation between solar and terrestrial meteorvlogy and magnetism, so far as they
can be solved by the comparison of the observations of the British Empire.

The central institution would thus have large and definite fields of work and
most interesting problems for investigation. It would hence contribute towards
the formation of a body of scientific meteorological investigators adequate to the
importance and wants of the empire, and be of the highest educational as well as
scientific value.

My predecessor in this position, Dr. Shaw, the head of the English Meteoro-
logical Office, made some remarks in his Address last year which deserve repe-
tition in connection with this idea. He said: ‘The British Empire stands to gain
more by scientific knowledge, and to lose more by unscientific knowledge, of the
matter than any other country. It should from its position be the most important
agency for promoting the advance of meteorological science—in the first place
because it possesses such admirable varying fields of observation, and in the
second place because with due encouragement British intellect may achieve as
fruitful results in this as in other fields of investigation.’

The establishment of the central institution as suggested above would provide
a remedy for the defects pointed out by Dr. Shaw. The reorganisation of the
English Meteorological Office is, I believe, under consideration. Is it too much
to hope that a strong expression of opinion on the part of the British Assuciation,
and the influence of the learned University at which its present meeting is held,
would induce the English Government to spend an additional 5,000/. or 10,0002.
annually for the promotion of meteorological investigation and the establishment
of a central Imperial institution in London in connection with its Meteorological

Office ?

458 REPORT—1904.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Spectra of Sun-spots.
By the Rev. A. L. Cortiz, S.., F.R.A.S.

The paper contains a reduction of all the observations of sun-spot spectra taken
at Stonyhurst during the years 1883-1901 with a 12-prism spectroscope attached
to either the 8-inch or 15-inch equatorial. A discussion of the observations of
the spectra of ninety sun-spots, observed during the period 1883-1889, appeared in
the ‘Memoirs R.A.S.’ vol. 1, and of twenty-four other spots observed in the
period 1890-1901 in the ‘Monthly Notices R.A.S.’ vol. Ixiii. No. 8. All the
observations have been taken by the same observer, and are not restricted to a few
lines, but on each occasion some particular region of the spectrum between B and
D has been selected for detailed study, after a general view of this part of the
spectrum had been secured for determining the most widened lines. The
earlier observations of the widened lines were catalogued according to Angstrém’s
wave-length numbers, as corrected in the British Association ‘Catalogue of the
Oscillation-frequencies of the Solar Rays’ (1878) ; the later observations according
to Rowland’s numbers. The present catalogue of 346 widened lines between
wave-lengths 5884'03 and 6867°46, which combines all former lists, is based on
Rowland’s numbers, and contains 5486 individual observations.

The chief phenomena in the spectra of sun-spots are, as regards the general
absorption, a want of uniformity of blackness in various regions of the
spectrum sometimes observed, and, as regards the selective line absorption,
the widening of lines, darkening of lines without widening, displacement
of lines, obliteration of lines, extension of the widening through the penum-
bra, reversal of lines, hazy fringes to lines, and spot-bands. The following
tables contain, the one, the mean relative widening of the lines of the chief
elements identified, and the other, a list of the most widened lines. The numbers
for relative widening are estimated in terms of the normal width of the line multi-
plied by the factor 10, and for intensities are taken from Rowland’s Catalogue,
where 1 is a line just clearly visible, and successive zeros indicate increasing
degrees of faintness.

The tables show the importance of faint lines of vanadium and titanium in
the sun-spot spectra (‘ Monthly Notices R.A.S.’ vol. lviii. No. 7). These faint
lines have been always, and at all times of the sun-spot period, among the most
widened lines (loc. cit. vol. xlix. No. 8; vol. lxii. No. 7). The observations
give no evidence of a crossing of the most widened lines at an epoch between sun-
spot maximum and minimum. They show, however, that the iron lines are more
affected in minimum than in maximum spots; no conclusion can be drawn as to
a difference of character and temperature between maximum and minimum spots
from the behaviour of such faint widened lines. The iron lines brightened in the
chromosphere, which are mostly arc lines, are not differently affected in sun-spots
from lines not brightened. The widening of some oxygen lines in sun-spots in
the a band seems to be a real phenomenon, the single hydrogen line (C) is
generally thinned, and almost reversed over spots, and frequently reversed and
distorted in their immediate neighbourhood. If oxygen and hydrogen are present
in sun-spots, water-vapour might be formed over them. Spot-bands sometimes
seen (loc. cit. vol. xlvii. No. 1) are a probable witness to a reduction of tempera-
ture sufficient for the formation of compounds, But the widened lines accredited
to water-vapour occur generally in crowded parts of the spectrum, so that the
widening may be really due to faint solar lines in juxtaposition with them. The
predominance of vanadium and titanium in sun-spots is important in view of
Mr. Fowler’s recent identification of the flutings in Secchi’s third-type stars as
due to titanium or a titanium compound, and Sir Norman Lockyer’s matching of
the lines intensified in the spectrum of Arcturus with lines of the same element.
Professor Hale has also shown that many of the lines in the fourth-type stars
are coincident with lines observed as widened in sun-spots by Mr. Maunder and
myself,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 459

Tapty 1,—Relative Widening of the Lines of each Element.

Total Number of | Mean Relative

Element |S See ee
Lines Observations | Widening = Intensity |
Vanadium wt wt 11 | BSB | 123 000 |
Titanium . . ‘ : 13 | 207 ea 15
Calcium . ; : : 18 | 734 51 6:3
Sodium . > - 7 4 255 51 136
Nickel . . : : 28 566 45 | 2:2
Manganese : ; 4 4 123 38 | 4:3
NE Pan 123 2593 Be | 39
Iron (chromosphere lines) 35 863 3°6 4°6
Oxygen? . ao 15 90 | 6-4 | 1-7
Me ae
Water-vapour. . Py ioe ana | 43 | 08
TaBLE Il.—Lines with the Greatest Mean Widening.
Relative |
Wave-length Origin Spots
| Widening Intensity |
5978-77 Ti / 33 11 | 1 |
99°92 Jia! 23 10 ) 0
6005°77 i Fe 21 9 1
39°95 Vv 42 10 | 0
6126°44 | Ti 15 10 1 |
54°44 Na 16 9 2
60°96 Ca if | { 3
61:50 na of = y resorts
99°40 v 26 14 0
621090 one 12 12 00
43°06 | Vv 45 28 000
61:32 Ti : 29 9 1
74-87 / i” 11 12 00
6306°02 | O 18 16 2
6405-98 / se 10 9 00

2. Lhe Temperature of the Stars. By Sir Norman Lockyer,
K.C.B., FBS.

3. Criteria of Stellar Temperatures. By H. F. Newatt, Fae aks

4, Lhe Short-period Barometric See-saw and its Relation to Rainfall.
By Wiuu1am J. S. Locxysr, .A., Ph.D., ERAS.

The first portion of this paper dealt with the short-period barometric see-saw
which has been found by the author and Sir Norman Lockyer to exist between
two antipodal regions on the earth’s surface. This investigation, which has been
published by the Royal Society,' has already been referred to in detail.

- essence of the second portion may be briefly summarised in the following
words :—

_ The variation of the barometric pressure over India from year to year is the
inverse of that over Cordoba, in South America—that is, when the pressure over

1 Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. 1xx. p. 501, vol. Ixxi. p, 185, and vol. Ixsiii. p. 457.

4.60 REPORT—1904.

India is in excess of the normal for a year or so, that over South America is
deficient or below normal.

A study of this pressure variation for places widely scattered over the earth’s
surface shows that the earth’s surface may be divided into two parts: one part
behaving more or less like India, and the other like Cordoba. A classification of
pressures of these two regions shows that a dividing line may be drawn round the
earth, on the opposite sides of which barometric see-saws take place.

As it seemed possible that the knowledge of this regular barometric see-saw
would render possible forecasts for approaching seasons, its relation to rainfall
was investigated.

Since rainfall, generally speaking, accompanies low pressure, the inverted pressure
curves were compared with the rainfall curves for several stations. The very close
relationship between the rainfall and inverted pressure curves which was thus found
to exist suggested that there was a possibility of forecasting wet and dry years.

The problem becomes more difficult the further the equator is left behind and
the poles approached, but it is thought that when further investigation has been
made the behaviour of the pressure and consequently rainfall variations in these
regions will be more completely known,

5. The Kelation between Solar Physics and Meteorology.
Sy Professor BirkELanp. :

6. Experiments with Kites in the Mediterranean.
By L. TetssereNc DE Bort.

7. The Relation between the Minima and following Maxima of Sun-spots.
By Aurrep ANGot,

Professor Wolfer published some time ago'a revision and continuation of
R, Wolf's table of relative numbers of sun-spots, so we have now, for every month
or year, the mean intensity of sun-spots from 1749 to 1901,

When working at that table in order to verify or find some periodicities I met
with a relation that was not mentioned, so I presume it may be new.

‘When the mean number of sun-spots during a year of minimum is wnder the
average of all the minima, the value of the immediately following maximum is
also under the average, and vice versd.’

This will be apparent from the following table, which gives the relative
numbers of sun-spots (7°) during the years of minimum and the numbers (R) for
the immediately following maxima, arranged according to the decreasing values of
the minima. The numbers in brackets are the corresponding years :—

r R
11 [1766] 106 [1769]
11 [1844] 124 [1848]
10 [1784] 132 [1787]
10 [1755] 86 [1761]
9 [1833] 138 [1837]
7 [1867] 139 [1870]
7 [1775] 154 [1778]
6 [1889] 85 [1893]
tse is Hd
3 [1878] 64 [1883]
2 [1823] 71 = [1830]
0 [1810] 46 [1816]
Average 65 Average 99:2

1 Astronom. Mittheil., No. 93.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 461

With the exception of the fourth line, the first six minima, all above the
average, are followed by maxima above the average, and the last six minima,
under the average, are followed by maxima under the average. It seems even
possible that the unique exceptions in the fourth line are only apparent, for it
concerns the first cycle of observations (1755-1761), and it is not unnatural to
believe that the scale with which the sun-spots were then evaluated was not exactly
the same as it is now.

It would seem also that the interval of time between a minimum and the
following maximum is smaller when the minimum is above the average and larger
in the other case ; but I believe this fact has been already mentioned.

If the relation indicated above holds true, we should be able to forecast one
or two years in advance the general feature of a maximum of sun-spots from
the observation of the preceding minimum. For instance, the last minimum (1902)
has been very small ; it seems probable that the next maximum will be rather late
and under the average.

8. Relation between Pressure, Temperature, and Air Circulation in the
- South Atlantic Ocean. By Commander C. Hepworrtn.

9. On the Ultra-red Absorption Spectrum of Ozone and the Existence of that
Gas in the Atmosphere. By Professor K, Anastrom.

Already in 1861 Tyndall had found that, though oxygen transmits easily
the radiation emitted from bodies of low temperature, this is by no means the
case with its modification, ozone. In spite, however, of the evident importance
of that discovery, it has not yet given rise to a more profound investigation of
the character of this absorption, That question I have tried to solve by examin-
ing the spectrum of ozone from A=0°6 » to A=14 ym" by means of the spectro-
bolograph that I have constructed. The radiation was produced by a Nernst lamp
of 110 volts. The absorption-tube, about 30 cm. in length, whose ends were
closed by plates of rock salt, could be filled by 10 per cent. ozonised quite dry
oxygen.

vDhe result of that investigation is briefly the following :—

In the portion of the spectrum between 0°6—4°6 yp, ozone does not seem to
have any very considerable absorption-band, and as the radiation of the sun only
in that part of the ultra-red spectrum has a greater intensity, it is evident that
with regard to the quantitative absorption of solar radiation the ozone will not be
of any greater importance. But in the following part of the spectrum ozone
has several bands of great intensity, viz. :—

A=48 yp. sh bs : C45 Sar,

A=58p. : c ; : . Weaker.

N==G$ 7a fis 9 : . ; . Uncertain.

A=9'1-10°0 p ‘ : 5 . A very strong and extended band.

It is evident from the position, the intensity, and the extension of these bands that
the radiation from sources of low temperature must be strongly absorbed by
ozone. With the already mentioned absorption-tube I have examined the absorp-
tion of the integral radiation from the Nernst lamp as well as from a black surface
at a temperature of 400°, 200°, and 100° C., and I have found it to be re-
spectively

1°8, 11°1 18°9, and 16°5.

The question arises then: Is ozone really one of the constituents in the atmo-
sphere ?

It is well known that the existence of ozone in the atmosphere—except after
thunderstorms—has been doubted, and the chemical reactions for, determining the
quantity of ozone in the atmosphere are very uncertain, The knowledge of the

P

4.62 REPORT—-1904.

ultra-red spectrum of ozone offers us a means of solving that question. The solar
spectrum below \=4'6 p is certainly of little intensity and intersected by strong
absorption-bands produced by aqueous vapour and carbonic acid ; the solar radia~
tion is, however, perceptible in all that space, and especially about A=4'8 and
9°5 we know of no stronger absorption-bands caused by these gases. I have then,
with the same spectrobolograph that I have used in the investigation of the
absorption-spectrum of ozone at different times, registered the solar spectrum,
and I have found that the band \=4°8 as well as A=9:1—10°0 are present in the
solar spectrum. During the month of March these absorption-bands in the solar
spectrum were of about the same intensity as those I have found by using the
absorption-tube, but in June they were much weaker, and the band \=4'8
scarcely perceptible.
By this I have proved that—

1. Ozone produces a strong absorption in the ultra-red spectrum, where it is
characterised by several bands of great intensity.

2. These bands are also present in the solar spectrum, where their intensity,
however, is subjected to very great variations.

3, Ozone is then present in the atmosphere, and must exercise a strong but
variable absorption on the radiation from the earth.

It is well known that sun-spots and the electrical phenomena in the terrestrial
atmosphere are connected with one another. But it is also probable that these
electrical phenomena are a cause of the production of ozone in the atmosphere,
and consequently the absorption of the earth-atmosphere and the climate must
to a certain degree depend on the sun-spots and vary with these.

It is evident that only continued investigations can teach us how much and in
what manner the quantity of ozone varies in the atmosphere. For the moment I
will here only insist on the importance of these investigations, for which the
spectro-bolometer offers a very convenient method.

10. An Instrument for the Measurement of the Radiation from the Earth.
Ly Professor K. Anastrom.

A question that has hitherto been but too little studied is the radiation from
the earth. It is, however, of the greatest importance, not only as a climato-
logical factor of great interest, but also for our knowledge of the influence of the
atmosphere on the solar radiation. :

Very interesting investigations in order to determine the radiation from th
earth in absolute measures have been made by Pernter, Maurer, and Homén, and
lately by Exner, who has employed for these examinations my pyrheliometer with
electric compensation, but there is no doubt that the screen used in these
researches in order to intercept the radiation from space introduces certain errors,
and that a satisfactory instrument for determinating the radiation from the earth
has not yet been constructed.

It seems, however, that a simple modification of my pyrheliometer witk electric
compensation would lead to a very good result, and the instrument which I have
constructed according to that principle has, during the time in which I have
had the opportunity to test it, proved itself to be a reliable and convenient one.

The modification of the pyrheliometer for that purpose consists only in
exchanging the black strips of manganin for two platinum strips, one black, the
other bright. These strips are placed beside each other in a little frame, Two
thermo-elements are fastened to the back of these strips, and with a galvanometer
it is possible to prove that the temperature of the strips is the same. The appa-
ratus employed by the pyrheliometer are also used here, viz., a galvanic element,
a rheostat to regulate the electric current, and an accurate amperemeter in order
to determine the strength of current for heating the strips.

The frame is fastened at the upper end of a bright metallic cylinder, which
before the beginhhing of the observations is closed by a cover. By exposing the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 4.63

strips to radiation during the night, the black band is cooled more than the
bright one, and in order to restore the equilibrium of the temperature it is necessary
to conduct an electric current of certain intensity through the other.

The two strips being identical, excepting the difference in radiating power of
the upper surfaces, we may easily find the value of the radiation w in question.
The value of the electric current being 7, the resistance of the strips per cm. m, the
width 4, the ratio between the radiating power C,/e, we have :

m % *
NM ce 4186"
1-C,/e
C,/e can be determined very accurately in the laboratory once for all, and the not
quite strict supposition that this quantity is a constant can be of no great
consequence to the result, C,/e being such a little quantity that a variation in it
of 10 per cent. will only introduce an error of 1 per cent, in the results.
This instrument has, as will be easily understood, the same advantages as the
pyrheliometer—that it is independent of the loss of heat through air-currents.
Among the questions which may be studied by means of this instrument I
will mention the following:—(1) The variations of the radiation from the earth
during the night and during the year; (2) the connection between this radiation
and the quantity of humidity, ozone, and carbonic acid contained in the air; (8)
ue connection between the absorption of solar radiation and the radiation from
the earth.

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Law of Error. By Professor F. Y. Epgrwortn, D.C.L.

The approximate expression for the frequency with which different values are
assumed by a quantity that depends on a great number of independently varying
elements is investigated by a new method: corroborating the first and second

approximations, which had already been obtained, and obtaining the third, fourth,
‘and, generally, the ¢‘* approximations. The results are extended to the case in
which the elements fluctuate in several dimensions, and to the case in which the
compound isa function other than linear of the elements, a function capable of
expansion in powers of the elements, which are not neglected.

2. Report on the Theory of Point-groups.—Part IV. By FRANcEs
HaArpbcastLE.—See Reports, p. 20.

3. Motes on Plane Curves. By Harouip Hinton, WA.

The effect of an ordinary multiple point of the X-th order with superlinear
branches of orders 7, s, t,... on the class, deficiency, and number of inflexions
of a curve is the same as the effect of {4k(A—1)—S(r—1)} nodes and 3(7-1)
cusps.

The number of conics through four fixed points touching a curve is 22+):
the harmonic envelopes of any fixed conic 7 and (3+ ) conics passing through
two fixed points on 7 and osculating the curve (or $[4n? + 4nm + m* —4n—10m— 3x]
conics passing through two fixed points on 7 and having double contact with the
curve) are degenerate. The number of conics through two fixed points having

4.64, REPORT—1904.

double contact with a fixed conic and touching the curve is 2(z +m): the number
of conics through a fixed point having double contact with a fixed conic and oscu-
lating the curve is 2(8 + 1), &c.

The intersections of the other circular lines through the intersections of a curve
with the circular lines through any point A (the satellites of A) play an important
part in the theory of curves, especially when A is a focus. For example :—At
bicircular quartics through four fixed points, A, B, C, D, having B as a focus
whose satellite is A, pass through a fifth fixed point and have four-point contain
with the osculating circle at A.

The locus of the vertices of the common self-conjugate triangle of any oscu-
lating conic through two fixed points and of a fixed conic through these two
points is of degree 2(3u+1), class 2(2n+4m+kx), and has 2(11m+3:) inflexions.
This is an extension of the theory of evolutes.

The 7-th positive pedal of a curve is of degree 2(7—1)n+27m, class
rn + (7 +1)m, and has (37 + 1) inflexions, &c., &c. (7 >1). Since the 7-th negative
pedal of a curve is the inverse of the 7-th positive pedal of the inverse curve, we
can readily deduce the properties of negative pedals from those of positive pedals.

4. Note on a Special Homographic Transformation of Screw System
Ly Sir Ropert Bart, LL.D., FBS,

5. The Theory of Vibrations. By Professor V. VOLTERRA.

6. The Stability of the Steady Motion of a Viscous Fluid.
By Professor W. McF, Orr.

7. Note on the Schwarzian Deriwative. By Professor A. C. Dixon, 7.2.8.

8. Note on the Theory of Continuous Groups.
By Professor A. R. Forsyru, L228.

9. Some Observations on Linear Difference Equations.
By Rev. E. W. Barnes.

10. On the Use of Divergent Series in Astronomy. By Z. U. AHMAD.

= ooqr ce

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Recent Improvements in the Diffraction Process of Colour
Photography. By Professor R. W. Woop.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 465

2, On ‘ Reststrahlen’ and the Optical Qualities of Metals.
By Professor H. Rusens.

3. On the Separation of the Finest Spectral Lines. By Dr. O. Lummer.

By the realisation of the black body and the experimental work during recent
years on the black radiation our knowledge of the radiation laws has reached a
certain point of completion. The constant of Kirchhoff’s law is as well known
now for every wave length and every temperature as is necessary for any practical
purpose. Having determined experimentally the laws of black radiation up to
2,500° C., Pringsheim and I are now bringing in the radiation temperature scale
based on these laws. The most important work now seems to me the study of the
radiation from all bodies, especially gases, whether they conform to Kirchhoft’s
law or not. To answer this promising question we must, in my opinion, study
from the beginning the mechanism of gas radiation itself—energy distribution,
These spectra consisting mostly of narrow lines, we must resolve these lines still
further if we would draw conclusions about the existing mechanism.

Led by these considerations, I began to work on the modern apparatus of
high resolution, and I have brought with me the interference spectroscope, which,
based on the interference fringes of a parallel glass plate, 1 worked out with
Dr. Gehrcke; I am, therefore, able to show youits effect on the spectral lines pro-
duced by a mercury-lamp.

In our recent paper, published in the Reports of the German Physical
Reichsanstalt, we gave the general theory of all apparatus of high revolving
power, including the prism spectroscope, the grating, the Michelson echelon
spectroscope, the interference spectroscope of Perot-Faby, and our own.

Since the brilliant discovery of Zeeman we know the importance of apparatus
with high resolution. Therefore, if we go further and put up apparatus of higher
resolution, why should we not observe also the moving posztive electrons, if they
can by any means be excited so as to produce light energy? And if the action of
the electric field on the light is too small to be detected now, perhaps an apparatus
of higher resolution may be able todo so. Be that as it may, only an apparatus
of the highest resolving power can help us to enter into the molecule itself and
give us new pictures of occurrences in the interior of an atom. Only by the aid
of the most complete separation can we find the differences in the spectra of the
so-called ‘homogeneous’ spectral lines, when, for example, we raise the tempera-
ture of aradiant gas, or change the manner of exciting the electrons, using electric
waves of a high or low period.

Working in that direction with our interference spectroscope (demonstrated in
the Cavendish Laboratory) we got some results which seem to us interesting,
in so far as they show that vacuum tubes filled with mercury, hydrogen, sodium,
helium, and argon, excited by Hertzian electric waves, give less well-defined inter-
ference maxima than when excited by the induction coil. Discussing these un-
expected phenomena, we are of the opinion that this loss of sharpness is not a
consequence of the Doppler principle for several reasons; for example, because
the intensity with Hertzian waves as the cause of luminosity is less than with
the induction coil. We incline to believe that the Hertzian waves will enlarge
the number of the many satellites of which, in our opinion, every line consists.
Surely we can conclude that the excitement in a vacuum tube is not the result of
heat, but of electrical occurrences.

In my introduction I pointed out what important consequences this result has,
in so far as we are not allowed to use Kirchhoft’s law for luminous bodies giving
line-spectres, nor to draw conclusions from the brilliancy of these lines as to the
temperature of the luminous gas.

4. Recent Work at the National Physical Laboratory.
By Dr. BR. T. Guazesroox, /.2.5.

1904, HH

466 : REPORT— 1904.

5. An Effect of Electrical Vibrations in an Optically Active Medium.
By Professor W. Vora.

Optically active isotropic bodies, which I propose to call psewdo-isotropic
bodies, differ in their physical symmetry from the ordinary or real isotropic bodies
by opposite directions of rotation being not equivalent. In the case of regular
crystals, which in many respects show themselves to be physically isotropic, this
difference is expressed in the crystalline form; in the case of isotropic bodies the
phenomenon proving the pseudo-isotropic nature is that the right-handed and
left-handed circularly polarised waves are propagated with different velocities.

Compared with the real isotropic, the pseudo-isotropic bodies exhibit a peculiar
property as regards the action of vector fields upon them. In real isotropic media
a field of either polar or axial character always establishes a parallel field of the
same character; for example, an electric force establishes a parallel electric
moment, a magnetic force a parallel magnetic moment. In pseudo-isotropic
media, on the other hand, an avial field can establish a polar field, and vice versa.

These symmetric relations have been put to account, though without a definite
knowledge of that general and fundamental law, in the trials made to deduce
theoretically the laws of optical activity, whereby the components of a polar vector
always were combined additively in the usual differential equations with the
parallel components of an azial vector; for example, with the parallel components
of the curl or of the rotation of this polar vector.

Such procedure has, however, hitherto furnished no results other than the mere
laws of the singular optical phenomena for the deduction of which it was conceived.
But it is still highly probable that the pseudo-isotropic bodies differ physically
from the real isotropic bodies also in other ways than their optical properties.

I wish to speak to-day of an electro-magnetic action in the proper sense of this
term, which is indicated by the equations of the electro-magnetic theory of optical
activity, and with the experimental realisation of which I have busied myself within
the past few months.

The optical equations for the pseudo-isotropic media which I have proposed, and
which Professor Drude also subsequently established, with the help of a special
conception of the motion of electrons, are as follows :

If € be the electric force,
, ,, magnetic force,
v ,, 5, electric polarisation,
yy) » magnetic polarisation,

then, according to Maxwell and Hertz,

RK=c rot H, £= —e rot G,
and I put

K=E+3x, L = 64395

L+ar+ bi +eH=eG,

where 2, U,,...is a system of polar vectors and a, b, c, e are constants individual
to these vectors.

The last formula expresses by the combination of ) and € that, in the pseudo-~
isotropic media, the electric vibrations excite parallel magnetic vibrations.

For deducing by theory an observable electro-magnetic effect the following
problem may be considered :—

Let infinite space be filled with a system of standing plane electric waves, the
wave surface being parallel to the Y / plane and the electric force parallel to the
f axis. In one of the loops of these standing waves let a sphere be cut from some
pseudo-isotropic medium. The diameter being small in comparison with the length
of the waves, the sphere is always in a homogeneous field whose strength varies
periodically.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 467

If the sphere were cut from some 7'ea/ isotropic substance it would under these
conditions send out electric vibrations whose directions lie exclusively in planes
which pass through the f axis—that is, in mertdian planes, and which are con-
nected with magnetic vibrations perpendicular to this plane. But since the sphere
is pseudo-isotropic it also sends out rotational electric vibrations around the 7
axis, perpendicular to the meridian planes, connected with magnetic vibrations 2
the meridian planes.

The presence of these circular electrical vibrations may be experimentally
demonstrated if we surround the sphere with a flat coil of wire, placed in the
equatorial plane and connected with a detector of sufficient sensibility.

For a point of the equator the circular electric force has a comparatively
simple value. Let v be the difference between the indices of refraction for sodium
light of the two circularly polarised waves propagated within the medium, and
« be the ordinary dielectric constant of the medium ; let \ be the wave length in
empty space of the electric vibrations amongst which the sphere is placed, Ts/T
the ratio of the periods of sodium light and of the electric waves employed;
R the radius of the sphere, and Z the amplitude of the existing electric vibrations.
Then, in an allowed approximation, the amplitude T of the circular electric force
is given by
bd. cee K f
a a Ts

Since v as well as T,/T and RjA are small, the coefficient of f is very small,
and observations about the calculated effect may be made only in a qualitative
way. I used a regularly formed piece of quartz, which was allowed with certain
restrictions to be taken as a sphere of a pseudo-isotropic medium, I had Rnearly
4 em., f= 4000 volts, A=100 m. and a coil of 200 turns. In these conditions an
electromotive force of about 10-* volt in the coil was to be suspected. This is a
very weak effort, which can be easily cloaked by other vibrations which affect the
detector ; for instance, by those coming directly from the electric oscillator.

In some cases it was possible to make the disturbing effects very small, and to
observe an electric vibration similar to that suspected; for the most part, however,
the results were doubtful. I shall, therefore, have to lay more stress upon the
interesting indications of theory than upon the results of observation,

Pe=p.

6. Discussion on N-Rays, Opened by Dr. O. Lummrr.

Having been asked by the Committee to open a discussion on the N-rays, I
gave a short account of the experiments which Professor Rubens and I had carried
out on this curious subject. We had worked hard to detect them, but had abso-
lutely failed, both in the direction of photographic effect with the spark and of sub-
jective observation. We made besides photometrical experiments, not previously
carried out, which showed that, observing in the dark a faintly luminous screen
indirectly, with a well-adapted eye, the difference of intensity must be changed
at least 30 per cent. to give a perceptible effect. On the other hand, the change
from direct to indirect vision increases the intensity from one to four and more, due
a i fact that we observe directly with the cones of our retina, indirectly with
the rods.

But also in the case of continued indirect vision, which the N-ray observers
maintain to be necessary, physiological processes go on in the eye which give
great variability of the luminosity of such small phosphorescent screens, one of
which I described under the title of the ‘Heinrich-Phenomenon.’ All our ex-
periments, therefore, confirmed our opinion that all such effects, including the
newest experiments of Jean Becquerel, were to be attributed to physiological
causes.

Mr. Butler Burke, of the Cavendish Laboratory, gave an account of his experi-
ments with a view to obtaining evidence as to the nature of this new, and it might

HH 2

468 REPORT—1904.

almost be said, mysterious radiation. But as to the photography of the action of
N-rays on asmall spark it would appear from Mr. Burke’s results that the effects

obtained by M. Blondlot are due to the influence of the screens employed in

increasing the capacity of the apparatus and thereby diminishing the brightness of
the spark. Mr. Burke had already pointed this out in the course of his correspondence

on the subject in ‘ Nature’ during the last few months. He next summarised the

evidence of direct observation of luminous sources, and stated that in the course

of his experiments he had tried the vision of numerous persons, but that in no

case was there satisfactory evidence of any external action upon the sight. Mr,

Burke then entered into the particulars given in M. Blondlot’s paper on the wave-*
lengths, and emphasised the fact that the arrangements were such that unless the

energy of the N-rays isenormously greater than that of the luminosity from the

same source, it would be absolutely impossible to observe the diffraction fringes,

the energy being reduced to about s,4;5th of the original in the arrangements em-
ployed. He then pointed out that the determinations of the velocity of Rontgen

rays and their polarisation would have to be reconsidered unless it can be shown

that Rontgen rays produce the increased brightness of the spark which the N-rays

were supposed todo,

7. Standards of Wave Length.' By Professor Kayser.

8. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards.
See Reports, p. 30.

9, Exhibition of a Magnetic Alloy containing no Tron.
By R. A. HapFIELD.

SuB-SECTION OF ASTRONOMY ‘AND CosmicAL Puysics.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Report of the Seismological Committee.—See Reports, p. 41.

2, Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of
Kites.—See Reports, p. 17.

3. The Temperature of the Air in Cyclones and Anticyclones, as shown by
Kite-flights at Blue Hill Observatory, U.S.A. By A. LAWRENCE
Rorcu, B.S., A.

This paper gave an account of an investigation of which the preliminary results
were presented to the sub-section last year. The data for fourteen kite-flights, made
at different seasons and in areas of high and low barometric pressure, were combined
with the data previously obtained, and the mean changes of temperature, by stages
of 500 metres (1,600 feet), have been determined up to an altitude of about
12,000 feet. The decrease of temperature with the increase of height is nearly
uniform and is practically the same for both low and high pressures, amounting
to 0°86 Fahr. per 100 metres in the former condition, and 0°88 Fahr. per 100
metres in the latter, or 1° Fahr. per 381 feet and 370 feet respectively. This

1 Published in the Phil. Mag., viii. p. 568 (1904).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 469

relatively slow decrease, as compared with the adiabatic rate, is due to the fre-
quent inversions of temperature occurring at all heights in the free air. Whether
the whole column of air in a cyclone is, on the average, warmer than that in the
anticyclone depends chiefly upon whether its initial temperature at the ground
is higher, as is usually the case when cyclonic conditions prevail in our latitudes.
A more conclusive method of investigation is to plot the temperatures at the same
heights in the free air during several consecutive days, when the barometric pres-
sure and the air-temperature vary at the ground. This appears to have been done
first by H. H. Clayton, meteorologist at Blue Hill, who utilised the daily kite-
flights made there,’ one conclusion being that the maximum air-temperature at all
heights (up to 12,000 feet) nearly coincides with, but slightly precedes the mini-
mum of atmospheric pressure at sea-level, and that the minimum air-temperature
at the different heights apparently occurs when the atmospheric pressure at sea-
level is above normal, but usually some distance in advance of the maximum of
atmospheric pressure there. Mr. Clayton now finds that the air in contact with
mountain summits is colder than is the free air at the same height, which tends to
invalidate the arguments against the convectional theory of cyclone-formation,
based upon mountain observations.

Kite-flights on Blue Hill are generally made once a month upon the days pre-
scribed by the International Committee for Scientific Aeronautics. During 1908
there were fifteen flights, the average of the highest points reached in each flight
being 7,264 feet above sea-level, and the maximum height in any flight 13,970 feet.
During the present year, from January to July inclusive, the nine flights have
given an average height of 8,284 feet and a maximum of 14,660 feet. During
the present summer, the writer hopes, by means of ballons sondes, liberated from
St. Louis, to extend the observations of temperature in the free air to a height
never before attained above the American continent.

4. Problems of Astronomy. By Sir Daviw G11, K.C.B., FBS.

5, Discussion on Units used in Meteorological Measurement.
Opened by Dr. W. N. Suaw, F.2.8.

6. On the Masses of the Stars. By Dr. H. N. Russewn.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—

1. A Correlation between the Electric Conductivity of Air and the
Variation of Barometric Pressure. By JOHN Don, ILA., B.Se.

From their experiments already described in the ‘Annalen der Physik’ and
elsewhere, Professors Elster and Geitel have shown that an insulated electrified
conductor, in free air, undergoes a loss of charge which is to be attributed only in
a small measure to imperfect insulation on the part of the supports. '

The rate of loss was found to vary according to the state of the weather, being
increased by bright sunshine, by winds from hilly districts and by low atmospheric
pressure, while it was diminished by fog and rain and cloud, and by the presence of
dust and soot in the air.

In a contribution to the ‘Archives de Science’ of Geneva, in January 1904

1 See Blue Hill Observatory Bulletins, No. 1, 1899; and No. 1, 1900.

470 REPORT—1904.

these observers describe the results of their investigations with regard to the effect
of the soil upon the loss of electrification in a neighbouring charged conductor.
They had previously been led to the conclusion that the conductivity of the air
is due to the presence of free ions, and the object of their research was to discover
the source from which free ions arose. That they might proceed from the surface
of the ground under suitable conditions there was no reason to doubt.

In the case of certain calcareous soils, the conductivity of the adjoining air
was very remarkable, and, in general, air which had been for a time in immediate
contact with soil acquired increased conductivity.

Partly for the purpose of repeating these experiments, which had attracted
attention abroad, and in part for the purpose of discovering the nature of the rela-
tion between the conductivity of the air and the principal atmospheric phenomena,
a series of daily observations was made on the Kast Coast of Aberdeenshire from
January to May of the present year. A statement of some part of the observa-
tions recorded, together with a description of the instruments employed, has
already been published (‘ Elec. Review,’ March and April 1904).

It was, however, at the conclusion of an extended series of experiments that it
became possible to ascertain whether, and to what extent, correlations existed. It -
is believed that the present series is one of the first that has been made in this
country, while it is probably the largest yet attempted anywhere.

The number of observations is sufficiently great to ensure a tolerably reliable
result from the application of the methods of reckoning correlation. More espe-
cially is this so, because each experiment was checked by two observers, and
repeated if any doubt arose.

During the first five months of the year great variety of weather conditions
was experienced.

The daily experiment consisted in aspirating a measured volume of air over
the leaves of a specially constructed electroscope which had been charged to a
certain potential. Any leakage on the part of the insulators was first measured
and subsequently allowed for.

An illustrated description of the apparatus originally employed, and after-
wards somewhat improved, will be found in the ‘ Elec. Review,’ March 1904.
In the improved form of electroscope the leaves are unequal in size, so that the
heavier one hardly moves when a small charge is imparted. Both leaves are
suspended by the finest and best silk fibres over a diaphragm, which concentrates
the current of aspirated air upon them. ,

Now it was evident as the experiments proceeded that some relation existed
between the height of the barometer and the conductivity of the atmosphere, but
yet on several occasions the electroscope showed insignificant loss of charge, not
only when the pressure was high but also when it was low. Further, in such
cases the barometer was, as arule, steady for a time. To this there were some
exceptions, On the contrary, a greater fall of potential had from time to time
been observed when the barometer was falling than when it was rising, and this
occurred both with high and with low pressures.

Hence it seemed almost likely that the conductivity of the air was dependent
on the variation of barometric pressure. A calculation was accordingly made
(following generally Professor Karl Pearson’s long method), and it resulted in
the discovery of this fact, that the conductivity of the air is increased by a fall of
pressure, and is correlated with daily variations of pressure to the extent of 37:4
per cent.

In the subjoined table the fall of the leaves of the electroscope (which were
charged on the average to a divergence of about 1 cm.) is stated on the horizontal
columns in 100ths of a mm. per tenth of cubic foot of air aspirated.

The rise or fall of the barometer during the day preceding an observation is
stated in twentieths of an inch on the vertical columns.

The mean fall of the leaves for 114 observations was 11:26 hundredths of
amm., and the §.D. for the series 11:73.

The mean variation of pressure for the period was almost exactly zero, and the
S.D. was 4°68,

(BritisH Association, 1904. To face page 470.

— <> 7 Totals
35 36 | 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
| | 1
| | |
| 1
| 2
| 3
0
| | 1
} 5
| 4
| 6 P
9
| 6
| 8
— | _— —
| |
| 15
| | — —<—<$_ |} —__—_ | ——_—_ —— |—
| | ia
| | 8
a edie Ale |, te | | ae ah eae 8
3
cee SS ain] fs i (Sn a) Ve |e eae Ca
—|—|;—-;-|-—- 1 | | | 5
) | | 0
ee NN ey ee Ne ice Pereira aD teen (ncn Men Be oe rae 3
| | 2
| / | 2
| 0
— — — — = —= — pos = — — sd — — at i
| | | 0
} |
Necretletomdl Ole | tee Ric OM NiOcNlee Oyajncoh meter |isO. Poon \acOke Qh Be Totals
Benes. | pera
| Distances of
) ; | Variates
es 28°74 33°74 38°74! from Mean
|

f any) for 3, cub. ft. of sir drawn.

Correlation Table showing Variation of Pressure and Conductivity of Air To Jace paye 470
aie ©) a6 |e «jis “ 26} 7 | 2a, 30 1 a) ss | se | a9] 40] at | az) as | as | a5 | se | a7 | a8 | 49 | 20
1
= = % i. mH \> |e al lie = 1
= z T 4
1 \ 5
= Z : a= = = 1 it
= = = = (5 SS \r = = : | = |e ey 143
i =| - lie = 7 = : = : = Z = Ses : =| iis
= = ~ I = = = - 1
z F E meet | 2 e = =) \s SSNs
z == = : = : = 1
; aja ada lz 1}4 Pa i 2 a}oln ‘ 1 olola 1}Jojo o}1{o}o|o}o]4| ros
‘ Distanoes of
oriate ; Variat
ant sahil paelieml 54) 426] 326) +26) 12 4 ‘ on e74] 974 |1074 1174 12-74 ‘a7 ‘ 2074 4) from Mean
e173 Meus
our rise orf day f Doit is goth mm, fal

ft of alr drawu

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 471,

The greatest rise of the barometer observed for twenty-four hours was ‘65 in.
and the greatest fall -6.

The fall of the leaves was zero on eighteen occasions, while it was as much as
*5 mm. on four days. All the observations here given refer to a negative charge.

2. On the Ionisation of the Atmosphere. By Professor A. ScuustEr, /.2.S.

I have recently described! an instrument which allows us to obtain data for
the measurement of the number of ions formed in unit time in atmospheric air.
A number of observations have now been made which have led to an improve-

ment in the apparatus and given some interesting results. The two data used for
the determination are:

(1) The number of ions, determined as in Ebert’s well-known apparatus; and
(2) The measurement of the rate of recombination of ions.

An improvement has been effected in Ebert’s apparatus by shortening the
length of the tube and the rod, so as to reduce its capacity to about 6:4 electro-
static units. This shortens the time in which an observation can be carried out
from a quarter of an hour to about five minutes, The electroscope in the form
now used by me is placed above the cylinder instead of below, which much lessens
the deposit of dust on the insulating material and thus preserves it.

The leak which always takes place when the apparatus is closed, and which is
partly due to the leak of supports and partly to the continuous ionisation which
takes place in confined air, was observed to be much increased whenever the
apparatus was taken out of doors on a clear day. This effect was ultimately
traced to convection currents in the apparatus, but the manner in which these
currents act has not yet been ascertained. So far as my observations allow me
to judge, they suggest the existence in the air of very slow-moving ions, which
only give up their chatges when they are brought into contact with metallic
conductors.

The observations made on Exmoor, at a height of 1,400 feet, have led to the
conclusion that the state of the air, as regards its power to allow ions to recombine,
varies sometimes with great rapidity, especially near the time of sunset. The air
on Exmoor was found to be very pure, so as to give a slow rate of recombination.
On the other hand, the number of ions in general was rather less than that found
near the level of the sea. Combining these results, I come to the conclusion that
the number of ions found on Exmoor during the time the observations were made
was considerably less than that commonly observed at lower levels.

3. Discussion on the Radio-activity of Ordinary Matter. Opened by
Professor J. J. THomson, /. 2.8.

4, On the Radio-activity of the Hot Springs of Aiau-les-Bains.
By Dr. G. A. Buanc.

_A research concerning the radio-activity of both the thermal waters of Aix-les-
ains was made by me recently. Their temperatures are respectively 47° and
44° Centigrade. They both belong to the sulphur soda class.

_ The fact which I principally wish to point out is the strong ionisation of the
air inside the grotto where one of the springs is situated. Measures by means of
an Elster and Geitel electroscope, surrounded by a wire netting, showed that its
conductivity was about sixty times greater than that of the air outside; 1:75 lit.
water of this same spring gave to 5 lit. air that had been repeatedly bubbled
through it a conductivity rising to over 200 times the normal. The other spring’s

\ Manchester Memoirs vol. xlvisi., No. 12 (£904).

472 REPORT—1904.

water only caused a thirtyfold increase, while that due to ordinary Chambéry tap
water was of only fifteen times the normal value. The maximum of effect was
reached after half an hour's bubbling.

The most active sediments which I could get (being collected only at a certain
distance from the actual source) showed activity comparable to that of the fanghi
of Battaglia and the sediments of Bad Nauheim, tested by Elster and Geitel.

A viscous matter, partly organic, called Barégine, which floats on the water,
showed the strongest activity; it is to be noted that this substance is formed at
the spot where the waters emerge from the rock, and is then carried away by them
as it floats.

A great amount of emanation was obtained by repeatedly drawing air through
some heated sediment; its activity decayed according to an exponential law,
falling to half its value in 3-2 days. The same result was given by emanation
obtained by bubbling air through the waters.

A disc of tinfoil charged at — 600 volts and kept in a metal vessel containing
some 100 gr. sediment showed excited activity, the rate of decay of which has not
yet been precisely determined.

5. Plan of a Combination of Atoms having the Properties of Polonium
or Radium.' By Lord Ketvin, F.R.S.

6. Electrical Insulation in Vacwwm.? By Lord Kevin, F.R.S.
4. Electrical Conductivity of Flames. By Dr. H. A. Witson.

8. The Electrical Properties of Hot Bodies.
By Dr. O. W. Ricuarpson, 1.4.

In every case of steady ionisation by hot bodies which has been examined up
to the present, the quantity of electricity C discharged in unit time is connected
with the temperature @ by the relation C= Aéve'/@, In this formula A and }
are constants which depend on the nature of the body and on the state of its
surface, and are different for positive and negative electricity. The numeric p
also is a constant which does not vary sufficiently from zero to cause the variation
of 4” with 6 to be comparable with that of the exponential term. me

In cases like that of the negative leak from hot metals, where the ionisation
in a good vacuum is a steady function of the temperature alone, a formula of this
type can be deduced thermo-dynamically. The only assumption made in the proof
is that the phenomenon is reversible, z.e., that the ions given off behave like a
vapour, and can be in equilibrium with the metal at a definite pressure. Deduced
in this way the formula for the quantity of negative electricity given off by hot
bodies is found to be Ate-/6. This formula has been verified by the author ®
for the cases of platinum, carbon, and sodium. Wehnelt,* who found that the
negative leak from hot platinum was greatly increased by covering the surface
with the oxides of barium, strontium, and calcium, showed that the same law
held for the discharge from these substances, whilst more recently Owen® has
found a similar relation for the negative leak from a Nernst filament. _

The case of the positive leak from hot substances is essentially different from
that of the negative. Here the current is not a steady function of the tempera-
ture, but decays asymptotically with time at constant temperature. The rate of

) Printed in full in Ppit. Mag., vol. viii. p. 528 (1904).

Printed in full in Phit. Mag., vol. viii. p. 534 (1904).

3 Phil. Trans., A., vol. cci. p. 497. 4 Drude’s Ann., vol. xiv. p. 425.
° Phil, Mag., V1., vol. viii. p. 230,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 473

decay has been found to increase rapidly with the temperature, so that at low
enough temperatures the rate of decay is inappreciable, and the leak appears to be
a definite function of the temperature of the wire. In these cases, where the
amount of the positive leak does not decrease perceptibly during the course of the
experiments, it also is found to obey the above formula, ‘This is found to be the
ease on reducing the observations given by Strutt’ for the positive leak from
silver and copper in air and silver and copper oxide in hydrogen between the
temperature limits of 175° C, and 331°C., and has been fully confirmed by a
large series of numbers obtained by the author in investigating the emissibility
imparted to a platinum wire by the luminous discharge. It also holds for the
numbers given by Wehnelt? for the positive leak from the alkaline earths, and
those given by Owen® for the positive leak from the Nernst filament. Generally
speaking, the numbers given for the positive leak are not so accurate as those for
the negative, owing to the complication caused by the falling off with time; and
as we have no theoretical guidance here, we cannot be certain that in this case
the index p in the formula A6ve—"/6 is equal to one-half.

None of the results for the ionisation from hot bodies appear to be in disagree-
ment with this formula. It holds for all temperatures where the ionisation is a
definite function of the temperature, and its applicability extends over a far wider
range than those cases where it can be shown to hold theoretically. In cases
where the thermodynamic reasoning applies, the quantity 4 has a definite meaning,
and is equal to twice the energy in calories required to set free a gram molecular
weight of the ions from the hot substance. As to its magnitude, 6/2 is always of
the order 10°, and varies from 2°67 x 10* for the positive leak from silver in air
(Strutt, Joc. cit.) to 1°32 x 10° calories for the negative leak from hot platinum
(H. A, Wilson, ‘ Phil. Trans.” A., vol. excvii. p. 415).

It is not without significance that the rate of production of ions by hot
substances is connected with temperature by the same formula as that which
expresses the temperature variation of the velocity constant of almost all known
chemical reactions.

9. The Production of Radio-active Surfaces. By C. E. 8S. PHILuips.

The opacity of radium bromide to its own radiations (and especially to the
X-rays) makes it necessary, in order to get the greatest action from a specimen,
that the material should be spread evenly over a considerable surface. And, in
addition, it has been thought advisable to find some means of distributing the
radium upon a surface capable of ready sterilisation, so that, after its application
for therapeutic purposes, it may be rendered completely innocuous. The following
method has been found to be rapid and effective.

A short length of platinum wire was coated with a layer of radio-active
crystals by dipping it into a concentrated solution of radium bromide, and after
drying over a flame this wire was sealed into a long straight vacuum tube. A
cylinder of thin mica was then slipped into the tube, so that the wire stood axially
within it. Having sealed a second wire (to serve as anode) into the tube, the
apparatus was exhausted, while the radium-coated electrode remained connected
with the negative terminal of an induction coil. The passage of the discharge
deposited in a few moments a fairly uniform radio-active metallic layer upon the
mica. A surface so prepared may be cleansed without diminishing its radio-active
properties by raising it momentarily to a red heat, and appears to be a suitable
means of applying comparatively small quantities of radium for therapeutic or
other uses where a considerable area is required to be radiated.

10. The Kinetic Theory: Determination of the Size of Molecules.
By J. H. Jeans.

Phil, Mag. , VI., vol. iv. p. 98 2 Loe, cit. 8 Loe, cit.

ATA REPORT—1904.

11. Dr. Grindley’s Experiments on Steam in the Light of the Ether-
pressure Theory. By J. MAcFARLANE GRAY.

Newton regarded the pressure of the ether as very great, and sufficient, by its
slope, to account for terrestrial and stellar gravitation. Ether-pressure cannot be
selective ; if it acts upon stars it must also press upon every atom of matter and
be the most important of all natural forces, and the fundamental factor in every
physical phenomenon. Neothermodynamics therefore begins with ether-pressure
as in equilibrium with every other pressure, whether of solids, liquids, or gases.
The play space of every contributory molecule of gas, as its amplitude of vibration
was acquired, from absolute zero temperature—even if in an envelope of constant
volume—must have been obtained by driving back the ether, and, just as external
work is pv, so this internal work is also pv. The translation energy of gas is
13 times its pv; or, the constitutional energy of a gas exclusive of external work is
23 pv. Including the external pv, the total energy from absolute zero is 3} pv, and
the ratio is 1-4. By this reasoning the same ratio must hold good for all gases.

This paper was an examination of Dr. Grindley’s important experiments in the.
light of this ether-pressure theory.

12. On a Volatile Product of the Radium Emanation.
By W. C. D. Wueruay, F.2.S.

Some months ago the writer and his wife found that the excited activity
deposited on solid surfaces by the emanation from pitchblende was partially due to
a substance volatile at ordinary temperatures.

A similar result has now been obtained by the use of the emanation from
radium bromide. On blowing out the emanation from a vessel in which it has
stood, the walls of the vessel will be found to slowly yield a radio-active substance
which diffuses into the air within the vessel.

Experiments are being carried on to determine the rate of radio-active change
of this substance and to investigate its other properties.

Whether this product is identical with that announced by Miss Brooks
(‘ Nature,’ July 21, 1904) remains to be determined.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Propagation of Electric Waves along Spiral Wires, and on an Appli-
ance for Measuring the Length of Waves used in Wireless Telegraphy.'
By J. A. Fuemine, IA., D.Sce., FRS.

This paper was concerned with an experimental and theoretical treatment of the
propagation of electric waves along spiral wires.

The subject has engaged the attention of several physicists. Hertz has
described an experiment in which he established stationary electric waves on a
spiral wire and compared the distance of the nodes with the corresponding dis-
tances when the wire was stretched out straight.

Theoretical treatment has been given by H. C. Pocklington, and G. Siebt has
devised lecture apparatus for exhibiting the propagation of stationary waves on
spiral wires.

The first experiments described by the author were made with a long helix of

1 Printed in full in Phil. Mag., vol. viii. p. 417 .1904). .

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.' AT5

insulated copper wire, wound in one layer on a wooden rod. The helix con-
sisted of 5,000 turns, the length being 200 centimetres. If such a helix is placed
in connection with an oscillating circuit consisting of a condenser or Leyden jar,
a spark gap and a variable inductance, stationary waves could be set up on the
helix by adjusting the inductance in the oscillating circuit. In order to detect
the nodes and antinodes of these stationary oscillations, the author makes use
of a vacuum tube, similar to that used in spectrum analysis, preferably one filled
with the rare gas, Neon, which was kindly supplied to him by Sir William
Ramsay. Rarefied Neon seems to be extremely sensitive to the presence of
variable electric force through it; hence, if such a tube is held perpendicular
to the helix and moved parallel to itself along it, it glows brightly at the
antinodes but not at the nodes. In this manner the internodal distances cau
be measured with considerable accuracy, and the wave-length of the stationary
oscillation measured.

The paper also contained a theoretical analysis of the phenomena leading tu
the conclusion that the velocity with which the wave is propagated along the
spiral is inversely proportional to the square rood of the product of the capacity
and inductance of the helix per unit of length. The author has perfected of late
years methods for measuring very small capacities and inductances, and in the
case of the above-named helix the inductance is equal to 100,000 centimetres
per centimetre, whilst a capacity of the helix is #4 ofa micro-microfarad
(1 micro-microtarad =10~-° microfarad), (

From these data the velocity of propagation of electric waves along the helix
can be shown to be 235,000,000 centimetres per second. This figure is confirmed
in the following manner: The capacity and the inductance in the oscillating circuit
are both measured when the first harmonic oscillation is formed on the helix, and
under those conditions the half wave-length was found to be 140 centimetres,
whilst the frequency in the oscillating circuit, as calculated from the capacity and
inductance, was found to be 0°847 x 10°,

Having, therefore, the wave-length and frequency, we find their product gives
a velocity of 235,000,000 centimetres per second, which agrees with the figure
determined from the constants of the helix.

It was shown that the best form of inductance to be employed in connection
with the oscillating circuit is a square of one turn of wire, and that the employ-
ment of spiral coils leads to errors due to-passage of a dielectric current from coil
to coil. On the above lines an apparatus has been devised by the author for
measuring wave-lengths in connection with Hertzian wave wireless telegraphy.
It is a matter of considerable importance to be able to determine the frequency
and wave-length of the waves sent out by any given transmitting arrangement.

The author calls this instrument a ‘Kummeter.’ It is constructed as follows:
A long ebonite rod is wound over closely with silk-covered wire in one layer,
and this is supported on insulating stands. On this long helix slides a metal
saddle having some layers of tinfoil interposed to make good contact between
the saddle and the helix. This saddle is connected by a flexible wire with the
earth. One end of the helix is furnished with an insulated metal plate, which is
placed in apposition to another metal plate connected to the oscillating circuit of
the transmitter. The process of measuring the wave consists in sliding the saddle
along until a Neon vacuum tube indicates the presence of one node halfway between
the saddle and the plate. When this is the case the distance from saddle to
plate is one wave-length of the stationary wave on the helix.

From the constants of the helix the velocity of the wave along it can be
calculated as above shown, and hence the frequency of the oscillating circuit
becomes known, If this frequency is divided into the velocity of light, reckoned
in feet, it gives the wave-length in feet of the wave radiated from the associated
aérial, provided that the aérial radiating wire has been tuned to be in resonance
with this oscillating circuit.

This instrument also provides the means of measuring small inductances, and
also the frequencies in oscillating circuits, which are much higher than those
which can be determined by photographing the spark,

476 REPORT—1904,

2. Eddy-current Losses in Three-phase Cable-sheaths.+
By M. B. Frexps.

In three-phase electric power distributions the use of three-core lead-sheathed
cables is common practice.

The alternating currents in the cable-cores induce eddy-currents in the sheath.
If the cores have circular cross sections, and the current be evenly distributed
over the section, the calculation of the sheath-loss (with certain reservations) is
easy. Two effects exist which tend toward uneven current distribution in the
cores: (1) the skin-effect, (2) the mutual induction effect of the cores on one
another. Any uneven distribution of current flowing axially is shown to be equi-
valent to a uniform distribution superposed upon an eddy-current distribution
(the eddy-currents flowing axially). The complete problem therefore includes the
eddy-currents induced in the cores as well as in the sheath. The eddy-currents
in the cores are considered under the headings of self-induced eddy-curreuts
(skin-effect) and mutually induced eddy-currents. It is shown that owing to the
manner in which cable-cores are made up in practice (being stranded and twisted)
the calculation of the mutually induced eddy-currents is indeterminate, but if the
stranding and twisting be sufficiently carefully executed these eddy-currents are
negligible. The skin-effect in circular conductors does not materially complicate
the calculation of sheath loss. The mathematical calculation is then given for
three-core cables having cores of circular and segmental cross-sections. In this
calculation the magnetic forces due to the sheath-currents may be, and are,
neglected. It is shown that for different cables having similar cross-sections,
working at the same current density in the cores, and at the same frequency, the
sheath-loss per unit length varies as the sixth power of the diameter, and that
were it desirable, from general considerations, to build large cables, this fact alone
would limit the economical size. An example of a low-tension cable is then
worked out.

The paper concludes by showing that just as the losses due to skin-effect of a
given round conductor can be allowed for by assuming a definite increase of the
specific resistance of the material for a given frequency, so in a three-core cable
the extra loss due both to the skin-effect of the cores and the sheath-currents can
be allowed for by assuming a definite increase of specific resistance of the core
material for a given frequency. The formula for the increase of specific resistance
is derived,

3. Magnetic and Electric Properties of Nickel at High Temperatures.
Ly Professor C. G. Knorr.

4. On the Viscosity of Colloidal Lron Hydrate.
By A. D. Dennine, U.Sc., Ph.D.

Simultaneous measurements of the viscosity of similar solutions were made
(i) by finding the logarithmic decrement of a glass disc swinging in the solution
according to the method described by Grotrian and W. Konig (readings obtained
by mirror, lamp, and scale method), and (ii) by taking time of flow of a fixed
volume through the capillary tube (Hagen-Poisseuille’s transpiration method) of
an Ostwald apparatus.

In order to more conveniently compare the results thus obtained by the two
methods the logarithmic decrement was generally calculated by means of the
O, E. Meyer formula from values of viscosity obtained by method (ii).

The initial values found for the viscosity 7 were, for method (i), yo, = 0'0146;
for method (ii), ni9:= 00144 ; whilst for water 7,, =0:01105,

1 See also Journal Inst. Hlect, Eng , vol, xxxiii. pe 936 (19040

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 4, An”

However, these values, especially for the swinging-disc method, were very con-
siderably altered—

(i) By dialysing the liquid for three or four days: e.g., not dialysed (7.c. by me),
X=0:2018 ; after first dialysis, \=0°2760; after second dialysis, = 0°5162.

(ii) After allowing disc to remain in solution for some time: eg., last-
mentioned value had become = 0:9753 after 2880 minutes,

(iii) By removing disc, washing it with water, and replacing it, caused large
decreases in value: e.g., as much as 63 per cent. was once observed.

(iv) By heating liquid to about 50°C. and allowing it to cool again, caused
increase: eg., X for the once-dialysed liquid became, after two such heatings,
=0°6571 ; whilst for the twice-dialysed, after five such heatings, the author obtained
a value as high as 1'8364, z.c., nine times original value (0:2018).

These results gave some very good ‘ parallel’ ‘ parabolic’ curves.

(v) The influence of the size of the oscillation of disc was very marked with
more viscous solutions: e.g., A=1:3889 for amplitude of 502 scale divisions ;
and = 06020 for one of 42 divisions. These gave a good series of radial curves—z.e.,
the more viscous the liquid the steeper the curves.

(vi) A violent shaking or accidental shaking, or making disc swing through
large arcs, caused large decreases in values of A.

Further, the ‘ zero-position’ (with the more viscous solutions) of the image of
the cross-wires on the scale suffered large displacements to right or left of initial
position accordingly as the disc was set in motion by bringing up the N. or
the S. pole of a magnet to the directing magnet supported above the disc: e.7.,
on one occasion a displacement of as much as 658°5 scale divisions was obtained by
holding second magnet for a few seconds near the directing magnet—this was
with a small disc, when solution was very viscous.

An explanation of these apparently very irregular results is to be found in
Professor Quincke’s ‘ Schaum-zellen’ theory of a colloid, viz., that such a ‘ pseudo-
solution’ really consists of two solutions, A and B (like milk or an emulsion of oil
and water), the one, A, being rich in colloidal substance, heavier and more
viscous than the other, B, and which possess at their common surfaces of separa-
tion a surface-tension, which will vary with the common surface, z.e., with the
formation of the small Quincke Schaumwinde, particles, spheres, &c.

The values found by the transpiration method also showed a gradual increase
during the course of these experiments, but far less strongly emphasised and not
subjected to such irregularities. The flow of the colloidal solution through the
solution in the one direction in the Ostwald apparatus does not favour the forma-
tion of the foam-cells, walls, &c.

5. Magnetic Double Refraction of Colloidal Iron Hydrate,
By A. D. Dennine, I.Sc., Ph.D.

The magnetic double refraction of iron salts has often been looked for, but up
to the present only observed by J. Kerr (‘ Brush Grating Experiments,’ Brit, Assoc.
Report, 1901), and by Qu. Majorana (Rendic. Acc. det Lincei, 1902) and Schmaus
(Ann. d. Physik, 1903), with old specimens of ‘ Bravais’s Iron.’ These experi-
menters found very transient results and give no absolute values for the same.

Having found very remarkable results for the viscosity of the colloidal
Fe(OH), from Merck, it was deemed desirable to examine if solution would show
properties of magnetic double refraction. But although the author made many
(more than eighty) different experiments under various conditions—z.c., after repeated
dialysis, frequent heating and cooling, by varying concentrations and various
magnetic field strengths in differently shaped polarisation tubes—he has only been
able to find traces of such properties.

Only on one occasion have really measurable results with this solution from
Merck been obtained. This was after slowly evaporating a portion until it con-
tained approximately 20 per cent. Fe. Then, by placing a few drops between thin
glass strips on the poles of the electro-magnet, a displacement of the interference

478 ‘ REPORT—1904.

bands of a Babinet’s compensator = 74, wave-length with a field strength (=H)
of 24,300 C.G.S. units was obtained. After 13 hours the displacement had
decreased by 50 per cent.; on the next day no traces of the phenomenon were to
be found.

Much more remunerative results were obtained with a solution of ‘ Bravais’s
Tron’ obtained from a Heidelberg apothecary, e.g., with a solution (¢ = 1:0041)
containing 0:295 per cent. Fe (=e). A displacement (=f) of ¢ A with a field
strength (=H) of 4460C.G.S, units was obtained in a polarisation-tube length

=/)=5:5 centimetres—a value which gave a specific magnetic double refraction
(k) =0'89 x 10-8,
Further, the author was able to confirm Majorana’s results that the phenomenon

obeys the law
B=k Hle.

He found, further, that % decreased with the time: e.g., the last value given
above was 12 per cent. smaller after a lapse of ten days. He could not find that
shape of trough or previous shaking of solution had an influence on the result.

Apparently the Merck ferric hydrate and the Bravais’s iron have not the
same chemical constitution.

Oddly enough, no solution of Fe(OH), that was in the Heidelberg Physics In-
stitute during the course of above experiments showed traces of double refraction,
when subjected to a sudden and quick motion, as previously found by Professor
Quincke (Ann. d. Physik, 1902).

Schmaus’s explanation of the suspension character of the solution is nothing
more than Quincke’s ‘ Schaum-Theorie.’

6. An Experimental Verification of Newton's Second Law.
By W. D. Eacar, M.A.

Teachers of dynamics have recourse to the movements of the heavenly bodies
for supplying the proof of Newton’s Laws; and Galileo’s work is as a rule
neglected. As the average student of dynamics is not an astronomer, modern
scientific methods seem to require something more tangible, and this paper de-
scribes an attempt to supply it. The acceleration is measured by the wave-lengths
traced on a moving trolley by a vibrating steel spring carrying a paint-brush. ‘The
trolley runs down a plane of which the inclination can be varied, and the force
down the plane is measured by the weight which, hanging over a pulley, will just
permit the trolley to run down with uniform speed. The apparatus of the trolley
and steel spring is described by Mr. W. C. Fletcher (Chief Inspector of Secondary
Schools) in the ‘School World’ for May 1904. Mr. Fletcher used the same
force with varying masses, The writer of the paper has adapted the method to

the same mass moving under varying forces.

7. Ona Modification of FitzGerald's Model of the Ether.
By J. BuTLER BURKE.

FitzGerald represented the mechanism of the electro-magnetic field by a
number of parallel wheels connected with india-rubber bands passing round their
circumferences, the wheels rotating round parallel axes.

Thus, if one of the wheels rotates faster than the rest the bands round it
become strained on one side and loosened on the other. This represents the state
of polarisation, the opposite sides being in opposite states.

If the axes are connected by strong springs instead of being fixed to a board,
we have a model of an ether which transmits the ordinary electro-magnetic dis-
placements, and at the same time behaves as an elastic solid, thereby transmitting
longitudinal and another class of distortional waves. Such an ether, which would
be slightly compressible, would, although approximately satisfying Maxwell's equa-
tions, at the same time propagate longitudinal waves. These waves, if they exist

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 479

throughout all space, would give rise to gravitational foree between bodies
varying inversely as the square of the distance, and, if of sufficiently high fre-
quency, much higher than the Réntgen rays, the absorption would be proportional
to the mass, and so also would be the pressure.

The velocity of propagation would be very much greater than that of light,
and this would therefore not be open to Laplace’s objection that gravitation,
if it were propagated at the same speed as light, would give rise to planetary
disturbances which could easily be detected.

The frequency would have to be very great, so that the law of force should be
that of the inverse square for small bodies. It seems therefore in accordance
with this theory that the wave-length is comparable with the molecular dimensions
when the law of attraction no longer follows the inverse square law. It is note-
worthy that the hydrogen molecules repel when those of other gases attract. Thus
the longitudinal wave-length would appear to be comparable with the dimension
of the hydrogen molecule. The repulsion is due to the pressure of the scattered
radiation. Similarly with electrons. But although two hydrogen atoms or any
two molecules of that order of magnitude may repel each other, and also two
electrons, yet a large molecule will attract a very much smaller one, so that a
molecule the dimensions of hydrogen atoms will attract an electron because of the
sereening action of the larger molecules on the smaller. This appears to be in
accordance with electrostatic attraction of unlike charges and repulsion of like
ones. Thus the theory is promising in many ways, and is being developed further.

8. On the Electric and Thermic Conductivities of certain Alloys of Iron.
By Professor W. F. Barrett, F.2.S., and R. A. HApriexp.

9. On a New Apparatus for producing Magnetic Fields of Force.
By Professor Marcus Harrtoe.

From a square base-plate of cast iron arise four brass columns with a screw-
thread on their upper ends to take large flat nuts, which support a wooden plate
with circular perforations at regular intervals. On the iron plate rest the electro-
magnets (5), each consisting of a cylindrical coil (c) with both terminals below, and
a cylindrical soft iron core which projects through a hole in the wooden plate. A
source of direct current, an amperemeter, a rheostat, and a mercury commutator (e)
(to allow of the ready alteration of the direction of the current in the individual
coils), complete the apparatus. The material I employ is magnetite (mineral
Fe,0,), finely powdered and levigated, or iron filings levigated in alcohol; this
powder may be shaken on paper or suspended in glycerine, balsam dissolved or
melted, or liquefied gelatine. As a rule a thin layer of the mixture is sufficient,
spread on a glass or china plate giving an axial section of the field. I have with this
apparatus produced several interesting variants of the classical figures of the
magnetic field obtained by the agitation of paper strewn with iron filings.

Sus-Section or AstRoNoMy AND CosmicaL Puysics.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatery.
See Reports, p. 29.

2. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—See Reports, p. 55.

4.80 REPORT—1904.

3. Some Results with the Solar Physics Observatory Photo-Spectro-Helio-
graph. By Wii1u1amM J. 8. Lockyer, M.A,, Ph.D., PRAS.,

This paper contained a description of the spectro-heliograph and the results
which have been produced with it.

The complete instrument for taking photographs of the sun in monochromatic
light consists of three parts: a siderostat, a lens for throwing the solar image on
the primary slit, and the spectro-heliograph,

The first carries a plane mirror of 18 inches in diameter and has electric slow
motions which are operated at the spectro-heliograph. The lens, a Taylor photo-
visual, has an aperture of 12 inches and a focal length of 18 feet. The spectro-
heliograph moves horizontally in a direction at right angles to the incident beam
on the primary slit. It consists of one triangular frame moving on another
triangular frame, the former rolling on three balls supported by the latter. This
movement is operated by a falling weight, and controlled by a piston moving in an
oil chamber. On the movable frame is fixed a double tube, at the extremities of
which are fixed the two 4-inch Taylor photo-visual lenses and the two slits. The
spectrum is formed in the plane of the secondary slit by means of a 6-inch plane
mirror and a 6-inch prism of 45° angle. Nearly in contact with the secondary
slit, but independent of its motion, is placed the plate-carrier. The diameter of
the solar image on the primary slit is 23 inches, and this is also the size of the
monochromatic image at the secondary slit. The dispersion is such that the
length of spectrum from F—K is 1°62 inches.

The secondary slit is so adjustable that the ‘K’ line of calcium can be com-
pletely isolated, and this slit is also so curved that the line can be isolated through-
out its whole length.

Up to the present time the ‘K’ line has alone been utilised, and, whenever
possible, photographs have been secured of the ‘ K’ radiations on the disc and those
round it. In the case of the former, with a summer sun and untarnished mirrors,
good pictures can be secured in 15 seconds, but this time has to be considerably
prolonged during the other months of the year.

In the case of the ‘K’ radiations round the disc, or the prominences, under
similar weather conditions, 15 minutes is required for a full exposure. These
pictures are obtained by placing in front of the primary slit a metal disc equal in
diameter to the solar image.

The photographs exhibited showed numerous pictures of the disc taken during
May, June, and July of the present year, all of which showed fine detail and
surface mottling. Several composite photographs, that is, pictures showing the
solar disc and limb photographed on the same plate but consecutively, were also
exhibited.

Attention was also drawn to the very rapid changes which the prominences
on the limb underwent in comparatively short intervals of time. Thus, on July 14
a prominence in the north-west quadrant of the sun in an interval of one hour
changed from 160,000 miles in length to 96,000 miles, while its height increased
from 50,000 to 60,000 miles in the same time.

Another instance occurred on July 19, when an enormous prominence, 192,000
miles in length, grew to 216,000 miles in five hours, At the same time its height
changed from 55,000 to 60,000 miles.

At the present time the instrument is being employed to obtain, as far as is
possible, a daily record of the ‘K’ radiation on the disc and the prominences on the
limb; but it is hoped, as soon as a sufficiently large grating can be secured, to
investigate the distribution of other substances.

4, On the Unsymmetrical Distribution of Rainfall about the Path of a
Barometric Depression. By Hueu Rosert Mitt, D.Se.

Heavy rains are usually divisible into those accompanying thunderstorms and
those accompanying ordinary cyclonic disturbances. In ten cases of the latter

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 481

type occurring in the British Isles, maps were prepared on which the areas
receiving a rainfall exceeding half an inch, one inch, two inches, &c., were laid
down from the daily observations of observers reporting to ‘ British Rainfall.’ The
path of the associated cyclone was inserted from the Monthly Summary o’ the
‘ Weekly Weather Report.’ ‘ Z ;

In nine of these cases it was found that, irrespective of the direction in which
the cyclone travelled, the area of heavy rainfall (exceeding one inch in twenty-four
hours) lay almost entirely on the left of the path, and that the wet area was in
advance of the centre. The tenth case was one of nearly symmetrical distribution
about the path.

The relationship cannot be accidental, and suggests both theoretical and
practical considerations of great interest, according with the views of the circula-
tion of air in a cyclone recently put forward by Dr. W. N. Shaw, and suggesting
a more definite basis for forecasting heavy rains.

It must of course be remembered that all cyclones of equal depth of depression
and rate of progressive movement are not rain-bearing to the same extent. The
cyclone of February 27, 1903, which produced most disastrous damage by wind,
brought little rain. The somewhat similar depression of September 10, 1903,
remembered as occurring during the meeting of the British Association at
Southport, brought a widespread rainfall, but no very serious wind.

The remarkable rainfall of June 13, 14, and 15, 1903, between Cambridge
and the Thames Valley, when one inch or more per day fell on three consecutive
days, was associated with a depression which followed an elliptical path with the
wettest area always on its left, a very unusual course, producing an unprecedented
rainfall in a comparatively dry area.

5, The Application to Meteorology of the Theory of Correlation.
Ly Miss F. E. Cave.

During the last few years the methods of the theory of correlation have been
applied to the records of barometric observations taken during the years 1879 to
1898 at various stations on each side of the Atlantic. The correlations between
Wilmington (North Carolina) and Halifax (Nova Scotia), two stations about a
thousand miles apart, have been calculated, different intervals being allowed
between the corresponding observations. The magnitude of the correlation varies
with the interval, being greatest when Halifax is taken one day later than
Wilmington. This seems to indicate a drift of barometric conditions northwards
and eastwards ; and the satisfactory results obtained in this case encourage the writer
to hope that the application of similar methods to readings taken at stations on
opposite sides -of the Atlantic, a longer interval being allowed, may lead to the
discovery of correlations sufficiently large to be of use in the practical work of
prediction.

It has also been found that the correlation between simultaneous barometric
heights at two stations lying north and south of each other, at a sufficient distance
apart, may be a negative quantity of considerable magnitude, and that the correla-
tion varies with the distance in a manner which deserves further investigation.

The application to meteorology of the theory of correlation may be of import-
ance, both for prediction and also in leading up to fuller knowledge of the laws of
the atmosphere, by supplying more detailed information than is otherwise obtain-
able as to the connection between different stations as regards either the barometric
heights there or any other of the quantities with which meteorology deals,

6. The Development of the Aeroplane. By Major B. Bapren-Powstt.

The day is undoubtedly drawing near when we shall be utilising the highway of
the air for travel, and it is now becoming an interesting question as to what form
the motor car of the skies is to take, , ‘

1904, It

482 REPORT—1904.

During the last few years much has been done in the construction of navigable
balloons, but only proving, in my opinion, how insuperable are the difficulties of
attaining really practical results. The aeroplane, which may be defined as a plane
surface propelled through the air at a small horizontal inclination, so that the
resulting pressure of the air supports it against the action of gravity, gives promise
of far better results. Wings, vertical-acting screws, and aeroplanes proper all
come under this definition. The action of the air on an inclined surface requires
more study, as theory and practice in this matter are at considerable variance.

With small models, as shown, a vertically lifting screw can, despite theory,
lift as great a weight into the air asa horizontally propelled plane. I have been
making a number of experiments in this line, as well as with man-carrying
aeroplanes driven by the impetus gained by sliding down an inclined plane. The
latter haye been chiefly to get at an idea of the strength required in the different
parts of construction, and to test the balance of the machine. But results in all
these lines tend to show that a great amount of careful experiment is necessary
before we can hope for good results, though the prospects are decidedly hopeful.

7. Plato’s Theory of the Planets.
By Professor D’Arcy W. Tuompson, C.B.

8. Report on Underground Temperature.—See Reports, p. 51.

9. Zur Flugfrage. By Dr. F. Hirret,

10. Upper Air-currents and their Relation to the Audibility of Sound.
By Rev. J. M. Bacon,

Investigations carried out during a long series of balloon ascents have revealed
a very remarkable complexity in the upper air-currents which, from their nature,
would escape the notice of the observer on earth. A number of light bodies, of
varying sizes and differently constituted, have been prepared and allowed to float
away into space at different heights and under different circumstances ; and these,
carefully watched, have shown the existence of minor but headlong currents, hold-
ing determined courses frequently at variance with that of the balloon, It has
been proved that dominant but diverse air-streams will glide one above another in
juxtaposition without commingling, and that upper currents maintaining the same
level will occasionally alter their course, presumably in obedience to some con-
figuration of the earth below; while, at all heights, ascending or descending air-
streams, greater or lesser, will obtrude themselves in a way which is often wholly
unaccountable,

Ina manner equally capricious, and apparently dependent on the above, sounds
conveyed through the upper air will be carried sometimes to abnormal distances in
directions at variance with the ground current, being borne to earth over far but
favoured plots of ground, while they may pass unheard over districts which might
be considered well within sound range. These results, which have been obtained
largely by organised observation of the hearing of aerial bombs, will presumably
account for the occasional surprisingly far travel of sound signals; or, again, their
failure at short ranges.

1l. On the Effect of Electric Avr-currents.
By Professor Srtim Lemstr6m.

The author, after referring to suggested explanations of the magnetic and electrical
conditions of the earth, draws attention to the fact established by Wijkander that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 483

the sign of the variations of magnetic declination changes on passing from one
side to the other of the ‘belt of polar light,’ that is, of the belt of maximum
frequency of displays of the aurora borealis. He regards this fact as proving that
the aurora is caused by vertical (or nearly vertical) electric discharges in the
atmosphere above the belt of auroras, In connection with this he mentions that
during the Finnish International Polar Expedition to Sodankyla and Kultala,
real auroral beams, showing in the spectroscope the characteristic auroral line
X= 5569, were produced on mountain-tops in Finnish Lapland ‘by means of a
simple point apparatus conducted to the earth.’ On not fewer than sixteen occasions
the same ray was observed in all directions when there was no visible aurora, and
it was found that the air itself radiated the light producing this ray.

The author goes on to state that during several expeditions to the Polar
regions he had observed the rich development of vegetation during the short
summer, an observation which had also been made by others. In consequence of
experiments made subsequently, he was led to attribute this luxuriance of
vegetation to the electric air-currents prevalent in the auroral belt. The experi-
ments referred to were performed by means of a network of wire furnished with
points and supported on insulating poles above the ground. This was connected
with the positive pole of a modified form of Wimshurst electrical machine, the
negative pole of which was connected with the earth. The author finds that the
electric air-currents brought about in this way will produce, if duly applied, such
effects as the following :—

1, An increased growth of all plants, amounting in an ordinary good field to
about 40 per cent.

2. A change in the chemical composition of grain and roots resulting in an
augmentation of the protein and albumenoid matter in rye of about 20 per
cent., in barley of about 12 oe cent., and of about 9 per cent. in oats, and causing
an increase in the amount of sugar in sugar-beets of from_13 to 18 per cent.

The author has no doubt that similar changes would take place in all sorts of
plants under the like conditions, and he commends the matter (further details of
which he has given in a small book entitled ‘ Electricity in Agriculture and Horti-
culture,’ published by the ‘ Electrician ’ Publishing Company, London, 1904) to the
attention of those who may have the opportunity of experimenting further
upon it,

12. The Rainfall of the Midland and Eastern Counties of England.
By Joun Hopkinson, Vice-Pres. R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.L£.

This paper concludes the series on the rainfall of the English counties, and
contains an account of the rainfall of Shropshire, Stafford, Warwick, Leicester
and Rutland, Northampton, Huntingdon, Bedford, Cambridge, Norfolk, and
Suffolk. These counties comprise an area of 10,626 square miles, which is rather
more than one-fifth that of England, and between one-eleventh and one-twelfth
that of the British Isles. The mean monthly rainfall for the ten years 1881 to
1890 at 52 stations in these counties has been computed, and the mean annual
rainfall at 106 stations, being one to the nearest 100 square miles in each county.
Rutland is included with Leicester on account of its small area, 149 square miles;
and of the ten stations allotted to the two counties, Leicester, with 806 square
miles, has eight, and Rutland two. Norfolk is much the largest of these counties,
having an area of 2,026 square miles, its annual rainfall, therefore, being computed
from the records of 20 stations.

The annual means at the 106 stations are:—Shropshire (13 stations),
30°36 inches ; Stafford (12 stations), 28-98 inches; Warwick (8 stations), 26-64,
inches ; Leicester and Rutland (10 stations), 26°62 inches; Northampton (10 sta-
tions, 25°81 inches; Huntingdon (4 stations), 23°39 inches; Bedford (5 stations),
22'59 inches; Cambridge (8 stations), 22:90 inches; Norfolk (20 stations),
25:44 inches; and Suffolk (15 stations), 24:76 inches; the mean rainfall for the
whole area being 26:29 inches.

During the ten years 1881 to 1890 the rainfall in this part of England was

112

484, REPORT—1904.

rather less than that for the twenty-five years ending 1890 and that for the thirty
years ending 1895, Twenty stations give a mean for the ten years 1881-90 of
25:99 inches, for the twenty-five years 1866-90 of 26:96 inches, and for the thirty
years 1866-95 of 26-58 inches, the excess in this latter period thus being 0°59 inch,
or about 2} per cent., over the mean fall at the same stations for the ten years
1881-90. The true mean for the 106 stations for the thirty years would, therefore,
probably be a little under 27 inches.

The mean fall for the thirty years at the 20 stations in five-yearly periods
was as follows :—For the first lustrum, 1866-70, 25:25 inches; for the second,
1871-75, 27-45 inches ; for the third, 1876-80, 30:11 inches; for the fourth,
1881-85, 27'79.inches; for the fifth, 1886-90, 24:19 inches; and for the sixth,
1891-95, 24°68 inches.

The monthly and annual means for each county and for the whole area at the
52 stations are as follows :—

Mean Rainfall in the Midland Counties of England, 1881-90.

|

coll s 4,
« 8 q 2 o
va os & nm s wn FI m eI ae 3 n a n nD
| = f= n — . -
(B83 /28|/28/68| 8 | 28 | 8 | 28 | 48 | 48 | 38
— |83/83/23/28| Bs | Be | ES | Se | 22 | 2 | 83
| or o+ Es ue s+ ae ov Ses) 5a ers =e
| on |} en | Em | on an # Sn | Ba y Zn aR
ge | So] So )/gr] aa en Ba gx Ss 2 x
n = 3 I =} RR a
3 z fq o
J 4
Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. Ins Ins. Ins. Ins Ins. Ins. Tas.
January . | 2°68 | 2°15 | 2°03 | 1°89 1:94 131 1°47 1°41 1°72 158 1°89
February 2°07 | 1:76 | 1:80 | 1°78 1:88 1:26 1:37 1:33 157 147 1°68
March 2°09 | 2°06 | 1:77 | 1°85 1-73 1:29 1°47 | 1°43 1:72 161 1:78
April 2°04 | 1°88 | 1°87 | 2°00 1:76 1°84 E7T + |e 1463 1°55 1:49 1-76
May 2°63 | 2°32 | 2°27 | 2:28 2°10 207 1:97 191 1°76 171 2°10
June 2°42 | 2°50 | 2°22] 2:00 1°84 177 1°94 1:94 1:73 1°62 2°03
July | 268 | 2°65 | 2°77 | 2°61 3°02 3°12 2°50 2°63 2°72 2°60 2-70
August . | 2°84 | 2°73 | 2°37 | 2°56 1:94 2°13 1:93 2°02 2°19 1:95 2°34
September . 2°45 | 2°59 | 2°34 | 2°29 2°28 2 52 2°06 2°27 2°66 2°64 2°46
October . 3-21 | 2°90 | 2°73 | 2°93 2°61 2°52 2°30 2°58 3°26 314 2°94
November .| 3°46 | 2°93 | 2°90 | 2°57 2°66 2°21 2°22 2°23 2°62 2°56 271
December . | 2°47 | 2°34 | 2°00 | 2°07 -1:90 154 1°64 171 211 1:99 2°08
Year... | 31°04 | 28°81 | 27°07 | 26°83 | 25°66 23°58 22°58 22°98 25°67 24°36 26°47

The rainfall in these counties follows the general rule of increase from east to
west, except near the sea-coast on the east. Dividing the counties into three
groups—west, midland, and east—34 stations for the western group, Shropshire,
Stafford, and Warwick, give an annual mean of 28°88 inches; 37 stations for the
middle group, Leicester, Rutland, Northampton, Huntingdon, Bedford, and Cam-
bridge, give an annual mean of 24°73 inches; and 35 stations for the eastern
group, Norfolk and Suffolk, give an annual mean of 25°15 inches. In the first
group the driest months are: February, mean 1:88 inch ; March, mean 1-97 inch;
and April, mean 1:93 inch. In the second group the driest months are: January,
mean 1:60 inch; February, mean 1°52 inch; and March, mean 1°55 inch; and in
the third group the driest months are February and April, each with a mean fall
of 1°52 inch, while January and March are nearly as dry, the former having a
mean fall of 1-65 inch and the latter of 1:66 inch. In the first group the wettest
months are October, mean 2°95 inches, and November, mean 3:10 inches; in the
second group the wettest months are July, mean 2°78 inches, and October, mean
2-59 inches; and in the third group the wettest month is October, mean 3:20
inches, July following with 2°66 inches, September with 2°65 inches, and
November with 2:59 inches.

Huntingdon, Bedford, and Cambridge are the driest counties, except in April,
when Suffolk is the driest, Norfolk drier than Huntingdon and Bedford, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 485

Northampton drier than Huntingdon; in May, when Norfolk and Suffolk are the
driest; in June, when Suffolk is the driest and Norfolk and Northampton are
drier than Bedford and Cambridge ; in July, when several counties are drier than
Huntingdon, and Suffolk and Leicester drier than Cambridge; in August, when
Northampton and Suffolk are drier than Huntingdon and Cambridge; and in
September, when Northampton is drier than Huntingdon.

Shropshire is the wettest county, except in June, when Stafford is the wettest,
and in July and September, when several counties are wetter.

Particulars of the stations, with the mean and extreme annual rainfall at each,
are given with the complete paper, and also a map showing the position of the
stations and their height above mean sea-level.

13. The Rainfall of England, 1861-1900.
By Joun Horxinson, Vice-Pres. R.Met.Soc., Assoc. Inst.C.L.

The rainfall of the English counties has been dealt with in a series of
papers read before the Association, each treating of a group of counties: the
South-Western at the Bristol meeting in 1898, the South-Eastern at the Dover
meeting in 1899, the Northern at the Bradford meeting in 1900, and the Midland
at the present meeting. It now remains to summarise the general results and to
extend the period, so far as annual rainfall is concerned, to the end of the nine-
teenth century.

The following table gives the monthly rainfall of each group of counties and
of the whole of England for the ten years 1881-1890 :—

Taste I.—Mean Monthly Rainfall in England, 1881-90. (288 Stations.)

| | | ] | ] )
Counties | Jan, Feb. Mar. | Apr. May | June) July | Aug. Sept. | Oct. Nov.| Dec. |
| | | | |
me. | |
Ins. | Ins. | Ins Ins. Ins. | Ins. | Ins.» | Ins. | Ins. Ins. | Ins. | Ins. |
Northern, . . 3804 | 2°32 | 2°82 | 2:15 | 2°50 | 2:27 | 3°60 3°19 | 3°14 | 3°72 | 3°72 | 3:09
Midland A . | 189 | 168 |.1°78 | 1:76 | 2°10 | 2°03 | 2°70 | 3:34 | 2°46 | 2:94 | 271 | 2°08
South-Eastern «| 214 | 1:91 | 184 | 1:77 | 1:97 | 1°86 | 2°50 | 2:07 | 2°37 | 297 | 3:06 | 2°24
South-Western . 3°06 | 2°63 | 2°49 | 2°30 | 2°31 | 2°33 | 3°12 | 2°66 | 2°88 | 3°59 | 410° | 3:32
ere oan Wess aaa
England . | 262 | 218 | 2°31 | 203 | 225 | a14 | 3:05 | 2-63 | 277 | 3:37 | 347 | 276

It will be seen that the Northern and South-Western counties have muck
more rain throughout the year than the Midland and South-Hastern. In each
month from January to July the Northern and South-Western counties alternate
in being the wettest; from July to October the Northern are the wettest; and in
November and December the South-Western. From January to April the
Midland counties are the driest; from May to September the South-Kastern are
the driest ; and from October to December the Midland. In spring and summer
the Northern counties are wetter than the South-Western ; in autumn and winter
there is very little difference between them. In summer the South-Eastern
counties are drier than the Midland; in winter the Midland are drier than the
South-Eastern ; in spring and autumn they are about the same. io

These results are from the records of 288 stations, and the annual means are:
Northern counties (94 stations), 35°56 inches ; Midland (52), 26°47 inches ; South-
Eastern (70), 26°72 inches ; South-Western (72), 34°79 inches. The annual means
computed for 502 stations, one station to every 100 square miles in each county,
for the same period, are: Northern counties (184 stations), 36°16 inches; MidJand
(106), 26:29 inches ; South-Eastern (99), 26-80 inches; South-Western (113), 34:08
inches. The mean fall for the whole of England, computed for the 288 stations, is
31:59 inches, and for the 502 stations 31:76 inches. These results are sufficiently

486 REPORT-—1904.

close to show that the stations from which the monthly means are deduced are
fairly representative.

Although 502 stations may be a sufficient number from which to compute the
rainfall of England for a given period, a much longer period than ten years is
required for an estimate of the true average to be arrived at. For this the
shortest period which can be taken is thirty years, and forty years give a more
satisfactory result. But when we come to work at this period the difficulty
arises that the number of consecutive records is inadequate. This difficulty may
to some extent be overcome by computing the probable rainfall for the larger
number of stations from that at the smaller number for a long period.

The following table gives the rainfall in 5-yearly periods from 1861 to 1900
at 50 stations, 18 being in the Northern counties, 11 in the Midland, 10 in the
South-Eastern, and 11 in the South-Western :—

Taste Il.—Mean Annual Rainfall in England, 1861-1900. (50 Stations.)

i}

Counties 1861-65 |1866-70 |1871-75 | 1876-80 | 1881-85 | 1886-90 | 1891-95 | 1896-1900 | 1861-1900

Tns. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Tos. Ins. Ins, Ins.
Northern . .]| 34°43 37°13 37°75 38°92 38°22 33°34 34:98 35°68 36°31
Midland . : 22°40 24:07 26°90 29°35 27°04 23°79 23°82 22°62 24:99
South-Eastern . 25°85 27°80 28°39 31°62 27°60 25°80 27°45 27°72 25°03
South-Western . 31°23 33°65 37°57 38°75 35°46 30°55 31°86 3155 33°83

as ae

England . «| 29°36 31°63 33°45 35°51 33°03 29°14 30°32 29:91 3154

The mean rainfall at the 50 stations for the ten years 1881 -90 being 31:08 inches,
and for the forty years 1861-1900, 31:54 inches, and the mean rainfall at the 502
stations for the ten years 1881-90 being 31-76 inches, it follows by proportion that
the mean for the forty years for the 502 stations would be 32:23 inches, or there-
abouts.

Other periods may also be taken, and the following table gives the results of
comparison with the ten years 1881-90 of the mean rainfall at 16 stations for
sixty years, at 50 for forty years, and at 100 for twenty-five years :—

Taste I1I.—Mean Annual Rainfall in England for Various Periods compared
with 1881-90.

16 Stations 50 Stations 100 Stations 502 Stations
Counties o_o OO |
No. 1841-1900 | 1881-90 | No.) 1861-1900 | 1881-90 | No.| 1866-90 | 1881-90 | No.| 1881-90

Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins, Ins.

Northern . 36°45 36°68 | 18 36°31 35°78 40| 39°80 38°54 | 184] 36°16

6
Midland . -| 3 25°51 25°96 | 11 24:99 25°91 | 20| 26°96 25°99 | 106} 26°29
South-Eastern . | 3 29°08 2820 | 10 25°03 26°70 | 20} 27°79 26°19 | 99] 26°80
South-Western. | 4 37°53 36°08 | 11 33°83 33°00 | 20) 37°66 35°86 | 113) 34°08

England . - | 16 33°21 32°93 | 50 31°54 31°08 | 100} 34-40 33°02 |502| 31°76

By proportion the probable mean rainfall for the twenty-five years 1866-90
(a wet period) comes out as 33:09 inches, and for the sixty years 1841-1900 as 32:03
inches. It must be understood that the results for the 16, 50, and 100 stations are
considered of value only for comparing one period with another, and not as giving
in themselves a true indication of the actual mean rainfall of the periods to which
they relate.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 487

By the same method of computation, carried out in a somewhat different
manner, gradually extending the period, with a smaller and smaller number ot
stations, a slightly different result was arrived at, the mean rainfall of England
coming out at 32°41 inches for the forty years 1861-1900, for the sixty years
1841-1900 at 32:28 inches, and for the seventy years 1831-1900 at 32:25 inches.
Taking into consideration the extreme variability of rainfall, the divergence in
these results is too small to affect the value, for all practical purposes, of this
method of computing average rainfall, and it is extremely improbable that any
method of equal or greater accuracy by which the average rainfall over England
may be computed for a long period will give a result appreciably less than 32 or
more than 323 inches.

488 REPORT—1904.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—-Professor SypNey Youne, D.Sc., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following Address :—

THe researches of Hermann Kopp on the molecular volumes and boiling-poinis of
chemical compounds extended over half a century, beginning with his inaugural
dissertation on the densities of oxides in 1838, and concluding in 1889 with a
review of the whole of the work done on the subject. In his second paper Kopp
considered the molecular volumes of solid compounds, and arrived at the conclusion
that truly isomorphous substances have the same atomic or molecular volume, but
that in other cases the volumes are usually different. Schréder also made the
same observation at about the same time.

Now, isomorphous substances have analogous chemical formule, and are
usually of similar chemical character, and it is interesting to notice that at this
early date the fact was recognised that close chemical relationship is associated
with similarity in physical properties.

For about the first six years Kopp was engaged in the consideration of the
results obtained by other observers, and from these results he deduced the most
important of his generalisations.

As regards boiling-points, Kopp, in 1842, concluded that a constant difference
in chemical composition is accompanied by a constant difference in boiling-point,
and he adopted the value 18° as the rise due to the replacement of the methyl] by
the ethyl group in organic compounds, although the observed differences varied
between 11°-0 and 24°°8. Two years later he found in sixteen comparisons differ-
ences varying from 8° to 33°; but he doubted the correctness of the extreme
values, and took 19° as the true value; he further suggested that this is the
constant difference for an addition of CH, in any homologous series, and he pointed
out that the observed difference was most regular in the case of the fatty acids.

Kopp was also of opinion that isomeric compounds with the same composition
and the same vapour density have the same boiling-point.

The paucity of experimental data and the wide discrepancies between the
results obtained by different observers induced Kopp to undertake the determina-
tion of the boiling-points of various compounds, and, later, their molecular volumes
at a series of temperatures, and it is interesting to note the comparative crudeness
of his first attempts and the increasing attention which he paid to the purification
of his compounds and to the elimination of thermometric and other errors, He
first examined three pairs of esters in order to find whether isomeric compounds
have really the same boiling-points. But he employed only calcium chloride as a
dehydrating agent, and this would remove neither water nor the alcohol com-
pletely; he was much troubled by the ‘ bumping’ of the liquids, and the tempera-
tures he actually observed—with the thermometer bulb in the liquid—fluctuated
considerably, and he could onlv, in most cases, take the lowest temperature
observed as the most probable boiling-point. By so doing, and by making a fairly
liberal allowance for residual errors, Kopp arrived at the erroneous conclusion

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 489

that the boiling-points of isomers were the same in the three cases examined, and
therefore, probably, in all cases.

The boiling-point of methyl alcohol was of great interest to Kopp, because,
taking that of ethyl alcohol—about which there was general agreement—as
correct, it should, according to his law, be 78°—19°=59°, while the temperatures
actually observed varied from 60° to 66°. Kopp prepared a specimen of methy}
alcohol, and found that it boiled at about 65°; but he had more faith in his law
than in his experimental result, and he concluded that the methods of determining
boiling-points were not sufficiently accurate to give results correct to within even
1° or 2°.

In 1854 he discussed the corrections which should be applied to thermometer
readings, giving a table of corrections for the unheated column of mercury, and

adopting the value 27 mm. per degree as the value of = for all substances, in

order to reduce the observed boiling-point to that at normal pressure. He pointed
out, also, that the height of the barometer should be reduced to 0° C. Taking
advantage of Delff’s improved method of preparing and purifying methyl alcohol,
Kopp made a fresh specimen from methyl oxalate and dried it with lime; but
while Delff observed the boiling-point to be 60°, Kopp obtained the value
65°°2—65°'8. He was still, however, inclined to think that, owing to bumping, the
observed boiling-point was too high and that the true temperature should be
about 60°.

Meanwhile, in 1847 Kopp had examined sixteen liquids, including water, two
alcohols, three fatty acids, and seven esters, and in 1854, as a result of his further
determinations, he was able to compare the boiling-points—and also the molecular
volumes—of a large number of substances, most of which were either alcohols, acids,
or esters, and he at first adhered to his previous value of 19° for the rise of boiling-
point due to the addition of CH,. Later in the same year, however, taking a
wider survey and including hydrocarbons and their halogen derivatives, ethers,
sulphides, and other compounds, he was obliged to admit that tbe difference is in
some cases higher, in others lower, than 19°, but he still regarded these cases
merely as exceptions to the law. In 1867 Kopp admitted that isomeric aromatic
hydrocarbons have not always the same boiling-point, and that the difference for
an addition of CH, was not always 19°; but he still believed that the difference
for CH, was constant in any really homologous series—for example, 20°°5 for
homologues of toluene, 18°°5 for those of xylene, and 16°5 for those of trimethyl-
benzene. He also recognised the fact that isomeric alcohols have widely different
boiling-points.

Kopp published no later papers on the boiling-points of organic compounds,
although he dealt fully with the question of molecular volumes in his final com-
munication in 1889.

Asa pioneer, Kopp had very great difficulties to contend against when he
began his researches ; data were scanty and far from accurate, and the substances
which could be most easily obtained and, it was thought, readily purified were,
unfortunately, those which were the least likely to lead to normal generalisations.
Water, the alcohols, and the organic acids all contain a hydroxyl group, and we
now know that the physical properties of these substances are abnormal in nearly
all respects, owing, probably to the fact that their molecules tend to associate
together ; moreover, the esters, which are formed by the interaction of acids and
alcohols, do not behave quite normally, and there is probably molecular association,
though to a much smaller extent than with the hydroxyl compounds.

There can be little doubt that if Kopp had been able, in the first place, to
obtain a considerable number of pure substances of normal behaviour, such as the
paraffins or their halogen derivatives, he would not have been led to the erroneous
conclusions which he defended with such vigour for so many years. If we
take the normal paraffins as the simplest class of organic compounds, we find
that, instead of the boiling-points rising by equal intervals as the series is
ascended, the rise, which is very large for the lowest numbers, becomes. smaller
and smaller as the molecular weight increases. This fact is, of course, now well

4.90 REPORT—1904,

known, and various formule have been suggested to reproduce these boiling-
points. Thus Walker has proposed the formula T=aM”, where T is the boiling.
point on the absolute scale of temperature, M is the molecular weight, and a and
6 are constants. Ramage has this year suggested that this formula applies only
to the CH, chain linkage, and that the influence of the terminal hydrogen atoms
is considerable in the case of the lowest members, but diminishes as the chain
lengthens, and becomes eventually either constant or negligible. In other words,
the lower members of the series cannot be regarded as truly homologous, and that
is a point which is, I think, important to bear in mind. Ramage suggests a new
formula, T= a[M(1—2-")]}, where a is Walker’s constant, 37:3775, and 7 is the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule. He assumes, however, a constant
difference for CH, in the case of the alcohols, the aldehydes, and the ketones, but
I doubt whether the boiling-points of the last two classes of compounds are yet
sufficiently well established to allow of any certain conclusions being drawn from
them.

I am inclined to think that it may be useful to regard the value of A (the rise
of B.P. for an increment of CH,) as being mainly a function of the absolute tem-
perature, and I would provisionally suggest the formula A = sonar where A is
the difference between the boiling-point, T, of any paraffin and that of its next
higher homologue. Taking the boiling-point of methane as 106°-75 abs., the values
for the higher members agree better with the observed temperatures than those
given by Ramage’s formula, as will be seen by the table below :—

Boiling-point (abs. temp.)
a sceeani Calculated. | ne Calculated.
Bere Ramage | Young | A

CH 1083 | 105°7 —26 | 106°75 | = = 1:55
OH, - 180-0 1773 Joo 27% | 1777 —2°3
OjHy. 228°0 231:9 | +39 229°85 + 1:85
C,H,, 274-0 275'6 Pa sth 6 aces 272°6 —14
C,H, 309°3 | 312-2 | ‘+2°9 309-4 +01
Cane 341-95 343°9 +1:95 341°95 0
C,H,, 8714 372°3 +0°9 3713 | —O1
C,Hie 398°6 398°3 -03 398-1 | —O5
C,H, 422°5 422°5 0 422°85 + 0°35
Ohales 4460 4452 —0°8 445°85 — 015
C,H, 467°0 466°8 —0:2 467°35 + 0°35
C,.Ho, 487°5 487°3 —0:2 487°65 +015
ChE. 507:0 507-0 0 506°8 —0'2
Ole e, 5255 526°0 +0°5 5250 —0°5
Cie 543°5 544°2 +07 542°3 —12
Cry 560°5 561°9 +14 558°85 —1°65
CirHg, 576:0 5790 +30 574-7 —13
OF ‘ si 590°0 595°7 +57 589°9 —01
C,H yo m : 603-0 611°9 +89 604°5 +15

I do not wish, however, to lay much stress on the actual form of the equation,
or on the particular values of the constants; the chief point I wish to call atten-
tion to is that A may be regarded as a function of the temperature.

Suppose that we replace a terminal atom of hydrogen in each normal paraffin
by chlorine, so as to form the homologous series of primary alkyl chlorides. The
boiling-points of these chlorides are much higher, and the differences, A, are much
smaller than for the corresponding paraffins, but the gradual fa}l in the values of
A as the series is ascended is unmistakable. The same remarks apply to the
bromides and iodides, the boiling-points being still higher and the values of A
smaller,

But the point of chief interest appears to me to be this: if the values of A for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 491

the halogen derivatives are plotted against the absolute temperatures, the points
for the most part fall near the curve constructed for the paraffins, and represented
by the formula A= dears The first value of A is decidedly low in each case
T 0:0148./T

(average deviation from curve 2°-7); the later ones are rather high in nearly
every case (average deviation 0°86). Similar results are in general obtained
with other homologous series of compounds in which molecular association is not
believed to occur, but, as will be seen from the following table, the deviations
from the normal paraffin curve are greater in the case of those series the lower
members of which, according to Ramsay and Shields, are characterised by mole-
cular association.

In the great majority of cases the deviations are greatest for the lowest
members of a series, the calculated values of A being almost invariably higher than
the observed, and this may perhaps be explained in the manner suggested by
Ramage. I have, therefore, divided each series into two groups, the first ending
and the second beginning with the lowest member of the series which contains a
CH, group linked to two carbon atoms. Thus, of the alkyl chlorides, the first
group contains CH,Cl, CH,CH,Cl, and CH; —CH, — CH,Cl, and the second group
begins with propyl chloride, so that all its members contain one or more C—CH,—-C

roups.

- Tk the case of the ethers, esters, and other compounds which contain two alkyl
radicals, a series is regarded as homologous when one radical remains unaltered
and the other increases by stages of CH,. The variable radical only is considered
in dividing the series into the two groups; thus, although propionic acid contains
a ©—CH,—C group, it remains unchanged in the propionic esters, the first group
of which consists of methyl, ethyl, and propyl propionate, the second beginning
with the last-named ester.

Lower Members Higher Members
Group Number | Mean Difference} Number | Mean Difference
of Values) calculated— of Values calculated —
of A observed | of A observed
° | °
Alkyl chlorides 2 + 2°70 5 —1:04
» bromides 2 + 1:12 5 = 1°25
3, iodides . 2 + 0°52 3 —1-0
Tsoparafiins — _— 2 +0°57
Toluene, &c. 1 +0°45 3 + 0°63
o-Xylene, &e. . 1 +671 1 —0°5
m-Xylene, &c.. 1 +4252 1 +407?
p-Xylene, &c.. 3 Nya gill —0715 1 +0°65
Diethyl benzene, &c. . -f = — i — 0:05
Olefines H,C = CHR ; Mile ss — | 3 —2°351
$s RHC=CHR' . : — — hie te +0°5?
Polymethylenes . 2 Lo — 2 —3'85 2
Ethers A - : aoe. | +82 13 +112
Aldehydes 2 +2°0 4 +13
Hydrosulphides 2 + 3°55 1 -0°5
Amines = ; 5 : 2 + 8:2 4 +17
Esters. i : < tal hee ot +492 67 +1:53

Associating Substances.

ie) °
Cyanides . . 1 + 12°65 4 +2°9
Nitro-methane, &c.. 2 +111 ] +3°85
Ketones . 1 + 62 3 + 2.85
Fatty acids 2 + 5:87 7 +1:58
2 + 12°87 5 +65'24

» alcohols

‘4,92 REPORT—1904.

Of the seventeen series of non-associating substances there are only five for
which the mean difference between the calculated and observed values of A for the
higher members exceeds 1°°5.

1. The m-xylene series. Here there is only one value, which, I think, is doubtful.

2. The olefines, H,C=CHR. Here two of the three individual differences
are less than 1°5; the temperatures are all below 0° and are somewhat uncertain.

3. The polymethylenes. The difference for pentamethylene and hexamethy-
lene differs by less than 1° from the calculated value. The B.P. of heptamethy-
lene appears very doubtful.

4, The amines. Ditferences somewhat erratic ; three within 1°:5 and two within
0°5. Octylamine and nonylamine clearly incorrect and not included.

5. The esters. Although Ramsay and Shields include these substances as
non-associating, there is, I think, reason to suspect slight association.

It will be seen that the differences are greater for associating than for non-
associating substances ; also that they are greatest for the alcohols and least for the
acids, although the factor of association is very high for both these series. In
order to arrive at an explanation of these facts the effect of replacing hydrogen
by chlorine may first be considered.

The boiling-point of hydrogen chloride is not yet known accurately, but it
must be about —80°. Thus, by replacing an atom of hydrogen in the hydrogen
molecule by chlorine the boiling-point is raised from 20°-4 abs. to about 193° abs.,
or about 173°. On replacing an atom of hydrogen in methane by chlorine the
rise of boiling-point is from 108°'8 to 249°3, or 141°. Ascending the series of
paraffins the rise of boiling-point due to the replacement of hydrogen by chlorine
diminishes rapidly at first, and then more slowly, being only 58°-5 in the case of
octane. Thus the influence of the chlorine atom becomes relatively smaller as the
formula weight of the alkyl group increases.

Consider, now, the effect of replacing a hydrogen atom by a hydroxyl group.
In the formation of water from hydrogen gas the boiling-point is raised no less
than 352°°6, from 20°4 abs. to 373° abs., or in the ratio of 1 : 18°38; in the case of
methane the rise is 221°8, from 108°'3 to 337°7, or in the ratio of 1: 3:12; with
octane the rise is 65°-4, from 398°'6 to 464°; and with hexdecane itis only 56°°5,
from 560°'5 to 617°, the ratio being 1 : 1:10.

It will be seen that in the case of hydrogen the influence of the hydroxyl is
enormously greater, and in the case of methane very much greater, than that of
chlorine in raising the boiling-point, but that on ascending the series of paraflins
to octane the influence of the hydroxyl group diminishes until it 1s little
greater than that of the chlorine atom, and if is quite probable that with
hexdecane it would be somewhat less. This is, no doubt, to be explained by the
fact that the molecules of water and of the lower alcohols are highly associated
in the liquid, but not in the gaseous state, and therefore, in order to vaporise the
liquids, this molecular attraction must be overcome, and the temperature must
therefore be raised. The molecular association diminishes, however, as the series
of alcohols is ascended, and is probably slight in the case of octyl alcohol. If so,
it would appear that the effect of the hydroxyl group—apart from association—
in raising the boiling-point is not very different from, and is probably somewhat
less than, that of the chlorine atom, and that the difference between the
boiling-points of the lower alcohols and of the corresponding chlorides is entirely
due to molecular association in the liquid state.

With the acids there is association in the gaseous as well as the Jiquid state,
and since, according to the tables given by Ramsay and Shields, the factor of
association for a liquid fatty acid at its boiling-point is rarely greater, and in most
cases is somewhat smaller, than for the corresponding liquid alcohol, the molecular
attraction to be overcome on vaporisation must be considerably less for the acid
than for the corresponding alcohol, and the resulting rise of boiling-point above
the normal value must be less. An explanation of the very low values of A for
the alcohols and the moderately low values for the acids is thus afforded.

It would take up far too much time and space to give full details of the
boiling-points of all the compounds considered, with the observed and calculated
values of A; but it may, I think, be stated that tie difference between the boiling-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 4.93

vint of any non-associating organic compound which contains at least one

—CH,—C group, and that of its next higher homologue (at any rate up to tem-
peratures of about 300° C.), may be calculated with an error rarely exceeding 1°5
14486
ToousyT
seems also to be applicable to any ester which contains at least five atoms of
carbon in the variable alkyl or acyl group (the mean error for 40 values of A
is +0°-93), and with smaller error when the number of carbon atoms is still
larger ;! it is probably also applicable to the higher fatty acids, cyanides, ketones,
and nitro-compounds.

and generally under 1°, by means of the formula A= The formula

Comparison of Molecular Volumes.

The fundamental idea on which both Kopp and Schréder based their methods
of calculating the molecular volumes of organic compounds from the atomic
volumes of the component elements was the constancy of the increase in molecular
volume for each addition of CH,. With regard to this point the question was
greatly discussed whether the comparison should be made at the same temperature,
say 0°C., or at the boiling-points of the compounds under the same pressure.
Later, when Van der Waals brought forward his conception of corresponding
states, it was thought probable that the comparison should be made at cor-
responding or equal reduced temperatures ; that is to say, at temperatures which
bear the same ratio to the critical temperatures. If the generalisations of Van
der Waals were strictly true, the boiling-points under corresponding pressures
would be corresponding temperatures, but that is not usually the case. The com-

arison may, therefore, be made either at equal reduced temperatures or at the
foititig points under equal reduced pressures ; or, lastly, it may he made at the
critical points themselves, and, thanks to the law of Cailletet and Mathias, the
critical volumes can be ascertained with a great degree of accuracy.

In order to find whether the difference in molecular volume for each addition
of CH, is really constant it is best to examine such perfectly normal substances
as the paraffins, and the data for four consecutive members of the series—n-pen-
tane, n-hexane, n-heptane, and -octane—are fortunately available.

In the table below the molecular volumes and the differences, A, for an
addition of CH, are given under the following conditions ; 9—

A. At O°C,

B. At the respective boiling-points under | atm. pressure.

C. At equal reduced temperatures (0°6396).

D. At the respective boiling-points under equal reduced pressures (0-022 11).
E. At the respective critical points.

| A B C D | E
Paraffin —| Nise —= -
M.Vol| A |M.Vol| A M.Vol| A M.Vol) A M.Vol| a
| |
n-Pentane 111°33 | ‘117°80 | 116-13 116-13 309-3 |
15-44 22-13 | 20°09 | 21-06 568 |
n-Hexane |126°77 139°93 136:22 137:19 (3661
15°69 22-63 20°18 21-49 | 60-2
n-Heptane 142-46 162°56 156-40 158°68 426°3 |
15-88 23°70 20°54 21:83 | 62°6
n-Octane (158-34 186:26 176-94 180°51 488-9 |

‘ Thus the observed B.P. of »-hexyl formate is 153°-6, and the value of A
calculated from the formula is 22°8, giving 176°-4 as the B.P. of the next higher
homologue, This agrees very well with the observed B.P. of n-heptyl formate,
176°-7, but not with that of n-hexyl acetate, 169°-2. Again, the observed B.P.
of methyl caproate (hexoate) is 149°6, and the calculated value of A is 23°-0,
giving 172°6 as the B.P. of the next homologue. The observed B.P. of methyl
cenanthylate (heptoate) is 172°-1, but that of ethyl caproate is only 166°-6.

* The atomic weights [C=11:97, H=1] employed in the original papers are
retained,

494, REPORT—1904,

It will be seen that in every case there is a decided rise in the value of A as
the series is ascended, but that the rise is relatively smallest when the comparison
is made at the particular reduced temperature chosen. At higher reduced tempe-
ratures, however, it would be relatively much greater, since it is very marked at
the critical point, where the reduced temperature =1. The rise is also compara-
tively small at the common temperature 0°, but the comparison would not be
satisfactory if a higher common temperature, say 150°, were chosen, because the
coefficients of expansion differ considerably: at 150° the values of A would be
8 75, 13:45, and 15°38 respectively.

In the case of nine of the lower esters the values of A are by no means con-
stant, whether the comparison be made at 0°, at the boiling-point, or at the critical
point, The eleven values of A vary in the three methods between 16:34 and 18°21,
20:84 and 23°42, 54:3 and 61-7 respectively; but there is not a regular rise with
increase of molecular weight.

Both Kopp and Schroder compared the molecular volumes of compounds at
their boiling-points under normal pressure, but they deduced quite different values
for the atomic volumes of carbon and hydrogen; it is clear, however, that as A
varies considerably no values whatever for C and H could give accurate results,
even in the case of true homologues.

Traube makes the comparison at a common temperature, usually 15°, and takes
into consideration both the actual volumes of the molecules and the co-volume,
which he assumes to have the same value, 24:5 (1+ at), where a= 1/273, for all
substances. He calculates definite values for the atomic volumes of C and H. at
a given temperature; thus, at 15°,C=9°9 and H=3:1, or CH,=16:1, so that
here again the difference for CH, at a given temperature should be constant,

It does not appear to me that the problem has yet been completely solved,
although Trauhe’s method of calculation generally gives much better results than
those of Kopp and Schroder.

Comparison of Boiling-points at a Series of Equal Pressures,

The results of this comparison are often exceedingly simple if the two sub-
stances compared are very closely related, and if there is no molecular association
in either case. Taking, for example, chlorobenzene and bromobenzene, it is found
that the ratio of the boiling-points (on the absolute scale of temperature) under
equal pressures is constant whatever the pressure may be, or

1, _ Ts. 1.0590.
T; Ts

A similar result is obtained with the other halogen derivatives of benzene,
with ethyl bromide and ethyl iodide, with ethyl acetate and propyl acetate, and
some other pairs of esters; but in some cases of close relationship—for example,
with ethyl formate and ethyl acetate—the ratio is not quite constant, and the
formula becomes a= a5 + ¢e(T,—T’,), where c has a very low value [0:0000417
for these two esters. When there is no close relationship, but the molecules are
not associated, the value of ¢ is usually larger—for example, 0:0001185 for carbon
disulphide and ethy! bromide.

Lastly, when there is no close relationship and the molecules of one or both

substances are associated, the formula = = = +ce(T;—T’;) may no longer hold,
B B
and a third term may be required, thus: = = = + ¢e(T, —T’,)+d(Ts—T’,)?; or,
B B

in any case, the value of ¢ becomes much higher, as with benzene and ethyl
alcohol [¢ = 0:0008030] or sulphur and carbon disulphide [¢ = 0:0006845].

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 495

Behaviour of Liquids when Mixed together.

There are three points to consider when two liquids are brought together—
(1) their miscibility, whether infinite, partial, or inappreciable; (2) the relative
volumes of the mixture and of the components ; (8) the heat evolved or absorbed.

Liquids which are classed as non-miscible rarely, if ever, bear any close
chemical relationship. Thus water is practically non-miscible with all hydro-
carbons and with their halogen and many other derivatives; again, mercury, so
far as I mow, is not miscible with any liquid compound, organic or inorganic.
It is true that the higher aliphatic alcohols are almost insoluble in water, although
there may be said to be some chemical relationship between them, inasmuch as
an alcohol may be regarded as an alkyl derivative of water. But the alcohols
may also be looked upon as hydroxyl derivatives of the hydrocarbons, and, the
higher the formula weight of the alkyl group, the greater is its influence, rela-
tively to that of the hydroxyl, on the properties of the alcohol. Thus, while the
lower alcohols show considerable resemblance to water—for example, in their
behaviour with dehydrating agents, such as sodium, phosphoric anhydride, or
lime, and in their power of uniting with metallic salts to form crystalline alco-
holates corresponding to the hydrates—this resemblance diminishes as we ascend
the series, and is generally not observable with the higher members.

On the other hand, the higher the molecular weight of the alcohol the closer is
its resemblance to the hydrocarbon from which it is derived. This, as already
mentioned, is well shown by the diminishing difference between the boiling-points
of the aleohol and paraffin as the series is ascended; it may also be noted that
methane was long classed as a permanent gas, while methyl alcohol is a liquid ;
whereas both hexdecane (C,,H;,) and cetyl alcohol (C,,H,,0H) are solids, the
former melting at 18° and the latter at 50°,

It may, in fact, I think, be stated that the chemical relationship between water
and methyl alcohol is fairly close, while that between water and cetyl alcohol is
very distant. So, also, two adjacent members of a homologous series, such as
methyl and ethyl alcohol, are more closely related than two members of widely
different molecular weight, such as methyl and cetyl alcohol.

Adopting this view, it is, I believe, safe to state that liquids which are
chemically closely related to each other are invariably miscible in all proportions.

As regards the relative volumes of a mixture and of its components at the
same temperature, it is well known that inequality is the rule and equality the
exception; and, further, that contraction is more frequently observed than
expansion on admixture. So far, however, as experimental evidence is available,
it appears that when the liquids are very closely related to each other the change
of volume is exceedingly small. For example, with ethyl acetate and propionate
in equimolecular proportions, + 0-015 per cent.; toluene and ethyl benzene,
— 0-034 per cent.; 2-hexane and n-octane, — 0:053 per cent.; methyl and ethyl
alcohol, + 0:004 per cent.; chlorobenzene and bromobenzene, no change.

When the relationship is less close the changes are usually, but not invariably,
larger, and are in some cases positive, in others negative ; and it is rarely possible,
in the present state of our knowledge, to predict from the nature of the sub-
stances—unless one is basic and the other acidic in character—whether contraction
or expansion is to be expected. Thus, when methyl alcohol is mixed with water
considerable contraction occurs, although the relationship is less close than
between methyl and ethyl alcohol, which expand to a minute extent on mixing.

All we can say with regard to the alcohols is that, the higher the molecular
weight—or, if isomeric alcohols are included, the higher the boiling-point—the
smaller, as a rule, is the contraction on mixing with water.

Very similar remarks apply to the heat changes which occur on mixing liquids.
It appears that in the case of very closely related substances these changes are
exceedingly small, or negligible, as is indicated by the very minute change of
temperature which has been observed, thus: ethyl acetate and propionate, — 0°-02;
toluene and ethyl benzene, + 0°05; n-hexane and n-octane, + 0°06; methyl
and ethyl alcohol, — 0°:10; chlorobenzene and bromobenzene, 0°00,

4.96 REPORT—1904.

It might be expected that in the case of less closely related substances con-
traction would be accompanied by evolution of heat and expansion by absorption
of heat, but this is by no means invariably the case; for example, on mixing
40 gram-molecules of propyl alcohol with 60 gram-molecules of water there is
a contraction of 1:42 per cent., but a fall of 1°15 in temperature was observed.
Taking the alcohols as a group, it is found that, the higher the boiling-point, the
smaller is the heat evolution or the greater the absorption on admixture with
water.

Properties of Mixtures.

The behaviour of two non-miscible liquids when heated together is well
known, and I need only refer to the fact that the vapour pressure is equal to
the sum of the vapour pressures of the pure components at the same tem-
perature; that the boiling-point is the temperature at which the sum of the
vapour pressures of the components is equal to the pressure under which the
liquid is being distilled, provided that evaporation is taking place freely and the
vapour is not mixed with air; and, lastly, that the composition of the vapour
is independent of that of the liquid (so long as both components are present
in sufficient quantity), and is expressed by the equation = ~ a

Us BU,
and «2, are the relative weights of the two components in the vapour, P, and P®
their vapour pressures at the observed boiling-point, and D, and D, their vapour
densities.

The vapour pressure, boiling-point, and vapour composition, then, can be
calculated for non-miscible liquids, and it has been stated that such liquids have
never any close chemical relationship, and are usually not related at all.

On the other hand, it has been mentioned that when the chemical relationship
is very close the liquids are invariably miscible in all proportions, and that there
is very little, if any, volume or heat change on admixture.

So, also, the vapour pressure and boiling-point of a mixture of closely related
liquids are easily ascertained from those of the pure components, and the com-
position of the vapour bears a simple relation to that of the liquid.

The vapour pressure of the mixture is given, at any rate with a very close
approach to accuracy, by the equation P = mP, + es ait) Pp where P, Py,
and P, are the vapour pressures of the mixture and of the components, A and B,
at the observed boiling-point, and m is the molecular percentage of A.

Van der Waals concluded from theoretical considerations that this relation
should be true when the critical pressures are equal and the molecular attractions
agree with the formula proposed by Galitzine and by D. Berthelot, a,..= 4/4;'@2,
where a,., represents the attraction of the unlike molecules and a, and a, the
respective attractions of the like molecules. That is certainly the case with
chlorobenzene and bromobenzene, which, as already mentioned, show no heat or
volume change on admixture, for the maximum difference between the observed
and calculated pressure in three experiments was less than 0°1 per cent.

But the relation is, at any rate, very nearly true for closely related substances
when the critical pressures are not equal, for in the case of methyl and ethyl
alcohol the difference between the observed and calculated pressure was within
the limits of experimental error, and with four other pairs of closely related
substances the greatest mean difference (for three readings each) was only 0°6 per
cent. It is not, however, as Speyers suggested, true for all non-associated
substances, whether closely related or not; indeed, chemical relationship seems to
be much more important than the state of molecular aggregation, for the relation
is true for methyl and ethyl alcohol, while it is altogether untrue for benzene and
hexane.

The boiling-point of a mixture of closely related liquids may be ascertained
from the vapour pressures of the components, but not so simply as in the case of
non-miscible liquids, because the boiling-point depends on the composition of the
liquid,

» Where 2,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 4.97

In erder to calculate the boiling-points of all mixtures of two closely related
_ liquids under normal pressure we should require to know the vapour pressure of
each substance at temperatures between their respective boiling-points under that
pressure. Thus, chloroform boils at 132°0, and bromobenzene at 156°-1, and we
must be able to ascertain the vapour pressure of each substance between 132° and
156°.
The percentage molecular composition of mixtures which exert a vapour pres-
sure of 760 mm. must then be calculated at a series of temperatures—say every two

2)
degrees—between these limits by means of the formula m=100. aes , where, in
this case, P = 760. aa Py

Lastly, the molecular percentages of A, so calculated, must be mapped against
the temperatures, and the curve drawn through the points will give us the
required relation between boiling-point and molecular composition under normal
pressure. In the case of six pairs of closely related liquids the greatest difference
between the observed temperature and that read from the curve constructed as
described was 0°27.

For liquids which are not closely related the differences are usually much
greater, and particular mixtures of constant (minimum or maximum) boiling-poirt
are not unfrequently met with, especially when the molecules of one or both
substances are associated in the liquid state.

The formula for the composition of the vapour from a mixed liquid suggested
independently by Berthelot and by Wanklyn, ts. WiPAD,

tz _W5P3Ds
and P,,, D, and D,, have the same meaning asin the equation for non-miscible liquids,
and W, and W, are the relative weights of the two components in the liquid
mixture), was shown by F. D. Brown to be incorrect, and he proposed the simpler

(where 2, and zs, Ps

Va = A
formula, lee ow,
The subject was investigated mathematically by Duhem and by Margules, and
experimentally and mathematically by Lehfeldt and by Zawidski, The two last-
named observers deduced workable formule from the fundamental equation of
Duhem and Margules, and it is noticeable that both Lehfeldt’s and Zawidski’s

formule, in their simplest form, become identical with Brown’s. Zawidski’s, how-

where ¢ is a constant which does not differ greatly from a
B

ever, assumes the form “t= P. F Ww: This formula is certainly not, as a rule,
“B B B
true for mixtures of liquids which are not closely related; but, on the other hand,

in the very few cases examined the equation “*=c . ws
=

a B
mP, + (100—m)P®
100

appears to hold for those

mixtures for which the equation P = is true; that is to say,

generally, for closely related liquids,
The question, however, whether c= ™ is an open one; but it is interesting to

B
remark that if this equality holds it should be possible in many cases to calculate
the vapour pressure at any temperature, the boiling-point under any pressure, and
the composition of the vapour, of any mixture of two very closely related liquids, if
the boiling-point of one of them under any one pressure, and the vapour pressures
of the other within sufficiently wide limits of temperature, are known. For the
boiling-points on the absolute scale of the two liquids at the same pressure bear a
constant ratio to each other, or = = = ; hence the vapour pressures or boiling-
B B
points of one substance can be calculated if those of the other are known. Again,
from the vapour pressures of the pure substances we can calculate the vapour pres-
sures and the boiling-points of all mixtures; and, lastly, if c= Pp” we can make use
B
of Brown’s formula, “* = as to calculate the composition of the vapour from
1904. KK

498 REPORT—-1904.

all mixtures without carrying out special experiments to find the value of ec. Itis,
therefore, a matter of considerable interest to ascertain whether c is really equal to
Pa

mP, + (100—m)Ps

100
cation of Brown’s formula, or that of Lehfeldt, or of Zawidski, must be employed to
calculate the vapour composition, and the constants for those formule must first be
determined experimentally.

Other physical properties, such as the refractive power of mixtures, might be
considered, but I will only refer to the critical temperature and pressure. In 1882
Pawlewski stated that the critical temperature of a mixture could be calculated
m6, + (100 — m)6z

100 :
is the percentage by weight of A; and G. C. Schmidt, in 1891, carried out experi-
ments to test the correctness of the statement, purposely choosing substances of
widely different physical properties. The differences between the calculated and
observed temperatures were not, as arule, very great, rarely exceeding 4°, and
Schmidt considered that they might, to some extent, be accounted for by partial
decomposition of one or other component.

Such determinations are, however, liable to serious errors. It is exceedingly
difficult to filla tube with the required amount of a liquid mixture of known
composition quite free from air, and, although the composition of the very small
amount of liquid employed might be determined after the experiment from its
specific refractive power, it would be necessary to know the specific refractive
powers of the two components and of mixtures of them. Schmidt does not state
how he prepared his mixtures and determined their composition.

Again, when a liquid mixture is heated in a sealed tube, fractionation goes on,
so that the more volatile component tends to accumulate in the upper part of the
tube, leaving the less volatile component in excess below, and unless a stirring
arrangement, such as that devised by Kuenen, is employed, many hours would elapse
before complete admixture by diffusion took place at the critical point.

By far the most important and accurate experiments on this subject have been
carried out by past or present pupils of Professor Kamerlingh Onnes, notably by
Professor Kuenen; and it is quite certain that the formula of Pawlewski cannot be
generally true for mixed liquids, for, just as we may have mixtures of minimum or
maximum boiling-point, so also, as Kuenen has shown, mixtures of minimum or
maximum critical temperature may exist, Thus the critical temperature of carbon
dioxide is 31°1, and of ethane, 32°:0, but that of a mixture containing 30 molecules
per cent. of carbon dioxide is 18°8. The question remains, however, whether some
such law as that proposed by Pawlewski may not hold good for closely related
substances. In certain cases, when the relationship is very close (for example,
C,H,Cland C,H,Br), the critical pressures are equal, or very nearly so, and it seems
probable that the critical pressure would be the same for any mixture as for the
components. Such a case as this would be likely to give the simplest possible
relation between the critical temperatures of a mixture and those of its com-
ponents ; and although the critical temperatures of these substances are incon-
veniently high, there are, no doubt, others which might be employed—perhaps etbyl
chloride and bromide, or possibly carbon dioxide and carbon disulphide. I imagine,
however, that Pawlewski’s formula would be more likely to hold if m represented
the moleculur percentage, and not the percentage by weight of A.

In the case of homologous compounds, paraffins, ethers, esters, and so on, the
critical pressures are not equal, and it would be necessary to find whether the
mPa + (100 —m)Px
100
(where m is the molecular percentage of A), and also whether any such simple
formula is applicable to the critical temperatures.

Kuenen has made some observations with mixtures of ethane and butane con-
taining 2°5 and 5 molecules per cent. of butane, and at the conclusion of his paper

When the equation P = does not hold good, a modifi-

from those of the components by the formula 6= where m

critical pressures of mixtures are represented by the formula P =

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 499

he says: ‘If there was a simple law connecting the critical constants of mixtures
with those of the constituents, we might calculate the constants for the second
substance [those of the first being known]. But such is not the case. Pawlewski’s
law that the critical temperature is proportional to the composition, expressed in
weight units, is very inaccurate, the deviations being sometimes considerable in
both directions.’

It would, I think, be of great interest if Professor Kuenen could find time to
carry out further experiments with mixtures of ethane and butane in order to
settle this point, or, perhaps, with n-hexane and n-octane, both of which can be
more easily obtained in a pure state.

From what has been said it may be concluded that, in order to ascertain the
normal behaviour of pure substances under different conditions, or to find the
simplest relations between the boiling-points, molecular volumes, or other physical
constants of a series of substances, or, again, to ascertain the normal behaviour of
substances when mixed together, and the properties of the mixtures as compared
with those of the components, it is undoubtedly advisable—at first, at any rate—
to confine our attention to substances of which the molecules show no signs of
association in either the gaseous or liquid state.

In the case of mixtures it is also best to begin with substances which are
chemically closely related to each other.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Relation between the Crystalline and the Amorphous States as
disclosed by the Surface Flow of Solids. By G. T. Brizpy,

In former papers the phenomena observed in connection with the flow of solids
have been fully described, and in the most recent of these the results of the
observations have been applied to the study of the hard and soft states in metals.
The purpose of the present paper is to direct attention to the very general
character of the relations which have been found to exist between the amorphous
and the crystalline states.

Observations on flow in crystalline substances are described and illustrated by
photo-micrographs. By the use of etching in stages the successive layers of a
polished or disturbed surface are disclosed, from the smooth vitreous surface,
through a granular layer, to the undisturbed crystalline body beneath. The
demonstration that the polish of a lens of rock crystal has resulted from the
formation of a flowed layer of amorphous phase on its surface suggests that no
crystalline substance is too hard to yield to the mechanical flowing action.

The passage of the amorphous back to the crystalline state by the agency of
heat is discussed, and attention is directed to the important bearing of the fact
that this transformation occurs at a definite temperature, on the behaviour of
solids at ordinary atmospheric temperatures. It is suggested that as the stability
point of ice is probably a long way below the freezing point, the amorphous phase
can only have a transient existence at ordinary atmospheric temperatures; while
at the lower range of winter temperatures within the Arctic Circle, the amorphous
phase, once formed, may be stable and permanent.

The grinding of crystalline substances to powder does not simply consist in
their reduction to finer and finer crystalline fragments, but it involves the transfor-
mation of at any rate a part of the substance into the amorphous condition.

When crystalline powders are formed into cakes by pressure the cementing
material is the amorphous phase which results from flow.

In metals, and probably in most other solids, the physical and other properties

of the two phases are so distinct that it is not difficult to determine the transition
temperature or stability point in the transformation A > C.
* _ From the existence of a definite stability point it is argued that not only must
all crystalline substances be capable of existing in the amorphous as well as in the
crystalline state, but that, by purely mechanical means, it is possible to transform
them into this state.

EK2

500 REPORT—1904.

These observations, and the conclusions to which they have led, have a very
direct: bearing on the flow of rocks. The recognition of the transformation from
crystalline to amorphous through an intermediate mobile phase, for the first time
supplies an explanation of why flow which has been started by stresses can cease
while the disturbing stresses are still maintained.

2. The Action of certain Gases on Glass in the Neighbourhood of Hot
Metals. By G. T. Beivpy.

In a former paper (‘ British Association Report, 1903’) the formation of halos of
decomposed glass around pieces of metal placed on glass plates and heated in a
muffle to which the products of combustion had access was described. Further
experiments and observations have been made to ascertain (1) To what chemical
agent is the decomposition of the glass due? and (2) What is the cause of the
localisation of this decomposition in the immediate neighbourhood of the hot metal
as shown in the formation of halos and images ?

By passing various gases over heated glass slips on which pieces of metal foil
were placed, it was found that the most active agents in the decomposition of the
glass were sulphur dioxide, air, and water vapour.

The decomposition products of the glass were ascertained to be sodium or
potassium sulphate and silica.

In the original experiments, in which the products of combustion had access
to the muffle, the source of the SO, was the trace of sulphur compounds in the coal
gas used for heating. The actual attack on the glass is made by sulphur trioxide
formed by the oxidation of the SO,,.

The dull white film frequently seen on the outside of tubes or other glass
vessels which have been heated in a gas furnace or muflle is no doubt due to the
decomposition of the glass by the combustion gases,

The second question, as to the cause of the localisation of the decomposition,
cannot be answered so conclusively as the first. The active agent being SO,, the
suggestion naturally occurs that its formation from SO, and air is accelerated by
the presence of the hot metal, which acts as a catalyte.

The question was discussed whether in this case the combination of these gases
takes place on the surface of the metal or whether it takes place to some extent in
the surrounding atmosphere. The appearances suggest that the agent which
caused the decomposition had been in the form of a detinite cloud of particles shot
out from the metal surface rather than in the form of widely diffused molecules of
SO, in a very large volume of air. While no traces of metal could be detected in
the halos or images, it does not seem necessary to suppose that the particles thrown
off by the metal must be either visible or ponderable in order that they may
produce very powerful effects.

It cannot be claimed that these observations give a final answer to the second
question proposed ; but they certainly do not give a final negative to the sugges-
tion that some part of the effect may be due to the slow disintegration of the
metal.

3. On the Formation of Salts in Solutions, especially amongst Tautomeric
Compounds. By Professor J. W. Bruny.

4, Methods of Investigating Alloys, illustrated from the Copper-Tin Series.
By C. T, Heycock, /.A.S., and F. H. NEvitie, “2.8.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 501

5, Hexachlor-a-Picoline and its Derivatives.
By W. J. Seti, IA., F.R.S,

With the object of assisting in the orientation of some of the lower chloro and
other derivatives of pyridine it was thought advisable to study the action of
chlorine on the hydrochlorides of various methylpyridines. The substance
employed to begin with was a-picoline after purification of its double salt with
mercuric chloride.

The chief solid product of the chlorination of a-picoline is a white crystalline
substance having the formula C,HC1,N, and which readily gives trichlorpicolinie
acid on heating with 80 per cent. sulphuric acid; it therefore contains the fully
chlorinated methyl group CCl,, which, as usual, breaks down to COOH with
elimination of HCI.

Trichlorpicolinic acid when distilled with glycerine is readily resolved into a
trichlorpyridine (m.p. 72-8°), first obtained by Keiser, and described by him as the
hydrochlorate of a dichloropyridine, but since shown by Sell and Dootson to be
a trichlorpyridine. The positions of the chlorine atoms in this compound are
unknown, but various considerations lead to the supposition that they occupy the
positions 3, 4, 5. i

To prove that this is so, recourse was had to the synthesis from the trichlor-
picolinic acid of a compound whose constitution is established. Such a substance
is 2-amino-3, 4, 5-chlorpyridine. The trichlorpicolinic acid was converted into
the amide, and this into the amino derivative by the Hofmann reaction, On
comparison the aminotrichlorpyridine was found to be identical with the
2-amino-3, 4, 5-trichlorpyridine obtained from other sources,

6. The Change of Conductivity in Solutions during Chemical Reactions.
By P. V. Bevan, JA.

The experiments described in this paper were made to determine, if possible,
the part played by the hydrogen ions of the acid used in the inversion of cane
sugar. The object was to attack the problem of catalytic action by applying the
Kohlrausch method of determining the conductivity of the solution. It seemed
certain that, the action being conditioned by the presence of the hydrogen ions,
their capacity as carriers of the current must be affected, and so it was thought
that some light might be thrown on the actual mechanism of the action. If the
resistance of a solution of cane sugar with a small percentage of hydrochloric
acid be obtained at various stages of the inversion, a change of resistance, which
may amount to 10 or more per cent. of the initial resistance, occurs during the
inversion. Two factors which contribute to this change are the loss of water
during the inversion and the change of the ionic viscosity of the solution conse-
quent on the transition from the cane to the inverted sugar. The results so far
obtained have not enabled me to discriminate between the various causes pro-
ducing the total effect. Another series of experiments was made determining the
conductivity of solutions containing a constant quantity of sugar per volume but
a varying amount of acid. On plotting the concentration (HCl) and_ specific
molecular conductivity one obtains a curve, which at concentrations down to
about ‘005 normal is a straight line parallel to the concentration axis, but for
concentrations lower than this the curve drops towards the concentration axis ;
the specific molecular conductivity decreasing at a concentration of ‘0002 norma),
there are indications that the curve becomes again parallel to the axis of concen-
tration, At this small concentration, however, the observations so far made are not
very consistent, and at present stress is not laid on this point. The experiments
show in this way an effect on the molecular conductivity, which can be explained
by supposing the H-ions are loaded up, forming the centre of a group consisting
of one or more sugar molecules and one or more water molecules. This kind of
group need not be considered as a stable compound, but may be merely in a
state where it can split easily into water and cane sugar again, or in some cases

502, REPORT—1904.

into the invert sugars. At higher concentrations than the value at which the
specific molecular conductivity becomes constant the proportion of H-ions loaded
in this way is small at any particular time; hence we see that we may explain on
these lines the influence of concentration of the sugar on the rate of inversion.

Further experiments are in progress, and it is hoped that experiments on the
actual velocity of the ions in the inversion with dilute acid may lead to some
definite results.

7. On Double Acetylides.
ty Major A. FE. Epwarns and Professor W. R. Hopaxryson, Ph. D.

The authors have investigated the action of acetylene on a number of salts
with a view to obtaining an explosive of a sufficiently safe nature to be used for
military purposes, and referred in this paper to some silver compounds which they
have obtained. The acetylene employed was purified as well as possible from
sulphur and phosphorus compounds, and was then brought in contact with silver
salts in solution or suspended in boiling water, In some cases the gas was passed
for some days continuously through the water containing the suspended salts.

A number of organic salts, such as silver acetate, benzoate, and butyrate, yield
the same acetylide as that obtained from neutral or faintly alkaline silver nitrate
solution. A solution of silver nitrate in nitric acid of 1°3 sp. gr. did not give
this particular acetylide, but one containing nitric acid as nitrate. Solutions of
silver salts in potassium cyanide or in thiosulphate are quite unaffected by
acetylene, but pure thiocyanate suspended in water is acted upon; the product in
this case is explosive, and contains both sulphur and cyanogen, but was not obtained
in a pure state.

The following compounds have been obtained in a definite form, analysed and
examined as to their sensitiveness to percussion and heat.

From a boiling solution of silver bichromate acetylene precipitates an orange-
red salt of the composition (Ag,OC,H,,Ag,CrO,), whilst chromic acid is liberated.
When dry, this substance is very sensitive to friction, and explodes violently at
157°C. Corresponding compounds are formed from silver sulphate, selenate,
tungstate, and molybdate; they are all much less sensitive than the chromic acid
compound, and explode much more feebly.

Compounds from the phosphate and vanadate were obtained with difficulty, and
no satisfactory analyses were made; they explode in a very feeble but peculiar
manner.

8. On some Reactions between Ammonium Salts and iletuls.
By Professor W. R. Hopexinson, Ph.D., and Artnur H. Coorer.

As far back as 1879 a note was published by one of us on the action of
aluminium on ammonium chloride, and we have recently continued the investiga-
tions of the behaviour of ammonium salts generally towards metals.

Ammonium nitrate, either in aqueous solution or in a fused state, acts very
vigorously on some metals,

There is a notable difference, as a rule, between the fused salt and its aqueous
solution in regard to rate of action on the more common metals; but in the case
of the metal cadmium there is little difference perceptible between the rate of
action of an aqueous solution and the melted salt. Cadmium placed in an ice-
cold saturated solution of ammonium nitrate rapidly dissolves without evolution
of gas. The liquid becomes alkaline from presence of a little free ammonia; the
solution gives off nitrogen only when heated to 100°, when the cadmium ceases
to dissolve and some remains in excess. The solution contains a little free
ammonia, and apparently the nitrite of cadmium and ammonium. This is, at any
rate, indicated by the fact that every trace of cadmium can be precipitated from
this solution by passing through it a stream of carbon dioxide at the ordinary
temperature, The solution contains mainly ammonium nitrite.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 503

Zine and magnesium act in a similar mamner, but, owing to the formation of
somewhat insoluble double ammonium compounds, not to the same extent or with
the rapidity observed with cadmium. Aluminium, iron, mercury, and silver are
unaffected by an aqueous solution of the salt, but nickel, copper, and lead are
slightly active. Lead becomes coated with a somewhat insoluble nitrite.

Melted ammonium nitrite has no action on iron, mercury, or aluminium, and,
in fact, these metals are quite unaffected when the salt is heated with them so
strongly as to decompose with formation of red fumes; under these conditions
silver is slightly attacked. Approximately it may be stated that when the salt is
just fused the following metals are acted upon at rates about in the order given:
cadmium, magnesium, zine, copper, nickel, lead, bismuth.

The mechanism of the reaction as regards cadmium and fused ammonium
nitrate seems to be that first a little ammonia is split off and then a metallic
nitrate formed. This, however, involves the expulsion of hydrogen, which in turn
reduces the nitrate of the metal to nitrite, which immediately reacts with the
ammonium salt in the usual manner, liberating nitrogen.

Weighed quantities of metals have been allowed to act upon ammonium nitrate
in a vacuum-tube maintained at the melting-point of the salt. In the cases of
cadmium and copper the gas collected was pure nitrogen; with cadmium the
amount of nitrogen collected falls a little short of 4 atoms of nitrogen to 1 atom
of metal; with copper it is nearly 3 atoms of nilrogen to 2 atoms of the metal.
The amount of ammonia liberated in the first phase of the reaction may have
something to do with this deficit of nitrogen, but we are unable to explain it
fully at present.

Powdered cadmium dissolves in a solution of aniline nitrate, and if the
temperature be maintained below 10° no appreciable evolution of gas occurs, and
a considerable yield of diazoaminobenzene is obtained. The course of the reaction
is very similar to that with the ammonium salt, a little aniline being liberated in
the first instance.

9. Report on the Study of Hydio-aromatic Substances.— See Reports, p. 60.

10. The Constitution of Nickel Carbonyl. By H. O. Jones, M.D., D.Se.

The study of the chemical reaction of nickel carbonyl, first undertaken in
association with Professor Sir James Dewar, has been continued and extended.

Nickel carbonyl reacts readily with hydroxylamine in alcohol solution to give
a bluish violet-coloured gum which solidifies on standing in a desiccator, is
insoluble to all solvents, and is decomposed by water and acids and on heating to
100° C; The action of water and of heat on the compound gives rise to new com-
pounds similar in appearance to the original substance, and which react with
acids, giving nickel and hydroxylamine salts and carbon dioxide.

These compounds have not been obtained pure enough to give analytical results
of any value, but the ratio Ni : NH,OH in the original compound is found to be
1 : 4-5, and is probably 1 : 4.

Hydrazine hydrate reacts in a similar way, and gives a blue-violet solid com-
pound.

The formation of these substances shows that nickel carbonyl can react as a
ketonic compound.

Nickel carbonyl reacts with the alkyl magnesium iodide compounds of
Grignard, in some eases violently, to produce dark-coloured oily and solid sub-
stances, which contain nickel, magnesium, and iodine, and are decomposed by
acids, yielding a mixture of compounds.

The product obtained from several aliphatic iodides has been examined, but no
pure compound has hitherto been isolated and identified. Some of the compounds
produced react with sodium bisulphite, hydroxylamine, and substituted hydrazines,
and are very probably ketonic.

The product of the action of phenyl magnesium iodide on nickel carbonyl :

504 REPORT—1904.

when treated with acids gave rise to a mixture which was found to consist chiefly
of diphenyl and benzoin. The former is very readily produced from phenyl
magnesium iodide, and is frequently observed among the products of its reactions.
ee eter of benzoin has an important bearing on the constitution of nickel
carbonyl,

All the reactions of nickel carbonyl which have been described previously can
be equally well explained by means of either of the two formulz

G2 “9 CO—CO
7 =C=0 :
Ni G=0Q and NiC |

which have been proposed; but benzoin could be produced in a much simpler way
from a compound with the second formula, Its production may therefore be

regarded as evidence in favour of this,
The following suggestion as to the course of the reaction is to be regarded as

purely tentative : —

C,H, OMgI
a
/o—CO eK ZOMel
Ni | + 4C,H—Mg—I > Ni | CO.H,
CO—CO C—C/C,H,
we \OMel
C,f, OMel ;
| H,O and acid
C,H; JOH
2C,H,—CHOH A
C_c/oH
ck a 00 ei NiK |\C.Hs
+ nickel salt, C—C/C,H
/\._ Soil
'6**5 OH
The product
C,H, >C—OH
C,H; >C—OH

is supposed to undergo molecular transformation into benzoin,

11. A Suggested Explanation of the Phenomena of Opalescence observed in
the Neighbourhood of Critical States, By F. G. Donnan.

It has been frequently observed (Guthrie, Rothmund, Friedlinder, Kono-
walow) that a mixture of two liquids becomes opalescent before the temperature
is reached at which definite separation into two phases occurs. Similarly, a
mixture of two partially miscible liquids remains opalescent at temperatures beyond
that corresponding to the disappearance of the meniscus. Apparently analogous
phenomena have been noticed in the case of one-component liquid-vapour systems,
especially by Wesendonck and Teichner. The latter has observed the existence
of permanent opalescent states in the case of carbon tetrachloride at temperatures
several degrees higher than the critical. These phenomena, so far as they
refer to mixtures of liquids, have been studied by Konowalow, who considers that
they are due to a partial separation into two phases, occurring round dust-nuclei
acting as centres of disturbance. Konowalow shows that such a disturbance of
equilibrium in the otherwise homogeneous liquid will, in the neighbourhood of the
critical solution temperature, involve only a slight expenditure of work owing to

. the small change of vapour-pressure with composition under these conditions,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 505

The author suggests another explanation, which involves the following suppc-
sitions :—

(a) Below the critical temperature the interfacial tension between the two
phases is positive for all values of the radius of curvature.

(6) At the critical temperature the interfacial tension becomes zero for all
ordinary curvatures, but remains positive for very small values of the radius of
curvature. It will be seen that this assumption involves the furthér one, that at
the temperature of disappearance of the meniscus at a bounding surface of
ordinary curvature (critical temperature) the two phases do not become identical.

(c) At temperatures slightly above the critical the interfacial tension is still
positive for very small radii of curvature, but negative for all ordinary curvatures.

(d) At still higher temperatures the interfacial tension becomes negative for
all curvatures,

These assumptions carry with them the main assumption that the interfacial
tension between two liquid phases increases in general with diminution of the
radius of curvature of the bounding surface. This increase, however, need not
extend to the very smallest values of the radius of curvature. It is also neces-
sary to suppose that the curve connecting interfacial tension with radius of curva-
ture of the bounding interface suffers a shift towards the region of negative values
of the interfacial tension as the temperature rises,

Granting these assumptions, the existence of permanent opalescent states above
the ordinary critical point follows at once. For it can be shown that the con-
ditions specified, for example, under (c) would produce a system in which one
phase would be distributed throughout the other in a state of very fine sub-
division. If the particles are small enough, such a system would not present a
milky appearance, but would doubtless be opalescent.

An interesting question concerning the nature of the critical state is thus
raised—namely, as to whether there is not sufficient experimental evidence to
justify the belief that the passage of systems through critical states is insufficiently
described by the simple theory of Andrews? That is the wider question at issue.
The particular form of explanation suggested in the present paper also raises the
question as to whether the observed phenomena may not admit of interpretation
by taking into consideration the operation of capillary forces ?

These points seem worthy of discussion, especially in relation to the theories
of ‘ gaseous’ and ‘ liquid’ molecules—‘ Gasonen ’ and ‘ Fluidonen’ devised in recent
years by de Heen, Traube, and others.

The present communication has arisen out of a correspondence on the subject
with Professor van’t Hoff, to whom the main idea is due.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On Crystal Structure and its Relation to Chemical Constitution,
By Professor Paut Grotu.

The molecular hypothesis assumes that in solid bodies the molecular move-
ments occur about certain equilibrium positions which can only be altered by the
operation of external forces. In crystalline bodies the spacial arrangement of
these equilibrium positions must consequently be a regular one.

The possible kinds of crystal structure—that is, the kinds of regular arrange-
ment cf congruent molecules—were first discussed by Bravais, who described
fourteen such kinds of structure and distinguished them as ‘ space lattices.’
Bravais’s theory, however, only explains seven kinds of symmetry which possess
the properties of crystal symmetry, and the incompleteness of his work reposes on
the introduction of an unnecessary assumption, namely, that the molecules occupy
parallel positions. Sohncke discarded this assumption in attacking the problem,

506 REPORT—1904.

-gnd merely sought for those arrangements of congruent molecules in which the

arrangement of parts is the same about every molecule; he thus arrived at
sixty-five regular ‘point systems.’ By the discovery of these, most, though not
quite all, of the symmetrical relationships of the properties of crystals became
explicable. Sohncke further developed his theory of crystal structure by intro-
ducing the assumption that two or more regular point systems, consisting of
different kinds of molecules, may be interlaced or supposed to interpenetrate in
such a way that equilibrium results. This, however, is only possible when the
different point systems possess the same ‘coincidence movements’ (Deckschie-
bungen)—that is to say, when they are built up from space lattices of identical
dimensions. This form of the theory is also deducible from the theory of regular
point systems if the different individual atoms constituting the molecule are con-
sidered in place of the centres of gravity of the molecules; each set of analogous
atoms then form a regular point system, and, by the interlacing of the several
systems, a compound system is obtained consisting of as many component systems
as there are kinds of atoms in the chemical molecule. This, the most general
theory of crystal structure, may be summarised by the following definition.

A erystal—considered as indefinitely extended—consists of » interpenetrating
recular- point systems, each of which is formed from similar atoms ; each of these
point systems is built up from a number of interpenetrating space lattices, each
of the latter being formed from similar atoms occupying parallel positions. All
the space lattices of the combined system are geometrically identical or are charac-
terised by the same elementary parallelepipedon.

In this form the theory is capable of elucidating all the observed regularities
of crystal structure, and it is unnecessary to assume the operation of any ‘molecular
forces’ in addition to the forces which act upon the atoms themselves. No diffi-
culties now arise in ascribing to the atoms the power of assuming a definite
orientation, since, according to J. J. Thomson, the atoms are not mere points,
but highly complex structures.

If acrystal is built up of but one kind of atom it consists of a crystalline element,
and is produced from but one kind of regular-point system the properties of which
depend upon the forces exercised upon each cther by the similar atoms involved,
In the case of a chemical compound, however, there must be just as many
regular-point systems in the combined system as there are kinds of atoms in the
chemical molecule, and the arrangement of the combined system must correspond
with the equilibrium of the forces with which similar and dissimilar atoms act
upon each other.

On solution, melting, or evaporation of the crystal the combined system
separates into its component and freely moving molecules, and the relative posi-
tions in space of the point systems or space lattices, composed from the several
kinds of atoms, must therefore be such as to correspond with the arrangement of
the atoms in the chemical molecule. The difference between the crystalline and
the amorphous state thus consists in that in the latter the chemical molecules
have a mutually independent existence, whilst in the crystal the idea attached to
the term molecule is different, the molecule being regarded only as a group or
assemblage of atoms belonging to several interpenetrating point systems. Such
an assemblage can under certain conditions be quite an arbitrary one; thus, the
structure of crystalline sodium chloride—making the simplest conceivable
assumption—consists of a cubic space lattice of sodium atoms and a similar
space lattice of chlorine atoms, the latter atoms occupying the mean points
in the lattice of sodium atoms. It is obviously a matter of quite arbitrary
choice with which of the neighbouring sodium atoms a particular chlorine
atom will remain combined as a molecule of sodium chloride when the mole-
cules of the latter separate during the passage into the amorphous state by
melting, solution, &e. The same considerations naturally hold when, instead of
two simple space lattices, two regular-point systems consisting of chlorine and
sodium atoms are imagined to coalesce. In this case any multiple of the complex
NaCl may be regarded as the ‘ molecule,’ and thus has arisen the failure of all
attempts hitherto made to determine the molecular magnitudes of crystalline bodies,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 507

In order to ascertain the crystal structure of a substance with any degree of
probability the most complete possible knowledge is required concerning it, such
as of its optical properties, its cohesion relationships, the orientation of its
different solubility directions (etch figures), and more especially the knowledge of
its crystalline form under the most widely differing conditions of formation. If
the product of only one crystallisation is examined, the possibility is incurred that
the crystals so produced exhibit casual forms developed under quite special conditions
of growth; and only by investigating many different crystallisations separated
from different solvents under different conditions of temperature, &c., does it
become possible to recognise those faces the development of which is most
favoured during growth or, what is the same thing, to learn which planes are parallel
to the greatest density of structure. Ifthese planes are taken as the elementary faces,
it is always found, not only that they are identical with the cleavage plane, with
the most stable plane of twinning, &c., but also that the other forms present on the
crystal assume the simplest indices. The greater the number of forms observed
upon the crystals, so much the greater is the probability of being able to choose
the correct elements for the crystal, because the faces most likely to be favoured
during the growth of the crystal are those the indices of which are composed of
the simplest numbers. Jlaving found the correct elements of the crystal, it is a
simple matter of calculation to ascertain the ratio of the three parameters and the
angles of the elementary parallelepipedon upon which the structure of the crystal is
built up, and which is therefore a prime characteristic of the structure.

Since the equilibrium in a crystal structure is dependent on the conditions of
movement of the component atoms, the stability of the equilibrium must alter with
the temperature; and since each form of structure may possess several stable
equilibrium positions of different degrees of stability, it follows that a particular
crystal structure will assume the most stable of the possible kinds of equilibrium
only within a certain range of temperature, constant pressure being assumed.
Outside these limits other kinds of arrangement will be in more stable equilibrium,
and on exceeding the limits a discontinuous change of all the physical properties
of the body will occur—that is to say, a change into another modification of
different crystal structure will ensue. Polymorphism, the property of existing in
different crystalline phases, must be distinguished from polysymmetry, or the
power possessed by pseudosymmetrical crystals of forming apparently simple
crystals of higher symmetry by repeated twinning. Amongst the latter the
change into the form of true higher symmetry can indeed take place at a specific
temperature, but the change is not accompanied by a discontinuous change in the
density and the specific heat. Amongst the truly polymorphous bodies, however,
even when the crystalline forms of the several modifications exhibit a certain
similarity, so great a dissimilarity still exists between them in physical and
erystallographical respects that the various modifications must be referred to quite
ditterent elementary parallelepipeda. A difference in the crystal structure is thus
introduced, and this may arise from the regular point systems, which compose
the combined system, consisting each of one or of several space lattices.

On comparing the polymorphous relationships of two different but chemically
similar substances it 1s found that the temperature (or pressure) limits of the
stability of the several modifications are not the same—thus, considering analogous
chloro-, bromo-, and iodo-compounds, it is often observed that the temperatures of
change for the chloro- and bromo-compounds are lower than for the iodo-com-
pound, just as is often the case with the melting-points of such analogous sub-
stances. As a result totally different polymorphous modifications of the various
members of analogous series exist at one and the same temperature.

The foregoing leads to the definite conclusion that the relationships between
the crystal structures of two chemically related substances can only be recognised
if their corresponding modifications are available for comparison; every chemico-
erystallographical comparison of two or more substances must therefore be based
upon a study of the polymorphism relationships. If the existence of correspond-
ing modifications is established by such a study, the further complete investiga-
tion of these forms leads to the determination of the most probable values of the

508 REPORT—1904,

dimensions of the elementary parallelepipeda of the crystal structure; by taking
the planes of the elementary parallelepipedon as the basis for assigning symbols to
the crystal faces, the so-called ‘elements’ of the crystal give immediately the
angles, a, 8, and y, and the relative lengths a: 6 : ¢ of the sides of the elementary
parallelepipedon, The elements of the two comparable substances being

1, a: b,: ¢, and a,, B,, y;
Zs, Ae 3 by > Cy aNd Gy) Boy Yos

the comparison of the two sets of elements, if all the other necessary conditions
are fulfilled, permits the determination of the alteration which ensues in the
structure of the crystal 1, if it be converted by substitution into the substance of
crystal form 2, This alteration may be regarded as a ‘ homogeneous deformation’
of the parallelepipedon, because a homogeneous edifice—the crystal structure of
form 1 becomes thereby converted into another homogeneous edifice—the crystal
structure of the crystal of modification 2. The character of this deformation
cannot be recognised through the comparison of the axial ratios of the two sub-
stances if these are stated in the ordinary way, but can only be ascertained if the
axial ratios are expressed in terms of the same unit. For this purpose an exact
determination of the specific gravity of the two substances is made and the
‘equivalent volume’ calculated therefrom; the dimensions (parameters) of the
elementary parallelepipeda can then be at once referred to the same unit, namely,
to the side of a cubic elementary parallelepipedon of a substance of which the
molecular weight is equal to the density (equivalent density —1). Such comparable
parameters are termed the ‘ topical axial ratios,’ and are described as x, y, and o.
The comparison of the following substances may be quoted as a simple example.

Ammonium iodide erystallises in hexahedra and exhibits a perfect cleavage
parallel to {100}, so that its crystal structure is undoubtedly hexahedral or cubic.
Tetramethylammonium iodide crystallises in the tetragonal system and shows per-
fect cleavages parallel to {100} and {001}; its most probable crystal structure
therefore differs from that of ammonium iodide only in the ratio of the axes a
and c, The direction in which the crystal structure has been altered by the sub-
stitution of 4H by 4CH, is seen by a comparison of the topical axial rativs; as
the following table shows, the principal axis c has undergone no noteworthy change,
but the parameter of the two axes a and d is much greater in the methylated com-
pound. Tetraethylammonium iodide is similarly tetragonal and exhibits a regular
increase of the parameter of the two equal axes in the same direction ; the increase
in the equivalent volume is also quite regular during the transition from 4H to
40H, to 4C,H;. On further attempting to lengthen the dimension a and 6, by
exchanging 4C,H, for 4C,H.,, a quite different deformation comes into play. Asa
result of this » and increase, and y decreases.

NH, N(CH;),I_ = N(C,H;),I N(C,H,)4I
05'9.

Equivalent volume 57°51 108°70 162-91 255°95
= 3:860 5°319 6:648 6-093
v= 3 860 5-319 6648 7851
w= 3-860 3 842 3°686 4:933

The so-called morphotropic relationships between numerous organic substances
which have been brought to light during many years past consist mainly in the
observation that the substitution of H by CH,, NO,, OH, &c., gives rise in many
cases to but partial changes in the crystalline form. In order, however, to deter-
mine the direction of deformation, as has been done above for the alkylated
ammonium iodides, all the substances must be studied in accordance with the
principles laid down above, and their specific gravities determined; further, in
cases in which no morphotropic relationships can be traced it must be ascertained
whether the substances compared are not different—non-corresponding—modifica-
tions. Regularities from which conclusions can be drawn concerning the position
of the atoms or atomic groups in the crystal structure can only be traced as a
result of this kind of complete investigation of long series of chemically related

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 509

compounds, ‘That such conclusions can be drawn is evident from the above
example.

The only study of related substances which satisfies all the requirements noted
above is to be found in the brilliant work of Tutton on_the sulphates and selenates;
this relates to the comparatively small changes which result from the replacement
of K by Cs, Rb and NH, in so-called ‘isomorphous compounds.’ In spite of the
smallness of the changes produced, Tutton has been able to establish definite
relationships between the atomic weight of the metal concerned and the crystal
structure, and his work therefore stands as a sample of the way in which chemico-
crystallographical investigations must in the future be carried out for the purpose
of determining the mutual relationship of the crystal structure and the chemical
substance.

As is well known, isomorphous substances possess the power of forming
homogeneous mixtures, and, since in these mixtures the properties continuously
change with the composition, they have been described as ‘ solid solutions.’ Such
a miscibility often exists, however, within certain limits between substances
possessing totally different crystal structures, so that the solidification curves of
the molten mixtures of such substances show just the same relationships as if the
mixtures had been made from two truly isomorphous materials. It is therefore
incorrect to conclude that two substances are isomorphous from an examination of
the melting and solidification curves of their mixtures.

Ouly those substances which exhibit corresponding crystal structures as a
result of their chemical analogy can be regarded as isomorphous; mixed solutions
of two such substances may be caused to deposit apparently homogeneous crystals
in which the atoms of one element are partially replaced by atoms of another
without overthrowing the equilibrium of the crystalline structure. ‘The preserva-
tion of the equilibrium will clearly be the more easy the less the differences between
the forces determining the crystal structure in the two isomorphous substances,
and the less therefore also the difference between the two crystal structures. The
properties of the mixture must be immediately deducible additively from those of
the components ; thus, for instance, each component must preserve its individual
specific gravity in the mixture, as has been shown by the careful investigations of
Retgers to be the case.

Lastly, the facts which Kipping and Pope have brought to light in connection
with optically active and racemic compounds can be brought into unison with the
above discussion on crystal structure. The crystal structure of a racemic com-
pound contains a regular-point system of carbon atoms, one half of which is the
mirror image of the other half—the other atoms present in the compound form
point systems similarly arranged and constituted—whilst the pseudoracemic
substances stand to the active components in the same relation as polysymmetric
substances.

The object of the author is to state clearly the point of view in accordance
with which previous investigations must be developed in order that generally
applicable conclusions can be deduced therefrom.

2. On Dynamic Isomerism. By T. M. Lowry, D.Sc.—See Reports, p. 193.

3. The Constitution of Phthalein Salts. By Professor Ricuarp Meyer,

The author gave an account of his experimental work on the constitution
of phthalein salts at the last Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte
at Cassel.!

Phenolphthalein itself is colourless and is generally regarded as a lactone,
whilst the quinonoid formula is assigned to its red alkali salts by the majority of

' Ber. d. deutsch. Chem, Ges., 36, 2949 (1903).

510 REPORT—1904.

chemists. J luorescein, being coloured both in the free state and in the form of
salts, is regarded as being quinonoid either when free or combined.

Quinolphthalein (I), the constitution of which has been confirmed by work
dene in the author’s laboratory, does not come into quite the same category, and
its red alkali salts must be supposed to possess a meta-quinonoid constitution
(II or III).

C,4,.CO
44 C,H,.COOH
|
+N e 7 ~ Haw
a 4 x FO ae
ue A ye \ou Ho % D\ \ Neo
| I | | Lae |
aos IRIN 29 fade \ iL ARTO Se a
—y \Y my, or Nid wy
O O

Metaquinones being at present unknown, further work on the above substances
was desirable, and the author and his assistant, Mr. O. Sprengler, have therefore
studied the ethers and oximes of phenol- and quinol-phthalein, preparing these
substances in alkaline solution; the results of this work point to the lactonic
formula of the alkali salts as being correct, both in the case of quinolphthalein
and of phenolphthalein. They drew attention recently to the fact that the
anilides of the phthaleins dissolve in alkali without giving rise to coloration; if
these anilides have the same constitution as the phthaleins themselves, this dis-
tinction might arise from a difference in basicity. They therefore endeavoured to
ascertain the equivalents of these substances. A measured volume of standard
caustic-soda solution was treated for two hours at the ordinary temperature with an
excess of phenolphthalein; in a second and a third experiment quinolphthalein
and phenolphthalein anilide were subjected to similar treatment. The undis-
solved residue was filtered off and washed, the filtrate being then precipitated
with dilute sulphuric acid; the precipitates were filtered, washed, dried, and
weighed. The results agreed with the formulee—

C,,H,,0,Nay, O,,H,,0,Na,, and C,,H,,0,(NC,H,)Na,.

Thus all three compounds behave alike as dibasic acids, and from this point of
view no difference is traceable between the anilide and the free phthaleins; the
anilide is, however, more feebly acidic than the phthaleins, being precipitated by
the latter from its alkaline solution.

These experiments have some bearing on those described recently by A. G.
Green and A. G. Perkin; but the results of these investigators differ from the
present because they worked under different conditions.

The authors have made many attempts, under varied conditions, to obtain a
quinonoid ether of phenol- or quinol-phthalein, employing methyl iodide and
methyl sulphate both in aqueous and alcoholic solutions, and using an excess of
alkali and also of sodium methoxide. In each case the same di-ethers as before

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RB. 511

were obtained ; they are colourless, and doubtless possess a lactonic constitution.
Only when the neutral sodium salts of the two phthaleins are treated two new
compounds are formed, in addition to the well-known di-ethers. These substances
proved to be the mono-ethers, C,,H,,0,,0CH, and C,,H,,0,OCH,, and are not
carboxylic but hydroxylic ethers; they could not be saponified, and on further
treatment with alkyl salts yielded the lactonic ethers, They do not decompose
sodium carbonate, and hence do not contain a free carboxyl group; moreover,
they are colourless, and are doubtless of lactonic constitution, just as are the
di-ethers. They form, however, red salts, the constitution of which is open to
discussion.

The quinonoid formulz of the phthaleins indicate the presence of one carboxyl
and one phenolic hydroxyl group in the molecule, whilst, according to the lactonic
formula, two phenolic hydroxyl groups are present. The etherification conditions
of carboxylic acids and phenols were therefore studied, as it appeared of prime
importance to ascertain whether the carboxyl group can be esterified under the
conditions prevailing in the present experiments—namely, in neutral or alkaline
solution. The following facts were established as the result of numerous experi-
ments, carried out under a great variety of conditions. Phenol is always converted
into its ethers by means of alkyl halogen salts and by methyl sulphate, whether
the solution be alkaline or neutral, or even acid; the only point of difference is in
the yield obtained. Benzoic acid, however, can only be esterified in acid or
neutral solutions, but not in alkaline ones, whether alkyl halogen salts or methyl
sulphate is used.

It would seem difficult to reconcile the above results with the quinonoid
formula of the phthalein salts; the difticulty involved in the assumption of the
quinonoid theory is also felt by A. G. Green and A. G. Perkin, and they attempt
to overcome it by assuming the intermediate formation of the carbinol salt. This
view would indicate that the red solution contains, in addition to the quinonoid
salt, a certain proportion of carbinol salt, from which latter the lactonic ethers
are produced; and that during the course of the reaction the quinonoid salt is
progressively converted into carbinol salt, in accordance with the law of mass
action, until the change has become complete. The carbinol salt could only be
formed by opening the ring, and this could only take place whilst working in
presence of excess of alkali; since, however, the author has obtained the same
Jactonic di-ethers in neutral solution, the opening of the lactonic ring in this case
would appear to be impossible.

The advocates of the quinonoid theory point to analogies between phenol-
phthalein and fluorescein, but the author is of opinion that it would be very difficult
to find, in one group of chemically related compounds, two substances more dis-
similar than are phenolphthalein and fluorescein. Thus, for instance, R. Nietzki
and P. Schroeter obtained one lactonic and three quinonoid ethers by the

* alkylation of fluorescein, whilst the salts of phenol- and quinol-phthalein never

yielded quinonoid derivatives under the most varied conditions of working. The
quinonoid ethers of tetrabromophenolphthalein, discovered by R. Nietzki and E.
Burckhardt, have no bearing on this question, because they have not been pre-
pared from the phthalein salts. It would be preferable to try to express the
different behaviour of fluorescein and phenolphthalein by the aid of chemical
formule rather than to insist on a similarity which is not warranted by the facts.

One serious difficulty arises in connection with the colour of the alkali salts:
Ostwald assumes that the red colour is due to the phthalein ions, whilst the
undissociated molecules are colourless. If, however, the ions are coloured, they
should contain a chromophoric group, such as is present in undissociated coloured
molecules; the lactonic formula does not indicate the presence in the molecule of
such a chromophoric group. At the same time, it must be agreed that, however
valuable the theory of chromophors has proved as a means of characterisation and
classification of colouring matters, it is not sufficiently comprehensive to include
all coloured organic compounds. It does not include the quinolphthaleins (and
orcinphthalein), dibenzalacetone, and other colourless substances which form deeply
coloured addition compounds with mineral acids. Adolf Baeyer introduced the

a]2 REPORT—1904.

term ‘halochromy’ as descriptive of this phenomenon, and it does not seem im~
possible that the colour of phthalein salts is due to a kind of halochromy.

The author is continuing his work in another direction, and hopes to obtain
further evidence bearing on this question.

4, Studies in the Dynamic Isomerism of a- and (3-Crotonic Acids.
Y
By R. 8S. Morrewt and E. K. Hanson.

5. Mesoxalic Semialdehyde. By Henry J. Horstman Fenton, 7.2.8.

Mesoxalic semialdehyde (COOIL—CO—CHO), it has been previously shown,!
can be obtained by the oxidation of dihydroxymaleic acid with ferric salts at
about 40°. This method is not altogether satisfactory, owing to the difficulty of
removing the iron salts, and it is now found that the oxidation may advanta-
geously be effected by means of mercuric chloride. In this case the mercury
separates almost quantitatively as calomel, and any traces remaining may be
removed by hydrogen sulphide. The properties of this semialdehyde are being
further studied, and appear to be of considerable interest. It is evident that the
aldehyde hydrate COOH—-CO—CH(OH), may be regarded as a tautomeric form
of the missing trihydroxyacrylic acid, COOH—C(OH=C(OH),, and the latter
should, by condensation with two molecules of urea, yield uric acid.

If a solution of mesoxalic semialdehyde is mixed with urea and heated,
together with dilute hydrochloric acid, a large yield of a very sparingly soluble
crystalline substance is obtained which, by its properties and composition, proves
to be glycouril, C,H,N,O,. This compound was originally obtained by reduction
of allantoin, and afterwards from glyoxal and urea,

It is evident, therefore, that a molecule of carbon dioxide splits off in tbe
reaction above described ; later experiments appear to indicate, however, that hy
modifying the conditions this loss may be prevented, in which case it is hoped
that uric acid itself may be obtained.

Although the properties of glycouril have been carefully studied by various
authors, the following very striking colour-reaction appears to have been over-
looked: the substance is evaporated to dryness with strong nitric acid on a
water bath and the white residue dissolved in caustic soda; a faint blue violet
colour here results, and now, on addition of sodium hypochlorite, a very brilliant
purple colour is obtained,

6. Note on the Influence of Radium Radiations on Atmospheric Oxidation
in presence of Iron. By Henry J. Horstman Fenton, 7.2.5,

It has been pointed out by the author in previous communications? that the
oxidation of certain hydroxy-compounds, such as tartaric acid or glycol in
presence of iron, may be brought about by atmospheric oxygen in presence of
sunlight, and that the products are the same as those obtained when hydrogen
dioxide is employed as oxidizing agent. It is now found that the influence of
yadiations from radium bromide may, in certain cases, produce effects similar in
this respect to those obtained by exposure to sunlight. A solution of tartaric
acid, for example, containing a small quantity of ferrous tartrate, was divided into
two parts and kept in the dark in presence of air, one of the tubes being placed
directly over a specimen of radium bromide. On testing the solutions after a day
or two with phenylhydrazine acetate a very striking difference was observed in
the results, the exposed solution giving a comparatively copious precipitate of
Nastvogel’s osazone.

1 Fenton and Ryffel, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1902.
2 British Association Report, 1895 and 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 513

7. A Colour Reaction for Methylfurfural and its Derivatives.
By H. J. H. Fenton, £.2.S., and J. P. Mituineton, B.A.

When bromo-methylfurfural is heated with dimethylaniline and a de-hydrat-
ing agent, such as phosphorus oxychloride, zine chloride, or dry oxalic acid, an
intensely blue-coloured compound is obtained, This reaction is extremely sensi-
tive, and is given by bromo-, chloro-, iodo-, or acetoxy-methylfurfural, and by
methylfurfural itself, but not by the condensation products previously described.!

Asa dye the blue colour appears to be very permanent in the dark, but slowly
fades in sunlight.

8. A Reaction for Keto-hexoses. By Henry J. Horstman Fenton, F.R.S.

By oxidation of levulose, cane sugar, inulin, or sorbose in presence of ferrous
iron at about 90°-100°, and heating the resulting solution with phenylhydrazine-
p-sulphonic acid, a compound is obtained which dyes silk a rich brownish pink
colour, which is remarkably stable and permanent. This reaction appears to
be especially characteristic of keto-hexoses or substances which yield them on
hydrolysis, and is given by dextrose, milk sugar, maltose or starch only to a
limited extent, or not at all.

9. On the Energy of Water and Steam at High Temperatures.
By Professor C. Dieterict.

The author has devised a method for determining the specific heat of water at
temperatures up to 300°C. The water is enclosed in quartz tubes, which are
sufficiently strong to withstand the pressure of steam—namely, about 100 atmo-
spheres at 300° C.—and the determinations are made with the aid of the ice
calorimeter. The results obtained may be expressed by the formula

e = 1:0160 — 0:0,6057¢ + 0:0,430222,

in which the specific heat, ¢, is given as a function of the temperature. The
formula holds between 50° and 300’ C., but does not hold below 50° C., because
at such low temperatures the point of maximum specific heat first observed by
Rowland occurs.

The observations made with water completely enclosed in a tube give the
difference between the energy of the liquid water at ¢° C. and that of the water
at 0° C. Since the heat of evaporation is known or calculable, this quantity,
diminished by the external work, gives the energy difference between saturated
steam and liquid water at ¢° C.

Very careful observations have been published by Sir W. Ramsay and
Professor 8. Young (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1891) on the pressure of unsaturated steam
between 140° and 270°; and since the relation between energy change and
volume at constant temperature is given by the equation

A Gy

Ov/T Or] v

of the mechanical theory of heat, the change of energy of superheated steam
depends only on the pressure, and can be calculated from the author's present
observations. It is, therefore, possible to calculate the energy isothermals and to
draw the isothermal lines for water.

After applying the most accurate methods of calculation possible to the new
observations, the author draws the following conclusions :—

At about 200° C. the specific heat of superheated steam at constant volume is
0°5, and is practically independent of the volume if the latter is much greater

- 1 Fenton and Gostling, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 1899, 423, and 1901, 807.
1904. LL

514 REPORT—1904.

than the saturation volume. As, however, the volume diminishes to the volume
of saturation, the specific heat increases to about 0-7. The specific heat at con-
stant pressure, C,, similarly varies from 0°6 to 0°8. Further, in the well-known
equation of state of Van der Waals

RT

p+ —
Pp Tr — 3?

the cohesion pressure, 7, cannot be taken as = but is such a function of v and
v

T that it has a considerable value for large volumes at low temperatures, and for
small volumes at higher temperatures.

10. On the Specific Heat of Gases at High Temperatures.
By Professor H. B. Dixon, F.B.S.

1l. The Oxidation of Carbohydrates by Hydrogen Peroxide in presence of
Ferrous Sulphate. By R.S. Morreri and A, E. BELiars.

12. Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and
Compounds.—See Reports, p. 66.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Sur la photographie des spectres détincelle directe des minéraux
sulfurés. Par le Comte A. DE Gramont, D. és Sc.Ph.

J’ai repris, avec l’aide des procédés photographiques, des recherches que j’avais
poursuivies autrefois sur les spectres des minéraux ou des produits métallurgiques
bons conducteurs, entre deux fragments desquels jaillit ]’étincelle d’une ou plu-
sieurs bouteilles de Leyde alimentées par une bobine de Rhumkorff. J’avais
établi ainsi! que l’étincelle condensée dissocie les composés en donnant des
spectres de lignes trés vives oii chaque corps est représenté par les raies carac-
téristiques de son spectre individuel. Les corps conducteurs, ou seulement volati-
lisables dans l’étincelle, se comportent donc spectroscopiquement, comme on l’avait
auparavant constaté pour les alliages métalliques, mais ils donnent en plus les
spectres de lignes des métalloides. Etudiant ensuite les principaux sulfures métal-
liques minéraux, j’avais donné les longueurs d’onde de leurs raies, et notamment de
celles qui caractérisent le soufre dans leurs spectres visibles. Mais les raies les
plus sensibles 4 I’ceil ne sont pas, comme on le sait depuis longtemps, celles qui
impressionnent le mieux la plaque photographique. Aussi ai-je repris photo-
graphiquement la recherche du spectre du soufre dans les sulfures, en superposant
sur un méme cliché le spectre du minéral étudié, galéne PbS, ou argyrose Ag?S,
avec celui d’un tube de Pliicker chauffé, contenant du soufre en vapeurs; les raies
données par le tube se trouvent ainsi sur le prolongement des raies correspon-
dantes du sulfure minéral. Deux séries de clichés ont été prises: (1°) avec un
spectrographe a partie optique toute en quartz, prisme Cornu (droit et gauche) et
lentilles non achromatiques de 40 cm. de foyer; on avait ainsi tout le spectre

1 Comptes Rendus des Séances de VAcadémie des Sciences de Paris, 2 Juillet
1894, 8 Juillet 1895; Bulletin de la Société Francaise de Minéralogie, 1895; et
vol. i. de V’ Analyse spectrale directe de Minéraux (Librairie Béranger, Paris, 1895).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 515

photographiable ; (2°) avec deux prismes en flint lourd et un objectif achromatique
de 35 cm. de foyer; on obtenait ainsi avec une dispersion suffisante la partie com-
prise entre Ad0Oup et AZ50up. L’étincelle était fournie par une bobine de
Rhumkorff donnant de 8 4 5 cm. d’étincelle, chargeant un condensateur formé de
deux, trois, ou quatre jarres de Leyde dont chaque armature offrait environ 12
décimétres carrés de surface, et une capacité de 0:0043 microfarad par jarre. Les
minéraux étudiés en petits fragments, comme ceux des essais au chalumeau, étaient
maintenus 4 une distance d’un millimétre environ par des pinces & bout de platine.
Il est utile de ménager, dans le circuit de décharge des jarres, une coupure a écarte-
ment variable, afin de régler le potentiel de I’étincelle sans augmenter I’6cartement
des minéraux dont le spectre est photographié. L’introduction d’une trés faible
self-induction (0# 00008 Henry, environ) élimine le spectre de l’air, mais affaiblit
beaucoup le spectre du soufre, qu'il est avantageux de renforcer en augmentant la
condensation jusqu’d trois ou quatre jarres. Dans une étude spéciale de l’action
de la self-induction sur les spectres de dissociation des composés' j'ai d’ailleurs
étudié les conditions de disparition des spectres des métalloides.

Dans l’observation visuelle du spectre les groupes de raies du soufre les plus
caractéristiques sont situés dans le vert: a (5665 & 5509); 8 (5475 a 5429);
y (5248; 5320); §(5213; 5201), la raie 8 (5453) étant la derniére 4 disparaitre et
la plus sensible.

Il n’en est plus de méme avec le procédé photographique, & cause de la limite
dimpressionnabilité des plaques au gélatino-bromure. Les groupes les plus carac-
téristiques ont varié, et se trouvent alors dans le bleu, l’indigo et surtout dans le
violet. L’emploi de systémes optiques en flint est tout indiqué, l’absorption de
cette substance pour les rayons plus réfrangibles que \350up ne présentant pas d’in-
conyénient dans ce cas, et sa forte dispersion permettant de résoudre plus facile-
ment qu’avec le quartz ou le spath les groupes de raies multiples mais non trés
réfrangibles qui décélent le plus nettement le soufre. Voici le tableau de ces raies
photographiées avec un tube 4 soufre d’abord, puis avec la galéne et avec l'argy-
rose. Je donne ici les valeurs de MM. Eder et Valenta pour les longueurs d’onde
des raies. Mes déterminations concordaient avec les leurs 4 deux unités prises du
cinquiéme chiffre, mais les intensités relatives des lignes dans la partie la plus
réfrangible, qui ne figure pas ici, étaient notablement différentes, et je me propose
de reprendre l’examen de cette question dans un travail ultérieur.

Sn 4812-0 4354-7 4189-9 3933°6
S@ 47164 4332°9 41745

45526 4294°6 Sp 4162°9 3919°5
Su 4525-1 Gq | £2851 "| 41533

4483°5 4267-2 4145°3 3497°4

4464-2 4253°8 4142-4

4362°6

Toutes ces raies sont d’intensité notable. Les groupes les plus caractéristiques et
les plus sensibles sont Sz et surtout Sp.

2. Quelques observations sur le groupement des raies du spectre du
silicium d’apres Veffet de la self-induction, et sur leur présence dans
les spectres stellaires. Parle Comte A. Dp Gramont, D, és Se.Ph.

Dans une courte note? présentée l’an dernier au meeting de la British Associa-
tion, 4 Southport, j’ai donné les premiers résultats de mes recherches sur la compa-
raison entre les raies du spectre d’étincelle du silicium qui résistent ou disparaissent
sous l’action de la self-induction, et les raies correspondantes des spectres stellaires,

' Comptes Rendus de l Académie des Sciences de Paris, 5 et 26 Mai 1902.

2 «Sur le spectre de self-induction du silicium et ses comparaisons astro-
nomiques,’ rectifier la faute d’impression suivante: dans le doublet 3 lire 5979 au
lieu de 5879. D’autre part de nouvelles mesures photographiques m’ont permis de
donner des mesures plus précises du doublet 7.

LL2

fr

516 REPORT—1904.

J’ai repris récemment ce travail avec un prisme composé de Rutherford et un
objectif de 45 cm. de foyer, et je voudrais ajouter ici les résultats que j’ai obtenus et
comparés avec le groupement des raies du silicium tel que Sir Norman Lockyer

le fait @aprés des températures supposées croissantes de I. a LV.'

Lockyer.

Groupes thermiques.

A, de Gramont.
Classification basée sur l’effet de la self-induction.

Iv ice ries i ) Disparaissant avec le spectre de lair et
3 4116-4 41166 A? sous l’action d’une trés faible self-
4103-5 A? induction. 0#-00009.
4552°8 4552°3
iil. ers Sid {ase Trés affaiblies avec la self précédente, dis-
3807-5 paraissent pour une self-induction de
Sin [3r360 (;1'00060.
38791°5
3853°9 3854-2
sBe7 ® 138502 Les derniéres 4 disparaitre pour une
; at self-induction voisine de 0*-00620.
14 41281 gig {4128°2
lalated (41310
5042°0
5057°0
I paint Sig 3905-7 )
* (4103°2 Résistent 4 une self-induction de prés
- (5044:0 de 0#-03000 sans étre affaiblies.
SiY 1 5058-7

Les lignes du groupe IV., qui d’aprés Sir Norman Lockyer indiqueraient une
température excessive, ont toujours, sur mes clichés, accompagné les raies de V’air
et disparu avec elles. Elles coincident avec des lignes de Voxygéne ou del’azote,
mesurées par Neovius, Exner et Kaschek, ou Hemsalech. Ces deux gaz ont
@ailleurs été reconnus dans plusieurs étoiles d’Orion et dans B Crucis,’ ou l’on
rencontre aussi les raies du silicium. Je crois done que les raies du groupe IV.
pourraient appartenir 4 lair, de méme que la raie 41035 du groupe I., qui serait
différente de 4103-10 signalée par Rowland dans le spectre solaire et dans le
spectre d’arc du silicium.

Le groupe III. devrait comprendre le triplet Siy qui accompagne Sid dans
« Canis Majoris et dans plusieurs étoiles d’Orion, et qui disparait dans les mémes
conditions.

Il faudrait, au contraire, retirer du groupe II. le doublet vert Siy qui résiste
absoliiment 4 la plus forte self-induction dont j’aie disposé—ce sont des raies de
basse température, et elles devraient étre rangées dans le groupe I. avec la ligne
Sig, (8905-7), commune a l’are et a 1’étincelle, et qui se voit dans le spectre
solaire.

Pour les longueurs d’ondes des lignes des spectres d’étoiles que j’ai identifiées
avec celles du silicium, je m’en suis rapporté aux nombres donnés dans les publica-
tions de MacClean, de Lockyer, de J. Lunt, et surtout de Miss Maury:
‘Spectra of Bright Stars.’* Ce dernier mémoire contient une table des ‘Orion
lines’ trouvées dans les groupes IVII. de sa classification stellaire; parmi les
raies qui y figurent j’ai trouvé, en sus des raies de l’hydrogéne et de V’hélium, la

lupart des raies du silicium que je viens de donner ci-dessus, et notamment Sid,
ic, Si¢,, Sin (8791). On y voit aussi celles du groupe de raies IV. de Lockyer, que
je suppose dues & l’azote et & l’oxygéne.

1 Proce. of the Roy. Soc., vol. \xvii. 1901, p. 403.

2 MacClean, Spectra of Southern Stars, London, 1898; and Comparative Stellar
Spectra, Phil. Trans. 1898.

8 Roy. Soe. Prov. 1901, vol. lxvii. p. 403.

4 Ann of the Astr. Obs. of Harvard College, vol. xxviii.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 517

En comparant les raies du silicium avec leurs correspondants dans les spectres
stellaires, et en observant la répartition de celles-ci suivant les grandes classes
d’étoiles des quatre types de Secchi, nous obtiendrons les conclusions suivantes :

1°, Seules les étoiles de la premiére classe (& hydrogéne et 4 hélium) montrent
les raies du silicium que supprime la self-induction. Les étoiles & hélium, par
exemple celles d’Orion ou ¢ Canis Majoris, réputées les plus chaudes, donnent avec
intensité les raies qui disparaissent les premiéres: Sid, Sij. Au contraire, les
étoiles 4 hydrogéne, comme Sirius, et celles qui se rapprochent du type solaire,
comme Procyon, donnent surtout Sie, Si¢,, qui disparaissent les derniéres par
Vaccroissement de la self. Deneb (a Cygni), qui parait étre &4 un stage inter-
médiaire, montre simultanément ces différentes raies propres & chacune des deux
catégories d’étoiles.

2°, Les étoiles de la seconde classe, du type solaire, montrent les raies spéciales
aVarc, y compris ¢, qui résiste 4 la self, et se voit aussi dans le ‘ flash spectrum’
des éclipses. II serait intéressant de rechercher si quelques-unes des étoiles de
cette classe ne donnent pas aussi les doublets persistants, Sia et Siy.

3°. Les étoiles des troisiéme et quatriéme classes, 4 spectres de bandes et
réputées de température peu élevée, n’ont pas montré de raies du silicium.

En admettant, done, ce qui est de toute vraisemblance, que l’action de la self-
induction fait disparaitre les raies de haute température, en laissant subsister
seulement celles de l’auréole de 1’étincelle, on voit que la répartition des raies du
silicium dans les étoiles vient confirmer les classifications basées sur les tempéra-
tures relatives attribuées 4 celles-ci.

3. Changes produced by the /3-rays.
By Sir WituiaM Ramsay, &.C.B., LBS.

4. The Stereochemistry of Nitrogen. By H. O. Jonus, W.A., D.Sc.
See Reports, p. 169.

5. On the Pentavalent Nitrogen Atom. By Professor Ossian ASCHAN.

The author has previously (‘Zeits. f. physik. Chem.,’ 46, 1903, 293) expressed
the view, which is in accordance with that of van’t Hoff (‘Die Lagerung der
Atome im Raume,’ 2te Aufl., 1894, 136), that the valency directions of the
pentavalent nitrogen atom are arranged as in the appended figure :—

Fig. 1,
ad
ich Cc
Qa »
6 e

By the addition of trimethylene bromide, CH,Br.CH,.CH,Br, to ethyl-
enedipiperidide, C,H,,N.CH,.CH,.NO,H,,, and of ethylene bromide to trime-

10.

518 REPORT—1904.

thylenedipiperidide, C,H,,N .CH,.CH,.CH,.NC,H,,, the author bas obtained
two stereoisomeric compounds having the constitution,

, Br Br

GS ie bias
peach NOH, CH, .CH,7 Soup gr

which he was unable to resolve into optically active components by the aid of
Pope’s method with d-camphorsulphonice acid. Both compounds would therefore
seem to possess symmetrical configurations, and this is only possible if the above
conception of the arrangement of the valency directions of the pentavalent
nitrogen atom is correct.

Since the attempts at resolution were carried out in aqueous solution and as
possibly the d-camphorsulphonic acid is not capable of effecting an easy separation
of the stereoisomerides, the two ethylenetrimethylenedipiperidide dibromides were
caused to react with silver d-bromocamphorsulphonate in absolute methyl alcoholic
solution. Both gave highly crystalline ethylenetrimethylenedipiperidide d-bromo-
camphorsulphonates which were separated by crystallisation into four and three
fractions respectively, the fractions being then converted into the difficultly
soluble iodide by precipitation with potassium iodide, The samples of iodide
from the first and last fractions were then immediately examined polarimetrically,
but were found to be optically inactive.

The author finds in these results a confirmation of his previously expressed
views on the configuration of ammonium compounds, and notes also that this
view possesses the greatest probability on grounds of a mechanico-chemical nature.

6. Zhe Asymmetric Nitrogen Atom. By Professor E, WEDEKIND.

In 1899 I succeeded in preparing isomeric series of salts of phenylmethyl-
allylbenzylammoniumhydroxide by different methods ; since then many attempts
have been made to find analogous cases of isomerism among other asymmetric
ammonium salts, and so to explain the nature of this peculiar phenomenon. I
have already published the results of numerous experiments made with cyclic
quaternary salts of tetrahydroquinoline and isoquinoline, and with methylethyl-
phenylallylammoniumhydroxide, and now describe the results of experiments
carried out with the toluidines, to see if these bases behave like aniline.

The asymmetric salts of para-toluidine can be made by three methods. In
spite of analogous constitution, they behave very differently from the corresponding
compounds in the aniline series. Firstly, the iodides

(CH,.C,H,) (C,H) (C,H,) (CH,) N.L

prepared by three different methods, were at once obtained crystalline, and showed
chemical and crystallographical identity. The iodide and bromide are not
isomorphous; the crystals of the former are rhombic, of the latter monoclinic.
Still more remarkable was the difference in the case of the homologous benzyl
salt (C,H,*CH,) (C,H,) (C,H,) (CH,) N.I. Identical salts were obtained by all
three methods. On the other hand, there is here a case of dimorphism; the
crystals are triclinic, but show different angles. One form crystallises from
alcohol, the other from water. The iodide and bromide, however, are not isomor-
phous; and the crystals of the latter show hemihedral faces. Different relations
were observed in the ortho-toluidine series. The tertiary bases showed but little
tendency to combine with the alkyliodides (this is due to the sterochemical
hindrance of the methyl] group in the ortho-position). The salts obtained with
benzyl and allyliodide were amorphous. By the use of methyl iodide crystals were
obtained ; the quantity, however, was too small to allow of chemical and crystallo-
graphical examination. The properties of the latter salt seem to show that there
is here a second case of the new nitrogen isomerisin.

Since the preparation of optically active nitrogen compounds the question has

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION B. 519

remained undecided whether every difference in the groups attached to the nitrogen
atom was sufficient to cause activity. Contrary to expectation, I have been unable
to obtain optically active forms of the asymmetric salts of the above-mentioned
paratoluidine series. The failure was probably due to unfavourable solubility
conditions, and also to a tendency to autoracemisation. The latter phenomenon
was observed by Pope and by myself in the case of the active a-phenylmethyl-
allylbenzylammonium iodide.

This phenomenon was formerly explained by assuming the dissociation of the
salt into benzyl iodide and allylmethylaniline, according to the equation :—

(C,H) (C;H,). (CH,)N (C,H,)I @ C,H, (C,;H;) (CH,)N + C,H, I.

That is to say, by the easy passage, under certain conditions, of pentavalent into
bivalent nitrogen, and the consequent destruction of space asymmetry, and, therefore,
also of optical activity. Asa matter of fact, the iodide is largely dissociated in
boiling chloroform solution. Whether this is also the case in chloroform solution
at ordinary temperature could not then be decided. H.O. Jones, however, by
using Barger’s microscopic method for determining molecular weights, was able to
show that such salts possess normal molecular weights in chloroform solution at
ordinary temperature. The explanation of the mechanism of autoracemisation in
the case of the active asymmetric ammonium salts becomes, therefore, as difficult
as that of the spontaneous racemisation of the active esters of brom-fatty acids,
unless it is assumed that the degree of dissociation at any instant is at ordinary
temperatures so small as to escape measurement by the methods employed. This
small amount of dissociated material would on recombination form the racemic
salt. In the next instant another small quantity of the active salt would be dis-
sociated and racemised, and so on until the whole mass was racemised. It is
evident that, in spite of this process, an approximately normal molecular weight
might be found. The velocity of the change—that is to say, the amount of active
salt dissociated in the unit of time—depends upon the strength and duration of the
light falling on the solution, and also on the temperature. I am at present engaged
in the measurement of the velocity of autoracemisation under various conditions, in
the hope of elucidating this problem.

The important question whether all asymmetric ammonium salts, independent
of difference in groups, could be obtained in active forms has at last beeu answered.
Jones, after failing to obtain ammonium salts of the type N.a.a.b.c.X., and also
cyclic salts in active forms, succeeded in resolving the phenylethylmethylbenzyl-
ammonium base at almost the same time. I prepared the iodide and the dextro-
camphorsulphonate of the same base, and succeeded in resolving the latter by
a single recrystallisation from methyl formate ([m{, of the dextro-phenylbenzyl-
ethylmethy] d-camphorsulphonate= +69°). By employing the same useful solvent
I have also recently been able to resolve the homologous propylphenylbenzyl-
methylammoniumhydroxide. The d-camphorsulphonate of the dextro base forms
transparent rhombohedra, which attain a diameter of one or more centimetres.
The highest rotatory power hitherto observed is [M] p= +62°. The iodide pre-
pared from the camphorsulphonate was active. Activity did not result when
acetone or acetic ether was employed. I am at present working on the resolution
of the homologous isobutyl base.

The problem of resolving salts containing two asymmetric nitrogen atoms
appeared particularly interesting.' For this purpose I have converted ethylene
dikairolinium iodide * into the di-dextro-camphorsulphonate.

CH,—CH,
CH,—CH, /
>C.H, x
H, N OS HG, Pat hee el ope.
|
CH, SO,.C,,H,,0 OH, SO,.C,,H,,0:

1 O. Aschan, Zeitachr. f. physikal. Chemie, 46, 312 ff.
2 BE. Wedekind, Ber. d. deutsch. Chem. Ges. 36, 3796.

520 REPORT—1904.

The single fractions showed the same specific rotatory power and a molecular
rotation of + 105°to 104°. The di-d-brom-camphorsulphonate crystallises remark-
ably well, and seems to offer a better chance of resolution. The acetic ester of
kairolinium d-camphorsulphonate ([a]>=11'7°) has not. been obtained in active
forms either by Jones or myself.

The problem of examining the so-called inactive isomers of asymmetric nitrogen
offers great difficulties. Anyone who has examined so great aseries of asymmetric
systems for isomers without success as I have, will understand me when I call
the single case of isomerism in the series of benzylallylphenylmethylammonium
salts (which I discovered several years ago) ‘remarkable,’ and to a certain extent
a ‘puzzle.’ Kipping and Aschan have both taken exception to this expression.
I think, however, that everyone will agree with me that the extraordinary rarity
of such isomers—predicted by most theories—is most striking, especially as in the
observed case the isomers possess about equal stability. Since then I have found
a new case in the series of asymmetric ortho-tolyl-ammonium salts, but on account
of experimental difficulties 1 have not been able to establish it with absolute
certainty. Since among the homologues of the asymmetric aniline salt, with this
exception, no isomers have been found, I have commenced experimenting with the
asymmetric phenetidine and anisidine bases.!_ Paraphenetylbenzylallylmethylam-
monium iodide (and the corresponding d-camphorsulphonate) are beautifully
crystallised salts when made by the combination of allyl or benzyl iodide with
the corresponding tertiary bases. The third method—addition of methyl iodide to
benzylallyl-p-phenetidine—leads to an amorphous salt, Experiments are already
in progress to prove if this is really a case of isomerism.

O. Aschan has recently discovered a new case of isomerism in the series of the
diacid ammonium salts which differ in solubility. At the time of his publication
I was working on the ethylene bases of the tetrahydrozsoquinoline series. I
therefore tried whether the above-named bases, which in contradistinction to the
piperidine derivatives are quite unsymmetrical, possess analogous powers of
reaction. The reaction between trimethylene bromide and ethylene di-tetrahydro-

erengnee takes place almost quantitatively at 100° C. The equation pro-
ably is :—

CH, H,C
OH, H,C

N—CH,—CH,—N
CH, H,C
+ Br. CH, . CH,. CH, Br

CH, H,C
CH, H,C
u ee 7 OCH
N- SN
se. \ oth otte Jy OH,
ff

Br BY

According to this, the salt, which is rather easily soluble in water, would
contain a seven-atom heterocyclicsystem. The prospects of successfully preparing
this system by the second method are not good, since, according to my experience,

1 T intend to try to resolve the fatty asymmetric base of Le Bel, N(CH;)(C,H;)
C,H,)(@.C,H,)OH by the new method.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 521

ethylene bromide seldom reacts with tertiary bases in the normal manner, Iso-
kairolin itself with ethylene bromide gives almost exclusively the salt : —

CH,
CH,
Br

“___0H,.CH,.Br
CH, CH,

It has not yet been found possible to bring the Br in the —CH,Br group into
reaction with a second molecule of isokairolin.

I do not consider that our present knowledge is sufficient for successful
theoretical speculation on the configuration and isomerism relations of the
pentavalent nitrogen atom. This, however, is certain, viz.: in active ammonium
salts the tetra-atomic radical N.a. b.c. d.,the centre of activity, must possess
tetrahedric grouping. This radical occurs in solution as the free active cation.
The fifth valency, which is not always satisfied, cannot—apart from other grounds—
possess equal value. I picture it in a rectilinear lengthening of a tetraheder axis,
as the following sketch shows :—

This configuration is that proposed long ago by van't Hoff, and since then
revived by Aschan. The latter has also deduced the inactive isomers (prepared
by Le Bel, Kipping, Aschan, and Wedekind) from this scheme. In my opinion,
the change of places of the different radicals, or, still more, the lack of change of
places of the different radicals (appearance of isomerism), is so little understand-
able that even with the help of this model we cannot as yet form any clear ideas
of the intramolecular reactions among the ammonium salts. I incline more and
more to the opinion that, in the case of nitrogen which shows such different
behaviour, one must discard the idea of a fixed valency. The theories which
Werner has developed for carbon may be useful here. They allow, too, of an
explanation of autoracemisation without the assumption of dissociation. Let us
consider affinity as a force acting uniformly from the nitrogen atom, considered
as a sphere, towards the surface. Then we can imagine the five radicals fixed as
five ‘ valency positions’ on the surface of the sphere. Four of these could take
up a tetrahedral grouping, if in this position the greatest exchange of affinity took
place. Now, the intra-molecular movements of the radicals in substituted
ammonium salts are particularly evident. This is proved by the tendency towards
change of place. These movements appear, then, as pendulum-like oscillations about
the valency position, and are increased by rise of temperature, by the action of
sunlight, and by other unknown causes, until, finally, a change of place occurs, just
as Werner assumes in the case of compounds containing asymmetric carbon.
(Explanation of autoracemisation of brom-succinic acid.)

I do not consider it, however, impossible that the five radicals would cause a
different grouping of the valency positions, when the force acting between them is
of a different nature. Such groupings are perhaps the pyramid formula, or the
double tetrahedron of Willgerodt. The latter might occur when two negative
radicals are combined with a tertiary amine. The attractions and repulsions

522 REPORT—1904.

between the radicals would now be quite different from those in the normal
ammonium type. The configuration set forth by the double tetrahedron is the
labile one, and a tendency therefore exists for it to go over into the stable
ammonium form (tetrahedron or pyramid), one of the negative radicals being
replaced by hydrogen or alkyl.

I think that such pictures are useful in helping us to understand the easy change
of position of the radicals in quaternary ammonium salts. Further, the complex
behaviour of pentavalent nitrogen becomes thereby more easily explicable.

7. On the Products obtained by the Action of Vertiary Bases on some Acid
Chlorides. By Professor E. WEDEKIND.

The author has previously shown (‘Annalen,’ 318, 99; 323, 257) that, in spite
of the violent reaction which occurs between the chlorides of powerful acids and
strong tertiary bases, no quaternary salt of the type

/CO.R
oa \Cl

is produced, but that the hydrochloride of the tertiary amine,

H
Cl

is obtained in quantitative yield. his fact is in so far of importance in connec-
tion with the stereochemistry of nitrogen as it indicates the reluctance of the
trivalent nitrogen atom to take up two acidic or negative groups; the trivalent
nitrogen atom exhibits a kind of striving to assume the most stable condition,
that, namely, of which ammonium chloride is the type.

The question at once arises, in connection with the above reaction, as to what
becomes of the residue of the acid chloride molecule; the solution of this problem
presented extraordinary experimental difficulties, but its study has led to the dis-
covery of several interesting facts, which may here be briefly mentioned. The
author has already shown that by the action of acetyl chloride on triethylamine,
pyridine, &c., dehydracetic acid is produced (‘Annalen,’ 323, 247); in this reaction
four molecules of each component take part, in accordance with the equation

4CH,.COCI + 4N(C,H,), = 4N(C,H,),1Cl + 0,H,0,(4C,H,0);

but when the acetic chloride is replaced by propionyl, phenylacetic or hydro-
cinnamic chloride, products are obtained which have only three times the molecular
weight of the hypothetical substance which must be supposed to be first formed by
the splitting off of hydrogen chloride from the one molecule of the acid chloride.
Thus the condensation product from propionic chloride, CH,.CH,.CO.Cl, has the
empirical formula C,H,,0, or 3(C,H,O), and that from phenylacetic chloride,
C,H,.CH,.CO.Cl, corresponds to the formula C,,H,,0, or 3(C,H,0).

The latter substance proved to be fairly easily obtainable, and the first suppo-
sition that it might be a phloroglucinol derivative—the symmetrical triphenyl-
phloroglucinol-—was found untenable, because the material can under no con-
ditions be reduced to triphenylbenzene, and is relatively very stable even in
alkaline solutions. The new compound shows simultaneously the behaviour of a
lactone, a monoketone, and a primary alcohol; thus it gives with soda a monosodio-
derivative, with hydroxylamine a monoxime, with acetic chloride a monoacetyl
compound, and with benzoyl chloride a monobenzoyl derivative. On treating it
with ammonia under pressure it yields a very stable pyridine derivative, and this
reaction shows it to be a simple homologue of pyronone (the previously known
rae compounds contain, like dehydracetic acid, a carboxyl group in the side
chain).

R,N

1 On heating with alkalies it yields analogous products of hydrolysis to the
symmetrical trialkylphloroglucinols.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 523

The mechanism of the reaction by which the substance is formed (compare
J.N. Collie, ‘Trans. Chem, Soc.,’ 77,971) would seem to be that three molecules of
the acid chloride first condense with evolution of two molecules of hydrogen
chloride, yielding the chloride of an ay-diketonic acid in accordance with the fol-
lowing scheme:

C,H,.CH,.COCI + C,H,.CH,.C0.Cl + 0,H,.CH,.COCl>
C,H,.CH,.CO.CH.CO.CH.CO.C1

|
C,H; C,H;

This hypothetical chloride then undergoes total or partial conversion into an
enolic form, from which, by subsequent loss of hydrogen chloride, in which the
hydroxyl group is involved, the closed pyronone ring is formed :

C,H; C,H; GEOR,
|
->C,H,.CH,.C=C—CO—CH~0,H,.CH,.C=C—CO—CH
| | | |
OH C1CO = 0

Since this pyronone derivative differs from those previously studied, in that it
gives an oxime as well as a monobenzoyl derivative, it must be regarded as
tautomeric in that it can assume the above ketonic form as well as the following
enolic or hydroxylactonic constitution :

OH
|
0,H,—0—C=C'0,H,
I |
C,H,.CH,—C—O—CO

The latter formula naturally gives rise to the acidic derivatives. ‘The remark-
able power which the carbonyl group in the closed ring possesses of reacting with
hydroxylamine must be attributed to the multiplication of unsaturated groups in
the molecule—namely, to the presence of two phenyl groups and two double bonds
in the closed chain.

As was to be expected from the known behaviour of pyrone or pyronone
compounds, the action of ammonia gives benzyldiphenyldihydroxypyridine :

OH

|
C,H,.C—O=C.0,H,
I |
C,H,.CH,.C_N=C.OH

Lastly, it may be mentioned that the author has made a remarkable observa-
tion upon the interaction of isobutyric chloride with tertiary amines; in this
reaction an extremely volatile substance crystallising in colourless needles and
having an odour of menthol and camphor is obtained. This product is formed by
the condensation of only two molecules of the acid chloride, and is not a pyronone
derivative but a diketone ; it is in all probability a tetramethylene derivative, from
which the author hopes to prepare the parent hydrocarbon.

8. Sur les Manganates et les Permanganates. Par Dr. A. Erarp.

Le permanganate de potassium est parfaitement connu, mais le manganate vert
est, je crois, considéré comme une masse fondue trés riche en potasse. Cependant,
Mitscherlich a décrit et mesuré des cristaux de MnO*K?. Il ne semble pas qu’on
les ait préparés depuis. Mon but n’est pas de signaler ce sel, connuautrefois, mais
de décrire ses relations avec le permanganate. Quand du permanganate cristallisé

524 REPORT—1904.

est dissous et chauffé avec un fort excés de potasse concentrée, il arrive un
moment ot la coloration rouge passe au vert; en méme temps il se dégage de
Yoxygéne trés abondamment et il se dépose des cristaux verts de MnO‘K? qu’on a
le temps de laver avec de la potasse froide, de l’alcool absolu et de I’éther.

Ces cristaux verts, dissous dans l’eau et traités par un courant d’air, absorbent
Voxygéne a froid ; la liqueur devient rouge et il se dépose des cristaux de perman-
gvanate MnO‘*K. Les deux réactions successives s’écrivent donc:

(1) 2MnO'K +2KOH =2Mn0‘K?+ H20+0
(2) 2MnO‘K? + H?0 +0 =2MnO‘K + 2KOH,

Ce sont ces deux formules qui me paraissent nouvelles, sauferreur. Tlles ex-
pliquent les apparences souvent controversées du caméléon minéral. L’oxygéne
qui est dans l’eau aérée oxyde le manganate vert. I] n’y a ni équilibre chimique
spécial ni influence de l’acide carbonique ni dépdt de bioxyde de manganése.

9. On the Bearing of the Colour Phenomena presented by Radium
Compounds. By Witt1am AcKRoyp,

Madame Curie early observed that radium salts are white like barium salts
when first prepared, but that they gradually become coloured.’ I have associated
this colour-change with the reception of external radiant energy and the con-
sequent increase of radio-activity.” What I take to be confirmation of this view
has been obtained in following the history of a radium bromide tube. The salt
was nearly white when purchased, and in a month or two it became tawny-yellow
or orange; its powers of absorption had visibly increased, and its power of exciting
fluorescence in barium platino-cyanide was concurrently quadrupled. These facts
may be thus diagrammatically represented :—

Colour-change and increase of absorption.
Seral
White, yellow, orange, tawny-orange.
—>
Increase of radio-activity.

This readiness on the part of radium compounds to become coloured under the
influence of external radiations may be regarded as an effort to conform to the
constitutive-colour law ;* moreover, it is highly probable that the colour-change
is effected by a minimum expenditure of energy, as in the case of other end
members of vertical groups of the periodie classification of the elements. This
tendency I have experimentally demonstrated in the case of chlorides of alkali
metals.*

But while we may regard this colour-change as being slowly effected by
external radiations, the comparatively sudden application of sensible heat has a
very different effect. In July 1903 I strongly heated tawny-orange radium
bromide, expecting to see it change in this order—red, brown, black-like mercuric
oxide and other colour-changing bodies. Instead, the seething substance reverted
at once to white. The colour behaviour of the radium bromide when heated is
evidently anomalous like that of some other compounds of extreme members of
vertical periodic groups; as, for example, mercuric iodide. Its powers of absorption
are visibly lessened, and, as is now well known, the radio-active properties of the
residue are also lessened. The increase in the radio-activity of the expelled
emanation is another phenomenon, and probably the joint produce of radium rays
and heat. Analogous effects are produced by radium rays and heat on halides of

1 Thesis on Radio-active Substances, p. 30. London: Chem. News Office.
2 Lancet, Nov. 21, 1903, p. 1464.

% B.A, Report, 1903, and Chem. News, 1903, 88, 217.

4 Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 815.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 525

the alkali metals.!_ Cesium chloride was exposed to radium rays for half an hour
at 16° C.; the radium compound was then removed and the temperature of the
cesium salt was raised to 37° C. The phosphorescence was now markedly
increased by the rise of temperature. May we not, then, suppose that the bodies
occluded in radium compounds have radio-activity conferred on them while there,
and that this radio-activity is increased by the heat which is necessary for their
expulsion ?

Crucial tests of the validity of this energy-transformation theory appear to be
presented in the following additional facts. If water be admitted to the contents
of a radium bromide tube its phosphorescence is practically undiminished.”
Rutherford has studied the matter quantitatively, and finds that solution of a
solid radium compound to a thousand times its volume does not appreciably affect
its radio-activity, which he has attempted to explain on the atomic disintegration
theory.? I have, however, pointed out that under such conditions there is approxi-
mate constancy of absorption of external radiant energy which ought to result ina
like constancy of radio-activity.*

Again, the 60 per cent. difference of heat emission in the Curie-Laborde and
Curie-Dewar estimations appears to receive a rational explanation from this point
of view. At normal temperature the output of heat from a radium compound was
found to be of the order of 100 calories per gram of radium per hour, while at the
temperature of boiling oxygen it was only 38 calories. Now a colour-changing
substance, whilst passing from normal temperature towards the region of absolute
zero, becomes white, or, in other words, lessens its capability of absorbing external
radiant energy; and it is now suggested that probably to this cause is to be
attributed the low numbers obtained by Professors Curie and Sir J. Dewar at the
temperature of boiling oxygen.

10. Pseudomorphosis in Organic Persulphates.
Sy Professor R. WoLFFENSTEIN.

1l. A New Theory of the Periodic Law.
Ly Professor G. J. Stokes, M.A.

Many mathematical and physical interpretations of the Periodic Law have been
suggested. That of the author, based on a logical analysis due to De Morgan,
offers itself as more than an illustration—as a method by which chemical facts may
be deductively re-discovered.

It has been shown by De Morgan that between any two things x and y there
are only a definite number of logical relations possible. If we take the diagrams
by which these are represented and arrange the elements under them, it is shown
that a number of qualitative facts in chemistry may be deductively arrived at.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Velocity of Osmosis and on Solubility : a Contribution to the
Theory of Narcosis. By Professor I. TRAvuBE.

Upon the results of a series of investigations, by plasmolytic methods, of the
velocity of the osmosis of chemical compounds into the protoplast, Overton bases
the theory that the magnitude of the distribution coefficient between such sub-
stances as fat, cholesterins, and lecithins on the one hand, and water on the other,

! Journ. Chem. Soc. 1904, 85, 816. 2 Chem. News, 1903, 88, 206.
3 Nature, 1904, 69, 222. 4 Tbid., 1904, 69, 295.

526 REPORT—1904.

determines the velocity of the osmosis. He assumes that in the first instance a
dissolution takes place in the fatty substance of the membrane at a velocity pro-
portional to this coefficient, and that thereupon the substance passes on from the
membrane to the interior of the cell. Moreover, Overton, and independently
Hans Meyer, point out that all the reliable narcotics, anaesthetics, and antipyretics
belong to the class of rapidly diffusing substances, and hence they deduce the
theory that the efficacy of a narcotic depends principally on its lipoid solubility.
These theories, however, in so far as they concern osmotic velocity, are erroneous,
The author's investigations on the constants of capillarity of substances, especially
solutions, have led to the result that the greater the osmotic velocity of a substance
soluble in water, the more this substance reduces the constant of capillarity of
water, whilst substances which cannot penetrate membranes (with regard to which
the membranes are semipermeable) raise this constant. Among hundreds of com-
pounds examined plasmolytically by Overton, and asto capillarity by the author,
there is not one case in which capillary and osmotic phenomena do not correspond.
It is evident that osmotic velocity and surface tension run parallel. Hence the
difference of the surface tensions—or of the internal pressures—is the motive force
in osmotic phenomena ; it is to this difference that osmotic pressure is due.

The theory here stated leads to a new conception of the phenomena of diffusion
and solution. Suppose that an aqueous solution of a salt is brought into contact
with pure water. According to the prevalent theory the salt particles or the ions,
in virtue of their ‘ osmotic pressure,’ migrate into the pure solvent, but according
to the author’s view it is the pure solvent which, in virtue of its low surface ten-
sion, migrates into the salt solution. Again, let two liquids capable of dissolving
in each other be brought in contact, or let a solid be in contact with a pure sol-
vent, then the solution tension will depend chiefly on the difference between the
surface tensions. Irom this we may expect that when a liquid or solid substance
dissolves in a solvent the surface tension of the solution will never fall below that
of the dissolving substance, and if the surface tensions of solution and dissolving
substance be equa), the solution will be saturated. The surface tension of a saturated
solution is i maximo as low as that of the dissolved substance, consequently the
latter value determines the shape of the curve of the surface tension of solutions.

From the author’s former investigations he deduced the law that equal equiva-
lents of substances belonging to homologous series, which exercise a strong influ-
ence on capillarity (ordinary alcohols, fatty acids, esters, &c.), lower the capillary
height of water in the proportion 1:3:37:3° . . . If three mols. of methyl alcohol
reduce the surface tension of water as much as one mol. of ethyl alcohol, the con-
clusion is justified that the tendency to increase the surface tension of water is
three times less in the case of methyl alcohol than in the case of its nearest homo-
logue. Hence the tendency of methyl alcohol to separate from the solution may be
considered as three times less than the corresponding tendency of ethyl alcohol,
or, in other words, the solution tension of substances belonging to homologous
series, which exercise a strong influence on capillarity, increases with increasing
molecular weight in the proportion 1:3:3?: 3°... Ifa layer of a liquid insoluble
in water, say benzene, he placed upon an aqueous solution of different alcohols,
esters, &c., the amount of dissolved substance of which this liquid will deprive the
water will be greater in exact proportion as the solution tension is less, Dis-
tribution coefficients and solution tension—and hence also surface tension and
osmotic velocity—are therefore proportional magnitudes in first approximation.

Thus Overton’s theory is erroneous in as far as it represents penetration into
the cell as depending on the degree of lipoid solubility, for dissolution of the dis-
solved substance in the lipoids certainly does not take place. The motive force is
the surface tension. Overton and Meyer have pointed cut that the efficacious
narcotics, anaesthetics, and antipyretics all belong to those compounds which pene-
trate their membranes rapidly, Rapid penetration into the cell seems to be the
most essential condition for enabling a narcotic to exercise its effect on the interior
of certain cells. Thus narcotics which differ materially in their chemical compo-
sition may possibly exercise their action in different cells, and this action may
vary considerably even when exerted on one and the same species of cell, But if

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 527

narcotising substances of the same homologwus series, such as the ordinary alcohols
or the esters, be considered, we are brought to the conclusions that the cells acted
on are all of the same species, that the action in the interior of the cell only differs
in degree, and finally that this difference depends essentially and solely on the
velocity with which the homologous substances penetrate into the cells. Now this
velocity has been shown to be proportional to the depression of the surface tension
of water by the dissolved substances, and hence we cannot but conclude that the
same law holds good for the narcotic action of homologous substances as has been
proved to be valid for surface tension, and approximately so for the distribution
coefficient.

2. The Action of Organic Bases on Olefinie Ketonic Compounds.
By Dr. 8. Runemann and E. R. Watson.

The authors have continued their investigation ' of the behaviour of unsaturated
ketonic compounds, especially of benzylideneacetylacetone, towards organic bases,
and have isolated several additive compounds which are thus formed, e.g., with
m-toluidine, p-toluidine, m-chloroaniline, p-chloraniline, and B-naphthylamine.
These substances on heating suffer the following decomposition :

C,H,.CH(NHR).CH(COCH,), = C,H,.CH : NR + CH,(CO.CH,),.

In some cases the additive compounds cannot be isolated, because they are
decomposed at once, according to the above equation. Of interest is the fact that
neither o-toluidine nor a-naphthylamine combines additively with benzylidene-
acetylacetone. Ortho-substituted benzenoid bases, therefore, seem not to react
with the diketone. This conclusion is supported by the fact that piperidine readily
forms an additive product with benzylideneacetylacetone, but tetrahydroquinoline
does not.

The study of piperidobenzylacetylacetone, C,H,.CH(N.O,H,,).CH(COCH,),,
has proved of the greatest interest as throwing light on the catalytic action of
piperidine and other secondary bases in the condensation of aldehydes and ketones,
which have been elaborated by Knoevenagel and his pupils. The authors arrive
at the view that, taking the formation of benzylidenebisacetylacetone as example,
the reaction is to be expressed thus:

(1) C,H,.CH : C(CO.CH,), + O,H, NH = C,H,.CH(N.C,H,,).CH(CO.CH,),.
(2) C,H,C (N.C, H,,).CH(CO.CH,), + CH,(CO.CH,), = C,H, CH[CH(CO.CH,),],.

The observation of Knoevenagel and Faber,’ that ethyl benzylideneacetoacetate
in the presence of diethylamine yields ethyl benzylidenebisacetoacetate, has also
found a ready explanation. The fact that piperidobenzylacetylacetone on treat-
ment with water yields benzaldehyde and henzylidenebisacetylacetone indicates
that the formation of the latter substance is preceded by the production of an
additive compound of the unsaturated ketone with the base.

3. The Union of Hydrogen and Oxygen in contact with a Hot Surface.
By Wiuutam A. Bont and Ricnharp ‘V. WHEELER.

The authors have investigated the rate of formation of water when electrolytic
gas, or electrolytic gas diluted with an excess of either hydrogen or oxygen, is
circulated at a uniform speed over a porous surface, either of porcelain or magnesia,
heated to 430° in the combustion tube of the ‘circulation apparatus’ described in
our paper on the Slow Oxidation of Methane (‘Trans. Chem. Roe. 1903, 88, 1074).
The steam was condensed each time the gases left the combustion tube, so that its
rate of formation was indicated by the pressure-fall in the apparatus.

The experimental conditions were such that chemical change was exclusively

' Cf. Trans, Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 466. 2 Ber., 31, 2773.

528 REPORT—1904.

confined to the layer of gas immediately in contact with the hot surface, and we
therefore measured the rate of change in a heterogeneous system. Our results may
be summarised as follows :—

1. With normal electrolytic gas the velocity of steam formation is always
directly proportional to the pressure of the ‘dry’ gas in the apparatus. In other
words, the velocity of chemical change is in no way determined by the ‘ order’ of
the reaction. :

2. With excess of either hydrogen or oxygen the velocity of steam formation

depends mainly, if not entirely, on the pressure of the hydrogen in the apparatus.
} 3. The catalysing power of the surface is always stimulated by previous
exposure to hydrogen at 430°. Previous exposure of the surface to oxygen at the
same temperature has the opposite effect.

4. The catalysing power of the surface is not affected by previous exposure to
hydrogen at a red heat, followed by continued exhaustion at the same temperature.
This proves that the stimulating effect of hydrogen at 43U° is not attributable to
a chemical reduction of the catalysing material.

5. At a red heat porous porcelain has the power of absorbing considerable
quantities of hydrogen, of which only a part is yielded up on continuous exhaustion
at the ordinary temperature.

6, The results are substantially the same, whether the catalysing surface be acid
or basic in character.

The experiments indicate that the velocity of steam formation depends on an
association of the hydrogen with the catalysing surface.

4, The Decomposition and Synthesis of Ammonia.
Sy Epvcar Puinie Perman, D.Se.

it is well known that on heating ammonia a large proportion of it is decom-
posed, and it has been assumed by many chemists that the mixture then comes
into chemical equilibrium. Some experiments recently carried out by Mr. G, A.S.
Atkinson and myself appear to disprove the existence of any equilibrium in the
case,
Decomposition of Ammonia by Heat.

In a recent communication! it was shown, from observations on the rate of
decomposition of ammonia heated in a porcelain globe, that there is no equilibrium
until complete (or nearly complete) decomposition has taken place.

Direct Synthesis of Ammonia by Heat.

In order to solve the question of equilibrium it was thought better to attempt
to reach the equilibrium point (if one exists) by synthesis. A mixture of nitrogen
and hydrogen (1:3) was passed slowly through a red-hot glass tube into dilute
acid; on making the solution alkaline and testing for ammonia by Nessler’s solu-
tion no trace was found. The result was similar when the tube was packed
with broken porcelain. If, however, the mixture was passed over red-hot iron
(and many other metals), or over asbestos, pumice, or clay tobacco-pipe stems,
traces of ammonia were formed. These last-named substances contain iron, and it
is concluded that there is no combination of the nitrogen and hydrogen unless
some catalysing agent is present.

Decomposition and Synthesis of Ammonia by Electricity.

On sparking a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen traces of ammonia were
formed, and the gases came into equilibrium in about halfan hour. Approxi-
mately the same equilibrium point was reached on decomposing ammonia by
sparking, but when the volume was kept constant many hours’ sparking were
required to reach that point.

! Proc, Roy. Soc., 1904, 74, 110.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 529

5. On Active Chlorine. By C. H. Burcess and D. L. Cuapman.

The theory which postulates the formation of an unstable additive compound
in the preliminary stages of chemical change has of late received considerable
attention and support. It is claimed for this theory that it readily accounts
for the remarkable influence of water vapour on the rate of chemical change, and
also for the initial inert period which can be observed when a mixture such as
hydrogen and chlorine is exposed to light. The theory in question cannot, in the
opinion of the authors, be accepted as a complete explanation of the latter
phenomenon, the chief objection to it being grounded upon certain quantitative
results connected with the induction period with mixtures of carbon monoxide
and chlorine and hydrogen and chlorine. In addition to carrying out work which
has led to the above-mentioned conclusion, the authors have discovered several
new facts of practical importance connected with the subject, which are briefly
described below.

It is well known that hydrogen and chlorine inclosed in a Bunsen and Roscoe’s
actinometer over water do not immediately combine at their maximum rate when
exposed to light.

In repeating this experiment of Bunsen and Roscoe it was found that, even
after the maximum rate of combination had been reached, a fresh period of
induction resulted on shaking the contents of the actinometer bulb. The period
of induction produced in this way was not so long as the first period with the
fresh gases. On again shaking the actinometer another induction period was
observed still shorter than the second. By constantly repeating this operation
and re-exposing to light, the contents of the actinometer were at last brought into
such a condition that no fresh induction period resulted on shaking.

The experiment shows clearly enough that not only does a fresh mixture of
hydrogen and chlorine on exposure to light change its condition in such a manner
as to be ready to enter into combination, but that the aqueous solution of
chlorine also alters, and ultimately becomes incapable of absorbing the activity
of the mixed gases. Since the aqueous solution contains a considerable quantity
of chlorine and very little hydrogen, it seemed probable that the change is mainly
in the moist chlorine.

This was made the subject of a series of experiments. At first we were able
to observe only a slight difference, somewhat similar to that noticed by Bevan in
the behaviour of the insolated and uninsolated chlorine when mixed with hydrogen
and exposed to light ; but it was afterwards shown that, if proper precautions are
taken to keep the chlorine in its active condition during admixture with hydrogen,
combination occurs promptly on exposure to light. In accounting for the in-
duction period the main fact to be taken into consideration is, therefore, the
condition of the chlorine.

Our attention was next turned towards the discovery of all the possible
methods of rendering chlorine gas and also its aqueous solution active. It was
shown that chlorine gas becomes active when heated to 100° C. and then cooled,
and also when it is acted upon by the silent discharge. An aqueous solution of
chlorine can be rendered active, ¢.e., incapable of absorbing the activity from
active oxy-hydrogen gas, (1) by the action of light, (2) by contact with active
chlorine gas, (3) by heating at a temperature of 100° C., and then allowing to cool.

The ability to remove the activity from chlorine is possessed in a much more
marked degree by saline solutions and by acids than by pure water.

A solution of chlorine which has once been rendered active does not become
inactive when the chlorine is removed in a vacuum. It can, however, be rendered
inactive by dissolving in it certain salts such as crystallised barium chloride and
fused calcium chloride. The foregoing observation suggested the possibility of
preparing crystallised barium chloride both in an active and an inactive condition,
and the following experiment showed that this could be done. An aqueous solu-
tion of barium chloride was rendered active by constantly shaking with chlorine
in daylight ; the chlorine was then removed in a vacuum, and the water distilled
off in vacuo. The crystals thus obtained were dissolved in water which had
been made active by contact with active chlorine. Another solution was made

1904, MM

530 REPORT—1904.

by dissolving ordinary barium chloride crystals in a sample of the same water,
and the two solutions were tested in two similar actinometers. The difference
in the induction periods was so marked as to leave no doubt that soluble solids
cau be rendered active.

Preliminary experiments on the rate of decay of activity have shown that
aqueous solutions retain their activity for a considerable period of time even when
a current of air is passed through them. Barium chloride crystals, however, rapidly
become inactive when they are exposed to the air for a few hours. It has also
been observed that exposure of barium chloride to the action of radium rays does
not render the salt active towards chlerine.

Besides establishing the above facts, the work, as mentioned above, includes
comparative measurements of the induction period and of the sensitiveness of
mixtures of hydrogen and chlorine, which appear to throw doubt on theories
based on the assumption of the preliminary formation of additive compounds,
which are formed and decomposed in conformity with the law of mass action.

The relation of the above facts to cloud formation has also been studied, but
we have been unable to obtain any evidence of the formation of any intermediate
substances in this way.

It has been incidentally observed that the presence of air does not prolong the
induction period, although the sensitiveness of the mixture is thereby enormously
reduced,

6. Exhibition of Effects produced by precipitating Silver Chromate in
Gelatine. By Professor I. TRAUBE.

7. Exhibition of Photographs of Sections of an Australian Siderite,
By Professor A. Liversipae, /.R.S.

8. Ueber Isocystein (Isothioserin). By Professor 8. GABRIEL.

9. Saponarin, a Glucoside coloured Blue by Iodine. By G. Barcer.

The substance known to botanists as ‘ soluble starch’ and occurring in the leaf
epidermis of a number of plants has been isolated from Saponaria officinalis at
the suggestion of Professor L. Errera, of Brussels; it is a glucoside, and has been
named saponarin. The substance is obtained pure in the shape of minute needles
by a special method of crystallisation from mixtures of pyridine and water,
Saponarin is insoluble in water and all ordinary organic solvents, but readily soluble
in dilute alkalies and in pyridine; it melts at 231° with decomposition. The
solution in alkalies is intensely yellow, and when acidified the substance remains for
a long time in a state of pseudo-solution ; in this condition it gives an intense blue
or violet coloration with iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution.

The air-dried crystals of saponarin lose water when heated or when left in
vacuo over sulphuric acid, The dried substance is extremely hygroscopic, and, if
left in the balance case for au hour or so, takes up quantitatively the water it had
previously given off. For combustion it was dried in vacuo till of constant
weight, and the boat containing it was then placed in a stoppered weighing tube.
The mean of five analyses of the substance dried in this way gave

C = 5375 %.H = 516 %

For the molecular weight determination pyridine was the only available solvent.
The microscopic method was the most convenient, and gave the following result:

A. solution of +299 gram in 2:96 grams of pyridine was isotonic with a
benzil solution of :23 mole. Hence M = 436.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 531

The two possible formule for saponarin are:

C,,H..0,, requiring C = 53°52, H = 5:21, M = 426
Ca), OC = oe do, FE = 6:15, M468

Of these, the second is considered the more probable, but a definite choice can-
not be made till the decomposition products of the substance have been studied
more fully. On boiling saponarin with mineral acids it is hydrolysed, and a
yellow solution is formed, from which glucose was separated as phenyl gluco-
sazone. Unless the solution be dilute, a second product of hydrolysis separates as a
thick yellow oil, which has not yet been obtained crystalline. The name saponaretin
is suggested for it, and it isscarcely soluble in water, but dissolves in alkalies and in
pyridine ; it closely resembles the parent substance, but does not give the reaction
with iodine. From dilute solutions saponaretin separates in the solid state, either
amorphous or in the form of imperfect whetstone-shaped crystals. It has not yet
been obtained quite pure, but seems to be mixed with another substance which
crystallises from alcohol in glistening plates.

The formula of the latter substance has not been definitely fixed owing to
want of material, but it seems to be a hydrate of saponaretin.

Saponaretin is in all probability closely allied to the flavones. When fused
with potash it yields p-oxybenzoic acid, and a red solution which gives the
phloroglucin reaction with pinewood. Phloroglucin itself could, however, not
be isolated.

The blue substance formed from iodine and saponarin exhibits a close analogy
with that formed from iodine and starch. Its composition varies considerably,
and it is another example of the absorption of iodine by a substance in pseudo-
solution, The blue substance has been obtained in the crystalline state, but must
nevertheless be regarded as a mixture and not as a chemical compound.

10, The Vapour Density of Hydrazine Hydrate.
By Dr. A. Scort, FBS.

11. The Combining Volumes of Carbon Monouide and Oxygen.
By Dr. A. Scorr, LBS.

12. The Action of Heat on Oxalates. By Dr. A. Scorr, F.RS,

13. Some Alkyl Derivatives of Sulphur, Selenium, and V'ellurion.
By Dr. A. Scort, RS.

14. On the Presence of Arsenic in the Body and its Secretion by the
Kidneys. By W. Tuomson, RSE.

15. On New Low-temperature Phenomena and their Scientific
Applications. By Professor Sir Jamus Dewar, JR.

MM?

532 REPORT—1904.

Sscrion C.—GEOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—AUBREY StTRAHAN, M.A., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.

The President delivered the following Address :—
[PLATE VIII.]

Ir is forty-two years since the British Association last met in Cambridge, and
we may turn with no little interest to the record of what was taking place at a
date when the science of Geology was still in its infancy, and in a University
where its promise of development was first recognised. Dr. John Woodward, the
founder of the Woodwardian Chair, had been dead 176 years, but his bequest to the
University had not long begun to bear fruit, for the determination to house suit-
ably the collection of fossils and to provide for the reading of a systematic course
of lectures was not arrived at till 1818. In that year Adam Sedgwick, on his
appointment to the Woodwardian Chair, began a series of investigations into the
geology of this country, which made one of the most memorable epoclis in the
history of British Geology. At the Cambridge meeting of 1862 he had therefore
held the professorship for forty-four years, a period sufficient to spread his reputa-
tion throughout the civilised world as one of the pioneers of geological science.

Towards the close of his life Sedgwick gave expression to the objects which
he had had in view when he accepted a professorship in a science to which he had
not hitherto specially devoted his attention. ‘There were three prominent hopes,’
he writes, ‘which possessed my heart in the earliest days of my Professorship.
First, that I might be enabled to bring together a Collection worthy of the
University, and illustrative of all the departments of the Science it was my duty
to study and to teach. Secondly, that a Geological Museum might be built by the
University, amply capable of containing its future Collections; and lastly, that
I might bring together a Class of Students who would listen to my teaching,
support me by their sympathy, and help me by the labour of their hands.’

We, visiting the scene of his labours more than thirty years after he wrote these
words, witness the realisation of Sedgwick’s hopes. The collection is not only
worthy of the University, but has become one of the finest in the kingdom, It is
housed in this magnificent memorial to the name of Sedgwick, on the completion of
which I offer for myself, and I trust I may do so on behalf of this Section also,
hearty congratulations to the Woodwardian Professor and his staff. Finally, I
may remind you that at this moment the Directorship of the Geological Survey
and the Presidential Chair of the Geological Society are held by Cambridge men;
that the sister University has not disdained to borrow from the same source; and
lastly, that it is upon Cambridge chiefly that we have learned to depend for recruit-
ing the ranks of the Geological Survey, as proofs that Cambridge has maintained
her place among the foremost of the British schools of Geology.

‘hough he had taken a leading part at former meetings of the Association,
Sedgwick’s advanced age in 1862 necessitated rest, and this Section was deprived

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 533

to a great extent of the charm of his presence. It benefited, however, in the fact
that the Presidential Chair was occupied by one of his most distinguished pupils,
Jukes was one of those men the extent of whose knowledge is not readily
fathomed. It has been my experience, and probably that of many others in this
room, to find that some conclusion, formed after prolonged labour and perhaps
fondly imagined to be new, has been arrived at years before by one of the old
geologists. Such will be the experience of the man who follows Jukes’ footsteps.
Turning to his Address given to this Section in 1862, we find much of what is
now written about earth-movement and earth-sculpture forestalled by him, with
this difference, however, that whereas the custom is growing of using a phraseo-
logy which may sometimes be useful, but is generally far from euphonious, and
not always intelligible, he states his arguments in plain, forcible English.

It may raise a smile to find that Jukes thought it necessary in 1862 to combat
the view that deep and narrow valleys had originated as fissures in the crust of
the earth, and that the Straits of Dover must have been formed in this way,
because the strata correspond on its two sides. But we shall do well to remember
that the smile will be at the public opinion of that day, and not at Jukes himself,
In no branch of Geology have our views changed more than in the recognition of
the potency of the agents of denudation. In 1862 it was necessary to present
preliminary arguments and to draw inferences which in 1904 may be taken as

ranted,

: The evidences of the prodigious movements to which strata have been sub-
jected, and of the extent to which denudation has ensued, cannot fail to strike the
most superficial observer. Both mountain and plain present in varying degree
proof that sheets of sedimentary material originally horizontal are now folded and
fractured. But after a momentary interest aroused by some example more striking
than usual, glimpsed, it may be, from a train-window, the subject is probably
dismissed with an impression that such phenomena are due to cataclysms of a past
geological age, and have little concern for the present inhabitants of the globe.
These stupendous disturbances, it might be argued, can only have taken place under
conditions different from those which prevail now. We are familiar with moun-
tain-ranges in which their effects are conspicuous ; we have carried railways over
or through them and have been troubled by no cataclysmic movements of the strata.
Apparently the rocks have been fixed in their plicated condition, and are liable to
no further disturbance. Parts of the world, it is true, are subject to earthquakes
accompanied by fissuring and slight displacement of the crust, but not even in
earthquake regions can we point to an example of such thrusting and folding of
the strata being actually in progress as have taken place in the past. Nor, again,
can volcanic activity be appealed to, for some of the most highly disturbed regions
are devoid of igneous rocks, Volcanic eruptions are more probably the effect than
the cause of the disturbances of the crust. Nowhere in the world therefore, it will
be said, can we see strata undergoing such violent treatment as they have
experienced in the past. How, then, can we dispute the inference that the forces
by which the folding was produced have ceased to operate ?

Before accepting a conclusion which would amount to admitting that the
globe is moribund and that the forces by which land has been differentiated from
sea have ceased to act, we shall do well to look more closely into the history of the
earth-movements to which any particular region has been subjected. The investi-
gation is one which calls for the most intimate knowledge of the geological
structure, and, as time will admit of my dealing with a small area only, I shall
confine my observations to England and Wales, selecting such facts as have been
established beyond dispute. ; .

At the outset of the investigation we find reason to conclude that the move-
ments, so far as any one region is concerned, have been intermittent. Evidence
of this fact is furnished wherever any considerable part of the geological column
is laid open to view. Sheets of sediment, aggregating perhaps thousands of feet in
thickness, have been laid down in conformable sequence, all bearing evidence of
having been deposited in shallow seas, The inference is inevitable that that
period of sedimentation was a period of uninterrupted subsidence. But aooner or

534 REPORT—1904.

later every such period came to an end. Compression and upheaval took the
place of subsidence, and the strata lately deposited were plicated and brought
within the reach of denudation. [Illustrations of the recurrence of these move-
ments abound, and I need dwell no further upon them than to remark that
movements of subsidence and upheaval may be seen to have alternated wherever
opportunity is afforded for observation.

On extending our observations we are led to infer that the movements of the
crust were developed regionally, not universally. The areas of subsidence, for
example, evidenced by the marine formations, had their limits, though those limits
did not coincide with the shores of existing seas, nor has reason been found to believe
that the proportion of land to sea has varied greatly in past times. The limits of
the area affected by any one movement of upheaval are more difficult to determine,
but the effects were manifested in the crumpling up of comparatively narrow belts
of country, and are easy of recognition.

Further than this, we ascertain that the movements of one region were not
necessarily contemporaneous with those of adjoining regions. The forces operat-
ing upon the crust of the earth came into activity in different places at different
times, and, while some continental tracts have been but little disturbed from early
geological times, there are parts of the globe which have been the scene, so to
speak, of almost ceaseless strife. Among the latter we may include the British
Isles.

These are commonplaces of Geology, and I mention them merely to emphasise
the fact that the geological structure of these islands is the result of movement
superimposed upon movement. Obviously, therefore, in order to gain a com-
prehensive view of the operations which were in progress in any one region during
any one epoch, we have to find some means of distinguishing the movements of
that epoch and of eliminating all which preceded or followed it. This, briefly, is
the problem which has engaged the attention of geologists for many years past,
and upon which I propose to touch.

The determination of the age of a disturbance is seldom easy, and among the
older Paleozoic rocks is often impossible; but at the close of the Carboniferous
period, during the great continental epoch which led to and followed upon the de-
position of the Coal Measures, there came into action a set of movements of
elevation and compression, which generally can be distinguished both from those
which preceded them and from those which have been superimposed upon them.
The distinction depends upon the determination of the age of the rocks affected by
the movements. For example, a movement by which the latest Carboniferous rocks
have been tilted from their original horizontal position is obviously post-Carboni-
ferous. On the other hand, if Permian rocks lie undisturbed upon those tilted
Carboniferous rocks it is equally obvious that the movement was pre-Permian. Now
it happens that earth-movements of the date alluded to were particularly active in
the British Isles, and played an important part in shaping the platform on which the
Permian and later rocks were laid down. Though they have been more completely
explored than others in the working of coal, their further investigation is of the
greatest economic importance. I have attempted, therefore, briefly to sketch out the
principal lines along which earth-movements of that age came into operation in
England, premising, however, that by Permian I mean the Magnesian Limestone
series, and not the ‘ Permian of Salopian type,’ which is now known to be partly
of Triassic but principally of Carboniferous age. In the course of the investigation
we shall find reason to conclude that several at least of the movements followed
old axes of disturbance, lines of weakness dating from an early period in the
history of the habitable globe; and, again, that some of the latest disturbances
of which we have cognisance were but renewals of movement along the same
general lines.

One of the most clearly proved examples of pre-Permian faulting in the Car-
boniferous rocks occurs in the Whitehaven Coalfield. The fault forms the south-
eastern limit of the Coal Measures, and has been precisely located for a distance cf
six miles. In its course towards the south-west it passes under five outliers of
Permian rocks, and finally is lost to sight under the Permian and Trias of St. Bees.

35

or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

The dislocation in the Carboniferous rocks amounts to about 400 yards, but the
Permian rocks have not been even cracked; though broken and displaced by
numerous faults of later date, they pass undisturbed over this great dislocation,
the movement along it obviously having ceased before they were deposited. This
fault forms part of the upheaval which brought the older rocks of Cumberland
and Westmoreland to the surface, and in that sense it may be said to form the
north-western frontier of the Lake District.

On the north-eastern side also of the Lake District the Permian rocks rest upon
uptilted Carboniferous strata, but the axis of upheaval runs in a north-north-
westerly direction and defines what we may regard as the north-eastern frontier,
Along this frontier much movement has taken place in post-Permian times, but
the unconformable relations of the Permian and Carboniferous rocks enable us to
distinguish that part of the tilting which intervened between the two periods. On
the south-eastern frontier also the Carboniferous rocks had been upheaved and de-
nuded before the Permian sandstones were laid down. A huge fault, along which
Carboniferous rocks have been jammed from the east in a multitude of plications
against Silurian, runs from Kirkby Stephen by Dent to Kirkby Lonsdale, and thence
trends south-eastwards by Settle. It is highly probable, though it has not been
proved, that this fault is of pre-Permian age. That the Pendle axis which upheaves
the Lower Carboniferous rocks between Settle and Burnley is pre-Permian is placed
beyond doubt by the fact that an outlier of Permian rests upon the denuded crest
of the anticline near Clitheroe.

The south-western frontier is defined by a still more marked unconformable
overlap by the Permian strata, which here pass over the edges of the lowest
members of the Carboniferous series and come to rest upon the Lake District rocks.

We have thus defined the sides of an oblong tract which was upheaved in the
period we are considering. The older rocks forming the northern part of that
tract had already had imposed upon them a dominant north-easterly strike by a
pre-Carboniferous movement of great energy. As a result also of that and other
movements they had been subjected to vast denudation, not only in the Lake Dis-
trict, but throughout the North-west of England generally. But while it is doubt-
ful whether any of the physical features then produced have survived, it seems to
be beyond dispute that it was in consequence of the pre-Permian movements that
the older rocks of the Lake District were freed from their Carboniferous covering,
and that to this extent the district may be said to haye been blocked out in pre-
Permian times. The detailed sculpturing resulted from later movements, with
which we are not now concerned.

During this same period there rose into relief that part of the Pennine axis
which runs between [ancashire and Yorkshire. The doming up of the Lower Car-
boniferous rocks and the wildness of the moorlands which characterise their outcrops
have impressed all who have had occasion to cross from the one populous coalfield
to the other, and have gained the name of the ‘backbone of England’ for this
anticlinal axis. Whether, however, it can be regarded as one axis or as the
result of several movements is doubtful, but not material for our present pur-
pose. Regarded as a geological structure it isnot continuous with that part of the
Pennine axis which runs along the north-eastern frontier of the Lake District.

Passing westwards from the Pennine axis we cross the deep and broad Triassic
basin of Cheshire, which may be regarded as the complement of the dome of eleva-
tion of Derbyshire. To the west of this, again, we reach a part of North Wales
which was more or less shaped out by the earth-movements which came into action
between the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Two leading faults traverse the
district. The one runs in a north-north-westerly direction across Denbighshire and
introduces that little bit of ‘Cheshire in Wales’ known as the Vale of Clwyd.
Though there has been some later movement along this fault, it was in the main
pre-Triassic, which statement, in view of the perfect conformity between the Per-
mian and Trias, amounts to saying that it was pre-Permian. The other passes across

Wales in a north-easterly direction along the Dee Valley at Bala, and reaches the
Triassic basin between Chester and Wrexham. The date of this fault bas not been
worked out in detail, but the fact that it is associated with a pre-'riassi¢ anticline,

536 REPORT—1904.

where it reaches the Triassic margin, proves that it is in part at least of pre-Triassic
age. In Anglesey also there has been strong post-Carboniferous folding in the
same N.E.-S.W. direction.

It is to be noticed, further, that the Carboniferous rocks maintain their
characters to their margins on the flanks of the Clwydian Hills and other ranges
of Silurian rocks in North Wales. Both along the coast, and even in a little
outlier preserved near Corwen by an accident of faulting, they show a persistence
of type and of detail in sequence which could hardly have been maintained had
the Silurian uplands existed in Carboniferous times. Theinference that the uplands
of Denbighshire and Flintshire are the result of post-Carboniferous upheaval is
strengthened by the fact that the Carboniferous rocks reposing on their flanks are
tilted at an angle which would carry them over their tops. This part of North
Wales, therefore, presents a history corresponding in its main events with that of
the Lake District. It had undergone elevation and denudation in pre-Carboniferous
times on a scale so vast that rocks showing slaty cleavage and other indications
of deep-seated metamorphism had been laid bare. But in both cases it was in
consequence of the post-Carboniferous movements that the leading physical features
as they exist to-day began to take shape.

In both these regions pre-Carboniferous movements had been extremely active.
For example, an axis of compression and upheaval ranges from N.E. to §.W.,
involving the Lake District, the Isle of Man, and Anglesey. It belongs to the
Caledonian system of disturbances which is developed on a large scale further
north, and which sufficed here to cause slaty cleavage and presumably the
extrusion of the Shap granite. I mention this pre-Carboniferous axis to point out
that it offers an explanation of the direction taken by the post-Carboniferous
disturbances of Whitehaven, Pendle, Anglesey, and possibly Bala. With the
exception of the last-named they lie well within the region affected, and alone
among the post-Carboniferous axes take that particular direction.

The Pennine axis ends as a physical feature in South Derbyshire and North
Staffordshire on the margin of a deep channel filled with Triassic marl, which
extends westwards from Nottingham into Shropshire. In this part of England
there springs into existence a remarkable series of disturbances tending to radiate
southwards. The westernmost of these is the great fault which forms the
western boundary of the North Staffordshire Coalfield. Recent work by Mr. W.
Gibson has shown that the vertical displacement of the Coal Measures amounts to
no Jess than 900 yards, but that it is far less, though recognisable, in the Trias,
proving that the disturbance was in the main pre-Triassic. The fault ranges from
Macclesfield in a south-south-westerly direction, is lost to view under the Trias
near Market Drayton, but is recognisable further on in the great dislocation which
passes along the western side of the Wrekin, and thence through Central Shropshire
by Church Stretton to Presteign in Radnorshire, and thence into Brecknock.

The second is the Apedale Fault of the North Staffordshire Coalfield. In work-
ing the coal this disturbance has been found to possess the structure of a broken
monocline, a fold with fracture such as may be regarded as an early stage in the
formation of an overthrust from the east. It runs through the coalfield in a
direction slightly east of south, and then passing under the Trias of Stafford ranges
for Wolverhampton and Stourbridge. This fault is mainly pre-Triassic, but
what Mr. Gibson believes to be a continuation of it, following the same direction
as far south as Hanbury, certainly effects a great movement in the Trias.

The third disturbance runs on the east of the Forest of Wyre Coalfield in a
direction a little west of south. Here, as I learn from Mr. T. C. Cantrill, the thrust
from the east is obvious, for Old Red Sandstone has been pushed from that direction
against and even over Coal Measures, while the strata have been forced up into a
vertical position for some miles. In South Staffordshire all the Carboniferous
rocks, including the ‘Salopian Permian,’ are involved in this and the previously
Span: movement, proving that both disturbances were of post-Carboniferous

ate.

Traced southwards, this disturbed belt leads to Abberley, and there connects
itself with the well-known Malvernian axis, The broken belt known by that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 587

name runs north and south, and may be followed almost continuously from
Worcestershire to Bristol. It presents evidence of having been a line of weakness
through a large part of the world’s history, as shown by Professor Groom, and of
having yielded repeatedly to earth-stresses; but there is seldom difficulty in dis-
tinguishing the movements which were effected during the period under considera-
tion. For example, near and south of Abberley the Coal Measures are clearly
involved in a thrust from the east, which was sufficiently energetic to turn over a
great belt of Old Red Sandstone and other rocks beyond verticality for some miles.
Further south, again, among repeated proofs of the ridging up of the old axis in
several pre-Carboniferous periods, we find evidence of post-Carboniferous elevation
along the same general line. Throughout this same region there has been also
post-Triassic dislocation, which, however, is on a comparatively small scale. That
the Carboniferous rocks were greatly disturbed before the Trias was laid down is
proved by the great unconformity between the two formations.

The Malvernian axis continues southwards by Newent, but perhaps with
diminishing intensity, On its west side a broad syncline rolls in the tract of

Jarboniferous rocks which underlies the Forest of Dean. The syncline trends
north and south, and is shown to be of pre-Triassic age by the fact that the
Triassic strata on the banks of the Severn do not share in the synclinal structure.
Here we must leave the Malvernian axis for the present.

The fourth disturbance ranges along the Lickey Hills, which, diminutive as
they are, tell a story of great geological significance. They range in a south-
south-easterly direction, and in the fact that they are formed of extremely ancient
rocks furnish evidence of immense upheaval. From the relations of these ancient
formations to one another we may gather also that the upheaval was due to a
recurrence of movement along the same axis at more than one geological date, but
at the same time we find no difficulty in distinguishing that part of the movement
which took place between Carboniferous and Triassic times, for the Coal Measures
are tilted up on end along the flanks of the axis, while the Trias passes hori-
zontally over all the tilted rocks. A clue to the southward extension of the axis
under the Secondary rocks is furnished by some faulting as far as Redditch, here
also there having been a renewal of movement on a small scale in post-Triassic
times.

The fifth disturbance runs through Warwickshire and includes the low ridge of
ancient rocks which ranges through Atherstone and Nuneaton in a south-easterly
direction. About fifteen miles to the north-east Archean rocks form the parallel
ridge or series of ridges of Charnwood Forest, while the intervening space 1s over-
spread by Trias, resting partly on Carboniferous and partly on older strata. The
structure of the Carboniferous and older strata is dominated by what is known as
the Charnian movement, which includes disturbances of several ages ranging in a
south-easterly direction. That part of the movement which was post-Carboniferous
is identifiable by the fact that Coal Measures are tilted on either side of the ridges
of old rocks. They once overspread both ridges, but were removed by denudation
as a consequence of upheaval before the Trias was deposited. It has been found
also in working the coal, as I am informed by Mr. Strangways, that there are large
faults having the south-eastward or Charnian direction which shift the Coal
Measures, but do not break through the overlying Trias, The evidence, therefore, of
a great Charnian movement having taken place during the period under considera-
tion is conclusive. The disturbance ranges as a whole in the direction of
Be auton, where in fact borings have reached the Charnwood rocks at no great

epth.

The five great disturbances which I have briefly indicated tend to converge
northwards, but their exact connection with the Pennine axisis not known. What
may be only a part of that axis trends for Charnwood through a tract of Lower
Carboniferous rocks exposed at Melbourne, between the Yorkshire and Leicester-
shire Coalfields, but the Triassic channel I have already mentioned intervenes,
and the structure of the rocks underlying the red marl is unknown. The channel
itself appears to be of Triassic age, for not only is the depth of mar! in it suggestive
of its haying been a strait in the Triassic waters but its northern margin has been

538 REPORT —1904.

found by Mr. Gibson to coincide with, and perhaps to have been determined by,
faults known to be mainly of pre-Triassic age. One of these, with a downthrow of
400 yards to the south, runs from Trentham through Longton, and south of
Cheadle, while another ranges from near Nottingham to the north of Derby.

We come now to the south-west of England, where we find striking proofs of
a still more energetic movement than any yet mentioned having intervened
between the Carboniferous and Triassic periods. The central part of the Armorican
axis, as it has been called, after the ancient name of Brittany, trends nearly east
and west, and keeps to the south of our South Coast ; but we have opportunities
in Deyon and Cornwall of seeing some of the stupendous effects produced along its
northern side. A belt of country measuring some 130 miles in width has been
completely buckled up. Slaty cleavage was superimposed upon the intricate
folds into which the strata were being thrown, while after or towards the close of
these phenomena granite was extruded at several points along the belt of dis-
turbance, a little north, however, of the line alonz which the oldest rocks were
brought up to the surface. In Devon the Culm-measures are fully involved
in the movement, but on the other hand the Permian strata, while containing
fragments of the cleaved and metamorphosed rocks, are themselves wholly free
from such structures. The age of the folding, cleavage, and extrusion of the
granite is thus definitely fixed as having been subsequent to the deposition of the
Culm-measures, but previous to that of the Permian rocks,

But we may fix the age still more closely. A broad syncline of Carboniferous
rocks traverses Mid-Devon, and is succeeded northwards by an anticline and by
an extrusion of granite at Lundy Island, the age of which, however, has not yet
been definitely ascertained. Still further north in a series of folds and overthrusts
which traverse the southern margin of South Wales we can recognise the last
effects of the great Devonshire movement at a distance of not less than 130 miles
from the central axis, the ground-swell, so to speak, subsiding as it receded from
the distant storm-area. Here the higher Carboniferous rocks are involved, and
thus prove that this part at least of the Armorican disturbance was of post-
Carboniferous age.

In Dorset, Somerset, and Gloucestershire the Paleeozoic rocks pass eastwards
under Secondary formations, and are seen no more in the South of England. That
the disturbance continues, however, is inferred from the fact that it has been
traced across a large part of the continent of Europe in the one direction and
across the South of Ireland in the other. The determination of its position there-
fore, and especially of the effects of its intersection with the Midland disturbances,
is of the greatest importance in view of the possible occurrence of concealed coal-
fields under the Secondary rocks. One such intersection is open to observation.

The Malvern and Devonshire disturbances intersect in Somerset. On investi-
gating their behaviour as they approach we may notice in the first place that the
subsidiary axes which form the northernmost part of the Devonshire disturbance
in South Wales die away one after the other towards the east. Thus an east and
west disturbance at Llanelly runs a few miles and disappears. ‘The more
important Pontypridd anticline, which traverses the centre of the coalfield, fades
away near Caerphilly, while the coalfield itself terminates a little further east,
its place on the same line of Jatitude being taken by the Usk anticline, which
trends southwards and south-westwards. So far it might be inferred that the
east and west folds die away on approaching the north and south Malvernian axis.
But the Cardiff anticline, which lies south of and was more energetic than those
mentioned, crosses the Bristol Channel and, emerging on the other side in a com-
plicated region near Clevedon and Portishead, passes to the north of Bristol and
holds its course right across the coalfield at Mangotsfield. The coalfield,
howeyer, lies in what is part of the Malvernian disturbance, for it occupies
a syncline running north and south along the west side of the main axis of
upheaval. Though the interruption is local and the strata recover their north and
south strike to the south of it, yet the east and west axis obviously holds its course
right through the Malvernian structure.

Still further south in the direction in which the east and west movements

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 539

eet increase in energy a series of sharp folds is well displayed in the coast of
outh Wales and in an island in the Bristol Channel, ranging for that part of the
east and west disturbance which is known as the Mendip axis. Thisname has been
applied to a series of short anticlines which are arranged en échelon along a line
ranging east-south-east, but each of which runs east and west. Among them we
may distinguish the Blackdown anticline, the Priddy anticline, the Penhill anticline,
north of Wells, and the Downhead anticline, north of Shepton Mallet. With one
exception they all die out eastwards after a course of two to ten miles, but
the Downhead anticline holds its course into the Malvernian disturbance, the two
engaging in a prodigious mé/ée south of Radstock. From that much shattered region
the Downhead anticline emerges, but the Malvernian axis is seen no more, and,
so far as can be judged under the blanket of Secondary rocks, comes to an end.

Mention has been made of the fact that many of the subsidiary east and west
folds die away on approaching the Malvernian axis. In a general way we may
attribute their disappearance to the influence of the north and south movement,
for it is commonly to be observed in these great belts of disturbance that they are
composed of a number of parallel anticlines or elongated domes of upheaval, con-
stantly replacing one another ; it is a common feature also that these subsidiary
folds replace one another not exactly in the direction in which they point, but that
they lie en échelon along a line slightly oblique to it. The behaviour of the South
Wales and Mendip folds is in accordance with these observations, and may be
taken to indicate that the effects of the east and west disturbance reached further
north in South Wales than they did in Somerset, or, in other words, that they
failed to penetrate as far into the region where north and south movements were
in progress as in the region where there were no movements of that direction.

The fact that the east and west folds keep their course across the north and
south wherever the two actually meet comes out prominently, and supports the
inference that they dominate the structure of the Palzeozoic rocks which lie hidden
beneath the Secondary rocks of the south and south-east of England. Somewhere
under this blanket of later formations the east and west axis presumably intersects
the other disturbances which traverse the Midlands. To ascertain where and how
the intersections take place will he going far towards locating any concealed coal-
fields which may exist ; but the knowledge can be obtained only by boring, anc
the number of such explorations as yet made is wholly insufficient. The majority
have been made in search of water, and have been stopped as soon as a supply was
secured. Near Northampton the older rocks were reached at a small depth on
what is believed to be the underground continuation of the Charnian axis, and
a boring at Bletchley traversed what is thought to have been a great boulder of
Charnian rock, suggesting that the axis is not far off; but with these exceptions
the counties of Oxford, Buckingham, Bedford, Huntingdon, Cambridge, and
Norfolk are unknown ground. Yet under these counties the axes must run if
they keep their course. Where exposed at the surface each post-Carboniferous
syncline between two axes contains a coalfield. It remains to future exploration
to ascertain whether similar conditions hold good under the Oolitic and Cretaceous
areas of Central England.

In speaking of the north and south disturbances I have in more than one case
stated that the post-Carboniferous movement was but a renewal of activity along an
old line of disturbance. The fact is proved by the unconformities visible among
the pre-Carboniferous rocks, and it is important for the reason that the geography
of this part of the globe at the commencement of the Carboniferous period had
been determined by these movements. It has long been known, for example, that
the parts of the counties of Stafford, Warwick, and Leicester traversed by the
axes of upheaval were not submerged till late in the Carboniferous period. On
the other hand, some of the area lying immediately west of the Malvernian axis
was submerged at an earlier date, as is shown by the existence of Carboniferous
Limestone at Cleobury Mortimer and, in greater development, in the Forest of
Dean. The borings near Northampton also proved the presence of Carboniferous
Limestone, a fact which is in favour of the occurrence of concealed coalfields, in so
far as it indicates that the wMole Carboniferous series may have once existed there.

54.0 REPORT—1904.

It is remarkable that none of the borings in the South and East of England have
touched Carboniferous Limestone, all having passed into older or newer rocks,
The existence of that formation is neither proved nor disproved.

The determination of the age of these disturbances and a discussion of the
pre-Carboniferous geography may seem at first sight to be only of scientific interest,
but that problems of great economic importance are involved has been shown
recently. It has long been known that the principal coal-seam of South Stafford-
shire deteriorates westwards as it approaches the pre-Carboniferous ridge evidenced
in the neighbourhood of Wyre Forest. There seemed, however, to be no theo-
retical reasons why it should not keep its characters on either side of the fault
which forms the western boundary of the South Staffordshire Coalfield, inasmuch
as that fault came into existence after the deposition of the Coal Measures. A
shaft recently sunk has proved the correctness of the inference. The seam has
been found to be well developed to the west of the fault, and a considerable
addition has been made to our productive coalfields.

So much has been written about the range of the Devonshire disturbance
under the South of England that I shall add no more than a brief comment on some
of the evidence on which reliance has been placed. We have seen that there has
been some post-Triassic movement along old lines of disturbance in North
Wales and the Midlands and along the Malvern axis. It is suggestive therefore
to find that in the region which we believe to be underlain by the east and west
disturbance east and west folding forms the dominant structure of the Secondary
and Tertiary rocks.

The anticlines of the Vales of Pewsey and Wardour, the London syncline,
the Wealden anticline, the Hampshire syncline, and the anticline of the Isles
of Wight and Purbeck, not only lie in the range of the axis, but show an increas-
ing intensity southwards, towards what we may suppose to have been the most
active part of that axis. A similar structure prevails in the Oolitic rocks also.
They too had been thrown into east and west folds before the Cretaceous period, and
this earlier set of movements also grew in intensity towards the south. It would
seem, then, at first sight that the structure of the later rocks gives an easy clue to
the structure of the older rocks buried beneath them. This is by no means the
case. That the movements manifested in the Oolitic and Cretaceous rocks followed
the same general line as the older movement admits of little doubt, but that the
later structures correspond in detail with the earlier is improbable.

A brief examination of the region where the Carboniferous rocks disappear
under the Secondary formations will give the grounds for this statement. There
we find that the Trias passes over the complicated flexures of the Mendip axis in
undulations so gentle as to prove that those flexures had been completed before it
was deposited. Nor again do the members of the Oolitic group of the rocks
cropping out in succession further east show any such folds as those visible in the
Carboniferous, and it is not till we have passed over a considerable tract of
Secondary rocks in which there are no signs of east and west folding that we reach
the anticlines of the Vales of Pewsey and Wardour. Nor can we then fit these
folds in the Cretaceous formation on to any visible axes in the Carboniferous rocks.
Under these circumstances it would be unjust to suppose that such synclines and
anticlines as those of the London and Hampshire basins, or of the Weald, coincide
with previously formed synclines and anticlines in the older rocks. They give a
clue to the position of the old axis, but not necessarily to the details of its
structure. Yet it is upon the determination of the position of the older anticlines
and synclines, and of their intersection with the north and south disturbances, that:
we must depend for locating concealed coalfields. So far but little has been done
in the forty-eight years since the question was first mooted by Godwin-Austen,
The existence of a coalfield in Kent has been proved, and what appears to be a
prolongation of a disturbance from the Pas de Calais along the south-western side
of it. The other borings which have reached the Paleozoic floor round London
and at Harwich have thrown but little light on the details of its structure. By
far the greater part of the ground remains yet to be explored.

In this brief review of the earth-movements of on’e-period, as manifested in one

, 1904. ] [Puate VIII.

|

OF POST-C

eee / 2

|
rs, &c. of post- Carboniferous |
hown thus :— |

re shown thus:- |

re shown thus :— 55

4

SPOTTISWOODE & CF LIP LITH. LONDON

Il lus

British Association, 74th Report, Cambridge, 1904.] (Prare VIII.
MAP OF POST-CARBONIFEROUS AND PRE-PERMIAN EARTH-MOVEMENTS.
By A. Strahan, MA, FR.S.

~ Be

The position of faults, anticlines, &€. of post-Corboniferous
and pre-Permian date are shown thus.—
————_—__

When hypothetical thus:—

Synclines of the same age are shown thus.
eceosccsoesoe

Post-Permian anticlines &c.a°¢ shown thus —

ARLISLE

Maryport

| Whitehovenp Barnard Castle

St Bees’

°Kendol

Mire

20
CLANCASTER Sse

ykeighlay
B QFORD

HUDDERSFII

Penistone’

51 LIVERPOO WERryELn ||
)

“Chesterfield!

Ceebury WIRE
erin FOR)

READING

No rt MAIDSTONE
& dicing Cj 'U/LDFORD| od
inbridge
(Alton —
Horsham

A ,
rMmor/ Can Wardodre e«saLiSBYRY “Haslemere we Vie

7 Carboni feroys) axis le Presta aah ——
Se bore

alewes jostings

= CHICHES:

Ridgeway Purb VY, ---

SCALE

English Miles 69/4= One Degree,
5. 60

]

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 541

small part of the globe, we have found reason to conclude that they were the
result of compression and upheaval; that the crust yielded to the compression by
overthrusting and buckling along certain belts; that these belts in the North of
England and the Midlands ran for the most part north and south, diverging, how-
ever, to the south-west and to the south-east, while in the South of England they
took an east and west direction and concentrated themselves along a belt of country
which presents the phenomena of crushing on a stupendous scale. We have
onshed in two cases the flanks of a mountain-range—the Caledonian, which was
built and ruined before the Carboniferous period ; the Armorican, which was built
after that period, and which, though it has stirred so recently as the late Tertiary
period, and so energetically as to initiate the physical features and river-system of
the South of England, yet expended the greater part of its energy before the
Permian period. Lastly, we have found evidence, in the majority of cases, that
the disturbances were but renewals of movement along lines of weakness long
before established, and that in several cases there has been further renewal along
the same lines during successive periods later than the one we have considered.
With such a history before us, and with the knowledge that mountain-ranges have
been built in other parts of the world by the upheaval of strata of almost recent
date, we have more cause to wonder that the internal forces have left this quarter
of the globe alone for so long, than reason to believe that they have ceased to
exist. Changes of level, however, have taken place in comparatively recent times,
and are now in progress. Though almost imperceptibly slow, they serve to remind
us that a giant lies sleeping under our feet who has stretched his limbs in the
past, and will stretch them again in the future. Nor in view of the fact that the
structures I have described have only been revealed by the denudation of vast
masses of strata does it seem unreasonable to suppose that they are deep-seated
phenomena. The slow changes of level may be the outward manifestation of more
complicated movements being in progress at a depth.

It is interesting to speculate on what appearance the globe would have presented
had it not been enveloped in an atmosphere and covered for the most part with
water. Owing to those circumstances it possesses the power of healing old wounds
and burying old scars. In their absence we may suppose that the belts of
crushing and buckling would have given rise to ridges growing in size at every
renewal of movement, for they would have been neither levelled by denudation
nor smoothed over by sedimentation. This globe, we may suppose, would have
appeared to the inhabitants of another planet as being encompassed in a network,
and we are prompted to ask whether our astronomers can distinguish in any other
planet markings that may be attributable to this cause. I must remind you,
however, how much more remains to be done than J have been able to touch upon
to-day. The map represents one episode only in a long series of events, and a
series of such maps would be required to illustrate the first appearance of lines of
weakness in the earth’s crust, the subsequent renewals of movement along those
lines, and the formation of new lines in successive geological periods. With the
case thus set out we shall be justified in appealing to the physicists for an
- explanation of the restlessness of this globe.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1, The Geology of Cambridgeshire. By J. E. Marr, Sc.D., 7.RB.S.

The main physical features of the county are the Chalk uplands of the south-
eastern and southern part, the curious plateau on the west, the Cam Valley
between them, and the fenland of the north.

Of Jurassic rocks, the Oxford Clay is not well exposed save near Whittlesea.
The Corallian rocks are of considerable interest. Two types occur—the Ampthill
Clay facies of the western outcrop and the Calcareous facies of the Upware Inlier.
The Elsworth rock forms the base of the deposits of each of these types, and its
relationship to the members of the Calcareous facies is a subject still under discus-

542 REPORT—1904.

sion. The Upper and Lower Kimmeridge Clay are found at Ely and in the neigh-
bourhood of that city.

Of Cretaceous rocks the Lower Greensand is well seen near Gamlingay. The
old phosphate workings of Wicken are now closed. The Gault is seen in many
exposures. Most of the sections exhibit Lower Gault, but Mr. Fearnsides has
recently detected the Upper Gault in the Barnwell brick-pit. The basal member
of the Chalk, the well-known Cambridge Greensand phosphatic seam, lies uncon-
formably upon the Gault. It is succeeded by various divisions of the Chalk up to
the zone of Micraster.

The glacial deposits consist chiefly of the chalky boulder clay ; the great boulder
at Ely is of interest.

The Pleistocene gravels include the plateau gravels on the chalk hills and the
well-known mammaliferous gravels forming terraces on the valley-sides. The
March marine gravels are usually correlated with the gravels of one of these
terraces.

Alluvium is found on the valley-bottoms, and in the fenland peat occurs with
intercalated patches of Scrobicularia clay. The peat contains the fauna of
Neolithic and later times.

2. The Great Eastern Glacier. By F. W. Harmer.

This name is proposed for the great ice-stream, the moraine of which, the
chalky Boulder Clay, covers an area of more than 5,000 square miles in the East
of England, frequently attaining a thickness of more than 100 feet.

As far back as 1858, Trimmer, a pioneer in glacial investigation, had pointed
out that the county of Norfolk had been twice invaded by ice, first from the
North Sea and then from the west, the resulting detritus in the one case being
characterised by igneous blocks, some of them of Scandinavian origin; and in the
other by a predominance of Jurassic material. The first invasion is represented
by the Cromer Till and the contorted Drift of the Norfolk coast; the second,
which does not occur in north-east Norfolk, by the chalky Boulder Clay, the
subject of the present paper.

The region covered by the latter deposit, which extends over a great part
of the eastern counties of England, has a palmate outline, its lobes, which
radiate from the great depression of the Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire Fens,
being of unequal length, The latter region was not only the centre whence
the chalky Boulder Clay was distributed, but also the quarry out of which was
excavated the enormous mass of Jurassic material forming to a great extent the
matrix of this deposit.

The present physiographical features cf the East of England closely resemble
those which obtained in glacial times, the Drift deposits not only covering the
plateaux between the valleys in which the rivers of the district now run, but
descending into them, sometimes to below sea level. Hence by the study of the
existing contours, aided by that of well-borings, it is possible to obtain a general -
idea of the preglacial topography by which the movements of the ice must have
been influenced.

Although the erratics of the chalky Boulder Clay are more or less of a similar
character over a wide area, indicating that it was distributed from a common
centre, its predominant character varies in different districts, in accordance with
that of the strata over which the ice moved. The matrix of the Boulder Clay of
south Norfolk and north Suffolk, for example, has been largely derived from the
Kimmeridge Clay. Over this region, which formed in glacial times a shallow
trough running east and west, corresponding with the present depression of the
basins of the Little Ouse and the Waveney, as well-as with the gap in the Chalk
escarpment between Swaffham and Newmarket, the ice evidently poured in great:
volume, planing down the surface of the Chalk and carrying its Kimmeridgian
material fifty miles to the east from its original source in the Fen basin. On the
other hand, although the Fen ice was sufliciently thick to enable it to overflow

TRANSACTIONS OF SECILION C. 543

the Chalk hills between Newmarket and Royston, it only travelled thence to the
south-east for about half that distance. In this region the Boulder Clay is chalky
near the escarpment, while beyond the outcrop of the London Clay it is mainly
composed of detritus from that formation. oo. ;

Along the basin of the Ouse, where its matrix is largely Oxfordian, the ice to
which it was due advanced much further, to Buckingham and beyond, as it also
did along that of the Nene, in the direction of Northampton. On the contrary,
the high land near the head waters of the Welland obstructed the ice-tlow, so that
but little Boulder Clay seems to have found its way into the area comprised in sheet 53
of the Ordnance map. ‘The greater part of sheet 63, however, is covered by it, and
it there reaches an elevation of 730 feet above the sea level. Much of the
Boulder Olay of this region, in the author’s opinion, was due to the ice-stream of
the Trent Valley having been piled up upon the high land to the east of Leicester
by the pressure of ice descending from the Pennines.

It seems probable that the whole of the low-lying region between the Lincoln-
shire Wolds and the Pennines was filled with ice during the period of maximum
glaciation. It is not physically possible that any considerable thickness of ice
could have existed on one side only of the Lincolnshire ridge, which does not
often exceed an elevation of about 200 feet above the lower ground adjoining it.
The author hopes to make the ultimate source of the chalky Boulder Clay ice the
subject of a future paper. The prevalence of Carboniferous dédris in the East
Anglian region seems to indicate, however, that a part of it at least was of
Pennine origin ; another part may have been due to an overflow from the North
Sea across the lowest part of the Chalk Wolds, and the ice may also have been
reinforced by the abundant precipitation to which this district was subject during
the Glacial period ; the moisture-bearing cyclonic disturbances from the Atlantic,
to which the enormous accumulation of ice in the Baltic region was due, must
have passed near the eastern counties of England. There is no evidence to show
that any considerable amount of ice entered East Anglia through the Wash gap,
all the facts known to the author appearing to point in an opposite direction.

3. On a Great Depth of Drift in the Valley of the Stour.
By W. Wuiraker, /.2.S.

Several cases of great irregularities in the thickness of the Drift have been
shown by borings in Suffolk, where the existence of deep channels filled with Drift
has been practically proved, as also in the neighbouring counties of Essex and
Norfolk. In some cases these channels cannot be shown on the map, the Glacial
Drift being hidden by deposits of later age, and this is markedly the case in the
upper part of the valley of the Cam, where at one place (Newport) the Drift has
been pierced to the depth of 340 feet: without reaching the bottom.

In Suffolk the greatest amount of Drift recorded is at Brettenham Park, where
apparently a thickness of 312 feet has been found. But this and all other records
in Kast Anglia are now put into the shade by the result of a boring near Glems-
ford railway station. This is ata low level in the valley of the Stour, in the tract
formed by the sand and gravel that crops out from beneath the Boulder Clay of the
higher ground. Here one would have expected, perhaps, some 50 feet of Drift;
but certainly not more than 100. No less than 477 feet have been passed through,
before reaching the Chalk.

The gravel and sand that form the surface reached to a depth of 51 feet, as
might have been expected; but then the unexpected occurred, no Jess than
228 feet of boulder clay (partly sandy) having been found, with a mass of sand and
clayey sand beneath.

We seem here then again to have evidence of a very deep Drift-filled channel.
A well in the village, at a higher level, has reached Chalk after passing through
120 feet of Drift; so the channel does not reach far northward, nor does it reach to
Foxearth, in Essex, about a mile to the south, where there is a still less thickness
of Drift. As to its direction or extent, however, we can say little as yet.

544 REPORT—1904.

One may add that a boring (? unfinished) in Euston Park has proved over
150 feet of Drift, at a spot where no Drift is shown on the map. This may be
simply a huge pipe.

4. Well-sections in Cambridgeshire. By W. Wurraxer, IRS.
See Reports, p. 266.

5. Note on a Small Anticline in the Great Oolite Series at Clapham, north
of Bedford! By Horace B. Woopwarp, /.2.S.

Attention was drawn to a gravel-pit between Oakley and Clapham, in which a
small anticline of the Great Oolite had been abruptly encountered amidst the
regularly stratified river-deposits. The trend of the fold was N.N.W. and S8.E.,
and therefore contrary to that of the minor undulations which affect the Oolitic
rocks of the district, and which serve to counteract the general dip of these strata
between Sharnbrook and Bedford. Prior to the opening of the pit there was no
surface-indication of the disturbed rocks, but the arch was coated with Great Oolite
clay which had superficially been disarranged and mixed with gravel. There was
no evidence to connect the disturbance with glacial action, nor was there any direct
evidence against such a supposition. The Oolitic strata may have been planed
down prior to or during the period of maximum glaciation, when the boulder clay,
which crowns the adjacent plateau, was laid down. ‘The erosion of the softer strata
flanking the arch of Great Oolite limestone may have been due to the actiun of
the river, the harder rocks having stood up as a low ridge until levelled up by the
accumulation of the valley deposits. A portion of a molar of Elephas primigenius
was obtained from the gravel; also a somewhat decomposed block of rhomb-
porphyry, evidently derived from the boulder clay. The occurrence of this
Scandinavian rock was of interest, as, according to Professor P. I’. Kendall, it had
not been previously found south of Norfolk.’

6. Recent Coast Erosion in Suffolk—Dunwich to Covehithe.
By JouN SPILLER.

This communication brings up to date the record of losses on the Suffoll coast,
and continues the Report presented at the Ipswich meeting, 1895, of which details
were published in the ‘Geological Magazine’ for January 1896, Since that time
scarcely a year has passed without the winter gales and high tides doing mischief
at one or more points of the coast embraced within the limits above specified ; but
whilst Lowestoft and Pakefield, Covehithe, and Easton have all suffered very con-
siderably, the cliffs at Dunwich, until quite recently, remained almost unaffected.

The losses may be summed up as follows :—

Dunwich.

All Saints’ Church Ruins and Graveyard.—The 43 feet of land reported by Mr.
Whitaker, September 1880,3 became 25 feet by Mr. Teall’s measurement in 1902.
Now this has all gone and about 6 feet of northern buttress and east end of the
Church have dropped into the sea, Total loss, 31 feet in two years.

Footpath at Temple Hill.—Mr. Whitaker says, ‘40 yards outside the wood.’
Mr. Teall in 1902 made it 38 yards. It is now diminished to 59 feet. Actual
loss, therefore, 55 feet in two years. The cliffs extending away north and south

1 Printed in full in the Geological Magazine, Decade V., vol. i. pp. 439-441.

2 See Eighth Report of Committee on Erratic Blocks, Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1903.

3 See Memoir of the Geological Survey, Southwold and the Suffolk Coast, hy W.
Whitaker, F.R.S., p. 48.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 545

have lost more than this, except at Misner. The lifeboat at the Coastguard
Station cannot be used at present, for the shingle beach is gone and the boathouse
perched on a terrace. Ordinary tides reach the foot of the cliffs, and further losses
may be expected.

Walberswick,

_ The high shingle beach is cut back all the way from Dunwich to the mouth ot
the river Blyth,

Southwold.

As the result of lengthening the old North Pier at the harbour a good deal of
sand and shingle has been thrown up, but not enough to replace that lost in front
of the lifeboat house, which is now practically useless and embanked for further
protection. It has been suggested that another 50 feet might be added on to the
Pier, and that the old jetty near the centre cliff should be reconstructed.

The timber breastwork in front of the town has stood well since it has been
continued to Buss Creek and strengthened at critical points by double piling. The
new pier, 880 feet long, erected by the Coast Development Company at the North
Cliff has acted like a groyne, and vastly increased the beach on both sides of it, so
that the Bathing Station, threatened with destruction in 1895, is better than ever.

Easton.

The low land extending from Buss Oreek to the southern slope of Easton Cliff
remains as before, protected by a huge bank of shingle, but from this point onward
to the Broad great losses have occurred. The site of the gun battery is buried
out at sea, and the powder magazine behind it now left in ruins on the shore,
50 feet outside the present edge of cliff. The rifle range has been shortened by
100 yards and a new butt constructed, so that the total loss may be estimated at
350 feet since 1895. The effect of this demolition is to bring Covehithe Ness into
view, whereas it was formerly invisible from Southwold. Another necessary con-
sequence is that the coast line, straight in-the Ordnance map, has once more
become curved inwards, corresponding with the original Sole Bay. The seam of
shelly crag at the foot of Easton high cliff was uncovered a year ago for the length
of 40 yards, but is now entirely hidden by masses fallen from the cliff. The
measures of loss (nine years) are as follows :—

Easton Cliff, southern end . 5 . 350 feet.

Roadway, Easton Bavents . : ny LODE ss

Easton high cliff . - A . seep CU sy
Covehithe.

Beyond Easton Broad the cliffs leading to Covehithe are constantly presenting
new faces with bright yellow and pink colouring, suggestive of Alum Bay. The
losses would probably have been greater but for ledges of hard sand rock, pro-
jecting out some 12 to 15 feet and acting as benches for the support of the upper
strata. At Covehithe roadway frequent measurements have been taken since 1895,
showing gradual diminution in length from 62 yards to a remnant of 19 yards,
Total loss in nine years = 129 feet.

7. Report on the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, éc.—See Reports, p. 272,

1904. NN

546 REPORT—1904.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Structure of the Silurian Ophiurid Lapworthura Miltoni.
By Professor W. J. Sotias, /.R.S.

The structure of the arms and jaws of this fossil were described from informa-
tion obtained by a study of serial sections, and reconstructions built up from these
were exhibited before the Section.

2. The Base-line of the Carboniferous System round Edinburgh.
By B. N. Peacu, LL.D., P.RS., and J. Horne, LL.D., FBS.

In the last edition of the Geological Survey map embracing the Edinburgh
district (Sheet 32), published in 1892, strata of Upper Old Red Sandstone age are
represented as occupying the area that stretches southwards from the Castle by
Morningside and Newington to the Lower Old Red Sandstone volcanic rocks of the
Blackford Hill and Braid Hills. The rocks consist of conglomerates, red sand-
stones, marls, and cornstones. The correlation of these strata with the Upper Old
Red Sandstone was based, not on fossil evidence, but partly on their lithological
characters, and partly on the fact that along their eastern margin they pass con-
formably upwards into the Cementstone group of the Carboniferous system.

The Cementstone group as developed in the Edinburgh district consists of
grey, green, and red mudstones, and shales with cementstone bands, occasional
sandstones, and rarely some thin seams of dark carbonaceous shales yielding plants,
ostracods, and Paleoniscid fish-scales of undoubted Carboniferous type.

In the last edition of the Edinburgh sheets all the beds between the Castle and
the voleanic rocks of Arthur’s Seat were included in the Calciferous Sandstone
series. Our colleague, Mr. Goodchild, however, suggested that the sandstone
underlying the dolerite sill of Salisbury Crags is of Upper Old Red Sandstone age
in virtue of the cornstone associated with it, which in the Edinburgh district 1s
characteristic of that formation. During the revision of the Carboniferous area
round the city, Dr. Peach recently detected minute fragments of fishes in this
sandstone where it is exposed at the side of the Queen’s Drive. These were ex-
amined by Dr. Traquair, who considered them to be fragments of dendrodont
(Holoptyehian) teeth, though not specifically determinable. Permission having
been granted by H.M. Office of Works in Scotland to charge the rock exposure
with dynamite, a mass of material was set free, which, when broken up by the
fossil collectors, Messrs. MacOonochie and Tait, yielded conclusive fossil evidence.
After examination Dr. Traquair determined a number of specimens of teeth and
scales which undoubtedly belong to the genus Holoptychius, a characteristic Upper
Old Red Sandstone form. Accepting this determination, it is obvious that the
cementstones to the west must be faulted down against the Upper Old Red Sand-
stone of Salisbury Crags.

Attention was next directed to the Craigmillar sandstones lying to the north
of Arthur’s Seat, and hitherto grouped with the Carboniferous formation by the
Geological Survey. Mr. Tait here obtained a number of very fragmentary fish-
remains, one of which, according to Dr. Traquair, is an unmistakable fragment of
a scale of Holoptychius. Therecan be no doubt, therefore, that the Craigmillar
sandstones are also of Upper Old Red Sandstone age, At Raeburn’s Brewery, not
tar trom Duddingston Station, they are overlatd by dark shales and sandstones,

“with a thin eoaly seam full of plant remains of Carboniferous type.

Thereatter a special examination was made of the sections north and south of the
Warklaw Hill, four miles south-west of Edinburgh, which is formed of Lower Old
Red Sandstone volcanic rocks, where conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and corn-
stones rest unconformably on that platform, and are overlaid by the Cementstone
croup. After careful searching by Mr. Tait, fish fragments were found which Dr.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©, 5A7

Traquair considers fragmentary and indecisive. No undoubted Holoptychian
remains were obtained. Those that have recognisable affinities are of Dipnoi and
Rhizodontide, and might be either of Upper Old Red or Carboniferous age.
Notwithstanding the indefinite fossil evidence, it is highly probable that the con-
glomerates, pebbly grits, and cornstones of Clubbiedean and Torduff are the
equivalents of the sandstones and grits of Craigmillar and Salisbury Crags.

This discovery seems to us of special interest and importance, because (1) it is
the first record of undoubted Upper Old Red Sandstone fish remains in the Edin-
burgh district ; (2) it defines more precisely the area occupied by this formation
round the city—.a point of practical importance, as these sandstones are the source
of the water supply for the local brewing industry; (3) it raises the question
whether the base-line of the Carboniferous system throughout Scotland should not
be drawn where the Ballagan type of the Cementstone group first appears.

3. Note on the Fish-remains recently collected by the Geological Survey of
Scotland at Salisbury Crags, Craigmillar, Clubbiedean Reservoir, and
Torduff Reservoir, in the Edinburgh District. By Dr. R. H.Traquatr,
FRS.

The fish-remains from the sandstones of all these localities are very fragmentary,
but from the Salisbury Crags sandstone portions of teeth of dendrodont, that is,
Holoptychian fishes, are distinctly recognisable, and a piece of a scale was referable
. to Holoptychius nobilissimus, a characteristic Upper Old Red Sandstone fish.
Among the fish-remains from Craigmillar, a portion of a scale also with the
sculpture of Holoptychius nobilissimus has been found,

The remains from Clubbiedean and Torduff Reservoirs are still more fragmen-
tary, and of the fragments none distinctly referable to Holoptychius have been as
yet detected. Fragments referable to Rhizodont and Dipnoan fishes are present,
but not generically or specifically identifiable, and it is therefore impossible to say
whether they are of Upper Old Red or of Carboniferous age.

4, On the Fauna of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of the Moray Firth Area.
By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.

The fish fauna of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Britain is better developed in
the Moray Firth area than in any other. There are twenty-two determinable
species, of which four are noted in this paper as new. Of the genera, the most
noteworthy and characteristic are Psammosteus, Asterolepis, Bothriolepis, and
Holoptychius.

In this region we have evidence of three successive zones of fish life in the
Upper Old Red—

1, That of the Nairn sandstone, being apparently the lowest, and characterised
by Psammosteus tesselatus, Asterolepis maxima, and Holoptychius decoratus.

2. That of the Alves beds, including the well-known Scat Craig deposit, and
characterised by Psammosteus Taylori, Bothriolepis major, and Sauripterus
crassidens. Holoptychius giganteus and H., nobilissimus are also common,

3. That of the Rosebrae beds, apparently the highest of the Upper Old Red
of the district. Holoptychius giganteus and H, nobilissimus are equally common in
these sandstones and in the nnderlying Alves beds. Bothriolepis major is also
found, but of comparatively small size, but there is a complete absence of the
venus Psamimosteus. The presence of Phyllolepis concentrica, Glyplopomus minor,
and Phaneropleuron Anderson/ turnishes, however, au interesting correlation with
the uppermost Old Red beds of Dura Den, in Fiteshire.

The author expressed his great indebtedness to Mr, W. Taylor, of Lianbryde,
near Elgin, for furnishing him with most valuable material for prosecuting these
researches into the fauna of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of the North of Scotland.

NNQ

kK

548 REPORT—1904.

5. Note on Lower Cretaceous Phosphatic Beds and their Fauna,
By G. W. Lampiuen.

It has been customary to regard the fossils more or less imperfectly preserved
in the condition of phosphatic casts in different parts of the English Lower
Cretaceous series as derivative from the Jurassic rocks. In previous papers the
writer has brought forward evidence to show that the fauna of such beds at
Speeton and in Lincolnshire is not derivative, but occurs at its proper horizon
and, so far as it goes, indicates the life of the period. Personal investigation of
the localities, and of the fossils obtained from the ‘coprolite beds’ at Upware,
Potton, and Brickhill, has led him to conclude that in these deposits also
the greater part of the so-called derivatives are really of Lower Cretaceous
age. Thus one of the most abundant phosphatic fossils of these places is the
ammonite, usually fragmentary, which has habitually been named Amm. biplea,
but belongs in almost every case to one or another of several allied species of
Lower Cretaceous Olcostephani. Most of the lamellibranchs can likewise be best
matched by Lower Cretaceous forms; and there are good grounds for suspecting
that many of the saurian- and fish-remains from the above-mentioned places
and from the Faringdon ‘Sponge Gravels,’ which have been classed as Jurassic,
are true Lower Cretaceous forms.

It is acknowledged that the presence of transported pebbles of older rocks in
the deposits at Upware, Potton, and Faringdon renders the occurrence of deriva-
tive fossils at these places more probable than in the case of the Speeton and
Lincolnshire ‘ coprolite beds’; and in the collections examined a few specimens
were noticed that seem to have been washed from older rocks. But the writer
believes that these instances are exceptional, and he urges that no fossil should be
set down as derivative unless the evidence is conclusive, as much confusion has
arisen through the unquestioning adoption of the hypothesis of derivation.

While there is still much to be learnt as to the physical conditions requisite
for the concretion of phosphatic nodules and for their segregation into bands, it
seems clear that an important determinative was the existence of submarine
currents occasionally impinging upon the sea-floor with sufficient strength to sweep
away the matrix in which the nodules had been formed, so that there was a
gradual accumulation of the partially eroded nodular residues. Such residues,
though of inconsiderable thickness, may represent a long period of submarine con-
ditions, The term ‘aggregate deposits’ has been suggested by J. F. Blake for
beds of this character.

6. On Marine Fossils from the Ironstone of Shotover Hill, near Oaford.
By G. W. Lampiueu.

(Communicated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey.)

_ The presence of casts of marine fossils, including Trigonia, Perna, and Modiola,
in an ironstone rock on Shotover Hill resembling in appearance that which
contains the Lower Oretaceous freshwater fossils, Unio, Cyrena, and Paludina,
has long been known, but the horizon at which these marine fossils occur has
not hitherto been ascertained. The writer found that these marine forms occur at
the base of the Ironsand series, in a rock which appears originally to have been a
sandy limestone, now converted, sometimes wholly and sometimes partly, into an
ironstone by the replacement of the lime by iron. In other parts of the outcrop
the limestone has been silicified, and the fossils are then almost entirely obliterated.
From its position and fossils it is concluded that this rock belongs to the Port-
landian series, and represents a portion of the Upper Portland stone, converted to
its ee state through the infiltration of ferruginous waters from the overlying
ironsands.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©. 549

7. On the Fossil Plants of the Upper Culm Measures of Devon.
By EH, A. NEwett Arser, Jf. A.

The Upper Culm Measures form by far the largest portion of the Carboni-
ferous sequence in Devon and the adjacent counties. Fossil plant remains are
abundant in these beds, but their preservation is rarely sufficiently good to permit
of even generic determination. A number of well-preserved specimens have, how-
ever, recently been obtained from the one horizon in which coal or ‘culm’ occurs
in these beds in the Bideford district. They include Calamites undulatus, Calamo-
cladus charefornus, Alethopteris lonchitica, A. Serli, Neuropteris obliqua,
Sigillaria tessellata, and many others. Neuropteris Schlehani and Megalopteris (F)sp.
are also recorded from Britain for the first time.

This flora confirms the previous conclusions with regard to the Upper Car-
boniferous age of these beds, and indicates that the coal-bearing beds of the
Bideford district are the equivalents of the Middle Coal Measures elsewhere in
Britain—a higher horizon than has previously been assigned to these beds.

8. On Derived Plant Petrifactions from Devonshire.
By HK. A, Newent Arser, Jf.A.

Some interesting plant petrifactions in which the structure has been to some
extent preserved by means of a mineral agent have recently been discovered in
the higher beds of the Upper Culm Measures (Upper Carboniferous) in Western
Devon. Although the preservation is not sufficiently good to render this dis-
covery of any botanical importance, the manner in which the fossils occur is
interesting from a geological point of view. The plant remains consist of small
rolled fragments of stems, of an inch or less in length, arranged without order in a
fine-grained sandstone. They are in all probability derived from some pre-
existing beds, and are not contemporaneous with the sandstone in which they are
found. Such derived plant remains are very rare, if not unknown, from the
Paleozoic rocks.

9. Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.
See Reports, p. 275.

10. On Lootprints of Small Fossil Reptiles from the Upper Karroo Rocks
of Cape Colony. By Professor H. G. Sunny, /.R.S.

The author recognised a slab of fine-grained sandstone in the Paleontological
collection of the University of Munich, which contains impressions of the feet of
three kinds of reptiles and also preserves casts of small phalangeal bones terminated
by compressed claws. This was collected about 1880, near Middleburg, together
with a small Theriodont skull allied to Hyorhynchus.

The surface of the slab appears to show faint ripple marks, an inch or two
apart. The larger footprints cross these markings at an angle of about 45°. The
prints are in relief; indicate a pentadactylate animal, with the fore and hind feet of
nearly equal size. The digits are widely spread, stout, and terminate bluntly,
without any indication of claws. The palmar surface is most convex towards the
first digit, and there is a convexity under each metacarpal and metatarsal bone.
The point is less deep towards the outer side, so that the outermost digit appears
to be exceptionally slender. The width of the hand is about one inch, and the
length did not exceed one inch and a half; at the carpal border the width is
eight-tenths of an inch. There appear to be four bones in the distal-tarsal row.

The hinder tarsal border is formed of three convex curves, which appear to
indicate the three bones in the proximal tarsal row. There is a slight impression
of the tail, showing a fine granular skin ornament, arranged quincuncially. In
size the digits are not unlike those of Mesosaurus, though in the shorter

550 REPOR?—1904.

metapodial bones they are more like Procolophon. ‘Their generic relation is not
determined.

Two other animals of smaller size are indicated on the same slab. Both have
the digits parallel, and apparently four in number, like some from the Trias of
Cheshire. ;

A cast of this slab was made by the late Professor v. Zittel. and given to the
author for description and presentation to the British Museum.

This is the first record of footprints in the Karroo rocks,

11. Report on Life Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks,—See
Reports, p. 226,

be

MONDAY, AUGUST 2

The following Papers were read :—
1, Discussion on the Nature and Origin of Earth Movements.

i, Introduction, By AuBRey STRAHAN, M.A., F.R.S.

The subject proposed for discussion is the nature and origin of those move-
ments of the earth’s crust which have manifested themselves in the fracturing,
overthrusting, and folding of strata. These movements have been in operation
from the earliest to the latest geological periods; and, though they have been
intermittent so far as any one region is concerned, there is reason to believe that
they have been more or less continuously in action throughout the world as a
whole. Their operation, in fact, is essential to the existence of a land surface,
for in their absence all rocks projecting above the sea would be worn away, and
the globe would become enveloped in one continuous ocean.

Notwithstanding these facts, and though they have been the object of pro-
longed study, no theory as to the cause of the movements has commanded
universal acceptance. Without attempting to enter in detail into the various
theories which have been advanced, I will merely point out, for the purposes of
the present discussion, that, while some hold that the shrinking of the globe by
cooling and the efforts of the crust to adapt itself to the shrinking interior are the
prime causes, others maintain that the scale on which folding and overthrusting
in the crust have taken place is out of all proportion to the shrinking that can be
attributed to such a cause.

Earth movements may be divided into two principal classes—namely, move-
ments of expansion, which are evidenced in normal faulting; and movements of
compression, such as are indicated by the buckling, overthrusting, and shearing of
strata, by the superinduced structures of cleavage and schistosity, and by the
extrusion of granitic rocks and metamorphism. All these phenomena have been
made the subject of special study, and I believe that no better opportunity could
be found than a meeting of this Section for comparing the views of specialists
upon them, and for ascertaining how far those views point to a general agreement
as to the causes of the earth movements upon which these phenomena are
attendant,

ii, Contribution by Dr. Joun Horne, F.R.S.
The Earth Movements in the North-West Highlands.

The nature of the earth movements in the North-West Highlands in post-
Cambrian time was illustrated by a series of horizontal sections across the belt of
complication, that stretches from the north coast of Sutherland to Sleat, in Skye.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. tapi

It was shown that, though the sections vary indefinitely along this belt, there aie
certain features characteristic of different stages of the movements which con-
stitute well-marked types.

In the strip that generally intervenes between the undisturbed area to the west
and the powerful thrusts to the east, the geological structures may be arranged in
two groups: 1. The strata are thrown into a series of inverted folds accompanied
by reversed faults or thrusts, which dip in one general direction towards the
E.S.E.; this type is well represented in the region of Eriboll and in the
mountainous district south of Loch Maree. 2. Without incipient folding, the
strata are repeated by a series of minor thrusts or reversed faults which lie at an
oblique angle to the major thrust-planes, and dip in the direction from which the
pressure came—that is, from the E.S.E. This type is admirably displayed in
Glen Coul, in Glen Dhu, and on the hill slopes N.N.W. of Inchnadamph, in Suther-
landshire.

It sometimes happens, however, that the structures characteristic of this stage
of the movements are buried underneath the materials driven westwards by the
powerful thrusts ; but wherever denudation has laid bare the reduplication of the
strata in advance of the great displacements, these structures are found.

The features characteristic of the more powerful thrusts may also be arranged
in two groups. In the first, masses of Lewisian gneiss, Torridon sandstone, and
Cambrian rocks are made to override the underlying piled-up strata, and in some
cases to overlap other thrusts to the west. Owing to the movements of the strata
from east to west, and also to the friction along the plane of the thrust, the strata fold
over and curve under the Lewisian gneiss, thus producing inversion of the beds.
These features are exemplified in the Eriboll region, in Assynt, and in the Loch
Maree district, by the Arnabol, Glen Coul, Ben More, and Kishorn Thrusts. The
materials brought forward by these displacements can be referred to different
types of Lewisian gneiss occurring to the west, and to the respective sub-divisions
of the Torridonian and Cambrian systems.

In the second group, which is represented solely by the Moine Thrust, the
Eastern Schists, composed of quartz-schists, mica-schists, and muscoyite-biotite
schists, with lenticular masses of acid and basic gneisses of Archzean type, are driven
westwards, and in some cases overlap all major and minor thrusts till they rest
directly on the comparatively undisturbed Cambrian strata,

The planes of the major or powerful thrusts along which the materials have
been driven are usually inclined to the E.S.E. at low angles, but in some cases
they are folded, and, more rarely, are almost vertical.

One of the distinctive features of the major thrust-planes is, that their outcrops
resemble the boundary lines between unconformable formations, because (1) there
is a complete discordance between the strata lying above and below the planes of
disruption; (2) each successive thrust may be overlapped in turn by the higher one.
By means of denudation, outliers of the materials lying above the thrust-planes are
formed, of which excellent examples occur near Inchnadamph, in Assynt, and to the
south of Loch Maree.

iii. Contribution by J. J, H. Tratt, M.A., F.B.S,
Effects of Earth Movements on Rocks,

The effects of earth movements on rocks may be either local or regional.
Local effects are confined to the immediate neighbourhood of dislocations ;
regional effects are observable over areas that may be measured in tens, hundreds,
or even thousands of square miles.

Fault-breccias and mylonites may be cited as well-known examples of local
effects, the former being especially characteristic of normal faults and the latter
of thrust-planes. In the majority of cases fault-breccias and mylonites are formed
at the expense of the adjacent rocks, but this is not always the case. Vein-stones
have not infrequently been deposited in cracks and fissures along which movement
has taken place, Some of the tin lodes of Cornwall, for example, give evidence of

552 REPORT—1904.

two or more periods of infiltration, followed by movements which have broken
up the previously deposited material, consisting of quartz, tourmaline, and tin-
stone.

In the cases above referred to the evidence of the mechanical fracture of the
rocks and of their constituent minerals is obvious, but in those which have now to
be considered such evidence is rare or altogether absent.

The Lewisian gneiss of Scotland is traversed by alarge number of basic dykes.
Both gneiss and dykes are crossed by shear-zones in which the rocks have been
deformed and in which the structure and, to some extent, the mineralogical com-
position of the original rocks have been changed. The basic dykes have become
hornblende schists and the gneiss a hornblende granulite. Both rocks are now in
the condition of holocrystalline schists, and although traces of mechanical fracture
may sometimes be seen in the transitional forms, they are as a rule conspicuous by
their absence, and are not found in the finished product.

The essential difference between fault-breccias and mylonites, on the one hand,
and the holocrystalline schists of the shear-zones on the other, is that evidence of
mechanical fracture, both of the rocks and of their mineral constituents, is
abundant in the former and rare or absent in the latter. This difference is pro-
bably due to the fact that the deformation in the case of the shear-zones took
place under a greater load and at a higher temperature.

The breadth of many of the typical shear-zones is only a few yards, but wider
belts of country composed of similar rocks—hornblende schists and granulitic
gaeisses—occur, so that the consideration of these shear-zones helps to bridge over
the gap between the two classes of effects—the local and the regional.

Regional effects are well illustrated by the phenomena of slaty cleavage, which
is due to the mechanical deformation of extensive tracts of country. Sharpe and
Darwin associated the foliation of crystalline schists with slaty cleavage, an
association which appears to be justifiable, although the case as stated by them
requires some modification. Much remains to be done before the problem of the
origin of the crystalline schists is solyed, but a few points of considerable import-
ance have been definitely established.

Taking the Highlands of Scotland as an example, the foliated crystalline rocks
of that region are, as a rule, easily separable into two distinct classes—those of
igneous and those of sedimentary origin.

In dealing with foliated igneous rocks there is, in many cases, a doubt as to
whether the foliation may not date from the time of intrusion and be of the nature
of original fluxion; but when a granitic mass, its apophyses and the metamorphosed
sediments on its margin have a common foliation, and the apophyses are foliated
transversely to their width, and not parallel to their margins, we are compelled to
assume that the foliation has been produced by earth movements operating
after intrusion, consolidation, and contact-metamorphism. This is the case, for
example, with the Carn Chivinneag mass in Eastern Ross, which has recently
been investigated by Mr, Clough.

Crystalline schists of sedimentary origin also form large tracts in the Highlands.
They probably belong to more than one formation, and certainly include repre-
sentatives of arenaceous, argillaceous, and calcareous types. To what extent the
present condition of these crystalline schists is to be attributed to earth movements
is more or less an open question. That they have been powerfully affected by such
movements is often clearly proved by their disposition, by the presence of recog-
nisable folds, and by the flattening or elongation of the clastic grains and pebbles
in the coarser-grained sediments. If foliation be taken to include both parallel
banding and the disposition of minerals with their longer axes in one definite
direction, it is probable that in general the former is evidence of original stratifi-
cation, although the thickness of a band, as we now see it, may be different from
its original thickness, and the latter is the result of earth movement.

It appears, therefore, that the secondary foliation of igneous rocks and a part

! There is also a third class of mixed rocks, due to the impregnation of sedi
mentary with igneous material, but this class is relatively unimportant.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 553

of the foliation of the crystalline schists of sedimentary origin must be attributed
to earth movements and associated with the phenomena of slaty cleavage.

The Rey. Osmonp FisHEeR made the following communication :—

L used to think that the corrugations of the earth’s crust were due to compres-
sion through the shrinking of the interior. To judge of the sufficiency of this cause
the first thing to be done is to seek a measure of the compression, and then to
compare the result of the effects of cooling with the actual amount of compression.
The most satisfactory measure appears to be the thickness of the layer which
the corrugations would form if levelled down. The question then becomes a
question of how much. In 1863 Lord Kelvin (then Sir W. Thomson) formulated
a law of secular cooling upon the hypothesis that the interior is solid. Adopting
a probable value for the contraction of rocks in cooling, I calculated the thickness
of the layer which would be produced by the corrugations resulting, and found it
far short of that which the existing inequalities would form if levelled down.
Mr. Mellard Reade and Dr. Davison subsequently discovered the existence of a
level of no strain within the crust, and this greatly reduces the possible amount
of corrugations. The conclusion at which I arrived was that, on the hypothesis
of a solid globe, secular contraction through cooling would not account for the
corrugations. :

Numerous phenomena suggest to the vulcanologist that the substratum is a
liquid magma holding water-gas in solution. The free yielding of the substratum
is also testified by the phenomena of isostacy. I have therefore endeavoured to
estimate the amount of corrugations which would be produced by a cooling globe
also on this hypothesis. But although they would be slightly greater than in the
case of a solid globe, they still fall far short of those actually existing. I there-
fore argue that the corrugations of the crust are not due to the shrinking of the
peer away from the cooled crust, whether we regard the interior as solid or

iquid.

My own view of this vexed question, which is based on the considerations
given below, is that the substratum is affected by convection currents, and that
these ascend beneath the oceans, and flowing horizontally towards and beneath
the continents, and descending beneath mountain chains, are the cause of the
compression of the crust, and other disturbances, of which we are in search.

It is, in the first. place, necessary to combat the dictum of leading physicists
that the interior of the earth is solid. It has been asserted that unless the earth
is extremely rigid bodily tides would be produced, and that there would be no rise
and fall of the water relatively to the land. Ifthe earth was a smooth spheroid,
covered with a uniformly deep ocean, this would, no doubt, be true; but as matters
stand the tides of short period are affected by local irregularities, known as the
establishment of the port. If the substratum of the crust is liquid, isostacy
requires large protuberances of its underside, which would cause irregularities in
the tides in the magma analogous to those in the ocean; and unless these agree
in time, in height, and in place with the water tides, the latter will not be
obscured by them, and may even be augmented. |

Of tides of long period the fortnightly is the most important, but I think I
have shown in the Appendix to my ‘ Physics of the Earth’s Crust’ that it had not
been proved by fifteen years of observation that any such tide existed,! which
would be an argument in favour of the liquidity of the interior.

The peculiarities of the transmission of earthquake waves to great distances
through the body of the earth have been appealed to as proving to all ‘except
some geologists’ that the earth is solid.» The disturbance first arrives as a series
of minute tremors. These have been considered to be waves of compression.
They are soon followed by somewhat larger disturbances, which have been con-
sidered to be waves of distortion. Since waves of distortion could not be
propagated in a liquid, it is maintained that the earth is hereby proved to be
solid. In reply to this argument, I have shown that if a liquid magma holds gas

1 Page 34, Nae 2 Darwin's Tides, p. 236,

~

554 REPORT—1904.

in solution two types of waves will be propagated through it, with different
velocities. Tremors will first arrive, due to the compressibility of the magma,
and subsequently waves, caused by the extrusion of gaseous vesicles, due to the
changes of pressure. If my argument is valid, that for solidity loses its force."

I will now give my reasons for thinking that the substratum, if a liquid, is not
a still liquid, but is affected by convection currents.

Availing myself of Sir Arthur Riicker’s observed values of the melting-
temperature and specific heat of Rowley rag, I have calculated that if the
substratum of the crust be a still liquid, the thickness of the crust comes out
22 miles, and the corresponding time since it began to solidify about eight million
years. This is a much shorter time than geologists would admit. This result
proves that the substratum is not a still liquid, and must, therefore, be affected by
convection currents, bringing up heat from below and delaying the thickening
of the crust. The existence of convection currents being thus, as I submit,
established, I will add my reason for believing that they ascend beneath the
oceans,

By a somewhat complicated calculation, which, although assailed by Mr.
Blake,’ has been ably defended by Mr. Brill,® I have, I think, proved that the
substratum beneath the ocean is less dense than beneath the land. This shows
that the upward currents are beneath the ocean. I have at the same time proved
that the sub-oceanic crust does not reach quite so deep down as the continental
crust, and thet its upper layer is thin and very dense; from which I infer that it
consists of basic lava flows, the oxydation of which would afford the red clay
which covers the bottom of the deeper oceans,

These convection currents, ascending beneath the ocean, and then flowing
horizontally towards and beneath the continents till they descend, are, in my
opinion, the cause of the compression of the continental crust.

At the request of the President, Professor T, McKunny Hueuss explained the
position and arrangement of the specimens exhibited in the museum in illustration
of the subject under discussion,

They were, as far as possible, arranged to show the ‘nature’ of earth move-
ment and the relation between superinduced structures, which might suggest
their ‘origin.’ Great continental folds, and local readjustments in connection
with them, may be exemplified even in small specimens. From these we should
infer, as we should also from observations over large areas, that faults and folds
were generally due to movements in relief of lateral pressure, while faults due to
the dropping of the marginal portion of uplifted and exposed areas are com-
paratively rare. What the nature of the movement will be in various regions
would largely depend upon the character of the rocks affected. Heim had
estimated the probable breadth of the Alps if the strata were pulled out flat.
Similar calculations had been made among the folded mountain ranges of
America ; but, as our specimens show, all rocks were not susceptible of the same
kind of compression. One rock had gained in vertical thickness at the expense of
horizontal extension by molecular rearrangement of the particles, which had, or
could assume, a flattened form at right angles to the direction of the pressure.
Another rock which would not yield to this kind of readjustment must fold; but
faults and crumplings occur along belts, and are in easement or relief of strain
along lines of less resistance during movements of uplift and depression.

In the production of folding without fracture time is an element, and tempera-
ture must be taken into account. When the rocks do break, earthquakes record
the rent, and volcanic phenomena follow the relief of pressure on the superheated
rocks. If we could explain the great epeirogenic movements by a shrinking of
the interior and a tangential pinching of the hardened outside crust, we should
establish a vera causa which would involve the crumplings along limited belts,
where vertical expansion was produced in compensation for horizontal extension.
Nature is full of automatic compensations and conflicting forces, and in this. dis-

1 Proceedings of Cambridge Phil, Soc., vol. xii., 1904.
2 Phil, Mag., 1894. 5 Phil, Mag., 1895,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. eves

cussion we must not forget the transference of large portions of the earth’s crust
from one region to another. Fifteen thousand feet of rocky material taken off a
continent and thrown down on its margin must produce an appreciable disturb-
ance, as we see on a small scale when a solid stratum is remoyed from above a
shale or a mountain side, in a tunnel or in a quarry. The removal of blankets
of sediment from one area and the heaping on of corresponding layers elsewhere
must affect the transmission of heat and its many consequences. We must
remember the different volume of rocks in a molten and solid state, and the
tremendous power of crystallisation and chemical reacticns. We must be careful
not to think that we can explain the working of a clock when we have given a
numerical estimate of the strength of the spring, without taking account of the
controlling influence of the pendulum,

Professor Sotias remarked that Mr. Horne in his closing words had suggested
the question which was most open to discussion, 7.e., How far could the hypothesis
of a cooling globe be shown to explain the phenomena of disturbance in the super-
ficial structure of the earth’s crust? It was difficult to enter upon this inquiry
without making some assumption as to the internal state and constitution of our
planet. Professor Arrhenius regarded the interior as consisting of gas at a
temperature above its critical point, but under a pressure which rendered it highly
incompressible. Such a conception would afford the geologist a general contrac-
tion sufficient to meet all his needs. The Rev. O, Fisher, as the result of his
investigations, had been led to regard the interior as fluid, but thought that even
so the contraction resulting from cooling would be inadequate to account for the
inequalities of the surface. While Mr. Davison, reasoning from Lord Kelvin’s
hypothesis of a solid earth, was led to an opposite result. But however authori-
ties might differ as to the amount, none would deny that some contraction would
follow trom the secular cooling of the globe, and it was of interest to inquire by
what kind of machinery this would act to produce mountain folds, with their
associated thrust-planes and volcanic and seismic disturbances. It must be care-
fully borne in mind that folding is confined to comparatively narrow belts of the
earth’s surface, extensive masses of sediment remaining comparatively undisturbed
in approximately horizontal platforms ; that these belts occur near the margin, or
the once existent margin, of the ocean, and that they are comparatively super-
ficial, the causes which gave rise to them being deeper seated. If we consider the
relative level of the continents and ocean-floor, we find the latter lies at an average
depth of some two miles below the former, yet the continents appeared to be self-
supporting. Wherever great folded ranges are in existence, however, we have
evidence of a previous slow subsidence of the sea-floor bordering the land, a sub-
sidence which, with lapse of time, had in many cases amounted to five or six
miles. When the present difference in level between continent and ocean-floor
had undergone so great an increase as this, it was doubtful whether the continent
would continue to sustain itself, and if it gave way it would slide towards the
ecean. Consideration of the distribution of pressure and isogeotherms below the
crust suggested the possible existence of a zone of solid material near its critical
fusion point, the slope of which might be seawards, and might lead to the formation
of gently inclined glide planes. The movement of the continental mass would
then give rise to compression, folding, and overthrusting of the marginal sediments,
as well as accompanying seismic and volcanic action. The limited distribution of
folded belts could be thus accounted for; but it might still be urged that the
contraction due to cooling was inadequate to explain the subsidence on which this
theory was based. There was, however, another cause to which attention might
be directed, viz., a slow deformation accompanying a loss of rotational velocity.
Mr. Jeans had shown that the original form of the earth; subsequent to the origin
of the moon, was probably pear-shaped, and this figure, of which some vestiges
still remain, would determine the primitive distribution of land and sea. As
rotational velocity diminished, the form would approximate more and more to that
of an oblate spheroid, and the oblate spheroid would become more spherical; in the
course of these changes the Pacific belt of continents would be produced, and the

556 REPOR1—1904.

mountain ranges of the ancient Thetis. Contraction and this deformation acting
together might be found to supply the explanation required. A decisive solution,
however, could hardly be looked for at present ; many physical data, especially the
value of the coefficient of expansion for solid bodies near their critical fusion point,
were not sufficiently known, and great authorities were ranged on opposite sides ;
at the same time, investigators like Joly and Barus were making important addi-
tions to our knowledge, and further advances might he hopefully looked for in the
near future.

Professor J. F. Brake considered it more important to determine, in the first
instance, the proximate causes of earth movements rather than the ultimate causes,
which must be more or less speculative. Thus the thrust-planes of the N.-W.
Highlands had inclinations pretty uniformly bringing upwards the overthrust
materials, only the small minor thrusts bending down towards the end, as though
they were locally stopped in their motion. This motion was from the east, where
there existed a broad area of crystalline rock. These indications suggested the
former existence of a mountainous region in this direction, which had afterwards
sunk by its own weight and forced out the strata to the west, carrying with it
portions of its own base, the yielding of which was the immediate cause of the
motion. This, however, involved no important folding, and thus supported rather
the ideas of Professor Rothpletz than those of Professor Heim. Folding, in fact,
had, in the speaker’s opinion, been much exaggerated; there was plenty of it, but
too wide effects had been attributed to it. ‘The speaker had never seen ‘isoclinal’
strata in the sense often implied, and never hoped to, for such folding was physically
impossible, involving as it did the absolute destruction of the central layers. At
most the structure might be called p/estoclinal; and in this case the centre of the
fold should always be somewhere recognisable, as it occurred throughout. If no
indication could be found it argued that a fold was absent. There were also
local causes of folding, of which an instance was quoted in the valley crossed by
the excavation for dams made in carrying out the Derwent Valley water-scheme.
Here the two sides of the valley showed uniform horizontal strata in the bedded
Pendleside series ; but where the stream was crossed a sharp uplift on both sides
was seen in the section, while the underlying strata were said to be still undis-
turbed ; thus indicating that the cause of the uplift originated at the stream, and
was probably the relief from local pressure dug to the excavation of the valley,
and might be called, therefore, a kind of earth-creep.

Professor A. Rorupnetz said: I have had much pleasure in listening to the
clear exposition that Mr. Horne has given us of the overthrusts and earth-crush
movements in the Scottish Highlands, and in seeing the great importance given to
these subjects by this meeting. It is more than twenty-five years ago that I had
the first opportunity of studying an overthrust. At that time nobody cared for
such things, and the text-books of geology hardly recognised the word at all.

The next overthrust I found in the Alps twenty years ago, but I had to defend
it against almost everyone. So you may understand my delight when I came
to the meeting of this Association at Nottingham, and had the good fortune to
find there those geologists who had worked out so carefully the overthrusts of
the Highlands, and to accompany them into that district.

But now opinions have changed so entirely that nobody in this room will be
found to deny the existence of overthrusts.

Although I have now worked twenty-five years at the subject I am still very
doubtful about overthrusts, because we do not yet know many of their essential
features. How, for instance, do these wide and long overthrust-planes come to
an end laterally? That we cannot see in the Highlands; but in the Alps I have
found two great overthrust-planes which strike from §. toN. at a place where the
strike of the folds is E. to W. So the shortening in one direction took place by
folding, while the shortening in a direction at right angles to that was by over-
thrust. Following those overthrust-planes to the north and south, we see that before
reaching the boundaries of the Alps they simultaneously and suddenly turn east-
ward and lose their horizontal character, They become longitudinal and more or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 5517)

less vertical fault-planes, which we may follow to the east end of the Alps. So
they enclose an enormous mass of mountains, which have moved from E. to W.
along these longitudinal fault-planes like a car on the rails.

Now, are the particular features of these Alpine overthrusts of general
application? It may beso or not. Nothing but further field-work can clear up
this point.

Of course the forces which made these overthrusts must have been enormous,
and there is naturally a great tendency to attempt to calculate their origin.

Field geologists are not so well fitted for doing this, because they have too
great a knowledge of detail, and are too much puzzled by what they have not yet
fully elaborated. It is easier for those who are mainly occupied in working at
theory and who are not disturbed by detail. They can more readily accept the
simple assumptions which are wanted for mathematical analysis.

We have just seen, however, that in theory, too, there are many difficulties and
much difference of opinion; and so I do not think that questions of the nature and
origin of overthrusts will be solved so quickly as Professor Sollas hopes and
anticipates.

Professor Boyp Dawxrns called attention to the foldings and faults caused by
the relaxation of pressure at the bottom of valleys carved out of the elastic shales
and thin sandstones of the Yoredale and Millstone Grit rocks, which he had
observed in the upper valleys of the Derwent and of the Don during the construc-
tion of reservoirs. ‘lhe folded and faulted strata extend to a depth of from
40 to 120 feet from the surface, and rest on undisturbed shales and sandstones.
They are due to the lateral pressure of the sides acting on the valley, from which
the counterpoise of rock has been denuded away, and are analogous to the ‘ creeps’
in coal-workings. We must, therefore, add the relaxation of pressure to the causes
of folding and faulting recognised in geological theory.

Professor Joun Minne remarked that the number of worlds which had been
invented by geologists, physicists, and others exceeded the number which they
had heard about in their youth. New worlds had even been invented whilst he
had been in the room, and to them he ventured to add another—a world that would
meet the requirements of the seismologist. The world which they required was
one which would convey earthquake waves with a velocity which was nearly
uniform along chords corresponding to arcs greater than 30°. In other words,
a fairly homogeneous nucleus was required, and this nucleus should have a
‘rigidity about twice that of steel. Such a world would not be far removed
from the one suggested by Wiechert, which was in agreement with the require-
ments of astronomy and geodesy. In other respects it resembled the world of
Arrhenius,

Professor Percy F, Kenpatt said that he had no intention of discussing the
general question of the causes of earth movements, but merely desired to make
one observation upon the remarks of Professor Sollas, who had pointed out that
the continental margins were the seat of the most important mountain-making
movements.

Upon the hypothesis that there was a critical zone at which temperature would
impart a viscosity to rocks, he thought the sub-oceanic margins might, for another
reason than that suggested by Professor Sollas, be the regions where the yielding
of the crust would take place.

The accumulation of a great thickness of sediment, such as took place in proxi-
mity to coast-lines in a sinking area, would have the effect of producing a rise of
the ge-isotherms and of the critical zone. If, then, a movement of accommodation
were initiated, there would he above the critical zone a region of relative weak-
ness, where the new-formed and imperfectly consolidated sediments constituted
perhaps two or three miles of the superincumbent crust, while the continental
mass would be relatively stiffer. The yielding and crumpling would, theretore, be
localised in this belt.

558 REPORT—1904,

2, Hvidence in the Secondary Rocks of Persistent Movement in the
Charnian Range. By Professor Percy F, KenpAtt.

3. Rwver-capture in the Don System. By Rev. W. Lower Carter, IA.

The river Don has a remarkable semicircular course. Rising in the Middle
Grits west of Dunford Bridge at 1,500 feet above O.D., it flows eastwards to Peni-
stone (700’), where it makes a bend to the south-east, quickly deepens its valley to
500’, and at Wortley breaks through the great watershed (1,000’) of the Greno-
side and Wharncliffe grits. It then receives the Little Don, the Ewden, and the
Loxley, on its right bank, and falls into the valley of the Sheaf at Sheffield (150’).
The Don then makes a rectangular bend to the north-east, following the old valley
of the Sheaf to Conisborough, receiving the Rother on its right bank at Rother-
ham (87’) and the Dearne on its left bank at Denaby (45’). It then traverses the
Maguesian Limestone escarpment in a fine gorge and continues past Doncaster in a
north-easterly direction to Thorne, where it bends northwards towards the Aire,
which it formerly entered at Snaith. It has, however, been artificially diverted
by the Dutch river to the Ouse at Goole.

The history of the present river course is presumed to have commenced when
the Pennine anticlinal rose from the Cretaceous sea, and the original consequent
streams commenced to run down the dip-slope of the Chalk. Slack Beck (Broad-
stone Dyke), which is diverted south-east at Ingberchworth by a tributary of the
Don, is considered to be the head-stream of the brook that runsby Cawthorne, only
a narrow dip in the watershed dividing them. The Don at Penistone (700’) faces
a watershed of 700 feet, which forms a dip between Hoyland Swaine (900’)
and Thurgoland (810’). Immediately beyond this watershed are the head-
waters of the Dove, flowing eastward in direct continuation of the course of
the Don above Penistone. The Dove is thus considered to be the beheaded
remnant of the Don. The southerly bend of the Don and the cutting of the
Wharncliffe gorge are explained as due to river-capture by a feeder of the Sheaf.
This Wharncliffe stream, with a rapid fall to the Sheaf, was able to capture
successively the Loxley, the Ewden, and the Little Don, and then the watershed
at Wortley was attacked by a branch of this stream, and on the other side by a
feeder of the Don, As the watershed was cut through, the Wharncliffe stream,
by reason of its steeper fall, captured the Wortley feeder of the Don and then the
Don itself.

The Dearne.—At a very early date the Bretton stream must have been captured
by the Darton feeder of the Cawthorne stream, as it flows straight at the Woolley
Edge escarpment (527’), and therefore must have been captured before the land was
reduced to this level. The Dearne flows eastwards, by Barnsley to Cudworth
Common, where it males a rectangular bend southwards, and cutting through the
Upper Chevet Rock (225’) at Darfield, enters the old valley of the Dove (100).
This gorge at Darfield proves the extension of the 225-foot contour eastwards,
towards Hickleton, forming the watershed between the Dearne and the Dove, and
there is an old river valley at Frickley (200’) between Clayton and Hickleton,
which was probably the original course of the Dearne, which flowed through
Hampole gorge into the central plain. The Darfield gorge is a case of river-
capture by a feeder of the Dove. The Dove itself had probably been captured by
the Sheat at a period hefore the present level of the Magnesian Limestone esearp-
ment was reached bv denudation.

The Rother.—Vhe original cousequents of the Rother are Shire Brook, the Moss,
and the Stayeley stream. The Shire and Moss probably coalesced and formed the
head-waters of the Ryton. The two gorges (530’) uniting at Kiveton are plainly
traceable, and have subsequently been used, in all probability, as a channel of
glacial overflow, The Moss must have captured the Staveley stream before it was
itself captured by the Rother.

The whole inner Don system is thus explainable by a series of riyer-captures,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. o09

due to the deep cutting of its valley by the Sheaf, and its resulting predominant
power in capturing consequent streams north and south.

The northward bend of the Don, after its entrance into the central plain, is due
to river-capture by a feeder of the Aire. The course of the old Don river from
Thorne, along the north side of Hatfield Chase to Adlingfleet, on the Trent, is
clearly traceable, and may have been one of the previous channels of the whole
river.

4, On the Elephant Trench at Dewlish, Dorset: Was it a Pitfall?
By Rev. O. Fisner, JA.

The author refers to papers upon the trench at Dewlish, by the late Mr. Mansel-
Pleydell,! Mr. Clement Reid,’ and himeelf.* After describing the course of the
excavations made by Mr. Pleydell in 1889, he points out the apparent impossi-
bility of accounting for the formation of such a trench by natural agency, and for
its containing the remains of so many elephants. He then refers to the present
practice of taking elephants in pitfalls by the natives of Africa, and suggests that
the trench at Dewlish was artificially dug for a similar purpose.

The species of eiephant found here being Z. meridionalis, the author refers to
flints, considered to have been worked, being procured from the ‘forest bed’ of
Cromer, where they are associated with this early species of elephant, and alludes
briefly to some of the geological questions involved.

5. Wotes on the Glaciation of Holyhead Mountain.
By Epvwarp GREENLY.

The glaciation of Holyhead Mountain is of considerable interest on account of
its position far out in the Irish Sea Basin. Its northern and eastern slopes are
strongly rubbed and rounded, and striated in a general N.E.-S.W. direction,
with local deflections. Striz cross the very summit, 721 ft. above the sea, running
8. 40° W. This direction agrees with that of the general glaciation of Anglesey.

A strong feature traverses the mountain from N. to 8. facing W., and forms
also the line of great sea cliffs near the North Stack. The edge of the crag is
polished, and, in spite of being sheltered by a steep rocky brow rising some 50 or
100 ft. behind it to the east, is traversed by striz from N.E. to S.W. Examples
are also given of undercut furrows, and of glaciation of overhanging surfaces.

The mountain is very bare of drift, but a little till occurs in hollows. At the
summit are abundant fragments of the green mica schists of the neighbourhood of
the town, which do not occur 7m sttw at a higher level than 200 or 220 ft. These
have, therefore, been raised some 500 ft. above their source.

The phenomena, when all are considered, appear to the author to be ascrib-
able, with probability, to land ice.

Finally, there are some ill-defined mounds, composed of local débris, which
appear to be moraines, as if small local glaciers had gathered here for some time,
in spite of the moderate elevation.

8 Report on the Brratic Blocks of the British sles —See Reports, p. 237

' broc. Lorset Nut. Hist. and Antiy. Field Club, 1889, vil. ; 1893, xiv.
* Geol. Survey : Mem. on the Country round Dorchester, 1899.
* Q.S.G@US., 1888, xliv. 818,

560 REPORT—1904.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Origin of the Great Iron-ore Deposits of Lapland.
By Dr. Heice BackstR6m.

The great ore sheet of Kirunavara-Luossavara occurs between old lava streams
and volcanic conglomerates, in other words between rocks formed by volcanic action
at the surface. It seems to mark an interval between two separate eruptions or
eruptive periods, as the rocks on both sides are different, although showing a
distinct consanguinity. The ore bed is older than the overlying quartz
porphyry, while at the same time it is younger than the underlying syenite
porphyries. The underlying porphyries show characteristic evidence of a hydro-
chemical or pneumatolytic action, which has left no similar traces on the overlying
porphyries, and must therefore have occurred in the interval during which the ore
was formed.

From these facts we may presume that the magnetite-apatite sheet was formed
by the voleanic activity which produced the overlying as well as the underlying
rocks, and that the hydrochemical or pneumatolytic transformation of the under-
lying porphyries was effected by the same agents which brought the iron and
phosphorus up to the surface of the earth.

The Ekstrémsberg ore-field, situated about twenty miles west of Kirunavara,
ranks as the third of the great Lapland iron mountains; the probable quantity of
ore has been estimated by the author at one hundred million tons. The ore is partly
magnetite, partly hematite, with 63 per cent. Fe, 1°25 per cent. P, on the average.
The surrounding rock is a quartz porphyry, but with potash instead of soda as
the dominant alkali, the same variety occurring on both sides of the ore sheet.
In the ore-field of Mertainen, situated eighteen miles south-east of Kirunavara, the
ore is magnetite without apatite, but the quantities of rich ore present are compara-
tively small, the principal part of the ore-field being occupied by ore breccias
or mixtures of porphyritic and ore material. The original rock of the district is
a syenite porphyry. In the ore-field this is penetrated by veins of magnetite with
biotite, hornblende, and titanite. These minerals, and especially the magnetite,
also occur, filling amygdules, This penetration of the original rock by magnetite
in those places where it was most favourable for penetration, resulted in the
formation of the ore breccias, in which the ore, so to say, has eaten away most of
the porphyritic material. An intense transformation of the porphyry has gone
on hand-in-hand with this infiltration of the ore material. Of the original pheno-
erysts of the dark minerals not even pseudomorphs are found; the biotite and
hornblende present are of secondary formation. The plagioclase is very often
partly transformed into biotite or titanite, but still more often into scapolite, which
latter transformation is of very great interest when the transformation of plagio-
clase into scapolite along the apatite veins occurring in gabbros is remembered.

That the iron ore of Mertainen, occurring to a great extent as veins and
ore breccias and accompanied by such transformations of the surrounding rock,
should be of pneumatolytic origin, seems very probable. But the author thinks
this theory must be adopted also for the great masses of Kirunavara-Luossavara
and Ekstrémsberg, closely connected as they are with voleanic rocks. Hence these
iron-ore deposits have probably got their material from below through volcanic
emanations belonging to the last phase of the volcanic activity (or to an interval
in the activity, as in Kirunavara), emanations of iron, phosphorus, or titanium
compounds, essentially chlorides and fluorides, in the form of gases or superheated
solutions, which on reaching the surface regions were decomposed by the water
and the silicates with which they came in contact.

This theory may appear rash, especially when applied to such enormous masses
as the Kirunavara-Luossavara magnetite-apatite sheet, but it seems to the author
to be only an extension of the generally accepted theory of the origin of the con-
tact deposits. In both cases the material has come with the eruptive rock from

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 561

below, although in one case the ore has been deposited along the margins of an
intrusive rock, and in the other case at the surface or in the regions near the
surface.

2. Exhibition of Specimens of Tertiary Plutonic Rocks (including Gneisses)
Jrom the Isle of Rum. By Atrrep Harker, I.A., F.B.S.

(By permission of the Director of the Geological Survey.)

Of the plutonic rocks of Tertiary age, which make up about one half of Rum,
the ultrabasic group is the most important. It includes various peridotites, some
essentially of olivine, but others containing pyroxenes, and especially anorthite. A
noteworthy amount of lime and alumina, giving rise to anorthite, is indeed a special
characteristic of the group. Equally striking is a tendency to separation of the
more peridotic and the more felspathic portions of the magma, usually with a
stratiform disposition. With bands of true peridotite alternate others of allivalite,
a rock consisting of anorthite (predominant) and olivine, and even containing
seams of pure anorthite rock. Another peculiar type, styled harrisite, is composed
essentially of olivine (predominant) and anorthite, the olivine occurring here as
large lustrous black crystals, with good cleavage.

Later than all these rocks, and intruded beneath them, comes the ewcrite
group, which shows less variety. The rocks are usually somewhat rich in olivine;
much of the pyroxene is hypersthene, and the felspar is near anorthite. Still
later comes the granite group, mostly hornblendic and often with granophyric
structures. The acid magma has entered into peculiarly intimate relations with
the eucrite, not only metamorphosing and impregnating that rock, but enclosing
and partially incorporating portions of it, large and small. The enclosed portions,
in a half-digested state, have been streaked out by movement, and there has arisen
a group of well-banded gneisses, closely resembling the Lewisian of the North-
western Highlands. These Tertiary gneisses are all of the nature of hybrid and
composite rocks, of which the contributing elements are the eucrite and the
granite, and their genesis can be traced step by step in the field.

3. The Lava-Domes of the Eifel.
By Eywarp GREENLY.

Associated with those cones and craters of the Hifel which are so remarkably
preserved, and have suffered so little from denudation, are many bosses and domes
of massive igneous rock, particularly of phonolite. If these are the denuded necks
or stumps of volcanoes, they must be far older than the cones and craters. It is
suggested, however, that they may be really contemporaneous, and have originated
in the same way as the recent lava-pyramid of Mt. Pelée. This suggestion is
supported by considerations connected with the distribution of the Trass; and by
comparison with some other domical and pyramidal masses,

4. Report on Geological Photographs.—See Reports, p. 242.

5. Coneretions as the Result of Crystallisation.
By Professor H. A. Mimrs, £25.

In the gold districts of the Urals decomposed crystals of iron pyrites are not
uncommon, which when sawn in half are found to contain a nucleus of gold; fresh
crystals from the same localities are auriferous, but have the gold uniformly distri-
buted. Similar nuclei are found in decomposed aikinite (a sulpho-bismuthite of
lead and copper) at Beresoysk, but here the nucleus of gold is, like the crystal of
aikinite, rod-shaped. In both cases the metal has become concentrated during the
“Soar rm of the mineral in which it was contained,

. Qa0

562 REPORT—1904.

It is well known that crystallisation may result in a concentration of material,
as when the small crystals in a solution become redissolved and reappear as a large
crystal, That the concentrating agency in the case of the decomposed pyrites may
have been crystallisation is suggested by the fact that the nucleus has crystal
facets.

Other examples of the attractive force exerted during the growth of crystals are
afforded by such things as gypsum growing in clay, where, as was pointed out by
Bunsen, the force does work and thrusts up the clay, often in considerable masses.
Again, Klocke found that an alum crystal during growth may raise itself in the
solution.

If this attractive force exists it should also manifest itself in a concentration of
the material in the neighbourhood of a growing crystal, and this the author has
found to be the case. By means of total internal reflection he has determined the
index of refraction, and hence the composition, of the solution in contact with
growing crystals of alum and other substances, aud has always found the solution
to be supersaturated.

The author suggests that in cases where no other explanation is forthcoming a
sufficient cause for concretionary growth may be found in the attractive action of
growing crystals. Marcasite, hematite, barytes, and many other concretions, are
really crystalline in structure; and Liversidge has shown that gold nuggets are
always so.

6. Basic Patches in the Granite of Mount Sorrel, Leicestershire.
By R. H. Rasrart, B.A.

Dark-coloured patches are very abundant, and may be divided into three
types :—

(1) Small black or grey angular patches, without porphyritie felspars.

(2) Larger ovoid patches of a brown colour, with pink porphyritic felspars,

(3) Black patches showing banding and Jit-par-lit injection by the granite.

Type (1) consists of felspars and hornblende with a little quartz. Small
erystals of plagioclase and hornblende are enclosed in poecilitic fashion by large
plates of orthoclase.

The second type is very similar microscopically, but quartz is more abundant,
The large felspars are often much corroded.

Both types are almost free from biotite, although in the normal granite it
is the dominant melanocratic mineral. There is abundant sphene, of a peculiar
habit, often moulded on the felspars, with an approach to ophitic structure.

These patches show a great resemblance to many metamorphosed basic igneous
rocks, and attention is called to the resemblance between them and the early
stages of the alteration of the Scourie Dyke, described by Mr. Teall.’ It is con-
cluded that they are fragments of basic rocks caught up by the granite magma
during intrusion.

A specimen of the banded type consists of brown biotite and magnetite,
enclosed poecilitically by plates of perthite, microcline, or orthoclase, It is very
like many metamorphosed slates, and is probably a fragment of a sedimentary
rock, This type is rare.

7. On the Different Modifications of Zircon.
By L. J. Spencer, M.A.

Some very irregularly developed crystals of zircon from the gem-washings of
the Balangoda district in Ceylon were found to have characters differing widely
from those of zircons of more common occurrence. Although of low specific
gravity (4:0), they are not increased in density when strongly ignited, as are many

1 0.I.GS., 1885, p. 133.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 563

zircons of specific gravity below 4:7. They further differ from ordinary zircon in
their very feeble, or absence of, birefringence. The crystals are dark brown in
colour and almost opaque, but after ignition they are bright green and quite
transparent.

While some of the crystals consist wholly of zircon of this type, others contain
an intergrowth of a second kind, which may be present in greater or less amount.
The latter has a higher specific gravity, and increases in density when ignited ; it
is optically biaxial with very strong birefringence. A section cut perpendicular to
the principal axis of such a compound crystal shows, when moved across the micro-
scope-stage in convergent polarised light, a gradual transition from a biaxial to a
uniaxial figure, the coloured rings at the same time moving outwards and becominy
further apart owing to the diminution in the strength of the double refraction,
which is positive throughout ; finally, when the rings have all moved out of the
field of view, the black cross also disappears and the corresponding portion of the
section is optically isotropic. The mean refractive index has about the same value
in all portions of the section.

Zircon of the first type has been previously described by Professor A. H. Church
(1875), and by Dr. S. Stevanovié (1903), and from the researches of these and
other authors it would seem that there are, at least, three modifications of zircon,
viz. :—

a. Those of specific gravity 4:0, which do not increase in density when ignited,

8. Those of specific gravity 4°7, also not increased in density when ignited,

y- An unstable form of specific gravity about 4°38, which when ignited is
increased in density to 4:7.

That these different kinds are often intergrown in the same crystal is shown by
the frequent occurrence of zonal structures in zircon, and further by the behaviour
of the crystals when heated. A crystal consisting of an intergrowth of a-zircon
and y-zircon will be increased in density on ignition, but not to the higher limit of
4-7; on the other hand, an intergrowth of @-zircon and y-zircon will reach the
higher limit when ignited.

In crystalline form and chemical composition (as far as could be determined by
qualitative tests), a-zircon and @-zircon are identical, and these appear to be also the
same for y-zircon.

8. A Preliminary Description of Three New Minerals and some Curious
Crystals of Blende from the Lengenbach Quarry, Binnenthal. By
R. H. Sotty, 1.4.

The author dealt with three new minerals, whose composition has not yet been
determined, for two of which he proposed the names Lengenbachite and Marrite.
He also described crystals of blende having a brilliant grey metallic coating on
their surfaces and resembling galena or tetrahedrite.

9. On the Granite from Gready, near Luaxullian, in Cornwall, and its
Inclusions. By Professor Kart Busz.

In 1880 J. A. Phillips published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society’ a description of the granite from Gready, in the parish of Luxullian,
in Cornwall, and the concretionary patches contained in it. This granite he
describes as sometimes containing dark-coloured patches of irregular shape, firmly
embedded in the rock, and exhibiting distinct and sharply defined outlines. On
examination he found them to be composed of the same minerals as the enclosing
granite, and consequently considered them to be abnormal arrangements of the
minerals constituting the granite itself, and essentially consisting of a fine-grained
variety of the granite in which they occur.

A few years ago I happened to visit the same locality. The granite is still

002

564 REPORT—1904.

extensively worked in large quarries for building material, and on that account I
was able to collect a number of suitable specimens for investigation.

The granite itself is of much interest on account of the presence of several
constituents which rarely occur in this kind of rock. It exhibits on the whole
a uniform medium-grained structure, but is in some parts porphyritically de-
veloped, and contains large well-defined crystals of white orthoclase; it is also
traversed by pegmatitic veins, which contain much tourmaline and apatite, while
mica disappears.

When examined under the microscope, thin sections of this granite are
observed to be composed of the following constituents: Quartz, orthoclase, oligo-
clase, albite, white and brown mica, tourmaline, apatite, zircon, magnetite,
fluorite, andalusite, cordierite, and chlorite—the last-named as a decomposition
product. Further constituents, occurring only in cavities in the pegmatitic veins,
are lepidolite and gilbertite. Quartz occurs in the usual form of grains or
granular aggregates, and contains numerous liquid inclusions, some of them show-
ing a crystal of salt.

The orthoclase is of a pure white colour; its phenocrysts are of considerable
size, being sometimes about 4 inches long and 2} inches wide. They are Carlsbad
twins, and occasioually two such crystals form penetration twins of cruciform
type, similar to the pseudomorphs of cassiterite after orthoclase, which are well
known from Cornwall, the twinning plane being probably a face of the pyramid P
(i11). Under the microscope the ortioclase is seen to be more or less decomposed,
passing into a kaolin-like substance. It contains a great number of inclusions:
numerous flakes of black mica can be observed macruscopically, which generally
accumulate in the centre of the crystals or are arranged in layers parallel to their
faces. White mica also is very abundant, and occurs in micropoikilitie inter-
growth with the orthoclase, forming sponge-like aggregates; there can be no
question about this mica being a primary constituent and contemporaneous with
the orthoclase in which it is embedded. Microperthitic intergrowth of orthoclase
and albite is very common; and it may be mentioned here that albite frequently
envelops the orthoclase crystals, which occur well crystallised in cavities of the rock.

There is also a fair amount of plagioclase present ; its colour differs somewhat
from that of orthoclase, being yellowish white. Under the microscope it exhibits,
as a rule, a better state of preservation ; the sections are perfectly transparent, and
contain but few inclusions and alteration products. ‘Twin lamellation is well
marked, and the optical properties are those of oligoclase.

Brown and white mica both occur abundantly. The former contains numerous
small crystals of zircon, which are always surrounded by pleochroic halos, whereas
the white mica is almost free from inclusions, Parallel intergrowth of the two is
very common ; the brown mica is often seen to pass into green chlorite; the white
mica is often twinned according to the common law; the composition plane being
sometimes the twin plane itself, in which case a twinned flake shows different
optical orientation in different parts of the basal plane, and the interference-figures
appear disturbed.

It has been suggested that in tourmaline-bearing granite the tourmaline may
have been produced through the action of vapours containing boric acid on mica,
and that in this way it replaces the mica. It seems as though our granite con-
firms this view. Tourmaline is a never-failing constituent of the rock throughout,
and although it does not occur very abundantly, yet one or more grains of it can
be detected in every thin section. The pegmatitic veins of the granite, however,
contain a great quantity of tourmaline, and it occurs in large crystals and erystal-
line aggregates of radiating structure; the prisms reach a length of 10-12 em. ;
biotite and muscovite, on the other hand, are very rare. Of great interest is
the parallel intergrowth of biotite and tourmaline; it sometimes appears as if
the tourmaline intrudes into the mica, and the pleochroic halos surrounding the
inclusions in the latter are sometimes half situated in the mica and half in
tourmaline. This intergrowth has not been observed with tourmaline and the
white mica. The colour of the tourmaline in thin section is brown, or seldom
blue, both colours also appearing on the same crystal; zonal structure is very
conspicuous in most crystals,

.“

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 565

Apatite is very abundant, occurring in small crystals or grains in the ordinary
granite, or in larger masses intergrown with tourmaline in the pegmatitic veins,
and is here of a pale sky-blue colour. In many of the cavities it is well
crystallised, and forms shining, perfectly transparent pale-blue crystals of a size
up to $ cm. diameter.

Very remarkable is the occurrence of andalusite and cordierite as constituents
of this granite, both of them being rare. The former occurs in grains or aggregates
of grains, which very distinctly exhibit the characteristic pleochroism of andalusite,
pink and colourless. Cordierite may easily be taken for quartz, being colourless
in thin sections, and exhibiting no distinct cleavage traces. There are, however,
several characteristic properties, which also facilitate the identification of this
mineral in the present case—firstly, the twinning, resulting through penetration of
three individuals in the formation of a pseudo-hexagonal crystal ; secondly, the
pleochroic halos of yellow colour, which cannot occur in quartz ; and, thirdly, the
decomposition products, consisting of felty aggregates of micaceous or serpentine-
like minerals. In some cases the crystals are entirely altered into decomposition
products.

The concretionary patches contained in the granite consist of a fine-grained
rock of bjack colour, and show quite irregular but sharply defined outlines.
Numerous small shiny flakes on the fresh surface indicate that mica is a pre-
dominant constituent. Under the microscope the rock is seen to consist essentially
of quartz, cordierite, and biotite; accessory constituents are a few crystals of
magnetite and small crystals or grains of zircon, generally embedded in cordierite
and surrounded by a pleochroic halo, which by its deep yellow colour contrasts very
strongly with the colourless cordierite. There is no felspar of any kind, and the
rock is precisely equivalent to the cordierite-hornfels known from many zones of
contact with granite. It is therefore evident that these inclusions cannot be
regarded as products of differentiation of the granitic magma, but as fragments of
sedimentary rocks altered by the influence of the eruptive mass.

10. Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of North-west
Yorkshire-—See Reports, p. 225.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Exhibition of a Model of the Cleveland Area, showing Glacier Lakes.
By Professor Percy F. Krenpatu.

2. The Glaciation of .the Don and Dearne Valleys.
By Rev. W. Lower Carrer, WA.

In studying the geological history of the rivers of the Don system, my attention
was specially directed to the evidences of glacial action in the area, with the object
of ascertaining whether glaciation had anything to do with the interesting diver-
sions of the Don, Dearne, and Dove. Certain valleys in the area, also, attracted
my attention as possessing abnormal features with respect to the present drainage
of the district, and I began to inquire what their relations might be to an altered
system of drainage during the Glacial Period. The present paper is an attempt to
piece together the scattered glacial evidence, and to ascertain the effect that the
advance of a glacier from the north and north-east would have on the drainage ot
this district, and how far the present valleys would help to explain the water-flow
under such conditions.

566 REPORT—1904,

i. The Glacial Deposits of the Don System.

These are fragmentary and scattered, and probably but relics of considerable
deposits of drift. here are two considerable areas covered with true boulder clay
in this district—one at Staincross, Carlton, and Royston, near Barnsley, and the
other at Balby, near Doncaster—each filling a small valley which, since the Glacial
Period, has been slightly removed from the line of direct drainage, and hence has
escaped denudation.

The Staincross boulder clay, as described in the ‘Memoir on the Yorkshire
Coal Field, consists of two beds of stiff unstratified till, separated by a thin
seam of warp and sand, the lower containing only boulders of Carboniferous sand-
stone and limestone, chert, and a blue, close-grained trap. The upper bed is more
sandy, and on the surface have been found many erratics, including a large shap
granite (25 cwt.), Armboth felsite, Threlkeld quartz porphyry, andesitic ash,
rhyolite, &c. These beds fill a hollow cut out of the Woolley Edge Rock; the
junction is much shattered and smashed, and large blocks of the sandstone are
embedded in the clay. The Yorkshire Boulder Committee report that the country
to the north and east of this patch is covered with erratics, and similar boulder
clays are found at Burton Grange, near Barnsley, and at Ardsley, on the opposite
side of the river Dearne. Mr, Walter Hemingway, of Barnsley, has recently
traced two tongues of this drift into the valley of the Dearne, and has recorded a
section of contorted shale with pockets of erratics from the excavation for the
Barnsley gasometer.

The Balby boulder clay occupies an area of about five acres in extent. It
occupies part of a small valley in the Magnesian Limestone, which previously was
filled with Bunter sandstone. In three large pits a magnificent section of 40 feet
of stiff till is shown which has yielded many erratics, including a shap granite
(2 cwt.), andesites and andesitic breccias, Eskdale granite, St. John’s Vale quartz
porphyry, Carboniferous limestone, chert, Millstone grit, &c. The Bunter sand-
stone on which this till is seen to rest has been scooped out to form a clean, level
floor, without any sand or gravel intervening under the clay. In the excavations
for the workhouse a section of this till showed masses of Bunter sandstone torn off
and embedded in the till.

About halfway along the arc joining Staincross and Balby is another patch
of boulder clay at Adwick-on-Dearne, containing Carboniferous sandstone,
quartzite, felstone, and encrinital chert. Close to this patch was found a
third boulder of shap granite (15 cwt.). Contiguous to this zone are several
patches of gravel containing Carboniferous sandstone with quartzite and chert, and
a boulder of ganister (of Leeds type) lies on the summit of Wombwell Hill.

Beyond and to the south of this zone are several scattered patches of drift. At
Barbot Hall, about one mile north of Rotherham, is a little hill covered with clay
containing pebbles of quartz, sandstone, Carboniferous limestone, and Oolitic rocks.
At Masbrough sand and gravel are found containing pebbles of Carboniferous
sandstone and quartz rock, and at Sitwell Vale, one and a quarter mile south of
Rotherham, is a clay with pebbles and boulders of Carboniferous sandstone.
Near Hooton Roberts are three or four patches of gravel containing Carboniferous
sandstone, with quartz, quartzite, and black chert.

At the western entrance of the gorge of the Don, at Conisborough, a bed of
boulder clay (about 15 feet thick) is shown at the Ashfield Brick Works (225 feet
above O.D.), including Lake Country andesites, Carboniferous limestone,
a talcose schist with garnets, and other rocks, About the same level, on the
opposite side of the gorge, at Cadeby, is a patch of drift with Carboniferous lime-
stone blocks. Mr. H. H. Corbett, of Doncaster, has also kindly told me of a section
of boulder clay recently exposed in the valley between the railway station and
Oonisborough Castle. At Sprotborough and Cusworth, on the north side of the
gorge of the Don, are patches of drifted sand and pebbles, and from the fields
have been ploughed up small boulders of diorite, basalt, mountain limestone,
ganister, and quartz porphyry. At Hexthorpe Flats, near Doncaster, striated
Carboniferous limestone with encrinites has been found, and between Hexthorpe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 567

and Balby the ground is covered with drifted pebbles and fragments of limestone.
The Magnesian limestone escarpment south of Conisborough is strewed for some
miles with patches of drifted pebbles, of quartz, sandstone, and Trias.

This evidence points to glaciation from the north and north-east by two move-
ments of ice. ‘Two distinct tills, separated by warp and pockets of sand, are found
at Staincross, the lower with Carboniferous boulders and the upper with Lake
Country rocks. The drift patches are also of two kinds, one set being of a specially
Carboniferous type, and the other rich in Lake Country rocks. It is the latter type
that forms the Conisborough and Balby clays. In the Balby pits there is also
found a large percentage of Middle Coal Measure material, which forms a perplex-
ing mixture to explain.

The author suggests that there was a double glaciation of this area early in the
Glacial Period, first by Pennine ice, and secondly by the Tees glacier.

It seems probable that at the commencement of the Glacial Period, before the
Trish Sea was filled with ice, the Pennine Chain was an area of great snowfall, and
extensive glaciers were formed in the valleys of Western Yorkshire. These
glaciers would probably send down considerable streams of ice into the central
plain, laden with Mountain and Yoredale limestones, cherts, ganisters, and
Carboniferous sandstones. As the Glacial Period advanced the pressure of the
Norwegian ice forced the Tees glacier into the Vale of York, and this in its turn
would push back the Pennine ice into the lowlands of Airedale and over the low
watershed between the Aire and Don, inside the Magnesian limestone escarp-
ment, where it spreads out westwards and southwards as far as Staincross,
Rotherham, and Conisborough. This seems to have been the line of farthest
extent of this glacier, which, though it interfered for a time with the drainage of
the Don, does not appear to have passed through the gorge at Conishorough.

The country south of Frickley has undergone extensive denudation since the
cutting of the Darfield gorge, and it seems probable that this was effected by this ice,
and, on its northward retreat, by the deflected drainage of the Aire and Calder,
which, as its course eastwards would still be blocked by the advancing Tees glacier,
would find a ready route of flow through Frickley gorge. Thus a large quantity
of Middle Coal Measures material must have been carried through the Conis-
borough gorge into the plain at Doncaster, and would probably be suitably
situated for the second glacier to carry forward to Balby. As it has been
suggested that this material might be due to a glacier moving down the valley of
the Sheaf from Dore and Totley, this question has been carefully considered. The
geological surveyors do not record any drift in the valley of the Sheaf, and
a careful search of the 6-inch contour maps has not disclosed any valleys which
could have carried off the drainage of the upper Don if it had been obstructed by
such a glacier at Sheflield. It is therefore concluded that no glacier capable of
advancing to Conisborough was formed in the valley of the Sheaf.

The retreat of the first glacier may have been due to a lessening of the
snowfall on the Pennine watershed, owing to the shifting of the area of greatest
precipitation to the west of the Pennine Chain as the Irish Sea became filled with
ice. The evidence, then, points to a second invasion of the Don and Dearne Valleys
by ice, the stream this time coming principally from the Tees. This glacier,
which had advanced down the central plain, was now, by the retreat of the
Pennine ice, enabled to push over the Aire-Don watershed and Magnesian lime-
stoneescarpment. Westwards it abutted against the high land of Woolley Edge,
and sent down a lobe of ice at Staincross and Monk Bretton into the valley of the
Dearne. This second glacier does not, however, seem to have advanced far south
of the Barnsley-Adwick-Conisborough curve, and laid down the upper clay of
Staincross, the shap granites of Royston and Adwick, and the numerous Lake
Country erratics of the district to the north and east of the Dearne. This glacier
seems to haye advanced over the Magnesian limestone with a south-westerly
movement, gradually closing the gorge of the Don and carrying the material of
denuded Bunter and limestone beds over the escarpment to the south of Conis-
borough, of which the pebble drifts are the relics.

This movement does not appear to have extended much farther southwards, as

568 REPORT—1904.

the Kiveton gorge seems to have presented a clear course for the overflow of the lake
formed by the damming back of the drainage. The second glacier appears to have
retreated north of the Aire before the overflows at the head of Calderdale were in
full swing. The Don and Dearne valleys were, therefore, in all probability, clear
of ice during the later part of the Glacial Period, and have been subjected to
enormous denudation, both during the Glacial Period and since, which has cleared
away the bulk of the boulder clay and only left relics of previously widespread
deposits.

ii. Glacial Lakes and Overflow Valleys.

Such a series of glacier movements as has just been indicated would divert the
normal drainage of the district and produce lakes in the valleys thus dammed up,
The boulder clay at Ashfield’s Pit, and near the railway station at Conisborough,
and at Cadeby, on the opposite side of the Don, shows that this gorge must have
been filled with ice up to the 225-foot contour. The scattered patches of drift
from Edlington to Clifton and Braithwell, reaching up to 400 feet, indicate that
the gorge was entirely closed above the 350-foot contour. This is the general
height of the Midland watershed of the Don system, and is only broken through
at one point south of Conisborough, the Kiveton Valley (330 feet), near the middle
of which one of the sources of the river Ryton takes its rise. These considerations
warrant one in assuming the existence of a great glacial lake, rising to the level of
the 330-foot contour to the west and south, and dammed back by ice from
Jonisborough to Barnsley, This lake would overflow by the Kiveton gorge
towards Worksop. One cannot expect to find abundant evidences of lake deposits
in an area which has suffered so severely by denudation as this; but the geological
surveyors map from 4 feet to 9 feet of brick earth and clay resting on gravel at
Parkgate, and from 3 feet to 7 feet of brick earth near Wombwell. These
indicate a lake both in the Don and Dearne Valleys, covering up the old river
gravels.

Following this line of argument, and taking the various patches of drift as the
relics of moraines, and therefore as indications of periods of rest in glacial
movement, I have attempted to map out the lakes that would be produced at the
different positions of the ice-front, and have examined the watersheds to see if
overflow channels existed such as would be necessary to drain such lakes. The
whole has been plotted out on the 6-inch contoured maps, by which the results
have heen carefully tested, and a series of lakes made out discharging successively
over cols from 175 feet to 335 feet above O.D. These overflow valleys are not of
the type so characteristic of Cleveland and the Cheviots. The long period of sub-
aérial denudation to which they have been subjected has worn back their sides so
that they are now V-shaped, but they are streamless either in whole or in part,
and often the nearest streams cut across their ends.

In spite of this weathering back there has probably been little alteration of
their level, and their present levels may be taken approximately as those of the
Glacial Period. Some of them are strike-valleys formed by the denudation of the
shales between the outcrop of a bed of Carboniferous sandstone and the dip slope
of a lower grit. The objections against such valleys as overflows have been
carefully considered, but as the movement of the ice seems to have brought its
margin parallel to the general strike of the Coal Measures of this area, it is natural
that the deflected drainage should sometimes escape by such routes. In consider-
ing the course of the first glacier, it seems probable that it would dam up the
Dearne at Ardsley and form a lake overflowing by the Stairfoot Valley at 175 feet.
A forward movement would carry it to the Wombwell ridge, and the overflow
would be by the Wombwell and Swinton strike-valleys. Further south the ice
would probably abut against the projecting spur of the 350-foot contour west of
Rawmarsh, and hence would form a lake about that level stretching up to Elsecar,
Cawthorne, and Bretton. In searching the watershed for a possible overflow for
such a lake, a narrow cut through the 350-foot contour was found at the head of
the Wentworth Woodhouse Valley, sloping back to the 400-foot contour on each
hand, and with a little stream running across each end at right angles to the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 569

direction of the col. By this valley at 335 feet the Elsecar lake would be dis-
charged into a smaller lake held up by the ice in the Wentworth Woodhouse
Valley. When the ice laid down the Masbrough and Sitwell Vale patches of drift,
the Rother Valley would be blocked, and the glacial drainage would be discharged
round the lobe of ice by channels at Greasborough and Sitwell Vale at 275 feet,
and thence into the Don by the Hooton Roberts Valley (180 feet). <A slight
forward movement of the ice to the gravel patches east of Hooton Roberts would
close that valley and cause the drainage to discharge by a col on Conisborough
Parks at 260 feet.

The second glacier does not seem to have advanced far beyond the curved line
stretching from Barnsley through Adwick-on-Dearne to Conisborough. This, by
damming the Dearne at Ardsley, would re-form the Barnsley lake, discharging
over the Stairfoot col at 175 feet. This drainage would then escape by a narrow
notch between Adwick-on-Dearne and Swinton into the Don at Mexborough.

A further advance would bring the Wombwell-Swinton Valleys into use as
overflows, and the Hooton Roberts Valley would be the route into the Don. The
damming of the Dearne at Barnsley by a lobe of ice would bring into use a couple
of small valleys at Barnsley as overflow channels. The gradual advance of the
ice across the Conisborough gorge would cause the blocking of the Don, with the
formation of a constantly enlarging lake, which would overflow first by the Hooton
Roberts Valley (180 feet), and then by a series of cuts through the 275-foot
contour on Conisborough Parks, first draining into the Don behind Castle Hill, then,
as the Warmsworth watershed was reached by the ice, into the Balby Valley, and,
pen this was closed by the ice, over the low watershed into the Loversall

alley.

The further advance of the ice-front to Edlington caused a shallow cut to be
made through the 300-foot contour, discharging into the Loversall Valley and
thence into the Trent. This channel, which bends round in a semicircle, became
the permanent course of the Wadsworth drainage on the retreat of the ice, the
old channel at Balby having been filled up with till. When the ice rose above the
330-foot contour the gorge of the Don was entirely closed, and the drainage of
the great lake, reaching from Bretton Park and Cawthorne, north of Barnsley, to
Clay Cross and Heath, south of Chesterfield, would all be discharged by the
Kiveton gorge into the river Ryton.

This explanation may be thought to rest too largely on suggestions, but where
the evidence is so scattered and imperfect it is difficult to see how this can be
avoided if any explanation is to be attempted.

3. The Discovery of Human Remains under Stalagmite in Gough’s Cave,
Cheddar, Somerset. By Henry N. Daviss.

The cave is an ancient subterranean waterway in the Carboniferous limestone
rocks of the Cheddar Gorge. It has many branches, but we have only to deal with
a small fissure on the north side. Excavations have been in progress for twelve
years, and the following accumulations have been cleared out :—

(a) Recent accumulations, which filled the entrance and covered the upper
stalagmitic crust.

(6) A calcareous bed, consisting of thin layers of friable stalagmite from
4 inches to 12 inches in thickness,

(c) A bed of cave earth, 4 feet to 6 feet in depth, in parts rubbly and stratified,
and containing large blocks of limestone which have fallen from the roof.

(a) A lower bed of hard crystalline stalagmite, which has underneath it, here
and there, beds of sand and pebbles.

These successive deposits pass without a break into thesmall fissure on the north
previously mentioned. While the contents were being removed from this fissure
the skull and other bones of the human skeleton were discovered. Some were
removed, others left in sidw, and so the exact position of the body remains fixed

570 REPORT—1904.

for future reference. The upper stalagmitic crust was 4 inches thick imme-
diately over the skeleton, but became 12 inches thick within 2 yards of the
spot. The small dimensions of the fissure and the undisturbed deposits put
interment out of the question. The skull was slightly below the level of the
pelvic and leg bones, and the whole skeleton was in a doubled-up position in the
upper part of the cave earth.

The cranium is of medium size and oval in form. Its measurements are:
Maximum length, 185 mm.; maximum width, 130 mm.; cephalic index, 73. The
frontal bone has the extreme thickness of 9 mm. The lower jaw, which is fairly
massive, is very wide, measuring 120 mm. between the condyles; the teeth in this
jaw are well preserved. The very forward slant of the mastoid processes and the
large tubercle at the posterior end of the zygomatic arch point to a short powerful
neck. The face is much mutilated, but enough remains to show the prominence of
the supraorbital ridge and the slight prognathism of the jaws.

The tibia is a remarkable bone. ‘The flatness of the sides and the extreme
acuteness of the angular ridge remove it altogether from the normal type. A
section through the ridge gives an antero-posterior diameter of 38 mm. and a
transverse diameter of 20 mm., which measurements give the exceedingly low index
526; the bone is thus shown to be the most platycnemic tibia that has yet been
measured in our country, The femur is 172in. in maximum length. This, by
Dr. Beddoe’s formula, gives a height for the individual of 5ft. 5in.

Remains of Pleistocene mammalia have been taken from the cave earth of the
vestibule, but, with the exception of teeth of horse, not from the fissure in which
the human remains were found.

Many flint implements have been found at all levels in the cave earth of
vestibule and fissure: blades, borers, saws (?), scrapers, and flakes occur in abundance.
They are beautifully patinated, and exhibit much skill in their fabrication, there
being little or no secondary working upon the majority of them. Flints of the
same form and workmanship are found in cave earth of unmistakable Pleistocene
age in French caverns. A small set from Torbryan Cave, Devon, are also
exhibited as palzolithic, with a query, in the Natural History Museum, South
Kensington.

The circumstances under which, and the position in which, flints are found
must be duly considered, as well as form and workmanship, before their age can be
ascertained. It is not necessary to take the time which the stalagmite would take
to reach 12 inches in thickness into account. It is not the time taken to form the
bed, but the period in which it was deposited, that I have tried to arrive at by
other means than arithmetical calculation. This period I conclude, from the
cumulative evidence adduced, to be Mortillet’s ‘ Magdalénian’ Age of Culture, at
the close of the Paleolithic Period. If this be so, the human remains form a link
between the low types of Neanderthal and Spy and the later Neolithic remains
found abundantly in our own country.

4, Report on the Exploration of Irish Caves.—See Reports, p. 288.

5. The Geology of the Oban Hills, Southern Nigeria.
By JouN PaRKINSON.

(By permission of the Director of the Imperial Institute.)

In the summer of 1903 the Colonial Office, acting in conjunction with and under
advice from the Imperial Institute, decided to establish a Mineral Survey for the
Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. The author, who was accompanied by Mr.
L. H. L. Huddart, B.A., A.R.S.M., was appointed to this work, and the follow-
ing notes provide a brief outline of the principal geological features of the district
investigated during the first season’s work. They forma preliminary account of
an area of about 1,500 square miles, covering the eastern part of the country
between the Kameruns territory on the east and the Cross River on the north and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 571

west. The valley of the Cross is not included in this paper, except between
Itaka, a village about half a day’s journey below the international frontier and
the Government station of Obubura Hill.

After briefly describing the monotonous belt of mangrove swamps which
fringes the coast and the dense creeper-entangled bush which uniformly covers the
higher ground of the interior, an attempt is made to classify and to give some
account of the various types of crystalline rocks. These form the backbone of
the country, and are bordered on their southern and northern sides by sediments of
varying character, which from fragmentary fossils are very probably of Cretaceous
age. ‘The crystallines are, however, from many points of view the more important
group.

The entire series presents a certain uniformity in whatever part of the district
it is observed, and consists of mica schists, with which are associated some
hornblende schists; a group of fine-grained biotite gneisses and garnetiferous
granulites; intrusive granitoid gneisses; garnetiferous and tourmaliniferous
pegmatites; granites and aplites. Owing to the exceedingly dense vegetation
and the multifarious calls on the time of the traveller in such a country, the
order of succession of these rocks must for the present remain uncertain, but it is
believed that the order given represents the true sequence in time. The granites
vary from rocks so poor in ferro-magnesian minerals as to be practically aplites,
to otbers rich in biotite with large porphyritic crystals of orthoclase, Doubtless
these rocks are of different ages.

The latest igneous rocks are dykes of olivine basalt, which occur, though not
commonly, in the crystalline series; while the same or a similar rock forms
abundant sills in the sedimentary beds of the Cross River and its important
tributary the Aweyong. A study of the pebbles collected from various river-beds
shows the presence of andesites and porphyries. From the Calabar River, above
Uwet, comes an interesting series of rocks, altered by the intrusion of a granite.
Specimens contain an orthochlorite, allied to pennine, and ill-formed garnet and
andalusite ; but mica schists are most abundant, and recall similar rocks to the
north and east.

The sediments, which are believed to be approximately of the same age
whether found to the north or to the south of the Oban Hills, exhibit slightly
different petrographical characters in the two localities.

Everywhere the basement bed is an arkose, derived directly from the degrada-
tion of the crystalline rocks, rarely conglomeratic, occasionally false-bedded.

On the Cross River these sandstones are succeeded by shales, and, more rarely,
by impure limestones.

On the Aweyong River, for some distance above and below Ogomogon, a
variability and rapid alternation of the strata are noticeable ; while on the southern
side of the Oban Hills this variability in petrographical composition is very
ih ; thin beds of limestone are found, and the dip, as in the north, is always
small. °
_ Some incoherent sandstones found at Calabar, Adiabo, and elsewhere are
intermediate in age between these sediments and the river alluvium.

6. On Boulders from the Cambridge District, collected by the Sedgwick
Club. By R. H. Rasrary, B.A.

During the past two years several hundred boulders have been collected,
chiefly from the region lying south and west of Cambridge. Among these rhomb-
porphyries are fairly common, and other well-known rocks are recognisable.

An examination of about fifty slices has led to the identification of several
distinct rock types. Many are clearly referable to the soda-bearing series of
South Norway, characterised hy egirine, arfvedsonite, and other peculiar ferro-
magnesian minerals, Among these may be mentioned Nordmarkite and the
corresponding soda-granite; also a nepheline syenite, near to laurdalite, and the
above-mentioned rhomb-porphyries.

572 : REPORT—1904.

Quartz-porphyries are common, and many probably belong to this family.

Porphyritic intermediate and basic lavas from the Cheviots and Central
Scotland are very common, and several specimens are of the Garlton plateau
family.

A very characteristic quartz-porphyry is recognised by Professor Sjégren as
from Dalecarlia.

Many porphyrites and andesites and a very fine Limburgite have not yet been
identified.

7. On Tidal Action in the Mersey in Recent Years.
Ly James N. Suoonsren, B.A., MInst.C.E.

It is well known that during the past ten years a very considerable improvement
has taken place in the sea approaches to Liverpool, in Liverpool Bay and in the
lower parts of the river Mersey, by the removal of 16 feet or more in depth of
the sandy bar which obstructs the seaward entrance to Liverpool Bay, and by the
dredging of certain shoals in the Queen's Channel leading up to Liverpool itself.
In carrying out these operations 80 million tons of sand have been dredged during
the ten years which have passed, with the result that a minimum depth of
27 feet at the low water of equinoctial spring tides has been secured for the navi-
gation over the bar, and throughout the entire distance up to the Liverpool
Landing Stage. The question has been repeatedly raised as to whether the above
increased deepening of the approach channels, together with the smoother channel
in the river itself, due to the extension of the dock walls, had led to any altera-
tion in the flow of the tidal current or in the range of the tides themselves.

The Committee of the Association appointed, at the instance of Section G, at
the meeting last year at Southport, after a careful examination and comparison
of tidal records extending over a period of nearly forty years, have reported that
after an investigation, both by harmonic analysis and by direct comparison of the
tidal curves themselves, no material change, practically, has taken place in the
tidal régime of the Mersey. Small local alterations, it should be added, in sand-
banks and shoals, and due largely to particular current variations, keep going on,
as they have been doing for the last eighty years or more—of which we have
records. But these alterations can generally be controlled by carefully guarding
against any diminution in the tidal scour of the ebb tide, a duty which is
entrusted to the Mersey Conservators, who are specially appointed for that
purpose.

8. Note on certain High-level or Plateau Gravels on the North Side of the
Lamisian Area, and their Connection with the Tertiary History of
Central England. By A. Irvine, D.Sc. B.A.

The author records some results of his observations of these gfavels during the
last ten years, as supplementary to what he has written in papers which appeared _
from ten to twenty years ago on the high-level or plateau gravels south of the
Thames,’ He has found these stratified gravels on the north side of the Thames
to be strictly comparable in their s¢rwctwre, and in their relation to the Eocene
formations on which they lie, with those which cap the hills of Berks and Surrey,
these hills representing the approximate levels of the ancient plateau out of which
the upland valleys and terraces of the Thames area on both sides have been
carved by subsequent denudation. The gravels dealt with in this note especially
are found in the district of Bishop’s Stortford and Stansted, on the high ground
bordering the counties of Herts and Essex. They have been omitted by the late
Sir Joseph Prestwich in his discussion of the Mundesley and Westleton beds in his
three papers given to the Geological Society in 1890.

The composition of these stratified gravels is described, and it is pointed out

' See Proc. Geol. Association, vol. viii. 1893; Q.7.G.S., vol. xlvi. 1890; Science
Gossip, May and June, 1891; and Geol. Mag., May 1893, °

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 573

that the evidence afforded by the materials of the gravels points conclusively to
their derivation as fluviatile deposits mainly from the Bunter sandstone of the
North and West Midlands, but débrzis from the harder Jurassic strata of the
Mercian region is common, along with rolled fragments of crystalline rocks (of
uncertain derivation) and small sarsens, with much flinty material from the chalk.

They are referred to the period of the great Miocene continental elevation ot
North-Western Europe, when rivers from the Welsh border and the Derbyshire
highlands probably flowed across a ‘ peneplain’ to join the great arterial Tamisian
line of drainage of Southern England, through valleys in the chalk marked (e.g.)
by the gaps at Hitchin and Elsenham. Recent deep well-sections at the latter
place and at Bishop’s Stortford prove that the valley of the Stort is a buried
valley of erosion in the chalk, and probably continuous with the similar buried
valley of the Cam, These.stratified gravels are conceived to be indexes of the
work done by rivers, as sub-atmospheric denudation proceeded during the Miocene
period of elevation, and before the present Mercian chalk escarpment was de-
veloped, the presence of Jurassic débris in the gravels telling us that the Mercian
rivers had cut their way by erosion down to the Jurassic rocks.

The present Mercian river system owes its inception probably to the develop-
ment of a slight anticlinal flexure running roughly 8.W. and N.E. in Pliocene
times, letting in the waters of the North Sea to deposit the E. Anglian Crag on the
one side, and originating the depression of the area of the Wash drainage, as
indicated by the dip of the strata seen in the cliffs at Hunstanton. The easterly
trend of the Mercian rivers thus brought about is considered to be the main factor
in the development of the Mercian chalk escarpment. The evidence of the early
Neogene age of these stratified gravels may be thus summed up: (i.) They are
of fluviatile origin, and their materials show that they were brought across the
Mercian region ; (ii.) no rivers could have laid them down where we find them,
with present surface-contours ; (iii.) they are older than the boulder clay of the
district, which everywhere overlies them, with a pretty sharp definition ; (iv.) they
are older than Stort Valley, which is itself a line of erosion cut into the chalk to a
depth of nearly 200 feet ; (v.) in one place (at Stansted) they are seen by faulting
to have partaken in earth movements affecting the chalk and Reading beds.

9, Some Remarkable Occurrences of Struvite Crystals.
Ly Dr. Huew Marswaty, /R.S.

10. On the Occurrence of Pebbles of White Chalk in Aberdeenshire Clay.
By A. W, Gres.

The record of the Cretaceous period in the North-east of Scotland is a very
fragmentary one. The principal traces hitherto noted consist of a deposit of the
nature of a Greensand—not proved to be in situ—at Moreseat, Cruden, and large
numbers of flints scattered over the surface of the ground in the same locality
between Buchanness and the Hill of Dudwick.

Further indications of Cretaceous strata have recently been found at Strabathie,
in the district of Belhelvie—about five miles north of A berdeen—in a bed of lami-
nated clay close to the sea, The clay is found to contain pebbles of white chalk
in considerable abundance. Some of the pebbles measure nearly a foot in length,
but the majority are small. Some of them inclose flints. That they have been
worn off an adjoining land surface is shown by the fact that numbers of them are
markedly glaciated, and that pebbles of other rocks, identical with or similar to
the rocks of the district, are found in the same pit. These facts indicate that
Upper Cretaceous beds have once been, and perhaps somewhere are still, in situ
in the locality.

It has been ascertained by boring that the clay deposit covers a considerable
area, and, as fresh exposures are constantly being made in the process of working
the bed, further finds may be anticipated.

574 REPORT—1904.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—WILLIAM Bateson, M.A., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following address :—

In choosing a subject for this Address I have availed myself of the kindly usage
which permits a sectional president to divert the attention of his hearers into those
lines of inquiry which he himself is accustomed to pursue. Nevertheless, in
taking the facts of breeding for my theme, I am sensible that this privilege is
subjected to a certain strain,

Heredity—and variation too—are matters of which no naturalist likes to ~
admit himself entirely careless. Everyone knows that, somewhere hidden among
the phenomena denoted by these terms, there must be principles which, in ways
untraced, are ordering the destinies of living things. Experiments in heredity
have thus, as I am told, a universal fascination. All are willing to offer an out-
ward deference to these studies. The limits of that homage, however, are soon
reached, and, though all profess interest, few are impelled to make even the
moderate mental effort needed to apprehend what has been already done. It
is understood that heredity is an important mystery, and variation another
mystery. The naturalist, the breeder, the horticulturist, the sociologist, man of
science and man of practice alike, has daily occasion to make and to act on
assumptions as to heredity and variation, but many seem well content that such
phenomena should remain for ever mysterious.

The position of these studies is unique. At once fashionable and neglected,
nominally the central common ground of botany and zoology, of morphology and
physiology, belonging specially to neither, this area is thinly tenanted. Now,
since few have leisure for topics with which they cannot suppose themselves con-
cerned, I am aware that, when I ask you in your familiar habitations to listen to
tales of a no man’s land, I must forego many of those supports by which a speaker
may maintain his hold on the intellectual sympathy of an audience.

Those whose pursuits have led them far from their companions cannot be exempt
from that differentiation which is the fate of isolated groups. The stock of
common knowledge and common ideas grows smaller till the difficulty of inter-
communication becomes extreme. Not only has our point of view changed, but
our materials are unfamiliar, our methods of inquiry new, and even the results
attained accord little with the common expectations of the day. In the progress
of sciences we are used to be led from the known to the unknown, from the half-
perceived to the proven, the expectation of one year becoming the certainty of the
next. It willaid appreciation of the change coming over evolutionary science
if it be realised that the new knowledge of heredity and variation rather replaces
than extends current ideas on those subjects.

Convention requires that a president should declare all well in his science; but

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 575

T cannot think it a symptom indicative of much health in our body that the task
of assimilating the new knowledge has proved so difficult. An eminent foreign
professor lately told me that he believed there were not half a dozen in his country
conversant with what may be called Mendelism, though he added hopefully, ‘ I
find these things interest my students more than my colleagues,’ A professed
biologist cannot afford to ignore a new life-history, the Okapi, or the other last
new version of the old story; but phenomena which put new interpretations on
the whole, facts witnessed continually by all who are working in these fields, he
may conveniently disregard as matters of opinion. Had a discovery comparable
in magnitude with that of Mendel been announced in physics or in chemistry, it
would at once have been repeated and extended in every great scientific school
throughout the world. We could come to a British Association sudience to
discuss the details of our subject—the polymorphism of extracted types, the physio-
logical meaning of segregation, its applicability to the case of sex, the nature of
non-segregable characters, and like problems with which we are now dealing—
sure of finding sound and helpful criticism, nor would it be necessary on each
occasion to begin with a popular presentation of the rudiments, This state of
things in a progressive science has arisen, as I think, from a loss of touch with the
main line of inquiry. The successes of descriptive zoology are so palpable and so
attractive, that, not unnaturally, these which are the means of progress have been
mistaken for the end. But now that the survey of terrestrial types by existing
methods is happily approaching completion, we may hope that our science will
return to its proper task, the detection of the fundamental nature of living things.
I say return, because, in spite of that perfecting of the instruments of research
characteristic of our time, and an extension of the area of scrutiny, the last gene-
ration was nearer the main quest. No one can study the history of biology with-
out perceiving that in some essential respects the spirit of the naturalists of fifty
years ago was truer in aim, and that their methods of inquiry were more direct
and more fertile—so far, at least, as the problem of evolution is concerned—than
those which have replaced them.

If we study the researches begun by Kélreuter and continued with great vigour
till the middle of the sixties, we cannot fail to see that, had the experiments he and
his successors undertook been continued on the same lines, we should by now have
advanced far into the unknown. More than this: if a knowledge of what those
men actually accomplished had not passed away from the memory of our genera-
tion, we should now be able to appeal to an informed public mind, having some
practical acquaintance with the phenomena, and possessing sufficient experience of
these matters to recognise absurdity in statement and deduction, ready to provide
that healthy atmosphere of instructed criticism most friendly to the growth of
truth.

Elsewhere I have noted the paradox that the appearance of the work of
Darwin, which crowns the great period in the study of the phenomena of species,
was the signal for a general halt. The‘ Origin of Species,’ the treatise which for
the first time brought the problem of species fairly within the range of human
intelligence, so influenced the course of scientific thought that the study of this
particular phenomenon—specific difference—almost entirely ceased. That this was
largely due to the simultaneous opening up of lines of research in many other
directions may be granted ; but in greater measure, I believe, it is to be ascribed
to the substitution of a conception of species which, with all the elements of truth
it contains, is yet barren and unnatural. It is not wonderful that those who held
that specific difference must be a phenomenon of slowest accumulation, proceeding
by steps needing generations for their perception, should turn their attention to
subjects deemed more amenable to human enterprise.

The indiscriminate confounding of all divergences from type into one hetero-
geneous heap under the name ‘ Variation’ effectually concealed those features of
order which the phenomena severally present, creating an enduring obstacle to
the progress of evolutionary science. Specific normality and distinctness being
regarded as an accidental product of exigency, it was thought safe to treat depar-
tures from such normality as comparable differences: all were ‘ variations’ alike.

576 REPORT—1904.

Let us illustrate the consequences. Princess of Wales is a large modern violet,
single, with stalks a foot long or more. Marie Louise is another, with large
double flowers, pale colour, short stalks, peculiar scent, leaf, &c. We call these
‘ varieties,’ and we speak of the various fixed differences between these two, and
between them and wild odorata, as due to variation ; and, again, the transient differ-
ences between the same odorata in poor, dry soil, or in a rich hedge-bank, we call
variation, using but the one term for differences, quantitative or qualitative,
permanent or transitory, in size, number of parts, chemistry, and the rest. We
might as well use one term to denote the differences between a bar of silver, a
stick of lunar caustic, a shilling, or a teaspoon. No wonder that the ignorant tell
us they can find no order in variation.

This prodigious confusion, which has spread obscurity over every part of these
inquiries, is traceable to the original misconception of the nature of specific differ-
ence, as a thing imposed and not inherent. From this, at least, the earlier
experimenters were free ; and the undertakings of Girtner and his contemporaries
were informed by the true conception that the properties and behaviour of species
were themselves specific. Free from the later fancy that but for selection the
forms of animals and plants would be continuous and indeterminate, they recog-
nised the definiteness of species and variety, and boldly set themselves to work out,
case by case, the manifestations and consequences of that definiteness.

Over this work of minute and largely experimental analysis, rapidly growing,
the new doctrine that organisms are mere conglomerates of adaptative devices
descended like a numbing spell. By an easy confusion of thought, faith in the
physiological definiteness of species and variety passed under the common ban,
which had at last exorcised the demon Immutability. Henceforth no naturalist
must hold communion with either, on pain of condemnation as an apostate, a
danger to the dynasty of Selection. From this oppression we in England, at least,
are scarcely beginning to emerge. Bentham’s‘ Flora,’ teaching very positively that
the primrose, the cowslip, and the oxlip are impermanent varieties of one
species, is in the hand of every beginner, while the British Museum Reading Room
finds.it unnecessary to procure Gartner's ‘ Bastarderzeugung.’

And so this mass of specific learning has passed out of account. The evidence
of tlie collector, the horticulturist, the breeder, the fancier, has been treated with
neglect, and sometimes, I fear, with contempt. That wide field whence Darwin
drew his wonderful store of facts has been some forty years untouched. Speak
to professional zoologists of any breeder’s matter, and how many will not intimate
to you politely that fanciers are unscientific persons, and their concerns beneath
notice? For the concrete in evolution we are offered the abstract. Our philo-
sophers debate with great fluency whether between imaginary races sterility could
grow up by an imaginary Selection ; whether Selection working upon hypothetical
materials could produce sexual differentiation ; how under a system of Natural
Selection bodily symmetry may have been impressed on formless protoplasm—that
monstrous figment of the mind, fit starting-point for such discussions. But by a
physiological irony enthusiasm for these topics is sometimes fully correlated with
indifference even to the classical illustrations; and for many whose minds are
attracted by the abstract problem of inter-racial sterility there are few who can
name for certain ten cases in which it has been already observed.

And yet in the natural world, in the collecting-box, the seed-bed, the poultry-
yard, the places where variation, heredity, selection may be seen in operation and
their properties tested, answers to these questions meet us at every turn—frag-
mentary answers, it is true, but each direct to the point. For if any one will stoop
to examine Nature in those humble places, will do a few days’ weeding, prick
out some rows of cabbages, feed up a few score of any variable larva, he will not
wait long before he learns the truth about variation. If he go further and breed
two or three generations of almost any controllable form, he will obtain imme-
diately facts as to the course of heredity which obviate the need for much
laborious imagining. If strictly trained, with faith in the omnipotence of
selection, he will not proceed far before he encounters disquieting facts, Upon

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 577

whatever character the attention be fixed, whether size, number, form of the whole
or of the parts, proportion, distribution of differentiation, sexual characters,
fertility, precocity or lateness, colour, susceptibility to cold or to disease—in short,
all the kinds of characters which we think of as best exemplifying specific
difference, we are certain to find illustrations of the occurrence of departures from
normality, presenting exactly the same definiteness elsewhere characteristic of
normality itself, Again and again the circumstances of their occurrence render it
impossible to suppose that these striking differences are the product of continued
selection, or, indeed, that they represent the results of a gradual transformation of
any kind. Whenever by any collocation of favouring circumstances such definite
novelties possess a superior viability, supplanting their ‘normal’ relatives, it is
obvious that new types will be created:

The earliest statement of this simple inference is, I believe, that of Marchant,’
who in 1719, commenting on certain plants of Mercurialis with laciniated and
hair-like leaves, which for a time established themselves in his garden, suggested
that species may arise in like manner. Though the same conclusion has appeared
inevitable to many, including authorities of very diverse experience, such as Huxley,
Virchow, F’. Galton, it has been strenuously resisted by the bulk of scientific opinion,
especially in England. Lately, however, the belief in Mutation, as De Vries has
taught us to call it, has made notable progress,” owing to the publication of his
splendid collection of observations and experiments, which must surely carry
conviction of the reality and abundance of Mutation to the minds of all whose
judgments can be affected by evidence.

That the dread test of Natural Selection must be passed by every aspirant to
existence, however brief, isa truism which needs no special proof. Those who
find satisfaction in demonstrations of the obvious may amply indulge themselves
by starting various sorts of some annual, say French poppy, in a garden, letting
them run to seed, and noticing in a few years how many of the finer sorts are
represented ; or by sowing an equal number of seeds taken from several varieties
of carnation, lettuce, or auricula, and seeing in what proportions the fine kinds
survive in competition with the common.

Selection is a true phenomenon; but its function is to select, not to create. Many
a white-edged poppy may have germinated and perished before Mr. Wilks saved
the individual which in a few generations gave rise to the-Shirleys. Many a
black Amphidasys betularta may have emerged before, some sixty years ago, in the
urban conditions of Manchester the black var. doubledayaria found its chance,
soon practically superseding the type in its place of origin, extending itself over
England, and reappearing even in Belgium and Germany.

Darwin gave us sound teaching when he compared man’s selective operations
with those of Nature. Yet how many who are ready to expound Nature’s methods
have been at the pains to see how man reaily proceeds? To the domesticated form
our fashions are what environmental exigency is to the wild. For years the con-
ventional Chinese primrose threw sporadic plants of the locse-growing stellata
variety, promptly extirpated because repugnant to mid-Victorian primness. But
when taste, as we say, revived, the graceful Star Primula was saved by
Messrs. Sutton, and a stock raised which is now of the highest fashion. I dare
assert that few botanists meeting P. stellata in Nature would hesitate to declare it
a good species. This and the Shirleys precisely illustrate the procedure of the raiser
of novelties. His operations start from a definite beginning. Asin the case of
P. stellata, he may notice a mutational form thrown off perfect from the start, or,
as in the Shirleys, what catches his attention may be the first indication of that

! Marchant, Mém. Ac. roy. des sci. for 1719; 1721, p. 59, Pls. 6-7. I owe this
reference to Coutagne, L’hérédité chez les vers a soie (Bull. sci. Fr. Belg., 1902).

? This progress threatens to be rapid indeed. Since these lines were written
Professor Hubrecht, in an admirable exposition (Pop. Sci. Monthly, July 1904) of
De Vries’ Mutations-theorie, has even blamed me for having ten years ago attached
any importance to continuous variation. Nevertheless, when the unit of segregation
is small, something mistakably like continuous evolution must surely exist. (Cp.
Johannsen, UVeb. Erbliehkeit in Poputationen und in reinen Linien, 1903.)

1904. Pe

578 REPORT—1904.

flaw which if allowed to extend will split the type into a host of new varieties each
with its own peculiarities and physiological constitution.

Let anyone who doubts this try what he can do by selection without such a
definite beginning. Let him try from a pure strain of black and white rats to
raise a white one by breeding from the whitest, or a black one by choosing
the blackest. Let him try to raise a dwarf (‘Cupid’) sweet pea from a tall
race by choosing the shortest, or a crested fowl by choosing the birds with
most feather on their heads. To formulate such suggestions is to expose their
foolishness.

The creature is beheld to be very good after, not before its creation, Our
domesticated races are sometimes represented as so many incarnations of the
breeder's prophetic fancy. But except in recombinations of pre-existing characters
—now a comprehensible process—and in such intensifications and such finishing
touches as involve variations which analogy makes probable, the part played by
prophecy is small. Variation leads; the breeder follows. The breeder’s method
is to notice a desirable novelty, and to work up a stock of it, picking up other
novelties in his course—for these genetic disturbances often spread—and we may
rest assured the method of Nature is not very different,

The popular belief that evolution, whether natural or artificial, is effected by
mass-selection of impalpable differences arises from many errors which are all
phases of one—imperfect analysis—though the source of the error differs with the
circumstances of its exponent, When the scientific advocate professes that he has
statistical proofs of the continuity of variation, he is usually availing himself of
that comprehensive use of the term Variation to which I have referred. Statistical
indications of such continuity are commonly derived from the study, not of nascent
varieties, but of the fluctuations to which all normal populations are subject.
Truly varying material needs care in its collection, and if found is often sporadic or
in some other way unsuitable for statistical treatment. Sometimes it happens that
the two phenomena are studied together in inextricable entanglement, and the
resulting impression is a blur.

But when a practical man, describing his own experience, declares that the
creation of his new breed has been a very long affair, the scientist, feeling that he
has found a favourable witness, puts forward this testimony as conclusive. But
on cross-examination it appears that the immense period deposed to seldom goes
back beyond the time of the witness’s grandfather, covering, say, seventy years;
more often ten, or eight, or even five years will be found to have accomplished most
of the business. Next, in this period—which, if we take it at seventy years, is a
mere point of time compared with the epochs of which the selectionist discourses
——a momentous transformation has often been effected, not in one character but
many. Good characters have been added, it may be, of form, fertility, precocity,
colour, and other physiological attributes, undesirable qualities have been elimi-
nated, and all sorts of defects ‘rogued’ out. On analysis these operations can be
proved to depend on a dozen discontinuities. Be it, moreover, remembered that
within this period, besides producing his mutational character and combining it
with other characters (or it may be groups of characters), the breeder has been
working up a stock, reproducing in quantity that quality which first caught his
attention, thus converting, if you will, a phenomenon of individuals into a pheno-
menon of a mass, to the future mystification of the careless,

Operating among such phenomena the gross statistical method is a misleading
instrument ; and, applied to these intricate discriminations, the imposing Correla-
tion Table into-which the biometrical Procrustes fits his arrays of unanalysed
data is still no substitute for the common sieve of a trained judgment, For
nothing but minute analysis of the facts by an observer thoroughly conversant
with the particular plant or animal, its habits and properties, checked by the test
of crucial experiment, can disentangle the truth.

To prove the reality of Selection as a factor in evolution is, as I have said, a
work of supererogation, With more profit may experiments be employed in
defining the mits of what Selection can accomplish. For whenever we can
advance no further hy Selection, we strike that hard outline fixed by the natural

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 579

properties of organisms, We come upon these limits in various unexpected places,
and to the naturalist ignorant of breeding nothing can be more surprising or
instructive.

Whatever be the mode of origin of new types, no theoretical evolutionist
doubts that Selection will enable him to fix his character when obtained. Let
him put his faith into practice. Let him set about breeding canaries to win in
the class for Clear Yellow Norwich at the Crystal Palace Show. Being a selec-
tionist, his plan will be to pick up winning yellow cocks and hens at shows and
breed them together. The results will be disappointing. Not getting what he
wants, he may buy still better clear yellows and work them in, and so on till his
funds are exhausted, but he will pretty certainly breed no winner, be he never so
skilful. For no selection of winning yellows will make them into a breed. They
must be formed afresh by various combinations of colours appropriately crossed
and worked up. Though breeders differ as to the system of combinations to be
followed, all would agree that selection of birds representing the winning type
was a sure way to fail. The same is true for nearly all canary colours except
in Lizards, and, I believe, for some pigeon and poultry colours also,

Let this scientific fancier now go to the Palace Poultry Show and buy the
winning Brown Leghorn cock and hen, breed from them, and send up the result of
such a mating year after year. His chance of a winner is not quite, but almost
nil, For in its wisdom the fancy has chosen one type for the cock and another
for the hen. They belong to distinct strains, The hen corresponding to the
winning cock is too bright, and the cock corresponding to the winning hen is too
dull for the judge’s taste. The same is the case in nearly every breed where the
sex-colours differ markedly, Rarely winners of both sexes have come in one
strain—a phenomenon I cannot now discuss—but the contrary is the rule. Does
anyone suppose that this system of ‘double mating’ would be followed, with
all the cost and trouble it involves, if Selection could compress the two
strains into one? Yet current theory makes demands on Selection to which this
is nothing.

The tyro has confidence in the power of Selection to fix type, but he never
stops to consider what fixation precisely means. Yet a simple experiment will
tell him. He may go to a great show and claim the best pair of Andalusian fowls
for any number of guineas. When he breeds from them he finds, to his disgust,
that only about half their chickens, or slightly more, come blue at all, the rest
being blacks or splashed whites. Indignantly, perhaps, he will complain to the
vendor that he has been supplied with no selected breed, but worthless mongrels.
In reply he may learn that beyond a doubt his birds come from blues only in the
direct line for an indefinite number of generations, and that to throw blacks and
splashed whites is the inalienable property of blue Andalusians. But now let him
breed from his ‘ wasters,’ and he will find that the extracted blacks are pure and
give blacks only, that the splashed whites similarly give only whites or splashed
whites—but if the two sorts of ‘ wasters’ are crossed together blues only will
result. Selection will never make the blues breed true; nor can this ever come to
pass unless a blue be found whose germ-cells are bearers of the blue character—
which may or may not be possible. If the selectionist reflect on this experience
he will be led straight to the centre of our problem. There will fall, as it were,
scales from his eyes, and in a flash he will see the true meaning of fixation of type,
variability, and mutation, vaporous mysteries no more,

Owing to the unhappy subdivisions of our studies, such phenomena as these—
constant companions of the breeder—come seldom within the purview of modern
science, which, forced for a moment to contemplate them, expresses astonishment
and relapses into indolent scepticism. It is in the hope that a little may be done
to draw research back into these forgotten paths that I avail myself of this great
opportunity of speaking to my colleagues with somewhat wider range of topic
than is possible within the limits of a scientific paper. For I am convinced that
the investigation of heredity by experimental methods offers the sole chance of
progress with the fundamental problems of evolution.

PP2

=

580 REPORT—1904.

In saying this I mean no disrespect to that study of the physiology of repro-
duction by histological means, which, largely through the stimulus of Weismann’s
speculations, has of late made such extraordinary advances. It needs no pene-
tration to see that, by an exact knowledge of the processes of maturation and
fertilisation, a vigorous stock is being reared, upon which some day the experience
of the breeder will be firmly grafted, to our mutual profit. We, who are engaged
in experimental breeding, are watching with keenest interest the researches of
Strasburger, Boveri, Wilson, Farmer, and their many fellow-workers and asso-
ciates in this difficult field, sure that in the near future we shall be operating in
common. We know already that the experience of the breeder is in no way
opposed. to the facts of the histologist ; but the point at which we shall unite will
be found when it is possible to trace in the maturing germ an indication of some
character afterwards recognisable in the resulting organism. Till then, in order
to pursue directly the course of heredity and variation, it is evident that we must
fall back on those tangible manifestations which are to be studied only by field
observation and experimental breeding.

The breeding-pen is to us what the test-tube is to the chemist—an instrument
whereby we examine the nature of our organisms and determine empirically what
for brevity I may call their genetic properties. As unorganised substances have
their definite properties, so have the several species and varieties which form the
materials of ourexperiments. Livery attempt to determine these definite properties
contributes immediately to the solution of that problem of problems, the physical
constitution of a living organism. In those morphological studies which I suppose
most of us have in our time pursued, we sought inspiration from the belief that in
the examination of present normalities we were tracing the past, the phylogenetic
order of our types, the history—as we conceived—of Evolution. In the work
which I am now pressing upon your notice we may claim to be dealing not only
with the present and the past, but with the future also.

On such an occasion as this it is impossible to present to you in detail the
experiments—some exceedingly complex—already made in response to this newer
inspiration, I must speak of results, not of methods. At a later meeting, more-
over, there will be opportunities of exhibiting practically to those interested some
of the more palpable illustrations. It is also impossible to-day to make use of the
symbolic demonstrations by which the lines of analysis must be represented. The
time cannot be far distant when ordinary Mendelian formule will be mere as in
praesenti to a biological audience. Nearly five years have passed since this extra-
ordinary re-discovery was made known to the scientific world by the practically
simultaneous papers of De Vries, Correns, and Tschermak, not to speak of thirty-
five years of neglect endured before. Yet a phenomenon comparable in signifi-
cance with any that biological science has revealed remains the intellectual posses-
sion of specialists. We still speak sometimes of Mendel’s hypothesis or theory,
but in truth the terms have no strict application. It is no theory that water is
made up of hydrogen and oxygen, though we cannot watch the atoms unite, and
it is no theory that the blue Andalusian fowl] I produce was made by the meeting
of germ-cells bearing respectively black and a peculiar white. Both are incontro-
vertible facts deduced from observation. The two facts have this in common also,
that their perception gives us a glimpse into that hidden order out of which the
seeming disorder of our world is built. If I refer to Mendelian ‘ theory ’ therefore,
in the words with which Bacon introduced his Great Instauration, ‘I entreat
men to believe that it is not an opinion to be held, but a work to be done; and to
be well assured that I am labouring to lay the foundation, not of any sect or
doctrine, but of human utility and power,’

Tn the Mendelian method of experiment the one essential is that the posterity
of each individual should be traced separately. If individuals from necessity are
treated collectively, it must be proved that their composition is identical. In
direct contradiction to the methods of current statistics, Mendel saw by sure
penetration that masses must be avoided. Obvious as this necessity seems when
one is told, no previous observer had thought of it, whereby the discovery was

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 581

missed. As Mendel immediately proved in the case of peas, and as we have now
seen in many other plants and animals, it is often impossible to distinguish by
inspection individuals whose genetic properties are totally distinct. Breeding
gives the only test.

Segregation,

Where the proper precautions have been taken, the following phenomena have
been proved to occur in a great range of cases, affecting many characters in some
thirty plants and animals, The qualities or characters whose transmission in
heredity is examined are found to be distributed among the germ-cells, or
gametes, as they are called, according to a definite system. This system is such
that these characters are treated by the cell-divisions (from which the gametes
result) as existing in pairs, each member of a pair being alternative or
allelomorphic to the other in the composition of the germ. Now, as every
zygote—that is, any ordinary animal or plant—is formed by the union of two
gametes, it may either be made by the union of two gametes bearing similar
members of any pair, say two blacks or two whites, in which case we call it
homozygous in respect of that pair, or the gametes from which it originates may
be bearers of the dissimilar characters, say a black and a white, when we call the
resulting zygote heterozygous in respect of that pair. If the zygote is homozygous,
no matter what its parents or their pedigree may have been, it breeds true
indefinitely unless some fresh variation occurs.

If, however, the zygote be heterozygous, or gametically cross-bred, its gametes
in their formation separate the allelomorphs again, so that each gamete contains
only one allelomorphic character of each pair. At least one cell-division in the
process of gametogenesis is therefore a differentiating or segregating division, out
of which each gamete comes sensibly pure in respect of the allelomorph it carries,
exactly as if it had not been formed by a heterozygous body at all. That,
translated into modern language, is the essential discovery that Mendel made.
It has now been repeated and verified for numerous characters of numerous
species, and, in face of heroic efforts to shake the evidence or to explain it
away, the discovery of gametic segregation is, and will remain, one of the lasting
triumphs of the human mind.

In extending our acquaintance of these phenomena of segregation we encounter
several principal types of complication.

Segregation Absent or Incomplete.—From our general knowledge of breeding
we feel fairly well satisfied that true absence of segregation is the rule in certain
cases. It is difficult, for instance, to imagine any other account of the facts
respecting the American Mulattos, though even here sporadic occurrence of
segregation seems to be authenticated. Very few instances of genuine absence of
segregation have been critically studied. The only one I can cite from my own
experience is that of Pararge egeria and egeriades, ‘ climatic’ vaces of a butterfly.
When crossed together, they give the common intermediate type of North-Western
France, which, though artificially formed, breeds in great measure true. This
crossed back with either type has given, as a rule, simple blends between
intermediate and type. My evidence is not, however, complete enough to
warrant a positive statement as to the total absence of segregation, for in the few
families raised from pairs of artificial intermediates some dubious indications of
segregation have been seen.

The rarity of true failure of segregation when pure strains are crossed may be
judged by the fact that since the revival of interest in such work hardly any
thoroughly satisfactory cases have been witnessed. The largest body of evidence
on this subject is that provided by De Vries. These cases, however, present so
many complexities that it is impossible to deal with them now. While so little
is definitely known regarding non-segregating characters, it appears to me
premature to attempt any generalisation as to what does or does not segregate.

Most of the cases of failure of segregation formerly alleged are evidently
epurious, depending on the appearance of homozygotes in the second genera-
tion (F,). :

582 REPORT—1904.

One very important group of cases exists, in which the appearance of a partial
failure of segregation after the second generation (F’,) is really due to another
phenomenon. The visible character of a zygote may, for instance, depend on
the coexistence in it of two characters belonging to distinct allelomorphic pairs,
each capable of being independently segregated from its fellow, and forming
independent combinations. For the demonstration of this important fact we are
especially indebted to Cuénot.1_ We have indications of the existence of such a
phenomenon in a considerable range of instances (mice, rabbits (Hurst), probably
stocks and sweet peas).

Nevertheless, there are other cases, not always easy to distinguish from these,
where some of the gametes of F, certainly carry on heterozygous characters
unsegregated. As an example, which seems to me indisputable, I may mention the
so-called‘ walnut’ comb, normal to Malay fowls. This can be made artificially
by crossing rose-comb with pea-comb, and the crossbred then forms gametes, of
which one in four bears the compound unsegregated.* We may speak of this as a
true synthesis.

In another type of cases segregation occurs, but is not sharp. The gametes
may then represent a full series ranging from the one pure form to the other,
Such cases occur in regard to some colours of Primula sinensis, and the leg-
feathering of fowls (Hurst). In the second generation a nearly complete series of
intermediate zygotes may result, though the two pure extremes (if the case be one
of blending characters) may still be found to be pure.

Resolution and Disintegration.—Besides these cases, the features of which we
now in great measure comprehend, we encounter frequently a more complex
segregation, imperfectly understood, by which gametes of new types, sometimes
very numerous, are produced by the crossbred. Each of these new types has its
own peculiarities. We shall, I think, be compelled to regard these phenomena as
produced either by a resolution of compound characters introduced by one or
both parents, or by some process of disintegration, effected by a breaking-up of
the integral characters followed by recombinations. It seems impossible to
imagine simple recombinations of pre-existing characters as adequate to produce
many of these phenomena, Such a view would involve the supposition that the
number of characters pre-existing as units was practically infinite—a difficulty
that as yet we are not obliged to face. However that may be, we have the fact
that resolutions and disintegrations of this kind—or recombinations, if that con-
ception be preferred—are among the common phenomena following crossing, and
are the sources of most of the breeder’s novelties. As bearing on the theoretical
question to which I have alluded, we may notice that it is among examples of
this complex breaking-up that a great proportion of the cases of partial sterility
have been seen.

No quite satisfactory proof as to the actual moment of segregation yet exists,
nor have we any evidence that all characters are segregated at the same cell-
division. Correns has shown that in maize the segregation of the starch character
from the sugar character must happen before the division forming the two genera-
tive nuclei, for both bear the same character. The reduction-division has naturally
been suggested as the critical moment. The most serious difficulty in accepting this

1 When abc... xaBy... gives in F, or F,a character (not seen in the original
parents), which from F, or later may breed true: not because aa, 6B, cy do not
severally segregate, but through simultaneous homozygosis of, say, aa and B8, giving
a zygote aaBBcy . . . which will breed true to the character af.

? Owing to this behaviour, and to the simultaneous production of single-comb
(? by resolution), there are,even in pure Malays, five types of individuals, all with
‘walnut’ combs—as yet indistinguishable—formed by gametic unions 7 x p, mp x rp,
ry x7, 7p xp,rpxs. Of these kinds three can at once be distinguished by crossing
with single; but whether 7 x p can be distinguished from 7p x s we do not yet know
[7, rose; p, pea; s, single; 7p, walnut.] In this example four allelomorphs are
simultaneously segregated, one being compound. Neglecting sexual differentiation,
there are therefore ten gametically distinct types theoretically possible; but of these
only four are distinguishable by inspection, ove

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 583

view, as it seems to me, is the fact that somatic divisions appear sometimes to
segregate allelomorphs, as in the case of Datura fruits, and some colour-cases.

In concluding this brief notice of the complexities of segregation I may call
attention to the fact that we are here engaged in no idle speculation. For it is
now possible by experimental means to distinguish almost always with which
phenomenon we are dealing, and each kind of complication may be separately
dealt with by a determination of the properties of the extracted forms, Illustra-
tions of a practical kind will be placed before you at a subsequent meeting.

The consequence of segregation is that in cases where it occurs we are rid of
the interminable difficulties which beset all previous attempts to unravel heredity.
On the older view, the individuals of any group were supposed to belong to an
indefinite number of classes, according to the various numerical proportions in
which various types had entered into their pedigree. We now recognise that
when segregation is allelomorphiec, as it constantly is, the individuals are of three
classes only in respect of each allelomorphic pair—two homozygous and one
heterozygous. In all such cases, therefore, fixity of type, instead of increasing
gradually generation by generation, comes suddenly, and is a phenomenon ot
individuals, Only by the separate analysis of individuals can this fact be proved.
The supposition that progress towards fixity of type was gradual arose from the
study of masses of individuals, and the gradual purification witnessed was due in
the main to the gradual elimination of impure individuals, whose individual
properties were wrongly regarded as distributed throughout the mass.

We have at last the means of demonstrating the presence of integral
characters. In affirming the integrity of segregable characters we do not declare
that the size of the integer is fixed eternally, as we suppose the size of a chemical
unit to be. The integrity of our characters depends on the fact that they can be
habitually treated as units by gametogenesis. But even where such unity is
manifested in its most definite form, we may, by sufficient searching, generally find
a case where the integrity of the character has evidently been impaired in gameto-
genesis, and where one such individual is found the disintegration can generally
be propagated. That the size of the unit may be changed by unknown causes,
though a fact of the highest significance in the attempt to determine the physical
nature of heredity, does not in the least diminish the value of the recognition ot
such units, or lessen their part in governing the course of Evolution.

The existence of unit-characters had, indeed, long been scarcely doubtful to
those practically familiar with the facts of variation,' but it is to the genius of
Mendel that we owe the proof, We knew that characters could behave as
units, but we did not know that this unity was a phenomenon of gametogenesis.
He has revealed to us the underworld of gametes, Henceforth, whenever we see
a preparation of germ-cells we shall remember that, though all may look alike,
they may in reality be of many and definite kinds, differentiated from each other
according to regular systems.

Numerical Relations of Gametes and their Significance.

In addition to the fact of segregation, Mendel’s experiments proved another
fact nearly as significant ; namely, that when characters are allelomorphic, the
gametes bearing each member of a pair generally are formed in equal numbers by
the heterozygote, if an average of cases be taken. This fact can only be regarded
as a consequence of some numerical symmetry in the cell-divisions of gameto-
genesis. We already know cases where individual families show such departure
from normal expectation that either the numbers produced must have been un-
equal, or subsequent disturbance must have occurred. But so far no case is known
Jor certain where the average of families does not point to equality.

The fact that equality is so usual has a direct bearing on conceptions of the
physical nature of heredity. I have compared our segregation with chemical

1 Cp. De Vries, Intracellulare Pangenesis, 1889,

584 ; REPORT—1904.

separation, but the phenomenon of numerically symmetrical disjunction as a feature
of so many and such different characters seems scarcely favourable to any close
analogy with chemical processes, If each special character owed its appearance to
the handing on of some complex molecule as a part of one chemical system, we
should expect, among such a diversity of characters and forms of life, to encounter
some phenomenon of valency, manifested as numerical inequality between members
of allelomorphic pairs. So far, equivalence is certainly the rule, and where the
characters are simply paired and no resolution has taken place, this rule appears to
be universal as regards averages. On the other hand, there are features in the
distribution of characters after resolution, when the second generation (F,) is poly-
morphic in a high degree, which are not readily accounted for on any hypothesis
of simple equivalence ; but none of these cases are as yet satisfactorily investigated.

It is doubtful whether segregation is rightly represented as the separation of
two characters, and whether we may not more simply imagine that the distinction
between the allelomorphic gametes is one of presence or absence of some distin-
guishing element, De Vries has devoted much attention to this question in its
bearings on his theory of Pangenesis, holding that cases of both kinds occur, and
attempting to distinguish them. Indications may certainly be enumerated pointing
in either direction, but for the present I incline to defer a definite opinion.

If we may profitably seek in the physical world for some parallel to our
gametic segregations, we shall, I think, find it more close in mechanical separations,
such as those which may be effected between fluids which do not freely mix, than
in any strictly chemical phenomenon. In this way we might roughly imitate
both the ordinary segregation, which is sensibly perfect, and the curious impurity
occasionally perceptible even in the most pronounced discontinuities, such as those
which divide male from female, petal from sepal, albino from coloured, horn from
hair, and so on.

Gametic Unions and their Consequences.

Characters being then distributable among gametes according to regular
systems, the next question concerns the properties and features presented by the
zygotes formed by the union of gametes bearing different characters.

As to this no rule can as yet be formulated. Such a heterozygote may exhibit
one of the allelomorphic characters in its full intensity (even exceeding it in
special cases, perhaps in connection with increased vigour), or it may be inter-
mediate between the two, or it may present some character not recognisable in
either parent. In the latter case it is often, though not always, reversionary.
When one character appears in such intensity as to conceal or exclude the other
it is called dominant, the other being recessive. It may be remarked that
frequently, but certainly not universally (as has been stated), the phylogenetically
older character is dominant. A curious instance to the contrary is that of the
peculiar arrangement of colours seen in a breed of game fowls called Brown-
breasted, which in combination with the purple face, though certainly a modern
variation, dominates (most markedly in females) over the Black-breasted type of
Gallus bankiva.

In a few cases irregularity of dominance has been observed as an exception.
The clearest illustration I can offer is that of the extra toe in fowls. Generally
this is a dominant character, but sometimes, as an exceptional phenomenocn, it
may be recessive, making subsequent analysis very difficult. The nature of this
irregularity is unknown. A remarkable instance is that of the blue colour in
maize seeds (Correns; R. H. Lock). Here the dominance of blue is frequently
imperfect, or absent, and the figures suggest that some regularity in the phe-
nomenon may be discovered.

Mendel is often represented as having enunciated dominance as a general
proposition, That this statement should still be repeated, even by those who
realise the importance of his discoveries, is an extraordinary illustration of the
oblivion that has overwhelmed the work of the experimental breeders. Mendel
makes the specific statement in regard to certain characters in peas which do
behave thus, but his proposition is not general. ‘To convict him of such a delusion

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 585

it would be necessary to prove that he was exceptionally ignorant of breeding,
though on the face of the evidence he seems sufficiently expert.

A generalisation respecting the consequences of heterozygosis possessing greater
value is this. When a pair of gametes unites in fertilisation the characters of the
zygote depend directly on the constitution of these gametes, and not on that of
the parents from which they came, To this generalisation we know as yet only
two clear exceptions, These very curious cases are exactly alike in that, though
segregation obviously occurs in a seed-character, the seeds borne by the hybrid (F,)
all exhibit the hybrid character, and the consequences of segregation in the particular
seed-character are not evident till the seeds (F,) of the second (F,) generation are
determinable. Of these the first is the case of indent peas investigated especially by
Tschermak, Crossed with wrinkled peas I have found the phenomena normal, but
when the cross is made with a round type the exceptional phenomenon occurs.
The second case is that discovered by Biffen in the cross between the long-grained
wheat called Polish and short-grained Rivett wheat, demonstrations of which will
be laid before you. No satisfactory account of these peculiarities has been yet
suggested, but it is evident that in some unexplained way the maternal plant-
characters control the seed-characters for each generation. It is, of course, likely
that other comparable cases will be found.

Appearances have been seen in at least four cases (rats, mice, stocks, sweet peas)
suggesting at first sight that a heterozygosis between two gametes, both extracted,
may give, e.g., dominance ; while if one, or both, were pure, they would give a rever-
sionary heterozygote. If this occurrence is authenticated on a sufficient scale, we
shall of course recognise that the fact proves the presence in these cases of some
pervading and non-segregating quality, distributed among the extracted gametes
formed by the parent heterozygote. As yet, however, I do not think the evidence
enough to warrant the conclusion that such a pervading quality is really present,
and I incline to attribute the appearances to redistribution of characters belonging
to independent pairs in the manner elucidated by Cuénot. The point will be
easily determined, and meanwhile we must note the two possibilities.

Following, therefore, our first proposition that the gametes belong to definite
classes, comes the second proposition, that the unions of members of the various
classes have specific consequences. Nor is this proposition simply the truistical
statement that different causes have different effects; for by its aid we are led at
once to the place where the different cause is to be sought—Gametogenesis.
While formerly we hoped to determine the offspring by examining the ancestry of
the parents, we now proceed by investigating the gametic composition of the
parents. Individuals may have identical ancestry (and sometimes, to all appear-
ances, identical characters), but yet be quite different in gametic composition; and,
conversely, individuals may be identical in gametic composition and have very
different ancestry. Nevertheless, those that are identical in gametic composition
are the same, whatever their ancestry, Therefore, where such cases are concerned,
in any considerations of the physiology of heredity, ancestry is misleading and
passes out of account. To take the crudest illustration: if a hybrid is made
between two races, A, B, and another hybrid between two other races, OC, D, it
might be thought that when the two hybrids AB and CD are bred together, four
races, A, B, C, and D, will be united in their offspring. This expectation may be
entirely falsified, for the cell-divisions of gametogenesis may have split A from B
and C from D, so that the final product may contain characters of only two races
after all, being either AC, BO, AD, or BD. In practice, however, we are generally
dealing with groups of characters, and the union of all the A group, for instaince,
with all the C group will be a rare coincidence.

It is the object of Mendelian analysis to state each case of heredity in terms
of gametic composition, and thence to determine the laws governing the distri-
bution of characters in the cell-divisions of gametogenesis.

There are, of course, many cases which still bafile our attempts at such analysis,
but some of the most paradoxical exceptions have been reduced to order by the
accumulation of facts, The consequences of heterozygosis are curiously specific,

586 REPORT—1904.

and each needs separate investigation. A remarkable case occurred in stocks,
showing the need for caution in dealing with contradictory results. Hoary leaves
and glabrous leaves are a pair of allelomorphic characters. When glabrous
races were crossed with crossbreds, sometimes the results agreed with simple ex-
pectation, while in other cases the offspring were all hoary when, in accordance
with similar expectation, this should be impossible. By further experiment, how-
ever, Miss Saunders has found that certain glabrous races crossed together give
nothing but hoary heterozygotes, which completely elucidates such exceptions,
There is every likelihood that wherever segregation occurs similar analysis will
be successful,

Speaking generally, in every case the first point to be worked out is the magni-
tude of the character-units recognised by the critical cell-divisions of gameto-
genesis, and the second is the specific consequence of all the possible combinations
between them, When this has been done for a comprehensive series of types and
characters, it will be time to attempt further generalisation, and perhaps to look
for light on that fundamental physiological property, the power of cell-division,

Segregation and Sex,—Acquaintance with Mendelian phenomena irresistibly
suggests the question whether in ad/ cases of families composed of distinct types
the distinctness may not be primarily due to gametic segregation, Of all such
distinctions none is so universal or so widespread as that of sex: may it not be
possible that sex is due to a segregation occurring between gametes, either male,
female, or both ? It will be known to you that several naturalists have been led
by various roads to incline to this view. We still await the proof of crucial
experiments ; but without taking you over more familiar ground, it may be useful
to show how the matter looks from our standpoint. As regards actual experi-
ment, all results thus far are complicated by the occurrence of some sterility in the
hybrid generation. Correns, fertilising 9 Bryonta dioica with pollen from
& B. alba obtained offspring (F,) ether fg or 9, with only one doubtful excep-
tion. Gartner found a similar result in Lychnis diurna 9 x 0 L. Flos-cuculias 2,
but only raised six plants (4 g,2 9). From LZ, diurna 92 x § Silene nocti-
flora as g he got only two plants, spoken of as females which developed occasional
anthers. These results give a distinct suggestion that sex may be determined
by differentiation among the male gametes, but satisfactory and direct proofs can
only be obtained from some case where sterility does not ensue.

Apart, however, from such decisive evidence—which, indeed, would be more
satisfactory if relating to animals—several circumstances suggest that sex is a
segregation-phenomenon. Professor Castle in a valuable essay has called attention
to distinct evidence of disturbance in the heredity of certain moths (Aglia tau
and dugens, Standfuss’s experiments; Tephrosia, experiments of Bacot and others,
summarised by Tutt),! where the disturbance is pretty certainly connected with
sexual differentiation, Mr, Punnett and I are finding suggestions of the same thing
in certain poultry cases. Mr, Doncaster has pointed out that the evidence of
Mr. Raynor clearly indicates that a certain variety of Abraxas grossulariata,
usually peculiar to the female, is a Mendelian recessive. It is scarcely doubtful
that this will be shown to hold also for some other female varieties, e.g., Colias
edusa, var, helice, &c. We can therefore feel no doubt that there is some entangle-
ment between sex and gametically segregable characters, A curious instance of a
comparable nature is that of the Cinnamon canary (Norduijn, &c.), and similar
complications are alleged as regards the descent of colour-blindness and
heemophilia.

‘In one remarkable group of facts we come very near to the phenomenon of sex.
Experiments made in conjunction with Mr. R. P. Gregory have shown that the
familiar heterostylism of Primula is a phenomenon of Mendelian segregation.
Short style, or ‘thrum,’ is a dominant—with a complication;* long style, or
‘pin,’ is recessive; while equal, or ‘ homostyle,’ is recessive to both,

1 Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1898.
* It is doubtful if ‘thrum’ ever breeds true, as both the other types can do,
Perhaps ‘thrum’ is a Halbrasse of De Vries,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 587

Even nearer we come in a certain sweet-pea example, where abortion of
anthers behaves as an ordinary Mendelian recessive character. By a slight
exaggeration we might even speak of a hermaphrodite with barren anthers as a
‘ female.’

Consider also how like the two kinds of differentiation are. The occasional
mosaicism in Lepidoptera, called ‘ gynandromorphism,’ may be exactly paralleled
by specimens where the two halves are two colour-varieties, instead of the two
sexes, Patches of Silene inflata in this neighbourhood commonly consist of hairy
and glabrous individuals,? a phenomenon proved in Lychnis to be dependent on
Mendelian segregation. The same patch consists also of female plants and herma-
phrodite plants, Is it not likely that both phenomena are similar in nature?
How otherwise would the differentiation be maintained? The sweet-pea case I
have spoken of is scarcely distinguishable from this, I therefore look forward
with confidence to the elucidation of the real nature of sex—that redoubtable
mystery.

We now move among the facts with an altogether different bearing. ‘ Animals
and Plants under Domestication,’ from being largely a narration of inscrutable
prodigies, begins to take shape as a body of coherent evidence. Of the old
difficulties many disappear finally. Others are inverted. Darwin says he would
have expected ‘from the law of reversion’ that nectarines being the newer form
would more often produce peaches than peaches nectarines, which is the commoner
occurrence. Now, on the contrary, the unique instance of the Carclew nectarine
tree bearing peaches is more astonishing than all the other evidence together !

Though the progress which Mendelian facts make possible is so great, it must
never be forgotten that as regards new characters involving the addition of some
new factor to the pre-existing stock we are almost where we were. When they
have been added by mutation, we can now study their transmission ; but we know
not whence or why they come. Nor have we any definite light on the problem
of adaptation; though here there is at least no increase of difficulties.

Besides these outstanding problems, there remain many special points of
difficulty which on this occasion I cannot treat—curiosities of segregation, obscure
aberrations of fertilisation * (occasionally met with), coupling of characters, and the
very serious possibility of disturbance through gametic selection. Let us employ
the space that remains in returning to the problem of variation, already spoken of
above, and considering how it looks in the light of the new facts as to heredity.
The problem of heredity is the problem of the manner of distribution of characters
among germ-cells, So soon as this problem is truly formulated, the nature of
variation at once appears. For the first time in the history of evolutionary
thought, Mendel’s discovery enables us to form some picture of the process which
results in genetic variation. It is simply the segregation of a new kind of gamete,
bearing one or morecharacters distinct from those of the type. We can answer
one of the oldest questions in philosophy, In terms of the ancient riddle, we may

1 Neglecting minor complications, the descent is as follows:—Lady Penzance
x Emily Henderson (long pollen) g gave purple F,. In one F, family, with rare
exceptions, colowred plants with dark axils were fertile, those with light axils having
6 sterile, whites being either fertile or sterile. The ratios indicated are 9 coloured,
dk. ax., fertile ¢: 3 coloured, lt. ax., sterile ¢: 3 white, fertile ¢: 1 white,
sterile ¢. The fertile whites, therefore, though light-axilled (as whites almost
always are) presumably bear the dark-axil character, which generally cannot appear
except in association with coloured flowers. This can be proved next year. Some
at least of the plants with sterile ¢ are fertile on the ? side, and when crossed with
a coloured light-axilled type will presumably give only light-axilled plants.

? This excellent illustration was shown me by Mr. A. W. Hill and Mr. A. Wallis.
A third form, glabrous, with hairy edges to the leaves, also occurs.

’ In view of Ostenfeld’s discovery of parthenogenesis in Hieraciwm, the possi-
bility that this phenomenon plays a part in some non-segregating cases needs careful
examination,

588 REPORT—1904.

reply that the Owl’s egg existed before the Owl; and if we hesitate about the
Owl, we may be sure about the Bantam. The parent zygote, whose offspring
display variation, is giving off new gametes, and in its gametogenesis a segre-
gation of their new character, more or less pure, is taking place. The significance
and origin of the discontinuity of variation is therefore in great measure evident,
So far as pre-existing elements are concerned, it is an expression of the power
of cell-division to distribute character-units among gametes. The initial purity
of so many nascent mutations is thus no longer surprising, and, indeed, that such
initial purity has not been more generally observed we may safely ascribe to im- -
perfections of method.

It is evident that the resemblance between the parent originating a variety
and a heterozygote is close, and the cases need the utmost care in discrimination.
Tf, for instance, we knew nothing more of the Andalusian fowl than that it
throws blacks, blues, and whites, how should we decide whether the case was one
of heterozygosis or of nascent mutation? The second (F,) generation from
Brown Leghorn x White Leghorn contains an occasional Silver-Grey or Duckwing
female. Is this a mutation induced by crossing, or is it simply due to a recom-
bination of pre-existing characters? We cannot yet point to a criterion which
will certainly separate the one from the other; but perhaps the statistical
irregularity usually accompanying mutation, contrasted with the numerical sym-
metry of the gametes after normal heterozygosis, may give indications in simple
cases—though scarcely reliable even there. These difficulties reach their maximum
in the case of types which are continually giving off a second form with greater or
less frequency as a concomitant of their ordinary existence. This extraordinarily
interesting phenomenon, pointed out first by De Vries, and described by him
under the head of ‘ Halb-’ and ‘ Mittel-Rassen,’ is too imperfectly understood for
me to do more than refer to it, but in the attempt to discover what is actually
taking place in variation it must play a considerable part.

Just as that normal truth to type which we call heredity is in its simplest
elements only an expression of that qualitative symmetry characteristic of all non-
differentiating cell-divisions, so is genetic variation the expression of a qualitative
asymmetry beginning in gametogenesis. Variation is a novel cell-division.1 So
soon as this fact is grasped we shall hear no more of heredity and variation as
opposing ‘ factors’ or ‘ forces ’—a metaphor which has too long plagued us.

We cease, then, to wonder at the suddenness with which striking variations
arise. Those familiar with the older literature relating to domesticated animals
and plants will recall abundant instances of the great varieties appearing early in
the history of a race, while the finer shades had long to be waited for. In the
sweet pea the old purple, the red bicolor, and the white have existed for genera-
tions, appearing soon after the cultivation of the species; but the finer splitting
which gave us the blues, pinks, &c., is a much rarer event, and for the most part
only came when crossing was systematically undertaken. If any of these had
been seen before by horticulturists, we can feel no doubt whatever they would
have been saved. An observer contemplating a full collection of modern sweet
peas, and ignorant of their history, might suppose that the extreme types had
resulted from selective and more or less continuous intensification of these inter-
mediates, exactly inverting the truth.

We shall recognise among the character-groups lines of cleavage, along which
they easily divide, and other finer subdivisions harder to effect. Rightly con-
sidered, the sudden appearance of a total albino or a bicolor should surprise us
less than the fact that the finer shades can appear at all.

At this point comes the inevitable question, What makes the character-group
split? Crossing, we know, may do this; but if there be no crossing, what is the
cause of variation? With this question we come sharply on the edge of human

1 The parallel between the differentiating divisions by which the parts of the
normal body are segregated from each other, and the segregating processes of
gametogenesis, must be very close. Occasionally we evén see the segregation of
Mendelian characters among zygotic cells,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 589’

Imowledge. But certain it is that if causes of variation are to be found by pene-
tration, they must be specific causes. A mad dog is not ‘caused’ by July heat,
nor a moss rose by progressive culture. We await our Pasteur; founding our
hope of progress on the aphorism of Virchow, that every variation from type is
due to a pathological accident, the true corollary of ‘ Omnis cellula e cellula.

In imperfect fashion I have now sketched the lines by which the investigation
of heredity is proceeding, and some of the definite results achieved. We are
asked sometimes, Is this new knowledge any use? That is a question with which
we, here, have fortunately no direct concern. Our business in life is to find things
out, and we do not look beyond. But as regards heredity, the answer to this
question of use is so plain that we may give it without turning from the way.

We may truly say, for example, that even our present knowledge of heredity,
limited as it is, will be found of extraordinary use. Though only a beginning has
been made, the powers of the breeder of plants and animals are vastly increased.
Breeding is the greatest industry to which science has never yet been applied.
This strange anomaly is over; and, so far at least as fixation or purification of types
is concerned, the breeder of plants and animals may henceforth guide his operations
with a great measure of certainty.

There are others who look to the science of heredity with a loftier aspiration ;
who ask, Can any of this be used to help those who come after to be better than
we are—healthier, wiser, or more worthy? The answer depends on the meaning
of the question. On the one hand it is certain that a competent breeder, endowed
with full powers, by the aid even of our present knowledge, could in a few genera-
tions breed out several of the morbid diatheses. As we have got rid of rabies and
pleuro-pneumonia so we could exterminate the simpler vices. Voltaire’s cry
‘Keraser l’infame’ might well replace Archbishop Parker’s Table of Forbidden
Degrees, which is all the instruction Parliament has so far provided. Similarly, a
race may conceivably be bred true to some physical and intellectual characters
considered good. The positive side of the problem is less hopeful, but the various
species of mankind offer ample material. In this sense science already suggests
the way. No one, however, proposes to take it; and so long as, in our actual
laws of breeding, superstition remains the guide of nations, rising ever fresh and
unhurt from the assaults of knowledge, there is nothing to hope or to fear from
these sciences.

But if, as is usual, the philanthropist is seeking for some external application by ~
which to ameliorate the course of descent, knowledge of heredity cannot help him.
The answer to his question is No, almost without qualification. We have no
experience of any means by which transmiysion may be made to deviate from
its course; nor from the moment of fertilisation can teaching, or hygiene, or
exhortation pick out the particles of evil in that zygote, or put in one particle of
good. From seeds in the same pod may come sweet peas climbing five feet
high, while their own brothers lie prone upon the ground. The stick will not
make the dwarf peas climb, though without it the tall cannever rise. Education,
sanitation, and the rest, are but the giving or withholding of opportunity. Though
in the matter of heredity every other conclusion has been questioned, I rejoice
that in this we are all agreed.

The following Papers were read :—

1, Lhe Coloration of Marine Crustacea.' By Professor F. W. Kexsus,

2. The Miocene Ungulates of Patagonia. By Professor W. B. Scort.

The expeditions sent by Princeton University to Patagonia, under the leadership
of the lamented Mr. Hatcher, were extraordinarily successful in collecting fossil

A 1 Embodied in the Report on the Colour Physiology of the Higher Crustacea
. 299).

590 REPORT—1904.

mammals from the Santa Cruz beds, the Miocene age of which seems now to be
sufficiently established. For nearly five years I have been engaged upon the
Edentata of those beds, and have only recently turned to the study of the Ungu-
lates, so that the present notice is merely preliminary.

Dr. Roth, of La Plata, has lately published a very important paper, in which
he shows that most of the peculiarly South American groups of hoofed animals are
characterised by the structure of the periotic region, while two groups, the
Litoptema and Astrapotheria, are without this character. On the other hand, all
of the orders, including at least the Litoptema, have certain constant character-
istics, such as the extensive articulation between the fibula and calcaneum, the
convex distal end of the astragalus, which does not rest upon the cuboid, and
some peculiarities in the form of the teeth. The limb and foot bones of the
Astrapothina are not yet known, and their systematic position is, therefore, stilla
matter of conjecture. There is a striking similarity between the dentition of these
animals and that of the northern genera, Cadureotherium and Metamynodon, but
the form of the skull is so radically different as to make it probable that the
resemblance in dentition is analogical only.

It seems likely, therefore, that Roth’s term, ‘ Notoungulata,’ may properly be
extended to include all of the Santa Cruz hoofed animals, and that all of the
groups which agree in the structure of the periotic region, already alluded to,
should be regarded as sub-orders of the Toxodontia. This conception is shown in
the following provisional table.

NOTOUNGULATA.
I, Toxoponvita.

1. Toxodonta.
2. Typotherva.
3. Homalodotheria,

II. Livorrema,
III.? AsSTRAPOTHERIA,

While these South American ungulates are singularly different from those of the
Northern Hemisphere, it does not seem at all likely that they originated altogether
independently of the latter. Ameghino has described a number of genera from
pre-Patagonian formations which, though incompletely known, appear to be
referable to the Condylarthra, the parent stock of the northern Ungulates. Very
probably an early Eocene or late Mesozoic migration brought the Condylarthra
into South America, and there, in almost complete isolation, they gradually gave
rise to the various peculiar orders and sub-orders of the Notoungulata. The possi-
bility of such migration is shown by the discovery of an armadillo in the Middle
Eocene of North America,

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Heredity in Stocks. By Miss E. R. SaunDErs.

Since the rediscovery of Mendel’s work experimental evidence: of the purity
of the germ cells has been found in a rapidly increasing number of examples.
Much of this evidence is derived from cases like those studied by Mendel, where
the differentiating characters are related to each other as dominant and recessive.
In such cases the F, generation (DR) show the dominant character, and F,
individuals the two parental characters in the ratios 3D : 1R or 1D : 1R, accord-
ing as they result from DR x DR or DRx R.

In other cases the results may be complicated by such phenomena as reversion,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 591

gametic coupling of distinct characters, interaction between characters in zygote
(such that the second character is not manifested unless the first be also present),
resolution, disintegration, &c. Such cases require minute analysis, and several
generations may be needed to elucidate them.

In tracing the laws of heredity in garden stocks several such complications
are met with.

(1) Susface character—hoary or glabrous.—Hoariness is dominant, glabrous-
ness recessive. Simple experiments in the form DRx DR or DRx Kk, where
D is the white-flowered form of Matthiola incana, and R, a glabrous ten-week
strain, give normal Mendelian ratios in F,.

In other cases the result as regards hoariness and glabrousness is more complex
owing to the different behaviour of various glabrous strains, which, as far as
can be seen, differ only in flower colour. Matings between two sap-coloured
recessives, e.g., red glabrous and purple glabrous, give, as expected, glabrous
offspring ; but the union of the two non-sap-coloured recessives (white and cream),
or of asap-coloured and a non-sap-coloured (red o7 purple x white o7 cream) gives
offspring all dominant (hoary), though both parents were glabrous. Similarly,
when R,xR, are recessives of different colours the unions DR, x DR, and
hae x R, give no recessives if either of the recessives used is a non-sap-coloured

orm.

(2) Flower-colow.—Various combinations of colours give reversionary purple
in F,. Purple F, may also be produced by two white parents if they belong to
strains differentiated by leaf-surface. Such purple cross-breds may give a
simple Mendelian result in F,, or a variety of new-colour forms may appear. This
latter result is commonly seen when cream is one of the parental colours.

In the case (A), white incana x cream glabrous, F; is purple hoary. F,, shows
the cross-bred and parental colours (purple, white, cream), and, in addition, three
new forms, viz., red, red with cream eye, purple with cream eye. Again, in the
case (B), glabrous white x glabrous cream gives at least nine colour-forms in F,,.
In both cases the glabrous recessives are all either white or cream. But as the
glabrous collectively constitute in case A one-quarter of the whole generation, and
in case B presumably one-half, it is evident that the association of hoariness with
colour depends on zygotic association and not on gametic coupling. Whether the
appearance of these new forms indicates disintegration or simply recombination of
‘pre-existing characters is still uncertain. Creams breed pure at once. Some
whites are pure, others are heterozygotes with cream. The number of extracted
recessive types resulting from a given union and their specific behaviours are not
yet known.

In the experiment last described we have to deal with (1) reversion in
colour (2) reversion in a distinct character, leaf-surface; (3) interaction of the
two characters in the zygote; (4) conceivably disintegration. The regularity
with which all these phenomena occur plainly indicates that even these complex
appearances result from a fundamentally simple system of Mendelian segregation.

2. On the Result of Crossing Japanese Waltzing with Albino Mice,
By A. D. Darsisuire.

The Japanese waltzing mice used in this experiment exhibited the well-known
restless and spinning movements; and, were it not for patches of yellow fur
on the head and shoulders, and sometimes on the rump, they would be albinos—
that is to say, they have a piebald yellow-and-white coat and pink eyes. According
to my experience and information supplied by breeders, they breed true. With
albinos everybody is familiar, but with the established fact that} they also breed
true this is not the case. When an albino is crossed with a Japanese waltzing
mouse, the offspring, in the majority of cases, is a mouse which on first inspection
appears undistinguishable from the common house mouse. Sometimes there are
white patches on the coat of greater or less extent than the grey; in a few
instances the coat was yellow, and in a few others it was black or black-and-

592 REPORT—1904.

white; but to the statement that the hybrids have black eyes there was no
exception in the cases, which exceeded three hundred, that I have bred. The
hybrids never exhibit waltzing movements, and from the description of their
coloration it is evident that they are never albinos. When such hybrids are bred
together they produce a population which, considered from the point of view of its
colour, falls into three categories: the first is black eye and coloured coat, under
which heading come half of the population—mice, therefore, which resemble their
parents; the second is pink eye and coloured coat, and includes a quarter of the
population, individuals presenting the same features of eye and coat colour as
those exhibited by the Japanese waltzing mouse; and the third, into which the
remaining quarter falls, is pink eye and uncoloured coat—that is to say, it is
albino, If we examine the offspring of hybrids from the point of view of their
progression, we find that rather less than a quarter waltz, while the rest are
normal, The waltzing habit in this population is not always associated with the
same arrangement of eye and coat-colour as that with which it is associated ia the
pure Japanese waltzer, but may be presented by mice falling into any of the three
colour categories. To return to the colour question, the albinos, which, it will
be remembered, form a quarter of the population produced by mating the hybrids,
breed absolutely true; the pink-eyed mice with coloured coats breed nearly true,
and the black-eyed individuals with coloured coats produce, when paired together,
albinos, pink-eyed mice with coloured coats, and black-eyed mice with coloured
coats, but in what proportions I have not -yet determined. Some of the facts
which have come to light seem confirmatory of the Mendelian interpretation of
these phenomena, while others are describable in terms of either Galton’s or
Pearson’s formula of ancestral inheritance. I do not think, therefore, that I am
justified in forming an opinion on the question of the relative validity of these two
interpretations of the facts already observed, and until more data have been col-
lected I do not propose to do so. .

3. Experiments on Heredity im Rabbits. By C. C. Hurst, L.L.8,

An inbred pair of albino Angoras was crossed reciprocally with an inbred pair
of Belgian hares (F',), and the hybrid progeny were bred with one another for two
generations (F, and F',). Four characters were under observation, each of which
was inherited independently of the other.

1. Angora Coat.—In F, the angora coat was always recessive to the normal
coat, which was completely dominant. In F, and F, this pair of structural
characters followed the Mendelian laws of segregation and gametic purity simply
and without exception.

2. Albinism.—In F, the albino character was always recessive to the normal
character, which was dominant, and in F, and F, followed the ordinary
Mendelian rules.

3. Coat Colour.—In F, brown x albino gave all with wild grey coats. In
F, the hybrid greys bred together gave a ratio of 9 grey : 3 black : 4 albino.
Kixperiments in F, proved that the black factor was not introduced by the
original brown parent, but by the albino, which, though gametically pure as
regards simple albinism, was at the same time carrying the distinct factor for
black coat colour.

These results in rabbits confirm the important results already gained by
Cuénot in mice.

The F, greys proved to be of four kinds—viz., pure grey, grey containing
black, grey containing albino, and grey containing black and albino, The F,
blacks were of two kinds—viz., pure black and black containing albino, The
F’, albinos were of three kinds—viz., albino containing grey, albino containing
black, and albino containing grey and black. These results are in accordance with
the Mendelian expectation, which is—

1G: 2G(B) : 2G(A) : 4G(B)(A): 1B: 2B(A) : 1A(G) : 2A(G)(B) : LA(B)
—_—__- —— —
9 grey : 3 black ; 4 albino

— «ties

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 593

One point, however, remains to be cleared up, and that is, the absence of
browas in F, and F,, these being in all cases apparently displaced by greys.

4. Dutch Markings.—In F, the offspring from one albino were, as a
rule, uniform in colour, like the coloured parent, while those from the other
albino were all more or less marked with white on the fore extremities. In F,
and F, the uniform hybrids were, as a rule, constant, while the marked ones
produced a proportion of true Dutch-marked rabbits, as well as the ordinary-
marked and some uniform ones.

These results suggest that one albino contained the factor for Dutch markings
while the other albino did not. Experiments are now in progress to work out
this interesting question.

4. Huperiments on Heredity in Fowls. By R. C. Punnerr,

5. An ‘Intermediate’ Hybrid in Wheat. By R. H. Brirren,

In the majority of cases investigated up to the present one character of agiven
pair (the dominant) masks the other (recessive) in the first generation (F,).

In the case of Triticum Polonicum (Polish wheat) x T. turgidum (Rivet
wheat) and its reciprocal, the hybrid does not show this sharp separation of
dominant and recessive characters, it being intermediate between the parents
with regard to certain pairs. Thus in Polish wheat the glumes, grain, and inter-
nodes of the spike are long, and it ripens early; in Rivet wheat the glumes, grain,
and internodes are short and it ripens late; whilst the hybrid has an intermediate
length of glumes, grains, and internodes, and also ripening period. The hybrid
has therefore a distinct character of its own in which one cannot recognise definite
dominant ard recessive characters. However, in the following generation (F,)
the splitting is of the type which Mendel’s work has made so familiar to us. We
find long, intermediate, and short glumes, early, intermediate, and late ripening,
&c., in the proportion of 1 : 2 : 1, showing that, in spite of the fact that there is
no marked distinction into the usual dominant and recessive characters, the
gametes are still pure with respect to the characters they carry.

6. Laperiments on the Behaviour of Differentiating Colowr-characters
in Maize. By R. H. Lock, B.A.

Maize as grown in Ceylon is of a flint variety, but shows a complex mixture
of the colours white, yellow, blue, and red.

White, yellow, and blue grains occur mixed in the same cob. The red colour
appears either in all the grains of a cob or not at all.

The problem attempted was to discover, by the method ot growing the off-
spring obtained by definite pollination, how far these several colour-characters
conform to Mendel’s law.

When a few yellow grains appear in an otherwise white cob such grains must
be supposed to be the result of accidental impregnation of pollen bearing the
yellow character. On sowing these grains and fertilising the female flowers with
the pollen of a white variety the plants yield 50 per cent. of yellow and 50 per
cent. of white grains within the limits of error due to the size of the samples
afforded by the cobs, which contain as a rule from 300 to 800 grains.

Blue grains, appearing in the same way in an otherwise white cob, when
treated as above yielded, as a rule, a much smaller percentage of blue grains—e.g., °
30 per cent.—and the proportion is also more variable. The intensity of the blue
colour also varies considerably. But on sowing the grains from such a cob, 2.e.,
one with 80 per cent. of blue grains, and pollinating with white, it was found
that the blue colour reappeared in the offspring of approximately 50 per cent. of
the original grains; i.e., in those of the 30 blue grains, and in those of 20 out of

1904, QQ

594 REPORT—1904.

the remaining 70 white grains. It appears, therefore, that Mendel’s law (as enun-
ciated by Correns, namely, that the germ cells represent in equal numbers all
possible combination of paired characters, no two members of the same pair occur-
ring in the same germ cell) is truly followed, but that there is considerable irregu-
larity in dominance.

The red colour does not appear as an immediate consequence of cross-fertilisa-
tion, and is, therefore, more difficult to deal with. It appears only in the offspring
of the cross (white x red), being situated in the pericarp, and, therefore, a plant-
and not an endosperm-character.

The evidence shows that if a ‘red-coated’ plant of unknown parentage is
crossed with white and the ‘red-coated’ offspring again crossed by white,
50 per cent. of the plants resulting from this cross will show the red character
and 50 per cent. not. It is therefore highly probable that Mendel’s law is
followed in this case also.

Specimens were exhibited showing various regular combinations of the characters
dealt with.

7. Experiments on Heredity and Seax-determination im Abraxas grossu-
lariata. By Rev. G. H. Raynor and L. Doncaster.

In the currant moth (Abraxas grossulariata) a rave variety oceurs known as
var, lacticolor or flavofasciata, found hitherto in the female sex alone. The Rev.
G. H. Raynor has bred this species for several years, and the following is a
summary of his experiments.

Var. lacticolor is recessive in the Mendelian sense, not appearing at all in the
first cross. In the offspring, of heterozygotes paired together half the females
are lacticolor, the remainder of the females and all the males being normal grossu-
lariata (1). For example, the numbers bred in one family of this class were
25 normal ¢ g, 14 normal ¢ 2,9 Jlacticolor 2 Q ; in another, 22 normal ¢ g,
9 normal 2 3, 9 lacticolor 2 @.

When, however, a Jacticolor 9 is paired with a first cross g (namely,
L¢ x G@(L)¢), among the offspring, not only some of the females, but also some
of the males are Jacticolor (2). The numbers available are not yet enough to
determine with certainty what are the proportions; in one family there were
10 normal, 6 dacticolor § gf, 4 normal and 2 lacticolor 9 9.

The facts may be summarised in genealogical tables thus :—

(1) sates

oe
G(L) ¢ <a

u's 16@)$ 38 (Seka 1G(L)g¢ +1GG¢g)
(2) L¢exG¢g

|
G(L) 3 ie

| | Paks wel
Le @hjg Le aye

The experiments are of importance in relation to Castle’s hypothesis that
gametes bear one or the other sex, and that certain somatic characters may be
coupled with a given sex in the gametes, The hypothesis, if somewhat modified,
is in excellent accord with the facts; but until we know the result of the pairing
ene $ xcross-hred 2 it would be premature to draw far-reaching con-
clusions,

——————————

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 595

(in this exhibit were also included, as being of interest to entomologists in
general, some of the most striking aberrations Mr. Raynor has reared of this
extremely variable species.)

8. Haperiments on Heredity in Web-footed Pigeon. By R. Stapuxs-
Browne.

Cross made.—Web-footed pigeon ¢ x Nun @.

Characters.—1. Foot character.—The membrane between the digits is extended
as far as the toe-nails. This character appears suddenly in a strain of pigeons,
birds possessing it being bred from parents with perfectly normal feet.

2. Head character.— Shell.’ <A tuft of reversed feathers at the back of the
head, forming the ‘shell.’ This character has been bred true in the ‘Nun’ pigeon
for many generations.

Results of Crossing.

| Foot Character | Head Character
uo} SS eS
ge Va a Da
— | Description of Experiment > [oe Ey Ry ae Aes
/ 3 | o OF aS 2 aS
Sill 8) | ela Elam
| "E(w ay Acne ah Beet ie
| [A o) a att ha here
I, 1902. Web-footed ¢ x Nun F ; ‘ 6 0 6 6| 0 6
lf. | 1908. Crossbreds of first generation mated
together . : j - é Nl alee Sole Dat woe ee | tae
Til. | (a) 1903. Second pair of ditto : : eft Lot leo RF eM Yl i 2 0 PS
(8) 1904. (Same pair) __,, wt Waldext aS D ae Copel | 4
IV. | 1903. Web-footed g x crossbred ? first gene-
ration - ‘ 3 : SO) Ae Ba Bre Ol PS
V. | 1904. Same gx second ? of same breeding | 7| 4] 3] 7/ 0} 7
VI. | 1904. Extracted webbed birds from IV. oie ee Aner Geode FO
-VII. | 1904. Another pair of same breeding . “i 6 Dal) DPN OL be One 5
VIII. | 1904. Extracted ‘shell’ birds from II. and ITI. DieeO) | Sb leva. (bil) 0:

The web-footed character appears on hatching, the ‘shell’ on feathering. The
experiments were started in 1902, and include birds hatched up to July 16, 1904.

9. Fowls and Sweet Peas. By W. Batsson, F.R.S.

10. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples.
See Reports, p. 300.

11. Report on the ‘ Index Animaliwm.’—See Reports, p. 297.

12. Report on the Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the Develop-
ment of the Hrog.—See Reports, p. 288.

13. Report on the Colour Physiology of Higher Crustacea.
See Reports, p. 299. t

14. Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean.—See Reports, p. 298.
QQ2

596 REPORT—1904.

15, Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory,
Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 297.

16. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands,—See Reports, p. 298.

17. Report on the Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands.
See Reports, p. 299.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Egyptian Eocene Vertebrates and their Relationships, particularly with
regard to the Geographical Distribution of Allied Forms. By Dr. C. W.
ANDREWS.

2. ‘ Normentafeln’ of the Development of Vertebrata.
By Professor F. KErBen.

The ‘ Normentafeln’ are meant to form a sound foundation for the comparative
anatomy of the vertebrata.

Each Normentafel gives (i.) an almost complete series of drawings of
embryos; (ii.) tables concerning the degree of development of the various
organs, with a few illustrations in the text ; the tables furnish data concerning
the exact time of appearance of organs which permit of criticism of ‘ biogenetical
law’; (iii.) a bibliography arranged alphabetically and according to subject.

Those already published relate to the pig, chicken, ceratodus, and lizard. The
frog by Dr. Kopsch, and the rabbit by Professor Minot and Dr. Taylor, will
shortly appear.

3. On the Embryos of Apes. By Professor F. Krrpet.

The embryos of the apes, of which I have the pleasure of showing you the draw-
ings and photographs, belong partly to the collection of Professor Selenka, who
unfortunately died before having completed his investigations. I am indebted to
Professor Hubrecht for the rest. Specimens are shown of orang-utang, gibbon,
macacus, and semnopithecus. The youngest embryo in my possession measured
13 mm., and resembled in its development a human embryo of about 12-14 days,
the oldest—measuring 3 em.—corresponding to a human embryo of 10-12 weeks.
The result of this examination, which proves of the greatest general interest, is
the close resemblance which the ape embryos show to the human embryos in
relative stages. This result Selenka concisely emphasised shortly before his death
in the ‘ Biologische Centralblatt.’

Various differences—apart from the tail—are to be traced by closer study, not
only between human and simian embryos, but also between the different species of
apes. I do not doubt that it will be possible in course of time to detect differences
in the early stages of these various embryos. We are already able to do this
without difficulty from the fourth to the fifth week.

4. On Professor Loos’s recent Researches on Ankylostoma (the Miner’s
Worm). By A. E. Surrey, /.2.S.

Professor Loos, of Cairo, through Dr. Elliot Smith, communicated certain of
his recent observations on Ankylostoma duodenale.

Particular stress was laid upon the fact that the larve can penetrate the
unbroken skin without causing any visible lesion of the part.

After thus passing through the skin the larvz enter the lymph vessels and the

ee

av oe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 597

blood vessels, and are swept onward until they reach the right ventricle of the
heart, from which they are pumped into the pulmonary circulation. When they
reach the small vessels surrounding the air vesicles they pass out of the blood
vessels into the air cavities.

From the time the larva perforates the skin until it arrives at the lungs it
remains of the same size, but as soon as it reaches the air vesicles it begins to
grow rapidly. It then makes its way out of the vesicles into the bronchioles, and,
travelling up the bronchi and trachea, emerges through the larynx, and by crawling
over the epiglottis passes into the cesophagus, and from thence into the duodenum.

5. Cytoryctes variole Guarnieri : the Organism of Small-pox.
Ly Professor G. N. Caukins,

In spite of the fact that the organism of small-pox has come to be regarded by
perhaps the majority of zoologists as an interesting but highly elusive species of
will-o-the-wisp, I have had the temerity to bring before you still another attempt
to describe and classify it.

The present attempt goes back to 1892, when tie Italian pathologist, Guarnieri,
inoculated a rabbit’s cornea with vaccine virus. Upon studying the tissues thus
vaccinated he found in the epithelial cells peculiar homogeneous bodies of diverse
form and size. He then examined skin from human subjects suffering the mild
disorder, vaccinia, and skin from human subjects with the much more malignant
disease, small-pox. In both cases he found bodies apparently identical with those
previously observed in the rabbit. In the subsequent history of these diseases the
peculiar structures came to be known as the ‘ Guarnieri bodies,’ and’ were usually
interpreted as degeneration products, although Guarnieri himself regarded them
as Protozoa, and called the organisms Cytoryctes vaccinie and C. variole re-
spectively.

The main reason why pathologists failed to accept Guarnieri's conclusion
seems to be that bis so-called organisms did not conform in any way with the
postulates which Koch set up for the determination of bacterial disease germs.
They had no apparent structure and could not be cultivated on artificial media.
These objections, to my mind, were quite disposed of by the admirable experi-
ments of Von Wasielewsky in 1901. He vaccinated a rabbit with a small quantity
of virus; from this rabbit a second was vaccinated; from the second, a third,
and so on until forty-seven rabbits were successfully inoculated without using the
original virus a second time. In all the rabbits, after an appropriate period,
the same bodies as those described by Guarnieri were found, and in approximately
the same number as in the originally vaccinated rabbit. This result left only
one conclusion, viz., that the questionable bodies had undergone growth and
multiplication, the attributes of a living organism.

Up to this time the Guarnieri bodies, or Cytoryctes, had been observed only
in the cytoplasm. In 1902, Councilman of Harvard discovered peculiar and
definite bodies in the nuclei of skin-cells infected with small-pox. He also found
the usual cytoplasmic forms, This discovery led him, in April 1903, to publish,
with Drs. Magrath and Brinckerhof, the hypothesis that Cytoryctes vaccinie
and C. variole are one and the same organism; further, that the mild disorder,
vaccinia, is characterised by the cytoplasmic phase alone, while the malignant
” small-pox, is characterised by the vaccinia phase, plus the intranuclear
phase.

I was invited by Dr. Councilman to try to formulate a life history of the
organism, and his splendid material from fifty-five different cases was generously
turned over to my use. The results of this study were published this spring.

To a zoologist confronted by the thousands of bizarre structures which fixed
and stained small-pox material presents the problem seemed at first to be well-
nigh hopeless. Added to the difficulties of interpretation from morphology alone
was the fact that nowhere among the Protozoa are similar organisms known.
The nearest analogies to the structures observed are in the groups Microsporidia

598 REPORT—1904.

and the bacteria, and it is because of these far-away resemblances that I shall
make a new order for the organism, placing it intermediate between the bacteria
on the one side and Microsporidia on the other.

Diseases in lower animals due to Microsporidia are frequently characterised by
great virulence and well-marked epidemic tendency. Thus it 1s, for example, in
the Pébrine disease of silkworms and in Lymphosporidiosis of brook trout.
Singularly enough, these diseases give rise to characteristic lesions in the skin and
body-wall analogous, perhaps, to the vesicles and pustules of small-pox.

The first appearance of the organism in the human skin is a minute homo-
geneous spherule, as solid apparently as a sperm head in the cytoplasm of an egg.
This enlarges and differentiates into two substances—one destined to give rise to
the multiplication elements or gemmules, the other forming an enveloping matrix.
The organism increases in size until it is larger than the cell nucleus. The
gemmules repeat the cycle again and again, thus giving rise to auto-infection of
the vaccinia type.

In later stages the gemmules enter the nucleus, where they develop into two
kinds of structures; one sort has a central residual mass with peripheral points,
the other has a central mass with large surrounding matrix. There is reason to
believe that these structures are connected with the sexual generation, the former
being a male, the latter possibly a female gametocyte. This point, however,
I found impossible to solve, and must leave it for further research.

From the structure, which appears like an egg-cell, arises the pan-sporoblast
stage. The young sporoblasts appear as exquisitely minute points of deeply
staining substance throughout the matrix, which envelops the central mass men-
tioned above. These increase in size and ultimately give rise to spores. Meantime
the nuclear membrane has been ruptured and the sporoblasts are liberated. The
spores form in the same way as the gemmules, but differ from these in being
hollow spherules five-tenths of a micron in diameter.

Spores may be found scattered in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus, but it is
only in the latter that they can develop further. In the nucleus they grow into
structures somewhat like the primary sporoblasts, but they are readily detected.
This, so far as I know, is unique among Protozoa, although analogies are found in
other groups of animals.

There are thus three modes of auto-infection—viz., gemmule formation, sporula-
tion from the primary sporoblast, and from the secondary sporoblast. All of
these together are none too many to account for the rapid spread of the organisms,
which in a very few days may infest the entire human skin.

6. Certain Biological Aspects in the General Pathology of Malignant
New Growths. By J. A. Murray, MB.

From time to time biologists have turned their attention to some of the
problems which cancer presents, but their contributions to the subject have not
been accepted as final. The limited scope of the individual investigators may
well be the principal reason for this want of correlation between the different
lines of work. The investigations of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund have
been directed by the conviction that it is essential, if progress is to be made, that
the facts from widely distinct fields of inquiry should be focussed on the essentials
of the problem, and conclusions apparently warranted by one set of observations
must be controlled by all the others.

The following different lines of inquiry seem to be of importance at present:

1. Pathological-anatomical, including gross anatomy, as well as histological
and cytological investigations.

2. Zoological distribution, including ethnological distribution.

3. Statistical investigations—age distribution in correlation with zoological
distribution.

4, Experimental investigations. Transmissibility. Powers of growth of
normal and malignant tissue.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 599

Malignant new growths, in common with benign, increase their characteristic
parenchyma entirely from their own resources. As soon as a malignant new
growth is recognisable as such, it is marked off anatomically and physiologically
from its surroundings. This phenomenon, now well established, is sufficiently
remarkable when it is borne in mind that, histologically, the independent tissue
may be indistinguishable from that among which it takes its origin. To a
recognition of this fact is due the acceptance accorded to Cohnheim’s hypothesis
and all its variants. These variants were introduced because of the necessity that
was felt to account for the close dependence of the type of growth on the
characters of the surrounding tissue, especially when the latter presents well-
marked differences at different periods (Thiersch, Ribbert). They are all attempts
to account for the behaviour of malignant new growths as independent new
organisms, and, whatever acceptance we may accord to the various hypotheses,
the fact they seek to explain is incontrovertible. In discussing the experimental
investigations some reasons for considering these hypotheses as inadequate will be
referred to,

The cells of malignant new growths increase in number by division. Amitosis
certainly occurs, but mitotic division is by far the more common, especially in fully
developed tumours. Multipolar mitoses are common, but not universal, The
active growth and extension of the malignant tissue, as manifested at the growing
surfaces of the malignant new growths we have so far examined, is effected by
cell-divisions, which, so far as they are mitotic, conform to the ordinary type met
with in early development. Apart from multipolar divisions, the number of
chromosomes entering the equatorial plate is found constant in each species, and
they undergo the ordinary longitudinal splitting. Passing from the growing
margin towards the older parts of the growth two sets of changes occur. Many
cells undergo the characteristic histological changes peculiar to the tissue among
which the tumour has arisen, while others prepare for further mitosis. In some
of these the resulting mitosis is characterised by the presence of bivalent
chromosomes (heterotype), in number half that found in the younger parts. From
the position of these heterotype mitoses in relation to the growing surface of the
tumour in which they occur, they must be regarded as a late phenomenon in the
life history of the cells, contemporaneous with the histological differentiation going
on around them. We have not found evidence of continued proliferation of the
immediate descendants of the heterotypical division, and the analogy of animal
spermatogenesis suggests that the heterotype initiates a terminal phase in the life
history of the cancer cell as in the spermatocyte.

From a consideration of these facts the most divergent conclusions have been
drawn. Professor Farmer and his colleagues, who first described the occurrence
of heterotypical mitoses in malignant new growths, consider that we have here
a transformation of somatic tissue into a kind of reproductive, ‘gametoid,’
tissue, which, gua its gametoid character, is independent and capable of unlimited
further growth. This view of the nature of the change which marks the distinc-
tion between somatic tissues and malignant new growths had already been advanced
by Beatson as a result of clinical considerations. Against this view the general
objection may be raised that, while it would explain the occurrence of hetero-
typical mitoses in malignant new growths, as regards the powers of growth and
self-propagation and independence which they manifest it is no explanation at all.

In the vertebrates, where, until now, malignant new growths have alone been
found, we have no evidence that gametes, or the tissue which precedes them,
possess powers of growth at all comparable to those seen in cancer. The analogies
drawn from the vegetable kingdom all concern the interaction of independent
organisms, not of different tissues of the same organism.

When, however, the attempt is made to attack this problem by experiment, and
artificial propagation of reproductive tissue in animals is tried, the results are in
no way different from those obtained with other tissues. The power of in-
dependent growth is very limited, and it is found that the power of regeneration
of which the testis is capable (along with the thyroid) is confined to the stages
before differentiation of eametes has commenced.

600 REPORT—1904.

“Lhe power of propagation of malignant new growths is much greater. While
only possible within animals of the same species as that furnishing the initial
growth, it is found that the cells can establish themselves and produce masses of
tissue as large as the primary growth in successive animals through long periods.

While studying the changes which ensue immediately after transplantation in
a tumour of the mouse, we observed nuclear changes which presented a close
similarity to a conjugation process, Subsequent observations of an extensive
material, embracing over 1,000 tumours of all ages, obtained from three different
primary growths, have tended to confirm this interpretation. Thus the same
sequence of nuclear changes is again found in later stages, all evidence of its occur-
rence being wanting in the interval. These observations harmonise very well
with the appearances which this tumour presents as it increases in size. Numerous
secondary centres of growth are always found around the periphery of older
tumours, and these secondary masses may in time outgrow that which preceded
them. At once the suggestion arises that the cells which conjugate are those
which have passed through a reducing division, but till the complete cycle has been
elucidated the thesis outlined above must remain a working hypothesis. It is in
harmony with what we know of malignant growths, and renders secondary assump-
tions unnecessary.

The relation it bears to the question of the initiation of the cancer cycle may be
emphasised by a short reference to another line of inquiry—that, viz., of the age
incidence of malignant new growths. The life cycle of all the higher animals
commences by a fertilisation process, on which cell-division ensues, and the rate of
this cell-division continually diminishes as life proceeds, Its gradual cessation
manifests itself in the onset of old age, and along with this diminishing power of
proliferation there is an increasing liability to malignant new growths. The
hypothesis outlined above is an aftempt to account for the entrance of a new
growth cycle without doing violence to what we know of the general course of
cellular activity. It involves the assumption that the ordinary tissues of the
body in the terminal phases of their growth may undergo changes by which a
conjugation process is possible. Whether this process is effected or not would
then determine whether a new cycle of growth be initiated and a malignant new
growth result.

In conclusion, an appeal may be made to working zoologists to be on the alert
for malignant new growths and allied conditions in the lower animals. Every
observation in this direction has a positive value. So far no case of cancer has
been found in reptiles among vertebrates, and none at all in invertebrates. When
one considers how frequently cytological studies have been undertaken in the latter,
it will be appreciated what importance would attach to the discovery of cancer in
lower forms of life.

7. On the Fertilisation of the Egg of the Axolotl,
By J. W. Jenxinson, 1.4.

The most interesting points that have been brought out by a study of fertilisa-
tion in this form are as follows :—

1. The middle-piece of the spermatozoon, after forming the centre of the
sperm-sphere and sperm-aster, completely disappears.

2. At a later stage a centrosome is formed from the sperm-nucleus. This
divides to give rise to the definitive or cleavage centrosomes.

3. A watery substance collects in vacuoles in the centre of the sperm-sphere.

4, This suggests that the spermatozoon introduces into the ovum a hygro-
scopic substance. Experiments have shown that a hygroscopic particle is capable
of giving rise to an astral structure in a colloid solution,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 601

8. Some New and Rare Isopoda taken in the British Area.
By W. M. Tarrersatt, B.Sc.

The Isopoda dealt with in the following notes were captured during the
cruises of the Helga, the fishery steamer of the Department of Agriculture for
Treland, off the West Coast of Ireland, and also during the operations of the
Department at Ballinakill Harbour, co. Galway.

The most effective trap for these crustaceans is a tow-net attached to the back
of a trawl, in such a position that all the bottom living organisms stirred up by
the working of the ground rope of the trawl over the sea-floor find their way
into it,

Two hauls at 77 miles west of Achill Head (382 fathoms) and 60 miles west
of Achill Head (199 fathoms) were particularly productive of new and rare forms.
In the latter case the tow-net on the trawl came up full of sand, which on being
washed yielded six new species and four species new tc Britain.

The following species (eight in number) were found to be new to science, four
requiring the formation of new genera, while two have been made the types of new
families :—

Typhlotanais proctagon, 0. sp. Tschnosoma Greenti, ni. sp.
Bathycopea typhlops, n. gen. et sp. Llyarachna Plunketti, a. sp.
Spheroma inerme, n. sp. Munnopsoides Beddardi, n. gen. et sp.
Metamunna typica, n. gen. et sp. Lipomera lamellata, n. gen. et sp.

The species new to Britain include:

Typhlotanais tenuicornis. Hurycope megalura.
Idodrea neglecta. Eurycope latirostris.

Gnathia stygius.

Among rarer species of Isopoda taken may be mentioned :

Apseudes hihernicus. Arcturella dilatata.
Apseudes grossimanus. Paramunna bilobata, and
Idothea metallica. Bugerda tenwimana.

The occurrence of many of these species in the British area is particularly
interesting, since most of them have been described by Professor Sass in his great
work on Norwegian crustacea.

Typhlotanais proctagon differs from all the Norwegian species of the genus by
the presence of a spine on the ventrum of the second thoracic segment. In this
respect it agrees with J. longimanus, T. Richardu, T. spiniventis, and T.
Kerguelenensis. From the three former it differs in having the metasome acutely
pointed instead of being evenly rounded. From 7. Kerguwelenensis, with which it
agrees very closely, it differs in the shape of the cephalon, less prominent rostrum,
and shorter and stouter chelipeds. Length, 6mm.

Bathycopea typhlops, a new genus in the new family Anciniide, the type
genus of which is Ancinus, Milne Ed. This form is distinguished by its flat body,
small cephalon, absence of eyes, well-marked epimera, the Jarge scythe-like single-
branched uropoda, and the evenly pointed metasome. Length, 5mm.

The family Anciniide is distinguished by having the first two thoracic limbs in
the male and the first only in the female subchelate; while the eyes, when present,
are situated on top of the head. The family formsa link between the Spheromide
and the Serolide.

Spheroma inerme ? differs from all the members of the genus in having the
mouth organs devoid of the large sete so characteristic in other species. So little
is known of the mouth parts of these species that it is with great reluctance that
I put this forward as a new species. The mandible is large and blunt.

1 Full descriptions and figures of these Isopoda will appear in the Reports of the
Department of Agriculture for Ireland.

602 REPORT—1904.

The telson is somewhat acutely pointed, with the lip semitubular, owing to its
being arched dorso-yentrally. Length, 9 mm.

Metamunna typica differs from Plewrogonium in the presence of eyes and eye-
stalks, and from Paramunna in the absence of the two lobes tothe cephalon. The
sides of the metasome are serrated as in Paramunna bilobata. Length, 2 mm.

Ischnosoma Greenit differs from the rest of the species of the genus in the
absence of large spines from the body, and, in the uniform armature of very small
spinules. Uropoda one-jointed, as in I. spinosum, I. Thomsoni, and I. quadri-
spinosum. The superior antenna is very characteristic, having the form seen in
I. spinosum.

Ilyarachna Plunketti is closely allied to I. longicornis, but differs in having the
outer, instead of the inner, corner of the basal joint of the antennule produced.
From I. hirticeps it differs in the absence of armature from the cephalon.

Length, 4 mm.

. Munnopsoides Beddardi, for which a new genus hasbeen erected, differs from the
typical Munnopsis in having no palp to the mandible and in having the fifth
segment of the mesosome considerably longer and narrower than the rest. The type
of the genus is M. australis (Beddard), described from the Challenger expedition.
This species differs from M. australis in the larger and more massive cephalon, in
the shape of the maxillipeds, and in the shorter and broader fifth segment to the
mesosome. Length, 5 mm.

Lipomera lamellata has been made the type of a new family, the Lipo-
merida, distinguished by having the seventh segment of the mesosome with its
appendages very considerably reduced, and in the uropoda consisting of a broad
lamellar plate folded on itself.

The family is very closely related to the Munnopside, and especially to the
genus Lurycope, but the seventh legs, instead of being well developed, with a
broad lamellar terminal joint beset with long and strong plumose sets, are very
small and poorly developed, devoid of set, and imperfectly jointed. Length,
1,25 mm.

9. Some New and Rare Schizopoda from the Atlantic Slope on the West
of Ireland.! By KH. W. L. Horr and W. M. Tarrersatt, B.Sc.

10. Some New Copepoda from the Atlantic Slopes. By G. P. Farran.

During the dredging cruise to the Porcupine Bank made by the s,s. Helga in
1901 a number of new species of Copepods were obtained, which are of particular
interest in that the nearest allies of most of them appear to be Northern forms,
many of which have been recently described by Professor G. O. Sars in his ‘ Crus-
tacea of Norway.’

A full account of the Copepods taken on this occasion, together with descrip-
tions and figures of the new species, is in the press, and in the Report of the Fish-
eries Branch of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland, but in the meantime a short account of the new forms may be of interest.

Bradyetes inermis.—This form, for which a. new genus appears to be required, is
closely allied to Bradgidius and Bryaxis, agreeing with them in the jointing of the
limbs and in the possession of densely setose antenne. It further agrees with
Bryaxis in having the lateral edge of the carapace deeply emarginate.

It differs from both in the absence of spines on the last thoracic segment, and
in its much slenderer and less strongly chitinosed form. The rostrum is absent.
Length, 2°57 mm.

Bryaxis minor.—This species, except for one strongly marked feature, the
second antenne, agrees minutely with Bryaxis brevicornt (G. O. Sars). Its length,
however, is only 16mm. Jn this species the terminal joint of the second antenne

‘ Will be published in the Reports of the Department of Agriculture, Ireland,
1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 603

is longer than the second and bears three well-developed seta, while in B, brevi-
cornis the terminal joint is much reduced and bears three very slender short sete.

Gaetanus Holtit.—This species has the upright cepbalic spine of Gaetanus miles
and the short antennie and three-jointed exopodite of the first foot of G. armiger,
and thus forms a link between the two sections of the genus. It differs from all
previously described species in having a spine on the outer edge of the first joint
of the exopodite of first foot. Length, 5°] mm.

Gaetanus minor.—This, the smallest member of the genus, has the short an-
tenn and forward-directed spine of G. armiger. It is alone in having a one-
jointed endopodite to its second foot. Length, 2°4 mm,

Scolecithrix emarginata.—This is a large species with a very short abdomen.
The last thoracic segment is emarginate. The fifth feet somewhat resemble those
of S. cristata. First antenne slightly longer than the bedy. Length, 43 mm,

Scolecithrix ovata.— This species is allied to 8. dentata, but differs from it in
the form of the fifth foot, which consists of a broad oval lamellar joint arising
from a small basal. It bears a short backward directed spine on its inner margin,
and a more distal very short spine also on the inner margin. Length, 2°3 mm.

Scolecithriv echinata.—This species is closely allied to S. brevicornis, but
differs in the proportional length of the abdomen, which is contained four times in
the cephalothorax instead of 2} times asin that species The fifth feet also differ
in the proportional length of their spines. Length, 1°92 mm.

Xanthocalanus Greenii ? —This is a very large, robust species, with short ab-
domen ; the fifth thoracic segments are slightly produced externally, but are not
acute; fifth feet very small, three-jointed, the last joint with three spines, one
terminal and two lateral. The amima! measures6 mm. in length, and is in conse-
quence the largest of the genus.

Xanthocalanus pinguis 9.—This species is moderately robust, with fifth
thoracic segments produced and swollen, but ending bluntly. The first antennz do
not reach beyond the fourth thoracic segment. The fifth feet are three-jointed,
the last joint with four spines, two terminal and two lateral. Length, 4.5 mm.

Xanthocalanus obtusus 9, .—This species is short androbust. The fifth thoracic
segments are not produced, and end in a very obtuse angle on either side. The
fifth feet. are three-jointed, the second joint being the largest; the terminal joint
has two lateral and two terminal spines. Length, 2-4 mm.

Osthrix bidentatus.—I have thought it necessary to create a new genus for this
species, It is very closely allied to the genus Xanthocalanus, and differs mainly in
the form of the rostrum, which is broad and truncate, and in the terminal
sensory filaments of the first maxillipede, which are short and swollen instead of
long and vermicular.

In the species, and possibly in the genus, the fifth thoracic segment is produced
on each side into a pair of sharp points. The fifth feet are as in Xanthocalanus.
Length, 3 mm.

Lucicutia curta,—This species seems intermediate between L. plancornis and
L. longicornis. The first to fourth feet have three-jointed exopods and endopods.
Terminal spine of exopod of fifth foot is contained 13rd times in the length of the
third joint. First antenne slightly longer than the body. Length, 2.4 mm.

Aegisthus spinulosus.—This species approaches A. aculeatus in general form, but
the segmentation between the first and second abdominal segments is complete,
and the cbitinous reticulations on the cephalon are absent. There is a small two-
jointed exopod present on the mandible.

11. On a New Species of Dolichoglossus.' By W. M. Tarrersatt, B.Sc.

The little Enteropneust described below is the first member of the group
recorded for British waters. It is true that a species of Balanoglossus occurs in
the Channel Islands, but that zoologically is in France.

1 ¥ull descriptions and figures will appear in the Reports of the Department of
Agriculture for Ireland.

604. REPORT— 1904.

The specimens belong to the genus Dolichoglossus and to a new species of that
genus which I propose to call D. ruber. It was first found by Mr. G. P. Farran in
a dredging from Ballinakill Harbour, co. Galway.

It was later obtained by digging in a mixture of wet coarse sand and mud at,
extreme low-water spring tides at the same place. The sand must be wet, as dry
sand of the same quality yielded no specimens at all. They were found 8-12 inches
below the surface, in company with Solen, Arenicola, Echinocardium, Synapta,
and Polycheta of various species.

The species is very fragile, and no whole specimens were obtained. The
largest portion taken measured 12°5 cm,, and it appeared to be nearly complete.

The colour of the proboscis is a light pinky red; the collar was a deep scarlet,
while the rest of the body varied from a reddy brown in the branchial region to a
dark brown at the tail end, spotted with lilac.

The animal secretes a large quantity of mucus, especially about the region of the
collar. With this mucus it cements the sand in which it is found, in the form of a
thick tube, in which it lives, and which must be a considerable ’ protection to its
fragile body.

The proboscis is long and attenuated, and is capable of considerable extension
and retraction. There is a slight groove extending a little way up the dorsal
surface.

The collar is about twice as long as broad, and has a thickened anterior and
posterior border. The branchial region is from two and a half to three times as
long as the collar, and the number of branchial openings varies from about 56
to 64 pairs.

Mr. Punnett, to whom the specimens were first submitted, kindly informs me
that this species has two proboscis pores, thus distinguishing it from all specter of
the genus except D. otagoensis.

The relatively great development of the circular proboscis musculature,
arrangement of the longitudinal muscles of the proboscis, the complete and
continuous lumen of the stomochord, and the great size of the pericardium are also
distinguishing features.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 11.
The following Papers were read :—
l. The Budgett Memorial.

(i.) Mote on the Developmental Material of Polypterus obtained by the
late Mr. J. 8. Budgett. By J. Grawam Kerr.

The material consists of about two hundred eggs and larvee, ranging from before
fertilisation to the ten-day larva. Segmentation is at first almost equal, later on
unequal to about the same degree as in Lepidosiren. Gastrulation begins with the
appearance of a deep groove about the level of the equator. The groove increases
in length, forming eventually a closed curve and surrounding the yolky mass of
the lower pole, which gradually becomes a typical but enormously large ‘ yolk
plug.’ The yolk plug diminishes in size, and eventually disappears, very much as
in Amphibia. A medullary plate arises as in the Amphibia, and the edges of this
arch inwards in normal fashion to cover in the central canal of the nervous axis.
The depression to form the infundibulum, and the deposits of pigment which
foreshadow the development of the eyes, appear while the medullary groove is
still widely open. After closure of the medullary groove the trunk of the embryo
projects anteriorly and posteriorly, by the development of head and tail folds—the
axis of the trunk being nearly straight instead of being curled round the egg. At
a very early stage there appear two pairs of projections in the head region—
anteriorly, the rudiments of two conspicuous cement organs; farther back, the
rudiments of the two large external gills. The larva soon develops a tadpole-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 605

like shape, the cement organs forming a conspicuous tubercle on either side, with
a deep cup-like depression at its apex, and the external gills assuming a pinnate
character. As development goes on the cement organs come to be situated on
the upper lip, one on either side. The tail of the larva is purely diphycercal. As
regards the internal features of development, the following details may be specially
mentioned. The ‘swim-bladder’ develops as a mid-ventral diverticulum of the
pharyngeal region, exactly as a typical lung. The excretory organ of the larva is
a pronephros with two tubuies on each side. The nephrostomes in the specimens
so far examined are in the region of metotic myotomes one and four. When at
its maximum of functional activity the pronephros becomes a remarkably bulky
organ, its bulk being due for the most part to the anterior part of the archinephric
duct becoming greatly enlarged and thrown into complicated coils. In the
30 mm. larva, obtained by Budgett on a previous expedition, the anterior tubule
is to a great extent degenerate, though it is still distinctly recognisable in the
sections.

On the whole, the most striking features of the development of Polypterus
are the extraordinary resemblances to the development of Dipneumonous Dipnoans
and Amphibians.

It is proposed to publish a detailed account of the developmental phenomena in
the Budgett Memorial volume, which is now in course of preparation.

(ii.) Notes on the Development of Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis (Daud).
By E. J. Bugs.

In material for the study of Anuran development collected by the late
Mr. J. S. Budgett and handed over to me, the most complete of the series of
stages of forms with large eggs is that obtained in South America of P. hypochon-
drialis, a Hylid. The study of this material was therefore commenced on this
form, with the help of Budgett’s description, already published,” and of his series
of sections. I can confirm all his recorded observations, including that of the
remarkable ridge formation externally in the early embryo in the branchial region.
The ridges are formed by the pushing out of the mesenchym and ectoderm over the
surface of the long endodermic gill pouch. The ridges visible externally behind
the optic vesicles are, therefore, not the branchial arches, but mark the position of
the future clefts, while the depressions on either side of the ridges mark the posi-
tion of the branchial arches. At this stage the branchial region is spread out flat
over the surface of the yolk, and the resemblance to an early embryo of Acipenser
is, as Budgett pointed out, very great. As he remarks, the absence of a great
cement organ on the mandibular arch does not obscure the likeness. I find, how-
ever, that: at a later stage, just before hatching, paired cement organs are present,
as vestigial organs, disappearing immediately after hatching without having
become functional. This fact is significant; it shows that P. hypochondriahs
must be descended from a form which, like our European Ayla, was hatched as
a heavily yolked larva and hung from its cement organ until the yolk was
absorbed. As the Anura which follow this course all develop from eggs with a
relatively small amount of yolk, it follows that the resemblance of Phyllomedusa
embryos to those of Acipenser is due to a comparatively recent increase of the
proportion of yolk in the egg, the resemblance being, therefore, secondary. If this
view is correct, it will be of great interest to compare the development of other
Hylid frogs with that of Phyllomedusa, in order to determine how development is
influenced in closely related forms by the relative amount of yolk in the egg. The
cement organs undergo a remarkable modification just before hatching takes place.
The clear outer ends of the columnar cells become very much swollen by an
accumulation of secretion, and at the same time other gland-cells dorsal to each
cement organ assume the same appearance. The swellings produce an elevated
area of ectoderm, which extends upwards on either side of the mouth. The whole
arrangement vanishes when the tadpole is hatched, The position of the two

! Q.J.M.S8., vol. xlii. 1899, p. 317.

606 REPORT—1904.

bands of cells at the extreme tip of the head, the resemblance to an organ (the
frontal gland) in other tadpoles which playsa part in the process of hatching,
and the time of its appearance, suggest that this organ is developed in Phyllo-
medusa to assist it in escaping from the egg-membranes.

The thyroid gland in Phyllomedusa differs in an interesting way from that of
other tadpoles. It is more like the early thyroid of Petromyzon, as it reaches along
the whole length of the floor of the buccal cavity, from the stomodcal membrane
in front, to end in a sac behind projecting down to the pericardium. The anterior
portion is not a simple groove ; the outline of the lumen forms a truncated diamond:

. The subnotochordal rod is very conspicuous, and ends posteriorly in the
\V fork formed by the roots of the aorta.

[ find that the pectoral lymph-hearts in this, as in other tadpoles, appear, not
at the metamorphosis, but at a very much earlier stage, viz., when the tadpole has
still a solid intestine and the yolk has almost disappeared from all the other tissues.
The wall of the lymph-heart seems to be derived from an outgrowth on the
posterior cardinal vein. Before the valves are formed the lumen of the lymph-heart
contains blood-corpuscles.

The Budgett Memorial volume will include a full account of the above and
other material (Hemisus, &c.) collected in South America and West Africa,

2. Rejuvenation. By Cnaries Sepawick Minor, ZL.D., Se.D.

At the meeting of the Association at Belfast the author presented an ontline
of his theory of cellular senescence, and referred to its bearings on the problems
of differentiation, of heredity, and of sex. In this paper he presents the comple-
ment of this theory, namely, the theory of cellular rejuvenation, which he claims
must be defined as the increase of the nuclear substance in proportion to the
amount of the cell-body (protoplasm). This increase occurs during the period of
the segmentation of the ovum, and is the immediate result of impregnation, and
itself results in the production of rejuvenated cells, z.e., cells with very small cell-
bodies around their nuclei. These cells and their descendants then enter upon a
eareer of cellular senescence. It must be further pointed out that if these views
are correct Weismann’s theories of the germ-plasm are superfluous.

3. An Haperiment with Telegony.
By Cuaryes Sepewick Minot, LL.D., Sc.D.

The author experimented with females of a known race of guinea-pigs kept

by him in stock for many years, and the colours of which were well fixed. A

male of entirely different strain was allowed to breed with virgin does, the

offspring having about 50 per cent. of the paternal colour. The same females

“ were then allowed to breed by bucks of their own race. In no case was there any
trace of the colour of the telegonous father in the second sets of offspring.

4. The Harvard Embryological Collection.
By Cuarxtes Sepewick Minor, LL.D., Sc.D.

The collection belongs to the laboratory of the Harvard Medical School, and
is intended to serve as a basis for researches in vertebrate embryology. It now
comprises over 800 series of sections of vertebrate embryos. Each series is
numbered, and so labelled that the number of each section in the series is readily
determined. The collection comprises eighteen central types—namely, Amphioxus,
Petromyzon, Squalus, Torpedo, Lepidosteus, Accipenser, Batrachus, Salvellinus,
Necturus, Amblystoma, Rana, Lacerta, Gallus, Didelphys, Sus, Lepus, Felis, Homo,
to which it is hoped to add Alligator, a snake, a turtle, and the sheep. Of
each type regularly graded stages are chosen, and of each stage three series of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 607

sections, in three different planes, are made. To complete the collection for the
eighteen types about 400 more series are needed.

The author gave details as to the methods employed in forming the collection,
its present extent, the manner in which it has been utilised for scientific
researches, and stated his reason for considering the establishment of such
collections important as a means of promoting investigations.

@
5. The Precipitin Test in the Study of Animal Relationships.
By Dr. Grorce H. F. Norra, L&R.

Referring to a work recently published,' in which matters relating to the
precipitin test have been very fully considered, the author briefly described the
methods of testing by means of precipitating antisera. ‘Two practical applications
of the test possess considerable importance. In the first case the test may be
applied in legal medicine for the identification of blood-stains in cases of murder,
the value of the method having been fully demonstrated in courts of law in
Germany, Austria, and other countries, England excepted. In the second case
the test has been applied in the study of animal relationships, and in this con-
nection has yielded results of zoological interest. An investigation of the bloods
of Primates by means of precipitating antisera for. man, chimpanzee, ourang, and
monkey have demonstrated a close relationship between Hominid and Simiide,
a more distant one between these and Cercopithecide, a slight bond connecting
all uf these with the New World monkeys. The lemurs do not appear to be
connected to the Primates any more than do other mammalia. The gradations in
the amount of reaction obtained with different bloods of Primates, as demon-
strated by the author, have been recently confirmed by Uhlenhuth on bloods
sent him by Dr. Nuttall, with the difference that he obtained results indicating
a connection between the lemurs and the other Primates. In view of the fact,
however, that Uhlenhuth does not state the strength of his antisera, and makes
no mention of his having used other mammalian bloods to exclude the possibility
of the reaction he observed being a ‘mammalian reaction’ (Nuttall), the author
held that no connection between the lemurs and other Primates, other than a
general mammalian one, hasas yet been demonstrated. Preliminary work, under-
taken with a view to testing if racial differences can be demonstrated between
human bloods by means of the test has given indications which are suggestive.
The results of thousands of tests on the bloods of Insectivora, Carnivora, Rodentia,
Ungulata, Cetacea, Marsupialia, Aves, Reptilia, Amphibia, Arthropoda, &c., all
agree in demonstrating that closely related forms in the sense of descriptive
zoology show similarities in blood constitution, and apparently that the degree of
reaction is a fair index of the degree of relationship. The test appears to connect
the Cetacea with the Ungulata, and, what is sufficiently remarkable, the Reptilia
and Aves. The author appealed to zoologists to turn their attention to what
appears to be a most promising field of research, wishing his own investigations
to be regarded as purely preliminary in character, although they unquestionably
establish a new and broad biological principle.

*

6. The Mimetic Resemblance of Diptera for Hymenoptera.?
By Professor E. B. Poutton, F.R.S.

7. The Evolution of the Horse. By Professor HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

There is a remarkable coincidence of the three entirely independent researches
by Messrs. Ewart, Ridgeway, and myself, with the assistance of Mr. Gidley.

' Nuttall, Blood Immunity and Blood Relationship. Cambridge (University
Press), 1904.
* Will appear in the Transactions of the Entomological Society.

608 REPORT—-1904.

They applied to different periods in the history of the horse by different methods,
which nevertheless promised to ultimately form points of contact and close up the
wide gap which at present existed between the fossil, the historic, and the recent
races of horses. Three years ago the American Museum began especial explora-
tion into the fossil history of the horse, aided by a liberal gift from the Hon.
William C. Whitney, former Secretary of the Navy. The object was to connect
all the links between the Lower Eocene five-toed and Lower Pleistocene one-toed
horses, and ascertain the relations of the latter to the horses, asses, and zebras of
Eurasia and Africa. The first great result obtained is the proof of the multiple
nature of horse evolution during the American Oligocene and Miccene. Instead
of. a single series, as formerly supposed, there are five, one leading to Neohipparion,
the most specialised antelope-like horse which has ever been found; a second of
intermediate form, probably leading through Protohippus to Equus, as Leidy and
Marsh supposed; a third leading to the Upper Miocene Hypohippus, a persistently
primitive, probably forest- or swamp-living horse, with short crowned teeth,
adapted to browsing rather than grazing, and three spreading toes; this horse
has recently been found in China also. A fourth and fifth line of Oligocene-
Miocene horses became early extinct. This polyphyletic or multiple law is quite
in harmony with the multiple origin of the historic and recent races of horses, as
recently established by Ridgeway and Kwart. The Pliocene horse of America
still requires further exploration before we can positively affirm either that all the
links to Equus are complete, or that America is indubitably the source of this
genus. The Lower Pleistocene of America exhibits a great variety of races,
ranging in size from horses far more diminutive than the smallest Shetland to
those exceeding the very largest modern draught breeds; yet all these races
became extinct, not surviving into the human period, as was the case in South
America, The relations of these North American races to those of South America
and of Asia and Africa is, again, a subject requiring further investigation, in which
it is necessary to exercise the most extreme accuracy. Correspondence and
interchange of specimens with other museums is greatly desired.

The paper was illustrated by photographs of a large series of models of
osteological preparations, showing the mechanism and breeds of the horse, and of the
mounted fossil specimens recently discovered by the Whitney exploring parties.

&. The Histogenesis of the Blood of the Larva of Lepidosiren.!
By Dr, T. H. Bryce,

9. The Hatching of Anuran Tadpoles. By HE. J. Burs, WA.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Effects Produced by Growing Frog Embryos in Salt and
other Solutions.» By J. W. JENwINSON.

2. On the Pacific, Atlantic, Japanese, and other ‘ Palolos.’
By Professor McInrosn, /.L.S.

The forms included in these remarks belong to the pelagic fauna, a term
more complex than is usually supposed, for it comprises two distinct series, viz.,

1 Will be published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
2 Embodied in the Report on the Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the

Development of the Frog (p. 288).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 609

the permanently pelagic types—such as the Pteropods and Sayitta—and the tem-
porarily pelagic—such as the larval stages of sedentary or reptant forms on the
bottom of the sea or between tide-marks. Moreover, those larvee which come
from the bottom in fairly deep water pass, more or less, through the whole depth
at least twice—viz., when ascending as young larve, and when descending as
larger forms, each stage being useful, for instance, to fishes of different sizes.

One of the earliest descriptions of the Pacific ‘ Palolo’ is Dr. Gray’s (1847),
from examples procured by Mr. Stair, and the specimens consisted only of the
separated posterior region of the body of an annelid found in immense profusion
in the surface waters at certain seasons, and which are used as food by the natives.
Mr. Stair then stated that the worms came from the coral reefs. Subsequent
observers new that they dwelt in fissures and crevices of these rocks at and near
low-water, and that the swarming of the headless portions as pelagic forms was
connected with reproduction. The first head was described and figured by Dr.
J. Denis Macdonald, and it was clearly that of a Eunicid. Now Eunicids are
very abundant in cracks and fissures of rocks everywhere, and especially in coral
reefs, but it has yet to be proved that they bore into the latter. Moreover,
epitokous annelids have been familiar to zoologists for a long time, so that the
step by which the ‘ Palolo’ of Samoa was connected therewith was brief, for it
was evidently the posterior region distended by the reproductive elements. The
main point in Mr. Woodworth’s observations was the demonstration of the
atokous and epitokous regions of the body im sétw, and as obtained by splitting the
edges of the honeycombed coral rocks; though this author attaches much
importance to what he calls the thermotropic or heliotropic reaction of the pig-
ment-specks borne on the best-developed central segments of the epitokous region
—in connection with the swarming, it would seem that further investigation is
necessary—since similar features are observed in other forms devoid of such
pigment-specks.

In the Atlantic ‘Palolo’ (Kunice fucata, Ehlers) from the Dry Tortugas and
Porto Rico a very similar condition prevails, the posterior epitokous, or sexual
region, being thrown off by the annelid, which lives in crevices of the dead
and disintegrating coral rock. This posterior region is broader than in the
Pacific ‘ Palolo,’ and has no pigment-spots, but it swims freely away in the same
manner within three days of the moon’s last quarter—June 29-July 28,

In Britain a condition closely approaching that of the foregoing ‘ Palolos’
occurs in various forms; e.g., Nereis Dumerilit (And. and Ed.), swarms of which
occur in various bays, and in Nerets longissima. An allied condition occurs in
- Syllideans, the Cirratulids (Dodecaceria), and other annelids.

One of the most interesting Nereids in this connection is the Japanese
*Palolo’ (Ceratocephale osawai), as recently described by Akira Izuka. The
species is much used by the Japanese fishermen as bait, and occurs abundantly in
the littoral region, as ‘well as extends into estuaries, tributaries, canals, and
ditches, burrowing in mud. It thus approaches the fresh and brackish water
Nereids from the Pacific Coast and Hawaii. Warly in September it assumes the
epitokous condition, the males being brownish, the females bright red. The body
considerably increases in breadth. Then the posterior region, comprising two-
thirds of the segments, becomes narrower, the animal still being inthemud, This
posterior region degenerates and is cast off, even before swarming in October and
November, though a few are found swimming with the remains attached.
Shortly after the change just mentioned the annelids leave their burrows and
become pelagic, and discharge their ova and sperms from the posterior aperture,
The swarming usually occurs in four different periods, lasting a few days—periods
falling on nights close to the appearance of the new or full moon and just after
flood tide. Thus the species quite differs from both the Pacific and the Atlantic
‘Palolo’ in regard to the process.

1 Ann, Nat. Hist., xix., p. 409,
1904. RR

610 REPORT—1904.

3. On the Elucidation of Cellular Fields of Force by Magnetic Models.
By Professor Marcus Harroe.

The structure developed in the protoplasm of a dividing cell suggests so
strongly the magnetic field of force of two unlike poles that the analogy struck
the earliest observers. Nevertheless, certain phenomena have remained unex-
plained by the assumption that the force was analogous to a ‘dual force’
(Faraday), such as magnetism or electricity; and some have been alleged to
be absolutely incompatible therewith. It was therefore essential to supplement
physical theory as more or less incompletely stated and understood by actual
experiment,

The field of force revealed by agitating paper strewn with magnetic dust over
the poles of a magnet is, we may say, a statical field, and can only have distant
analogies with the changing field formed in viscid protoplasm, differentiated into
strands and medium, the former more permeable, the latter less permeable, clearly,
to the forces involved. To obtain a closer analogy I suspend magnetic dust in a
viscid liquid (balsam, glycerine, melted jeily), and place the mixture in a trough
or spread it on a plate above the poles of one or more electro-magnets, or their
m-re cores of soft iron. We obtain in the apparatus a thin axial section of
such a field as would be given by detached magnetic poles; and with these
arrangements I have obtained many variants from the text-book figures.

In any mixture the magnetic particles sort themselves out into what we may
term material ‘ chains of force,’ following the directions of the lines of force and
containing within them more of these lines than the relatively impermeable
medium. Such chains of force may be deflected by currents, gravity, &c., and
still carry within them a proportion of their lines of force not much diminished in
the conditions of the experiment ; for their elongation is of a much lower order
than the ratio of the permeability of their material to that of the medium, The
more important variants, comparable to the achromatic figures, of the cell realise
many of the very conditions which have been regarded as incompatible with a
dual force. They are illustrated by photographs of the magnetic fields compared
with analogous cytoplasmic fields.

Variant 1.—In an unlimited magnetic field of two unlike poles all the lines of
force tend to meet, and are concave to the interpolar axis. On limiting the field
by a permeable boundary, such as an oval vignette mask of soft iron, the outer
rays straighten out, or even become convex to the interpolar axis, and turn their
backs on the rays joining the poles. In this way we get a closer approximation
to the differentiation of the cell-figure into a dumbell, with circumpolar asters
and interpolar spindle. From this we may infer that the Hautschicht of the
cell is permeable to the force in operation (the nuclear wall appears to be also
permeable).

Variant 2.—If the magnetising force be sufficiently intense to overcome the
viscidity of the medium, the chains of force do not retain their primitive even
distribution ; but the interpolar chains move laterally towards the axis, becoming
denser as they do so: like all movable conductors, they tend to place themselves in
the most intense portion of the field. In this way they give an additional
differentiation into spindle and asters, leaving on either side of the spindle a clear
space comparable to what has been termed ‘ Biitschli’s space’ by Rhumbler.

Variant 38.—If our plate be slowly rotated over the poles the chains become

spiral, or, more accurately, sigmoid—|-shaped ; this would be the section of an

ovoid of revolution with spiral poles, such as were first figured by Mark in the
segmentation of the slug (Limax). Such figures may be fixed if the medium he
melted jelly or balsam.

Variant 4,—Fven in the published figures formed on paper the material chains
of force are frequently seen to anastomose—an impossibility for the Zines of force
in a uniform medium. Owing to the peculiar properties of these chains they often
interlace in viscid media towards the minor axis of the figure ; z.c., they cross at
slightly different levels. The’less permeable the medium to the force, the less

TRANSACTIONS OF SHCTION D. 611

will be the induction, and the more chauce there is of such interlacings. Their
presence in cell-figures has been a great difficulty on all interpretations.

Variant 5.—The existence of 3-asters has been another difficulty. A fair
5-aster is obtained by arranging unlike poles at the base of an obtuse-angled
triangle and a core at its vertex. With chains of greater or a medium of lesser
permeability the yelative distances would be more nearly equalised.

Variant 6.—-If we alternate two unlike poles and two cores we obtain a
4-aster, with the centres connected by consecutive spindles and a cross-spindle
connecting the unlike poles. Such figures are not uncommon in the literature of
the dividing cell.

Other variants are shown and compared with their cytoplasmic analogues.

Leduc has shown that centres of greater and of less concentration respectively in
a solution give rise to diffusion fields of force, and that like centres of concentra-
tion (as might have been deduced @ prior?) behave as ‘like’ electric or magnetic
poles, while only ‘ unlike’ centres give the spindle figure. As it has been shown
(notably by Vejdovsky) that. the diffusion phenomena in the cell are similar in
both centres, the force producing the dumbell field cannot possibly be that of
diffusion.

We may call all the forces at work in acell undergoing division ‘karyokinetic
forces.’ But the special force to which the cellular field is due cannot be termed
‘ karyokinetic force ’ in the singular, because it is operative while the nuclear wall
is still intact; and the nuclear contents only become affected thereby after the
wall has disappeared and the nucleus has lost its independence. We may distin-
guish the force here discussed as ‘ cytokinetism’ or ‘ mitokinetism.’ It is certainly
not magnetism, since the poles are isolated; and very possibly it is distinct from
statical electricity.

4, Demonstration of Cytoplasmic Figures in Segmenting Eggs of Ryn-
chelmis (Prof. Vejdovsky). By Professor Marcus Harroe.

RR 2

612 REPORT—1904.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Doucias W. FResHFIELD, F.R.G.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following Address :—

On Winning and Mankind.

A GBOGRAPHER or traveller who has been called upon to preside over the meetings
of our Section of the British Association may be excused for feeling some hesita-
tion as to the character he shall give to the Address which custom compels him
to deliver. He cannot but be aware that his audience, while it includes not a few
experts, probably far better qualified than himself to take the Chair, is composed
mainly of those whose concern in Geography can only be a general and occasional
one.
To compose a summary of the geographical events of the year would bea
simple and obvious expedient, were I not conscious that in this I have been
forestalled by the indefatigable President of the Royal Geographical Society. To
consider the progress of geography, during, say, the last quarter of a century,
might be instructive to ‘the general.’ On the other hand, on his special subject
your President may possibly be able to add something to the common stock by way
of observation or suggestion.

Bearing in mind the, from the point of view of posterity, almost excessive
energy with which the nineteenth century carried on the exploration of the globe,
narrowing in every direction the field left to our explorations and our imaginations,
1904 may so far be counted as an ‘annus mirabilis’ in the annals of Geography.
We have seen the successful return, if not as yet to our own shores, to safe seas,
of the most important expedition ever sent South Polewards. In the success
obtained by Captain Scott and his comrades, we have welcomed a full justification
of the course taken in putting the supreme command and direction of the under-
taking in the hands of an officer of His Majesty’s Navy. ‘ England expects every
man to do his duty,’ and I will not indulge in hyperbolical praise, which must be
distasteful to men who have shown in trying circumstances the daring, the
cheerfulness, and the resourcefulness which we are accustomed to associate with the
British Navy. We have every reason to expect that the results obtained by the
energetic and capable men of science attached to the expedition will be of wide
bearing and interest, but to attempt to estimate them to-day would be obviously
premature.

The current year has been distinguished by a, perhaps, even more remarkable
geographical event. His Majesty’s Government, not satisfied with the laurels it
has won in the Antarctic, has embarked on a second geographical adventure on a
larger scale and at a far greater cost (which, however, will presumably be borne
by India). It has sent forth a Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society,
Colonel Younghusband, with a numerous escort, to reach the forbidden capital
of Tibet. The saffron-vested monks on the ‘ golden terraces’ of the Pota La have

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 613

seen the glimmer of British bayonets on the horizon, and the castle~palaces of Lhasa
will, we hope, open to the military explorer their mysterious halls, hitherto known
to us best by the descriptions of that entertaining traveller, my friend Chandra Das.

But the fruits of these great expeditions are not yet ripe. I must leave them to
be plucked by my successors. I do so with regret, for I should have listened with a
peculiar interest to an account of the fascinating land, over whose peaks and pastures
I lately gazed from the Pisgah heights of the Jonsong La.

To review the progress of Geography during the last twenty-five years, the time
that has passed since I first joined the Council of the Royal Geographical Society,
is tempting. The retrospect would on the whole be encouraging. The past
quarter of a century, if not an era of the most extensive discoveries, has been an
era of profitable occupation—I mean profitable in the scientific and not in the
commercial sense, though the two are frequently connected—of the ground seized
by the great pioneers in Africa, in the backlands of North America, and elsewhere.
And when we come to consider the manner in which the results of modern
exploration are recorded, what an advance we find! Compare the geographical
publications of Great Britain in 1880 and 1904 ; take the most conspicuous instance,
those of the Royal Geographical Society at the two periods. Consider the way in
which our lectures and literature are now illustrated by the aid of photography,
new processes, and the lantern. ‘Petermann’s Mitteilungen’ was for long the
one first-rate geographical magazine in Europe. We have now, as we ought to
have had long before, a Journal that rivals it.

Take a wider survey. Look at maps, beginning with the Ordnance Survey.
Compare the last issues of the one-inch maps, with all the advantages of colour-
printing, over their doubtless (except as to roads) accurate, but far less intelligible
predecessors, Consider the maps private firms, Messrs. Bartholomew and Messrs.
Stanford, have provided us with; note the new editions of ‘ Murray’s Guides.’

The correction and completion of maps by new explorations is always desir-
able. But it is even more important that a sound system for the delineation of
natural features should be adopted both for Government surveys and general
maps. I begin to look forward to a time when glaciers will no longer be repre-
sented, as they were on the early Indian and Caucasian surveys, without their
heads or tails—that is, without either their névés or their moraine-cloaked lower
portions or with rivers rising above them and flowing through them. In time,
perhaps, every closet cartographer will recognise that glaciers do not lie along
the tops of lofty ridges, but descend into valleys. In these matters I have had
many an arduous struggle. It is cruel that a poor man should be set to delineate
snow mountains who has never seen one, and when ‘a week at lovely Lucerne’
can be had for 5J. 5s. it is inexcusable.

In my schooldays there was an exercise of memory known to us by the con-
temptuous appellation of ‘ Jog,’ which boys and masters united to depreciate and
despise. This sentiment is now confined to a few elderly generals and head-
masters. Geography flourishes as a branch of science under the august shadow of
the elder Universities. At Oxford we have produced Mr. Mackinder and Dr.
Herbertson, Mr. Grundy, Mr. Hogarth, Mr. Beazley. We have started a school of
Geography and a school of Geographers. At Cambridge a Board of Geographical
Studies has been established. I may quote what Sir C. Markham said three
months ago :—

‘ The staff of the new geographical school at Cambridge will consist, instead of
one reader, of several lecturers and teachers, who will cover the various depart-
ments of the science. A diploma in geography will be granted as at Oxford.
But Cambridge goes a step further than Oxford, by introducing geography into
the examination for the B.A. degree. The importance of according geography
such a position in the studies of the Universities must be evident to all, and must
be specially gratifying to those who, for over thirty years, have fought hard, amid
much discouragement, to have geography recognised as a University subject. It
will be interesting to see how the Board of Geographical Studies at Cambridge
will draw up the detailed regulations for the degree and the diploma, what steps

614 REPORT—1904.

will be taken to secure a competent staff to cover the whole field of our science,
and especially to train young University men for practical work in the field. We
have every reason to expect that the results will prove satisfactory.

‘The Geographical Association of Teachers, of which Mr. Mackinder and
Dr. Herbertson are active members, is doing much to enlighten teachers with
regard to the capabilities of the subject, to raise its standard, and to introduce
improved methods of teaching. An interesting and useful conference was held
last winter at the Chelsea Polytechnic, under its auspices, and in connection with
the Conference there was an excellent exhibition of appliances used in teaching
geography, the usefulness of which was increased by sending it to various
provincial centres.’

In primary schools many teachers are furnishing excellent instruction, and are
instructing themselves in the handbooks provided by our friends Dr, Mill and
Mr. Chisholm and others. In the higher branches of education the problems of
scientific geography are studied, and teachers are encouraged to develop the
geographical aspects of other subjects, such as archeology, history, commerce,
colonisation on the one hand, botany and natural history on the other. We have
moved forwards and upwards, but do not let us flatter ourselves that we have as
yet reached any considerable eminence. Probably many more of our countrymen
can read a map in this generation than could in the last. A small percentage, I am
glad to notice, are not hopelessly bewildered even by contour lines.

We are learning our geographical alphabet. In time we may, as a nation, be
able to read and to understand what we read. We shall recognise that ability to
use a map and judge ground is a considerable safeguard against waste of life
and disasters in war, and that an acquaintance with the features of the earth’s
surface and geographical distribution is an invaluable help to a nation in the
commercial rivalries and struggles of peace.

When the question of establishing Geography at Oxford was being discussed,
Dr. Jowett (who had himself somewhere in the fifties suggested the erection of a
Geographical Chair) asked me if I believed Geography could be taught so ‘as to
make men think.’ We should, I believe, ‘think imperially’ to more purpose if we
also took pains ‘to think geographically.’ But I will not detain you and use up my
time by going in any detail into the progress of Geography. I might find myself
only repeating what others have said better. Andas to one important branch,
perhaps the most important branch, geographical education, on which I addressed
this Section at Birmingham some fifteen years ago, I feel myself debarred by the
fact that the Association has now a Section specially devoted to Education.

I have determined on the whole, therefore, to run the risk of wearying some
of my listeners by inviting your attention to the place in Geography of the
natural objects which have had for me through life the greatest and most enduring
attraction. I propose to talk about mountains, their place in Nature, and their
influence, both spiritual and material, on mankind,

We have all of us seen hills, or what we call hills, from the monstrous pro-
tuberances of the Andes and the Himalaya to such puny pimples as lie about the
edges of your fens. Next to a waterfall, the first natural object (according to my
own experience) to impress itself on a child’s mind is a hill, some spot from which
he can enlarge his horizon, Hills, and still more mountains, attract the human
imagination and curiosity. The child soon asks, ‘Tell me, how were mountains
made ?’ a question easier to ask than to answer, which occupied the lifetime of the
father of mountain science, De Saussure. But there are mountains and mountains.
Of all natural objects the most impressive is a vast snowy peak rising as a white
island above the waves of green hills—a fragment of the arctic world left behind
to commemorate its past predominance—and bearing on its broad shoulders a
garland of the Alpine flora that has been destroyed on the lower ground by the
rising tide of heat and drought that succeeded the last glacial epoch. Mid-
summer snows, whether seen from the slopes of the Jura or the plains of
Lombardy, above the waves of the Euxine or through the glades of the
tropical forests of Sikhim, stir men’s imaginations and rouse their curiosity.
Before, however, we turn to consider some of the physical aspects of mountains,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 615

I shall venture, speaking as I am here to a literary audience, and in a
University town, to dwell for a few minutes on their place in literature—in
the mirror that reflects in turn the mind of the passing ages. For Geography
is concerned with the interaction between man and Nature in its widest
sense. There has been recently a good deal of writing on this subject—I cannot
say of discussion, for of late years writers have generally taken the same view.
That view is that the love of mountains is an invention of the nineteenth
century, and that in previous ages they had been generally looked on either with
indifference or positive dislike, rising in some instances to abhorrence. Extreme
examples have been repeatedly quoted. We have all heard of the bishop who
thought the devil was allowed to put in mountains after the fall of man; of the
English scribe in the tenth century who invoked ‘the bitter blasts of glaciers and
the Pennine host of demons’ on the violators of the charters he was employed to
draft. The examples on the other side have been comparatively neglected. It
seems time they were insisted on.

The view I hold firmly, and which I wish to place before you to-day, is that this
popular belief that the love of mountains is a taste, or, as some would say, a mania,
of advanced civilisation, is erroneous. On the contrary, I allege it to be a healthy,
primitive, and almost universal human instinct. I think I can indicate how and
why the opposite belief has been fostered by eminent writers. They have taken
too narrow a time-limit for their investigation. They have compared the nine-
teenth century not with the preceding ages, but with the eighteenth. They have
also taken too narrow a space-limit. They have hardly cast their eyes beyond
Western Europe. Within their own limits I agree with them. The eighteenth
century was, as we all know, an age of formality. It was the age of Palladian
porticoes, of interminable avenues, of formal gardens and formal style in art, in
literature, and in dress. Mountains, which are essentially romantic and Gothic,
were naturally distasteful to it. The artist says ‘they will not compose,’ and
they became obnoxious to a generation that adored composition, that thought
more of the cleverness of the artist than of the aspects of Nature he used as the
material of his work. There is a great deal to be said for the century; it produced
some admirable results. It was a contented and material century, little stirred by
enthusiasms and aspirations and vague desires. It was a phase in human progress,
but in many respects it was rather a reaction than a development from what had
gone before. Sentiment and taste have their tides like the sea, or, we may here
perhaps more appropriately say, their oscillations like the glaciers. The imagina-
tion of primitive man abhors a void, it peoples the regions it finds uninhabitable
with aery sprites; with ‘Pan and father Sylvanus and the sister Nymphs,’ it
worships on high places and reveres them as the abode of Deity. Christianity
came and denounced the vague symbolism and personification of Nature in which
the pagan had recognised and worshipped the Unseen, It found the objects of its
devotion not in the external world but in the highest moral qualities of man,
Delphi heard the cry ‘Great Pan isdead!’ But the voice was false. Pan is
immortal. Every villager justifies etymology by remaining more or less of a
pagan. Other than villagers have done the same. The monk driven out of the
world by its wickedness fell in love with the wilderness in which he sought
refuge, and soon learnt to give practical proof of his love of scenery by his choice
of sites for his religious houses. But the literature of the eighteenth century was
not written by monks or countrymen, or by men of world-wide curiosity and
adventure like the Italians of the Renaissance or our Elizabethans. It was the
product of a practical common-sense epoch which looked on all waste places,
heaths like Hindhead, or hills like the Highlands, as blemishes in the scheme of
the universe, not having yet recognised their final purpose as golf links or
gymnasiums. Intellectual life was concentrated in cities and courts, it despised
the country. Books were written by townsmen, dwellers in towns which had
not grown into vast cities, and whose denizens therefore had not the longing to
escape from their homes into purer air that we have to-day. They abused the
Alps frankly. But all they saw of them was the comparatively dull carriage
passes, and these they saw at the worst time of year, Hastening to Rome for

616 REPORT—1904.

Easter, they traversed the Maurienne while the ground was still brown with frost
and patched untidily with half-melted snowdrifts. It is no wonder that Gray and
Richardson, having left spring in the meadows and orchards of Chambéry,
grumbled at the wintry aspect of Lanslebourg.

That at the end of the eighteenth century a literary lady of Western Europe
preferred a Paris gutter to the Lake of Geneva is an amusing caricature of the
spirit of the age that was passing away, but it is no proof that the love of
mountains is a new mania, and that all earlier ages and peoples looked on them
with indifference or dislike. Wordsworth and Byron and Scott in this country,
Rousseau and Goethe, De Saussure and his school abroad broke the ice, but it was
the ice of a winter frost, not of a glacial period.

Consider for a moment the literature of the two peoples who have most influ-
enced European thought—the Jews and the Greeks. I need hardly quote a book
that before people quarrelled over education was known to every child—the Bible.
I would rather refer you to a delightful poem in rhyming German verse written in
the seventeenth century by a Swiss author, Rebman, in which he relates all the
great things that happened on mountains in Jewish history : how Solomon enjoyed
his Sommerfrische on Lebanon, and Moses and Elias both disappeared on moun-
tain tops; how kings and prophets found their help among the hills; how closely
the hills of Palestine are connected with the story of the Gospels.

Consider, again, Greece, where I have just heen wandering. Did the Greeks pay
no regard to their mountains? They seized eagerly on any striking piece of hill
scenery and connected it with a legend or a shrine. They took their highest
mountain, broad-backed Olympus, for the home of the gods; their most conspicuous
mountain, Parnassus, for the home of poetry. They found in the cliffs of Delphi a
dwelling for their greatest oracle and a centre for their patriotism. One who has
lately stood on the tep of Parnassus and seen the first rays of the sun as it springs
from the waves of the gean strike its snows, while Attica and Beeotia and
Eubcea still lay in deep shadow under his feet, will appreciate the famous lines of
Sophocles, which I will not quote,as I am uncertain how you may pronounce
Greek in this University. You may remember, too, that Lucian makes Hermes
take Charon, when he has a day out from Hell, to the twin-crested summit,
and show him the panorama of land and sea, of rivers and famous cities.
The Vale of Tempe, the deep gap between Olympus and Ossa, beautiful in
its great red cliffs, fountains, and spreading plane-trees, was part of a Roman’s
classical tour. ‘The superb buttresses in which Taygetus breaks down on the
valley of the Eurotas were used by the Spartans for other purposes besides the
disposal of criminals and weally babies. The middle regions—the lawns above
the Langada Pass, ‘ virginibus bacchata Lacewnis Taygeta’—are frequented to
this day as a summer resort by Spartan damsels, The very top, the great rock
that from a height of 8,000 feet looks down through its woods of oaks and Aleppo
pines on the twin bays of the southern sea, is a place of immemorial pilgrimages.
It is now occupied by a chapel framed in a tiny court, so choked with snow at the
beginning of June that I took the ridge of the chapel roof for a dilapidated
stoneman. I have no time to-day to look for evidence in classical literature, to
refer to the discriminating epithets applied in it to mountain scenes.

A third race destined apparently to play a great part in the world’s history
—the Japanese—are ancient mountain lovers. We are all aware that Fusiyama to
the Japanese is (as Ararat to the Armenians) a national symbol; that its ascent
is constantly made by bands of pilgrims; that it is depicted in every aspect.
Those who have read the pleasant book of Mr. Watson, who, as English chaplain
for some years at Tokio, had exceptional opportunities of travel in the interior,
will remember how often he met with shrines and temples on the summits of the
mountains, and how he found pilgrims who frequented them in the belief that
they fell there more readily into spiritual trances. The Japanese Minister,
when he attended Mr. Watson’s lecture at the Alpine Club, told us that his
countrymen never climbed mountains without a serious—that is to say, a religious
—object.

fede and China would add to my evidence had I knowledge and time enough

_ ti =—_ ~~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. 617

to refer to their literature. I remember Tennyson pointing out to me in a volume
of translations from the Chinese a poem, written about the date of King Alfred,
in praise of a picture of a mountain landscape. But I must return to the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe; I may go earlier—even back
to Dante. His allusions to mountain scenery are frequent; his Virgil had all the
craft of an Alpine rock-climber. Read Leonardo da Vinci's ‘ Notes, Conrad Gesner’s
‘ Ascent of Pilatus ;’ study the narratives of the Alpine precursors Mr. Coolidge
has collected and annotated with admirable industry in the prodigious volume he
has recently brought out.

It is impossible for me here to multiply proofs of my argument, to quote
even a selection from the passages that show an authentic enthusiasm for moun-
tains that may be culled from writers of various nations prior to a.p. 1600. I
must content myself with the following specimens, which will probably be new to
most of my hearers.

Benoit Marti was a professor of Greek and Hebrew at Bern, and a friend of the
great Conrad Gesner (I call him great, for he combined the qualities of a man of
science and a man of letters, was one of the fathers of botany as well as of
mountaineering, and was, in his many-sidedness, a typical figure of the Renais-
sance). Marti, in the year 1558 or 1559, wrote as follows of the view from his
native city :—

‘These are the mountains which form our pleasure and delight’ (the Latin is
better—‘ delicize nostre, nostrique amores’) ‘when we gaze at them from the
higher parts of our city and admire their mighty peaks and broken crags that
threaten to fall at any moment. Here we watch the risings and settings of the
sun and seek signs of the weather. In them we find food not only for our eyes
and our minds but also for our bellies;’ and he goes on to enumerate the dairy
products of the Oberland and the happy life of its population. I quote again this
good man: ‘ Who, then, would not admire, love, willingly visit, explore, and
climb places of this sort? I assuredly should call those who are not attracted by
them mushrooms, stupid, dull fishes, and slow tortoises’ (‘fungos, stupidos in-
sulsos pisces, lentosque chelones’). ‘In truth, I cannot describe the sort of affec-
tion and natural love with which I am drawn to mountains, so that I am never
happier than on the mountain crests, and there are no wanderings dearer to me
than those on the mountains.’ ‘They are the theatre of the Lord, displaying
monuments of past ages, such as precipices, rocks, peaks and chasms, and never-
melting glaciers ;’ and so on through many eloquent paragraphs.

I will only add two sentences from the preface to Simler’s ‘ Vallesize et Alpium
Descriptio,’ first published in 1574, which seem to me a strong piece of evidence
in favour of my view :—‘ In the entire district, and particularly in the very lofty
ranges by which the Vallais is on all sides surrounded, wonders of Nature offer
themselves to our view and admiration. With my countrymen many of them
have through familiarity lost their attraction; but foreigners are overcome at the
mere sight of the Alps, and regard as marvels what we through habit pay no
attention to.’

Mr. Coolidge, in his singularly interesting footnotes, goes on to show that the
books that remain to us are not isolated instances of a feeling for mountains in
the age of the Renaissance. The mountains themselves bear, or once bore, records
even more impressive. Most of us have climbed to the picturesque old castle at
Thun and seen beyond the rushing Aar the green heights of the outposts of the
Alps, the Stockhorn, and the Niesen. Our friend Marti, who climbed the former
peak about 1558, records that he found on the summit ‘tituli, rythmi, et pro-
verbia saxis inscripta und cum imaginibus et nominibus auctorum. Inter alia
cujusdam docti et montium ameenitate capti observare licebat illud :

‘O Tay bpwy pws epioros.’

‘The love of mountains is best.’ In those five words some Swiss professor antici-
pated the doctrine of Ruskin and the creed of Leslie Stephen, and of all men who
have found mountains the best companions in the vicissitudes of life,

618 REPORT—1904.

In the annals of art it would be easy to find additional proof of the attention
paid by men to mountains three to four hundred years ago. The late Josiah
Gilbert, in a charming but too little-known volume, ‘ Landscape in Art,’ hasshown
how many great painters depicted in their backgrounds their native hills.
Titian is the most conspicuous example.

It will perhaps be answered that this love of mountains led to no practical
result, bore no visible fruit, and therefore can have been but a sickly plant.
Some of my hearers may feel inclined to point out that it was left to the latter
half of the nineteenth century to found Climbers’ Clubs. It would take too long
to adduce all the practical reasons which delayed the appearance of these fine
fruits of peace and an advanced civilisation. Iam content to remind you that the
love of mountains and the desire to climb them are distinct tastes, They are often
united, but their union is accidental not essential. A passion for golf does not
necessarily argue a love of levels. I would suggest that more outward and
visible signs than is generally imagined of the familiar relations between men
and mountains in early times may be found, The choicest spots in the Alpine
region—Chamonix, Engelberg, Disentis, Kinsiedeln, Pesio, the Grande Chartreuse—
were seized on by recluses; the Alpine Baths were in full swing at quite an early
date. I will not count the Swiss Baden, of which a geographer, who was also a
Pope, Aineas Silvius (Pius II.) records the attractions, for it is in the Jura,
not the Alps; but Pfifers, where wounded warriors went to be healed,
was a scene of dissipation, and the waters of St. Moritz were vaunted as
superseding wine. I may be excused, since I wrote this particular passage myself
a good many years ago, for quoting a few sertences bearing on this point from
‘ Murray’s Handbook to Switzerland.’ In the sixteenth century fifty treatises deal-
ing with twenty-one different resorts were published. St. Moritz, which had been
brought into notice by Paracelsus (died 1541), was one of the most famous baths.
In 1501 Matthew Schinner, the famous Prince Bishop of Sion, built ‘a magnificent
hotel’ at Leukerbad, to which the wealthy were carried up in panniers on the back
of mules. Brieg, Gurnigel, near Bern, the Baths of Masino, Tarasp, and
Pfafers were also popular inearly times. Leonardo da Vinci mentions the baths
of Bormio, and Gesner went there.

It is not, however, with the emotional influences or the picturesque aspect of
mountains that science concerns itself, but with their physical examination.
If I have lingered too long on my preamble I can only plead as an excuse that a
love of one’s subject is no bad qualification for dealing with it, and that it has
tempted me to endeavour to show you grounds for believing that a love of
mountains is no modern affectation, but a feeling as old and as widespread as
humanity.

Their scientific investigation has naturally been of comparatively modern date.
There are a few passages about the effects of altitude, there are orographical
descriptions more or less accurate in the authors of antiquity. But for attempts
to explain the origin of mountains, to investigate and account for the details of
their structure, we shall find little before the notes of Leonardo da Vinci, that
marvellous man who combined, perhaps, more than anyone who has ever lived the
artistic and the scientific mind. His ascent of Monte Boso about 1511, a moun-
tain which may be found under this name on the Italian Ordnance map on the spur
separating Val Sesia and the Biellese, was the first ascent by a physical observer.
Gesner with all his mountain enthusiasm found a scientific interest in the Alps
mainly if not solely in their botany.

The phenomenon which first drew men of science to Switzerland was the Grindel-
wald glaciers—‘ miracles of Nature’ they called them. Why these glaciers in
particular, you may ask, when there are so many in the Alps? The answer is
obvious. Snow and ice on the ‘ mountain tops that freeze’ are no miracle. But
when two great tongues of ice were found thrusting themselves down among
meadows and corn and cottages, upsetting barns and covering fields and even the
marble quarries from which the citizens of Bern dug their mantelpieces, there
was obviously something outside the ordinary processes of Nature, and therefore
miraculous,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 619

Swiss correspondents communicated with our own Royal Society the latest news
as to the proceedings of these unnatural ice-monsters, while the wise men of
Ziirich and Bern wrote lectures on them. Glacier theories began. arly in the
eighteenth century Hottinger, Cappeller, Scheuchzer, that worthy man who got
members of our Royal Society to pay for his pictures of flying dragons, contri-
buted their quota of crude speculation. But it was not till 1741 that Mont Blane
and its glaciers were brought into notoriety by our young countrymen, Pococke and
Windham, and became an attraction to the mind and an object to the ambition of
the student whose namie was destined to be associated with them. Horace Benedict
de Saussure, born of a scientific family, the nephew of Bonnet, the Genevese botanist
and philosopher, who has become known to the world as a mountaineer and the
climber of Mont Blanc, came twenty years later. In truth he was far more of a
mountain traveller and a scientific observer, a geological student, than a climber.
When looking at his purple silk frock-coat (carefully preserved in his country
house on the shore of the Lake of Geneva), one realises the difference between the
man who climbed Mont Blanc in that garment and the modern gymnast, who
thinks himself par exeel/ence the mountaineer.

De Saussure did not confine himself to Savoy or to one group, he wandered far
and wide over the Alpine region, and the four volumes of his ‘ Voyages’ contain,
besides the narratives of his sojourn on the Col du Géant and ascent of Mont Blanc,
a portion of the fruit of these wanderings.

The reader who would appreciate De Saussure’s claim as the founder of the
Scientific Exploration of Mountains must, however, be referred to the List of
Agenda on questions calling for investigation placed at the end of his last volume.
They explain the comparative indifference shown by De Saussure to the problems
connected with glacial movement and action. His attention was absorbed in the
larger question of earth-structure, of geology, to which the sections exposed by
mountains offered, he thought, a key; he was bitten by the contemporary desire
for ‘A Theory of the Earth,’ by the taste of the time for generalisations for
which the facts were not always ready. At the same time, his own intellect was
perhaps somewhat deficient in the intuitive faculty; the grasp of the possible or
probable bearing of known facts by which the greatest discoverers suggest theories
first and prove them afterwards,

The school of De Saussure at Geneva died out after having produced Bourrit,
the tourist who gloried in being called the Historian of the Alps, a man of
pleasant self-conceit and warm enthusiasm, and De Luc, a mechanical inventor,
who ended his life as reader to Queen Charlotte at Windsor, where he flits
across Miss Burney’s pages as the friend of Herschel at Slough and the
jest of tipsy Royal Dukes. Oddly enough, the first sound guess as to glacier
movement was made by one Bordier, who had no scientific pretensions. I re-
printed many years ago the singular passage in which he compared glacier ice to
‘cire amollie,’ soft wax, ‘flexible et ductile jusqu’’ un certain point,’ and
described it as flowing in the manner of liquids (dip. J., ix. 327). He added
this remarkable suggestion foreshadowing the investigations of Professor Richter
and M. Forel: ‘It is very desirable that there should be at Chamonix someone
capable of observing the glaciers for a series of years and comparing their
advance and oscillations with meteorological records.’ To the school of Geneva
succeeded the school of Neuchatel, Desor and Agassiz; the feat of De Saussure
was rivalled on the Jungfrau and the Finsteraarhorn by the Meyers of Bern.
They in turn were succeeded by the British school, Forbes and Tyndall, Reilly
and Wills, in 1840-60.

In 1857 the Alpine Club was founded in this country. In the half-century
since that date the nations of Western Europe have emulated one another in
forming similar bodies, one of the objects of which has been to collect and set
in order information as to the mountains and to further their scientific as well
as their geographical exploration.

What boulders, or rather pebbles, can we add to the enormous moraine of
modern Alpine literature—a moraine the lighter portions of which it is to be hoped
for the sake of posterity that the torrent of Time may speedily make away with ?

620 REPORT—1904.

For fifty years I have loved and at frequent intervals wandered and climbed in
the Alps. I have had something of a grand passion for the Caucasus. I am
on terms of visiting acquaintance with the Pyrenees and the Himalaya, the
Apennines and the Algerian Atlas, the mountains of Greece, Syria, Corsica, and
Norway. I will try to set in order some observations and comparisons suggested
by these various experiences.

As one travels east from the Atlantic through the four great ranges of the
Old World the peaks grow out not only in absolute height but also in abrupt-
ness of form, and in elevation above the connecting ridges. The snow and ice
region increases in a corresponding manner. The Pyreuees have few fine rockpeaks
except the Pic du Midi d’Ossau ; its chief glacier summits, the Vignemale, Mont
Perdu, the Maladetta correspond to the Titlis or the Buet in the Alps. The
peaks of the Alps are infinite in their variety and admirable in their clear-cut
outlines and graceful curves. But the central group of the Caucasus, that which
culminates in Dykhtau, Koshtantau, and Shkara, 17,000 feet summits (Koshtantau
falls only 120 feet below this figure) has even more stately peaks than those that
cluster round Zermatt.

Seek the far eastern end of the Himalaya, visit Sikhim, and you will find the scale
increased ; Siniolchum, Jannu, and Kangchenjunga are a!l portentous giants. To put
it at a low average figure, the cliffs of their final peaks are half as high again as
those of Monte Rosa and the Matterhorn.

In all these chains you will find the same feature of watersheds or partings
lying not in but behind the geological axis, which is often the line of greatest peak
elevation. This is the case in the Alps at the St. Gothard, in the Caucasus for some
forty miles west of the Dariel Pass, in the Himalaya, in Sikhim and Nepal, where
the waters flowing from the Tibetan plateau slowly eat their way back behind
Kangchenjunga and the Nepalese snows. The passes at their sources are found
consequently to be of the mildest character, hills ‘ like Wiltshire Downs,’ is the
description given by a military explorer. It needs no great stretch of geological
imagination to believe in the cutting back of the southern streams of Sikhim or
the Alps, as for instance at the Maloya, but [ confess that I cannot see how the
gorges of Ossetia, clefts cut through the central axis of the Caucasus, can be
ascribed mainly to the action of water.

I turn to the snow and ice region, Far more snow is deposited on the heights
of the Central Caucasus and the Eastern Himalaya than on the Alps. It
remains plastered on their precipices, forming hanging glaciers everywhere of the
kind found on the northern, the Wengern Alp, face of the Jungfrau. Such a peak
as the Weisshorn looks poor and bare compared with Tetnuld in the Caucasus or
Siniolchum in the Himalaya. The plastered sheets of snow between their great
bosses of ice are perpetually melting, their surfaces are grooved, so as to suggest
fluted armour, by tiny avalanches and runnels,

In the Aletsch glacier the Alps have a champion with which the Caucasus
cannot compete; but apart from this single exception the Caucasian glaciers are
superior to the Alpine in extent and picturesqueness. Their surfaces present the
features familiar to us in the Alps—icefalls, moulins, and earth-cones.

In Sikhim, on the contrary, the glaciers exhibit many novel features due no
doubt mainly to the great sun-heat. In the lower portion their surface is apt to
be covered with the débr’s that has fallen from the impending cliffs, so that
little or no ice is visible from any distance. In the region below the névé there are
very few crevasses, the ice heaves itself along in huge and rude undulations,
high gritty mounds, separated by hollows often occupied by yellow pools which
are connected by streams running in little icy ravines; a region exceptionally
tiresome, but in no way dangerous to the explorer. In steep places the Alpine
icefall is replaced by a feature [ may best compare with a series of earth-pillars
such as are found near Evolena and elsewhere, and are figured in most text-
books. The ice is shaped into a multitude of thin ridges and spires, resembling
somewhat the Nieves Penitentes of the Andes—though formed in a different
material.

Great sun-heat acting on surfaces unequally protected, combined in the latter

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 621

case with the strain of sudden descent, is no doubt the cause of both phenomena.
Generally the peculiarities of the great glaciers of Kangchenjunga may be attri-
buted to a vertical sun, which renders the frozen material less liable to crack, less
rigid, and more plastic.

A glacier, as a rule, involves a moraine. Now moraines are largely formed
from the material contributed by subaerial denudation, in plain words by the
action of heat and cold and moisture on the cliffs that border them. It is what
falls on a glacier, not that which it falls over, that mainly makes a moraine.
The proof is that the moraines of a glacier which flows under no impending cliffs
are puny compared with those of one that lies beneath great rockwalls.

Take, for example, the Norwegian glaciers of the Jostedals Brae and compare
them with the Swiss. The former, falling from a great névé plain or snowfield,
from which hardly a crag protrudes, are models of cleanliness. I may cite as
examples the three fascinating glaciers of the Olden Valley. The Rosenlaui
Glacier in Switzerland owed the cleanliness which gave it a reputation fifty years
ago, before its retirement from tourists’ tracks, to a similar cause—a vast snow-
plateau, the Wetterkessel.

One peculiarity very noticeable both in the Himalaya and the Caucasus I have
never found satisfactorily accounted for. I refer to the long grassy trenches lying
between the lateral moraine and the hillside, which often seem to the mountain
explorer to have been made by Providence to form grass paths for his benefit.
They may possibly be due to the action of torrents falling from the hillside,
which, meeting the moraine and constantly sweeping along its base, undermine it
and keep a passage open for themselves. There are remarkable specimens of this
formation on hoth sides of the Bezingi Glacier, in the Caucasus, and on the north
side of the Zemu Glacier, in Sikhim.

Water is one of the greatest features in mountain scenery. In Norway it is
omnipresent. In this respect Scandinavia is a region apart, the streams of the
more southern ranges are scanty compared with those of a region where the snow-
fall of two-thirds of the year is discharged in a few weeks. Greece stands at
the opposite pole. By what seems a strange perversity of Nature, its slender
streams are apt to disappear underground, to reissue miles away in the great
fountains that gave rise to so many legends. Arcadia is, for the most part, a dry
upland, sadly wanting in the two elements of pastoral scenery, shady groves,
and running brooks.

The Alps are distinguished by their subalpine lakes—

‘Anne lacus tantos ; te, Lari maxime, teque
Fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino ?’

of Virgil. But perhaps even more interesting to the student are the lake basins
that have been filled up, and thus suggest how similar lakes may have vanished
at the base of other ranges.

I know no more striking walk to anyone interested in the past doings of
glaciers than that along the ridge of the mighty moraine of the old glacier of
Val d’Aosta, which sweeps out, a hill 500 feet high, known as ‘ La Serra,’ from
the base of the Alps near Ivrea into the plain of Piedmont. Enclosed in its
folds still lies the Lago di Viverone; but the Dora has long ago cut a gap in
the rampart and drained the rest of the enclosed space, filling it up with the
fluvial deposit of centuries.

It is, however, the tarns rather than the great lakes of the Alps which have
been the chief subjects of scientific disputation. Their distribution is curious.
They are found in great quantity in the Alps and Pyrenees, hardly at all in the
ara and comparatively rarely in the part of the Himalaya I am acquainted
with.

A large-scale map will show that where tarns are most thickly dotted over the
uplands the peaks rise to no great height above the ridges that connect them.
This would seem to indicate that there has been comparatively little subaerial
denudation in these districts, and consequently less material has been brought
down to fill the hollows. Again, it isin gneiss and granitic régions that we find

622 REPORT— 1904.

tarns most abundant—that is, where the harder and more compact rocks make the
work of streams in tapping the basins more lengthy. The rarity of tarns in the
highlands behind Kanchenjunga, perhaps, calls for explanation. We came upon
many basins, but, whether formed by moraines or true rock-basins, they had for the
most part been filled up by alluvial deposits.

In my opinion, the presence of tarns must be taken as an indication that the
portion of the range where they are found has until a comparatively recent date
been under snow or ice. The former theory, still held, was that the ice scooped
out their basins from the solid rock. I believe that it simply kept scoured pre-
existing basins. The ice removed and the surrounding slopes left bare, streams
on the one hand filled the basins with sediment, or, on the other, tapped them by
cutting clefts in their rims. This theory meets, at any rate, all the facts I have
observed, and I may point out that the actual process of the destruction of tarns
by such action may be seen going on under our eyes in many places, notably in
the glens of the Adamello group. Professor Garwood has lately employed his
holidays in sounding many of the tarns of the St. Gotthard group, and his results,
I understand, tend to corroborate the conclusions stated.

I desire here to reaffirm my conviction that snow and ice in the High Alps are
conservative agents: that they arrest the natural processes of subaerial denudation ;
that the scouring work done by a glacier is insignificant compared with the hewing
and hacking of frost and running water on slopes exposed to the open sky without
a roof of névé and glacier.

The contrast between the work of these two agents was forced upon me many
years ago while looking at the ground from which the Eiger Glacier had then
recently retreated. The rocks, it is true, had had their angles rubbed off by the
glacier, but through their midst, cut as by a knife, was the deep slit or gash made
by the subglacial torrent. There is in the Alps a particular type of gorge,
found at Rosenlaui, at the Lower Grindelwald Glacier, at the Kirchet above
Meiringen, and also in the Caucasus, within the curves of old terminal moraines.
It is obviously due to the action of the subglacial torrent, which cuts deeper and
deeper while the ice above protects the sides of the cutting from the effects of the
atmosphere.

One more note I have to make about glaciers. It has been stated that glaciers
go on melting in winter. Water, no doubt, flows from under some of them, but
that is not the same thing. The end of the Rosenlaui Glacier is dry in January ;
you can jump across the clear stream that flows from the Lower Grindelwald
glacier, That stream is not meltings, but the issue of a spring which rises under
the glacier and does not freeze. There is another such stream on the way to the
Great Scheideck, which remains free when frost has fettered all its neighbours.

I should like to draw your attention before we leave glaciers to the systematic
efforts that are being made on the Continent to extend our knowledge of their
peculiarities. The subject has a literature of its own, and two Societies—one in
France, one in other countries—have been constituted to promote and systematise
further investigations, especially with regard to the secular and annual oscillations
of the ice. These were initiated by the English Alpine Club in 1893, while I was
its president. Subsequently, through the exertions of the late Marshall Hall, an
enthusiast on the subject, an International Commission of Glaciers was founded,
which has been presided over by Dr. Richter, M. Forel, and others; and more
recently a French Commission has been created with the object of studying in
detail the glaciers of the French Alps. A number of excellent reports have been
published, embodying information from all parts of the globe. There has been,
and is, I regret to say, very great difficulty in obtaining any methodical reports
from the British possessions oversea. The subject does not commend itself to the
departmental mind. Let us hope for improvement: I signalise the need for it.
Of course, it is by no means always an easy matter to get the required measure-
ments of retreat or advance in the glacial snout, when the glacier is situated in a
remote and only casually visited region. Still, with good-will more might be
done than has been. The periods of advance and retreat of glaciers appear to
correspond to a certain extent throughout the globe. The middle of the last

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E., 623

century was the culmination of the last great advance. The general estimate of
their duration appears to be halfacentury. The ice is now retreating in the
Alps, the Caucasus, and the Himalaya, and I believe in North America. We live
in a retrogressive period. The minor oscillation of advance which a few years
ago gave hopes to those who, like myself, had as children seen the glaciers of
Grindelwald and Chamonix at their greatest, has not been carried on.

Attempts are made to connect the oscillations of glaciers with periods of
sunspots. They are, of course, connected with the rain or snow-fall in past
seasons. But the difficulty of working out the connection is obvious.

The advance of the ice will not begin until the snows falling in its upper basin
have had time to descend as ice and become its snout ; in each glacier this period
will vary according to its length, bulk, and steepness, and the longer the
glacier is, the slower its lower extremity will be to respond. Deficiency in
snowfall will take effect after the same period. It will be necessary, therefore, to
ascertain (as has been done in a tragic manner on Mont Blane by the recovery
in the lowest portion of the Glacier des Bossons of the bodies of those lost in its
highest snows) the time each glacier takes to travel, and to apply this interval to
the date of the year with which the statistics of deposition of moisture are to
be compared. It the glacier shows anything about weather and climate, it is past
not contemporary weather it indicates.

Another point in which the Asiatic ranges, and particularly the Himalaya,
differ from the Alps is in the frequency of snow avalanches, earthfalls, and mud-
slides. These are caused by the greater deposition of snow and the more sudden
and violent alternations of heat and cold, which lead to the splitting of the
hanging ice and snows by the freezing of the water in their pores. I have noticed
at a bivouac that the moment of greatest cold—about the rising of the morning
star—is often hailed by the reports of a volley of avalanches.

The botanist may find much to do in working out a comparison of the flora of
my four ranges. I am no botanist: I value flowers according, not to their rarity,
but to their abundance, from the artist’s, not the collector’s, point of view. But
it is impossible not to take interest in such matters as the variations of the
gentian in different regions, the behaviour of such a plant as the little Hdelweiss
(once the token of the Tyrolese lover, now the badge of every Alp-trotter), which
frequents the Alps, despises the Caucasus, reappears in masses in the Himalaya,
and then, leaping all the isles of the tropics, turns up again under the snows of
New Zealand. I may mention that it is a superstition that it grows only in
dangerous places, I have often found it where cows can crop it; it covers acres
in the Himalaya, and I believe it has been driven by cows off the Alpine pastures,
as it is being driven by tourists out of the Alps altogether.

The Italian botanists, MM. Levier and Sommier, have given a vivid
account of what they call the Makroflora of the Central Caucasus—those wild-
flower beds, in which a man and horse may literally be lost to sight, the product
of sudden heat on a rich and sodden soil composed of the vegetable mould of ages.
Has any competent hand celebrated the Mikroflora of the highest ridges, those
tiny, vivid forget-me-nots and gentians and ranunculuses that flourish on
rock-island ‘ Jardins’ like that of Mont Blanc, among the eternal snows, and
enamel the highest rocks of the Basodano and the Lombard Alps? A compre-
hensive work on a comparison of mountain flora and the distribution of Alpine
plants throughout the ranges of the Old World would be welcome. We want
another John Ball. Allied to botany is forestry, and the influence of trees on
rainfall, and consequently the face of the mountains, a matter of great importance,
which in this country has hardly had the attention it deserves.

From these brief suggestions as to some of the physical features of mountains
I would ask you to turn your attention to the points in which mankind come in
contact with them, and first of all to History.

I fancy that the general impression that they have served as efficient barriers
is hardly in accordance with facts, at any rate from the military point of view.
Hannibal, Cesar, Charles the Great, and Napoleon passed the Alps successfully,

Hannibal, it is true, had some difficulty, but then he was handicapped with

624. REPORT—1904.

elephants. The Holy Roman Emperors constantly moved forwards and backwards.
Burgundy, as the late Mr. Freeman was never weary of insisting, lay across the
Alps. So till our own day did the dominions of the House of Savoy. North
Italy has been in frequent connection with Germany; it is only in my own
time that the Alps have become a frontier between France and Italy. But
questions of this kind might lead us too far. Let me suggest that some competent
hand should compose a history of the Alpine passes and their famous passages,
more complete than the treatises that have appeared in Germany. Mr. Coolidge,
to whom we owe so much, has, in his monumental collection and reprint of early
Alpine writers, just published, thrown great light on the extensive use of what I
may call the by-passes of the Alps in early times. Will he not follow up his
work by treating of the Great Passes ? I may note that the result of the construc-
tion of carriage roads over some of them was to concentrate traffic ; thus the Monte
Moro and the Gries were practically deserted for commercial purposes when
Napoleon opened the Simplon. The roads over the Julier and Maloya ruined the
Septimer. Another hint to those engaged in tracing ancient lines of communica-
tion. In primitive times, in the Caucasus to-day, the tendency of paths is to
follow ridges, not valleys. The motives are on the spot obvious—to avoid
torrents, swamps, ravines, earthfalls, and to get out of the thickets and above
the timber-line. The most striking example is the entrance to the great basin of
Suanetia, which runs not up its river, the Ingur, but over a ridge of nearly 9,000
feet, closed for eight months in the year to animals.

From the military point of view mountains are now receiving great attention
in Central Europe. The French, the Italians, the Swiss, the Austrians have
extensive Alpine manceuvres évery summer, in which men, mules, and light
artillery are conveyed or carried over rocks and snow. Officers are taught to use
maps on the spot, the defects in the official surveys are brought to light. It is
not likely, perhaps, except on the Indian frontier, that British troops will have to
fight among high snowy ranges. But I feel sure that any intelligent officer who
is allowed to attend such manceuvres might pick up valuable hints as to the best
equipment for use in steep places. Probably the Japanese have already sent such
an envoy and profited by his experience.

A word as to maps, in which I have taken great interest, may be allowed me.
The Ordnance maps of Europe have been made by soldiers, or under the supervision
of soldiers. At home when I was young, it was dangerous to hint at any defects
in our Ordnance sheets, for surveyors in this country are a somewhat sensitive
class. Times have altered, and they are no longer averse from receiving hints and
even help from unofficial quarters. Since the great surveys of Europe were
executed, knowledge has increased so that every country has had to revise or to
do over again its surveys. In three points that concern us there was great room
for improvement—the delineation of the upper regicn as a whole, and the definition
of snow and glaciers in particular, and in the selection of local names, In the
two former the Federal Staff at Bern has provided us with an incomparable model.
The number of local names known to each peasant is small, his pronunciation is
often obscure, and each valley is apt to haveits own set of names for the ridges and
gaps that form its skyline. Set a stranger, speaking another tongue than the local
patois, to question a herdsman, and the result is likely to be unsatisfactory. It
has often proved so. The Zardezan is an odd transcription of the Gias del Cian
of patois, tbe Gite du Champ in French. The Grand Paradis is the last term an
Aostan peasant would have used for the Granta Parei, the great screen of rock and
ice of the highest mountain in Italy. The Pointe de Rosablanche was the Roesa
Bianca, or white glacier. Monte Rosa herself, though the poet sees a reference to
the rose of dawn, and the German professor detects ‘the Keltic ros, a promontory,’
is a simple translation of the Gletscher Mons of Simler, or rather Simler’s hybrid
term is a translation of Monte della Roesa. Roesa, or Ruize, is the Val d’Aostan
word for glacier, and may be found in De Saussure’s ‘ Voyages.’

An important case in this matter of mountain nomenclature has recently come
under discussion—that of the highest mountain in the world. Most, if not all,
mountaineers regret that the name of a Surveyor-General, however eminent, was

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 625

fifty years ago affixed to Mount Everest. The ground for this action on the
part of the Survey was the lack of any native name. Some years ago I ventured
to suggest that the 29,002-feet peak (No. XV. of the Survey) was probably visible
from the neighbourhood of Katmandu, even though the identifications of it by
Schlagintweit and others might be incorrect, and that since some at least of the
summits of the snowy group east of that city are apparently known in Nepal as
Gaurisankar, that name might, following the practice which gave its name to
Monte Rosa in the Alps, legitimately be applied to the loftiest crest of the moun-
tain group of which the Nepalese Gaurisankar formed a part.

Recently, by the kindness of Lord Curzon, acting on a suggestion of my own,
Captain Wood, a Survey officer, has been deputed to visit Katmandu and ascertain
the facts. He has found that, contrary to the opinion of the late General Walker
and the assertion of Major Waddell, Peak XV. is visible from the hills round the
capital, and that the two highest snowpeaks visible from the city itself in the same
direction were known to the Nepalese ‘ nobles’ as Gaurisankar,

These latter peaks or peak are about 36 miles distant from Peak XV., but are
connected with it by a continuous line of glaciers. According to the principles
that have prevailed in the division of the Alps, they would undoubtedly be con-
sidered as part of the same group, and the name which, according to Captain
Wood, is applied to a portion of the group might legitimately be adopted for its
loftiest peak.

But the chiefs of the Indian Survey take, as they are entitled to, a different
view. They have decided to confine the name Gaurisankar to one of the peaks
seen from Katmandu itself. Ido not desire to raise any further protest against this
decision. For since, in 1886, I first raised the question its interest has become mainly
academical. A local Tibetan name for Peak XV., Chomo-Kankar, the Lord of
Snows, has been provided on excellent native authority, confirmed by that com-
petent Tibetan scholar, Major Waddell, and I trust this name may in the future be
used for the highest mountain in the world.! The point at issue is mainly one of
taste. Indian surveyors may see no incongruity in naming after one of their own
late chiefs the highest mountain in the world. But in this view they are, I believe,
in a small minority.

I would urge mountain explorers to attempt in more distant lands what the late
Messrs. Adams-Reilly and Nichols, Mr. Tuckett, and Lieut. Payer (of Arctic
fame) did forty years ago with so much success in the Alps, what the Swiss
Alpine Club have done lately, take a district, and working from the trigonometri-
cally fixed points of a survey, where one exists, fill itin by planetabling with the
help of the instruments for photographic and telephotographic surveying, in the
use of which Mr. Reeves, the map curator to the R.G.S., is happy to give
instruction. An excellent piece of work of this kind has been done by Mr. Stein
in Central Asia.

There are, I know, some old-fashioned persons in this country who dispute the
use of photography in mountain work. It can only be because they have never
given it a full and fair trial with proper instruments.

Lastly, I come to a matter on which we may hope before long to have the
advantage of medical opinion, based for the first time on a large number of cases.
I refer to the effects of high altitudes on the human frame and the extent of the
normal diminution in force as men ascend. The advance to Lhasa ought to do
much to throw light on this interesting subject. I trust the Indian Government
has taken care that the subject shall be carefully investigated by experts. The
experience of most mountaineers (including my own) in the last few years has
tended to modify our previous belief that bodily weakness increases more or
less regularly with increasing altitude. Mr. White, the Resident in Sikhim, and
my party both found on the borders of Tibet that the feelings of fatigue and dis-

' See, for discussions of this question, Proccedings of the Royal Geographical
Society, N.S., 1885, 7, 753; 1886, 8, 88, 176, 257; Geographical Journal, 1903, 21,
294; 1904, 23, 89; Alpine Journal, 1886, 12, 448 ; 1902-3, 21, 53,317; Petormann’s
Mitteilungen, 1888, 34, 338 ; 1890, 86, 251; 1901, 47, 40; 1902, 48, 14.

1904, 3s

626 REPORT—1904.

comfort that manifested themselves at about 14,000 to 16,000 feet tended to
diminish as we climbed to 20,000 or 21,000 feet. I shall always regret that when
I was travelling in 1899 on the shoulders of Kaugchenjunga the exceptional snow-
fall altogether prevented me from testing the point at which any of our ascents
were stopped by discomforts due to the atmosphere. Owing to the nature of the
footing, soft snow lying on hard, it was more difficult to walk uphill than on a
shingly beach ; and it was impossible for us to discriminate between the causes of
exhaustion.

Here I must bring this, I fear, desultory Address to an end. I might easily
have made it more purely geographical, if it is geography to furnish a mass of
statistics that are better and more intelligibly given by a map. I might have
dwelt on my own explorations in greater detail, or have summarised those of my
friends of the Alpine Club. But I have done all this elsewhere in books or
reviews, and I was unwilling to inflict it for a second time on any of my hearers
who may have done me the honour to read what I have written. Looking back, I
find I have been able to communicate very little of value, yet I trust I may have
suggested to some of my audience what opportunities mountains offer for scientific
observations to mountaineers better qualified in science than the present speaker,
and how far we scouts or pioneers are from having exhausted even our Alpine
playground as a field for intelligent and systematic research.

And even if the value to others of his travels may be doubtful, the Alpine
explorer is sure of his reward. What has heen said of books is true also of
mountains—they are the best of friends. Poets and geologists may proclaim—

‘The hills are shadows, and they flow
From form to form, and nothing stands !’

But for us creatures of a day the great mountains stand fast, the Jungfrau and
Mont Blanc do not change. Through all the vicissitudes of life we find them
sure and sympathetic companions, Let me conclude with two lines which I found
engraved on a tomb in Santa Croce at Florence:

‘Huc properate, viri, salebrosum scandite montem,
Pulchra laboris erunt przemia, palma, quies.’

The following Papers were read :—

1. Cyrene: an Illustration of the Bearing of Geography on History.
By D. G. Hocarru, M.A.

This paper arose out of a brief visit paid to the Cyrenaica in April 1904 by
a party, of which the author was one, conveyed by Mr. Allison Armour’s yacht
‘Utowana’ to Derna, Ras Hilal, Marsa Susa (Apollonia), and Cyrene itself.
‘Though barely a week in the country, the party was able to note certain geogra-
phical facts, which seem to explain the peculiarities of Cyrenaic history, and to
illustrate the bearing of geography on history in general. The individual
character of the Cyrenaica in ancient and modern times needs explanation, and
the author called attention to the fact that the district is to all intents
and purposes an island, without an island’s usual ease of access. He described,
first, the character of the coast on three sides of it, and then of the low-lying
desert on the fourth side. In illustration of the coastal difficulties he narrated
the experiences of the yacht last April at Marsa Susa and Ras Hilal. The
existing society of the region derives its character from its isolation. The settled
elements are few and recent, consisting of (1) Senusi immigrants, who selected the
Cyrenaica as the home of the Order about 1850 on account of its imaccessibility ;
(2) Cretan Moslem refugees planted at various points in the past two years by the
Ottoman Government. These have yet to prove that they can maintain them-
selyes against the large unsettled Arab element, which emerges from and retires
into the southern waste like pirates at sea. The author showed how the action

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 627

of the Senusis in regard to the Cyrenaica exemplifies a policy which has been
misinterpreted.

He then inquired how far the modern geographical conditions represent the
ancient, and said something on possible alterations in coast level and the nature
of the ports, on which there is much to observe. Finally, he applied the known
conditions to the ancient records and showed how far they accord with and
account for them, and how far they are likely to influence also the future of the
country. The ancient splendour and the modern fertility and amenity of the
region were illustrated by photographic views, which also served to show some-
thing of the coastal difficulties,

2. Ptolemy’s Map of Asia Minor: Method of Construction.
By the Rev. H. 8. Cronin, B.D.

The way in which Ptolemy constructed his map of Asia Minor would appear
to be as follows :—

1. He fixed, partly by the help of observations, partly by calculation of dis-
tances, the position of certain places to form, as it were, the four corners of his
map. These were the four places he mentions by name in the first book of his
Geography—Rhodes and Issus in the south, Byzantium and Trapezus in the
north. The fixing of these positions really belonged to the construction of the
map of the world, and was strictly prior to the construction of the special map,
The area of Asia Minor, thus obtained, is very much too great; speaking roughly,
it is a hundred miles too wide, and nearly as much too long. Herein lies the
explanation both of his methods and of most of his mistakes.

2. In the next place he fixed the position of certain towns on the sea coast.
fhis would be the natural order to pursue; and his adoption of this order is
made probable by what he says himself in book i., c. 18, of the relative ease of
dealing with maritime cities. Of inland towns he complains that it is impossible
to ascertain their position relatively to each other or to the towns on the coast.
The towns so fixed would include Perga on the south and Ephesus on the west.

3. He then proceeded to fix the position of certain towns in the interior,
selecting for this purpose towns which stood at the junctions of important roads,
Laodicea ad Lycum and Doryleum would be of their number.

4, His method of fixing the position of these junctions can be demonstrated as
follows :—

The distance of Laodicea from Hphesus and from Perga, measured on Ptolemy’s
map, agrees (or practically agrees) with the distance of Laodicea from Ephesus
and from Perga, measured by road. A similar correspondence between map-
distance and road-distance repeats itself too often in other cases to be the result of
accident. The inference is that to fix the site, say, of Laodicea, he ascertained its
distance by road from Ephesus and Perga ; compasses and a little judgment would
do the rest. The distance employed was the full distance by road; allowance for
windings, if it were known, would have produced a desert in the interior of a map
the area of which was much too big.

5. The distances from Ephesus (aud Idyma) to Doryleum and Amorium
(measured in the two ways described above) do not correspond. It is otherwise
with the distances from Byzantium to these two places measured by Nicomedia
and Nicwa. Byzantium, therefore (or Chalcedon), was the point of measurement
for the north-west.

6. The map-distances from Chalcedon to Pessinus and (apparently) to Ancyra
also correspond respectively with the road-distances, if the latter be measured wid
Amorium in the first case and vid Amorium and Pessinus in the second. Theroad
distance to Tavium is some thirty miles too great. The positions, then, of Tavium
and of other places east of the centre of Asia Minor were fixed from the east by
measurements going back ultimately to Issus or Trapezus. This, again, is what
we should expect,

ss

628 REPORT—1904,

7. It is worth while to notice that, although compression occurs where the
two systems meet and the distance assigned to Ancyra from Tavium is not two-
thirds of what it ought to be, Tavium is approximately the ‘right’ distance from
Medzeum, and the road from Tavium to Ancyra is represented with exaggerated
windings on the map. A similar phenomenon is to be noticed on the road between
Cyzicus and Nicza, and is due again to local compression, The whole western
coast line has been pulled in towards the east in order to suit the excessive dis-
tance between north and south.

8. Positions once fixed as suggested above would be used similarly to fix
other road-centres, The details of the map would then be filled in as consistently
as possible with the information available and the results already obtained.

9. Amorium is placed east and north of its correct position. As Ptolemy was
working out his map—or, perhaps, as he was using the map of one of his pre-
decessors—he would notice that Amorium lay not very far from the direct line
irom Doryleum to Ancyra; he knew that a road led from Doryleum to Amorium,
aud another from Amorium to Ancyra; to treat this route as the direct route was
tempting, and on the whole least inconsistent with the facts as he conceived them.
We may here notice the following figures and facts: Tavium to Cesarea Mazaka,
correct distance about 120 miles; distance on Ptolemy’s map, 178 miles; distance
by the road given in the Peutinger table, 191 Roman miles. The position of
Tavium would be fixed from the north and east, of Mazaka from the east and
south, with the result that on the map the détour would appear direct. Several
of the towns on the road given in the Peutinger table are scattered about the line
joining Mazaka and Tavium. Failing, then, a direct road which squared with
previous results, Ptolemy sought and found an indirect road which was more
amenable,

it follows from what has been already said that wrong conclusions are certain to
arise from treating Ptolemy’s map as if it were a modern map, or his geography
as if it were a modern geography. An examination of his method of dealing
- with his facts may help us to recover those facts, which in their turn may afford
clues to sites, to the course and length of roads, or may explain the aberrations
of other authorities,

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Fulani Emirates of Northern Nigeria.
By Major J. A. Burnon, I.A., F.R.GS.

‘The paper dealt especially with a portion only of Nigeria, and its descriptions
are inapplicable to the territory as a whole. There is a wide distinction between
the open bush of Northern and the dense forest of Southern Nigeria, a gradual
change from the Sahara southwards being observable both in the vegetation and
in Man. The latter has degenerated towards the south, but the English picture of
the West African ‘nigger’ is inapplicable to the higher type of the north. The
southward progress of Islam has,been checked by the forest belt, and paganism
holds its own in the south. No community isjpossible between the two systems,
and recent disturbances, \in pagan districts are in no way connected with
northern feeling. For a general description of Nigeria reference may be made to
papers by Sir Frederick and Lady Lugard, the present description being restricted
to the western districts known to the writer personally. The greater part of these
are occupied by a Laterite plateau (broken about the tenth parallel by a granite
belt) characterised by great monotony. Through it the Niger and its affluents
have cut themselves broad flat valleys, and asa result of the action of the nume-
rous rivers the surface has been broken into a succession of table-topped hills. Gene-
rally speaking, the rivers—broad expanses of dark rushing water in the rains—
become in the dry season blistering sand tracts, soon overgrown with dense scrub,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 629

To the south, however, they flow through belts of dense forest. The nomad
inhabitants—the Fulani—rose to power under the leadership of Othman Dan
Fodio a century ago. The war which then ensued was racial, not religious, in its
origin, but developed into a Jihad in which religious leaders were raised to
power. Apart from the ruling caste the Fulani type has remained unchanged,
a striking contrast being observable between ruler and herdsman, alike in fighting
qualities, in purity of race, in education, and in intelligence. Qualities of justice
and patience are greatly developed in the ruler, whose character appears to have
been formed in part by admixture with the Negro type.

There were varying degrees of resistance to the Fulani conquest, and its effects
in the non-Mohammedan south were very different from those in the north. The
sweeping accusations of oppression, based on facts observed in the south, are not
always deserved.

Underlying all the State systems is a deeply rooted constitutional idea, the
Government depending on the will of the people. The tyranny of the late Emir
Abd Errahman, of Sokoto, was an exception to the general rule. A typical
example of the Fulani constitution is that at Bida. The fundamental principle is
veneration for age, promotion being by seniority plus selection. The three estates
of the realm are the Emir; the Council of Princes, through which the future Emir
climbs the ladder of promotion; and the Council of Commoners. The two latter
form a General Council for the consideration of important matters, the ordinary
routine of State being carried on by a Privy Council. The evolution of this
constitution is probably indigenous. There is a darker side of Fulani rule, but it
is important to recognise and develop the best side.

The attitude of the British administration is one of construction, not destruc-
tion. In the impossibility of direct rule, what is needed is the education of the
native rulers and adoption of the existing system. To speak of the ‘downfall of
Fulani rule’ is therefore inaccurate. The feeling towards us is one of individual
gratitude, tempered at present, however, by underlying resentment. The tole-
rance of the Kadiriyah sect, now in power, and the exclusion of the Senussiyah,
give an augury of hope for the future.

2, Methods of Topographical Survey. By Major C. F. Ciosz, C.ILG., RL.

1. The days of geographical exploration are drawing to a close. The greater
part of Africa is, for instance, no longer a field for the explorer. Geographicat
societies will be obliged-to devote an increasing amount of attention to topo-
graphical surveying.

2. Whatever the methods of a topographical survey, they should be judged by
the resulting map; and in forming a judgment the three chief considerations are
accuracy, legibility, cost. We may further subdivide the first heading into
accuracy of detail and contouring, and the second into interval of contours, clear-
ness and number of colours, hill shading, lettering, bearing of edges, scale, con-
ventional signs. If we examine some of the principal topographical maps on
these lines we shall be able to divide them into groups. Thus, first-class topo-
graphical maps will include the Ordnance coloured 1-inch, the French Colonial
sobo0, and the American topographical maps of the Geological Survey. Second-
class, the German 55455, the Spanish 55455, and so on.

5. It is perhaps possible that a class of topographical maps might be devised
which should show the main features at a glance and the minor features by
means of a magnifying glass. Simple reduction will not effect this. Such a type
of map would be of the greatest value for all the ordinary purposes for wnich a
map is used,

4, As regards cost, it is important that money should not be saved at the
expense of the clearness of reproduction. The reproduction should do full justice
to the field sheet.

5. Topographical Methods.—The horizontal structure of a map must first be
considered, This consists of a framework of the first order, a framework of the

630 REPORT—1904.

second order, and a framework of the third order; and so on, A perfect map is, in
fact, formed of points of six orders of accuracy, and it is approximately true that the
accuracy of direction of any line joining adjacent points of the same order will
vary directly as the length. The control of the ‘ relief,’ the vertical framework, is
similar; here we have points of five orders of accuracy, from the primary levelling
to the freehand lines joining the contour points.

6. In forming this structure only one alteration of principle has of recent
years been attempted—namely, the use of photography for topographical purposes.
It is, however, a method which has a very limited field of usefulness. It has been
successfully used in Canada in very special circumstances, but ordinarily the
topographer working on customary lines will be quite prepared to prove the
superiority of the recognised methods in the matters of accuracy, rapidity, and
cost. An extension of an old principle, recently employed with effect on the Gold
Coast, is described below.

7. The following is a brief description of the methods (in use or proposed) of
forming topographical maps in the British Empire :—

(1) The United Kingdom.—The small-scale maps of the United Kingdom are
formed by reduction from the 6-inch map, which itself, so far as detail is con-
cerned, is reduced from the g455. The resulting map is of the highest possible
accuracy. Of course this system cannot be employed as a general rule on account
of the expense, and would not have been used at home were it not that large-scale
maps (cadastral maps) are a necessity.

(2) India.—Vast areas in india have been topographically surveyed by tri-
angulation and plane-tabling. It is especially interesting to study this system at
work during an expedition. The recent operations in China afford a noteworthy
example; the Survey of India party surveyed about 17,000 square miles on the
3-inch scale. Similar work is now going on in Tibet.

(3) The Gold Coast.—In the survey of this territory we find, for the first time,
‘long traverses.’ The expense of triangulation in such dense forest would be pro-
hibitive. Hence the country is being divided up by long primary traverses, and
at the junction-points of these traverses latitudes are observed having an apparent
probable error of 0-2’, It is easy to show that on account of ‘local attraction’ it
is no use multiplying the number of these latitudes. The average length of a
traverse is about 70 miles! Between these traverses minor and compass
traverses are run. Here we have points of the second and lower orders.

(4) South Africa.—Whenever the systematic survey of South Africa is com-
menced it will start under most fayourable conditions.- First because, thanks to
Sir David Gill and Colonel Morris, the geodetic triangulation of the Cape Colony
and Natal is complete, and that of the other colonies is progressing. Secondly,
the country is for the most part very suitable for a plane-table survey. The
accuracy and economy of plane-tabling are at their greatest in an open country
provided with scattered hills, and much of South Africa answers to this descrip-
tion.

(5) Canada.—At the request of the Dominion Government, Major Hills, the
head of the Topographical Section of the War Office, drew up a report, after con-
sultation in Canada, which forms a valuable scheme for the topographical survey
of this vast territory, a scheme which it is much to be hoped will be carried out.
It comprises, in brief :—

i, A geodetic arc from the St. Lawrence to Vancouver.
ii, Secondary chains depending on this.
ii. A topographical triangulation covering the interstices with a network.

y. Topography (to be carried out mainly by plane-tabling) ; the standard scale
to be 4 inch to 1 mile,

1 Two traverses were lately carried out independently between points 140 miles
apart, the results showing a difference of 25 feet only at the terminal point.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 631

3. The Glaciers of the Caucasus. By Maurice pr Décny.

The author commenced his paper with a sketch of the manner in which the
ideas prevalent in Europe with regard to the small dimensions of Caucasian
glaciers were first created by incomplete maps, and subsequently dissipated ambu-
dando by the incursions of English and other climbers into the mountain recesses.
He proceeded to give statistics as to the snow-level in different portions of the
Caucasus (showing that it rises towards the Caspian), and a detailed enumeration
of the length and dimensions of the principal glaciers of the chain, and the depth
to which they descend below the snow-level in various localities, He then
dealt with the oscillations of the ice, which appear to have corresponded
during the last fifty years with those of the Alpine glaciers, and concluded by a
reference to the evidences that remain of the large extension of prehistoric
glaciers on the flanks of the mountains.

4, Scenes and Studies in the Nile Valley. By Artuur SitvA WHITE.

Especial stress was laid on the organic unity of the Nile Valley as a physical
fact of great political significance. The river and its tributaries flow from the
heart of Africa to the far-distant Mediterranean littoral, being surrounded on all
sides save one by desert and steppe lands. The watershed passes over barren and
uninhabited tracts, except in the extreme south-west, where it abuts on the Congo
basin. The Nile Valley may therefore be said to be physically isolated.

Politically, no less than physically, Egypt turns her back on Africa and faces
Europe and Asia, with the fortunes of which continents her past development has
been closely associated.

These considerations point to the recognition of the complete unity of the Nile
basin as the basis of a national policy imposed by Nature and dictated by the
teaching of history. Egypt, from the time of Alexander the Great to the present
day, has always been dominated or controlled by the Power holding the command
of the sea. Her physical and political insularity is, therefore, a fact which
sufficiently accounts for the present situation.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22,
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. A Journey around Lake Titicaca. By Artuur W. Hitt, IA.

Lake Titicaca is situated at an elevation of 12,500 feet above sea-level
between the eastern and western ridges of the Cordillera of the Andes.

The journey was made during the spring of 1903, which is the rainy season
on the plateau. From La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, the route lay along the
southern shore of the lake to Tiahuanaco, where there exist some of the finest
and most ancient stone monuments in South America; thence to the Desaguadero,
the only stream flowing out of the lake, and across this, going eastward to Copa-
cabana. Here some stay was made, and the sacred island of Titicaca, with its
Inca temples and palaces, was visited.

The ancient terracing of the hillsides for cultivation is very marked in this
region, and the terraces are still in use. The crops usually grown are barley,
potatoes, quinoa (Chenopodium), ocas (Oxalis) and beans; wheat and maize can
only be grown in sheltered spots at this elevation,

On returning to Copacabana an interesting Indian festival was found to be in
progress, which, though avowedly Christian, showed strong resemblances to some
early pagan ceremony. The narrow straits of Tiquina were then crossed and the

632 REPORT—1904.

journey continued along the north-eastern shore of the lake, with digressions into
the eastern mountains, and plants were collected up to about 16,500 feet. The
majority of the plants show a striking uniformity as regards their vegetative habit,
and grow usually in rosettes or mounds; they have long tap roots, which enable
them to absorb water from the warmer soil at a considerable distance below the
surface, and their leaves are usually linear and often hairy. ‘These peculiarities
are induced by the climatic conditions, since the plants have to endure a burning
sun during the day, followed by frost, with cold, cutting winds, at night; there is
often a difference in temperature of as much as 70°F. in a few hours, The
journey was continued round the northern end of the lake, where the Indian
huts are built of mud bricks in the shape of beehives, and was terminated at the
Peruvian port of Puno, whence runs the railway to Arequipa and Mollendo,

2. Glacier-bursts. By Cuartes Rasor.

Glaciers give rise to torrential phenomena known by the name of ‘ débacles,’ or
glacier-bursts, the geological importance of which has hitherto been insufficiently
recognised.

The production of an outburst depends on the prior creation of a reservoir of
water and its sudden discharge. The creation of this reservoir may be the result
of an advance or retreat of the glacier, which has the effect of stopping the out-
flow of the waters into a thalweg ; it may equally be the consequence of the
present state of the glaciation, which may permanently block the valley. Lastly,
the body of water necessary to the production of an outburst may be formed
either above or below the glacier, or even within its thickness. When the barrier
of ice yields the outburst takes place, and its violence is proportional to the cubic
contents of the reservoir and the slope of the ground over which the inundation
passes. In the Alps twenty-five glaciers have been the scene of outbursts, either
singly or in series, whose causes are matter of knowledge, but many others
have produced inundations whose mode of origin has escaped observation. The
total number is certainly much greater, but only the most destructive had been
recorded prior to 1892, the date of the Saint Gervais catastrophe.

These torrential phenomena occur in all the glaciated mountain regions of the
world—in Norway, Iceland, Spitzbergen (where Sir Martin Conway and Professor
KE, J. Garwood have noted their effects), in Greenland, Alaska, and, lastly, in the
Himalayas. In the last-named region English travellers, like Col. Godwin-Austen,
Sir Martin Conway, and Professor Norman Collie, have collected valuable data
bearing on this phenomenon. In the Alps, the volume of water precipitated in
the case of destructive outbursts may reach several million cubic métres, and this
enormous liquid mass may flow away in a few hours over steeply sloping ground.
In 1878 the Marjelensee discharged 7,700,000 cubic métres in nine hours, and the
Gietroz outburst in 1818 attained a volume of 530 million cubic feet.

Such a mass of water moving at an enormous speed has an important erosive
effect, and modifies the contours of the valley along which it takes its course. On
the other hand, it carries with it enormous masses of material, and, frequently,
large numbers of trees, All these débris are afterwards deposited in the locality
where a diminution of the angle of slope brings about a reduction in the rate of
flow. Thus, in valleys visited by frequent catastrophes, we may say that the
glacial deposits of the present day or of Pleistocene age have been, and are still
being, shifted and rearranged throughout the whole of the zone affected by these
wild waters. Similar inundations must necessarily have been very frequent
during the glacial epoch, and frequent mistakes must have been made in studying
the Pleistocene formations through not taking account of these phenomena.
Still, we must not go too far and exaggerate the action of glacier-outbursts, Their
effects are at the present day limited to the sides of the thalwegs, and the same
must have been the case during the Quaternary period.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 633

3. Report on Terrestrial Surface Waves.—See Reports, p. 301.

4, Brunanburh :; Identification of this Battle Site in North Lincolnshire.
By the Rev. AuFrED Hunt, M.A.

No modern historian of repute is able to name the site of this famous battle of
the tenth century—fought between the Saxon king Athelstan on the one hand
and Anlaff the Dane and Constantine, King of Scotland, on the other—though
most are agreed as to the importance and greatness of the battle. The numbers
engaged are supposed to have been over 120,000, and the result of the battle was
to raise England in the councils of Europe to a position never reached before.
The present paper suggested reasons for the belief that this battlefield is to be
found in North Lincolnshire, at the hamlet of Burnham, in the parish of Thornton
Curtis, within four miles of the Humber.

Geographical considerations send us at once to the river Humber and district
in search of the lost site, while many of the old writers agree in saying that
Anlaff entered the mouth of the Humber, and that the battle was fought near by,
though silent as to where Anlaff landed and encamped. Now, as is evident from
the form of the river Humbér, this landing must be placed between Spurn Head
and the junction of the Ouse and the Trent, either on the Lincolnshire or York-
shire side; and it is probable, from the statements regarding the number of
Anlaff’s vessels (615) and troops, that he divided his forces, sending a portion
against the Saxon outpost at Brough (the Roman Petuaria), on the Yorkshire side,
and also effecting a landing at Barrow Haven, a tidal and navigable stream on
the Lincolnshire coast.

At Barrow Haven there are extensive earthworks of the usual Danish form of
construction for an entrenched position, covering an area of eight acres, and
locally called Barrow Castles. It was suggested that these were thrown up by
Anlaff on landing. South of Barrow Castles, and four miles away, is the hamlet
= ea believed by the writer to be the true site of the Battle of Brunan-

urh.

At Burnham extensive lines of entrenchments, covering over sixty-four acres,
of a totally different character from those at Barrow, are still to be seen, while local
tradition has always said this was a great battlefield. There is a perennial stream
at the rear of the camp which was the only surface-spring known for seven miles
across the Lincolnshire Wolds. In Domesday Survey this hamlet is entered as
Brune in the parish of Thornton Curtis, while in the ‘ Welsh Chronicle of the
Princes’ and in the ‘ Annales Cambri’ the battle is called the Battle at Brune.
Adding to this name the possessive termination, av, together with the Angio-
a ‘burh’ (camp or earthwork), we at once have the long-lost word Brun-an-

urh.

From this camp, burh, or earthwork the two main Saxon roads from the
West and South of England called Ermine Street and Fosse Way are available for
Athelstan’s support. At Castlethorpe a few miles south-west and near the
present town of Glamford Brigg, which commands the only place of crossing the
river Ancholme, are extensive earthworks of a similar nature to those at Burn-
ham. Here was discovered in 1884 a Danish raft constructed like the famous
Gokstad boat or Viking ship.

The best geographical description of the land and place of battle is given in
Egil’s Saga. This tells us that Athelstan came northwards to repel the invasion by
the Humber; that the battle took place by Vin-heath, or Vin-wood; and that the
land sloped towards the north. North of the heath stood a town occupied by
Anlaff and Constantine. South of the heath was another town to which Athel-
stan came, and to which he returned after the battle.

All these conditions are fulfilled in the case of Burnham, The town in the
north is Barrow, that in the south Glamford Brigg ; the ground slopes north from
Burnham ; there is still one field of Vin or Whin left; while the whole of

634 REPORT—1904.

the South and West of England would be open for the arrival of Athelstan’s sup-
porters.

The battle was a final struggle for supremacy between the North and the South,
resulting in favour of the South.

5, The Lipari Islands and their Volcanoes.
By Tempest ANDERSON, .D., B.Sc.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Exhibit of Maps and Photographs showing Effects of Earth Movements
near Naples ; with a Note on the Area affected by them. By R. T.
Guntuer, JA.

The Committee appointed in 1900 for the investigation of coast changes in the
Bay of Naples laid a brief Report before the meeting of 1901, but the complete
results! were not published until after the meeting last year, The exhibit now
made consists of maps and photographs showing some of the results of the work.
The land-levels illustrated are three in number :—

1. The Greeco-Roman land-level (about 16 feet above the present).

The large map exhibited is an original survey of the present coast-line of
Posilipo, upon which the submerged foundations of buildings and a conjectural
restoration of the ancient Roman foreshore are marked. The submerged artificial
remains discovered were grouped in three regions, of which the largest, the Gaiola
region, seems to Lave been dry for about a quarter of a mile beyond the present
shore. Here were seen the foundations of those colonnades, temples, and pavilions
by the sea, moles and harbour works, of which so many frescoed drawings still
exist. Between the submerged regions, Naples, and Pozzuoli are indications of an
ancient roadway, which probably became impassable when the land subsided.
Corroborative evidence of this Graeco-Roman land-level was obtained at Misenum,
Capri, Sorrento, and elsewhere in the Bay of Naples.

2. The Medieval Land-level (12-23 feet below the present, and thus in places
about 40 feet below the Greeco-Roman land-level),

Photographs showing erosion lines etched at this period at Capri, Sorrento,
Pozzuoli, Nisida, &c., are exhibited.

3. The Modern Land-level.

Recently the author has endeavoured to extend his work by tracing the influ-
ence of the changes of land-level upon the growth of the city of Naples,’ and more
especially upon the positions of its harbours and buildings on the foreshore. The
real site of the Roman harbour of Neapolis was not, he considers, situated where
archeeologists would have it—viz., some way inland, where ruins of a so-called
Roman lighthouse are stated to have been found near the churches of the Gesu
Vecchio and S. Giovanni Maggiore, but further south at a lower level. The
classical foreshore sank during the Dark Ages till by the eleventh century the sea
reached far inland, in fact as far as the rising ground upon which the southern
ramparts of the town were built. The land was at this low level when the great
Angevin constructions, the Castel Nuovo, the Molo Piccolo, and the Molo Angivino,
were commenced. The subsequent upward movements were of an irregular and
discontinuous character, and the land has not returned to the Roman level by
some 16 feet.

There are reasons for believing that these changes have affected a wide area.
The author has already shown that they have not been confined to the Bay of
Naples, but extended as far north as Rome and as far south as Pestum. There

> Geographical Journal, August and September, 1903; Archeéologia, vol. lviii.
2 Geographical Jowrnal, August, 1904,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 635

is now evidence of their effects across the entire width of the Mediterranean from
north to south. Not far from Genoa stands, close to the water’s edge, the once
celebrated monastery of S. Fruttuoso, said to have been founded in 409, when, in
accordance with the theory outlined above, the present shore would have been
higher above the sea than it now is. The building is supported on arches, through
which were rowed, between 1275 and 1305, the mourning barges bringing here
for burial the illustrious dead of the Dorias. At the present day the arches stand
so high that the water does not even touch their piers, This is an indication that
the coast of Northern Italy was relatively low during the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, that is, at a period precisely corresponding in time with the period of the
greatest submergence of the Neapolitan shore.

Again, it is held by competent authorities that during the classical period,
and earlier, the Delta of the Nile was at a relatively much higher level above the
sea than it is now—an idea fully borne out by Professor Petrie’s excavations in
Lower Egypt. We have, therefore, good reason for believing that a large area of
the Mediterranean basin was affected by the same movement.

It is to be hoped that exact measurements of differences of land-levels will be
made wherever possible. Many of the author’s measurements near Naples show
variations amounting to as much as 11 feet in 2 miles, and are thus evidences of
considerable tilting of strata since the medieval period.

2. On the Nomenclature of the Physical Features of England and Wales.
Ly Hue Rosert Min, D.Se. f

Although innumerable place-names strew the large-scale maps of England and
Wales, these refer chiefly to the smaller features, and when an orographical map
is drawn on a small scale it is difficult to find appropriate names for the larger
features of the vertical relief of the country.

The names now suggested have been authorised by the Council of the Royal
Geographical Society, on the basis of a scheme elaborated by a Committee of the
Research Department of that Society, consisting of Mr. H. J. Mackinder, Mr.
Chisholm, and the writer, and the map on which the work was done has been pre-
pared by Mr. Bartholomew.

Amongst the larger features recognised are the Eastern Plain, extending from
the Vale of York into Essex ; the constituent members of the Oolitic Ridges, viz.,
the Cotteswold Hills, Edge Hill, the Northampton Uplands, the Lincoln Edge, and
the North York Moors; the constituent features of the Chalk Ridge, viz., the
Western Downs, Hampshire Downs, and the Weald on the south, and the White
Horse Hills, Chiltern Hills, East Anglian Ridge, and Lincoln Wolds on the north.
Special attention is bestowed on the naming of the gaps between the various
groups of high land, and the whole constitutes a groundwork which it is hoped
will be utilised in future maps. Where a large feature had no accepted name, one
was provided by either of two processes—(a) somewhat widening the application of
an existing name, as in the case of the Bowland and Rossendale Forests, the two
almost detached pieces of high ground budding off from the Pennine Chain on the
west, and (0) by introducing a new name so devised as to be in close harmony
with existing names, such as the Western Downs, Forest Ridges, Lincoln Edge.

3. Changes in the Fen District. By H. Yue Orpuam, 1.A.

This paper dealt principally with changes in the river system of the Fen District
since the seventeenth century, brought about by the cutting of the two great
drainage channels across the Bedford Level and the building of the sluices across
the old course of the Ouse at Denver. It was illustrated by representations of old
maps of the district and by lantern-views,

636 REPORT—1904.
4, Vegetation of the Fen District. By Professor R, H. Yapp, WA.

This paper, which was illustrated by lantern-views of the characteristic vegeta-
tion of the Fen District, described in turn the principal plant associations repre-
sented, pointing out the importance of the aquatic or semi-aquatic forms, and
briefly describing the life-conditions of each.

5. Notes on the Malabar Coast of India. By R. 8. Luppsr, I.A4., LL.M.

The country dealt with extends along the West Coast of India from about
16° to 8° N., and inland to the watershed of the Western Ghats, a breadth of
from thirty to sixty miles. The coast is so exposed that marine navigation is
practically suspended during the early months of the 8.W. monsoon, but a
remarkable system of rivers, lagoons, and canals, stretching throughout Travancore,
Cochin, and the Malabar district for about 200 miles, facilitates communication.
There are practically no harbours except in the north, the old ports having long
ago been closed by the silting up of their rivers and the formation of bars by the
surf. The governing features are the Western Ghats and the 8. W. monsoon,
which precipitates a deluge of rain during the summer months. These mountains
rise precipitously from the hilly and thickly wooded country below, and are
covered with primeval forest of great value. The climate is very moist, and the
range of temperature very slight. Rivers are many, but short and shallow,
navigable only in dug-out canoes and at certain seasons of the year. Towards
the sea they expand into broad lakes or winding lagoons, caused in the south by
the formation of sand-dunes. Towards the north, where the mountains are closer
to the sea, there are often fine waterfalls, including the stupendous Gersoppa Falls,
near Honawar, with a sheer drop of 800 feet.

The mineral wealth has been but slightly exploited, but the vegetable products
are of the greatest importance. The mountains grow tea, cinchona, coffee, and
cardamoms; the forest slopes fibres, pepper, nutmegs, cloves, &c.; the plains
tapioca, palms of all sorta, plantains, and rice. Rubber is being introduced with
good hopes of success. ‘he forests provide an immense amount of valuable timber,
such as teak, blackwood, ebony, sandal, and bamboo. They abound in big game:
elephant, tiger, bison, deer, &c. The red laterite soil, rich vegetation, and green
rice fields, mountain and river views, make the scenery wonderfully beautiful.

Ethnologically the country is very interesting but very puzzling. The popula-
tion is essentially Dravidian, but has been considerably modified by Aryan
(Brahman) settlers, through the prevalence of the matriarchal family system. In
the mountain and forest parts many odd and isolated racial fragments are found,
belonging to all stages of civilisation, and suggesting that here is to be found the
ethnical substratum of South Asia. Dress, arrangement of hair, architecture, and
family system are all quite distinct from those oi the East. Religious systems
vary, from tree, snake, and devil worship, and other primitive faiths, up through
Saivite Hinduism to philosophic theism. Caste still exercises a potent influence.
The modern use of the term obscures the fundamental identity of race and caste,
and the perfectly natural origin of ceremonial pollution, through the connection
between godliness and cleanliness. At first a necessary good, caste is now,
perhaps, a necessary evil. In Malabar it is much complicated through the
matriarchate.

The early history of this coast is very obscure. In modern times the chief
events have been the founding of the State of Travancore by King Marthanda
Varma, the rule of Hyder and Tippu in Mysore, and the overthrow of the latter
by the British, followed by gradual pacification and progress. Serfdom still lingers,
though no longer enforceable by law.

The chief towns are along the coast, usually near the mouths of rivers, which
are the chief means of communication. The Malayali style of architecture, with
concave roof-ridges and carved wooden gables, is quite distinct from any other
style in India, and is probably due to the use of bamboo and teak for building,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 637

Population is very irregularly distributed and its increase but slight. As in the
tropics generally, it has a much smaller administrative value than population in
a temperate climate. Even in India this value varies greatly. The contrast be-
tween the East Coast and the West Coast population of South India is very marked,
the cause being in part racial, in part climatic. The commercial importance of
the Malabar coast depends mainly on its raw products. Cocoanut fibre and oil,
spices, tea, and coffee are exported ; rice imported.

The Malayalis have hitherto somewhat lagged behind the Tamils of the Kast
Coast, but are rapidly catching them up, though not yet so disciplined, methodi-
cal, persevering, or enterprising. Among their characteristics are good-nature,
hospitality, politeness, piety, and personal cleanliness. The type represented by
the Bengali Babu is not found in South India or Bombay. The real new Hindu
is very different trom ‘Mr. Jabberjee,’ and usually stays in India, Contempt for
him is altogether inappropriate and often grossly unfair. The great need is for a
sane and intelligent sympathy and for co-operation on a fair and stable basis. _

In conclusion, the author pointed out the astonishing progress which has been
made in the Malabar Coast States during the last fifty years, and insisted on the
need of firm but tactful and sympathetic treatment of old institutions, of efficiency,
honesty, and continuity in administration. South India could best be helped by
giving her ablest sons the highest possible training and education.

6. A Geographical Object-lesson : Passes of the Alps.
By A. W. ANDREws.

The grouping of the scattered information which constitutes geographical
knowledge is essential for a true understanding of the influence of physical
features on the life and intercourse of the inhabitants of any region.

Only those who can travel or have leisure and opportunity to read widely, to
study photographs and maps, and to think out the relations of cause and effect, can
hope to grasp the inner meaning of history and geography, and unfortunately the
majority of teachers of geography do not, as a rule, belong to this small class.

’ It has therefore been suggested that a series of object-lessons should be put
together in the form of lantern slides, each lesson dealing with one aspect of
geography such as peaks, passes, and glaciers, coast lines, regions of vegeta-
tion, &e.

It is proposed also to prepare a short pamphlet on each subject, explaining the
maps and views and containing suggestions as to their use. It is hoped that the
first two sets, peaks and glaciers, and passes of the Alps, will be ready for use in
September.

The paper gave a general sketch of the aims and constitution of a typical set,
including geographical and political maps of the Alps and their main subdivisions,
maps showing river basins, railways, &c., with views of characteristic natural
features.

7. The Scottish Antarctic Expedition. By W.S. Bruce.

8. The First True Maps. By C. R. Beazury, UA.

This paper dealt with the ‘Portolani, or coast-plans, intended as practical guides
to sailors and merchants, which made their appearance at the close of the thirteenth
and beginning of the fourteenth century, and which are not only the first true sea-
charts, but likewise the earliest designs in which any part of the earth’s surface is
laid down from actual observation of a close and continuous character. In their
almost modern accuracy they form a striking contrast with the results of the older
literary or theological geography, and the problem of their sudden appearance in
such comparative perfection is deserving of more study than it has yet received, at
least in this country.

638 , REPORT—1904.

The author described the general characteristics of these Portolani, tracing
their evolution from the ‘Carte Pisane’ and the first design of Giovanni de
Carignano (of the opening years of the fourteenth century) to the more complete
examples, in which certain characteristic representations of the coasts dealt with
have become more or less established. In contrast with the uniformity of the
general features of the maps, the loxodrome network displays great variation,
two designs of exactly similar character in this respect being rarely met with. As
regards the origin of the Portolani, he upheld the views of Fischer (as
opposed to those of Nordenskiéld), that the chief credit in the matter justly rests
with the Italians rather than the Catalans, and pointed out the difficulties in the
way of accepting the Byzantine origin suggested in 1881 by Fiorini. He con-
cluded by showing how all genuine progress in geographical delineation followed
the lines of the Portolani, and pointing out that their failure for long to meet
with just appreciation was due to the fact that they never attempted to gratify
popular taste.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 639

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE Suction—Professor WILLIAM SMART, M.A., D.Phil, LL.D.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18,
The President delivered the following Address :—

For the last two years I have been continuously engaged, as a Commissioner, in
studying the phenomena of the Housing of the Poor and the problems which arise
therefrom, as presented in the evidence laid before the Glasgow Municipal Com-
mission. It is, perhaps, appropriate that I should draw upon the experience thus
gained for the substance of my Address to-day.

The problem of housing in Glasgow is, in broad outline, very much the
problem of all large centres of population and industry. The city grew up,
without a plan, in days when the laws of public health were little understood or
cared for; when there was little municipal control and little thought for the
municipal future. It has now to undo its mistakes.

Fifty years ago people had not, I think, a very keen sense of smell; certainly
they did not associate bad smells with danger to health. They did not regard the
darkness of the narrow street and the narrow window as objectionable. If I may
trust my early recollections, as one who has lived in Glasgow from childhood,
they associated smoke too much with their bread and butter to dream of grumbling
at.it. They were rather afraid of cold water, and baths were almost unknown.
Perhaps they were fonder of each other's society than we are; at any rate, they
rather preferred to live as many as possible in one room and sleep three in a bed.

When the city came to its senses, about forty years ago, and realised what an
Augean stable there was to clear out, it turned to the work with « will. Consider-
ing the still unformed state of public opinion, the City Improvement Act of 1866 was
a very drastic one. It scheduled whole areas of slums and pulled them down,
dishousing, within five years, some 19,000 persons; rating for deficits to the
amount of some 600,000/. altogether ; and the burden was borne without much
demur. By the time the Act had done its work, the public mind had become
thoroughly awake to the danger of letting things alone. Further powers were
asked and obtained for closing, demolition, and rebuilding. Four years ago was
passed the Building Regulations Act, which, in addition to regulating the con-
struction of new houses, made the provision of sufficient air and light space in front
of the bedroom windows compulsory, and this was so far retrospective that over
4,000 houses, conforming to sanitary requirements in other respects, became
on a certain date ‘ illegal houses’ simply from the fact that they had not the
sufficient space outside.

These measures did not pass without criticism, but generally it was recognised
that they were demanded in the interests of public health. When, however, it was
realised that dishousing on this large scale was accepted by a very large section of

640 REPORT—1904.

the Municipality as logically calling for municipal housing on a similarly large
scale, public attention was roused. It began to come home to the citizens that
very gigantic operations were being carried out, and very gigantic responsibilities
for the future being incurred, without, as it seemed, any thorough diagnosis
or any definite plan. The whole problem was seen to he one which, in other
circumstances, would have called fora Royal Commission, The demand was made
for a local inquiry on similar lines; and, when the Prime Minister gave his cordial
approval to such an inguiry, the Municipality appointed a mixed Commission of
nine councillors and six private citizens, with a remit to examine (a) the causes
which led to congested and insanitary areas and overcrowding; (5) the remedies
which could or should be adopted for the clearance of existing congested, insani-
tary, and overcrowded areas, and for the prevention of these evils in future; and
(c) any other phases of or questions connected with the housing problem in Glas-
gow which the Commission may deem it desirable, necessary, or expedient to con-
sider and report upon.

The evidence, report, and recommendations are now before the public.
Generally speaking, they bear out the conclusion that many things hitherto dis-
cussed as parts of the Housing Problem are not problems at all, but phenomena
which merely need to be known to secure that they are put an end to. Slums
must be cleared away; streets must be widened; overcrowding must be pre-
vented; the liberty of the landlord to sell and of the tenant to use insanitary
houses must be interfered with; light and air space must be guarded as a right of
the poor. These are dictates of public health and public morals, and the Com-
mission calls for the firm administration of powers which the Municipality already
has and for further powers where these are not sufficient.

Connected incidentally with this there are, indeed, minor problems, such as
questions of procedure, of acquisition, of compensation, and the like; but, so far
as I am able to judge, the real Housing Problem of to-day narrows itself down to
this: how far the experience gained points in the direction of the Municipality
itself building and owning houses for certain of the poorer classes.

To this the Commission has contributed an answer in so far that, in the
special circumstances of Glasgow, it recommends a limited scheme of municipal
building and owning. But it adds the words ‘without expressing any opinion
upon the general policy of municipal housing.’

I venture to think that there is no more pressing duty now incumbent on
economists than to take up this general question. I propose, then, first, to con-
sider building and owning of house property as a branch of municipal activity ;
and, secondly, to examine the particular circumstances which suggest a revision or
relaxation of general principles.

For a Municipality, deliberately and of set intention, to add a new competitive
industry to its already manifold activities, is a serious matter from three points of
view.

(1) House-owning is a business, and it is neither a routine business nor one
where success is certain. So far as it has not a monopoly, a Municipality cannot
presume upon demand—cannot command a remunerative sale for what it provides.
As a builder, it has advantages and it has disadvantages; as an owner, it has
also advantages and disadvantages—particularly, perhaps, in that it has a con-
science.

Assuming, however, that a Municipality can manage its enterprises as well as
private citizens manage theirs, and that its house-owning covers all recognised
expenses and runs no risk of coming upon the rates, what must be emphasised is
that it pledges the future ratepayers for the security of all the capital borrowed.
It is short-sighted to conceal the dangers and responsibilities of this by calling such
a debt ‘productive.’ Borrowed capital changed into stone and lime certainly
remains an ‘asset,’ but whether the asset is worth much, or little, or nothing,
depends on the value which future generations will put upon it. An old mill may
be ‘good’ for half a century more as a building, and yet be worth less than
nothing as a mill. So may a tenement of houses, by change of circumstances, lose

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 641

its rent-producing capacity and cali only for demolition long before it has suffered
much deterioration as a building, In such circumstances the ideal kind of house
would be one constructed to last, say, thirty years at the outside. But this, of
course, is the last thing that Municipalities in their present mood would think of
doing, and they generally make it impossible by their own building regulations.
Besides this, there is the consequence of the ‘ economic trespass ;’ that dwelling-
houses for the poor generally take up the space of buildings of a more remunerative
character, and so keep down the rateable value of the area, while increasing its
expenses.

(2) It enters into direct competition with many of its own ratepayers, com-
peting not only with the comparatively small class of builders, but with the great
class of owners of house property. Apart from the equity of this, which is too
large a question to enter on here, the results may be very serious. Free com-
petition of producers to serve the public is, of course, a good thing, and in
nothing, perhaps, is it more desirable than in the purveying of houses, where the
length of time required for erection tends to some extent towards monopoly. But
competition is good because, and to the extent that, it keeps down prices by
increasing supply, and the action of a Municipality working with money borrowed
at a gilt-edged security rate is very likely to have the opposite effect; it may
result in a positive diminution of the total supply of houses, and so a rise of rent,
by reason of the discouragement given to private builders through the appearance
of a rival with whom they cannot compete on equal terms. The monopoly which
Municipalities secure for their other industries prevents such a danger; but it must
be emphasised that a Municipality supplying a few hundred houses, where the well-
being of the citizens as a whole depends on private enterprise continuing to supply
some hundreds of thousands, occupies an entirely different position -from a
Municipality providing ald the water, gas, electricity, and tramway service which
the citizens may demand.

(3) By pledging the public credit for a new debt, and adding a new activity
and responsibility to already overworked members of the Municipality, it pro
tanto prevents the expansion of municipal activity in other directions. Public
functions, however admirable, must be limited by the public purse, and probably
will be limited, long before that purse is exhausted, by the ratepayers’ revolt against
increased rates.

This must not be regarded as special pleading against furthur increase of
municipal duties and expenses. Anyone who studies the growing complexity of
city life and its increasing requirements of inspection, control, and administration
generally, to say nothing of its possible expansion in other industrial and com-
mercial directions, must be impressed with the necessity and magnitude of the
tasks that lie before public bodies in the future, and must recoguise the inexpe-
diency of taking on any new burden without the most serious consideration. He
will at least ask that the cost be counted and definite limits laid down. And
these limits, in the present case, are not easily laid down. To mention only one
thing: it would be exceedingly difficult, on grounds of equity, to justify the giving
of an advantage to one class and refusing it to another, and, when that was done, to
establish courts and criteria which should define and limit the class favoured.
But unless such definitions and limitations were attempted, the Municipality
would be embarked on an expenditure of which no one could see the end.

These are considerations against municipal building and owning derived from
the general principles which should, in my opinion, regulate all municipal expansion.
They are not, of course, decisive against it. But they suggest that very definite and
weighty reasons must be put forward on the other side.

t will be admitted that the interests of public health, public morals, and
industrial efficiency are definite and weighty reasons, and I should give the most
sincere consideration to the argument of those who ask for municipal housing
on such grounds. There are some respects in which the provision of houses seems
to come under the natural work of a Municipality almost as much as do the pro-
visions of gas and water. The house, as the condition of the home, stands at the

1904, TT

642 REPORT—1904.

very centre of individual morality and health, and, as such, is a direct condition
of the efficiency of labour. It is far too little realised that a sanitary and comfort-
able house among quiet neighbours has a ‘productive value,’ and is, quite
definitely, one of the factors of wage-earning ; in other words, a good house, as
compared with a slum, brings with it the possibility of paying a higher rent for it.
The point which specially suggests municipal building and owning is that muni-
cipal control over certain classes of house—control even violating the sanctity of
the Englishman’s castle—is necessary in these interests. We have in Glasgow
20,000 houses whose doors must open at any hour of the night at the knock of
the sanitary inspectors. In a city every house is either a centre of good influence
or of contamination material and moral, and, the more closely houses are
packed, the more definite the need of positive control and regulation. Such
control obviously would be most effective in the hands of a Municipality that
owned the houses. In view, then, of the actual circumstances of slum life which
prevail in every large city, and in view of the hopelessness of escape on the part of
the low-paid wage-earner from such contagious influences, there seems prima facte
a strong case for the provision of at least one- and two-roomed houses by an
agency which would aim primarily at affording to the tenants the conditions of
health, morality, and efficiency, not only in the construction of the houses, but in
their continued administration and control. I have always held that the owning
of poor-class property carries with it a moral responsibility which is not escaped
by the owner shutting his eyes and leaving the administration to his factor; and,
on similar grounds, much might be said for a Municipality owning and letting all
the small houses within its area. This would at least secure a ‘clean city.’

Such a position, then, is quite intelligible as a counsel of perfection, and it
might be worth consideration in the case of a city planned, like a garden city,
from the beginning. But, in the actual circumstances of our cities, | mention it
merely to bring out my point. For there is no proposal before any Municipality
of to-day of taking over and making a monopoly of the supply of small houses,
or even of building all the small houses in the future. The utmost that has been
proposed is the building and letting of a limited number of such houses in direct
rivalry with private builders and owners. And the question which must be
answered is: On what principle, or with what view, is this limited proposal
made ?

If it were to afford an experiment, and an object-lesson, as was done with
the happiest results in the case of the Corporation lodging-houses in Glasgow,
where the rise in the standard not only swept out the old and very objectionable
lodging-houses, but led to the large increase of private ‘models’ competing success-
fully with the municipal ones, there would probably be nothing but approval.
It seems a legitimate use of public money to make public experiments which
would otherwise not be made, so long as it is recognised that experiments which
fail should be given up. But if the proposal is made in the full recognition
that such an experiment is not an object-lesson, inasmuch as it cannot be followea
by private enterprise ; if the reason given for it is that a certain class of tenants
cannot pay the rent which private enterprise must have if it is to continue
its supply, and that the Municipality, as having command of capital at a very
low rate of interest, can afford to undersell the market rents without coming
on the rates, the matter is put on an entirely different basis. The attractiveness
of a ‘clean city’ is one thing; the attractiveness of low rents is another.

Let us look for a moment at the principles on which certain services are set
aside for the Government to perform. The great mass of the national income is
produced by individuals of the community dividing their labour and selling their
products to each other, competing with each other as producers to serve the whole
body of themselves as consumers. But there are two great classes of services
which are not left to individual competition. (1) External defence, justice, police,
poor relief, &c., are given over to the Government, the expenses being covered by
taxation. The principle of payment is ability, or, more philosophically, equi-
marginal sacrifice, on the old Platoaic principle that the best state is that which
is likest the individual, and that the citizen should pay to the national house-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 643

keeping on the same scale as he pays to his own private housekeeping. (2) In
addition to these, certain other services are given over to the Government, central
or local: they are made monopolies, and the products are sold at a non-competitive
pric, Such are the Post Office and Telegraph services, and in many cases gas,
water, and tramway service. It is with this second class that we are concerned
here, and regarding them three points must be emphasised.

The first is that the reason why these services are reserved to Government is
certainly not that they can be rendered more cheaply by Government, It is,
indeed, a debatable point whether they can be; where competition is not allowed,
this must remain a matter of opinion. They are always reserved for some ulterior
reason of public interest—some interest which might be imperiled in the conflict
of private competition.

The second is that, in such cases, the Government services are general services :
they are provision, on the basis of the taxpayers’ or ratepayers’ security, of com-,
modities and services used and enjoyed by the great majority of the citizens.

The third is that in these services, so far as 1 am aware, there is no precedent
for the Government selling to one class at a cheaper rate than it sells to another,
on the ground that the class in question ‘cannot afford it.’ The poorest man pays
a penny for a stamp; the richest citizen of Glasgow pays no more than a half-
penny for a car-stage.

But in the limited proposal. we are now considering, what is being advocated
is Government provision of a certain commodity for one class alone, and the
ground taken undisguisedly is, that Government can provide this commodity
more cheaply than private enterprise can, and that this class cannot afford more.
It is not, indeed, proposed that the Municipality should rent at one price to the
richer and another to the poorer tenant ; but it is proposed that the Municipality
should rent to one class at a rate which the other classes cannot possibly enjoy.

I do not think the problem can be understood, or its gravity estimated, till it is
grasped that here the Municipality—the public trustee—is asked to give consent
to a new principle and precedent for spending public money. Take the argument
in its concrete form in Glasgow. Owing to (a) increased accommodation and
conveniences, occasioned chiefly by statutory enactment; (4) increased cost of
construction through the rise in wages and in the price of material; (c) increased
cost of maintenance, not only owing to the rise in wages, but owing to the frequent
abuse and destruction by careless tenants of the expensive fittings which modern
science demands ; (d) increase in landlords’ taxes; (¢) increased value of land,
especially in the centre of the city—it seems that houses of one and two apart-
ments are not being built to let at less than 6/. and 9/ respectively, as against
5J. 6s. and 8/. 10s. in 1891. It is represented that there is a class of wage-
earners who cannot pay these rents. It is asserted that, in virtue of its advantages,
the Municipality can build and let such houses at 4/, 10s, and 8/. respectively,
and it is stated, without more ado, that it is bound to do so.

There are two propositions here which cannot be allowed to pass without
examination: the first is that there is a class which cannot afford the higher rent ;
the second, that this is a valid reason for the Municipality providing them with
a lower one,

(1) Somewhat to the surprise of the Commissioners, it was given in evi-
dence that, while wages generally have risen, there are labourers in Glasgow
who are not earning more than 17s. a week—and these not casual labourers, but
able-bodied men, in regular employment, and of ordinarily steady habits. ‘To
such a class sixpence a week is undoubtedly a serious consideration, and, although
one might be inclined to ask if the sixpence could not, with great advantage to
themselves and their families, be taken off the conventional necessaries of drink and,
perhaps, tobacco, the point need not be pressed. My reason for doubting if even this
class ‘cannot afford’ sixpence a week extra for a house is that one of the causes,
perbaps the principal one, why such men earn only 17s. is that they live in con-
ditions which lower health and efficiency, and make them inefficient and unreliable
workers. I fully acknowledge that such people could not pay sixpence extra for
the rent of a slum such as they are occupying, but I cannot forget the ‘ productive

TT 2

644 REPORT—1904.

value’ of the modern higher rented house. It seems to me that fresh air, and
quiet sleep at nights, and surroundings which would react on the character and
conduct of the person on whom so much depends—the wife—might easily add far
more than sixpence to the earning power of the household. :

There is, unhappily, a class to whom this does not, directly at least, apply
There are thousands of workers whose wages are not 17s., but an average of 12s.—
regular workers, and workers who could not take sixpence off their liquor and
tobacco for the reason that they neither drink nor smoke. I mean women workers.
And to these, I submit, a good house would have a greaier ‘ productive value’
than to men, for they are more subject to the illnesses and little ailments and
depression which dock their wages by hours in the day and days in the month.
So far as I can see, they are outside the housing question altogether, from the fact
that they could not afford an independent house even at the lowest municipal
rents. ‘They must remain in the family as subsidiary wage-earners, or club
together, or lodge. ‘

(2) But assuming the very strongest case, that there is a class of unfortunate
people who absolutely cannot afford to pay sixpence a week more, I should still
say that this in itself is no reason why the Municipality should build. To supply
them with houses under the market rate would be to introduce a new precedent
and principle into Government industries which would lead us far. It would be
using the credit of the entire body of the ratepayers to subsidise one small class
of them ; it would be, in essence, similar to the old legislation which kept down
the price of bread when the harvest was bad, without the extenuation that such
a measure kept down the price to everybody. It would be a rate in aid of wages.
And if there is any lesson to be learned from the bitter experience of a century
ago, it is that the evil of a rate-in-aid is, not so much that it punishes those who
have to subscribe to it,as that it punishes those who receive it, in that it effectually
prevents wages from rising.

The employer in towns has certain economic advantages over his rivals out-
side. He is at a centre of supply of all the agents of production and at a centre
of demand for his goods. The play of competition balances this by imposing on him
in general the charge of higher wages—a consequence and possibility recognised by
the trade-union practice of fixing the standard wage slightly higher in town than
in country. Unfortunately there is in all large cities a class who, from physical
and mental disqualifications, from want of education and technical opportunity,
and from want of organisation, must take very much the lowest wage which will
keep them in life and moderate animal efficiency; and this class tends to be in
over-supply from the fact that misfortune drains into it the failures of all the
other classes. The existence of this class is a public misfortune; their low wages
are not only bad of themselves, but they go to the very root of the future of
labour, in that they prevent the children from getting out of the class. Rising
rent, the natural etfect of a large population and great business premises competing
for a limited area of situation, is the healthy deterrent of the abnormal influx of
such labour. For a Municipality to give these unfortunate people houses sixpence
a week cheaper is to allow of them accepting sixpence a week less of wage than
the circumstances would otherwise force the employer to give. It is not, of
course, that employers, taking advantage of the helplessness of this class, would
deliberately force their wages down by sixpence. It is that, in the present highly
specialised organisation of industry, unskilled labour is in less and less demand,
while, from the circumstances mentioned, it tends to be in over-supply ; and this
surplus labour offers itself for any wage that will keep it alive. As Mr. Booth
says, ‘the poverty of the poor is mainly the result of the competition of the very
poor.’ To deny such a causal connection between wages and public subsidies on
the ground that it is ‘only sixpence a week,’ or that ‘people do not come into
cities because they can get cheap houses,’ is like refusing to believe in natural
law because one cannot actually see the minute movements which constitute its
operation. If, then, it becomes known that, in addition to the other attractions
ot a city, good houses at slum rents are assured to everyone who is poor enough,
it seems to me inevitable that this will further tempt the influx of unskilled

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 645

labour—and, unhappily, farm labour, skilled in its own fields, becomes unskilled
when transferred to the streets and factories,

This, then, being the general argument against municipal building and owning
of houses for the poorest classes, 1 go on to consider if there may not be cireum-
stances in the evolution of a city which may justify the relaxation of the principle.
Glasgow again afiords an object-lesson. If the houses which are a danger to
public health, as hopelessly insanitary, are pulled down; if ‘back lands’ and
obstructive buildings are demolished; if the houses which are by law pronounced
‘illegal’ and cannot, from their structure and situation, be altered, are closed; and
if the overcrowding laws are put sternly in force, something between 15,000 and
20,000 persons will be turned out, and will not be able to find houses at rents
such as they were paying—for these measures will practically root out the low-
rented houses in Glasgow. Many of the 15,000 or 20,000, no doubt, are well-paid
wage-earners who will be the better of being forced into higher-rented houses ;
many of them, again, are dissolute and drunken persons who should be ‘hustled ’
from pillar to post till there is no room for them among honest people. But
many of them, in all probability, are respectable persons who, from the causes
already mentioned, have come down to the 17s,-a-week level. What are these
people to do? Granted that the low-rented slum property should never have
been allowed to come into existence or continue; granted that the best thing that
could happen to such labourers as a class is that it should be made impossible for
them to accept these low wages; still it is a very drastic thing to take away the
patient’s bed in order to force him to walk.

Here I am chiefly impressed by two things. The first is that it is municipal
inaction and municipal action which are responsible for the hardship.

(a) It is by no fault of their own that the people to be dispossessed are in occu-

pation of these low-class houses. The Municipality for years allowed these houses
to come into and remain in existence, and, to that extent, the Municipality is
responsible for the low standard of life which allowed the tenants to take the low
wages,
(2) It is to a great extent new municipal requirements that have made it im-
possible to build houses to be let at the old rents. To mention only a few of these:
each adult must have 400 feet of air space, which means larger apartments; there
must be ample sanitary appliances, involving expensive plumber-work ; there are
provisions for thickness of walls and solidity of construction, which many builders
declare quite unnecessary,

The second is that, on its way towards conferring a great public benefit, this
municipal action is likely to inflict serious hardship on a class who are least of all
able to bear it. It is a recognised principle, in the science of public finance, that the
charge of any general public benefit defrayed from rates or taxes should be spread
over the citizens in proportion to their ability. In the present case, we have a great
beneficent measure of public health by which all the citizens will gain, and in quite
indeterminate measure ; and, although this is not defrayed from the rates, by parity
of reasoning it seems to follow that one class, and that the least able to bear the
burden, should not be made to bear the heavy end of it. Granted that, by the opera-
tion of ordinary economic law, wages will ultimately rise to cover the higher rent
demanded by private enterprise, and granted also that the houses at a higher
rent have a ‘productive value’ which will itself enable the tenant to pay more
rent, in virtue of giving him immunity from sickness, depression, low vitality, and
_ bad neighbours, still this operation takes time, and, till time is given for the eco-
nomic forces to work, there will be great hardship.

There is, besides, an opportunist argument. There seems to be no doubt that
the magistrates and responsible officials have hitherto shrunk from carrying out
their powers because of the hardship that will be entailed. If this hardship can
be avoided, there will remain no excuse and no reason for not proceeding rigorously
with measures which otherwise might be somewhat extreme.

It is in consideration of these circumstances that the Glasgow Commission has
recommended the erection by the Municipality, up to the extent of certain powers

646 REPORT—1904.

possessed hy them under special Acts, of tenements of one- and two-apartment
houses, to be reserved exclusively for respectable people of the poorest class,
preference being given to those dispossessed; such houses to be situated, if
possible, near to the area of dispossession, and to be under carefully selected
caretakers,

It will be seen that the amount of building recommended is limited, the money
which the Municipality can spend under the Acts referred to being fixed and known.
One would have liked, perhaps, that it should have been more rigorously limited.
It would have been quite possible to take a rough census of the people dispossessed
and build houses only to the number necessary to accommodate those who really
suffer by the dispossession—the respectable poor at low wages. And what one
would have liked, besides, was the clear laying down of the principle that this is an
exceptional measure, due to an exceptional set of circumstances which can never
occur again if the Municipality lives up to the powers it has sought and obtained
from Parliament. Insanitary and illezal houses should never again be allowed to
come into existence. Overcrowding can now be rigorously kept in check. It will
clearly be the fault of the Municipality if such a problem recurs.

But, on the whole, the recommendation seems to me a wise one. It escapes
the chief objection, that of tempting an influx of new unskilled labour. It does
not add to the supply of cheap houses, but merely fills the gaps which municipal
action has itself caused. It has not advised the drastic step of compelling a rise
of wages by suddenly making it impossible for a class to live without paying higher
rent—which would have heen accompanied by the serious danger of driving many
over the verge of subsistence—but it does not give any occasion for still further
lowering wages, and there is the positive good that the houses to be provided are
such as naturally make men and women better workers, who will command a
eradually increasing wage.

There is, indeed, I am afraid, a ‘loose end’ in the result of the Commission.
To its subsequent regret it was confined, by the limitations of its remit, to the
consideration of housing within the city boundaries, and Greater Glasgow is
growing more rapidly outside these boundaries. I said that the problems of
Glasgow grew up because the city refused to look forward and lay down the lines
of its growth. Unhappily, that course is still forced upon it, in that it has no
control over the operations of its suburbs. Everyone knows that, in the near
future, Glasgow must extend its jurisdiction and responsibilities. There is too
much reason to fear that, when that time comes, the city will fall heir to the same
problem as it has now to face—insanitary property and ill-planned districts. This
is a problem of all growing cities, and, in my opinion, a most urgent one.

3ut this is not the whole of Glasgow’s answer to its Housing Problem. The
municipal houses are to be reserved for the respectable poor. What about the
non-respectable—probably the majority of those who will be dispossessed? So
far as I can see, the criminal and the dissolute have no claim on the community
so far as regards housing. They must be ‘ hustled;’ that is, life must be made as
difficult as possible for them, till either they can find no rest for the sole of their
foot among decent people, or are driven to reform. And this hustling will be
done to a considerable extent when all the insanitary and illegal houses are done
away with, when the Corporation houses are closed against them, and when
private enterprise is assisted to get rid of them, as the Commission recommends,
by more stringent laws against the habits of disorderly and destructive tenants,
and by more summary powers of ejectment. But there are many who are neither
criminal nor hopelessly dissolute, and yet cannot rise simply because they are
down. They have lost their character; money cannot buy them a decent house
because they have no factor’s line or other guarantee that they are fit for the
possession of it. It is this class, perhaps, that will be most heavily hit by the
dispossession, and for them also it seems that some compensatory provision should
be made by the Municipality. And this seems also in the interests of the com-
munity, for, if these people are not lifted up, they will be driven down.

Hence the recommendation of the Commission that ‘an experiment should be
made in the erection of a building or buildings for those who, while unable to

~~ — 7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 647

show any factor’s line or other certificate, are willing to submit to necessary regu-
lations as to cleanliness, respectable living, order, and punctual payment of rent,
with the view of rehabilitating their character, and in time qualifying for a better
house ; such houses to be of the plainest construction, with indestructible fittings,
and capable of being quickly and efficiently cleansed.’

It is avowedly an experiment. The difficulty is not to provide such houses,
but to get the proper people to go into them. If any social obloquy is allowed to
attach to these houses, the proper people will not go into them. But it is an
experiment to which I think everyone will wish Godspeed. At any rate, it
removes the last excuse for not going forward systematically, rigorously, and
continuously with the renovation, closure, demolition, and prevention of over-
crowding which are the beginnings of any solution of the Housing Problem,

The following Papers were read :—
1. Tests of National Progress! By A. lL. Bow ry, M.A.

In a paper read at Southport the author suggested tests by which the
national progress in economic well-being might be measured over any defined
period. The necessary statistics covering the forty years from 1860 are now
offered. The test measurements are of wages, employment, income, prices,
and consumption. An index number is formed for average wages, allowing for
irregularity of work. A new estimate is made for income, subject to income-tax,
allowing for all the changes in methods of assessment, and including estimates for
income unduly escaping tax ; and a special method is employed for dealing with
the changes in the exemption limit. An index number is them formed for
average income. The two series of index numbers, for wages and income, are
found to have very many points of resemblance; both show a rapid rise from
1860 to 1874, a fall to 1878, two fluctuations to 1893, and a rapid rise to 1900,
The series are then combined, and allowance is made for the fluctuations of prices;
the resulting index number shows a nearly regular progress throughout the forty
years, The index number for consumption of common necessaries also shows
fairly regular progress. It is contended that the series used are consistent with
and support each other, and that there has been steady progress decade by decade,
though perhaps less rapid and continuous than the final series suggests, Other
tests are considered, and rejected because of their incompleteness.

2. A Moot Point in the Theory of International Trace.
By Professor F. Y. Eparwortn, D.C.L.

Whether under circumstances not very extraordinary, with a probability worth
taking into account, the abandonment of Protection might lead to a permanent
diminution in the numbers and income of the working class? This question,
raised by Sidgwick, was discussed with special reference to Professor Bastable’s
observations on the disputed point in the Appendix to his ‘Theory of Inter-
national Trade.’

3. The Influence of Agricultural Improvements on Rent.
By Professor A. W. Frux, JA.

The reprinting of Malthus’ pamphlet on ‘The Nature and Progress of Rent’
has suggested the comparison of his conclusions with those suggested by a study
of rent diagrams. In this paper the integral diagram was employed, that is, the
abscissse represent outlay on cultivation; the corresponding ordinates represent
the total return secured.

' Published in the Heonomic Journal, September 1904,

648 REPORT—1904,

Three cases were examined : (1) Effect of a change of value of agricultural
produce’; (2) effect of changes of method, increasing in the same proportion the
return to all outlay on cultivation; (8) effect of changes which increase the
return to some scales of cultivation and diminish those to others. Decreasing
returns were assumed throughout.

In the first case a rise of price yields increase of rent generally, though on
the question of the proportion which rent bears to total produce the result may
vary with the intensity of cultivation. The second case is but the first under
another form. In the third case there cannot be stated any general rule as to the
direction of change. The combination of the second and third cases will give the
most general case. The conclusion that improvements tend in all cases to
decrease the proportion which rent bears to total produce, appears not to be sup-
ported by the presentation of the case in diagrammatic form.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Incidence of Protective Duties on the Industry and Food Supply
of France. By Yvns Guyor.

From the inquiries made by ‘ L’Office du Travail’ on wages and hours of labour,
and from the publications entitled ‘Bordereaux de Salaires,’ the following
is the percentage, in numerical order of importance, of the two chief industries of
France :—Labour employed on modes, lingerie, garments, 20°47 ; labour employed
in textile industries (cotton-spinning and weaving, wool-combing and cloths), 14°17.

Group I. includes 1,340,000 persons. All Customs duties which fall on textiles,
and therefore raise the price of their primary material, by striking at their
export, keep down the rise of these industries, and are one of the causes of a fall
in wages.

The three years’ annual average of exports of clothing and lingerie, before and
after the tariffs of 1892, was:—

Franes
1889-1891 . : : : : 5 . 120,300,000
1894-1896 . 4 , : : : . 93,800,000

a fall of 22 per cent.

The average rose again, 1900-02, to 184,100,000 franes; a rise, compared with
1889-91, of 11 per cent. In the case of sewed lingerie the following is the position
of its export :—

Kilogrammes Franes

1es9LBE9I 0", Oye “1,080;000 54,600,000
TOOT + 2(. paige. nt Su-amgg gab 20,400,000
TORT or Hiyromlye daltaye daoipy 19,800,000

Some woven stuffs, such as Irish linen, cannot be produced in France. The
Customs duties prohibit their entry, and the manufacture of a certain number of
articles has to be left to foreign competitors

It is the same in the case of the export of men’s made-up garments :

Kilogrammes Francs
1877-1886 : ; . 1,642,000 38,367,000
1902 .. : ; . 1,117,000 17,179,000

The export of made-up silk garments for women has increased ; this, however,
is not due to protection, but to the increase in wealth of certain foreign nations,

Cotton woven goods, raw, dyed, and printed, are worth, as exports, from
3 frances 40 centimes to 5 francs per kilogramme ; linen woven goods, from 2 frances

_ i oe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 64.0

80 centimes to 8 francs 89 centimes. These goods, made into shirts, collars, and
sewed lingerie, are worth 40 francs 60 centimes per kilogramme.

The export prices of silk woven goods have been valued for 1902: Plain,
75 franes; figured or brocaded, 88 francs; mixed, 39 francs; figured, 42 francs the
kilogramme. Made-up silk garments for women are valued at 389 francs 50 centimes.
Whence this difference unless it comes from the fashion given to these stuffs ?
And the larger part of this difference between the price of the primary material
and that of the garment represents wages.

In France the woollen industry has a plant whose producing power is double
the amount consumed. The trade has been stationary now for some years, What
is needed here is an outlet, not protection.

The textile manufacturers who never cease to demand protection are the cotton-
spinners (who also weave, or drag the cotton-weaving in their train) and the linen-
spinners. The cotton-spinner earns 2 francs 50 centimes, where the woollen-spinner
earns 4 frances 50 centimes. The number of cotton-spinning spindles in 1891 was
3,779,400, In 1902 it was, according to M. Méline, 6,150,C00, The consumption
of raw cotton, 1889-91, was 143 million kilogrammes; in 1898-1902 it was
178 million kilogrammes. This increase of 24 per cent. is 38 per cent. less than
the increase of the plant, which is 62 per cent., and this takes no account of the
increased fineness of the numbers spun.

All the ectton and linen spinners complain of over-production. They are
reduced to running short time and shutting down, and very often to clearing off
their stock abroad at a loss. Protection has called forth an artificial demand for
labour. Wages are lowered by the irregular employment. It has thus brought
about a series of crises.

The silk industry has need of freedom. Nevertheless, it is tributary to the
duties which have been put on silk yarns and on cotton yarn. Of 3,712,000 kilos.
exported in 1902, 2,024,000 kilos., z.c., 54 per cent., are mixtures which pay the
exorbitant duties that burden the finest numbers of cotton yarn.

It may thus be seen that the clothing and lingerie industries pay quite a special
tribute to the cotton-spinning industry, which represents 50,000 workers, as
against more than 1,400,000.

The silk industry is similarly tributary to it.

The metal industry is divided into two groups: the one representing 0:88 per
cent. in industrial importance, the other 9°55 per cent. In the first are thirty
factories of over 500 workers, representing 50,000 workers. (The caiculation is
exaggerated, as not fifteen of these factories produce pig iron and steel.) The
second group, with 650,000 workers, cotints for 10 per cent. in industrial import-
ance. This group, which comprises builders and smiths, uses iron and steel as
primary material, and pays tribute to the minority which produces them.

The legislation of 1893 had recourse to a system of premiums for naval con-
struction ; if it had not been that the vessels of subsidised postal companies were
bound to be built in France, this legislation would have done away with the
building of steamships. The building of such ships represented, in 1900, 10,396
gress tons; in 1901, 10,190. The building of sailing ships was 78,903 tons in
1900, and 59,320 in 1901. Between 1893 and 1902 the State had paid to attain
this result 183,796,000 francs, not counting about twenty-six millions per annum of
postal subsidies.

In 1884, in order to justify the sugar legislation, M. Méline pleaded the
interest of the workers. Now the number of these workers was 43,896 in 1884-85,
and 40,982 in 1902-03. The total wages during the first year of the legislation
were 15,539,000 frances; during the last, 13,115,000 francs; a reduction of
2,424,000 francs. To attain this result, the Treasury had paid out to the sugar
manufacturers, who numbered no more than 332 in 1902, the sum of 1,109
millions, exclusive of 168 millions as bonus to the colonial sugar industry.

These facts prove that the industries which are most important, both as regards
the number of persons sa pt and the returns, pay tribute to industries which
employ but a limited number, with a much smaller return.

650 REPORT—1904.

II.

The food supply of the Frenchman is heavily hit. In 1796 the celebrated
mathematician Lagrange, in order to estimate the food ration of France, took the
soldier’s ration as typical; then, taking account of the lesser needs of women and
children, he reduced the population by one-fifth. The military ration of those
days was 28 oz. (12 Ib.) of bread and 3 lb. of meat. I take, as he did, the actual
ration of the soldier in times of peace: bread, 1 kilc.; meat (including bone),
300 grammes. Atwater,! in his learned inquiries into the food supply of the
United States, calculates the quantity for a woman at 80 per cent. of that necessary
for a man; for children of two to five years, 40 per cent.; for children of nine
years, 50 per cent.; for children of thirteen years, 60 per cent. and for children of
fourteen years, 80 per cent.

I take for my hypothesis a figure less than the actual one. I assume that the
allowance necessary for a woman is three-quarters that for a man; that the
allowance of an old person can be put at that of a woman; that the allowance of
all children under fifteen years is three-quarters that of a woman; and leave
out of account altogether the food necessary for children under one year.

Under these conditions the total food allowance for every 1,000 inhabitants
would be: Men, 300; women and old persons, 315; children, 195; total, 810. In
round figures the total adults’ allowance comes to four-fifths that of the whole
population. Recent returns and observations on the proportion of the food supply
give exactly the same figures as those reached by Lagrange.

I go, however, still further, and reduce the one-fifth to one-fourth, and, sup-
posing, in order to simplify the calculations, that I take the population of France at
forty millions instead of thirty-nine, I have a total of thirty millions of rations
instead of 30,200,000,

By the duty of 7 francs on corn, 20 franes per quintal live weight of beef,
25 francs per quintal live weight of sheep (which brings the duty on the net weight
of butcher’s meat, including bone, up to 35 francs), the landed proprietors have
secured the monopoly of supplying bread and meat to the population of France.
I shall examine the extent to which they do this.

T shall take the old formula; that 100 kilos. of corn = 100 Klos. of bread.
According to the decennial Agricultural Inquiry of 1892, forty-three out of eighty-
two departments do not produce enough for their ownsupport. In 1902 the wheat
narvest was 8,814,000 tons; the seed sown required 1,050,000 tons. I do not deduct
the 500,000 or 600,000 tons used for industrial purposes. There remain, for purposes
of food, 7,800,000 tons Now 360 kilos. of bread multiplied by 30,000,000 rations
come to 10,800,000 tons. This leaves a deficit of 3,000,000 tons of wheat, or 29 per
cent. Potatoes and vegetables are poor substitutes to fill up such a gap.

With regard to meat, as the annual agricultural statistics do not give the
average production of butcher’s meat, [ shall take the figures supplied by the Agri-
cultural Inquiry of 1892 (p. 304 and onwards).

Net weight in meat of home-grown animals slaughtered: Beef, 720,810 tons ;
sheep, 125,868 tons; pork, 461,600 tons; total, 1,308,000 tons. We have to pro-
vide for 8,240,000 tons. The deficit is, therefore, 1,930,000, or 59 per cent. Ina
word, where 100 kilos. of meat are required, we have 41. [ven with the addition
of 500,000 tons of fish and 173,000 tons of eggs, the deficit is between 40 and 50
per cent. In short, in France we have but half of the animal nourishment required,
and the price continues to rise in the Paris market.

Although, since the duties on corn, no wheat harvest has come up to that of
1874, when the duty was 0°60 centime per 100 kilos., let us assume that, without the
duty of 7 franes, the loss of corn would have risen to 350 millions per annum ; let
us assume that, without duties on meat, it would have been another 350; in all,
700 millions. The protective legislators have not wiped out that loss; they have
relieved the proprietors from it and have laid it on the consumers of bread and
meat,

This transference has been made to the profit of the proprietors of those of the

1 Dietary Studies in New York City, 1896-1897.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 651

168,000 agricultural holdings of more than 40 hectares which produce wheat
(these proprietors own 10,149,000 hectares of arable land and 4,033,000 hectares
of pasture) ; to the profit also, although in a lesser degree, of the proprietors of
the 771,000 agricultural holdings of from 10 to 40 hectares (these own 8,363,000
hectares of arable land and 2,388,000 of pasture). As for the 4,852,000 pro-
prietors of land of less than 10 hectares, they have but 3,339,000 hectares of arable
land and 1,929,000 of grass land to divide among them.

II.

Who, then, has an interest in Protection in France? According to the ‘Re-
censement des Professions,’ established in 1896 by the Minister of Commerce and
Industry, the agricultural industry, which in 1866, with a duty of 0°60 centime,
represented 52 per cent. of the active population, does not now represent more than
47 per cent. in spite of the duty of 7 francs; indeed, the great majority of the
farmers is not interested in Protection. Agricultural establishments which
number only from one to four wage-earners represent 92 per cent. of the whole.
They have but a slight interest in the duty of 7 francs. There remain, then, 8 per
cent. of the agricultural class, many of whom do not grow corn, or, at any rate,
very little.

Industry represents 35 per cent. of the active population, but the little in-
dustries which work up secondary material have no interest in Protection; and
the number of establishments employing no more than cne to four wage-earners
count to 85 per cent.

Commerce accounts for 5 per cent.; and large as well as small commerce is
interested in freedom of exchange, as are also the banks. The same may be said of
the liberal professions, which count for 7 per cent.

Who, then, are interested in Protection? At most 8 per cent. of the agri-
cultural class—z.e., about 3 per cent. of the whole active population.

With the exception of the small group of cotton and linen spinners—-so poorly
paid that they almost believe their fate depends on Protection—the interest of all
the rest lies in Free Trade, which would liberate the industries that are likely to
live from the tyranny of the industries which only exist by favour of Protection.

What do the workers in cotton-spinning factories number? About 40,000.
Add if you will the weavers, many of whom, however, would be interested in
procuring their yarns free, and we haye 160,000. If we include the 50,000
metal-workers (though a certain number of the factories which employ them would
be interested in procuring pig-iron, iron, and steel at the lowest prices) and the
20,000 tanners (whose industry also has more to gain by Free Trade than by Pro-
tection), even then, out of an industrial population of 6,374,000 persons, these
200,000 do not represent more than 3 per cent.

But men of independent means, retired men, members of the liberal profes-
sions, and officers are interested in living cheaply. The soldiers, too, are concerned
in the cheapness of their daily ration. Not 5 per cent.—not one person in twenty
—can be found who is interested in Protection.

Such is the state of affairs in France, It is sufficient to study them closely to
see the errors of Protection—the heavy burden which it imposes on the majority,
one part of which can only escape its weight by that involuntary asceticism called
misery. There are leagues in France against tuberculosis which make noise
enough, but the hygiene of the beef-steak is forgotten, and it is that of which the
working man is mostly in need, especially the working man in France.

2. The Effect of Protection on some German Industries. |
By Professor W. Lotz.

The programme of fiscal reform which from 1&79 until now has ruled German
politics is:
(a) Protective duties upon the importation of food ;
' Published in the Heonumic Journal, December 1904.

642 REPORT—1904.

(b) free importation of raw materials for the use of industries ;
(c) protective duties upon the importation of articles manufactured and partly
manufactured.

Solidarity of the protected national interests was prociaimed. Iffective protec-
tion of national industries, however, cannot be granted but at the expense of other
national interests. Leaving on one side the questions of the effect on consumers,
and whether all agriculturists have got an advantage by the protectionist system,
the author deals with the effect of German Customs duties, railroad rates, and
export bounties, 7.e., of the whole system of ‘ new mercantilism,’ on German indus-
trial classes. Statistics show that production and exportation have increased ; but,
nevertheless, experience and recently the evidence taken by the Imperial Cartell-
Committee prove that some very important branches of German industries suffer
seriously from the protection accorded to others.

Raw materials are universally regarded as unfit subjects of Protection.
Increased cost of raw materials would prevent the manufacturer from exportation.
But free trade in materials gave a special advantage only (a) to those producers who
sell in a protected market articles partly manufactured, as pig-iron, steel, cotton
‘yarns,’ &e. ; (b) to combined or mixed concerns which own coals, iron ores, furnaces,
&e., and produce finished articles from their own or from imported raw materials.

As far as the mine-owners and the producers of articles partly manufactured
have formed syndicates, they endeavour to foree upon their German customers
higher prices than Free Trade would permit. As far as they practised ‘ dumping’
goods on foreign markets, they sold German unfinished articles at preference prices
to the foreign competitors of the German producers of finished articles.

Therefore, those German producers of finished articles, e.g., machines, shoes,
needles, glassware, hosiery, who must buy the articles partly manufactured from
German monopolists, or from abroad as dutiable commodities, get no advantage
from the free importation of raw materials. Having developed to astage in which
they cannot exist without exportation, they would not be endangered by absolute
Free Trade. Unable to form such powerful syndicates and draw so much profit
from the internal market as the protected monopolists, whose customers they are,
the manufacturers of finished articles cannot practise ‘dumping’ in a great style.
On the contrary, their regular exportation is endangered (a) by dumping done
abroad in their materials ; (0) by the internal and external competition of combined
concerns which do not buy any protected articles, but produce all materials them-
selves ; (c) by the effect of duties on food upon the cost of living of their operatives ;
(d) by the general check to exports resulting from protective policy.

Some producers of finished manufactures enjoy special privileges by which the
pernicious effect of higher national prices of unfinished articles is diminished.
Shipbuilders are by special clauses entitled to get what they need at Free Trade
prices; some industries of manufactured iron get from the coal, iron, and steel
syndicates private exportation bounties which, however, are never higher than the
enhancement of price due to Protection and syndicates, Some industries get Govern-
ment drawhaclis ; but even these are not better off than under Free Trade, and the
other producers of finished articles who do not produce their own materials are
the more injured the more Protection and syndicates favoured by it make
progress.

The specialisation of industries cannot be developed so intensively as under Free
Trade. The chief effect of Protection in the present stage of development is
as follows: countries of old civilisation can never in the long run compete
successfully with the new world, by protecting industries mainly dependent on
natural facilities at the expense of industries whose success depends on the intelli-
gence, skill, and training of workmen. By favouring agriculturists and the
producers of bulky industrial articles partly manufactured, the countries of old
civilisation deprive their best champions, the manufacturers of finished articles
which would flourish under Free Trade, of the indispensable advantage of buying
in the cheapest market.

Considered from an evolutionist point, the present state of Protection of bulky

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 653

and syfdicated industries tends to deprive Germany and other countries in an
analogous position of the best natural advantage which they possess in competition
with the other parts of the world, z.e., of superiority in the cheap and skilful
production of finished articles.

3. Free Trade and the Labour Market.!. By Professor H. Dinyzet.

In the controversy as to how the fiscal system influences the stability of the
labour market two main arguments come to the front. The Protectionists assert
that from Free Trade arises (1) the danger of dumping by foreigners; (2) the
danger that crises may break out at home, and that therefore the labour market
fluctuates more under Free Trade than under Protection. Both ideas are
fallacious.

(1) The Dumping Argument.—There are two kinds of dumping: intermittent,
occasional dumping, consequent upon over-production abroad; and regular, de-
liberate dumping arising from the ability of Cartells in Protectionist lands to
sell in other countries at low prices,

(a) Over-production dumping is an evil: it creates great disturbance in the
labour market of the country. It is not, however, abolished by Protection—at
least not by a system of low duties such as now exists in Germany, and is planned
for England. Under Free Trade the danger is no greater, in spite of the fact that
there are no duties to be reckoned with; for a Free Trade country has natural
protection in that the price of wares which it produces, and for which it has to
fear foreign competition, remains lower there in normal circumstances than
anywhere else. In Protectionist lands the duties must indeed be reckoned with ;
but from them the price of home productions is also higher. If in protected
countries prices are higher than in Free Trade countries, yet they are exposed, to
exactly the same extent, to the dangers of dumping.

(6) Trust dumping, since it is chronic, presents no evil from the standpoint of
continuity. It does not disturb the labour market now and again, but rather
causes the working power in the home country to be differently invested than if
it did not exist. If foreign Cartells sell sugar, iron, &c., permanently to England
at prices that are lower than those at which the English entrepreneur can sell,
this is economically profitable to England, for she can buy those goods from the
foreigner with less national work than would be expended on it if it produced
them athome. Whether the greater cheapness comes artificially or naturally does
not matter,

Some industries may be destroyed or handicapped through free competition,
but others will flourish the more.

(2) The Crises Argument.—Kngland was formerly the classical land of the
crisis, According to the ideas of the Protectionists, this fact had its cause in
the interweaving of England’s industry with the world’s industry. The world-
market, they thought, must be far more fluctuating than the internal market, The
Free Traders maintained, on the contrary, that it was the corn-tax réyime that was
subject to this accusation, After the fall of all barriers the employment of labour
would become much more steady. This prophecy has been entirely fulfilled ; no
land has had less to suffer from industrial fluctuations than England.

The result of the corn-tax réyime was that English industry rose and fell with
the ups and downs of the national harvests. The result of the removal of that
régime was that English industries rose and fell with the rising and falling of the
world’s harvests, which was much more regular than the national; thence the
condition of English industry became more regular.

Free Trade works favourably for continuity ; Protection the reverse.

(a) The higher the protective tariffs the greater the danger that an extraordinary
demand may lead to inflation, over-production, and crisis. Safe from foreign com-

! Published in the Heonemic Journal,

654: REPORT—1904.

petition, the home entyeprenewrs can take full advantage of the inflation; prices
mount vigorously only to fall as rapidly. With Free Trade there is less danger of
a crisis, because there is less danger of a boom and over-production.

As soon as in a Free Trade country prices rise above the ordinary level, foreign
competition moderates them by import. The ‘inlet valve’ operates. Free Trade
tends to prevent crises.

(6) The higher the protective tariffs the greater the danger of acute and
lasting crises. For in order to throw off the superfluous goods into other
countries, a greater fall in prices is necessary. because of the high tariff the home
prices can differ greatly during the time of inflation from those in the world-
market.

With Free Trade inflation and over-production can equally have place; but
the home prices cannot differ much from those in the world-market, and as soon as
reaction comes superfluous goods can be exported. The ‘outlet valve’ operates.
Free Trade tends to mitigate crises.

For these reasons, such countries as Free Trade England and Germany, with their
moderate tariffs, were not subject to such violent industrial fluctuations as were the
United States and Russia. ‘The inflation was less violent, thanks to the increase
of imports that was induced; the reaction was less intense and less enduring,
thanks to the accompanying increase of exports.

The return of Protection to England would mean the return of crises.

4. Economic Theory and Liscal Policy.' By Li. L. Price, IA.

Sir Robert Giffen has recently declared that the ‘argument for Free Trade
generally’ appears to be ‘complete both theoretically and experimentally,’ and
Professor Smart has similarly observed that ‘Free Trade is the economist’s
policy.’ These absolute statements do not accord with the impression produced
on the mind of the writer of this paper by the recent literature of economic theory.
THe would in any case deprecate the attempt to close discussion by an appeal to
authority, but he would also question the correctness of the appeal in this
particular instance.

The large abstention of historical economists from the condemnation pronounced
by their colleagues on Colonial preference possesses some significance; for the
instinct and habit of the historian set him on his guard against the pretensions of
a theory or the claim of a policy to universal applicability. A manifesto issued
in August last made the writer of this paper hesitate whether it was worth while
to pursue the theoretical inquiries with which for some years past he had been
mainly occupied. Je was reassured by reflection, for he remained convinced that
the theoretical argument for unqualified Free Trade was not ‘complete.’ ‘This
position may be established both by an examination of the particular theories of
international trade and value and also by the more general considerations to
which the greater attention will be paid in this paper.

Exclusive stress need not be laid on the argument that the fiscal policy of
Free Trade is the surviving article of a general faith in daisser faire. It may be
granted that Factory Legislation does not by itself justify interference with Free
Trade. Ora broader, more convincing line of reasoning may be found in the dis-
avowal of a universal rule and a resort to particular experience. Viewing the
question from this standpoint, however, the reforming statesmen of the nineteenth
century should be regarded as practical financiers primarily, and as economic theo-
rists in a subordinate degree. Later experience seems to have shown that the
simplification of the tariff was pushed beyond a point at which, with an increased
expenditure, it can be retained ; and similarly, in their reaction from the Mercantile
System, they may have carried further than their practical sagacity would now re-
commend the principle of /aisser fate in trading matters, For the absence of any

1 Published in the Heonomic Journal, September 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 655

guarantee of the identity of the interests of the present and of the future and of
those of the individual trader and of the comuiunity is a failing common to Free
Trade and Jaisser faire.

Competition between individuals has, no doubt, been employed as a working
hypothesis in economic theory from the days when Hconomics, as a science
distinct from an art, originated with Adam Smith, and is still the assumption
with which economists commence their reasoning; and so far Free Trade may
with some excuse be described as ‘the economist’s policy.’ But the convenience
of a theory does not prove the correspondence to fact of the assumption on which
it rests; nor does the useful theoretical hypothesis of competition between
individuals exchanging their commodities demonstrate the practical expediency
of a fiscal policy of Free Trade.

The prominence given to marginal factors has been a conspicuous feature of
recent economics. It has scarcely been brought into very explicit relation with
the theories of international trade and value. The use made of final or marginal
utility by writers like Jevons and Dr. Cannan has concealed the gap between the
interests of the present and those of the future in very much the same as it has
been hidden in the common argument based on the necessary equivalence of
imports and exports. But the whole conception of marginal factors as deter-
mining influences rests on the assumption of individual competition, while the
section devoted in economic treatises to monopoly grows in bulk, and the place
occupied by combinations in business practice becomes more prominent. The
influence of monopoly on international trade has been recognised, but the more
recent development of a formal theory of monopoly has been brought into no more
explicit relations with this department of theory than those which at present attend
the conception of the governing importance of marginal factors. Indeed, the general
reconstruction of economic theory required by the substitution of monopolies or
combinations for individual competition has not been fairly faced. Yet it is not
easy to bring into accord with these new developments the determining influence
of marginal factors. For combinations act by mass and not by separate parts, and
are the negation of those infinitesimal additions and deductions which are sug-
gested and implied in the conception of a margin. With the notion of individual
competition, in general use as the primary assumption of economic theory, the
theoretical argument for Free Trade has, on the other hand, been associated. Yet
the power of Trusts testifies to the present influence of combination in this depart-
ment of business practice, and some curious consequences follow from the new
position taken by monopoly in theory and fact alike.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Lhe Economic Importance of the Family.
By Mrs. Bosanquer.

There are two points of view from which we may consider the economic
function of the family; first, in relation to the supply and maintenance of an
effective population; secondly, in relation to the particular industrial organisation
of a given time and place.

From the latter point of view the function, perhaps even the importance, of
the family group is apt to vary. Compare Le Play's description of the Famille
Souche and.other phases of organisation, where the fumily is the unit of produc-
tion, and is held together by the industrial dependence of the different members
upon each other, with the system under which each member of the family finds
and carries on his work independently of the others. Both phases still exist, but
the latter tends increasingly to preponderate; and it is probably this tendency

656 REPORT—1904.

which has given rise to the opinion that the family is ceasing to be an important
group in the community. This opinion, however, neglects the other side of the
function of the family, that, namely, of regulating the quantity and determining
the quality of the population. The intimate relations of family life are rightly
regarded as being on a higher plane than what are ordinarily regarded as mere
economic motives ; nevertheless their importance from an economic point of view
is quite inestimable. This importance may be considered under two headings:
(i.) the family as a nursery for the best quality of human life compared with other
possible institutions; (ii.) the family as maximising the economic strength of a
people by grouping together those of different ages and capacities.

2. Colton-growing in the Empire. By J. A. Hurron.

It is evident that during the last four years the consumption of cotton has
been rapidly overtaking production, and at the present time many mills in
England, the United States, and the Continent are running short time, entail-
ing privations on the operatives and a wastage of employers’ capital.

‘Two principal causes have contributed to this shortage. The frst is a waat of
elasticity in the American crop, which amounted to 11} million bales in 1898,
since which date it has averaged 104 million bales. The second cause is the large
increase in the world’s consumption, viz., about 400,000 to 500,000 bales per
annum.

Although short time has been worked all over the world, the English spinners
have suffered most. A certain amount of short time was worked in 1901 and
1902. In 1903 most of the Lancashire mills worked forty hours instead of fifty-
five and a half for four months. In 1904 forty hours was worked from January
to August with the exception of a few weelis, when the time was extended to
forty-eight hours.

The crisis has been aggravated by the manipulations of speculators, who forced
cotton up from 53d. to 9d. a pound. These manipulations have been accompanied
by violent fluctuations, which have made legitimate business exceedingly difficult,
if not impossible.

The principal remedy adopted so far is short time. It is not generally realised
what a very costly remedy this is. The operatives suffer severely through
decreased wages, the manufacturers’ expenses are nearly as large, and in only a
moderately sized mill running short time would make a difference of 100/. a week,
or 5,000. per annum. The kindred trades, such as dyers, printers, finishers, and
distribution, must also suffer. There is also a decreased demand for the pro-
ductions of other trades less closely connected. The receipts of the Lancashire
and Yorkshire Railway Company for the first six months of 1904 show a falling
off of 44,000/. as compared with 1903, and 70,0007. as compared with 1902. In
fact, the result is widespread throughout the country. It is estimated that no less
than 10,000,000 people are more or less dependent on the cotton trade. Mr. C. W.
Macara estimates the loss to capital and labour in the cotton and allied trades
through short time at 150,000/. per week.

There is no great bope of immediate relief. The evil would be mitigated if
the market were free from the manipulations of speculators. Legislative measures
have been suggested, but would be difficult to devise without doing more harm
tian good. Owing to labour and other difficulties there is little probability of
the American crop increasing to over 12 million bales in the immediate future, so
that large sources of supply must be found in other parts of the world to meet
the normal increase in demand, estimated at 400,000 bales per annum. The
solution of this problem is the raison d’étre of the British Cotton-growing Asso-
ciation and similar bodies in France, Germany, and elsewhere. :

The British Cotton-growing Association was inaugurated on June 12, 1902.
A large amount of experimental work has been carried on, and it has now been
decided to utilise the results of these experiments and to extend the work ona
commercial basis.

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION I, 657

The work of the Association is confined to the British Empire. In India, in
conjunction with the Government, efforts are being made to improve the methods
of cultivation, so as to increase the quantity grown and to improve the quality,
Seed farms should be established for educational purposes and to supply selected
seed for native cultivators, These should be nearly self-supporting. Seed and
machinery have been sent to the West Indies and financial assistance has been
given. Large quantities of Sea Island cotton, ranging in value from 11d. to 16d.
a pound, have been grown, and there is every hope of a large cultivation being
established. In Egypt Proper the Government and people are fully alive to the
advisability of increasing the growth. In British East Africa and British Central
Africa there is an excellent prospect, and the work is well advanced in the latter
colony, and 5,000 bales of Egyptian cotton will be marketed this season. In
British West Africa there isa large area—500,000 square miles—and a large popu-
lation—10,000,000. Cotton equal to average American has been grown in large
quantities, and there is no reason why the whole of West Africa--British and
foreign—should not at some future date grow 20,000,000 bales of cotton. Seed
has been supplied, experts been sent out, and seed farms are being established. It
is felt that the best policy is to establish cotton-growing as a native industry, as
the climate is unsuitable for Europeans. The British Cotton-growing Association
have undertaken an enormous task, and have proved that sufficient cotton for
Lancashire’s needs can be grown in British possessions. Their work, if successful,
will enrich the colonies and increase the demand for manufactured goods.

Addendum.

Abstract of Memorandum hy Professor Dunstan,

As a rule cotton can be successfully grown in countries within a region 40°
north and south of the equator, provided that the soil is appropriate and that the
rainfall or irrigation is sufficient. Within this region the following British
Colonies and Dependencies are included :—British Honduras, the West Indies,
British Guiana, Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, Lagos and Nigeria, East
Africa and Uganda, South Africa, Mauritius, the Seychelles, India, the Straits
Settlements, the Federated Malay States, Australia, New Guinea, and Fiji, Egypt,
Cyprus, and Malta must also be included.

Professor Dunstan went fully into the necessity of supplementing practical
work by scientific investigation on the following points :—(1) Chemical analysis
of soil, (2) rotation of crops, (8) selection of varieties most suited to the soil and
climate, (4) educational supervision of native cultivation, (5) selection of seed.

He drew attention to the value of the scientific work which is being carried on
by the United States, Egypt, Germany, and other countries, and strongly urged
that experimental stations should be established in the various colonies under
Government supervision, and that these stations should be co-ordinated with a
central institution in this country, so that the work may be conducted on a general
plan, and the information gained at each of the stations may be collected and made
available for the benefit of all. At present no organisation of this kind exists,
although a portion of the work is being conducted by the Imperial ‘Institute in
conjunction with the Colonial Office.

He then dealt very fully with the results so far obtained and the future
prospects in different parts of the Empire, and it is most gratifying to find that
with two exceptions the prospects are most hopeful and encouraging. These
exceptions are the Straits Settlements, where the climatic conditions are unfavour-
able, and the Australian colonies, where the difficulty of obtaining cheap labour
seems to render successful cotton cultivation an impossibility. His inquiries have
extended from Borneo on the one side to the West Indies on the other, and from
Malta to South Africa.

1904. UU

658 REPORT—1904.

3. Report on the Accuracy and Comparability of British and Foreign
Statistics of International Trade.—See Reports, p. 302.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Changes in Nominal and Real Wages in Belgium.'
By Professor E. Manat.

I. Nominal Wages —Estimates of changes in nominal wages are shown in
Table I. They are arranged on as nearly as possible the same basis as similar
estimates by Mr. Bowley, read to the British Association in 1895 and 1898.

TabLE I1.—Nominal Wages in Selected Trades in Belgium for Various Years,
the Wages of Agricultural Labourers for 1895 being taken as 100, and
Weighted Average for all these Trades.

| | | |
——— 1880 | 1840 1846 | 1856 | 1874 | 1880 1890 | 1891 | 1895 1896
|
| Sea Pa ie a ea
Hobie 0's eal, Gay Sale Se] 180 | a et
Percentage No. of | |
| employés (adult | |
| males) . — | 40 — = 8) es wee a 3
Wool = ee aL = — 152 | — | 171} — #168
No. . = — | 5 — — | 6 be Le | 3)
Building _— <= HeTO — — 17% | = 173 | — 148
| No. — j= 8 — | — a} — | — | — | 16
Mining . == — 104 121 199 155 | — 183 — (|165
| No. — |=] 5 — | — s4) — | — | — | 88]
Tron == — | 81 _— — 186 — | 184 | /181
No. _ — | 16, — | 6 — | — | — | 17
Printers = — 83 — 173 — 185 182
No. . . si am 1 = =i a 2 —— — al 9)
Agriculture . 54 57 59 69 108 (1038 |. 99 — '100 —
No. - — 51) — | — | 465 — | — Son —
| Weighted average ae ca ee = = 283 | — — — 154
The same reduced |
so that 100 re- ~ ‘2 ere pfia-¢ | a “i ea
presents average J ae | . 87 100
wage in 1896 |
The same when |
agriculture is; | — — | 51 = — 93 — — |) ene
excluded , )

Il. Prices.—Using the retail prices computed month by month in the ‘ Revue du
Travail’ issued by the Belgian Labour Office, and weighting the annual averages by
weights obtained from the ‘ Budgets Oavriers’ collected in 1891, a list of index-
numbers is drawn up from 1896. This is supplemented by the retail prices of a
large grocery business selling all commodities of general use in 565 shops in
industrial districts. ‘The list so obtained for twenty years agrees very closely with
the index-number of wholesale prices compiled by Professor H. Denis.

1 Published in the Statistical Journal, September 1904,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 659

Taste [I.—IJInder-Numbers.

} | |
Wholesale Prices. | ea Wholesale Prices. | | it
sae Retail |, : pe gid Retail |
ears bers (28 Articles, Hx-| Average | EHC || hors a8 Articles, Hx) Avernge | Prices
ey Beeb Biaelehice)s Prices, Prieg, ears | “port Statistics). | Prices, | Peieeg,
| verage Prices, 1902=100| 1902=1.0 Average Prices, | 1902=100 1902100
| 1867-1877=100 | estate| 1867-1877 =100 aaa
| || |
i| | |
1880 | 97 | 156 110 || 1892 66°5 | 104 105
1881 95 | 153 109 1893 644 | 101 106
1882 | 82 | 133 122 | 1894 | 59 93 102
1883 | 85 | 134 108 1895 615 | 96 96
1884 | 80 | 129 110 1896 61 | 95 95
1885 | 7 | 124 99 1897 | 56 88 99
1886 75 Apa 99 1898 58°5 79 98
1887 74 119 98 1899 61'S 97 96
1888 75 118 104 1900 63°4 | 99 98
1889 70 112 109 | 1901 63°1 99 98
1890 | 70 110 102 1902 64 100 100
| 1891 69°9 109 106 |
t 1 i |

Ill. Real Wages.—With the help of the price index-numbers the real wages
of coal miners and iron workers are estimated.

Tasie 11I.—Real Wages in Selected Trades in Belgium, 1880-1902.

|

Tronworkers Zineworkers hese
: , a. | Wool Trade | Linen Trade
Coal Miners ot ae ce)? ia Re, (Verviers) | (Liége) >
Peo | *
CTS Cae Fe re Zo cash ol estat all Potates ofl ie
ae | 43 | 2 z BP ke aah
1902=100
i}
1880 17 70 == — 93 84 = = = =
1881 78 71 86 719 92 84 — — = a4
1882 80 65 84 69 94 77 — — = =
1883 84 78 86 80 93 86 — = = —_
1884 77 76 83 75 95 86 — _ ae -~
1885 68 69 74 75 93 94 — — — ae
1886 65 66 | 75 76 93 94 — — 93 94
1887 68 69 | 84 85 89 91 —_— — 94 96
1888 72 69 | 86 83 91 87 _ —_— 89 85
1889 78 71 85 78 94 86 — — 89 82
1890 93 91 93 91 90 88 — = 92 90
189] 91 86 88 83 92 87 — -- 94 89
1892 80 76 90 86 95 90 — — 92 88
1893 74 70 88 83 94 89 — — 94 89
1894 79 77 85 83 96 94 94 92 95 93
1895 79 82 92 96 93 97 91 95 97 | 101
1896 82 86 89 94 92 97 90 95 99 | 104
1897 82 83 97 | 98 93 94 93 94 91 92
1898 92 94 97 99 89 91 85 86 98 | 100
1899 97 | 101 | 101 | 105 93 97 93 97 98 | 102
1900 | 118 | 120 | 105 § 107 94 96 91 93 | 104 | 106
1901 106 | 108 | 114 116 102 104 | 101 | 103 96 98
1902 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 100 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100

? From 102,000 to 134,000 working men. 2 From 8,000 to 10,000 working men.
* About 3,300 men, * From 1,700 to 1,800 men. = From 1,000 to 1,200 ne
U U od

660 REPORT—1904.

2. The Development of Towns. By T. C. Horsratu.

There is a great and complex interaction between a house, its surroundings,
and its occupants. If homes are to be made more wholesome, all these three
factors must be improved. Our schools must give better physical, mental, and
moral training for life, and their influence must be extended by continuation
classes. Houses must be put into, and maintained in, good order by a system of
continuous inspection. In new districts houses must have pleasant surroundings,
the air must be kept as free from smoke as possible, and the dwellings of persons
of different social classes must be intermixed. While the building of tall tenement
houses must be prevented, the ‘one-family house’ should cease to be the pre-
dominant type of workman’s house in and quite near to large towns. The growth
of towns should be controlled by extension plans, and building districts should be
created—some reserved for manufactories, and others for dwellings. In the
districts more remote from the centre houses should not be allowed to have as
many storeys, and sites to have as large a proportion covered with buildings, as
are allowed in districts nearer the centre of the town. Town councils should
have the power to buy and hold land for general purposes, to rate land on its
selling value, and to levy rates on increase of value when property is sold. The
incorporation of surrounding districts by large towns should be made much easier,
Tramlines ought to be made by town councils, but not till much land has
been bought and a town extension plan prepared. Town councils ought to be
strengthened by the employment of paid mayors and chairmen of committees, who
ought to be appointed for long periods.

The most important of all the measures which can be taken at present for the
improvement of housing are the improvement of town councils and the giving
of a large amount of representation on education committees to teachers.

3. The Town Housing Question. By Mrs. Fisner.

The fundamental difficulty of the question is the growth of town populations,
which have been housed without any regard to hygienic conditions,

There are two main aspects of the problem: (1) the sanitary aspect, z.e., the
existence of slums and insanitary areas; and (2) the house famine. This, again,
is of two kinds: first, and more rarely, a house famine due to special circum-
stances, e.g., when the sudden growth of an industry causes an abnormal increase
of population; second, a constant difficulty as to the supply of cheap houses.
Increased cost of building has not checked the growth of superior house accommo-
dation, but has interfered with the production of cheap houses, while improvements
remove the old inexpensive cottages. Hence there is great pressure on those which
still exist.

How have local authorities attempted to cope with these difficulties ?

1. In the case of insanitary areas they have used Part I. of the Housing Act;
in the case of small groups of bad houses improvements have been effected by
Part II. and by the Public Health Act.

2. The preventive and regulative work of the sanitary authorities has done
much, and might do more, to improve bad conditions and to stimulate healthy
effort.

3. Lastly, there have been attempts to deal with the house famine by means of
municipal house building and owning. There are several different policies with
regard to this.

(a) The Liverpool policy of cheap tenement houses on central sites, the object

of which is to rehouse the very poorest classes who now occupy court houses,
The results are interesting, and there are many arguments for and against it.

TRANSACTIONS OF SEGTION ¥. 661

Various devices have been attempted in order to secure the occupation of nunicipal
houses by the really poor.

(6) Some advocate the plan of building ordinary houses or tenements in large
number in order that municipal competition may lower the level of rents. The
results of this are slight.

(c) Recently attempts have been made to develop suburban estates. This
seems hopeful, but there are many difficulties, especially as to providing for the
very poor on such estates.

‘The main task of house building must be left to private enterprise; the duty of
local authorities is to urge private enterprise to do the very best that can be done.
There are two main ways of bringing this about: (1) By wise building by-laws
properly enforced ; (2) by thorough administration of the sanitary laws. These
two duties are at present very imperfectly performed. The urgent necessity of
guarding suburbs and new districts is not yet realised.

Local authorities have experienced great difficulties, especially financial difficul-
ties, as to their building schemes, but recent developments seem more hopeful.
Local authorities ought (1) to make experiments, lead, and suggest (examples,
Sheffield and Camberwell); (2) in cases of monopoly create competition ; (3)
where necessary deal with classes which cannot be left to private enterprise, but
great caution is essential to the success of such plans.

4. The Increase of Suburban Populations. By Sipney Low, 6.4.

1. The transfer of population from rural to urban areas. A widely diffused
tendency ; noticeable not merely in Great Britain, but in Continental countries,
and even in America and Australia.

2, Illustrations of this movement during recent years in England. Declining
and increasing centres of population.

3. The movement, bowever, is not, as often represented, a mere migration
from the country to the towns, but rather from the country to those spreading
suburban districts which are partly urban and partly rural. ‘The central areas of
the towns, so far from increasing, are themselves stationary or declining. The
four largest cities in England have advanced at a less rapid rate than the country
generally. Taking London as a whole, there is a positive decrease in several of
the districts which make up the ‘Inner Ring,’ and very little progress in others.
On the other hand, there is enormous increase in the purely suburban agglomera-
tions, such as Willesden, Walthamstow, and East Ham. The further we get
from the centre of the town, so long as we do not pass beyond a distance accessible
by cheap and rapid means of locomotion, the more marked is the expansion.

4. A consideration of this movement tends to mitigate the anxiety with which
the migration from the rural districts is often regarded. No doubt the congestion
of enormous masses in great cities is detrimental to health and attended by social
evils of various kinds. It is often assumed that the stamina of a nation cannot be
maintained unless a considerable proportion of its inhabitants live under rural
conditions. But the suburb-dweller is free from many of the depressing and
unwholesome influences which affect the townsman, and may enjoy the advantages
of fresh air, facilities for exercise, and contact with Nature.

5. It is, however, necessary that the suburbs should be governed with as much
vigilance and intelligent care as the great towns. At present large populations
planted just outside the administrative rmg-fence of the county or municipal
borough are under inadequate supervision. To find a proper system of suburban
government is one of the great social and political problems of the immediate
future.

662 REPORT—1904.

rc

5. Lhe Kelation between Population and Area in India.
By J. A. Barnus, CLS.

The term ‘ density’ may be applied to population in a sense merely numerical,

or it may be taken to involve the economical consideration of relation to the means
of subsistence. Used in the latter sense, with reference to a population producing
the food it consumes, the determining factor is practically the fertility of the local
resources, India comes under this head. Its population is mainly vegetarian,
and the greatly predominating occupation is agriculture. In analysing the distri-
bution of its population, therefore, the first consideration is the relative fertility
of the various tracts, and, using the geographical divisions of the country as the
base and remembering that tropical conditions prevail, the essential feature to be
taken into account is the rainfall. Speaking generally, the concentration of popu-
lation tends to vary directly as the rainfall, and inversely as its seasonal variability.
There are several important instances in which this tendency is not apparent, but
here it is kept in abeyance by special circumstances, such as unhealthy climate,
political disturbances, or paucity of cultivable land on the one hand, and on the
other by exceptivnal facilities for supplementing the rainfall by artificial irri-
ration,
i There are few countries of any considerable size so uniform in the distribution
of their population that the figure of their average density serves any purpose
but that of the very broadest comparison, and its chief use in statistics is as a
screen on which to illustrate its component variations. In India, with its unusual
range of climatic and geographical variety, the average is peculiarly meaningless,
and, compounded as it is largely from its two extremes, the density it implies
actually prevails over but a comparatively small proportion of the area which
contributes to it. The urban element in the population, again, enters but to a
trifling extent into the calculation, as is only to be expected in a country so
markedly agricultural in its pursuits and so largely self-supporting. As a rule,
the most densely peopled tracts, except just round the large industrial seaports,
are remarkable for the paucity of their urban aggregates beyond the size of the
ordinary local market town. There are, on the other hand, parts of the country,
especially in Native States, where a comparatively large town is found in the
midst of a very thinly populated neighbourhood, to which it serves as a centre of
commerce. The political and military considerations which used to determine
the situation and prospects of an important town are now superseded almost
everywhere by those connected with transport and manufacture. Except, how-
ever, along the coast and trunk lines of railway, the smaller urban centres prosper
and wane with the fortunes of the surrounding peasantry.

The nature and extent of the shifting of the distribution of population of late
years are subjects upon which the recent famines have made it difficult to reach
satisfactory conclusions, nor were the exceptionally favourable circumstances of
the preceding decennial period much more instructive. At best the rate of growth
in the long-settled tracts does not appear to be other than moderate compared
with that prevailing elsewhere, but the evidence of a state approaching congestion
is not altogether convincing. Between 1881 and 1891 the most thickly peopled
tracts showed a rate of increase very much below that of those with a more
scattered population ; but it is not improbable that in the latter the later census
was far more accurately taken, so that much of the growth must be discounted
accordingly. On the other hand, during the last decennium, the denser tracts
showed, on the whole, a higher rate than the rest; but here, again, allowance must
be made for the fortunate immunity from famine enjoyed by the former, as also
for a certain multiplication of the means of subsistence which has characterised
some of them.

On the whole, it appears certain that under present conditions any increase in
population that occurs will fall directly upon the land, and in most parts of the
country the means exist for meeting that pressure, at all events for some consider-
able time. Cultivable land not yet taken up is found in most provinces and
States. In some comparatively remote regions this area is large and continuous,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 663

and is now being placed within reach of immigrants by the extension of railways.
Elsewhere the sinking of wells has intensified the cultivation, and the introduction
of additional water supply by means of canals has rendered large areas productive
which were before sterile. Congestion may be thus staved off for a generation, but
must come, as the line of increase remains the same. There are, however, signs
of the beginning of a process of diversion from agriculture to other industries.
The urban population has recently shown a tendency to increase at a slightly
higher rate than the rural, and though in the famine-stricken tracts this may be
in part attributed to the traditional tendency of the field labourer to wander
towards the doles and labour market of the nearest town, the growth of the
seaports and manufacturing centres testifies to a real movement away from the
fields. Whether the movement be permanent or, as in many cases it is known to
be, merely seasonal, there is no doubt as to the increased advantage which is being
taken of the openings afforded by the development of new undertakings within
the last twenty years or even less, and the villager earns away from home more
than the subsistence he used to himself produce there. The further step of
emigration for employment out of India and its immediate neighbours is an outlet
which also shows signs of expansion, but, like the migration to the plantations or
factories, it is a matter of sentiment and custom, and, once acclimatised, often
leads to a regular flow out and back. That the returned emigrant’s savings are
ultimately invested in the purchase of land in his birthplace is a matter that will
have to be taken into account by the next generation.

6. Investigations on the Nutrition of Man. By Professor AtTWATER.
See p. 758.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Modification of the Income-tax.
By W. G. 8. Avams.

The income-tax has become not merely permanent, but the centre rouud
which our system of taxation is grouped. ‘The case to be considered is not,
however, that of radical reform, but of modification. ‘The breaking-up of the
income-tax into an income and a property tax is improbable; but the present
income-tax is capable of considerable modification along the lines of development
which it has followed.

Three questions are to be considered. First, the degressive scale should be
extended and the graduation made ‘ smooth’ instead of ‘ jolting. A simple
system of degression affecting incomes up to 1,000/. may be corstructed. It
should also be considered whether differential rates—such as Pitt and Gladstone
had recourse to—should not be introduced, applying to (1) incomes below 2502,
and (2) incomes above 1,000/.

Second, the normal level of the income-tax is too high. The income-tax must
be adjusted in relation to modifications required alike in the Succession Duties
and in our system of indirect taxation. Graduation through the medium of
indirect taxation can be economically extended further than at present. Necessaries
must be exempted to a larger extent, and articles of luxury taxed. ‘The British
system has been falling away from this standpoint.

Third, the inccme-tax should be extended downwards to all incomes over 1204.
This is conditional on a reduction of the normal rate and on modifications of our
system of indirect taxation. The wider extension of the tax through the body of
the political electorate is of great importance. The position of the industrial

664: REPORT—1904.

classes will not be affected adversely, but contrariwise, by the lines of change
proposed.

Percentage | Present Percentage
Income | of Amount Amount } of
| Income Taxed Income

£ £ os. L

250 payson 25 . : poe LO 90. : 4 36

300 FA BOL. 4 fo. 0: 140. : : 46:6

350 af sia : . 122 10 | 190 . : ; 54°28

400 oe 40 160 0 240 60

450 4 alee , . 202 10 | 300. 4 : 66°6

500 sf BOM. E . 250° 0 350 . : : 70

550 Spas ; . 302 10 430. : - 7818 |

600 5 601% 2 . 060°) 0 480 . : : 80

650 33 bole . 422 10 580 . . ; 89-2

700 -- 70! g . 490 0O | 630. ‘ : 90

750 > (Der 3 . 562 10 750. 4 . 100

800 a 80. H . 640 0 | 800 . 4 + J) 100

850 FF 85. ‘ . 722 10 850 . : «00

900 * BO. ? . OL 210 | 900 . F . 100

950 A Jor. , Bea? eK) 950__. - + .L00
1,000 ¥ 100... 5 . 1,000 0 1,000 . : = LOO

2. A proposed Substitute for the Sugar-tax. By Barnard ELuincEr.

The enormous growth of national expenditure during recent years has neces-
sitated the reimposition of the import duty on sugar. The sugar-tax, however,
is open to two important objections :—

1. It is a tax on an important article of food used by the very poor, and it is
a tax which falls on the consumers in inverse ratio to their ability to bear it.

2. It is a tax on raw material, sugar being largely used in the manufacture of
jams, confectionery, biscuits, mineral waters, &c.

The growth of expenditure has been sanctioned by the working class, who
hold the power through their votes; and as a large part of this class are in
enjoyment of comfortable incomes—the family as a unit often receiving a con-
siderable income—it is both just and politic that they should share the burden
imposed by the policy for which they have voted. The income-tax does not touch
them; the tax on sugar does, but is open to the objections stated before.

Is it possible to find a tax which, while not open to these objections, would
touch the pocket of the well-to-do lower middle class and artisan class ?

An import and excise duty on meat would possibly meet the case.

Both import and excise duty would be charged on weight of dead meat,
allowance being made in the case of home-slaughtered meat for offal, horns,
hide, &c.

The excise duty would be collected through the medium of municipal or State
slaughter-houses, private slaughter-houses being abolished, An excise duty has
existed for many years in Holland, and works well.

The tax, being charged on the weight of dead meat, would be regulated by the
butcher te a nicety according to the abilities of his various customers to bear the
same,

Meat pieces sometimes bought by the very poor would probably escape the
tax altogether, being in the nature of a by-product.

A tax of 3s. 6d. per cwt. would probably, while raising the price of meat by
3d. per 1b., bring in a revenue from imported meat and cattle slaughtered at port
of +3,700,0002, ; and basing the figures of home-raised meat on the estimate of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 665

late Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Hanbury, the excise duty would bring in 8,600,0002.,
z.e., a total of 12,300,0007.

The figure, however, here used for home-raised cattle is probably exaggerated,
and on an estimate based on the figures of the Select Committee of 1892 on the
marking of foreign meat, and bringing these figures up to date, the excise duty
would yield 4,500,000/., or a total revenue of 8,200,000/,, z.e., considerably more
than the sugar-tax now yields.

The erection of public slaughter-houses is in itself desirable, and has been found
to act well in Germany, even communities of 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants having
their own slaughter-house, smaller villages joining together in a common slaughter-
house.

The tax is only advocated as a substitute for, and not as an addition to, the
sugar-tax. At present the question probably lies outside the range of practical
politics; but if the country ultimately decides to retain its present fiscal system,
and finds itself still face to face with the problem of finding the best means of
raising revenue to meet its enhanced expenditure, the suggestion contained in this
paper may be deemed worthy of attention.

€

3. Some Features of the Labour Question in America.

By ©. J. HaAmirron.

‘Within two years there will be the greatest conflict between organised
labour and organised capital that the U.S.A. has yet seen. This prophecy,
made by President Hadley last autumn, is in process of verification. It may be
of interest to examine briefly some chief points in the situation. The immediate
cause of the conflict is the general depression of trade, in consequence of which
employers are reducing wages and dismissing hands. The unions, which have
probably doubled their numbers since 1900, are opposing reduction and seeking
shorter hours.

The true ground of the struggle is, however, the question of union recognition
and the union shop. ‘The discussion of the situation requires reference to :—

I. Some general considerations.

a. Industrial conditions in U.S.A. are very various, differing as widely as
the Lancashire of 1845 and of to-day.

6. The working population comprises members of many nationalities,
rapidly Americanised, but retaining a variety of foreign traditions.

ce. The negro problem is often acute, and will become more so.

d. The industrial laws of the several States vary widely. They are in
most cases far behind England and Germany in respect of factory
laws, workmen’s compensation, &c.

Ii. Union organisation.
a. Leadership.
Often characterised by
i, Absence of a prolonged training.
ii. Irish nationality.

iii, Frequent resignation to undertake employing functions.
iy. Evolution of the labour boss.

6. Following.
Shares the English characteristic of being generally impatient of
slow development, and careless of properly exercising the functions
of a democracy.

Their aim is becoming, increasingly, social equality rather than
purely industrial amelioration.

666 REPORT—1904.

III. Methods.

a. Limitation of output.
The commonest instinct of labour, which believes implicitly in the
lump of labour fallacy.
b, Opposition to machinery.
Less common in America than in England.
c, The boycott.
The chief union instrument for securing their main object, z.e., the
union shop,

Consideration seems to show that the union shop is the end to be desired,
but it must come not by coercion of employer, nor of employé, but by establishing
the union’s claim to be necessary to the worker, and not injurious to the employer
or the public. The boycott takes various forms :—

a. The union label, an American device, said to be ‘the strongest weapon
of organised labour.’

b. Regular publication of fair lists and activity on the part of boycott
agitators.

c. Generally assumes a violent form in the presence of actual hostilities.

While the creation of an esprit de corps and of a strong public opinion is
legitimate, and necessarily implies some application of boycott principle, its
excessive development is tyrannical and suicidal.

To meet the growing powers of organised labour, capital is rapidly associating
in offensive and defensive alliances, irrespective of trade boundaries. Their
methods appear similar to those of the unions, with the exception of a constant
resort to the legal injunction. The struggle is thus becoming exceedingly bitter,
and the outcome is at present in the balance.

4. The Employment of the Graduate. By H. A. Roxserts, M.A.

(i.) Problem to be solved by a modern British university ; its complexity often
overlooked. Need for continuous development. Influence on development of the
market for employment. Growing importance of this influence since 1880.
Graduate employment a faithful reflexion of national progress, Consequent
diversification of careers the characteristic of the last twenty years.

(ii.) Sketch of graduate employment from 1870 to the present day. ‘Till 1870
employment confined to ‘the learned professions.’ High percentage of graduates
described as ‘of no profession.’ 1870-1880, years of tentative expansion.
1880-1895, growing diversity of employment; rise of new professions; employ-
ment in research, travelling, administration. Hlimination of the class described
as ‘of no profession.’ Tendency to ‘practical’ careers; business and the law.
General tendency obscured in the early ’eighties hy temporary increase of employ-
ment in education; reasons for this increase, and its bearing on the supply of
teachers at the present moment; increase not completely explained by theory that
men ‘drifted into school-mastering.’ The last decade. Diversity of careers
remarkable; versatility of the graduate. Some careers of the present day.

(i1,) Questions of the moment.

Education as a career; demand and supply. Research. ‘The co-operation of
science and industry; progress already made; some difficulties; technical educa-
tion and scientific training ; the aspects of specialisation ; need for organisation.
Employment of graduates in business ; never yet tried on a sufficient scale; the
experiment still recent in America; the desirable training; degrees in economic
science; degrees only a partial test of business efficiency; necessity for closer
contact of universities and business men; suggestions; initial cost of graduate
labour,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 667

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

PrEsIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Hon. C. A. Parsons, M.A., FBS.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following Address :—

On this occasion I propose to devote my remarks to the subject of invention.

Tt is a subject of considerable importance, not only to engineers but also to
men of science and the public generally.

I also propose to treat invention in its wider sense, and to include under the
word discoveries in physics, mechanics, chemistry, and geology.

Invention throughout the Middle Ages was held in little esteem. In most
dictionaries it receives scant reference except as applied to poetry, painting, and
sculpture.

Shakespeare and Dryden describe invention as a kind of muse or inspiration in
relation to the arts, and when taken in its general sense to be associated with
deceit, as ‘Return with an invention, and clap upon you two or three plausible
lies.

As to the opposition and hostility to scientific research, discovery, and mechan-
ical invention in the past, and until comparatively recent times, there can be no
eee? in some cases the opposition actually amounting to persecution and
cruelty.

The change in public opinion has been gradual. The great inventions of the
last century in science and the arts have resulted in a large increase of knowledge
and the powers of man to harness the forces of Nature. These great inventions
have proved without question that the inventors in the past have, in the widest
sense, been among the greatest benefactors of the human race. Yet the lot of the
inventor until recent years has been exceptionally trying, and even in our time
I scarcely think that anyone would venture to describe it as altogether a happy
one. The hostility and opposition which the inventor suffered in the Middle Ages
have certainly been removed, but he still labours under serious disability in many
respects under law as compared with other sections of the community. The
change of public feeling in favour of discovery and invention has progressed with
rapidity during the last century. Not only have private individuals devoted more
time and money to the work, but societies, institutions, colleges, municipalities,
and Governments have founded many research laboratories, and in some instances
have provided large endowments. These measures have increased the number of
persons trained to scientific methods, and also provided greatly improved facilities
for research ; but perhaps one of the most important results to engineers has been
the direct and indirect influence of the more general application of scientific
methods to engineering.

Sir Frederick Bramwell, in his Presidential Address to this Association in 1888,
emphasised the interdependence of the scientist and the civil engineer, and de-
scribed how the work of the latter has been largely based on the discoveries of the

668 ; REPORT—1904.

former; while the work of the engineer often provides data and adds a stimulus
to the researches of the scientist, And I think his remarks might be further
appropriately extended by adding that since the scientist, the engineer, the
chemist, the metallurgist, the geologist, all seek to unravel and to compass
a secrets of Nature, they are all to a great extent interdependent on each
other.

But though research laboratories are the chief centres of scientific invention,
and colleges, institutions, and schools train the mind to scientific methods of
attack, yet in mechanical, civil, and electrical engineering the chief work of
practical investigation has been carried on by individual engineers, or by firms,
syndicates, and companies. These not only have adapted discoveries made by
scientists to commercial uses, but also in many instances have themselves made
such discoveries or inventions,

To return to the subject, let us for a moment consider in what invention really
consists, and let us dismiss from our minds the very common conception which is
given in dictionaries and encyclopzedias that invention isa happy thought occurring
to an inventive mind, Such a conception would give us an entirely erroneous idea
of the formation of the great steps in advance in science and engineering that have
been made during the last century; and, further, it would lead us to forget the
fact that almost all important inventions have been the result of long training and
laborious research and long-continued labour. Generally, what is usually called
an invention is the work of many individuals, each one adding something to the
work of his predecessors, each one suggesting something to overcome some difficulty,
trying many things, testing them when possible, rejecting the failures, retaining
the best, and by a process of gradual selection arriving at the most perfect. method
of accomplishing the end in view.

This is the usual process by which inventions are made.

Then after the invention, which we will suppose is the successful attempt to
unravel some secret of Nature, or some mechanical or other problem, there follows
in many cases the perfecting of the invention for general use, the realisation of the
advance or its introduction commercially ; this after-work often involves as great
difficulties and requires for its accomplishment as great a measure of skill as the
invention itself, of which it may be considered in many cases as forming a part.

If the invention, as is often the case, competes with or is intended to supersede
some older method, then there is a struggle for existence between the two. ‘This
state of things has been well described by Mr. Fletcher Moulton. The new
invention, like a young sapling in a dense forest, struggles to grow up to maturity,
but the dense shade of the older and higher trees robs it of the necessary light. If
it could only once grow as tall as the rest all would be easy, it would then get its
fair share of light and sunshine. Thus it often occurs in the history of inventions
that the surroundings are not favourable when the first attack is made, and that
subsequently it is repeated by different persons, and finally under different circum-
stances it may eventually succeed and become established.

We may take in illustration almost any of the great inventions of undoubted
utility of which we happen to have the full history—for instance, some of the
great scientific discoveries, or some of the great mechanical inventions, such as
the steam-engine, the gas-engine, the steamship, the locomotive, the motor-car,
or some of the great chemical or metallurgical discoveries. Are not most, if
not all, of these the result of the long-continued labour of many persons, and
has not the financial side been, in most cases, a very important factor in securing
success ?

The history of the steam-engine might be selected, but I prefer on this occasion
to take the internal-combustion engine, for two reasons—firstly, because its history
is a typical one; and secondly, because we are to hear a paper by that able
exponent and great inventor in the domain of the gas-engine, Mr. Dugald Clerk,
describing not only the history, but the engine in its present state of development
and perfection, an engine which is able to convert the greatest percentage of heat
units in the fuel into mechanical work, excepting only, as far as we at present
know, the voltaic battery and living organisms.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 669

The first true internal-combustion engine was undoubtedly the cannon, and the
use in it of combustible powder for giving energy to the shot is strictly analogous
to the use of the explosive mixture of gas or oil and air as at present in use in all
internal-combustion engines ; thus the first internal-combustion engine depended
on the combination of a chemical discovery and a mechanical invention, the
invention of gunpowder and the invention of the cannon. :

In 1680 Huygens proposed to use gunpowder for obtaining motive power in
an engine. Papin, in 1690, continued Huygens’ experiments, but without success.
These two inventors, instead of following the method of burning the powder under
pressure, as in the cannon, adopted, in ignorance of thermodynamic laws, an erroneous
course. They exploded a small quantity of gunpowder ina large vessel with escape
valves, which after the explosion caused a partial vacuum to remain in the vessel,
This partial vacuum was then used to actuate a piston or engine and perform
useful work. Subsequently several otherinventors worked on the same lines, but all
of these failed on account of two causes which now are very evident to us. Firstly,
gunpowder was then, as it still is, a very expensive form of fuel, in proportion to
the energy liberated on explosion; secondly, the method of burning the powder to
cause a vacuum involves the waste of nearly the whole of the available energy,
whereas had it been burned under pressure, as in the cannon, a comparatively
large percentage of the energy would have been converted into useful work. But
even with this alteration, and however perfect the engine had been, the cost
of explosives would have debarred its coming into use, except for very special

urposes.

: e come a century later to the first real gas-engine. Street, in 1794, proposed
the use of vapour of turpentine in an engine on methods closely analogous to those
successfully adopted in the Lenoir gas-engine of eighty years later, or thirty years
ago. But Street’s engine failed from crude and faulty construction. Brown, in
1823, tried Huygens’ vacuum method, using fuel to expand air instead of
gunpowder, but he also failed, probably on account of the wastefulness of the
method.

Wright, in 1833, made a really good gas-engine, having many of the essential
features of some of the gas-engines of the present day, such as separate gas and
water pumps, and water-jacketed cylinder and piston.

Barnett, in 1839, further improved on Wright’s design, and made the greatest
advance of any worker in gas-engines. He added the fundamental improvements
of compression of the explosive mixture before combustion, and he devised means
of lighting the mixture under pressure, and his engine conformed closely to the
present-day practice as regards fundamental details. No doubt Barnett’s engine,
so perfect in principle, deserved commercial success, but either his mechanical skill
or his financial resources were inadequate to the task, and the character of the patents
would seem to favour this conclusion, both as regards Barnett and other workers
at this period. Up to 1850 the workers were few, but as time went on they
gradually increased in numbers; attention had been attracted to the subject, and
men with greater powers and resources appear to have taken the problem in hand.
Among these numerous workers came Lenoir, in 1860, who, adopting the inferior
type of non-compression engine, made it a commercial success by his superior
mechanical skill and resources. Mr. Dugald Clerk tells us: ‘The proposals of
Brown (1823), Wright (1833), Barnett (1838), Bansanti and Matteucci (1857), show
gradually increasing knowledge of detail and the difficulties to be overcome, all
leading to the first practicable engine in 1866, the Lenoir.’ This stage of the
development being reached, the names of Siemens, Beaude Roches, Otto Simon,
Dugald Clerk, Priestman, Daimler, Dowson, Mond, and others, appear as inventors
who have worked at and added something to perfect the internal-combustion
engine and its fuel, and who have helped to bring it to its present state of
perfection.

In the history of great mechanical inventions there is perhaps no better
example of the interdependence of the engineer, the physicist, and the chemist
than is evinced in the perfecting of the gas-engine. The physicist and the chemist
together determine the behaviour of the gaseous fuel, basing their theory on data

670 REPORT—1904.

obtained from the experimental engines constructed by the mechanical engineer,
who, guided by their theories, makes his designs and improvements ; then, again,
from the results of the improvements fresh data are collected and the theory further
advanced, and so on till success is reached. But though I have spoken of the
physicist, the chemist, and the engineer as separate persons, it more generally
occurs that they are rolled into one, or at most two, individuals, and that it is
indispensable that each worker should have some considerable knowledge of all
the sciences involved to be able to act his part successfully.

Now let us ask, Could not this very valuable invention, the internal-combus-
tion engine, have been introduced in a much shorter time by more favouring
circumstances, by some more favourable arrangement of the patent laws, or by
legislation to assist the worker attacking so difficult a problem? I think the
answer is that a great deal might be done, and I will endeavour to indicate some
changes and possible improvements.

The history of this invention brings before our minds two important considera-
tions. Firstly, let us consider the patentable matter involved in the invention of
the gas-engine, the utilisation for motive-power purposes of the then well-known
properties of the explosive energy of gunpowder or of mixtures of gas and oil
with air. Are not these obvious inferences to persons of a mechanical turn of
mind and who had seen guns fired, or explosions in bottles containing spirits of
turpentine when slightly heated and a light applied to the neck? Surely no
fundamental patent could have been granted under the existing patent laws for
so obvious an application of known forces. Consequently, patent protection was
sought in comparative details, details in some cases essential to success which were
evolved or invented in the process of working out the invention. In this extended
field of operations a slight protection was in some instances obtained. But in answer
to the question whether such protection was commensurate with the benefits
received by the community at large, there can, I think, be only one reply. Generally,
those who did most got nothing, some few received insufficient returns, and in
very few cases indeed can the return be said to have been adequate. The second
important consideration is that of the methods of procedure of the patentees, for
it appears that very few of them had studied what had been suggested or done
before by others before taking out their own patent. We are also struck by
the number of really important advances that have been suggested and have
failed to fructify, either from want of funds or other causes, to be forgotten for
the time and to be re-invented later on by subsequent workers.

What a waste of time, expense, and disappointment would be avoided if we in
England helped the patentee to find out easily what had been done previously, on
the lines adopted by the United States and German Patent Offices, who advise the
patentee after the receipt of his provisional specification of the chief anticipa-
tory patents, dead or alive! And ought we in England to rest content to see
our patentees awaiting the report of the United States and German Patent
Offices on their foreign equivalent specifications before filing their English patent
claims? Ought not our Patent Office to give more facilities and assistance to the
patentee P

Before proceeding further to discuss some of the possible improvements for
the encouragement and protection of research and invention, I ask you to further
consider the position of the inventor—the man anxious to achieve success where
others have hitherto failed. To be successful he must be something of an
enthusiast; and usually he is a poor man, or a man of moderate means, and
dependent on others for financial assistance. Generally the problem to be
attacked involves a considerable expenditure of money; some problems require
great expenditure before any return can thereby accrue, even under the most
favourable circumstances. In the very few cases where the inventor has some
means of his own they are generally insufficient to carry him through, and there
have unfortunately been many who have lost everything in the attempt. In nearly
all cases the inventor has to co-operate with capital: the capitalist may be a
sleeping partner, or the capital may be held by a firm or syndicate, the inventor in
such cases being a partner—a junior partner—or a member of the staff, The com-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, _ 671

bination may be successful and lasting, but unfortunately the best inventors are
often bad men of business. The elements of the combination are often unstable, and
the disturbing forces are many and active ; especially is this so when the problem to
be attacked is one of difficulty, necessitating various and successive schemes involy-
ing considerable expenditure, generally many times greater than that foreshadowed
at the commencement of the undertaking. Under such circumstances, unless the
capitalist or the senior partner or board be in entire sympathy with the inventor or
exercise great forbearance, stimulated by the hope of ultimate success and adequate
returns, the case becomes hopeless, disruption takes place, and the situation is
abandoned. Further, in the majority of cases, after some substantial progress
has been made it is found that under the existing patent laws insufficient pro-
tection can be secured, and the prospect of a reasonable return for the expenditure
becomes doubtful. Under such circumstances the capitalist will generally refuse
to proceed further unless the prospect of being first in the field may tempt him to
continue.

Very many inventors, as I have said, avoid the expense of searching the patent
records to see how far their problem has been attacked by others. In some cases
the cost of a thorough search is very great indeed ; sometimes it is greater than
the cost of a trial attack on the problem. In the case of young and inexperienced
inventors there sometimes exists a disinclination to enter on an expensive search ;
they prefer to spend their money on the attack itself. There are some, it is true,
who have a foolish aversion to take steps to ascertain if others have been before
them, and who prefer to remain in ignorance and trust to chance. It will,
however, be said that the United States and German Patent Office reports ought
to suffice to warn or protect the English patentee; but my own experience has
been that such protection is not entirely satisfactory. There is, firstly, a con-
siderable interval before such reports are received, and the life of a patent is
short. Then, if the patent is upon an important subject, attracting general
attention, the search is vigorous and sometimes overwrought, and the patent
unjustly damaged or refused altogether. If, however, the patent is on some
subject not attracting general attention, it receives too little attention and is
granted without comment.

In some few instances it may be said that ignorance has been a positive
advantage, and that if the patentee had realised how much of his patentable work
was honeycombed by previous publications and patents, he would have lost heart
and given up the task. It is, I think, a case of the exception proving the
rule; and the patentee ought, as far as possible, in all cases to know his true
position, and make his choice accordingly. The present patent law has some
curious anomalies. Let us suppose some inventor has the good fortune to place
the keystone in the arch of an invention, to add some finishing touch which makes
the whole invention a complete success, and valuable. Then, success having been
proved possible, others try to reap the results of his labour and good fortune, and,
as often happens, it is discovered after laborious search that someone else first
suggested the same keystone in some long-forgotten patent or obscure publication,
but for some reason or other the public were none the better for his having done
so. What does the law do? It says this is an anticipation, and instead of appor-
tioning to all parties reasonable and equitable shares in the perfected invention, to
which no one could object, it says that the patent is injured or perhaps rendered
useless by the anticipation, and that its value to everyone concerned is thereby
diminished or destroyed, as the case may be, and thrown open to the public. Up
till a few years ago, any anticipations, however old, might be cited; but recently
the law has been amended, and at present none rank as anticipations which are
more than fifty years old.

The perfecting of inventions and their introduction into general use requires
capital, as we have seen—sometimes a considerable amount, as in the introduction
of the Bessemer process for steel, or the linotype system of printing—before any
commercial success can be realised.

Capital having been found, the next difficulty is in the conservatism of persons
and communities who are the buyers of the invention. There is always present

672 REPORT—1904.

in their minds the risk of failure and its consequent loss and worry to themselves,
and in the event of success the advantage, in their estimation, may not be sufficient
to counterbalance the risk. In large departments and companies whose manage-
ment is conducted by officials receiving fixed salaries, acting under non-technical
supervision, there is a strong tendency among the officials to leave well alone, the
organisation being such that the risk of failure, even though it be remote, more
than counterbalances, in their estimation, the advantages that would result in the
event of success. Next is the opposition of those who are financially interested
in competing trades or older inventions; and if the invention is a labour-saving
appliance, then the active opposition of the displaced labour is a serious, though
generally only a temporary, barrier.

Fortunately, however, for the community, for research, and for invention,
there is always to be found a considerable percentage of persons who, apart from
the inventor, are able and willing to risk, and indeed to sacrifice, their personal
interests in the cause of progress for the benefit of the community at large; and
were it not for such persons the task of the introduction of most inventions
would be an impossible one.

There are many problems of the highest importance in physics, engineering,
chemistry, geology, and the arts, of which the investigation might probably prove
of great benefit to the human race, and of which the probable monetary cost of
the attack would be considerable, and of some very great indeed. Let us, then,
inquire how the necessary funds could be raised. It is possible in the case of
some of the more attractive problems that a group of rich philanthropists might be
found, but in most cases it would be impossible to form a company on business lines,
under the existing laws of this and other countries, as I shall endeavour to show.

In the case of many of the problems, no patents will give adequate protection ;
in some cases there is no subject-matter of novelty and importance involved. In
other cases the probable duration of the investigation isso long that any initial
patents would have expired before a commercial result was reached, and under
either of these circumstances there would be no inducement to business men or
financiers to undertake the risk.

As an illustration of my meaning I will take two investigations that have
doubtless occurred to the minds of most of those present, though many others of
greater or less importance might be cited. One is the thorough investigation
of the problem of aerial navigation, with or without the assistance of flotation by
gas, This problem could undoubtedly be successfully solved by an organised
attack of skilled and properly trained engineers and the expenditure of a large
sum of money. Assuming the problem solved, and commercially successful, it
appears to be impossible under the existing patent laws to secure any adequate
monopoly so as to justify the expectation of a reasonable return on the capital
expended on the invention. For in view of the multitude of suggestions that
have been made and the experiments that have been carried out, the practical
solution of the problem would appear to rest on a judicious selection of old ideas
by means of exhaustive experiments.

Another and perhaps more important investigation which has not, as yet, been
attacked to any material extent is the exploration of the lower depths of the earth.
At present the deepest shaft is, I believe, at the Cape, of a little over one mile in
depth, and the deepest bore-hole is one made in Silesia, by the Austrian Govern-
ment, of about the same depth. What would be found at greater depths is at
present a matter for conjecture, founded on the dip and thicknesses of strata
observed on or near the surface. Much money and many valuable lives have been
devoted to exploration of the polar regions, but there can be no comparison
between the scientific interest and the possible material results of such ex-
ploration and the one I have chosen for illustration of the inadequate protection
afforded by law—namely, a great engineering attack on a problem of geology.

I would ask you to consider the commercial aspect of this engineering geo-
logical enterprise, as compared with exploration into new or unknown areas on
the surface of the earth,

An exploring expedition into a new country has before it generally the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 673

probability of the acquisition of territorial and mineral rights or possessions
bringing material gain to the undertakers. The rights of such enterprises are well
known, and capital can be obtained with or without national support, as the case
may be. On the other hand, the explorer into the depths of the earth has no
rights or monopolies beyond the mineral rights of the land he has purchased over
his boring ; further, it is improbable that he can obtain any patent of substantial
value for his methods of boring to great depths. To succeed in the undertaking a
great expenditure of money must be incurred, an expenditure far greater than that
of an exploring expedition, and analogous to that of a military expedition or a
small invading army, and to raise this sum the pioneers have practically no
security to offer. For if they succeed in finding rich deposits of precious minerals
in greater abundance, or succeed in making some geological discovery associated
with deep borings, they gain no exclusive title to these under existing laws. Any
other person or syndicate acting upon the experience gained could sink other shafts
in other places or countries, and, benefiting by the experience gained by the
pioneers, could probably carry out the work more advantageously, and thus
depreciate the first undertaking or render it valueless, as has often occurred before,

Let us consider more closely some of the essential features of sinking a shaft
to a great depth, for I think it will be seen that it presents no unsurmountable
difficulties beyond those incidental to an enterprise of considerable magnitude
involving the ordinary methods of procedure and the ordinary methods adopted
by mining engineers. That there would be some departures from ordinary
practice on account of the great depth itis true, but these are more of the character
of detail. On the design of this boring I have consulted Mr. John Bell Simpson,
the eminent authority on mining in the North of England. The shaft would be
sunk in a locality to avoid as far as possible water-bearing strata and the necessity
of pumping. It would be of a size usual in ordinary mines or coal-pits. The
exact position of such shaft would require some consideration as to whether it
should commence in the primary or secondary strata. It would be sunk in stages,
each of about half a mile in depth, and at each stage there would be placed the
hauling and other machinery, to be worked electrically, for dealing with each stage.
The depth of each stage would be restricted to half a mile in order to avoid
a disproportionate cost in the hauling machinery and the weight of rope, as well
as increased cost in the cooling arrangements arising from excessive hydraulic
pressures. At each second or third mile in depth there would be air-locks to
prevent the air-pressure from becoming excessive owing to the weight of the
superincumbent air, which at from two to three miles would reach about double
the atmospheric pressure at the surface. A greater rise of pressure than this
would be objectionable for two reasons—firstly, from the inconvenience to the
workmen ; secondly, from the rise of temperature due to the adiabatic compression
of the circulating air for ventilating purposes. The air-pressure immediately
above each air-lock would thus reach to about two atmospheres, and beneath to
one atmosphere. In order to carry on the transfer of air through the air-locks
for ventilating purposes pumps coupled to air-engines would be provided, the
energy to work the pumps being obtained from electro-motors. To maintain the
shaft at a reasonable temperature at the greater depth powerful means of carrying
the heat to the surface would be provided.

The most suitable arrangement for cooling would probably consist of large
steel pipes, an upcast and a downcast pipe, connected at the top and bottom of
each half-mile section in a closed ring. This ring would be filled with brine,
which by natural circulation would form a powerful carrier of heat; but the circu-
lation, assisted by electrically driven centrifugal pumps, would be capable of
carrying an enormous quantity of heat upwards to the surface. At each half-
mile stage there would be a transfer of the heat from the ring below to the ring above
by means of an apparatus similar in construction to a feed-water heater, or to a
regenerator constructed of small steel tubes, through which the brine in the ring
above would circulate, and around the outside the brine in the ring below could
also circulate, the heat being transmitted through the metal of the tubes from
brine ring to brine ring.

1904, xx

674 REPORT—1904.

We have now presented to us two alternative arrangements for cooling. One
arrangement would be to cool the brine to a very low temperature in the top ring at
the mouth of the shaft by refrigerating machinery, so as to provide a sufficient
gradation of temperature in the whole brine system, to ensure the necessary flow
of heat upwards from brine ring to brine ring, and overcome all the resistances of
heat-transfer, and so maintain the lowest ring at the temperature necessary for
effectual cooling of the lowest section of the shaft. But a better arrangement
would be to place powerful refrigerating machinery at certain of the lower stages,
the function of this machinery being to extract heat from the ring below and
deliver it to the ring above. This latter method would increase to a very great
extent the heat-carrying power of the system, which in the first arrangement is
limited by the freezing temperature of brine in the descending column and the
highest temperature admissible in the ascending brine column. The amount of
heat condacted inwards through the rock-wall and requiring to be absorbed and
transferred to the surface depends on the temperature and conductibility of
the strata. But there is no doubt that the methods I have indicated would be
capable of maintaining a moderate temperature in the shaft to depths of twelve
miles.

During the process of sinking at the greater depths the shaft bottom would
require the application of a special cooling process in advance of the sinkers,
similar to the Belgian freezing system of M. Poesche used for sinking through
water-bearing strata and quicksands, and now in general use. It consists in
driving a number of bore-holes in a circle outside the perimeter of the shaft to be
sunk; through these bore-holes very cold brine is circulated, thus freezing the
rocks and quicksands and the water therein, and when this process is completed
the sinking of the shaft is easily accomplished,

In our case this process would be maintained not only on the shaft bottom,
but also for some time on the newly-pierced shaft sides, until the surrounding rock
had been cooled for some distance from the face.

As to the cost, rate of boring, and normal temperature of the rock, an approxi-
mate estimate has been made, based on the experience gained on the Rand, but
including the extra costs for air-locks and cooling :—

Cost Timein Temperature

£ Years of Rock

For 2 miles depth from the surface . 500,000 10 122° F.
sige CEE 37 ” » 9 ” . 1,100,000 25 152°
a0 miss x poy cep i . 1,800,000 40 182°
cometh acy 2 ay let + . 2,700,000 55 212°
BE ee! shia r Panta) .; . 8,700,000 70 242°
ee Os; 3 F hal % . 5,000,000 85 272°

I hope I have succeeded in showing in the short time at our disposal that an
exploration to great depths is not an impossible undertaking. But my main
object in discussing the enterprise at some length has been to show that a pioneer
company would not acquire any subsequent monopoly of similar works under the
existing patent laws or the laws of any country.

In the scheme as I have described it, there appears to be nothing that could be
patented ; but let us suppose that some good patent could have been found that
was absolutely essential to the success of the undertaking, it would certainly
have expired before the pioneer company could have reaped any substantial
return, and probably before the first enterprise had been completed. It follows
therefore that at the present time there is no adequate protection, or indeed any
protection at all, for the promoters of many great and important pioneer enter-
prises, some of which might prove of immense benefit to mankind.

Let us ask what change in the laws would place great pioneer research works
on a sound financial basis. A Government grant, except for very special purposes,
seems to be out of the question, seeing that the benefits to be derived are gene-
raliy not confined to any one country. An extension of the life of patents,
which is now from fourteen to sixteen years in different countries, would be

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 675

undoubtedly a step in the right direction. It would be of great benefit gene-
rally if some scale of duration of patents could be fixed internationally, the
scale being fixed according to the subject-matter, the difficulty of the attack, and
the past history of the subject, but more especially in view of the utility of the
invention.

One of the chief objections raised by the Privy Council against the extension
of patents in this country has rightly been that undue prolongation is unfair to
the British public, seeing that abroad no prolongations are granted. Therefore, if
the duration of patents for important matters is to be extended at home it must
also be extended abroad. In other words, such prolongations, to be effective,
should necessarily extend to other countries. They should be international, and
concurrent in all the countries interested.

One possible solution of this difficult question would be to place such matters
under the jurisdiction of a Central International Committee, who would have the
apportionment of the life and privileges of patents and of the extension or curtail-
ment of their duration, according to their handling by the owners. I would ask,
Why has a patent a life of only fourteen to sixteen years, while copyright is for
forty-two years? Why hasa pioneer company making a railway under Act of
Parliament generally rights for ever unless it abuses its privileges, or the require-
ments of the district necessitate the construction of competing lines, while a
patent has in comparison a life of infinite shortness P

I might also cite gas companies, electrical supply companies, under Act of
Parliament, or provisional orders of forty-two years’ duration; and this reminds us
of the fact that until the term of life for electric supply companies had been
extended from twenty-one years to forty-two years by the bill of 1884, it was
impossible to find capital for such undertakings.

Now, it may be urged that the grant of a patent is a different thing from the
grant of power to a railway company, a gas or electric supply company. But
the object of this Address has been to show that a patent, to be fair to the
patentee, ought in many cases to be analogous to an Act of Parliament or a pro-
visional order. Would it not place matters in a fairer position, especially in the
case of expensive and lengthy researches, to grant to those who pledge themselves
to spend a suitable and minimum sum within a stated period on the research a
reasonable and fair monopoly, so that such person or syndicate might in the event of
success be in the position to reap a reasonable return for their expenditure and risk ?

Some such measure would unquestionably give an immense stimulus to
research and invention by enabling capital to be raised and works started on com-
mercial lines in fields of great promise at present almost untouched.

I pass over the disadvantages to the British inventor of the hostile patent
tariffs of Continental nations and of the protective patent laws of some of the
British dependencies, disadvantages greater than those imposed by protective
tariffs on the ordinary British manufacturer.

There is, however, another aspect of the question to which I would briefly
allude: it is the great benefits that the world at large has derived from the work
of inventors in the past.

Think of the multitude and power of the great steam-engines and gas-engines
that drive our factories, and pump the water out of our mines, and supply our
cities with water, light, and power; of the great steamships scattered over the
ocean and the locomotives on the railways.

Think of the billions of tons of steel that have been made by the Bessemer,
Siemens-Martin, and Thomas Gilchrist processes, and of the great superiority
and less cost of the material over the puddled iron which it superseded.

Think of the vast work performed by the electric telegraphs and telephones;
and we must not fail to include the great chemical and metallurgical processes
carried on all over the world, besides the countless other inventions and labour-
saving appliances.

Can we form any idea of tke commercial value of all these gigantic tools
that past inventors have left as a heritage to the human race, and can we venture
to place any order of magnitude on so vast a sum ?

xx2

676 REPORT—1904.

If we take as our unit of value the whole of the money spent on all inven-
tions, both successful and unsuccessful, I think we shall be much below the mark if
we assume that the value of the benefits have on the average exceeded by ten-
thousandfold the money spent on making and introducing the inventions.

If this is so, let us see what it means. It means that for every unit of capital
spent by the inventors and their friends on invention they have in some cases
received nothing back. In some cases they have just got their capital back, in
some cases two or threefold, occasionally tenfold, very rarely a hundredfold.
Whereas the world at large has received a present of ten-thousandfold
greater value than all the money spent and misspent by the small band of past
inventors. ,

In conclusion, let us hope that the inventor will in the future receive more
encouragement and support, that the patent laws will be further modified and
extended, that the people at large will consider these matters more closely and
recognise that they are of first importance to their progress and welfare, and that
in the future it may be easier, nay in some cases possible, to carry on many great
researches into the secrets of Nature.

Mrs. Herrua Ayrron delivered a Lecture on ‘The Origin of Sand
Ripples.’

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Flame Temperatures in Internal Combustion! By Ducaup CLERK.

2. On the Specific Heats of Gases at High Temperatures.
By Professor H. B, Dixon, /2.S.

3. Exhaust Gas Calorimetry.? By Professor B. Hopxinson, J/.A.

4. The Effect of Receiver Drop in a Compound Hngine.®
By J. W. Haywarp, I.S8c.

5, Superheated Steam: Wire-drawing and other Experiments.
By A. H. Peaks, B.A.

This paper gave an account of experimental investigations carried out with the
object of determining the specific heat of superheated steam.

The first method dealt with was the one Inown as wire-drawing, or throttling.
Dry saturated steam was allowed to expand without doing external work by
causing it to pass through a small orifice, and the resulting changes in pressure
and temperature were noted. This experiment was repeated for a number of
initial pressures, and with each initial pressure the amount of wire-drawing was
varied, so as to give a large number of points connecting temperature and pressure
of the wire-drawn steam.

A diagram was shown in which these points were plotted on squared

1 Published in the Hlectrical Engineer, September 2, 1904.
2 Published in Lngineering, August 26, 1904.
3 Published in the Hngineer, August 26, 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 677

paper, with temperatures as ordinates and pressures as abscisse, and lines or
curves were drawn through each set of points for which the initial pressure was
the same. These curves, which are very nearly straight lines, are constant total
heat curves; that is, the total heat in 1lb. of steam is the same for all points
lying on any one curve, and the value of the total heat can be obtained from
Regnault’s tables for the total heat of saturated steam by noting the point on the
saturation curve where the constant total heat curve cuts it.

Hence from this diagram, if Regnault’s tables were quite accurate, the specific
heat of superheated steam over the range of temperature and pressure covered by
these experiments—212° Fahr. to 890° Fahr., and from atmospheric pressure up
to 200 lb. per square inch—could be calculated.

Unfortunately, Regnault’s tables are not sufficiently accurate for this purpose,
since slight errors in the values of the total heat cause large variations in the
calculated value of the specific heat.

The main interest, therefore, as far as the wire-drawing experiments are con-
cerned, is in the results shown in the diagram referred to, which shows at a glance
the whole of the experimentally obtained data.

The paper contained diagrams illustrating the apparatus used, and also
tables, &c., showing the conclusions that would follow if Regnault’s tables could
be regarded as reliable enough to base such calculations upon.

The description of the apparatus, the method of procedure, the precautions
taken to avoid errors and to secure perfectly dry steam before expansion, cannot
be dealt with in a short abstract.

Experiments by a direct method have also been carried out. In these heat
was supplied by passing a current of electricity through German-silver coils, over
which the steam passed. The flow of steam and the electric energy supplied were
kept as constant as possible untila steady condition was reached, and then the
connection was obtained between rise of temperature, quantity of steam per
minute, and watts supplied.

Radiation was very largely avoided by causing the steam to pass through an
arrangement of concentric passages. The loss in this way which remained was
estimated by experiment.

The experiments were carried out with steam at various pressures and for
different amounts of temperature rise, but the results are not sufficiently accurate
to enable any conclusions to be drawn as to variations of specific heat with
‘emperature or pressure. In all cases the steam before heating was at saturation
temperature.

The value obtained for the specific heat at constant pressure varied between
*36 and °45, the mean of ten experiments giving the value ‘41.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers were read :—
1, Electricity from Water-Power.! By A. A. CAMPBELL SwINTON.

Though, probably, the earliest example of the production of electricity by means
of water-power on a practical scale and its transmission to a distance was the
installation put up at Cragside, Northumberland, by the late Lord Armstrong, in
the year 1882, the great development of such installations has, until recently,
taken place almost exclusively abroad. A few thousand horse-power will probably
cover the whole of the plants of this character at present running in Great Britain;
whereas, as was shown by a table in the paper, the aggregate horse-power of all the
hydraulic electricity installations in the world amounts to at least one and a halt
million horse-power, and probably reaches two million horse-power.

By the utilisation of this water-power the author calculates that some 11,720,000

' Published in the Hlectrical Engineer, August 26, 1904.

678 REPORT—1904.

tons of coal are saved annually, which, at 10s. per ton, means a yearly saving of
some 5,860,000/.

The electrical transmission of energy generated by water-power has reached a
great development in America, the longest transmission being probably the 232
miles of line that connect the De Sabla power-house with the town of Sausalito,
in California. The author gave particulars of several other American and Con-
tinental installations of large size delivering energy over great distances.

The only large electro-hydraulic plant at present in operation in this country
is the 7,000 horse-power installation of the British Aluminium Company at Foyers,
which has been working since 1896. The same Company are, however, now
developing a further installation on Loch Leven, whereby they expect to get 17,000
horse-power, the whole of which will be used for the production of aluminium.

Another large water-power scheme is at the present moment being developed
in Wales by the North Wales Electric Power Company, whose first installation—
which derives its power from Lake Llydaw—with a fall of 1,150 feet will give
8,200 horse-power.

The latest British scheme is that of the Scotch Water-Power Syndicate, who
are developing a water-power obtainable from Loch Sloy, situated near Loch
Lomond. The fall is 757 feet. The energy will be transmitted at 40,000 volts
overhead for a distance of twenty-two miles to the industrial areas of the Vale of
Leven and the Clyde, where it is calculated there will be 5,000 horse-power avail-
able for delivery.

The author calculates generally, with regard to water-power installations in
this country, that interest on capital, depreciation, upkeep, and working expenses
will amount to about 12 per cent. on the capital expenditure, so that for a water-
power scheme to be economically sound the total capital involved must not exceed
eight and a half times the annual price which can be got for the whole of the
energy.

2. The Use of Electricity on the North-Eastern Railway and on Tyneside.
By C. H. Merz and W. McLettay.

The objects of this paper were (1) to describe the application of electricity to
railway traction by the North-Eastern Railway Company as recently inaugurated ;
(2) to indicate the rapid progress which has been made in the uses of electricity in
the Tyneside neighbourhood, resulting in the displacement of 50,000 horse-power
of steam machinery ; and (8) to discuss briefly the principles which govern the
cheap generation and distribution of electricity for industrial purposes.

The Electrification of the North-Eastern Railway Suburban Lines —The
electrification scheme, covering forty miles of double track, has been designed on
the third-rail continuous-current system, and what was formerly practically an
hourly service on the routes dealt with is now a quarter-hourly service.

The system of train operation adopted is the Sprague Thomson-Houston
multiple unit system. The main advantages of the multiple unit system are that
trains of any length may be built up without affecting the efficiency of operation
or diminishing the speed of the train.

In addition to the electric passenger train, electric locomotives are provided for
dealing with the goods traffic.

Other Uses of Electrical Energy on the North-Eastern Railway.—Hlectricity
is also used by the North-Eastern Railway for lighting and motive power at their
passenger stations, locomotive works, and repairing shops.

Transmission System and Sub-stations.—The energy is generated at the power-
stations as three-phase alternating current at a pressure of 6,000 volts, and is trans-
mitted to five sub-stations, which are equipped with rotary converter sets of an
ageregate capacity of 15,000 horse-power. Current is fed to the conductor rail as
direct current at 600 volts.

Generating Station.—The generating station from which the current is obtained

1 Published in the Hngineer, September 9, 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 679

and which also supplies practically the whole of the manufacturers on the north
bank of the Tyne, is the Carville power-station of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Electric Supply Company, Limited. This station supplies power for probably a
greater variety of purposes than does any other station in present operation, Its
equipment consists of 20,000 horse-power of plant, made up of Parsons’s turbo-
alternators, two of which are of 7,000 horse-power, being the largest steam turbines
yet constructed in this country.

Conclusion.—The ideal arrangement for power supply is, the authors suggested,
that by which all the electrical requirements of an industrial neighbourhood are
supplied from a single inter-connected power transmission and distributing system.
Such systems are commercially possible in this country, due to (1) its density of
population ; (2) its cheap coal supply ; and (3) the nature of its industries, and
the waste power which is naturally produced by them.

On all load factors up to 30 per cent. a saving of 1/. per kilowatt on the
capital expenditure has greater effect on the selling price of current than the
reduction of the coal bill by 6 per cent. (coal being taken at 6s. per ton). It is
therefore evident that if a steam station can be erected so as to cost 17/, less
per kilowatt of plant than a station driven by water-power, electricity can be sold
more cheaply from the former than from the latter. In fact, it is probable, absence
of water-power notwithstanding, that this country could be supplied with electrical
energy more cheaply than any other country in the world.

3. Testing Alternating Current Induction Motors by a Hopkinson Method.
By W. E. SumpNer and R. W. WEEKES.

4. Energy Losses in Magnetising Iron.?
By W. M. Morvey and A. G. Hansarp.

The authors called attention to the magnitude of the total amount of enere'y
lost in magnetising iron in electrical machinery, estimating that in this country
alone between 25,000 and 50,000 tons of coal are expended annually in keeping
transformers magnetised, without including the magnetising losses in the armatures
of alternators, dynamos, and motors.

The total losses, as measured by a wattmeter, in different thicknesses of iron of
the same quality at different periodicities, are compared amongst themselves and
with hysteresis tests made by other methods, and also the total losses in the same
sample of iron at different temperatures, and the following general conclusions
are arrived at: (1) In determining the magnetic quality of iron sheets, eddy-
current losses, though often neglected, are by no means negligible, and are often as
important as hysteresis; (2) the simple laws generally assumed to be followed by
hysteresis and eddies are found, as often as not, to be rather widely departed from
—e.g., the total loss of energy, including eddies and hysteresis, often does not follow
a B’° curve; and (3) consequently, with such a variable material as iron, the only
satisfactory method of predicting losses is to make wattmeter tests of samples as
nearly as possible under the working conditions. .

Fig. 4 shows the total loss (hysteresis and eddies) in three thicknesses of iron—
viz., 0136 inch (‘34 mm.), ‘0189 inch (-47 mm.), and ‘0254 inch (61 mm.), This
iron was all of one make. It was tested in transformer form at 50 periods and
100 periods per second, and at magnetisations suitable for transformer work and,
to some extent, fordynamo work. The tests were made on an alternator having
practically a sine curve. The samples were large—nearly 12 Ib. each—the total

1 Published in the Electrical Engineer, August 26, 1904.
* Printed in full in the Electrical Engineer, August 26, 1904, N.S. xxxiv. p. 297,
and in the Electrician, September 2, 1904, lviii. p. 790,

680 REPORT—1904.

energy loss being measured by a wattmeter. The hysteresis curves of this figure
are based on a single test by a Ewing tester, for each sample of iron, worked out
for 50~ and 100~ by comparisons with standards tested at 4,000 B, 100~ by
ballistic galvanometer, the values at other B’s being calculated on the Steinmetz
B'¢ ratio. The results need but little explanation to show the marked increase
of loss with thickness.

These tests do not lend any support to the common belief that with ordinary
degrees of lamination the eddy-current loss is reduced to negligible proportions.
On the contrary, they show that the eddies loss is of the same order of importance
as that due to hysteresis,

In calculating losses in iron for hysteresis tests, it is usual to assume that the
rate of increase of eddy loss is proportional to the square of the thickness, the
square of B and the square of the periodicity. An examination of the curves
will show that in some respects these assumptions are not confirmed, thus :—

Thickness.—As between ‘0136 and ‘0189 inch, the eddy loss on the average is
practically proportional to (thickness)?, but as between ‘0136 and ‘0254 inch the
average increase is about 30 per cent. less than the ratio of (thickness)*, the
increase being from 1 to about 2°4 instead of 1 : 3:5.

Eddies and g.—On the average the increase is substantially in accordance
with the B* assumption.

Eddies and Periods.—The increase is rather less than the usual (periods)?
assumption, being about 1 : 3-4 instead of 1 : 4.

The departure from the (thickness)? and (periods)’ ratios of increase may
reasonably be explained by supposing the eddy circuits to have self-induction.

The six total loss curves will be found to be rather steeper than Bl curves.
It often happens, however, that the curves of total loss are substantially BY
curves, showing that in such cases the eddy constituent of the loss as well as the
hysteresis closely follows the Steinmetz ratio.

Fig. 2 illustrates this. It gives the total loss, measured by wattmeter, of
iron ‘014 inch thick at 50 periods and at 100 periods and at various B’s. The
wattmeter readings are shown by round points, the points marked + being Bl®
values.

This iron is representative of good transformer iron, now obtainable in quan-
tities in England. Slightly better iron is sometimes got, but not often nor in
large quantities.

Fig. 5 shows the result of total loss test by wattmeter of some ‘0124 inch iron
at two temperatures—viz., 40° F. and 167° F., together with a ballistic galvano-
meter test for hysteresis of the same iron taken at 2,000, 5,000, and 8,000 B.
The three hysteresis values so obtained fall on a Bl curve.

It will be found that the total loss curves (at the two very different tempera-
tures mentioned) also follow B!° curves, which are shown thus +, the wattmeter
readings being shown by the round points.

Although the total loss generally closely approximates to B'% curves, it may be
either less or more steep than such curves. Fig. 4 shows examples of somewhat
greater steepness; figs. 2 and 5 show coincidence with B!® curves; and the authors
have also found curves less steep. Examples of the latter may be seen, eg., in
the total loss tests given in Kapp’s ‘Transformers’ (1896, p. 23) of iron carried up
to nearly 7,000 B, which will be found on examination to be less steep than B®
curves. The table of hysteresis values (going up to 15,000 g) given at p. 108 of
Ewing’s ‘ Magnetic Induction in Iron’ (8rd edition) will also, on examination, be
found to form a curve perceptibly less steep than BY*. As on the whole, how-
ever, the evidence is in favour of the Steinmetz ratio for the hysteresis (though
by no means invariably so), it is probable that the variations in the forms of
the total loss curves are due to differences in the ratio of increase of the eddy
currents. The various results point to the need for making wattmeter tests of
total loss in iron under working conditions, and that it is not safe to rely only on
hysteresis tests,

Ie a ee Oa
Mi seer cueve de
a a DSK

1'o

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 681

>
Fig. 4 —

24—
Macnetizinc Loss

in Iron of different okay
2
7 Thicknesses,
at 50~ & 100% /|
i Ealeeriec

pe VAP a
6 foo

d Hysteresis loss af 100~
¢ Hysteresis loss at 50~

WATTS iper i.

ho
\\
NSS
aN

4 Baa
Fig. 2.
4 MAGNETIzING Loss 20

13 . ;

in 014” Transformer fron MieorA Ke ete 4 erent

i CREA tl 18 at 100~
ceri igi

HA Bt Aaare tess

6 Total loss at 16°F.) wattmeter
3

Macnetizinc Loss

— ¢ Hiaenesto loss

Am
WATTS per b.

682 ; REPORT—1904.

5. Distribution of Magnetic Induction in Multipolar Armatures.}
By W. M. Tuornton.

6. On Large Bulb Incandescent Electric Lamps as Secondary Standards of
Light.| By Professor J. A. Fiemine, 1.A., D.Sc., F.RS.

The importance of possessing a secondary standard of light which shall be at
once portable, convenient, and constant is generally acknowledged, and the choice
lies between some form of flame standard and some form of incandescent standard,

It is known that the candle power of a flame standard is affected by the
variation of moisture in the air, atmospheric pressure, and carbonic acid, and that
even in well-ventilated rooms changes in atmospheric moisture and pressure
may cause variations to the extent of 4 per cent. in the candle power of a flame
standard.

For the last eight years the author has employed as a secondary standard of light
a form of carbon filament incandescent lamp having a specially large bulb and a
filament prepared in a certain manner. The size of the bulb prevents any sensible
deposit of carbon uponit, and the particular preparation of the filament by ageing it
previously to mounting in the bulb prevents variations in candle power provided
the lamp is used in a particular manner and only for a short time on each occa-
sion. These large bulb lamps are not intended for continuous use, but only to be
employed in setting or adjusting the distance of another lamp from the photo-
meter disc in a photometer, so as to produce on the dise a predetermined illumina-
tion. The lamp to be measured is then substituted for the standard lamp, and by
this process of double weighing all errors due to want of symmetry in the photo-
meter are eliminated. If only used in the above manner the standard lamps may
be used for hundreds of times without being in operation altogether for more than
a few hours, and by comparing a number of these standards with one another it is
possible to preserve a standard of light with great constancy. The illuminating
power of these lamps is not affected by changes in moisture and atmospheric
pressure, and the experiments described in the paper show that they are not
sensibly affected by change in atmospheric temperature. The light of the lamp
is therefore determined only by the current passing through it, and this can be
measured easily with an accuracy of one part in a thousand by means of a potentio-
meter. Hence, when the filament is traversed by the same current, the lamp
gives the same light. The author has therefore devised an arrangement consisting
of a large bulb lamp united with a current measuring instrument and a variable
resistance. This instrument, however, is not graduated directly to read current,
but is graduated to read candle power; hence all that has to be done is to place
the instrument on a circuit supplying a steady electromotive force and vary the
current through the lamp by means of a rheostat until the needle of the current-
measuring instrument indicates a certain candle power. The lamp then has a known
candle power in a certain direction. Such an arrangement, although not sensitive
enough for laboratory purposes, is quite sufficiently accurate and very convenient
for the workshop comparison of ordinary glow lamps. For more accurate observa-
tions, however, a potentiometer must be employed, since the current or the yoltage
on the terminals of the lamp must be determined to at least one part ina thousand,
if the candle power is to be correct within half per cent. If incandescent lamps
are compared directly with flame standards, the latter not being corrected for
atmospheric moisture and pressure, then differences to the extent of even 4 or
5 per cent. may be found in measuring the candle power of the incandescent lamp
on different occasions and in different places. As this difference amounts to
about one candle in twenty-five, it is far greater than possible errors in observa-
tions made with due care.

For the purpose of bringing into agreement photometric measurements made

! Published in the Hlectrician, August 26, 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 683

in different parts of the world, these large bulb standard photometric lamps have
proved very useful, and also they have proved of utility in obtaining the proper
coefficients for the correction of the candle power of flame standards for atmo-
spheric moisture and temperature.

7. Some Investigations on the Ten-candle Power Harcourt Pentane Lamp
made at the National Physical Laboratory.!. By CuirrorD C. Paterson.

This paper gave briefly the results of investigations carried out at the National
Physical Laboratory in order to determine changes in the illuminating power of
the ten-candle Harcourt lamp due to variation

(i.) In barometric pressure.
(ii.) In the quantity of water vapour present in the air,

When photometric comparisons are made between the pentane standard and
a source of light unaffected by atmospheric conditions, as, for instance, an electric
glow lamp, errors of the order of 5 per cent. may be introduced into candle-power
measurements if corrections are not made for the hygrometric and barometric con-
ditions existing at the time.

In order to ascertain the amount of variation, photometric comparisons were
made against two large bulb Fleming-Ediswan electric standard glow lamps. The
double comparison method only was employed, and the two electric lamps used
to standardise a comparison glow lamp anew for each experiment, so that it was
only necessary to burn the standards for five or ten minutes at a time.

Tt is found convenient to state humidity volumetrically, as the number of litres
of water vapour to a cubic metre of pure dry air, at the barometric pressure
existing at the time ; so that if

b = Reading of barometer in mm.,
e = Aqueous pressure,
e, = Vapour tension of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere,

the litres of water vapour per cubic metre of pure air

e
ee LOO,
b—e-e, a

Upwards of sixty observations have been made on different days over a range
of humidity varying from five to twenty litres per cubic metre, which are about
the limits obtained under ordinary conditions in a well-ventilated photometer
room ; eighty per cent. of these, when corrected by means of the formula, fall within
+ or — } per cent. of ten-candle power.

The barometric pressure in these observations has varied from 739 to 780 mm.
of mercury, so that, applying the method of least squares for these two variables,
the following formula has been obtained for correcting the candle-power of the
lamp to the standard atmospheric conditions of 760 mm. of mercury and ten litres
of water vapour per cubic metre of pure dry air.

Candle power = 10 + 0:066 (10 — <)—0-008(760 —8),

where ¢ is the humidity as explained above and 6 the height of the barometer
in mm.

From this it will be seen that a variation of one litre per cubic metre in the
moisture causes a variation in candle-power of about 0:7 per cent., and that
10 mm. change in barometric pressure brings about an alteration of 0:8 per cent.
in the illuminating power of the lamp.

The standard humidity of ten litres per 1,000 has been fixed upon as being the
mean value for three years found at Kew Observatory. The figure is also borne
out by observations made at the Meteorological Office in Victoria Street, London.

1 Published in the Hlectrician, August 26, 1904.

684. REPORT—1904.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Tidal Régime of the River Mersey.
See Reports, p. 318.

2. The Control of the Nile! By Major Sir Hansury Brown, K.C.M.G4.

3. A Universal Testing Machine of 300 tons for Full-sized Structural
Members. By J. H. Wicxsterv, Pres.J.Mech.£.

The machine will admit a column or strut 88 feet long, 3 feet 3 inches square
in cross-section. It will admit a beam 3 feet 3 inches broad, 6 feet 6 inches deep,
and 20 feet between supports. It will shear a bar of mild steel 8 inches by
22 inches, It will break a steel wire rope 9 inches in circumference.

It makes autographic stress-strain diagrams in all these tests. The sensibility
of the machine with a pull of 100 tons is one in 10,000,

A list was then given of other large machines.

The purpose of the machine is not simply that of testing the strength of
material itself, but it is for testing the strength of a full-sized member of any
structure ; that is, the strength which results from the disposition of the material
in the sections and in the proportions of, for example, a strut, an eye-link, or a
beam. The reason for employing a machine for the purpose of making tests
instead of loading on full loads directly upon the specimen is, that for no reasonable
cost could you possibly make experiments with heavy loads applied in bulk.
Three hundred tons of accurate dead-weights would themselves cost about 2,4002. ;
their application to the specimen would be so tedious that each experiment would
cost as much in time and in labour as 100 experiments conducted in the machine
to be described, where the full load is applied through hydraulic pressure and
balanced by small accurate weights acting through levers and knife-edges. To
minimise time and labour in making tests on various forms of structural members,
this machine has been so designed as to be applied, without any change of
apparatus, either to thrusting strains or pulling strains, and this is accomplished by
making the straining frame in the form of a large trough, which is pushed forward
by a hydraulic plunger and which carries with it a straining head capable of being
locked at any part of its length. This trough, hydraulic ram, and cylinder are
completely surrounded by a balancing framework of tension rods and cross-heads,
and this enables the straining cross-head to apply its force to one part of the
balancing-frame which surrounds it for compression tests, and to another part of
the balancing-frame for tension tests. Wherever the force may be applied to the
balancing-frame, it is delivered to the levers and poise weights where it is
measured, Besides the facility for bringing forces to bear either in compression or
tension, it is requisite that no labour should be involved in arranging the machine
to take in long or short pieces, and this is accomplished by mounting the straining
head upon wheels, so that it can be quickly run to any part of the moving trough
and locked there by bolts, which can be shot with the same facility that you would
shoot the bolts in the door of a strong-room.

An article from ‘Le Génie Civil’ was quoted, with remarks on the machine from
pen of M. Breuil, Chef de la Section des Métaux du Laboratoire des Arts et
Métiers.

4. The Effect of Rapidly Alternating Stresses on Structural Steels.”
By Professor J. O. ARNOLD.

1 Published in Public Works, January 1905.
* Published in the Hngineer, September 2, 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 685

5. The Production of Magnetic Alloys from Non-magnetic Metals.
By R. A. HApFIELD.

Having some years ago produced a non-magnetic iron alloy known as ‘manganese
steel,’ I was much interested in learning that with the same metal, manganese,
which had enabled me to obtain a practically non-magnetic iron alloy, it had been
found possible to produce a magnetic copper alloy.

I have had communications with Dr. F. Heusler, who has given me much
interesting information, I have myself also produced some of this alloy, as exhi-
bited to-day.

It is of course well known that the metals copper, aluminium, and manganese,
are non-magnetic. It is, therefore, to say the least, surprising to find that, com-
bined in certain proportions, they produce an alloy having quite considerable
magnetic properties,

It may be first mentioned that no combination of copper with aluminium
produces a magnetic alloy; the peculiar change noticed, therefore, must be ascribed
entirely to the presence of manganese metal—the same metal which in manganese
steel produces the profound change in iron, converting it from its well-known
magnetic to non-magnetic condition.

‘As it was thought that perhaps the manganese metal under certain conditions
might show some reversibility, as is the case with certain iron-nickel alloys which,
whilst being non-magnetic at ordinary temperatures, become magnetic at low
temperatures—6U to 80°C.—_Sir James Dewar himself submitted the manganese
metal I used in producing the alloy exhibited to the temperature of liquid air.
No change was found to occur; the metal remained as non-magnetic as at ordinary
temperatures. This, of course under the same test, was found to be the case with
the copper and aluminium used in my experiments.

The alloy exhibited contains 60 per. cent. copper, 25 to 27 per cent. man-
ganese, and 12 percent. of aluminium. The manganese metal used contained about
92 per cent. manganese, the rest being 6 to 7 per cent of silicon, ‘5 to 1 per cent.
of carbon, and probably 0:50 per cent. of iron. But Dr. Heusler has shown that
with absolutely no iron present the magnetic qualities are exactly the same.

Another very curious point is, that whilst it must be the manganese which
confers the magnetic properties, the ‘reversibility,’ so to speak, is brought about
by the aluminium.

For example, with the manganese fairly constant 25 to 28 per cent., and the
aluminium varying from 3 to 14 per cent., the magnetisability with 3 per cent. is
nil; 5 per cent. confers a little; 10 per cent. is still more; the maximum being
reached with 14 per cent, aluminium :—

|]
Specimen Numbers. Analysis per cent. | iam Mo yee & Hawse) ;
N60 Maafol AB F 0.

34 28 36 ze Unmagnetisable.
35 28 57 | 3 Very slightly magnetisable.
36 26 9-6 3 2,220, 2,670, 3,200, 3,470.
32 26 14-6 & 4,500, 4,850, 5,380, 5,550.
33 | 25 13'8 fi 3,580, 4,075, 4,645, 4,900.

|

Dr. Heusler states that the magnetisability of the alloy will increase with an
increased percentage of aluminium, the maximum for any stated percentage of the
manganese being attained when the aluminium percentage amounts to, roughly, one-

686 REPORT—1904.

half of the percentage of manganese, or, in other words, when the alloy contains
one atom of aluminium to one atom of manganese.
It may be added that the alloy exhibited is, unfortunately, very brittle, and all

attempts to forge it, cold or hot at various temperatures, even only at dull red,
have been unsuccessful.

6. Indicator Tests on a small Petrol Engine.
Sy Professor H. L. Cauuenpar, 7.2.8.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Side Slip in Motor Cars.'
By Horace Darwin, £.2.8., and C. V. Burton.

2. An Electric Temperature Alarm.2 By Horace Darwin, F.R.S.

Os

The Electrical Conductivity of certain Aluminium Alloys as affected by
Exposure to Londow Atmosphere, and a Note on their Micro-structure.
By Professor Ernest WILson.

This paper dealt with the effect upon electrical conductivity of exposing light
aluminium alloys to London atmosphere. During three years’ exposure the
copper-aluminium alloys have gradually diminished total conductivity to a greater
extent the greater the percentage of copper. Of the nickel-copper-iron aluminium
alloys, which show such remarkably increased tensile strength as compared with
good commercial aluminium, those which are richer in nickel have diminished total
conductivity least. ‘The manganese-copper aluminium alloys have suffered com-
paratively little diminution in total conductivity, and one of them has compara-
tively high tensile strength. A 1:2 per cent. iron aluminium alloy has shown very
little diminution in electrical conductivity. It was thought that an examination of
the structure of these alloys by aid of micro-photography might throw some light
on the great difference which exists between some of their physical properties. For
instance, a nickel-copper aluminium alloy has 1°6 time the tensile strength of
ordinary commercial aluminium. Under a magnification of 800 diameters practi-
cally no structure could be discovered. Considering the remarkable crystalline
structure exhibited by ordinary commercial aluminium near the surface of an ingot,
when allowed to solidify at an ordinary rate, the want of structure in these alloys
must be attributed to the process of drawing down. The inference is that the
great difference which exists between their tensile strengths and other qualities is
not due to variation in structure. The experiments in micro-photography have
been carried out by aid of a portion of the Government grant voted to the author
by the Council of the Royal Society.

4, The proposed Barrage of the River Thames.
By James Casey.

Any engineering scheme that offers a solution to the many problems involved
in attempts to remove the inconveniences and difficulties attending the navigation
of the river Thames, with a view to the proper control of the enormous volume

1 Published in Engineering, September 9, 1904.
2 Published in Lngineering, March 10, 1905.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 687

of commerce flowing into and out of the Port of London, has claims on the attention
of every individual concerned in the commercial prosperity of the kingdom. I
propose to meet these difficulties by constructing across the river from Gravesend to
Tilbury a dam or barrage similar to that across the Nile; the foundation of the
dam, constructed of granite and mass concrete, will be in the chalk, and on the top
will be a roadway for carriage and ordinary road traffic; the dam will be provided
with locks, four in number, each provided with interral gates in addition to the
outer ones, in order that these locks may be worked in long or short lengths to suit
the traffic, The lengths provided in this way will be 300 feet, 500 feet, 700 feet, and
1,000 feet, and the widths from 80 feet to 100 feet, which will suit both present and
future steamships. It will be easy to lock the number of vessels passing up and
down the river (which averages 220 per day), many of which are small craft; but
the lock accommodation could lock three times the number if necessary; the great
advantage to the shipping interest being that, instead of waiting tides at Graves-
end, each vessel as she arrives can be locked in a few moments without delay.

The lock will be worked by electricity generated and obtained from dynamos
operated by the fall of water flowing over the dam; a pilot-tower will be fixed
from which the traffic will be worked and regulated and locks, movable bridges,
&c., controlled.

A system of signalling from the barrage to the upper reaches of the river will
be employed to notify any heavy freshet coming down the river, so that the
sluices may be regulated to maintain the required level in the river to the proposed
depth of 30 feet, as well as to secure the approaches to the locks,

The dam will provide a fresh-water basin to the Trinity high-water mark, and
the present docks will be accessible at all hours of the day or night irrespective
of tides. The unsightly and foul-smelling mud-banks now laid bare twice in the
twenty-four hours will no longer disfigure the river; a fresh-water lake forty
miles long will be available for boating and pleasure traffic—thus opening up a
new source of recreation and physical exercise to the teeming millions of the
metropolis—and provide a supply of water for the new Water Board without going
to Wales at a cost of not less than 24,000,000/. for an additional supply; the
extension of works on both banks of the river will afford facilities for employment
to our working population, and enable them to spread and so relieve the conges-
tion of the ever-increasing East End population.

In connection with the dam I propose to construct a tunnel, which will be
formed in the solid monolith as the work proceeds, connected with the exist-
ing railways in Essex and Kent, which will enable the military and naval authori-
ties to utilise their base of warlike stores in Woolwich, Sheerness, and Chatham on
our north-east coast, should the necessity arise, thus saving both time and expense.

The dam from a strategic point of view affords a valuable solution of the
question of the Thames defence by effectually blocking the river, and prevents the
approach of submarine or other ‘raiders’ ; incidentally it provides a grand harbour
for the fleet and a protection against invaders; and, lastly, the cost is only
4,000,000/., as against 37,000,000/. proposed, besides which must be set off pro-

spective enormous outlay for water-supply, reservoirs, and other matters, which will
become unnecessary if this scheme is adopted.

5. Testing Alternate-current Motors by Continuous Current.
By Wituiam Cramp, A.M1.2.E.

Since an alternating magnetic field may be resolved into two equal rotating
fields, each of 0°7 times the value of the original field, it follows that there is a
close connection between the behaviour of an alternate-current motor on its
normal supply and that of the same motor having the stator supplied with a con-
tinuous current of the proper value, while the rotor is driven round at the proper
speed by some independent means.

As an example of this consider a repulsion motor. It may be shown that such
a motor is a special case of the single-phase alternator, whence the laws govern-

688 REPORT—1904.

ing the value and phase of its rotor current are perfectly well known. (See
‘Electrical Engineer,’ August 12, 1904.)

If the motor is arranged so that its stator may be excited with a continuous
current equal to 1:41 A ccs 2d amperes (where A is the normal magnetising
current of the motor, d the angle between the brush line and the polar axis), and
the rotor is arranged to be driven by a continuous-current motor, then the follow-
ing tests may be performed :—

I. Calibrate the C.C. motor, so that the power required to drive it at any
particular speed is known.

II. Connect it to the A.C. motor shaft (the A.C. motor not being excited),
and measure the power required at various speeds (friction and windage),

III. Drive as above (in II.), but with the rotor on open circuit and stator
excited with continuous current, as explained above. (Rotor hysteresis and eddy
losses, hence also stator hysteresis and eddy loss.)

IV. Close the rotor circuit by connections which revolve with the rotor, and
excite (as in ITI.), and run at what would be synchronous speed. This gives the
rotor current at standstill (if desired, for various values of d). It also gives, if
the speed is varied, the rotor power factor at standstill—a most important point.

V. With the same continuous current the resistance of rotor and stator may
be measured.

Thus all the losses of the motor are completely known, as well as the rotor
current and power factor, and the performance of the motor may be predicted
exactly,

The method enables a very satisfactory test to be made, when alternating
current of the right voltage and frequency is not available, which is an important
point, especially in England, where the frequencies are so varied as to make it
necessary to have a great deal of apparatus to test even a moderate run of motors.
No wattmeter is necessary, which is another advantage, and in technical colleges
it will be found that students will grasp the working of alternate-current apparatus
in general, if such methods are used to bring home the close connection which
exists between it and similar direct-current machinery.

A model of the apparatus was shown.

6. The Action of Lightning Strokes on Buildings.
Sy Kituineworta Hepces.

‘ Published in the Electrical Engineer, September 2, 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 689

Srction H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—HeENRyY BALFour, M.A.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Ir has frequently been remarked, and not without some justification, that Anthrc-
pology is an exceedingly diffuse science, and that it lacks the compactness and
relatively well-defined field of enterprise enjoyed by most other sciences. This
characteristic has even been employed by many as an argument against regarding
Anthropology as a subject of any considerable value for educational purposes, the
suggested lack of cohesion being thought to militate against this science ever being
allowed to occupy a similar position in the educational curricula and examination
systems of this country as that to which the older sciences have for the most part
been admitted. For my own part, I cannot but consider the validity of this
argument as open to question, The term Anthropology, used in its unrestricted
and, as I venture to think, proper sense, does, I readily admit, embrace a vast and
varied field, and it inevitably overlaps, and even wanders far and at times freely
into the domains of other sciences. How should it and how can it be otherwise?
We, surely, would be guilty of grievously undervaluing and paying scant respect
to our genus were we to imagine that the science devoted to its comprehensive
study could be otherwise than far-reaching—call it diffuse if you will—and that
‘it could be expected to avoid driving its roots deeply into other sciences whose
chief practical interest lies, after all, in their adaptability to the service of Man.

In admitting the partial justice of the accusation as regards diffuseness,
Anthropology, it seems to me, is really pleading guilty to the possession of an
educational quality of which it may rather boast than feel ashamed. A science
which is so far-reaching, and yet whose nucleus or focussing point is so well
defined, seems of itself to furnish the materials in great part for a liberal education,
if properly handled, and to lend itself to the preparation of the inevitable
syllabuses, adapted to the different grades both of general education and of higher
scholarship.

I readily admit that the word Anthropology is unfortunately cumbersome ; but
it would seem to be inevitable, since no one has yet provided the science with a
compact general name which may serve as an efficient substitute ; and, since we
must retain it, we may at least expect the word to work for its polysyllabic exist-
ence, by covering a wide area and serving as the most general term denoting the
study of Man in a wide and all-embracing sense.

It is not my purpose to discuss here the educational value of Anthropology,
but frankly and even gladly to admit that Anthropology, in spite of its late
recognition as a distinct science worthy of encouragement, has in recent years
progressed with rapid strides, and has already reached a stage of developmental
Bere ae which it is necessary to differentiate the several branches of stud

1904. ¥¥

690 REPORT—1904.

which are included under the general science, and to adopt a classification which
is ever becoming more complex as the various divisions become unwieldy and
require subdividing. An extensive terminology has been growing up for the
purpose of assigning appropriate names to the already fairly numerous divisions of
the main subject. Anthropology is passing through the developmental stages
which have been followed by the colder sciences, and is merely following normal
routine in advancing from the simple to the complex. With the increase of
knowledge the elements which together constitute a given science necessarily
develop individually as well as collectively, and the original science loses its primi-
tive unity by becoming an ever-increasing aggregation of sub-sciences, This
process of subdivision or branching is inseparable from the life-history of an active
and progressive science.

The genesis, growth, and maturity of Section H reflects to some extent the
development of the study of Anthropology. If we look back nearly sixty years,
to a meeting of the Association held in Cambridge in 1845, we see that Ethnology
was not mentioned at all in the programme and list of Sections, though one
ethnological paper does certainly figure amongst those of the Zoological-
Botanical group. We may, however, assume that at this meeting a start was
made, and give to Cambridge due credit for having a distinct claim to the parentage
of Section H. For, in the following year, 1846, we find in the list of Sections a
definite sub-Section of Ethnology. Indeed, were we in doubt as to the parentage
of the infant sub-Section, there is circumstantial evidence clearly indicating this
ancient University city, in the subtle influence apparently exercised upon the mind
of the parent by overpowering leanings towards applied mathematics, as mani-
fested by the interesting and otherwise unaccountable fact that the ‘sub-Section of
Ethnology’ was in that year humbly parasitic upon Section G, which was then,
as now, devoted to ‘ Mechanics !’

From 1847 to 1850 the Ethnological sub-Section came under Section D
(Zoology, Botany, and Physiology). In 1851 Ethnology appears in conjunction,
and, apparently, on nearly equal terms with Geography; and so it remained in
the year 1862, when the Association again had the privilege of meeting in
Cambridge, that profound and ingenious student of Man, Mr. Francis Galton,
being President of the dualSection. The Geographico-Ethnological combination
lasted until 1868, after which, and until 1880, we find the prospective Section H
replaced under the charge of Section D—Biology (which included Zoology, Botany,
Anatomy, and Physiology).

The steadily growing vitality of the study of Man is very evident through all
these years, from the list of papers read, and one may gather, from the way in
which the sub-Section was transferred from Section to Section, that the infant was
rapidly outgrowing its nurses, and becoming a troublesome handful. Typographi-
cal signs of adolescence, coupled with a yearning for independence, appear in 1883,
when, glancing at the list of Sections, we see that, although Anthropology is still a
‘Department of Biology,’ not only is it the only ‘ department’ specially announced
under Section D, but the heading is printed in type of the same magnitude as that
used for the Section itself. The printer proved to be a good prophet; for in the
following year, 1884, at the meeting in Montreal, the inevitable occurred, and
Antbropology blossomed out into the adult stage, and received the emancipation
afforded by the assignment of an entire Section to itself, the ‘Section H,’ which
has, I venture to think, thoroughly justified its existence ever since.

It may be doubted whether we have as yet reached the limit of expansion.
The time is likely to come when Section H will be the parent of one or more
vigorous sub-Sections, which, again, may repeat the developmental sequence,
reaching at length maturity and discretion, and being perhaps allowed to set up
for themselves as semi-independent Sections. The original title of a Section of the
British Association may disappear entirely as such, after the sub-Sections com-
prised under it have received their full emancipation. This has happened in the
case of Biology, which for some thirty years gave its name to Section D, but
which finally gave way before the growth of its enterprising and very progressive
offshoots (Zoology, Anthropology, Physiology, and Botany), which one after the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 691

other developed into independent Sections. With this segregation of the various
component elements of Biology, the old generalised title ceased to appear on the
list of the British Association. This, perhaps, will be the fate of the term
‘ Anthropology,’ as the growth of the subjects which have developed under the
wing of this very comprehensive science gradually causes, for the sake of practical
convenience, a number of subordinate titles to replace the time-honoured and
inclusive term. Should it thus happen, in response to the growth of the science,
that this term is destined to follow the far wider term ‘ Biology’ into a position of
dignified ease, we shall be wise to bear continually in mind that Anthropology is
the main stem from which the various branches have sprung, and to whose
nourishment and growth it should be the principal aim of their individual
activities to contribute. In an age of ever-increasing specialization we may from
time to time require a reminder of the fact that the true value of researches in the
special fields of a science must be estimated by the degree to which their relationship
to the whole can be and is rendered manifest. The work of specialists will neces-
sarily lose half its value if there isa dearth of generalists who will gather
together the threads and weave them into a substantial fabric, which shall show
the importance of each individual piece of work to the progress of the science as
a whole.

Once Anthropology became recognised as a definite science, and one worthy of
encouragement, the number of its devotees increased steadily and apace, and the
range of its work widened rapidly. Indeed, it would appear as though there
were an almost feverish desire to make up for time lost through the phenomenal
tardiness of the discovery of a seemingly obvious fact, which is that ‘Man’ is in
very truth a ‘proper study for mankind,” Energy is not wanting, though this
feverishness is kept in rigid subjection by the chilling and reducing effect of
starvation for want of funds. The lack of adequate financial support is pain-
fully apparent in Great Britain when we compare the conditions prevailing here
with those obtaining in other countries.

I will not endeavour to cope with the many and varied aspects of Anthropology
and its complex ramifications, nor will I attempt to enumerate the many distin-
guished men of science to whose stimulating work we chiefly owe the progress already
achieved in Anthropology ; the more prominent pioneers are well known to you, and
several, I am glad to say, are yet with us. Their works remain as important land-
marks in the developmental record of the Science of Man. I have, instead,
selected as my principal theme one branch of the subject. My main object is to
review, necessarily briefly, one of the factors which have played a part in stimu-
lating scientific inquiry into the past and present conditions of Man, and in furthering
the development both of the scientific and the popular interests of Anthropology. I
wish to confine myself to the consideration of the contribution of one man towards
the subject, a contribution which is the more valuable since it deals with wide
principles, and thus affords a basis upon which a vast army of students may found
valuable work, It amounted to the establishment of a particular school of research
into the history of human culture, into which fresh workers are constantly being
attracted, and which has stood the test of time through half a century.

It was about the middle of last century that an officer in Her Majesty’s Army
began to apply the lessons which he had learnt in the course of some of his pro-
fessional experimental work to studies pursued by him as a hobby in a far wider
field of science. The story of the famous ethnographical collection of Colonel
Lane Fox is well known, and I need but briefly refer to it. During his investi-
gations, conducted with a view to ascertaining the best methods whereby the
service firearms might be improved, at a time when the old Tower musket was being
finally discarded, he was forcibly struck by the extremely gradual changes whereby
improvements were effected. He observed that every noteworthy advancement
in the efficiency, not only of the whole weapon but also of every individual detail
in its structure, was arrived at as a cumulative result of a succession of very slight
modifications, each of which was but a trifling improvement upon the one imme-
diately preceding it. Through noticing the unfailing regularity of this process ot
gradual evolution in the case of firearms, he was led to believe that the same

YYy2

692 REPORT— 1904.

principles must probably govern the development of the other arts, appliances,
and ideas of mankind. With characteristic energy and scientific zeal Colonel
Lane Fox began at once, in the year 1851, to illustrate his views and to put them
to a practical test. He forthwith commenced to make the ethnological collection
with which his name will always be associated, and which rapidly grew to large
proportions under his keen search for material which should illustrate and perhaps
prove his theory of progress by evolution in the arts of mankind.

Although as a collector he was somewhat omnivorous, since every artefact
product fell strictly within his range of inquiry, his collection, nevertheless,
differed from the greater number of private ethnological collections, and even
public ones of that day, inasmuch as it was built up systematically with a definite
object in view. It is unnecessary for me to describe in detail the system which he
adopted in arranging his collection. His principles are well known to ethnologists,
either from the collection itself or from his writings, more especially from the
series of lectures which he gave at the Royal United Service Institution, in the
years 1867-69, upon ‘Primitive Warfare’; from his paper read before the
Anthropological Institute in 1874 on ‘The Principles of Classification, as adopted
in the Arrangement of his Anthropological Collection,’ which was then exhibited
at the Bethnal Green Museum; from that portion of the catalogue raisonné of his
collection which was published in 1877 ; and from numerous other papers dealing
with special illustrations of his theory. Suffice it to say that, in classifying his
ethnological material, he adopted a principal system of groups into which objects
of like form or function from all over the world were associated to form series,
each of which illustrated as completely as possible the varieties under which a
given art, industry, or appliance occurred. Within these main groups objects
belonging to the same region were usually associated together in local sub-groups.
And wherever amongst the implements or other objects exhibited in a given
series there seemed to be suggested a sequence of ideas, shedding light upon the
probable stages in the evolution of this particular class, these objects were
specially brought into juxtaposition. This special grouping to illustrate sequence
was particularly applied to objects from the same region as being, from their local
relationships, calculated better to illustrate an actual continuity. As far as
possible the seemingly more primitive and generalized forms—those simple types
which usually approach most nearly to natural forms, or whose use is associated
with primitive ideas—were placed at the beginning of each series, and the more
complex and specialized forms were arranged towards the end.

The primary object of this method of classification by series was to demon-
strate, either actually or hypothetically, the origin, development, and continuity
of the material arts, and to illustrate the variations whereby the more complex
and specialized forms belonging to the higher conditions of culture have been
evolved by successive slight improvements from the simple, rudimentary, and
generalized forms of a primitive culture.

The earlier stages in these sequence series were more especially the object of
investigation, the later developments being in the greater number of cases omitted
or merely suggested. It was necessary for Colonel Lane Fox to restrict the extent

‘ of the series, any one of which, if developed to the full extent, would easily have
filled a good-sized museum. The earlier stages, moreover, were less familiar, and
presented fewer complications. The general principles of his theory were as ade-
quately demonstrated by the ruder appliances of uncivilized races as by the more
elaborate products of peoples of higher culture ; and, moreover, there was doubtless
a great attraction in attacking that end of the development series which offered a
prospect at least of finality, inasmuch as there was always a chance of discovering
the absolute origin ofa given series. Hence the major part of his collection con-
sisted in specimens procured from savage and barbaric races, amongst whom the
more rudimentary forms of appliances are for the most part to be found.

The validity of the general views of Colonel Lane Fox as to evolution in the
material arts of Man was rapidly accepted by a large number of ethnologists and
others, who were convinced by the arguments offered and the very striking
evidence displayed in their support. I have heard people object to the use of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 693

term ‘evolution’ in connection with the development of human arts. To me
the word appears to be eminently appropriate, and I think it would be exceed-
ingly difficult to find one which better expresses the succession of extremely
minute variations by means of which progress has been effected. That the suc-
cessive individual units of improvement, which when linked together form the
chain of advancement, are exceedingly small is a fact which anyone can prove
for himself if he will study im deal the growth of a modern so-called ‘ invention.’
One reason why we are apt to overlook the greater number of stages in the growth
of still living arts is that we are not as a rule privileged to watch behind the
scenes. Of the numberless slight modifications, each but a trifling advance upon
the last, it is but comparatively few which ever meet the eye of the public, which
only sees the more important stages; those, that is to say, which present a suffi-
ciently distinct advance upon that which has hitherto been in use to warrant
their attracting attention, or, shall we say, having for a time a marketable value.
The bulk of the links in the evolutionary chain disappear almost as soon as they
are made, and are known to few, perhaps none, besides their inventors. Even
where the history of some invention is recorded with the utmost care it is only
the more prominent landmarks which receive notice; the multitude of trifling
variations which have led up to them are not referred to, for, even if they be
known, space forbids such elaborately detailed record. The smaller variations
are, for the most part, utterly forgotten, their ephemeral existence and their
slight individual influence upon the general progress being unrecorded at the time,
and lost sight of almost at once. The immediately succeeding stage claims for the
moment the attention, and it again in its turn becomes the stepping-stone upon
which the next raises itself, and so on,

Before proceeding further, let me give as briefly as I can an example of a deve-
lopment series worked out, in the main, upon the general line of inquiry inau-
gurated by Colonel Lane Fox. It is commonly accepted as a fact, which is
borne out by tradition, both ancient and modern, that certain groups of stringed
instruments of music must be referred for their origin to the bow of the archer.
The actual historical record does not help us to come to a definite conclusion oa
this point, nor does the direct testimony of archeology, but from other sources
very suggestive evidence is forthcoming. A comparative study of the musical
instruments of modern savage and barbaric peoples makes it very clear to one
that the greater portion of the probable chain of sequences which led trom the simple
bows to highly specialized instruments of the harp family may be reconstructed
from types still existing in use among living peoples, most of the well-defined
early stages being represented in Africa at the present day.! The native of Dama-
raland, who possesses no stringed instrument proper, is in the habit of temporarily
converting his ordinary shooting-bow into a musical instrument. For this
purpose he ties a small thong loopwise round the bow and bow-string, so as to
divide the latter into two vibrating parts of unequal length. When lightly struck
with a small stick the tense string emits a couple of notes, which satisfy this
primitive musician’s humble cravings for purely rhythmic sound. Amongst many
other African tribes we find a slight advance, in the form of special rather
slightly made bows constructed and used for musical purposes only. In order to
increase the volume of sound, it is frequently the custom amongst some of the
tribes to rest the bow against some hollow, resonant body, such as an inverted
pot or hollow gourd, In many parts, again, we find that the instrument has been
further improved by attaching a gourd to the bow, and thus providing it with a
permanent resonating body. To achieve greater musical results, it would appear
that somewhere in Africa (in the West, I suspect) two or more small bows
were attached to a single gourd. I have, so far, been unable to trace this par-
ticular link in Africa itself, but, curiously enough, this very form has been
obtained from Guiana, It may be thought that I am applying a breaking
strain to the chain of evidence when I endeavour to work an instrument

1 The Natural History of the Musical Bow, by H. Balfour Clarendon Press,
Oxford.

694 REPORT—1904.

from South America into an African developmental series. But, when we
recall the fact that evidence of the existence of indigenous stringed instruments of
music in the New World has yet to be produced, coupled with the certain know-
ledge that a considerable number of varieties of musical instruments, stringed and
otherwise, accompanied the enforced migration of African natives during the days
of the slave trade, and were thus established in use and perpetuated in many parts
of the New World, including the north-east regions of South America, we may, I
think, admit with some confidence that in this particular instance from Guiana to
Guinea is no very far cry, and that the more than probable African origin of this
instrument from South America gives it a perfect claim to take its place in the
African sequence. I still anticipate that this type of instrument will be forth-
coming from some hinterland region in West Africa. Were no evidence at all
forthcoming of such a form, either in past or present, we should be almost com-
pelled to infer that such a one had existed, as this stage in the sequence appears
to be necessary to prevent a break in the continuity of forms leading to what is
apparently the next important stage, represented by a type of instrument common
in West Africa, having five little bows, each carrying its string, and all of which
are fixed by their lower ends into a box-like wooden resonator. This method of
attaching the bows to the now improved body of the instrument necessitates the
lower attachment of the strings being transferred from the bows to the body, so
that the bow-like form begins to disappear. The next improvement of which
there is evideace from existing types consists in the substitution of a single, stouter,
curved rod for the five little ‘bows,’ all the five strings being serially attached to
the upper end of the rod, their lower ends to the body as before. This instrument
is somewhat rare now, and it may well be a source of wonder to us that it has
survived at all (unless it be to assist the ethnologist), since it is an almost
aggressively inefficient form, owing to the row of strings being brought into two
different planes at right angles to one another. The structure of this rude instru-
ment gives it a quaintly composite appearance, suggesting that it is a banjo at one
end and a harp at the other. This is due to the strings remaining, as in the
preceding form, attached to the resonating body in a line disposed transversely,
while the substitution of a single rod for the five ‘bows’ has necessitated the
disposal of their upper attachments in a longitudinal series as regards the longer
axis of the instrument. Inefficient though it be, this instrument occupies an
important position in the apparent chain of evolution, leading on as it does
through some intermediate types to a form in which the difficulty as regards the
strings is overcome by attaching their Jower ends in a longitudinal series, and so
bringing them into the same plane throughout their length. In this shape the
instrument has assumed a harp-like form—a rude and not very effective one, it is
true, but it is none the less definitely a member of the harp family. The modern
varieties of this type extend across Africa from west to east, and the harps of ancient
Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and India were assuredly elaborations of this primitive
form. The Indian form, closely resembling that of ancient Egypt, still survives
in Burma, while elsewhere we find a few apparently allied forms. In all these
forms of the harp, from the rudest Central and West African types to the highly
ornate and many-stringed examples of Egypt and the East, one point is especially
noteworthy. This is the invariable absence of the fore-pillar, which in the modern
harps of Western Europe is so important, nay, essential, a structural feature. In
spite of the skill and care exercised in the construction of some of the more
elaborate forms, none were fitted with a fore-pillar, the result being that the
frame across which the strings were stretched was always weak and disposed to
yield more or less to the strain caused by the tension of the strings. This implied
that, even when the strings were not unduly strained, the tightening up of one of
them to raise its pitch necessarily caused a greater or less slackening of all the
other strings, since the free end of the rod or ‘neck’ would tend to be drawn
slightly towards the body of the instrument under the increased tension, One can
picture the soul-destroying agonies endured by two performers upon these harps
when endeavouring, if they ever did so, to bring their refractory instruments into
unison, while, as for the orchestral music of the old Assyrian days—well, perhaps

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 695

we had better not attempt to picture that! The mere addition of a simple, strut-
lke support between the free end of the ‘neck’ and the ‘body’ would have
obviated this difficulty and rendered the instrument relatively efficient and
unyielding to varying tension. And yet, even in Western Europe, this seemingly
obvious and invaluable addition did not appear, as far as I can ascertain, until
about the seventh or eighth century 4.D.; and even then it seems to have been
added somewhat half-heartedly, and a very long time had yet to elapse before the
fore-pillar became an integral part of the framework and was allotted its due pro-
portion in the general design.

I have purposely selected this particular series for my illustration, not because
it is something new—indeed, it is already more or less familiar, and may be has
even some merit in its lack of newness, since, in accordance with a popular dictum,
it may urge a greater claim to be regarded as true—nor because it is specially
striking, but rather for the reason that it illustrates suitably several of the points
upon which I wish briefly to touch. Even in the severely condensed form
in which I have been obliged to present this series of developments from bow to
harp, there is, I think, demonstrated the practical application of several of the
general principles upon which is based the theory whereby Colonel Lane Fox
sought to elucidate the phenomena of human progress.

A series of this kind serves, in the first place, to demonstrate that the absence
of historical and archeological evidence of the actual continuity in development
from simple to complex does not preclude investigations into the early history of
any product of human ingenuity, nor prevent the formation of a suggestive and
plausible if largely hypothetical series, illustrating the probable chain of sequences
along which some highly specialized form may be traced back link by link to its
rudimentary prototypes, or even to its absolute origin, which in this particular
instance is the ordinary shooting bow temporarily converted into a musical
instrument. Where an actual chronological series is not forthcoming, a compara-
tive study of such types as are available, even though they be modern examples,
reveals the fact that, if classified according to their apparent morphological
affinities, these types show a tendency to fall into line, the gap between the
extreme forms—that is, the most simple and the most advanced—hbeing filled by a
succession of intermediate forms, more or less completely linked together, accord-
ing to the number of varieties at our disposal. We are thus, at any rate, in
possession of a sequence series. Is it unreasonable for us to conclude that this
reflects, in great measure, the actual chronological sequence of variations through
which in past times the evolutionary history of the instrument was effected from
the earliest rudimentary form ?

It is difficult to account at all for the existence of many of the forms such as I
have briefly described, except on the supposition that they are survivals from more
or less early stages in a series of progressive evolution ; and, for myself, I do not
believe that so inefficient and yet so elaborate an instrument as, to take an
example, the harp of ancient Egypt, Assyria, and India could have come into
being by any sudden inventive process, by ‘ spontaneous generation,’ as it were, to
use a biological term; whereas, the innate conservatism of the human species,
which is most manifest among the lower and more primitive races (I use the term
conservatism, I need hardly say, in a non-political sense) amply accounts for such
forms having been arrived at, since the rigid adherence to traditional types is a
prevailing characteristic of human culture, and only admits of improvement by
very slight and gradual variations upon existing forms. The difficulty expe-
rienced by man in a primitive condition of culture of emancipating himself from
the ideas which have been handed down to him, except by a very gradual and
lengthy process, causes him to exert somewhat blindly his efforts in the direction
of progress and often prevents his seeing very obvious improvements, even when
they are seemingly forced upon his notice. For instance, the early Egyptian,
Assyrian, and Greek harps, as I have already stated, were destitute of a fore-
pillar, and this remained the case for centuries, in spite of their actually existing
in an environment of other instruments, such as the lyre and trigonon, which in
their rigid, unyielding frames possessed and even paraded the very feature which

696 REPORT—1904.

was so essential to the harp, to enable it to become a really efficient instrument.
The same juxtaposition of similar types, without mutual influence, may be seen in
modern Africa among ruder forms of these instruments.

And yet, in spite of instances such as this—where a valuable feature suggested
by one instrument has not been adopted for the improvement of another, even
though the two forms are in constant use side by side—we must recognise that
progress in the main is effected by a process of bringing the experience gained in
one direction to bear upon the results arrived at in another. This process of
grafting one idea upon another, or, as we may call it, the hybridization of ideas
and experience, is a factor in the advancement of culture whose influence cannot
be overestimated. It is, in fact, the main secret of progress. In the animal world
hybridization is liable to produce sterile offspring ; in the world of ideas its results
are usually far different. A fresh stimulus is imparted, which may last through
generations of fruitful descendants. The vate at which progress is effected
increases steadily with the growth of experience, whereby the number of ideas
which my act and react upon one another is augmented.

It follows, as a corollary, that he who would trace out the phylogenetic history
of any product of human industry will speedily discover that, if he aims at doing
so tn detail, he must be prepared for disappointments. The tangle is too involved
to be completely unravelled. The sequence, strictly speaking, is not in the form
of a simple chain, but rather in that of a highly complex system of chains. The
time-honoured simile afforded by a river perhaps supplies the truest comparison.
The course of the main stream of our evolution series may be fairly clear to us,
even as far as to its principal source ; we may even explore and study the general
effect produced by the more important tributaries; but to investigate in detail the
contributions afforded in present and past of the innumerable smaller streams,
brooks, and runlets is clearly beyond anyone's power, even supposing that the
greater number had not changed their course at times, and even, in many cases,
run dry. While we readily admit that important effects have been produced by
these numberless tributary influences, both on the course and on the volume of
the river, it is clear that we must in general be content to follow the main stream.
A careful study of the series of musical instruments, of which I gave but a scanty
outline, reveals very clearly that numberless ideas borrowed from outside sources
have been requisitioned and have affected the course of development. In some cases
one can see fairly clearly whence these ideas were derived, and even trace back in
part their own phylogenetic history ; but a complete analysis must of necessity
remain beyond our powers and even our hopes.

It will have been observed that, in the example of a sequence series which I
have given, the early developmental stages are illustrated entirely by instruments
belonging to modern savage races. It was a fundamental principle in the general
theory of Colonel Lane Fox that in the arts and customs of the still living savage and
barbaric peoples there are reflected to a considerable extent the various strata of
human culture in the past, and that it is possible to reconstruct in some degree
the life and industries of Man in prehistoric times by a study of existing races in
corresponding stages of civilisation. His insistence upon the importance of bring-
ing together and comparing the archeological and ethnological material, in
order that each might serve to throw light upon the other, has proved of value to
both sciences. Himself a brilliant and far-seeing archeologist as well as
ethnologist, he was eminently capable of forming a conclusion upon this point,
and he urged this view very strongly.

The Earth, as we know, is peopled with races of the most heterogeneous descrip-
tion, races in all stages of culture. Colonel Lane Fox argued that, making due
allowance for possible instances of degradation from a higher condition, this
heterogeneity could readily be explained by assuming that, while the progress of
some races has received relatively little check, the culture development of other
races has been retarded to a greater or less extent, and that we may see repre-
sented conditions of at least partially arrested development. In other words, he
considered that in the various manifestations of culture among the less civilized
peoples were to be seen more or less direct survivals from the earlier stages or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 697

strata of human evolution ; vestiges of ancient conditions which have fallen out
at different points and have been left behind in the general march of progress.

Taken together, the various living races of Man seem almost to form a kind of
living genealogical tree, as it were, and it is as an epiphyte upon this tree that the
comparative ethnologist largely thrives; while to the archeologist it may also prove
a tree of knowledge the fruit of which may be eaten with benefit rather than
risk,

This certainly seems to be a legitimate assumption in a general way ; but there
are numerous factors which should be borne in mind when we endeavour to
elucidate the past by means of the present. If the various gradations of culture
exhibited by the condition of living races—the savage, semi-civilized, or barbaric,
and the civilized races—could be regarded as accurately typifying the successive
stages through which the higher forms of culture have been evolved in the course
of the ages; if, in fact, the different modern races of mankind might be accepted
as so many sections of the human race whose intellectual development has been
arrested or retarded at various definite stages in the general progression, then we
should have, to all intents and purposes, our genealogical tree in a very perfect
state, and by its means we could reconstruct the past and study with ease the
steady growth of culture and handicrafts from the earliest simple germs, reflecting
the mental condition of primeval man up to the highest manifestations of the
most cultured races.

These ideal conditions are, however, far from being realised. Intellectual
progress has not advanced along a single line, but, in its development, it has
branched off in various directions, in accordance with varying environment ; and
the tracing of lines of connection between different forms of culture, as is the case
with the physical variations, is a matter of intricate complexity. Migrations with
the attendant climatic changes, change of food, and, in fact, of general environment,
to say nothing of the crossing of different stocks, transmission of ideas from one
people to another, and other factors, all tend to increase the tangle.

Although in certain instances savage tribes or races show obvious signs of
having degenerated to some extent from conditions of a higher culturedom, this
cannot be regarded as the general rule, and we must always bear in mind the
seemingly paradoxical truth that degradation in the culture of the lower races is
often, if not usually, the direct result of contact with peoples in a far higher state
of civilization.

There can, I think, be little doubt that Colonel Lane Fox was well justified in
urging the view that most savage races are in large measure strictly primitive,
survivals from early conditions, the development: of their ideas having from various
causes remained practically stationary during a very considerable period of time.
In the lower, though not degenerate, races signs of this are not wanting, and
while few, possibly none, can be said to be absolutely in a condition of arrested
development, their normal progress is at a slow, in most cases at a very slow, rate.

Perhaps the best example of a truly primitive race existing in recent times, of
which we have any knowledge, was afforded by the native inhabitants of Tasmania.
This race was still existing fifty years ago, and a few pure-blooded survivors
remained as late as about the year 1870, when the race became extinct, the benign
civilizing influence of enlightened Europeans having wiped this extremely inter-
esting people off the face of the earth. The Australians, whom Colonel Lane Fox
referred to as being ‘the lowest amongst the existing races of the world of whom
we have any accurate knowledge,’ are very far in advance of the Tasmanians,
whose lowly state of culture conformed thoroughly with the characteristics of a
truly primitive race, a survival not only from the Stone Age in general, but from
almost the earliest beginnings of the Stone Age. The difference between the culture
of the Tasmanians and that of the Australians was far greater than that which
exists between man of the ‘ River Drift’ period and his Neolithic successors. The
objects of every-day use were but slight modifications of forms suggested by
Nature, involving the exercise of merely the simplest mental processes. ‘The stone
implements were of the rudest manufacture, far inferior in workmanship to those
made by Palwolithic man; they were never ground or polished, never even fitted

698 REPORT—1904.

with handles, but were merely grasped in the hand. The varieties of implements
were very few tm number, each, no doubt, serving a number of purposes, the
function varying with the requirements of the moment. They had no bows or
other appliances for accelerating the flight of missiles, no pottery, no permanent
dwellings; nor is there any evidence of a previous knowledge of such products of
higher culture. They seem to represent a race which was isolated very early from
contact with higher races ; in fact, before they had developed more than the merest
rudiments of culture—a race continuing to live under the most primitive con-
ditions, from which they were never destined to emerge.

Between the Tasmanians, representing in their very low culture the one
extreme, and the most civilised peoples at the other extreme, lie races exhibiting
in a general way intermediate conditions of advancement or retardation. If we
are justified, as I think we are, in regarding the various grades of culture observ-
able among the more lowly of the still existing races of man as representing to a
considerable extent those vanished cultures which in their succession formed the
different stages by which civilization emerged gradually from a low state, it surely
becomes a very important duty for us to study with energy these living illustra-
tions of early human history in order that the archeological record may be
supplemented and rendered more complete. The material for this study is vanish-
ing so fast with the spread of civilization that opportunities lost now will never
be regained, and already even it is practically impossible to find native tribes which
are wholly uncontaminated with the products, good or bad, of higher cultures.

The arts of living races help to elucidate what is obscure in those of prehistoric
times by the process of reasoning from the known to the unknown. It is the
work of the zoologist which enables the paleontologist to reconstruct the forms
of extinct animals from such fragmentary remains as have been preserved, and it
is largely from the results of a comparative study of living forms and their habitats
that he is able, in his descriptions, to equip the reconstructed types of a past fauna
with environments suited to their structure, and to render more complete the
picture of their mode of life.

In like manner, the work of the ethnologist can throw light upon the researches
of the archeologist: through it broken sequences may be repaired, at least
suggestively, and the interpretation of the true nature and use of objects of
antiquity may frequently be rendered more sure. Colonel Lane Fox strongly
advocated the application of the reasoning methods of biology to the study of the
origin, phylogeny, and etionomics of the arts of mankind, and his own collection
demonstrated that the products of human intelligence can conveniently be classified
into families, genera, species, and varieties, and must be so grouped if their
affinities and development are to be investigated.

It must not be supposed—although some people, through misapprehension of
his methods, jumped at this erroneous conclusion—that he was unaware of the
danger of possibly mistaking mere accidental resemblances for morphological
affinities, and that he assumed that because two objects, perhaps from widely
separated regions, appeared more or less identical in form, and possibly in use,
they were necessarily to be considered as members of one phylogenetic group. On
the contrary, in the grouping of his specimens according to their form and function,
he was anxious to assist as far as possible in throwing light upon the question of
the monogenesis or polygenesis of certain arts and appliances, and to discover
whether they are exotic or indigenous in the regions in which they are now found,
and, in fact, to distinguish between mere analogies and true homologies. If we
accept the theory of the monogenesis of the human race, as most of us undoubtedly
do, we must be prepared to admit that there prevails a condition of unity in the
tendencies of the human mind to respond in a similar manner to similar stimuli.
Like conditions beget like results ; and thus instances of independent invention of
similar objects are liable to arise. For this very reason, however, the arts and
customs belonging to even widely separated peoples may, though apparently
unrelated, help to elucidate some of the points in each other’s history which remain
obscure through lack of the evidence required to establish local continuity.

I think, moreover, that it will generally be allowed that cases of ‘independent

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 699

invention’ of similar forms should be considered to have established their claim to
be regarded as such only after exhaustive inquiry has been made into the possi-
bilities of the resemblances being due to actual relationship. There is the
alternative method of assuming that, because two like objects are widely
separated geographically, and because a line of connection is not immediately
obvious, therefore the resemblance existing between them is fortuitous, or merely
the natural result of similar forms having been produced to meet similar needs.
Premature conclusions in matters of this kind, though temptingly easy to form,
are not in the true scientific spirit, and act as a check upon careful research, which,
by investigating the case in its various possible aspects, is able either to prove or
disprove what otherwise would be merely a hasty assumption. The association of
similar forms into the same series has therefore a double significance. On the
one hand, the sequence of related forms is brought out, and their geographical
distribution illustrated, throwing light, not only upon the evolution of types, but
also upon the interchange of ideas by transference from one people to another, and
even upon the migration of races, On the other hand, instances in which two or
more peoples have arrived independently at similar results are brought promi-
nently forward, not merely as interesting coincidences, but also as evidence
pointing to the phylogenetic unity of the human species, as exemplified by the
tendency of human intelligence to evolve independently identical ideas where the
conditions are themselves identical. Polygenesis in his inventions may probably
be regarded as testimony in favour of the monogenesis of Man.

I have endeavoured in this Address to dwell upon some of the main principles
laid down by Colonel Lane Fox as a result of his special researches in the field of
Ethnology, and my object has been twofold. First, to bear witness to the very
great importance of his contribution to the scientific study of the arts of mankind
and the development of culture in general, and to remind students of Anthropo-
logy of the debt which we owe to him, not only for the results of his very able
investigations, but also for the stimulus which he imparted to research in some of
the branches of this comprehensive science. Secondly, my object has been to
reply to some criticisms offered in regard to points in the system of classification
adopted in arranging his ethnographical collection. And, since such criticisms
as have reached me have appeared to me to be founded mainly upon misinterpreta-
tation of this system, I have thought that I could meet them best by some sort of
restatement of the principles involved.

It would be unreasonable to expect that his work should hold good in all
details, The early illustrations of his theories were to be regarded as tentative
rather than dogmatic, and in later life he recognised that many modifications in
matters of detail were rendered necessary by new facts which had since come to
light. The crystallization of solid facts out of a matrix which is necessarily
partially volatile is a process requiring time. These minor errors and the fact of
our not agreeing with all his details in no way invalidate the general principles
which he urged, and we need but cast a cursory glance over recent ethnological
literature to see how widely accepted these general principles are, and how they
have formed the basis of, and furnished the inspiration for, a vast mass of
research by ethnologists of all nations,

It appears more than probable that Cambridge will be much involved in the
future advancement of anthropological studies in Great Britain, if we may judge
from the evident signs of a growing interest in the science, not the least of which
is the recent establishment of a Board of Anthropological Studies, an important
development upon which we may well congratulate the University. Within my
own experience there have been many proofs of the existence in Cambridge of a
keen sympathy with the principles of ethnological inquiry developed by Colonel
Lane Fox, and I feel that, as regards my choice of a theme for the main topic of
my address, no apology is needed. For my handling of this theme, on the other
hand, I fear it must be otherwise. I would gladly have done fuller justice to the
work of Colonel Lane Fox, but, while I claim to be among the keenest of his
disciples, I must confess to being but an indifferent apostle.

I have been obliged, moreover, to pass over many interesting features in the

700 REPORT—1904.

work of this ingenious and versatile scientist. I have made no attempt to touch
upon his archeological researches, since it has been necessary for me to restrict
myself to a portion only of his scientific work. In this field, as in his ethno-
logical work, his keen insight, ingenuity, and versatility were manifested, while
the close attention which he bestowed upon matters of minute detail have
rendered classical his work as a field archeologist. While the greater part of his
ethnological work is associated with the name Lane Fox, by which he was known
until 1880, most of his researches into the remains of prehistoric times were con-
ducted after he had in that year assumed the name of Pitt-Rivers, on inheriting
an important estate which, by the happiest of coincidences, included within its
boundaries a considerable number of prehistoric sites of the highest importance.
That he made full use of his opportunities is amply manifested in his published
works. In his archzological work are repeated the characteristics of his ethno-
logical researches, and one may with confidence say of his contributions to both
fields of inquiry that, if he advanced science greatly through his results he
furthered its progress even more through his methods. By his actual achieve-
ments as a researcher he pushed forward the base of operations; by his carefully-
thought-out systems for directing research he developed a sound strategical policy
upon which to base further organised attacks upon the Unknown.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Evolution of the Lotus Ornament. By Professor Oscar MonreE tus.

In Egypt the lotus has been represented from the earliest times as a real
flower, often together with buds and leaves, or as an ornamental pattern. The lotus
is drawn as well in the realistic form as in a conventional shape. The flower,
figured in the more realistic way, shows numerous petals, which are pointed. ‘he
petals in the conventional flowers are rounded; often the number of the petals
(sepals) is only three. The lotus is often combined with spirals. This occurs
especially in the eighteenth dynasty. Not rarely two or more conventionally
drawn flowers are placed one upon the other. Many Egyptian ornaments are
formed by alternating natural and conventional lotus-flowers or by alternating
lotus-flowers and lotus-buds.

In Assyria, where the lotus-ornaments are later than in Egypt, we find also
both the realistic and the conventional lotus. The latter is generally called
‘palmette.’ In Assyria, as in Persia, the ornaments are often formed by alter-
nating realistic and conventional lotus-flowers or by alternating lotus-flowers and
lotus-buds,

Similar ornaments are also common in Cyprus and on the isles off the western
coast of Asia Minor. In Cyprus, as in Pheenicia, the conventional lotus often has
a peculiar form (‘the Pheenician’ or ‘ Cypriote palmette’).

In Greece the lotus occurs already in the Mycenzean time, but it becomes
common there only in the first millennium B.c. There, as in the Orient, we find
the lotus in combination with spirals, the realistic and the conventional lotus
alternating (‘lotus and palmette’), as well as the lotus-flower in alternation with
the lotus-bud.

Many capitals of Egyptian columns have the shape of a lotus-flower. Similar
capitals occur also in Asia Minor, where they gradually get the form known as the
‘ Ionian capital.’

2. Note on the Entomology of Scarabs.
By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perriz, D.C.L., LL.D., PRS.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 701

3. Excavations at Ehnasya, in Egypt, with special reference to a Series of
Roman Lamps. By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perrit, D.C.L.,
LL.D., PRS

4. Recent Explorations at Great Zimbabwe. By R. N. Hat.

The writer has just completed, on behalf of the Chartered Company, over two
years’ exploration and preservation work at the ruins of the Great Zimbabwe.
The ruins’ area is now shown to be more than three times larger than has hitherto
been stated ; many of the minor ruins, and also reconstructions of and additions to
the older ruins, have been ascertained to be of no great antiquity, some dating most
probably only from the thirteenth or fourteenth century of this era, and others are
even more recent. It is now believed, on several obvious grounds, that the
eastern half of the Elliptical Temple, and that which contains the best built and
most massive walls, and also the sacred cone or ‘ high place,’ is the oldest structure
at Zimbabwe, while the western portion is surrounded by a wall of later and
poorer and altogether slighter construction, probably also of the thirteenth century,
or somewhat later, which wall took the place of a more substantial wall with a
wider sweep outwards towards the west. The eastern has yielded to every explorer
phalli in abundance, the author's discoveries bringing the ascertained number of
true phalli found there to considerably over a hundred, together with carved beams
and the older class of relic; while in the western half of the building not a single
relic with any claim to antiquity has yet been found, the most remote period of any
relic discovered here being considered by Dr. Wallace Budge, Keeper of Egyptian
and Assyrian Antiquities at the British Museum, and other experts, to date from
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries of this era. Moreover, excavation has now
for the first time shown the imperfect joint between the older and later walls. No
ancient sign-writing has been discovered, but old post-Koranic writing on pottery
was found in some minor ruins now known to have been occupied by Arab
colonists. Important entrances and passages have been unburied, cement floors
exposed, and gold in various forms discovered. The hills and valleys for some
miles round Zimbabwe have been systematically searched for ancient or medizval
burying places without success, but from traces of walls and other possible signs in
some of the more secluded valleys further searches may locate them. The history
of the local native race of Makalanga, ‘People of the Sun,’ has now been ascer-
tained for a period of at least two hundred years, as also an account of the native
occupation of the ruins for a considerable number of generations past. Altogether
the recent work, for which full credit should be given to the British South Africa
Company, brings the mystery of these ruins much nearer solution, and it is con-
fidently anticipated that when the full statement of the results of the recent
examination has been considered by experts it will be possible to speak more
definitely as to the original builders of these imposing and massive ruins.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
_ The following Report and Papers were read :—

1, Report on Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and
Ireland.—See Reports, p. 330.

2. The Alleged Physical Deterioration of the People.
By Professor D, J. Cunnincuam, U.D., F.R.S.

' Summary in Man, 1904, 77.

702 REPORT—1904.

3. A Comparison of the Physical Characters of Hospital Patients with those
of Healthy Individuals from the same Areas, with Suggestions as to the
Influence of Selection by Disease on the Constitution of City Popula-
tions. By F. C. Surupsaun, M.D.

I. Distribution of Physical Characters among Hospital Patients.

Certain physical features are found in greater frequency among hospital patients
suffering from specified diseases than among the general populace of the areas from
which the patients are drawn.

Stature.—Adult sufferers from tonsillitis, acute rheumatism and its sequele,
such as heart disease, present a higher average stature, while sufferers from tuber-
culosis, nervous and malignant diseases, present a lower average stature than the
healthy individuals also observed.

Cephalie Index.—No appreciable difference in London between hospital patients
and the general population; but in Switzerland and South Germany the proportion
of broad-headed individuals appeared to be rather greater among the inmates of the
Volks-sanatoria for tuberculosis than among the healthy population.

Pigmentation.—Blond traits appear with greater frequency among sufferers from
disorders of a ‘rheumatic’ nature, such as tonsillitis, acute rheumatism, and heart
disease, than among the general populace. Brunet traits predominate among
patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, nervous disorders, particularly epilepsy, and
cancer. The remaining disorders showed no very special selection.

These results have been found to hold, not only in London, but also in Inver-
ness, York, Shrewsbury, Newbury, Southampton, Dorchester, Chard, Paignton, and
Wadebridge; and though the numbers investigated in these latter places were very
small, the results all pointed in the same direction. Full details will be found in
the ‘St. Bartholomew’s Hospital Reports,’ vol. xxxix. Further confirmatory
evidence as regards tuberculosis has been obtained from the public and private
sanatoria at Davos and in the Black Forest.

A study of the distribution of mortality in different countries shows in broad
lines some correspondence between the prevalence of fatal cases of disease and the
physical type of the populations.

A study of the results of treatment of patients during the last two years at the
Brompton Hospital shows that, as regards pulmonary tuberculosis, patients of the
blond type respond slightly better than brunets, while for heart diseases the posi-
tions are reversed. The numbers available, some 1,500 in all, are, however, so far,
too small to enable any very decided opinion to be formed.

IL. Distribution of Physical Characters according to Length of Residence in
London.

The classification adopted is that introduced by Ammon :—

Urban.—When two more generations have resided in London.

Semi-urban.— When the parents were immigrants from the country, but the
individual observed was born in London.

Semi-rural.—When the individual was born in the country but lived most
of his life in London.

Rural.—When the individual was born and always lived in the country.

Observations have been taken in hospital patients and controlled for the same
class by observation made on their friends on visiting days.

It was found that stature shows a progressive diminution in successive genera-
tions of city life, both among patients and visitors. Similarly in pigmentation
brunet traits showed (a) among the visitors a steady increase with each successive
generation, passing from rural to urban, while (4) the distribution among the
patients was irregular, the greatest proportion of blond traits occurring among the
semi-rural class. This suggests that the blond elements feel more acutely the
change in their environment, and that those born in the country are relatively less

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 703

resistant to the evil influences of a city life than those of the next generation born
and bred amidst urban surroundings.

A comparison of the relative proportions of the different classes of Londoners
among the general populace, as shown by the census, and among hospital patients,
shows an increase of morbidity with increasing length of city residence.

III. Distribution of Pigmentation in Children among the General Population of
London and among Hospital Patients.

It is found that in all parts of London the children are much fairer than the
adults, and that the children attending the medical casualty rooms of the various
hospitals are much fairer than those, presumably healthy, observed at school or in
the streets in the sphere of attraction of each hospital; while the average of the
general child population and of those attending accident-receiving rooms of the
hospital is practically identical.

Hence it may be concluded that disease during childhood falls more heavily on
the fair element. It would also appear that in the different districts of London
the difference between the pigmentation of children and adults and the degree of
infant mortality vary in the same direction, if allowance be made for the presence,
in certain areas, of a large alien population.

So far, then, it would appear—

i. That certain diseases show special affinities for certain types of the popula~
tion.

ii, That adult hospital patients, as a whole, are slightly fairer than the popula-
tion in the sphere of attraction of each hospital.

ili. That among adults immigrating from the country the fair element sends an
undue proportion of its members to the hospitals.

iv. That child patients are markedly fairer than the children in the districts
around the hospitals.

y. That there are some indications of a relation between the difference in pig-

mentation of adults and children in any area and the degree of mortality in child-
hood of such an area.

IV. Possible Influences of the above Factors in Changing the Distribution of
Physical Characters in Successive Generations,

In the earliest years of life the fair element is certainly at its maximum.
During the first ten years of life the chief causes of death are disorders of the
alimentary and respiratory systems, coming on either directly or as sequelze of some
of the infectious disorders common in childhood. These, as we have seen, even in
adult lite, show (as far as case incidence is concerned) a certain degree uf greater
frequency among the fairer class of the community. The diseases associated with
brunet traits are at this period at their minimum. The quinquennial period 10-15
is characterised by a very low mortality, which seems very evenly spread over the
different disorders, but falling least on the ‘ brunet’ group.

The special incidence of illness and probably of mortality on the lighter class of
the community continues until the period 20-25, when, owing to the sudden rise
both of case incidence and mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis, the darker
element begins to suffer severely. During this period, 20-25, it seems certain
that the darker individuals are at their maximum degree of frequency among the
general population. This age, however, is that at which most marriages occur, so
that assuming that the marriage rate is uniform among the different types—which
is, however, susceptible of proof—the parents of the next generation should have
maximum of pigmentation. Supposing the difference to be slight, yet it might in
time produce the effects now everywhere visible of a greater pigmentation in urban
areas, Tables show that most marriages occur between 21 and 25, next in fre-
quency between 25 and 30, and the majority of offspring are born in the early
years of married life.

However, as will be seen from any diagram of death-rates bet seen 20 and 40,

704. REPORT—1904.

the chief cause of death at this period of life is pulmonary tuberculosis, which both
in case-incidence and death-rate draws most heavily from those of brunet traits,
so that as the time passes on the relative frequency of darker individuals is dimi-
nished, and the parents of children born later in life are less likely to present the
same relative preponderance of brunet traits. However, it is also true that fewer
children are born of late than early marriages, so that this would not quite
equalise matters. We have seen that the most overcrowded areas are, on the
whole, the most brunet areas, and also those in which the infant mortality is
greatest. That they do not become still more brunet is, perhaps, to be explained
by the earlier rise of mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis, the greatest scourge
during the child-bearing periods of lite.

The remaining brunet-selection diseases, those of the nervous systems and
cancer, presenting their maximum later in life, only slightly affect the population
during this important period, and their influence must be slight.

4. An Anthropometric Survey. its Utility to Science and to the State.'
By Joun Gray, B.Sc.

The principal object of an Anthropometric Survey is to make maps showing
the distribution of physical and other measurable characters of the population of
acountry. Topographical and geological surveys have already been carried out
in great detail by most civilised States, but only a few countries have made
more or less feeble attempts to map out the characteristics of their populations with
the same precision as they have mapped out their topographical features and
their geological strata.

It may be objected that an anthropometric survey would be impracticable and
useless because there is not the same permanence in the physique of a people that
we find in the topography and in the geological strata. But we know enough
of the law of ancestral heredity to be practically certain that the average bodily
dimensions of a stationary population will be transmitted with little or no change
from one generation to another for vast periods of time, provided the environment.
or conditions of life remain constant. For example, recent investigations have
shown that the physique of the present population of Egypt is practically identical
with that of the population 9,000 or 10,000 years ago.

There is, therefore, no necessary lack of the permanency necessary to make a
survey of the national physique possible. If the environment should not be con-
stant, the stability of the physique would still be sufficient to enable surveys to be
taken at intervals of five or ten years.

The Ideal Anthropometric Survey.

In an ideal anthropometric survey statistics would be collected of the com-
plete bodily and mental features and activities of the population in every part of
the country. The environment peculiar to each section of the population would
also be noted. All characters observed should be capable of more or less precise
measurement.

The dimensions of the body can now be measured with the greatest precision.
Measurements of physiological activities, such as the acuteness, &c., of the
senses, say of sight, hearing and smell, can also be measured with considerable
accuracy. Psychological characters are more difficult to measure, but still a fair
estimate of the mental characters of a local population may be formed from its
occupations and amusements, and from the number of distinguished men it has
produced.

The Practical Anthropometric Survey.

In a practical survey we must be content with the measurement of a few
characters in order to keep the cost within moderate limits.
Asa practical scheme that might be carried out by the State, I give, in out-

1 To be published in full by the Anthropological Institute.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 705

line, the scheme for a survey of the British Isles submitted to the Privy Council
Committee on Physical Deterioration, by Professor Cunningham and myself.

According to this scheme the United Kingdom would be divided into 400
districts, in each of which a representative sample of about 1,000 adults of each
sex would be measured. The whole of the school children would be measured
because a thousand of each sex for each age interval of one year would be required,
and this would amount to about the whole of the school population. The survey
would be completed once every ten years, and the total number measured in that
time would be about 800,000 adults and 8,000,000 children. The work, it has been
estimated, could be carried out by a staff of twenty to thirty surveyors constantly
employed. The employment of part-time surveyors, such as school teachers, on
account of the cost of training the large number required would be very much
more expensive than the employment of a small number of whole-time surveyors.

The following is the list of dimensions to be measured, drawn up by Professor
Cunningham :—Stature, chest, weight, head (length, breadth, and height), breadth
of shoulder, breadth of hips, vision, and degree of pigmentation.

Environment or conditions of life would also be noted, and much information
as to environment could be obtained from statistics collected by other agencies.

A statistical department in connection with the survey would work out the
averages for each district, the deviations from the average, draw frequency-curves,
calculate correlations, and prepare maps.

Utility to Science.

The material thus collected and classified would add immensely to our know-
ledge of the distribution and origin of the races of our own country. ' The
correlations that would be discovered between the different physical characters and
between physical and mental characters would be new and valuable scientific dis-
coveries. ‘he correlations discovered between the physique of man and his
environment would throw much light on the nature of evolution. It is impos-
sible to anticipate all the developments that would result from so great an
accession to our exact knowledge of man.

Utility to the State.

There has been much agitation recently in this country about physical deterio-
ration. Whether this deterioration is really taking place or not cannot be settled
by any anthropometric statistics at present in existence. A more or less probable
guess can be made in a few cases. With an anthropometric survey in being
the question could be answered in the positive or the negative with certainty.
Moreover, by calculating correlations between physique and all probable influences
the causes of the deterioration would be indicated.

The importance of such information to the statesman, to the sociologist,
and to the public themselves hardly needs to be pointed out. Civilisation has
brought so many new influences to bear upon the more advanced races of man-
kind that we are quite in the dark as to their ultimate effects. Influences may be
at work which are steadily driving us by invisible steps on the road to national
ruin. ‘The anthropometric instrument would detect these insidious changes before
they were visible to the naked eye; statesmen and the public would be warned in
time, and the degeneration might be arrested before it was too late.

5. Discussion on Physical Deterioration and Anthropometric Survey.

6. The Progress of the Ethnographic Survey of Madras.
Sy Epear THurston.
The author described the scope of the survey, and the method and cost of con-
ducting it ; the nature of the anthropometric and ethnographic evidence which is
collected ; the most important physical characters (stature, nasal, and cephalic

1904. ZZ

706 REPORT—1904.

indices); the photographic record of racial types; the problem of combined
museum collection and investigation; the difficulties encountered in carrying out
the work of a Government official owing to the timidity and mistrust of the
people, and their fears of increased taxation, plague-inoculation, and transpor-
tation.

The Madras survey covers the following linguistic areas:—Tamil, Telugu,
Malayalam, Kanarese, Tulu, Khond; and the racia/ division into Pre-Dravidian
or Archi-Drayidian, Aryo-Dravidian, Scytho-Dravidian. In distinguishing these
the nasal index is of value as a guide to racial admixture.

The author describes the characteristics of the jungle tribes, short of stature
and platyrrhine; criticises Gray’s head-measurements of the Indian Coronation
contingent; discusses the two main types which are found among the natives
of Southern India; and gives the distribution of the dolicho-, mesati-, and sub-
brachycephalic types; and an account of the type of head in the Kanarese area,
and of Risley’s Scytho-Dravidian hypothesis. Valuable evidence on these points
is afforded by the deviation of cephalic length, breadth, and index in various castes
and tribes, especially Brahmans, Todas, Palayams, Pallis, and Urialis.

7. Interim Report on the Present State of Anthropological Teaching.
See Reports, p. 341.

8. Recent Anthropometric Work in Scotland. By J. F. Tocurer, £.L.C.

During the present year a survey of the inmates of Scottish asylums has been
carried out by the author, the characters measured or noted being head-length, head-
breadth, head-height (from centre of auricular orifice to vertex), stature, shape of
nose, and colour of hair andeyes. This survey is due to the suggestion of Dr. John
Macpherson, one of the Commissioners in Lunacy for Scotland, through whose
good offices every facility was given by the medical superintendents and other
authorities to make the necessary observations. The expenses of the survey were
borne by a grant secured, at Dr. Macpherson’s instance and that of his co-trustees,
Sir Arthur Mitchell and Sir John Sibbald, from the Henderson Trust of Edin-
burgh. The actual data giving the records of the measurements will shortly be
published by the Trust, and will be available to those interested, while the results
of a complete analysis of the statistics with some observations thereon will appear
in ‘ Biometrika.’ Altogether 4,436 males and 3,95] females were measured.

The distributions of head-lengths, head-breadths, and head-heights are of
Type LV. of Pearson’s series. The means and standard deviations do not indicate
any special differences from those of published results elsewhere. Since, however,
the measurements are those of a rather selected sample of the general population,
significant differences may be revealed on a closer examination of the data.
Thirty correlation tables have been prepared, these including both measurable and
non-measurable characters. An example of the first, that of head-length and
head-breadth, gives the value of 7 =*501, probably about the highest found for
this particular pair of characters. The correlation between hair and eyes of a
sample of 1,200 was found to be ‘402, compared with ‘3795 for Aberdeenshire
children. The physical characters of 1,000 school children (including 500 Glasgow
children by Mr. R. Tocher) have also been noted. In addition to the ordinary
measurements, the radius of curvature of the cornea and the visual acuity of the
children were determined. The data obtained will supply additional information
as to the rate of growth generally and of the relationships existing between the
chief dimensions of the eye. An analysis of these measurements will also be
published at an early date.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 707

9, The Distribution and Variation of the Surnames in East Aberdeenshire
in 1696 and 1896. By J. F. Tocusr, £..C.

In a recent paper’ some results were given of an analysis of the frequency of
surnames occurring in Hast Aberdeenshire in 1896. The author has now made a
complete analysis of the whole of the surnames occurring in the ‘ List of Pollable
Persons within the Shire of Aberdeen’ in 1696. ‘This paper deals with the distri-
bution found to exist in East Aberdeenshire at that time, and its relationship to
that found in 1896. It was found that the two most common surnames of 1696 were
still the most common two hundred years later, these being Smith and Milne.
The surnames of four great county families, Gordon, Hay, Forbes, and Fraser, were
frequent in 1696, but have now, with the exception of the Frasers, very few repre-
sentatives in East Aberdeenshire. The number of surnames existing in the district
in 1696 was found to be 841, as against 725” found in 1896. The total number,
taking both periods, amounted to 1,121, of which 445 were common to both
periods. Of the 841 in 1696, 396 have died out, while 280 new surnames appear
in 1896. The form of the distribution of surnames with respect to the magnitude of the
number of representatives possessed by each has been found to follow that of Type I.

of the series deduced by Pearson * (general form y= yo( 1+ 2) ( 1- =) oe
the equation to the curve being y = *6525 a0 (7 —a)?797°, “Tf the surnames
in the surrounding districts are taken into consideration in both the series, a curve
of the same variety of Type I. results. It is evident from the results that, besides
the disappearance of surnames from a district due to migration, the extinction of
surnames is going on on a large scale. Such extinction is not due to any diminu-
tion in fertility, but to the laws governing fertility—to its chance nature in
general. Galton and Watson* have considered this problem from a theoretical
standpoint, and have shown that with an equal distribution of surnames a certain
number would become extinct in each generation. The number of surnames having
1, 20,40 . . . m representatives at the tenth generation have been successively
calculated (using Galton and Watson’s values of the constants) when a distribus
tion similar to the observed one was obtained. From this it appears that any
community adopting a different surname for each male would in the course of a
few generations inevitably drift into a distribution similar to what has been shown
to exist in East Aberdeenshire. The degree of association of the two series having
an interval of 200 years between them has also been considered. It has been ascer-
tained by Pearson’s contingency method ® that the deviation from independent
probability is considerable, the value of @* being found to be 1°57. The two series
are therefore, as would be expected, distinctly correlated. The correlation existing
between the commonly occurring surnames of both series amounted to ‘5437,
while that between the two complete series amounted to ‘3924. Among the
surnames common to both periods, 23 per cent. maintained the frequency of 1696
in 1896, while 40 per cent. were more frequent in 1896 than in 1696, and in 37 per
cent. of the cases the surnames were less frequent at the end of two centuries,
This gives, irrespective of whether it is due to emigration, immigration, or the laws
governing fertility, an idea of the rate of change in the frequency of surnames, in @
veneral way, in Aberdeenshire during the last 200 years.

Brit. Assoc. Report, 1901, p. 799.
751 was the actual number given in 1896, but of thuse 26 were variants.
‘On Skew Variation in Humogeneous Material,’ Roy. Soc., vol. clxxxvi., p. 381.
4 Natural Inheritance, pp. 241-248.
5 «On the Theory of Contingency, &c.,’ by Professor K. Pearson, Drapers’ Come
pany Research Memoirs, Biometric Series I., 1904.

ov =

3

ZG2

708 | REPORT—1904.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. A Plan jor a Uniform Scientific Record of the Languages of Savages.
By Sir Ricuarp Tempre, Bart., C.LEL.

During the last thirty years the careful record of ‘savage’ languages has been
frequently undertaken, and a serious difficulty has arisen owing to the accepted
European system of grammar, which is based on a system originally evolved for
the explanation of highly inflected languages only, whereas in many, if not in
most, ‘savage’ languages inflection is absent or present only in a rudimentary
form. The European system has therefore been found to be unsuited for that
purpose. During attempts to provide a suitable system a theory of universal
grammar was evolved.

The root idea is that, as speech is a convention devised by the human. brain
for intercommunication between human beings, there must be fundamental
natural laws by which it is governed, however various the phenomena of those
laws may be.

The theory starts with a consideration of the sentence, 7.e., the expression of a
complete meaning, as the unit of all speech, and then seeks to discover the natural
laws of speech by a consideration of the internal and external development of the
sentence.

In explaining internal development the sentence is ultimately divided into
words, considered as components of its natural main divisions, in the light of their
respective functions. This leads logically to a clear definition of grammatical
terms.

From the consideration of the functions of words the theory passes to that of
the methods by which they are made to fulfil their functions. It shows how
words can be divided into classes according to function and explains their transfer
from class to class. This leads to an explanation of connected words and shows
how the forms of words grow out of their functions. The growth of the forms
is next considered, involving an explanation of roots, stems, and radical and
functional affixes. This explanation shows that the affixes determine the forms
of words. This is followed by a consideration of the methods by which the
affixes affect the forms.

The sentence, 7.e., the unit of speech, is then considered as being itself a com-
ponent of something greater, z.c., of a language. This consideration of its external
development leads to the explanation of syntactical and formative languages, the
two great divisions into which all languages naturally fall—z.e., those which
depend on the position of the words, and those which depend on the forms of the
words, in a sentence to express complete meaning.

Syntactical languages are then shown to divide themselves into analytical, or
those which depend for comprehension mainly on the position of the words, and
into tonic, or those which combine tone with position for the same purpose. So
also formative languages are shown to divide themselves into agglutinative and
synthetic, according as the affixes are attached without or with alteration. Forma-
tive languages are further divided into premutative, intromutative, or postmutative,
according to the position of the affixes.

The theory further explains that, owing to a fundamental law of Nature, no
Janguage can have ever been left to develop itself alone, and how this leads to the
phenomenon of connected languages, and thus to groups and families of languages.
It also explains how—again according to a law of Nature—no language has ever
developed in one direction only or without subjection to outside influences, leading
to the natural explanation of the genius, or peculiar constitution, that each language
possesses.

It is believed that every language must conform to some part or other of the
theory, and it can be shown that children and untutored adults in learning a
language act on the instinctive assumption of the existence of such a theory.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 709

Assuming the theory to exist and to be correctly stated, it is of great practical
importance as leading to the quick, accurate, and thorough, because natural,
acquirement of a new language.

In brief, the theory is based on the one phenomenon which must of necessity
be constant in every variety of speech—viz., the expression of a complete meaning,
or, technically, the sentence. Words are then described as components of the
sentence, first, as to the functions performed by them, and next as to the means
whereby they fulfil their functions. Lastly, languages are considered according to
their methods of composing sentences and words,

Phonology and orthography—z.e., pronunciation, spelling, and alphabets—are
not considered, as these belong to other branches of the development of the
human mind.

The theory has been already applied—and, it is claimed, successfully—to
sixteen languages, including English, Latin, and Hungarian, selected for the
purpose as being illustrations of every type and every kind of development.

2. On Group-Marriage in Australian Tribes.
by A. W. Howirr.

The native tribes which surround Lake Eyre, in Central Australia, have two
forms of marriage. One follows upon betrothal of children by their mothers, and
the other is the subsequent marriage of the woman to a younger brother of her
husband. On ceremonial occasions this latter form of marriage is extended in the
tribe by the allotment to each other of men and women who are already allotted
to each other under one or other of the two marriages.

This group-marriage also occurs in other tribes in South-east Australia, either
in the form which it has in the Lake Eyre tribes or as a survival of custom. It is
also shown by the system of relationship in the Australian tribes to have been at
one time common to all.

In the Lake Eyre tribes there is female descent with group-marriage. In
other tribes in which group-marriage is merely a survival, or is merely indicated
by the terminology of relationship, there has been more or less an approach to a
form of individual marriage accompanied by a change from female to male descent.

Changes such as these are attended also by alteration of the social organisa-
tion of the tribes. In one direction there has been a segmentation of the tribe
from a division of two intermarrying exogamous moieties of the tribal community
to four such divisions, and finally into eight, with a change also in the line of
descent. In the other direction there has been a partial or complete loss of this
division of the community into four and eight segments.

‘The tribe has become organised on a geographical basis into a number of local
groups, and these localities have become exogamous and intermarrying. In these
changes in the organisation of the tribes the line of descent has passed from the
female to the male line.

In the Lake Eyre tribes a group of totems is attached to each exogamous
moiety. These remain in existence in the segmentation into four and eight
groups.

Th those tribes where the organisation of the tribe has become local, the totem
groups have either become more or less extinct or have changed in extreme cases
into magial names without influence in marriage.

3. The Passing of the Matriarchate. By R.S. Lepper, V.A., LL.M.

General idea of the matriarchate as contrasted with the patriarchate and the
modern family. Polyandry. The matriarchal country of S. India: its former wide
and present narrow extent. The matriarchate as a stage of civilisation: the rule
or the exception? Malabar only exceptional in its fertility and seclusion, The
geographical features of the Malabar coast strip: its heavy rainfall, alluvial soil,

710 REPORT—1904.

fertility. Population kept down by Nature; life short but easy. The Indian
matriarchal state. Its chief racial (caste) divisions: the great horizontal division
into caste and casteless ; the great vertical cross-division into east-coast men and
west-coast men, or patriarchalists and matriarchalists. Extremely primitive
religious, social, and marital relationships among the indigenous population.

Effects of early immigration of Aryan patriarchalists, The matriarcliate as a
working social system. (a) Advantages: Leads to love marriages, terminable at
pleasure, and leaving the mother the custody of the children ; facilitates natural
selection ; secures the liberty of woman. (4) Disadvantages: Desertion of wife.
The system conflicts with the natural affection of father for child, and the desire
to provide for wife and children independent of the matriarchal clan. Position of
the wife on the death of the husband. Impoverished clans.

Effect of progress on the matriarchate. Helpless position of wife and children
on death of husband. Neglect by brother and headman of clanswomen and
children, who become dependent on the father’s gifts for their comforts, education,
and start in life, Great difficulty in alienating or even developing the land of tbe
clan owing to the necessity for getting the consent of every clansman. The
matriarchate puts the husband in the position of tenant at will, never secure from
eviction in favour of a successful rival. Nor is the wife ever sure of her husband’s
faithfulness, Consequent dislike of the system by both husband and wife in cases
of true love marriages.

Effects of a further influx of patriarchal families. The Brahman patriarchalist
contempt for matriarchalism. This disgusts the matriarchal man.

Tendency for the matriarchate to pass into the patriarchate when the latter is
the highest system known as practicable, owing to the unsettled state of society.
Advantages of the patriarchate. The matriarchate as a political form, Matri-
archal monarchical succession: its nature and peculiarities. The monarch’s
children cannot succeed ; hence he cannot so well train his successor. Danger of
splitting the nation into factions. Great difficulty which consequently conironts
the ruler. Consolidation of matriarchal tribe states into matriarchal country
states. Risk of a breach of administrative continuity on a change of the suc-
cession. Peculiar system of adoption. Dangers of regencies.

The progressive matriarchal state. The matriarchate and the education of
women ; the patriarchate and female ignorance. Rapid material and intellectual
progress of Travancore and Cochin. The patriarchal-matriarchal feud. The
matriarchalist as natural man. The outlook. Attempts to modify the matri-
archate. Revolt against the matriarchate very marked during the last twenty-
five years,

4, An Anthropological View of the Origin of Tragedy.
By Professor W. Rineuway, JA.

In the case of Greek tragedy scholars were agreed until recently (1) that it
originated in the worship of Dionysus; (2) that it was invented by the Dorians;
(8) that the Satyric drama was invented by the same Dorians; (4) that the thymele
was from the outset the altar of Dionysus.

All these propositions are either wholly or in part untrue.

(1) Dionysus was a newcomer in Greece. In Homer he is a Thracian deity,
and his great Thracian sanctuary was his oracle among the Satre, an aboriginal
melanochroous tribe, of lax social habits. The Satyrs and Bacche are simply
the young men and women of the Satre in their native dress and behaviour,
Similar orgies are practised by modern savages to ensure fertility and good crops,
and similar rites are traceable in early Greece, e.g. the ‘tragic dances’ in honour
of the pre-Achzan Adrastus at Sicyon (in the very region where the Dorians are
said to have invented tragedy), which Herodotus (v. 67, when rightly inter-
preted) describes as being subsequently transferred to Dionysus by Cleisthenes.
The dramatic celebration of the death of Scephrus at Tegea (Pausanias, viii. 53) and
the ceremonies held to expiate the massacre of the Phoceans (Herodotus, i. 167)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 711

point to the same conclusion, that the drama in Greece criginated in the worship
of the dead long before the cult of Dionysus spread from Thrace.

(2) The claim of the Dorians, though quoted by Aristotle (‘ Poetics,’ 3), is not
endorsed by him. The long a in the dialect of the Attic chorus-dialect is not
necessarily Doric, as it existed also in old Attic and other dialects ;1 and as
Dorians were not admitted to Athenian religious ceremonies (Herodotus, v. 72),
it is difficult to see why their dialect should have been adopted in them. Arion,
moreover, who invented the dithyramb (Herodotus, i. 23), was not a Dorian,
but a Lesbian.

(3) The only really Dionysiac part of tragedy is the Satyric drama, which is
of northern origin (v. above), and was appended to the old local ritual when the
cult of Dionysus was superimposed on that of Adrastus or other local hero.

(4) The instances already quoted and the recitation of a hero’s fate at his
tomb (eg., in the Choephoroi of AMschylus) indicate that the thymele was
originally the shrine or tomb of the local hero.

The development effected by Thespis consisted, not in the introduction of an
actor into the ceremony or in the use of ‘ tragic dances’ for ‘moral purposes, but
in the separation of what had hitherto been a piece of religious ritual from its
local shrine, and the conversion of it into a distinct form of literary performance
which could be enacted anywhere. It is in this sense that Thespis ‘ carried about
his plays on wagons.’ The analogy of medizval drama is exact: originally a
piece of religious ritual performed in church, and based ona particular set of
incidents, it became detached both from locality and topic, and fell into the hands
of ‘ strolling players.’

5. The So-called Tomb of Mena at Negadeh, in Upper Egypt.
By Joun Garstane, B.Litt.

A special piece of work undertaken by the Beni Hasan Excavation Com-
mittee was the re-excavation of the royal tomb at Negadeh, which was discovered
and opened some years ago by M. de Morgan, who has since published the results
of his investigations.* This new examination was made during March of the
present year, and the method adopted was to search through all the earth previously
thrown out of the interior, as well as to clear and clean up the tomb structure itself.
The plans and descriptions published by De Morgan, supplemented by Borchardt,®
are faithful, and require no serious revision. Interest chiefly turns, therefore, to the
objects newly found in the débris and in an undisturbed deposit within a niche
inside the structure. All the pottery, which was mostly in fragments, was
examined and specimens were collected. A great quantity of alabaster was found
and brought away, together with fragments of obsidian, crystal, diorite, breccia,
and other materials familiar in the archaic period. Many of these were found to
fit, and in some cases complete, vases previously recovered, and are now placed
in the museum at Cairo. The best objects of art are a fish and a cat, both
ae in ivory, each about four inches in length, and a large pendant of crystal.

out a hundred clay jar-sealings, some in good preservation, were found to be
mostly duplicates of those published by De Morgan, with a few new examples
which are difficult to read. These constitute a chief source of historical material
for the period; but in addition there were found four ivory tablets, inscribed, and
the portion of a fifth. These are as follows:

a. Small ivory tablet bearing name of Narmer, alternatively transcribed Bezau
(broken).

b. Small ivory tablet with the name of Neith-hetep upon the reverse ; obverse,
he number 135 (complete),

1 Ridgeway, Harly Age of Greece, i. 67. 2 Le Tombeau Royal de Negadeh.
3 Das Grab von Menes.

712 REPORT—1904.

e. Small ivory tablet of (?) Bauz (sign of three birds not identified), with the
number 1400 on the obverse (complete).

d, A fragment of the original tablet of Mena discovered by De Morgan. The
new piece practically completes the whole, to which it has been joined in the
museum of Cairo.

e. A smaller replica in ivory of the same tablet (d), which is wanting in the
upper right corner the group which contains the MEN-sign, identified by some
with Mena, but is complete and entire elsewhere, and thus enables the whole tablet
to be restored.

The important historical facts learnt from this excavation are two:

i. The association of the names of Narmer, Neith-hetep, and Aha (possibly
Mena).

ii, The archeological evidence that the tomb certainly belongs to the period of
the beginning of the First Dynasty or the close of the pre-dynastic period. From the
character of the objects found within it there is no reason to suppose that it is of
a later or mixed date,

Summing up, the tomb belongs to the period of the traditional Mena, first
king of Egypt. It contains chietly the name of Aha, which is identified with
a Mena from the tablet of De Morgan. In lack of rival claims, considering, too,
the abundance of material for these times recovered by Petrie and others, it may
be believed on present evidence that Aha was the Mena of tradition. This
being so, if Aka was buried at Abydos, as suggested by Petrie’s discoveries there,
then it is probable that the tomb at Negadeh was that of Necth-hetey, whom circum-
stantial evidence points to as the queen-mother of Mena. The inscriptions bearing
this name are particularly plentiful, and the objects dedicated to her of special

uality.
The objects discovered in this excavation not retained by the Cairo Museum,
excluding tablets a, b, c, d, but including e, have been presented by a member of
the Committee to the Museum of Egyptian Archxology in the University of
Liverpool. The tablets a, 6, c, and the fish of ivory are in the MacGregor Collec-
tion.

6. On an Interment of the Early Iron Age found at Moredun, near
Edinburgh. By ¥. R. Cores and T. H. Bryce, ID.

The present example is the first completely attested instance of an inter-
ment associated with relics of the Early Iron Age in Scotland. It was discovered.
in August 1903 at Moredun, near Edinburgh. The remains were contained in a
cist, 4 feet long by 2 feet 3 inches wide and 22 inches deep, covered by several
flagstones of varying size.

The associated relics were a fibula of La Téne type, which showed a fragment
of some loosely woven fabric in the catch; a ring brooch or buckle; and a circular
open pin-head without ornamentation. The stem of the pin is bent at right
angles to the head. Such objects are very rare in Scotland. Pins of this variety
in iron and bronze have been found in brochs, in Forfar and Caithness, and in the
refuse heap at a fort in Argyleshire. It must be considered earlier than another
variety with flat head enamelled in colours with ‘late Celtic’ ornament. As it
has been found associated with pieces of Samian ware and Roman denarii of the
latter part of the second century A.D., and, further, as the fibula is a simple form from
a late La Téne type widely diffused on the Continent at the end of the first century,
the interment can scarcely be earlier than some time in the second century A.D.
The osseous remains are those of two individuals placed in the doubled-up posi-
tion, one above the other, with the heads to opposite ends of the cists, but faces
in the same direction. One was a young adult, the other an adolescent of about
twenty-one years of age. The sex, owing to the fragmentary state of the bones,
could not be determined with certainty; probably both were female. The stature
of the adult was about 5 feet 53 inches, The following are such measurements

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION H. 713

of the long bones as could be taken :—Humerus, 315 mm. ; femur, 458 mm.;
tibia, 363 mm. The platymeric index is 781; pilasteric, 98:4; the platy-
cnemic, 77.

The skull was broken away on one side and imperfect on the other, but the
sagittal section was complete. The transverse measurements have been calculated
approximately :—

Maximum length . 2 : : : - : . 192
si breadth . : c c : ; - . al44
Cephalic index : : : : : : in ealo
Basi-bregmatic height . . ; - ; : en AO
Height index . ; ° - : ; : : ~ al2'8
Basi-nasal length . F ; . - . x . 100
Basi-alveolar length : - : : - stn ite 93
Gnathic index : : . ; ; : : - 93

The radii on the mesial surface are as follows :—Basion to occipital, 113 mm. ;
to lambda, 122 mm.; to mid-parietal point, 140 mm.; to bregma, 140 mm. ;
to mid-frontal point, 136 mm.; to glabella, 110 mm. ; to nasion, 100 mm. ; perpen-
dicular, 1838 mm.; distance from perpendicular to anterior pole, 80 mm.; to
posterior pole of cranial cavity, 93 mm.

The face measurements could not be accurately taken, but the length-breadth
index was doubtless lepto-prosopic.

The sutures were all patent, the set of teeth was complete, and the crowns
showed no attrition. The chief characters are the very full rounded frontal
region, the flatness of the vertex, the absence of sagittal ridge, and the rounding
out of the sides.

A comparison with the skulls from this district, described by Sir William
Turner,! shows that in general character it agrees with the majority of more
modern examples; and though no general statement can be founded on a single
specimen the probability is that the type now prevailing in Midlothian was already
established when the interment took place.

7. On a Phase of Transition between the Chambered Cairns and Closed
Ciste in the South-west Corner of Scotland. By T. H. Bryce, M.D.

If the rare instances of interment in cinerary urns be excluded, the forms of
prehistoric sepulture in Argyleshire and Buteshire may be grouped under two
heads: (1) Interment in chambers with a portal, but no passage, of entrance ; and
(2) interment in completely closed cists.

The two classes agree in one respect, that without any hint of difference of
time relationships, within the respective classes, the interment may be either by
inhumation or after cremation. They differ in the mode of interment, in the
character of the osseous remains, and in their associated relics.” While the
implements are invariably of stone in the chambers, they are occasionally of
bronze in the closed cists; but the character of the pottery is a more discriminating
feature. The chamber pottery is of a black paste. The vessels are round in the
bottom, and have either a broad flat lip or are inclined inwards to the mouth ;
the decorative pattern is one of straight lines and dots, or of fluted markings, or
(rarely) of concentric semi-ellipses. The closed cist pottery is of a red paste,
generally of the ‘ food-vessel’ type, but more rarely of the ‘drinking-cup’ or
‘beaker’ class.

Besides the chamber in its typical form an atypical form occurs, consisting of
a single compartment covered by one flagstone (cistvaen), with one end lower
than the others, and forming the sill of a portal guarded by two upright stones.

The exploration of a cairn at Glecknabae, in Bute, afforded a clue to the

~ Trans. Roy. Sov., Hd. x1., part ili., No. 24.
2 Bryce, Proc. Soc, Antig. Scot., vols, xxxvi., XXxVii., XXXViil.

7140 REPORT—1904.

classification of the chambered structures and pointed to a stage of transition
from the chamber to the short cist.

The cairn, which was large but mutilated, contained two small chambers and
a short cist, and presented the further curious feature that it was placed on the
top of a shell refuse heap of considerable extent.

Both chambers were of the atypical form, measuring 4 feet long by 3 feet
wide, and 4 feet deep. They were placed radially to the edge of the cairn. The
closed cist was 3 feet 3 inches by 2 feet 1 inch, and 2 feet deep.

The chambers both contained burnt bones, one the fragment of an unburnt
skeleton, and the short cist an unburnt interment.

The chambers yielded flakes and a knife of flint, broken fragments of quartz
pebbles, and flakes of pitchstone and pottery. This last provided the key to the
period to which the chambers belonged, for in one a typical piece of chamber
pottery was found, with fragments of a second; in the other, fragments of four
vessels were recovered, of the ‘ beaker’ or ‘drinking-cup’ class. ‘The decoration
was zonular in one, but irregular in the others.

The phenomena indicate a triple occupation of the site at three successive
epochs. The presence of the ‘beaker’ type of ceramic seems to point to the small
chamber being a date departure from the normal chamber structure.

8. The Cimaruta, a Neapolitan Charm. By R. T. Ginruer, ILA.

A series of specimens and lantern-slides of this interesting compound charm
was exhibited in order to draw attention to the manner in which it has become
developed from a number of primitively independent emblems which have been
grafted upon a silver representation of a sprig of rue. Notwithstanding the varied
proportions and positions of the component parts, a certain uniformity of plan is
always conspicuous, even in the most degenerate specimens; but in its modifica-
tions it is an excellent example of the working of the laws of evolution. Its
efficacy as a charm would be impaired by too great a departure from the proto-
type, while the requirements of technique and of decorative art have produced
series of interesting variations. Several vestigial and useless structures, which no
doubt had some purpose once, have been retained.

To represent the structure of these complex charms the author has employed
certain constitutional formule, in which the various emblems are represented by
their initial letters, and brackets are used to denote the mutual relationships of
the parts, as in the following examples :—

1. The charm, consisting of a lotus-flower (L) held in a fist (F), is represented

F(L).

2. The cimaruta, in which the three-branched rue-sprig supports a fist, a moon,
a fist, a key and a fist, in order from left to right, is represented

R,(F+M+F+K+F).

5. In a more complex type of cimaruta certain emblems hold secondary
emblems. For instance, the fist (F) and the cock (C) may hold the lotus-flower
(L), and the moon (M) may support the cock (C). This is represented by the

formula
R,[F(L) + K + M(C) + C(L) + F).

Similar formule may be of use in the representation of other objects, such as the
mano pantea and the Barone lamps.

The majority of the emblems combined with the cimaruta have been associated
with the cult of Diana, but others are apparently operative as ayerters of the evil
eye by their insulting gestures; with others the attribute of watchfulness has
been associated.

TRANSAGTIONS OF SECTION H. 715

9. Records of Paleolithic Man from a New Locality in the Isle of Wight.
By Professor E. B. Poutton, D.Sc., B.S.

A series was exhibited of palzolithic implements and flakes from the north-
east coast of the Isle of Wight, a locality in which paleolithic implements had
not previously been found. The implements had been traced from the gravel
shore, where implements were found by the reader of the paper, to the gravel
escarpment itself by Miss Moseley. The series exhibited every stage, from the
simple flake to the finished implement, clearly indicating that the implements had
been manufactured 7m setu.

SuB-SEcTION oF ANTHROPOGRAPHY.

1, The Persistence in the Human Brain of certain Features wsually
supposed to be distinctive of Apes. By G. Evuior Smitu, MD.

The study of a large series of simple human brains belonging to various lowly
(chiefly African) peoples has revealed the fact that the human brain may
retain many features that are commonly supposed to be distinctive of apes.
Although this statement can be applied to almost every part of the brain, it is
especially in the occipital region of the cerebral hemisphere that the supposed
distinctively simian characters are most exactly reproduced. This is due to the
fact that the cortical area especially concerned with the reception of visual
impulses is as well developed in the anthropoid apes as in man. The form of
this visual area in the human brain is often greatly distorted, in an almost purely
mechanical way, by the enormous increase in the size of the cortical area in front
of it; but however much its shape in man may differ from that of the apes, its
structure is identical.

It isa most curious and enigmatic fact that the simian resemblance is much
more often retained in the left than in the right occipital region, The reason for
this is that the visual centre retracts towards the mesial surface to a distinctly
greater degree on the right than the left side of most human brains; it is pushed
backward, as it were, by a very great and quite a symmetrical expansion of the
right inferior parietal region.

This asymmetry of the brain often exercises an obvious influence on the shape
of the cranium.

The study of the form of the visual centre and its sulci in series of brains
affords information of great anthropological value.

Although large ‘ Affenspalten ’ may occur in people of various races, they are
rarely symmetrical in the two hemispheres, except in the Negro races. In this,
as well as in many other features, the Negro brain is distinctly more pithecoid than
the brains of any other people known to the writer.

2. A Note on the Brain of a Fetal Gorilla.
By W. L. H. Duckworrta, JZ.A.

The external features of this specimen have been described by the author in
the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology ’ and in the ‘ Archiy fiir Anthropologie.’
Both memoirs are illustrated, and the latter contains a skiagraph of the specimen.
The external features of the brain are now considered alone. When exposed, no
sulet were observed on the lateral aspects of the cerebrum; shortly after the first
exposure a cleft was formed in the left hemisphere, and was shown in a photograph
accompanying this communication.

But the interest of the case is really concentrated in the appearances presented
by the mesial aspect of the left hemisphere, a view of which was shown on the
screen,

716 REPORT—1904,

Two important sw/ci are to be seen. That which is more anterior in situa-
tion corresponds to the Bogenfurche of His; the second and more posterior
sulcus seems to represent the calearine, or possibly the paracalcarine, element.
The problem is to solve the question as to the nature of these sulci,
ae. whether they are natural, or simply due to decomposition. In the human
cerebrum, it is generally conceded that the Bogenfurche is an artificial product,
though I believe that His did not admit this. As to the calcarine suleus, the
tendency is to consider it as naturally present at a very early period. In the
gorilla brain shown I see no means of discriminating between the two sulci;
but considering the occasional late appearance of the calcarine sulcus, as shown
in one of Cunningham’s figures, it seems as though both should be regarded as
of artificial origin. It remains to note that Professor Retzius is of opinion that in
this gorilla brain the calcarine eudeus is, so to speak, ‘ genuine.’

3. Some Variations in the Astragalus. By R. B. Seymour Sewe tt, B.A.

_ The bones examined number upwards of 1,000 and are mainly of Egyptian
origin.

‘\s regards the angles which the collum makes with the corpus these speci-
mens are intermediate between the Europeans and the anthropoid apes, The
adoption of certain postures produces changes in the articular surfaces; thus in
squatting we have a formation of facets on the neck, and in the sartorial position
we get changes in the facies malleolaris medialis and a formation of an accessory
facet, facies accessoria externa,

he process of eversion of the foot has also caused structural changes in the
bone, certain specimens from Borneo being intermediate between the Egyptian
and the anthropoid apes. :

Occasionally we find accessory facets present. The facies accessoria inferior
may be fused with either the facet in front or behind, and in rare cases with both.

We occasionally tind the middle and posterior calcaneal facets fused directly ;
and in rare cases the anterior calcaneal facet is absent. The os trigonum is
very variable both in size and shape; usually it takes no part in the formation of
the sulcus musculi flexoris hallucis longi, but in very rare cases this groove
may be formed either partly or entirely by this ossicle.

4. Some Varieties of the Os Calcis. By P. C. Laiwiaw.

_ From the collection of bones in the Cambridge University Museum I have
picked out a number which present variations of an interesting nature,
The varieties I have chosen fall under six heads :—

(1) The variability of the processus trochlearis seems to show that it is not
developed from a separate ossicle, as Professor Pfitzner suggested.

(2) The external plantar tubercle.

Its variations in man, its absence in the anthropoids and its probable develop-
ment, the anatomy of the soft parts in man and the chimpanzee, show that it is
a structure developed for the more ready maintenance of the upnght position.

(8) Calcaneus secundarius of Gruber.

(4) Os sustentaculi proprium.

_ (5) The processus trochlearis of Kyrtl and its variation seem to show that it
18 not necessarily pathological.

(6) Variations in the facets met with in the bone—

Due to (a) ossicles,

(6) Other factors.

The projection of the heel is more limited in Europeans than in the ancient
Hgyptians owing to backward extension of the fascia articularis posterior.

TRANSACTIONS OF SEGTION H. 717

5. Facial Expression. By F. G. Parsons.

The author pointed out the unreliability of a superficial judgment of the physio-
gnomy, and illustrated the point by reference to portraits of Judge Jeffreys and
General Wolfe respectively. He then proceeded to consider the relation of the
chief lines of expression to the subcutaneous muscles of expression, pointing out
that expression may be determined not only by the muscle that acts, but also by
the degree to which it is put in action: also that the complication induced by the
concomitant action of several muscles in the production of expressions necessi-
tates a careful analysis in each instance. With the aid of an anatomical diagram
the several muscles involved were enumerated and their action described. I]lus-
trations were drawn irom a series of portraits in the National Gallery, and the
author concluded by expressing his belief that, in spite of the abuse of physiogno-
mical studies in the past, there was still hope that systematic research would be
productive of sound and even brilliant results,

6. Anthropometric Identification : a New System of Classifying the Records.'
By J. Gray, BSc.

The weak point of the Bertillon system of anthropometric identification is the
method of classifying the records. As is well known, the records. are subdivided
four times into three groups, each group lying between fixed limits of four
different dimensions. The cards on which the records are written are stored in a
cabinet containing eighty-one drawers, each one of which contains all cards
between specified limits. The process of identification consists in finding the
drawer between whose limits the person to be identified lies). There may be
considerable difficulty in finding the required drawer if the dimensions of the
person to be identified lies near the margin of limits in one or more dimensions.
It will be necessary, then, to make more than one search. Dr. Garson, in working
the Bertillon system at Scotland Yard, found that only 61 per cent. of the identifi-
cations were made by one search. To get over this difficulty it is proposed to
abolish fixed subdivisions. If the complete dimensions of each individual were
written on a single card these cards would be arranged according to the first
dimension as in a card catalogue. When we wish to ascertain whether a person
who has just been measured has already a record card in the register we form two
limits by adding on and subtracting an amount equal to the extreme variation
likely to occur in measurement. For example, in case of a head-length or breadth,
add on and subtract 4mm. ‘Take out all the cards between the limits thus found.
The required card, if present, must be in this packet of cards. Now rearrange
the cards in this packet according to head-breadths. Find the limits of variation
for the measured breadth in the same way as described above for the length. Take
out all the cards from the packet between the limits of breadth, and so on with
the other dimensions. If a sufficient number of dimensions are taken, only one
card will be left after the final separation, if the record of the person to be
identified is present. By this system the effects of considerable inaccuracy in
measurement can be neutralised by measuring a large number of dimensions. In
no case is more than one search necessary to determine whether the record of the
person measured is present in the register or not. The process of searching may
be very much simplified by the use of charts on which the numbers of the record
cards are stamped at the points indicated by 1wo dimension co-ordinates. This
system of classification would probably remove the chief objection to the Bertillon
system, which is otherwise much superior to the finger-print system, in which the
uncertainty at the margins of groups is very great.

! To be publivhed in full in Man.

718 REPORT—1904,

7. Graphical Representation of the various Racial Human Types.
By W. L. H. Duckworra, IA.

The methods of representation devised by Keane, Flinders Petrie, Thomson,
and Stratz were reviewed. The author’s proposal is to adopt the simile of a proto-
plasmic organism with processes corresponding to the several morphological types.
The communication was illustrated by diagrams,

8. Exhibit of Amorite Crania. By Professor A. Macatister, F.R.S.

Professor Macalister exhibited a number of skulls from the excavations made by
the Palestine Exploration Fund at Gezer, representing the ethnology of the third
and fourth strata, and also, for comparison, some from the tombs of the last stratum
of Maccabean age. No skulls belonging to the first and second strata are repre-
sented in the series, the peoples of these strata having practised cremation.

9. Report on Anthropometric Investigations among the Native Troops of
the Egyptian Army.'—See Reports, p. 339.

10. The Variability of Modern and Ancient Peoples.
By ©. S. Myers, 1.D.

It has been generally supposed that modern peoples deviate more widely than
ancient peoples from their respective means. The writer’s investigations upon the
Egyptian fellahin, however, lend no support to this supposition, alike in length,
breadth, and horizontal circumference of head and in cephalic index. ‘The
variability of the modern population of Kena and the neighbouring district is not
sensibly different from that of inhabitants of the same region six or seven thousand
years ago, as deduced by Miss Fawcett and others from the Nakada collection.
So, too, the variability in cephalic index of ancient Bavarian skulls is found to be
almost identical with that of the modern Bavarian population ; and the variability
of the cephalic index in modern French and English does not exceed, but is pro-
bablyv less than, that in ancient Gaulish and British skulls respectively.

More evidence is urgently needed, but what little we have supports the con-
trary hypothesis that modern and ancient populations living under like conditions
of country and climate differ little in variability. Professor Karl Pearson, on the
other hand, supposing that a diminishing struggle for existence encourages the
persistence of individuals showing greater variability, believes that variability
increases with increasing civilisation. The opposite view, however, appears
tenable, that stringent selection encourages greater variability. It explains why
in several features the oppressed Copts show greater variability than the
Mahommedan population of Egypt, and the Whitechapel series of skulls of the
sixteenth century is more variable than the general upper middle and upper class
population of modern England. The more prosperous community tends to
homogeneity ; in other words, to regression towards its mean.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Note on Prehistoric Archeology in Greece! By Dr. P. KaBBADIAS.

The author pointed out that few traces of the Stone Age had been found in
Greece, the early settlements in all probability having been reoccupied by settlers
belonging to the later Mycenzan civilisation. In Thessaly neolithic settlements

1 Published in full in Man, 1904, 112.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 719

had been found, though the Acropolis, where sporadic specimens of stone imple-
ments had been found, was undoubtedly first peopled in the Bronze Age. The
excavations of the Archzological Society of Athens in the A%gean and the Pelo-
ponnese had so far brought to light no traces of a civilisation prior to that of the
Bronze Age. Pile dwellings were not represented in Greece, their place being
taken by fortified towns built of stone. After an allusion to the progress of
paleontology in Greece and the founding of an anthropological museum at
Athens, the author concluded his paper with a reference to the excellent work of
the British School at Athens.

2. Report on Archeological and Ethnographical Explorations in Crete.
See Reports, p. 321.

3. Preliminary Scheme for the Classification and approximate Chronology
of the Periods of Minoan Culture in Crete, from the close of the
Neolithic to the Early Iron Age. By Arruur J. Evans, D.C.L.,
ERS.

The accumulated results of recent Cretan discovery, and in a principal degree
those of the Palace site at Knossos, have greatly added to the data for fixing the
comparative chronology of the early Cretan civilisation. A preliminary attempt
is here made to classify, and even to delimit within approximate chronological
landmarks, the successive phases of culture that in Crete extend themselves
between Neolithic times and the Early Iron Age. To this period asa whole it
is proposed definitely to attach the name Minoan, as indicating the probable
duration of successive dynasties of priest-kings, the tradition of which had taken
abiding form in the name of Minos. It is proposed to divide this Minoan Era
into three main periods, Early, Middle, and Late, each with a first, second, and
third sub-period. The use of the word ‘ Mycenzean’ requires radical revision, the
Mycenzan culture being in its main features merely a late and subsidiary out-
growth of this great ‘Minoan’ style, when the fine motives of the last Palace
period are already seen in a state of decadence. This decadence is already obsery-
able in the sherds found in the Palace of Tel-el-Amarna (c. 1400 B.c.), and even in
somewhat earlier relics associated in Egypt, Rhodes, Mycenz, and elsewhere, with
cartouches of Amenhotep III. and his queen. The recently discovered cemetery
at Knossos shows the less decadent forerunners of this style, though still later than
those of the last Palace period, the end of which is thus carried back at least to
the close of the sixteenth century B.c. The third Late Minoan Period may thus
be roughly dated between 1500 and 1100 B.c.

The second Late Minoan Period receives its fullest illustration in the remains
of the latest Palace period at Knossos. The fine ‘ Palace style’ which had here
grown up, with its strong architectonic elements, common to sculpture and wall-
painting as well as to ceramic design, must itself represent a considerable period of
development. Its latest stage shows a great correspondence in its artistic and
other products with those associated with the Kefts and ‘ Peoples of the Isles of
the Sea’ on Egyptian monuments of the sixteenth century B.c., and the contents
of the recently discovered royal tomb at Knossos include alabaster vessels
belonging to the beginning of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The earlier phases of this
style must go back at least a century before this. Middle Minoan II. may thus
extend from about 1700 to 1500 B.c. This period corresponds with that of
the shaft graves at Mycenz, and to that period also belong the abundant Palace
archives in linear script (Class B).

An earlier stage of the later Palace, marked off from the latter by an exten-
sive catastrophe, has now been clearly made out, especially from the rich contents
of the Temple repositories. It is an age of ceramic transition, and atitheysame
time the period when naturalistic art reached its highest perfection in Minoan

720 REPORT—1904.

Crete, as is shown by such masterpieces as the faience relief of the Wild-goat and
Young. An earlier system of linear script was now in use (Class A). The
alabaster lid with the name of the Hyksos King Khyan and a monument belonging
to the close of the XIIIth Dynasty must be ascribed to this historic stratum,
which may be approximately placed between 1900 and 1700 z.c.

The ‘Middle Minoan’ Age, which lies beyond the periods enumerated, is
especially characterised by the development of the polychrome style of vase
painting on a dark ground. This, too, is the period of the conventionalised picto-
graphic script which precedes the linear. During the last division of this period—
Middle Minoan III.—which lies about the end of the third millennium 3.c., we
see a certain falling off in the polychrome style, accompanied, however, with a
greater naturalism, as shown in the moulding of reliefs and in the types of gems.

The second Middle Minoan Period is that during which this polychrome, or
so-called ‘Kamares’ style, reached its acme, and the beginning of this stage is
approximately dated by the painted sherds found by Professor Petrie in the
rubbish-heaps of Kahun, dating from the time of Usertesen II. of the XIIth
Dynasty. Taking as a mean estimate Lepsius’s calculation, this brings us to about
2300 B.c. If we accept the chronological calculations of Professor Petrie and
others, the date would be nearly 2700 B.c. In any case, the Cretan evidence must
be taken to exclude*the extreme bringing down of the XIIth Dynasty date to the
borders of the XVIIIth, which has lately found favour. Other proofs of XIIth
Dynasty contact are found on the seals of this period. ;

The Kahun deposit includes objects of the simpler style which belongs rather
to the first Middle Minoan Period, and gives us, therefore, a terminus ad quem for
this well-marked stratum. The influence of Middle Empire designs is already well
marked on the seal stones of this time, which, unlike the latter, are almost exclu-
sively cut on soft material. The ruder class of conventionalised pictographs is
seen on seal impressions from deposits of thisdate. Allowing some time for the
gradual development of the fine Middle Minoan polychrome style, the beginning
of the first period of this great age may be reasonably thrown back at least to the
middle of the third millennium s.c. Adopting the more liberal chronology, it
would reach back nearly to the beginning of that millennium.

Beyond this date lies another long cycle of nascent culture, included in the
various phases of the Karly Minoan Period. The prevailing decorative style is
now geometrical, generally dark ornament on a light ground, but the dark glaze
slip itself goes back to the confines of the Neolithic Period. The surface of the
clay is often varied by a network of raised lines, irregular protuberances, and
thorn-like projections—sometimes painted over with geometrical designs—and this
raised decoration was largely combined with polychrome in the succeeding period.
The vases have often a high neck, and the hand-moulding of many vessels is
supplemented by paring with a knife. The old hand-polished, dark-faced ware of
Neolithic times survives throughout, but is most frequent in the earlier phases of
this period. We see, moreover, the taking over of incised designs of the older
class in the painted decoration.

A section opened below the pavement of the West Court shows a distinct
stratification of floor-levels belonging to this period. The lowest or sub-Neolithic
stratum there brought out shows light-ground technique already beginning, as a
consequence of the introduction of the potter’s oven. The old black-faced hand-
polished Neolithic class that survives beside this is also now better cooked within,
The spiral now appears for the first time on steatite vessels and incised pottery,
whence it is taken over in painted designs during the next period. Its introduc-
tion appears to be due to Cycladic influences otherwise traceable at this time.

This Early Minoan Period, like the succeeding, is characterised by its special
class of seal stones—in this case presenting pictographic designs in their more
primitive stage. Many seals show the adaptation of motives from a VIth
Dynasty class of button seals, The forms of certain Minoan stone vases also take
them back to the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt, and syenite and other vessels
from the Palace site at Knossos are of Egyptian fabric, belonging to one or other
of the first four dynasties. Whether or not black hand-painted vases found by

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 721

Professor Petrie at Abydos with Ist Dynasty remains were actually imported
from Crete, their surface and texture so closely resemble those of the earliest
Minoan or sub-Neolithic Period that we are justified in inferring a certain con-
temporaneity. These Egyptian connections show that it would not be safe to bring
down the beginnings of the Early Minoan culture later than the middle of the
fourth millennium before our era.

The section in the West Court of the Palace shows the earliest Minoan floor-
level at a depth of 5°32 metres below the surface. Below this again are at this
point 6°43 metres of Neolithic strata. Assuming that the average rate of deposit
was fairly continuous, this gives an antiquity of about 12,000 years for the earliest
Neoiithic settlement at Knossos.

4. Painted Vases of the Bronze Age from Palaikastro.
By R. M. Dawkins, B.A.

The resemblance of the series of styles found at Palaikastro with those found
elsewhere in Crete makes it possible to use the terms used at Knossos, ‘ Minoan,’
&e., in describing the successive styles of Bronze Age vases. A series of slides was
shown giving first geometrically painted vases of the Early Minoan period, then
polychrome vases of the Middle Minoan period, and lastly examples of the three
phases of the Late Minoan period. This series of slides showed the development of
the styles of design, from their geometrical beginning with patterns imitated from
the earlier incised ware, through the freer style of the Middle Minoan to the
naturalistic style of Late Minoan I., and then exhibited the process of formalisation,
which ends with the rigid formal style of decoration that characterises vases of
the Late Minoan III. time. At the same time it showed the growth of the light-
on-dark polychrome style of the Middle Minoan, and its gradual change through
the abandonment of subsidiary colours to the monochrome dark-on-light style of
the later parts of the Late Minoan period. Throughout, attention was called to the
painted patterns rather than to the shapes of the vases.

5. Excavations at Heleia (Palaikastro) and Praisos in Eastern Crete.
By R. C. Bosanquet, IA., S.A.

The British school again excavated at Palaikastro, the Minoan town which
has yielded important results in two previous seasons, from March 25 to June 17
with the help of grants from the Cretan Exploration Fund (including a gift of
1007. from Mr. George Macmillan), Emmanuel College, and the Fitzwilliam
Museum. The expedition consisted of Mr, R. McG. Dawkins, Fellow of Emmanuel
College, Cambridge; Mr. Heaton Comyn, architect; Mr. C. T. Currelly, of the
Egypt Exploration Fund; Mr. J. L. Stokes, Scholar of Pembroke College, Cam-
bridge; and the Director.

1, Late Palace.—The further excavation of Block Delta, the largest and best
built of the zmsule opened up last year, showed that this was the palace or
Government House of the latest Mycenzan period. It has an imposing facade of
huge ashlar blocks, and the general plan of the ground floor, broken up by light
wells and other paved areas, can be recovered; but it has been much plundered,
and many walls of this exceptionally fine masonry have been destroyed in recent
years. Some well-preserved magazines yielded an important series of painted
vases, and some terra-cotta figures of a goddess, in one case grasping a snake.
Careful dissection of the lower strata, when they were not obliterated by the
massive substructures of the palace, revealed remains of three earlier periods.
The sequence of some early varieties of pottery was determined by Mr. Dawkins,
and plans illustrating the stratification prepared by Mr. Comyn. Fragments of an
ostrich-egg, found at a very low level, point to early intercourse with Africa.

2. Other Work in the Town.—The main street was followed in both directions,
and two low hills to the west and south-west of it were excavated. On one of

1904, 3A

(22 REPORT—1904.

them four blocks of somewhat poor houses were opened up, and yielded some
very valuable finds, notably two delicately carved ivory statuettes, a large bronze
ewer, and a richly painted bath. The ivories may be importations from Egypt;
while an ivory plate, carved with conventional crocodiles, betrays indirect Egyptian
influence. The other hill was covered with houses of a better type divided by
what may prove to be a continuation of the main street.

3. Cemeteries.—The curious ossuaries of the middle Minoan period were further
excavated. Among the objects found were seals of ivory and steatite, a miniature
gold bird, and small models of a dagger and of sickles. A very early burial-place,
discovered by Mr. Dawkins near the headland of Kastri, contained beaked jugs of
an exaggerated pattern and a remarkable clay model of a boat. A later cemetery,
containing larnax burials, yielded bronze implements, beads, and vases like those
in the palace magazines. In searching for tombs south of the town Mr. Currelly
discovered a steatite libation-table on which are engraved seventeen characters of
the Minoan linear script.

4, Temple.—In trenching the area within the Minoan town, where scattered
remains of a Hellenic sanctuary have long been known io exist, Mr. Bosanquet
found a broken slab of grey marble inscribed with a Doric hymn in honour of the
youthful Zeus. The lettering is of the Roman age, the composition genuinely
archaic. It refers to his nativity in the Dictzean cave, and leaves no doubt that
we have here the temple of Zeus Diktaios, the territory of which was a subject of
dispute between Hierapytna and Itanos until the matter was settled by arbitration
in the second century B.c. It can hardly, however, be the temple mentioned by
Strabo as having existed at or near Praisos before the destruction of that city, for
Praisos is five hours’ ride from Palaikastro.

We may now restore to the plain of Palaikastro its classical name of Heleia
mentioned in the arbitration award.

5. Researches at Praisos.—The steep west face of the Altar Hill (the top of
which was cleared in 1901) had never been examined. Numerous architectural
members and fragments of inscriptions have now been found here by Mr. Bosanquet,
built into dykes or buried under fallen masses of rock. A temple on the summit
seems to have been demolished and its materials thrown over the cliff, presumably
when the Hierapytnians destroyed the town. In view of the public character of
some of the inscriptions it is probable that this was the chief sanctuary of Praisos,
possibly tha temple of Dictzean Zeus mentioned by Strabo. The most important
inscription is one in the ancient Kteocretan language, which was hitherto known
only from two inscriptions, both found on this hill. The newly discovered docu-
ment is in Greek characters of the third or fourth century before our era.

6. The Linguistic Character of the Eteocretan Language.
By Professor R. 8. Conway, Litt.D.

The author illustrated his subject by an inscription discovered by Mr. Bosanquet
at Praisos in June 1904. The text is too fragmentary to admit of even conjec-
tural interpretation, but presents several new features of interest in phonology and
morphology not inconsistent, in the author’s judgment, with the conclusions as to
the Indo-Huropean nature of the language which he has drawn from the two
inscriptions previously known.

7. A Find of Copper Ingots at Chalcis. By R. C. Bosanquer, M.A.

The author described a find of copper ingots at Chalcis, in Eubeea. This was
a shipwrecked cargo of nineteen ingots, weighing from 25 to 40 lb., and perhaps
dating from the Bronze Age. Similar ingots or talents of copper had been found
at Mycenz, at Phzestus in Crete, and in Cyprus and Sardinia. A recent discovery
of bronze axes in an ancient copper working on Mount Othrys might be taken as
evidence that the copper ores of Othrys were known in Mycenzan times. Ohalcis
may have been so called as being the chief emporium, though not the real source,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 725

ot this copper. The relative abundance of such hoards of bronze axes suggests that
they were used as a means of exchange, especially in Crete, where many axes have
been found which have a haft-hole too small to admit a serviceable handle. It is
remarkable that in historic times in Crete the word zeéAexvs (axe) is said to have
denoted a fraction of the talent.

8. The Geometric Period in Greece. By Professor Oscar Monre tus.

The Geometric period succeeds the Mycenzan period in Greece and in the isles
of the Aigzan Sea. In the western part of Asia Minor, where the author thinks
that the Mycenzan culture continues long after its disappearance in Greece, the
Greek Geometric style is not represented.

The Mycenwan period is a part of the Bronze Age; iron began to be used
only just at the end of the period. All the Geometric period belongs to the Iron
Age. Consequently, in the Mycenzan period, swords and other weapons were of
bronze; in the Geometric period, swords and many other weapons were of iron.

At the end of the Mycenzan period the fibula (safety-pin) became known in
Greece. It is most interesting to follow the evolution of the fibula through the
Geometric period.

Most of the remains from this period are ceramic. The technique is about the
same as in the Mycenzean time; the vases are made of very pure clay, and wheel-
made ; the ornaments are painted with glaze colours. Some of the forms are also
derived from those of the preceding period. But the predominant ornaments
are different. The Mycensean flowers as well as the sea-animals have dis-
appeared, and the animals of the Geometric period—generally horses and birds—
are not so well drawn as in the preceding time. Most of the ornaments are
geometric, some are rectilinear (meander, zigzag, &c.,): the swastika, extremely
rare in the Mycenean period, is very common. Others are curvilinear: spirals,
concentric rings joined by tangents (‘false spirals’), concentric circles without
such tangents, &c. In Attica, men, women, horses, chariots—forming scenes of
funeral solemnities and races—are sometimes painted on the vases, but the figures
are drawn in a most infantile way.

The Geometric style is not derived from the countries to the north of Greece.
All the ornaments characteristic of this style are earlier in Greece than in other
parts of Europe.

The Geometric style is a continuation of the Mycenean one, but it is much
inferior to this, which cannot be accounted for only through the migrations of
the Dorians, because the difference between the Geometric and the Mycenzan
style is as great in Attica—where the Dorian invaders did not come—as in other
parts of Greece. The explanation may be that the foreigners (Tyrrhenians or
Pelasgians), to whom, in the author’s opinion, the Mycenzan culture was due,
had been expelled, and the Hellenic people had not yet reached the same high
degree of civilisation as these foreigners.

The Geometric period began in the twelfth century B.c., and lasted a very long
time. It can be divided into the following parts :—The first Geometric period (in
Attica, the older ‘ Dipylon vases’); the second Geometric period (‘ Phaleron
vases’ and skyphoi); the third Geometric period (‘ pre-Corinthian’ vases). This
list period ends about 700 B.c.

9. The Latest Discoveries in Prehistoric Science in Denmark.
By Professor VALDEMAR SCHMIDT.

(1) Investigations have been made in recent years in the National Museum of
Copenhagen on the musical properties of the famous trumpets of the Bronze Age,
called in Danish generally Zur. These instruments are so well preserved that
they are now payee annually in public on St, John’s Day.

(2) The oldest period of the Danish Stone Age, only recently discovered, is
earlier in time than the ‘kitchen-middens’ and much anterior to the dolmens,

3A2

724 REPORT—1904.

from which the bulk of the well-known Danish flint implements have been
derived. In a peat-bog in Western Zeeland, near a small harbour called Mullerey,
not far from the Great Belt, were found many objects of stone and wood of a
primitive order, evidently from an early part of the Stone Age. A careful study
of these objects and of their position in the bog proved that the prehistoric
inhabitants who left or dropped those implements must have been dwelling on
rafts in the middle of a lake. It was indeed a ‘lake dwelling, but not on piles
like the lake dwellings of Switzerland and Northern Italy, for in this case the
dwelling of the early inhabitants was floating on the surface of the water.

(8) It has been discovered during the last few years what kinds of grains of
corn, wheat, and barley were in common use in the different prehistoric periods
of Denmark. As in many other countries, a large quantity of earthen vessels or
bits of broken pottery have been found in the prehistoric tombs, and on the site
of old dwellings. In examining these objects one finds sometimes in the pottery
(but not very frequently) impressions of grains of corn, which give exactly the
shape of the grain. Thus we are able, by comparison, to determine the variety of
grain used in those prehistoric times. It is to be supposed that the places where
the pottery was made in prehistoric times had sometimes served, a little before,
as a threshing-floor. The Museum in Copenhagen has gradually been acquiring
the most important pieces of this kind found in Denmark, and preserved formerly
in private collections,

(4) Special study has been devoted lately to the distribution of tumuli in
different parts of Denmark. Archzeological maps have been made in the last few
years of a great part of the country; and all tumuli, all burial and dwelling
places, and all localities in which prehistoric implements have been found, are
marked on these maps. The Director of the Prehistoric Museum of Copenhagen,
Dr. Sophus Miiller, who has been the leader in this cartography, has recently
stated that the tumuli always follow ancient roads through the country, and that
lines of tumuli always lead towards the fords of the larger rivers, and avoid the
swampy ground, It is to be supposed that the people who were buried in the
tumuli had dwelt near their graves, and traces of such dwelling-places have been
found at some few places.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24,
The following Papers and Reports were read :-—
1. Classification Sociale... Par EpMonp DeEmMoLINs.

Ceci est un essai pour substituer & la classification élémentaire et artificielle de
Le Play,iqui est aujourd’hui insuffisante, une classification naturelle des Sociétés
humaines. Au lieu de classer les types sociaux d’aprés un seul caractére, ce qui est
artificiel, j’entreprends de faire le classement d’aprés l'ensemble des caractéres,
actuellement mieux connu, grace aux progrés de la science.

Ce travail est le résultat de vingt-cing années d’études, poursuivies sans inter-
ruption depuis la mort de mon maitre Frédéric Le Play.

Les deux Formations sociales.—Toutes les Sociétés qui existent la surface du
globe peuvent se ramener & deux grandes divisions :

1° La Formation communautaire, dans laquelle on cherche a résoudre le probléme
social, en s’appuyant sur la communauté plus que sur soi-méme.

2° La Formation particulariste, dans laquelle on cherche 4 résoudre le probléme
social, en s’appuyant sur soi-méme plus que sur la communauté,

La premiére de ces deux Formations domine dans VOrient et explique son
immobilité; la seconde domine dans l'Occident et explique son mouvement
progressif,

Les siz Genres.—Ainsi que V’indique le tableau ci-aprés, chaque Formation

To be published in full (in English) in Man, 1905.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 725

sociale se divise en trois genres: stable, instable, ébranié, pour la Formation
communautaire ; ébauché, ébranlé, développé, pour la Formation particulariste.

Les Groupes et les Régions.—Chacune de ces deux subdivisions du genre est
formée de circonscriptions géographiques qui présentent des caractéres sociaux
communs. Le nombre des Groupes et des Régions est indéfini et ira toujours en
augmentant, & mesure que la science aura découvert des phénoménes nouveaux, ou
quelle aura mieux analysé les phénoménes déjai observés,

Dans chaque Groupe et dans chaque Région les types sont classés dans l’ordre
de la complication sociale croissante. La complication résulte, le plus ordinaire-
ment, de la nature et du développement du travail dominant, suivant cet ordre,
révélé par un demi-siécle d’observations méthodiques: Art pastoral, Péche, Chasse,
Cueillette, Culture, Exploitation miniére, Fabrication, Transports et Commerce.

La Science sociale a déji & sa disposition un instrument d’analyse, la No-
menclature établie par Henri de Tourville. J'ai l’espoir qu’elle va posséder
maintenant un cadre rigoureux, pour enregistrer et classer méthodiquement les
résultats acquis par l’analyse.

2. Further Hecavations on a Paleolithic Site in Ipswich.
By Nina Frances Layarp.

At the meeting of the British Association held in Belfast in September 1902
paleolithic implements from the brick earth of Ipswich were shown. As the pit
from which they were taken was being worked for clay, and a large number of
men were employed, it was impossible to make accurate observations either with
regard to geological conditions or the precise position in which the flints were
found.

With a view to a more thorough examination of the site a committee was
appointed in October last to arrange special excavations for this purpose.

» The pit is situated on a plateau above the town of Ipswich. A slight
depression appears to indicate the position of a former valley cut through boulder
clay and now silted up, or a small lake formed on the uneven surface of the land.

An area measuring ten yards by six was marked out and worked from the
surface down to the implement-bearing bed.

Two workmen only were employed, and their work was daily superintended
by the writer, who took measurements of the depth at which every flint was
found.

It had already been noticed that implements occurred at depths varying from
8 to 123 feet in other parts of the clay pit, but it was proved by working regularly
from west to east of the pit that they were all in reality on one floor, which
gradually rose several feet from what appeared to be the margin of a former lake.
Only in one instance out of forty was a tool found lying directly above another.

A red gravel-stain in the clay marked out the position of the palolithic bed,
and immediately below this the flints were always found. Guided by this
ferruginous stain the bed could be traced with tolerable precision.

Besides forty implements a number of flints showing human work were dis-
covered.

The tools were of considerable diversity of form, and it was noticed that all
the oval and ovate sharp-rimmed implements, of which there were fifteen examples,
were in and under compact clay, while the gravels, which sloped down to the clay,
contained a large number of rougher tools of other shapes.

The position of the oval implements possibly points to their particular use, for
if, as Sir John Evans has suggested, they may have been missiles for hurling at
water-fowl, the discovery of them in the shallows of what was formerly a lake
bottom tends to confirm this view. It was also significant that the only flints
discovered in the clay were implements, no natural pebbles being found with
them. This could not have been the case if they had been washed down from the
adjoining gravels, Three fine specimens, which were lying close together, are

* To be published in full in Jowrn, Anthr. Inst., xxiv.

726 REPORT—1904.

almost exactly similar, and must have been the work of the same hand. The
ogival curve is very pronounced in them. The tools found in the clay are almost
entirely devoid of patination, the edges being as sharp as when newly fashioned.

Among those from the gravel was a minute, delicately worked implement,
which appeared to have been made in imitation of a larger pointed weapon. This
is believed to be a toy-tool made for a palwolithic child. Such tools are rarely
found in England, but have been recognised on the Continent. It may, however,
be a forerunner of the neolithic arrowhead, though the finding of an equally
minute ovate implement, for which it is difficult to imagine a use, is against this
explanation.

An implement of quite unique pattern—also found in the gravel—may be
described as a cutting tool with a concave edge.

Side by side with implements of the roughest possible work were some care-
fully wrought specimens.

On the chalky crust of a few flints either tool-marks or glacial scratchings are
very distinct.

A boring made from the greatest depth at which tools were found, namely,
123 feet, showed that the boulder clay was 15 feet below the implements. This
demonstrated that the depression had been partially silted up before man’s appear-
ance, and that the silting continued later, burying the remains and filling up the
valley.

The only remains found were fragments of the teeth and tusks of elephas sp.,
rhinoceros, ox, and deer; but these were 24 feet below the implements in coarse
gravel.

Below this, again, in the underlying clay, were blackened thread-like fibres,
probably the rootlets of water plants.

3. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury.—See Reports, p. 324.
4. Reports on Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.—See Reports, p. 337.
5. Some Funeral Customs of the Todas. By Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

6. On a Votive Offering from Korea. By E. Stpney Hartianp.

The author exhibited a votive offering from a shrine on the top of the Char-
yong Pass, in Korea, about 61 7 south of Gensan. It is a rough iron casting,
6 inches long, nearly 2 inches high, and weighing about 14 1b., of an animal,
said to be a tiger. A shrine of some kind is found at the top of every pass in the
south and south-east of Asia. Usually it is a mere heap of stones, or of sticks, or
leaves, to which the passing traveller is expected to add his contribution. Some-
times, however, it is more pretentious, and attracts more shapely and even valuable
offerings. It is, as a rule, dedicated to the local genius or divinity. The Korean
mountains are infested with tigers, which are greatly feared by the natives, and to
which supernatural powers are attributed. They were formerly worshipped, and
it is probable that the cult still exists. If so, the shrine from which this offering
was taken may be dedicated either to the tiger itself or to the mountain-god
under that form.

7. Notes on the Fulahs of Nigeria. By EH. F. Martin.

Nigeria is peopled by many and varied races, the seaboard being exclusively
inhabited by Negro tribes, the Hinterland by Fulahs, Hausas, Nupés, &c. The
three latter are mostly Mahommedans, the other tribes pagans. The land is fertile,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 727

yielding cereals and cotton, for which there would appear to be a great future.
Transport is conducted by means of carriers and pack animals. Slave raiding, for
which the country was once famous, has now quite died out.

The Fulahs are the most important of the races of Nigeria. They are
apparently of Eastern origin, and are similar in appearance to the Egyptian ; but
their own tradition makes them to have sprung from a savage aboriginal light~
skinned race dwelling in the highlands between Benué and Lake Tchad. Accord-
ing to the Fulahs, this race is still dwelling in the interior, and the tradition is
supported from independent sources.

8. The Bee Cult in British Folklore. By G. L, Gomme, #.S.4,

728 REPORT—1904.

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEctIoN—Professor C, 8. SHERRINGTON, Sc.D.,
M.D., F.RS,

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Correlation of Reflexes and the Principle of the Common Path.

Ir has been lightly said that this Association meets to cultivate less muses than
amusements. The two are not incompatible, and here happily the muses number
not merely nine, but ten; for we surely include among the muses ‘ Physiologia.,’
Here in Cambridge our muse admits frankly that a mistake has been made about
Parnassus—it is not a mountain but a flat place, almost fenny, once worried by
mosquitoes, and now immune from all worries.

Perhaps the confusion between Parnassus and a mountain was due to the
Gog-Magog hills. Those hills our muse has haunted and still haunts. She has
votaries there ; among them one who instituted her worship in this place, a teacher
whose powerful appeal attracted disciples from all sides, one whose enthusiasm
was, moreover, never narrowed to a single science alone, but floods all biology.
With Cambridge and Physiology the name of Sir Michael Foster rises to the lips
as an indissoluble sequence. So it will ever be; and it must give him pleasure,
as it gives us, to have for his successor here one of his first pupils, one associated
far and wide with that which Physiology treasures as always golden, the discovery
of imperishable facts.

When this Section last met, two years ago, its President, Professor Halliburton,
reviewed for us the existing position of chemical physiology. We cannot from
the nervous system draw themes of such general attractiveness as the new
biochemistry, with its startling reactions, its varied hypotheses, its toxophores,
haptophores, amboceptors, and other fairylike agents.

Physiology studies the nervous system from three main points of view. One
of these regards its processes of nutrition. Nerve-cells, as all cells, lead individual
lives, breathe, dispense their own stores of energy, repair their own substantial
waste, are, in short, living units, each with a nutrition more or less centred in
itself. The problems of nutrition of the nerve-cell and of the nervous system,
though partly special to this specially differentiated form of cell life, are, on the
whole, accessible to the same methods as is nutrition in other cells and in the
body as a whole.

But beside the essential functions common to all living cells, the cells of the
nervous system present certain which are specialised. Among properties of living
matter, one by its high development inthe nerve-cell may be said to characterise
it. I mean the cell’s transmission of excitement spatially along itself and thence to
other cells. This ‘conductivity ’ is the specific physiological property of nerye-cells
wherever they exist. Its intimate nature is, therefore, a problem coextensive with
the existence of nerve-cells, and enters as a factor into every question concerning
the specific reactions of the nervous system,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 729

Thirdly, physiology seeks in the nervous system how by its ‘ conductivity ’ the
separate units of an animal body are welded into a single whole, and from a mere
collection of organs there is constructed an individual animal.

This third line of inquiry, though greatly needing more data from the second
and the first, must in the meantime go forward of itself. It is at present busied
with many questions that seem special—hence its work is generally catalogued as
Special Physiology. But it includes general problems. In the time before us
I would venture to put before you one of these.

When we regard the nervous system as to this, which I would term its
integrative function, we can distinguish two main types of system according to the
mode of union of the conductors—(i.) the nerve-net system, such as met in Medusa
and in the walls of viscera, and (ii.) the synaptic system, such as the cerebro-spinal
system of Arthropods and Vertebrates. Inthe integrative function of the nervous
system the unit mechanism is the reflex. The chain of conduction in the reflex is a
neryous arc, running from a receptor organ to an effector organ, e.g. from a sense-
organ toalimb-muscle. We may still, I think, conveniently accept the morphological
units termed neurones as units of construction of the reflex arc. It may be that
these neurones are in some cases not unicellular but pluricellular, That question
need not detain us now. Accepting the neurone as the unit of structure of the
reflex chain, the characteristic of the synaptic system is that the chain consists of
neurones jointed together in such a way that conduction along the chain seems pos-
sible in one direction only. These junctions of the neurones are conveniently termed
synapses. The irreversible direction of the conductivity along the neurone chain
is probably referable to its synapses. This irreciprocity of conduction especially
distinguishes the synaptic nervous system from the nerve-net system.

The first link of each reflex chain is a neurone which starts in a receptor organ,
e.g. a sense-organ, A receptive field, eg. an area of skin, is always analysable into
receptive points, and the initial nerve-path in every reflex arc starts from a receptive
point or points. A single receptive point may play reflexly upon quite a number of
different effector organs. It may be connected through its reflex path with many
muscles and glands in various parts. Yet all its reflex arcs spring from the one
single shank, so to say; that is, from the one afferent neurone that conducts from
the receptive point at the periphery into the central nervous organ. This neurone
dips at its deep end into the great central nervous organ, the cord or brain. There
it enters a vast network of conductive paths. In this network it forms mani-
fold connections. So numerous are its potential connections there, that, as shown
by the general convulsions induced under strychnia-poisoning, its impulses can
discharge practically every muscle and effector organ in the body. Yet under
normal circumstances the impulses conducted by it to this central network do
not irradiate there in all directions. Though their spread over the conducting
network does, as judged by the effects, increase with increase of stimulation of
the entrant path, the irradiation remains limited to certain lines. Under weak
stimulation of the entrant path these lines are sparse. The conductive network
affords, therefore, to any given path entering it some communications that are
easier than others, This canalisation of the network in certain directions from
each entrant point is sometimes expressed, borrowing electrical terminology, by
saying that the conductive network from any given point offers less resistance along
certain circuits than along others. This recognises the fact that the conducting
paths in the great central organ are arranged in a particular pattern. The pattern
of arrangement of the conductive network of the central organ reveals somewhat
of the integrative function of the nervous system. It tells us what organs work
together in time. The impulses are led to this and that effector organ, gland or
muscle, in accordance with the pattern. The success achieved in the unravelling
of the conductive patterns of the brain and cord is shown by the diagrams furnished
by the works of such investigators as Edinger, Exner, Flechsig, van Gehuchten,
v. Lenhossek, v. Monakow, Ramon, and Schafer. Knowledge of this kind stands
high among the neurological advances of our time.

But we must not be blind to its limitations. The achievement may, though
more difficult, be likened to tracing the distribution of blood-vessels after Harvey’s

730 REPORT—1904.

discovery gave them meaning, but before the vasomotor mechanism was discovered.
The blood-vessels of an organ may be turgid at one time, constricted almost to
obliteration at another. With the conductive network of the nervous system the
temporal changes are even greater, for they extend to absolute withdrawal of
nervous influence. Our schemata of the pattern of the great central organ take no
account of temporal data. But the pattern of the web of conductors is not
really immutable. Functionally its details change from moment to moment. In
any active part it is a web that shifts from one pattern to another, from a first to
a second, from a second to a third, then back perhaps to the first, and then to a
fourth, and so on backwards and forwards. As a tap to a kaleidoscope, so a new
stimulus that strikes the central organ causes it to assume a partially new pattern.
The pattern in general remains, but locally the patterns are in constant flux
of back and forward change. These time-changes offer, I venture to think, a
study important for understanding the integrative function of the nervous system.

If we regard the nervous system of any higher organism from the broad point
of view, a salient feature in its architecture is the following. At the commence-
ment of every reflex arc is a receptive neurone, extending from the receptive
surface to the central nervous organ, That neurone forms the sole avenue which
impulses generated at its receptive point can use whithersoever may be their
distant destination. That neurone is therefore a path exclusive to the impulses
generated at its own receptive points, and other receptive points than its own
cannot employ it.

But at the termination of every reflex are we find a final neurone, the
ultimate conductive link to an effector organ, gland or muscle. This last link in
the chain, eg., the motor neurone, differs obviously in one important respect
from the first link of the chain. It does not subserve exclusively impulses
generated at one single receptive source alone, but receives impulses from many
receptive sources situate in many and various regions of the body. It is the sole
path which all impulses, no matter whence they come, must travel if they would
reach the muscle-fibres which it joins. Therefore, while the receptive neurone
forms a private path exclusive for impulses of one source only, the final or efferent
neurone is, so to say, a public path, common to impulses arising at any of many
sources in a variety of receptive regions of the body: The same effector organ
stands in reflex connection not. only with many individual receptive points,
but even with many various receptive fields. Reflex arcs arising in manifold
sense-organs can pour their influence into one and the same muscle. A limb-
muscle is the terménus ad quem of nervous arcs arising not only in the right eye
but in the left, not only in the eyes but in the organs of smell and hearing; not
only in these, but in the geotropic labyrinth, in the skin, and in the muscles and
joints of the limb itself and of the other limbs as well, Its motor nerve is a
path common to all these.

Reflex arcs show therefore the general feature that the initial neurone is a
private path exclusive for a single receptive point; and that finally the arcs
embouch into a path leading to an effector organ, and that this final path is
common to all receptive points wheresoever they may lie in the body, so long as
they have any connection at all with the effector organ in question. Before finally
converging upon the motor neurone arcs usually converge to some degree by their
private paths embouching upon internuncial paths common in various degree to
groups of private paths. The terminal path may, to distinguish it from inter-
nuncial common paths, be called the final common path. The motor nerye to a
muscle is a collection of such final common paths.

Certain results flow from this arrangement. One seems the preclusion of
qualitative differences between nerve-impulses arising in different afferent nerves.
If two conductors haye a tract in common, there can hardly be qualitative
difference between their modes of conduction.

A second result is that each receptor being dependent for communication with
its effector organ upon a path not exclusively its own but common to it with
certain other receptors, that nexus necessitates successive and not simultaneous
use of the common path by various receptors using it to different effect,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. ou

Let us consider this for a moment. ‘Take the primary retinal reflex, which
moves the eye so as to bring the fovea to the situation of the stimulating image.
From all the receptors in each lateral retinal half rise reflex arcs with a final
common path in the nerve of the opposite rectus lateralis. Suppose simultaneous
stimulation of two of these retinal points, one nearer to, one farther from, the
fovea. If the ares of both points pour their impulses into the final common path
together, the effect must be a resultant of the two discharges. If these sum, the
shortening of the muscle will be too great and the fovea swing too far for either
point. If the resultant be a compromise between the two individual effects, the fovea
will come to lie between the two points of stimulation. In both cases the result
obtained would be useless for the purposes of either. Were there to occur at the
final common path summation of the impulses received from two unlike receptors,
there would result in the effector organ an action useless for the purposes of either.

When two stimuli are applied simultaneously which would evoke reflex actions
that employ the same final common path in different ways, in my experience one
reflex appears without the other. The result is this reflex or that reflex, but
not the two together. Excitation of the afferent root of the eighth or seventh
cervical nerve of the monkey evokes reflexly in the same individual animal, some-
times flexion at elbow, sometimes extension. If the excitation be preceded by
excitation of the first thoracic root, the result is almost always extension; if
preceded by excitation of the sixth cervical root, it is almost always flexion. Yet
although the same root may thus be made to evoke reflex action of the flexors or
of the extensors, I have never seen it evoke contraction in both flexors and exten-
sors in the same reflex response. Of the two reflexes on extensors and flexors
respectively, either the one or the other results, but not the two together.

Good opportunity for study of this correlation between reflexes is given in
the ‘scratch reflex.’ When the spinal cord has been transected in the neck,
this reflex in a few months becomes prominent. Stimuli applied within a large
saddle-shaped field of skin (fig. 1 A) excite a scratching movement of the leg.
The movement is rhythmic flexion at hip, knee, and ankle. It has a frequency
of about four per second. The stimuli provocative of it are mechanical, such as
rubbing the skin, or pulling lightly on a hair. The nerve-endings which generate
the reflex lie in the surface layer of the skin, about the roots of the hairs. A con-
venient way of exciting these is by feeble faradisation. A broad diffuse electrode
is applied to some indifferent part of the surface elsewhere, and a stigmatic pole is
brought to some point in the saddle-shaped area of dorsal skin. This pole is
formed by, a minute needle with fine wire attached; it is set lightly, so that its
point just lies among the hair-bulbs.

Prominent among the muscles active in this reflex are the flexors of the hip.
If we record their rhythmic contraction we obtain tracings as in figs. 2,3,4. A
series of brief contractions succeed one another at a certain rate, whose frequency
is independent of that of the stimulation. The contractions are presumably
brief tetani. The stimulus to the hair-bulbs of the shoulder throws into action a
lumbar spinal centre, innervating the hip-flexor much as the bulbar respiratory
centre drives the spinal phrenicus centre. In the case of the respiratory muscle the
frequency of the rhythm is, however, much less.

This reflex is unilateral: stimulation of the left shoulder evokes scratching by
the left leg, not by the right. Search in the spinal cord for the path of the reflex
demonstrates that a lesion breaking through one lateral half of the cord anywhere
between shoulder and leg abolishes the ability of the skin of that shoulder to
excite the scratch reflex, but leaves intact the reflex of the opposite shoulder.

In the lateral half of the spinal cord which the reflex path descends, severance
of the dorsal column does not interfere with the reflex; nor does severance of the
ventral and the dorsal columns together of that side; no more does severance of
the grey matter in addition. But severance of the lateral part of the lateral
column itself permanently abolishes the conduction of the reflex; and it does so
even if all the other parts of the cord remain intact. The path of the
reflex therefore descends the lateral part of the lateral column. I enter
into these details because they help toward the construction of the reflex

732 REPORT—1904.

arc involved. For in the lateral part of the lateral column one has proved
by, ‘successive degeneration’ that long fibres exist directly connecting the
spinal segments of the shoulder with the spinal segments containing the motor
neurones for the flexor muscles of the hip, and knee, and ankle. The
course of these long fibres can be traced}and their number counted. We thus

Fig, 1. The Scratch Reflex,

!365

79 131517192) 2325

TTT>

rh OMe a

—The ‘ receptive field,’ as revealed after low cervical transection, a saddle-shaped area of dorsal
skin, whence the scratch reflex of the left hind limb can be evoked, ir marks the position of
the last rib.

B.—Diagram of the spinal ares involved. 1, receptive or afferent nerve-path from the left foot;
R, receptive nerve-path from the opposite foot ; Sa, s8, receptive nerve-paths from hairs in the
dorsal skin of the left side; rc, the final common path, in this case the motor neurone to a
flexor muscle of the hip ; Pa, P8, proprio-spinal neurones.

arrive at the following reflex chain for the scratch reflex: (i) The receptive
neurone (fig. 1 B, sa), from the skin to the spinal grey matter of the corresponding
spinal segment in the shoulder. This is the exclusive or private path of the arc.
(ii) The long descending proprio-spinal neurone (fig. 1 B, pa), from the shoulder
segment to the grey matter of leg segments. (iii) The motor neurone (fig. 1 B, Fc),
from the spinal segment of the leg to the flexor muscles, This last is the final

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 733

common path. The chain thus consists of three neurones. It enters the grey
matter twice, that is, it has two neuronic junctions, two synapses. It is a
disynaptic arc.

Now if, while stimulation of the skin of the shoulder is evoking the scratch
reflex, the skin of the hind foot is stimulated (fig. 2), the scratching is arrested.
Stimulation of the skin of the hind foot by any of various stimuli that have the
character of threatening the part with damage causes the leg to be flexed, drawing
the foot up. This reflex response to noxious stimuli of the foot is one of great
potency. The drawing up of the foot is effected by strong tonic contraction of the
flexors of ankle, knee, and hip. In this reaction the reflex arc is (i) the receptive
neurone (fig. 1 B, L) (nociceptive) from the foot to the spinal segment, (ii) perhaps
a short intraspinal neurone, and (iii) the motor neurone (fig. 1 B, rc) to the
flexor muscle, eg., of hip. Here, therefore, we have an are which embouches
into the same final common path as sa. The motor neurone Fc is a path common
to it and to the scratch reflex arcs; both arcs employ the same effector organ, a
hip flexor. And, as you see, a condition for one reflex is the absence of the other.

The channels for both reflexes finally embouch upon the same common path.
The flexor effect specific to each differs strikingly in the two cases. In the scratch
reflex the flexor effect is an intermittent contraction of the muscle, in the noci-
ceptive reflex it is steady and maintained. The accompanying tracing (fig. 2)
shows the result of conflict between the two reflexes. The one reflex displaces
the other from the common path. There is no compromise. The scratch
reflex is set aside by that of the nociceptive arc from the foot. ‘The stimulation
which previously sufficed to evoke the scratch reflex is no longer effective, though
it is continued all the time. But when the stimulation of the foot is discontinued
the scratch reflex returns, In that respect, although there is no enforced inactivity,
there is inhibition. There is interference between the two reflexes, and the one is
inhibited by the other. Though there is no cessation of activity in the motor
neurone, one form of activity that was being impressed upon it is cut out and
another takes its place. A stimulation of the foot too weak to cause more than a
minimal reflex movement will often suffice to completely interrupt or cut short,
or prevent onset of, the scratch reflex.

Suppose, again, during the scratch reflex, stimuli applied to the foot, not of the
scratching but of the opposite side (fig. 1 B, R). Stimulation (nociceptive) of the
foot causes flexion of its own leg and extension of the opposite. In numerous
instances reflex contraction of one set of muscles is accompanied by reflex relaxation
of their antagonists. The antagonistic muscle is thrown out of action. If, when
the left leg is executing the scratch reflex, the right foot is stimulated, the scratching,
involving as it does the left leg’s flexors, is cut short concomitantly with or
ery to the entrance into contraction of their antagonists, the left extensors.

ig. 8 shows a record of this. This inhibition of the flexor scratching move-
ment occurs sometimes when the contraction of the extensors is minimal or
hardly perceptible (fig. 8). As before, the inhibition may temporarily interrupt a
reflex or may delay its onset, or simply cut it short, the result depending on the
time relations of the applications of the stimuli to the conflicting arcs.

It is obvious from this that the final common path, rc, to the flexor muscle
can be controlled by, in addition to the before-mentioned arcs, others that actuate
the extensor muscles, for it can be thrown out of action by them. ‘The final path,
FC, is therefore common to the reflex arcs, not only from the same-side foot
(ie. 1 B,t) and shoulder skin (fig. 1 B, sa, 8), but also to arcs from the opposite

oot (fig. 1 B, n), in the sense that it is in the grasp of all of them. In this last

case we have a conflict for the mastery of a common path, not, as in the previous
instance, between two arcs both of which use the path in a pressor manner
although differently, but between two arcs that, though both of them control
the path, control it differently, one in a pressor manner heightening its activity,
the other in a depressor manner lowering or suppressing its activity.

I said that the scratch reflex is unilateral. If the right shoulder be stimulated,
the right hind-leg scratches; if the left shoulder be stimulated, the left hind-
leg scratches. If both shoulders be stimulated at the same time, one or the

734 REPORT—1904.

other leg scratches, but not the two together. The one reflex that takes place
prevents the occurrence of the other. The reason is, that although the scratch
reflex appears unilateral it is not strictly so. Suppose the left shoulder
stimulated. The left leg then scratches. If the right leg is then examined it
is found to present slight, steady extension with some abduction. This exten-
sion of the leg which accompanies the scratching movement of the opposite
leg contributes to support the animal on three legs while it scratches with the
fourth.

Suppose stimulation at the left shoulder evoking the scratching movement of
the left leg, and the right shoulder then appropriately and strongly stimulated.
This latter stimulus often inhibits the scratching movement in the opposite leg
and starts it in its own. In other words, the stimulus at the right shoulder not
only sets the flexor muscles of the leg of its own side into scratching action, but it
inhibits the flexor muscles of the opposite leg. It throws into contraction the
extensor muscles of that leg. In the previous example there was a similar co-
ordination. The motor nerve to the flexor muscle is therefore under the control
not only of the arcs of the scratch reflex from the homonymous shoulder, but of
those from the crossed shoulder as well. But in regard to their influence upon this
final common path, the arcs from the homonymous shoulder and the opposite
shoulder are opposed. The influence of the latter depresses or suppresses activity
in the common path.

Experiments by Verworn disallow any view that this kind of depression has
its field in the motor nerve itself. Many circumstances connect it with the place
where the converging neurones come together in the grey matter at commence-
ment of the common path. The field of competition between the rival arcs seems
to lie in the grey matter, where they impinge together upon the final or motor
neurone. That is equivalent to saying that the essential seat of the phenomenon
is the synapse between the motor neurone and the axone-terminals of the penulti-
mate neurones that converge upon it. There some of these arcs drive the final
path into one kind of action, others drive it into a different kind of action, and
others again preclude it from being activated by the rest.

My diagram (fig. 1, B) treats the final common path as if it consisted of a
single individual neurone. It is, of course, not so. ‘The single neurone of the
diagram stands for several thousands. It may be objected that in the various
given actions these motor neurones are implicated in particular sets—one set in
one action, one set in another. That view seems unlikely. In the scratch reflex, I
think we canexcludeit. Therhythm of that reflex has the same frequence whether
it be excited strongly or feebly: thus, whether the extent of the contractions be
great or small they recur with practically the same frequence. That a muscle con-
tracts feebly under feeble stimulation of its nerve may be due in some cases
to a fraction only of the nerve-fibres and muscle-fibres of the preparation being
then active. But in the scratch reflex the whole group of motor neurones seem to
act, even when the grade of contraction exhibited is quite weak. Let the
reflex be excited by stimulation of the skin-point, sa (fig. 1 B), and let the stimulus
be weak, producing only a feeble reflex. Then let another skin-point, 58 (fig. 1 B),
be stimulated while sa is being stimulated, and let the stimuli at s8 be timed so
as to fall alternately with those applied at sa. Then if the two paths impinge on
two different sets of units in the compound group of motor neurones, evidence of
two rhythms should appear, for the muscle-fibres can respond to a much quicker
rhythm than the four per second. But in result the rhythm remains unquickened
and unaltered. Hither sa prevents the access of s8 to the motor neurones of FC, or
Sa’s reflex having impressed its own tempo on the neurones of Fo, the stimuli from
8 fall within a refractory period of the neuronic apparatus. On either supposition,
sa and s8 must play upon the same individual neurones of the final path. A
like result is given by all other points I have tried in the receptive field of the
scratch reflex. Again, in the inhibitions previously mentioned, when there occurs
the tonic contraction or the relaxation of the flexor we find no intermittent con-
traction of the scratch reflex grafted on them, as would be the case were that
intermittent contraction still involving some part of the whole muscle. These

“sNUII4S-400J ay} JO UOTwoT[dde ong OUT, FAOYS B IOF S]SBI9NO 41 4Bq9 PME ‘sUysaq SN[NUATIS-300} ayy AT}O9ITP Poyst[qvyse Jou st xaBaI yooy oy Aq

xePer Youwros oY} Jo WOrydna19,UT 944 4vq9 AYJOMOZOU STAT “GUST 09 7J0] WOTy spwor Bulovs} oy, ‘SpWooas Jo st4JY Ul PAG’ posoqsisar SI OUITy oy, ‘WAOYS JonuBOt

O81} UT XoPor YORBLOS OTUOTO 04 SIANALOJUT TOTZE|NUATYS 10948 SIYT “OPEU SEM JOO OY} JO WOIZB[NUTTAS OY} 'T IIT [BUSIS UL [oJoU 049 Aq poxrvUr porsed oy 10g ‘109eT

“yojou 4Bq} Jo porsed ayy JNOYSNOIGY penurjuoo pus ‘s oul] [BUsIs 944 UL Yo}OU aq} JO Sulaurseq 9q9 4B Uvsaq Xeyor YO}VIOS OYY SuTONpUT (¥ T *3y) UIYS JwsIop oq
JO UOTFB[NUMYS OUT, *XoPer yoyeros oy} pur (q T “Sy “I) Joos AJoT ENF Wry OLB SNOATOM O14 Aq pasnvo ‘oa ‘toxeg drq 9Je] 84} JO UOTZOR xeyar oy uaaMjaq aoueres10Uy

739

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

GOLA

1904.

REPORT:

736

“QUIT OF 4J9] WIOIZ PvsY ‘SpWOdS JOSYIYY UL OMIT, “Jl9I}T OX JO MOT XBT 4YSI[S YUapIONIOD puB ‘4sIUOsEQUL S.O% JO TOT}OeIIU0D
JUSS Sasnvo ‘OT WLOIT S Sarpnyoxa opIqM “A snuUIGG “41 durgsmburjer sx uo A[ao (afosnuL JOXay 944 JO aUOINaM IOJOUT Eq4) YIVd UOWWOI JMU AT YIM NOTJOeMUOD
SUTLIQO S ‘SI 4Bq} fA sn[NUTys Surpntouoo uo Ayao yoayo Saye} Xagar YoPwAIS ayy eonpord 0} g snfuujs Jo ApTIQV oyT, ‘(9s “qT 3g) Japjnogs 4JeT oy} Jo UIyS oy Jo
UOTZB[NUAIys JO porzed oy) Suryrem ATreyMuIs sul yeusis ‘s “(a “gq [ 3g) 00s FOSIA 944 JO WoIQBNUTTYS AIys v Jo WO[sN[OMOD puL ‘soUENUIYMOD ‘SurauISaq 944 SyABON YOUU
Ul YO}OU 94} OUT] [BUSTS eq} ‘a "(OM ‘G T “3Y) diy 4Jo] oy} JO apOsntM AOKoB oy} ‘OL “XoPaT Oye 944 YALA yoo optsoddo ayy Jo UTHS 04} WOT Xepar aq} JO doUeLoJAaqUT

‘¢ ‘DI

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 739

various reflexes seem to treat the final common path as a unit. The diagram
therefore seems justified in representing the common path, Fc, as a unit.

We have no time to multiply further now the categories of reflexes playing upon
the final common path, rc. I might cite the deep reflex are which arises in the
muscles themselves and is answerable for the mild reflex tonus that even in the
spinal animal maintains the tonic posture of the limb. Or, instead of having taken
ares that arise in the skin of the foot, we might have taken others arising above
the knee, and traced a reflex influence different from the arcs arising in the foot,
but yet playing upon the same final common path; or we might have taken arcs
from the skin of the tail, that inhibit the reflex ; or from the fore feet, or the ears.

There is, however, one instance of action upon this final common path,
FC, which I would quote. Suppose, while the scratch reflex is being elicited from
a point at the shoulder, a second point, say 10 centimetres distant, but also in the
dorsal field of skin, is stimulated. The stimulation at this second point favours the
reaction from the first point. This is well seen when the stimulus at each point is
of subminimal intensity. The two stimuli, though each unable separately to invoke
the reflex, do so when applied both together (fig. 4). This is not due to over-
lapping spread of the feeble currents about the stigmatic poles of the two circuits
used. Mere cocainisation of either of the two skin-points annuls it. Moreover,
it occurs when purely mechanical stimuliare used. It isevident that the arcs from
the two points, e.g. sa and s@ (fig. 1 B), have such a mutual relation that reaction
of one reinforces reaction of the other, as judged by the effect upon the final common
path, xc. Such mutual reinforcement is usual between reflexes of identical species
evoked from one and the same receptive field, e.g. the nociceptive of the foot.

Not for all the arcs arising in the receptive field of the scratch reflex can, in my
experience, this mutual reinforcement be demonstrated. There seems a gradual fall
in reinforcing power as the distance between the receptors of the arcs increases.
In this connection the following point is noteworthy. The scratch reflex
carries the foot broadly toward the place of stimulation. In the spinal dog the
reflex does not succeed in bringing the foot actually to the irritated point, yet
when the irritation is far forward the foot is carried further forward, and when
the irritation is far back the foot is carried further back. A scratch reflex evoked
by a stimulus applied far back and high up in the dorsal skin is therefore not
wholly like a scratch reflex evoked from far forward and low down. Now, the
mutual reinforcement between the scratch reflex arcs in their action on the final
common path, Fc, seems greater the greater the likeness between the reflex
actions they initiate. The coalition between the reflexes gradually decreases as
the interval between their receptive points at the skin surface becomes wider.
Whether coalition fades into mere indifference, or passes over into antagonism, my
observations as yet do not say. But there are various receptive regions of the
body surface that do, in the spinal dog, appear indifferent for the scratch reflex.
Were it not that the nervous system is perforce mutilated in the ‘spinal’ animal,
the number of these indifferent arcs might be fewer. In presence of the arcs of
the great projicient receptors and the brain there can be few receptive points in
the body whose activities are totally indifferent one to another. Correlation of the
activities of arcs from receptive points widely apart is the crowning contribution of
the brain toward the nervous integration of the individual.

In the case before us, then, the final common path—the motor neurone—to the
hip flexor muscle is played upon by various categories of reflex spinal arcs. Of
those mentioned, one category (i), the nociceptive from the leg itself, induces
strong, steady contraction in the muscle. A second (ii), the scalptor or scratching
from the dorsal skin, induces rhythmic contraction in the muscle. <A third (iii),
from the deep structures of the limb itself, induces the mild enduring contraction
known as spinal tonus. A fourth (iv), eg. the nociceptive from the opposite
foot, depresses the activity of the muscle probably by excluding from it the
activity of the other arcs which would excite the final path, the motor neurone.
And there are many more we could trace from various regions of the body ; also,
pyramidal and other influences from brain for which our final path is likewise
common. The arcs within one category may reinforce each other’saction on the.

1904. 3B

738 REPORT— 1904.

common path, but those in separate categories are generally correlated in their
action on their final common path in such a way as to antagonise one another.
They are rivals for possession of their final common path, rivals as retinal points
may be rivals for possession of the visual sensorium.

The extent to which in the nervous system this competition for posses-
sion of the common path obtains is very great. The multiplicity of the conflict
seems extreme. The afferent fibres—that is, private paths—entering the central
organ are much more numerous than are the final common paths, We owe to

Fia, 4.
|
FO
a“
i} 3 y
Ba Sanicusadl is 2 to ec aera
Sp a

Summation effect between the arcs Sa and 8 of fig.1 B. Fc the flexor muscle of the hip. Sa the
signal line marking the period of stimulation of the skin belonging to arc Sa (fig. 1 B) of the
shoulder skin. The strength of stimulus is arranged to be subminimal, so that a reflex response
in FC is not obtained. sf, the signal line marking the period of stimulation, also subminimal,
of a point of shoulder skin § centimetres from Sa. Though the two stimuli applied separately
are each unable to evoke the reflex, when applied contemporaneously they quickly evoke the
reflex. The two arcs Sa and sg therefore reinforce one another in their action on the final
common path Fc. Time in fifths of seconds, Read from left to right.

Donaldson and his pupils enumerations which show that the afferent fibres
entering the human spinal cord three times outnumber the efferent which
leave it. Add the cranial nerves and the so-called optic nerves, and we
may take the. ‘afferent fibres to be five times the greater. The receptor
system bears therefore to the efferent paths a relation like the wide ingress

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 739

of a funnel to its narrow egress. The simile is bettered by supposing that
within the general systemic funnel the conducting paths of each receptor may
be represented as a funnel inverted, so that its wider end is more or less co-
extensive with the whole plane of emergence of the final common paths. All
these private paths converge in the nervous system to the great central organ,
the spinal cord and brain, whence on the other hand all the final common paths
irradiate. This central organ is, to return to our earlier metaphor, a vast network
whose lines follow a certain pattern. But, as we see from the instances cited—
more could be given abundantly, had we time—the pattern is unstable, the details
of connection shift from moment to moment. We might compare the central
organ with a telephone exchange, where from moment to moment the connections
between starting and end points are changed to suit passing requirements. In
order to realise the exchange at work, one has to add to its purely spatial plan the
temporal datum that within certain limits the connections of the lines shift to and
fro. The connections of any entrant path not only offer different degrees of resistance,
but their resistances, both absolutely and relatively, vary from occasion to occasion.
It is not merely that general conditions of nutrition, of blood-supply, &c., affect
these resistances. The functional conductive activity of the nervous organ itself
produces from moment to moment the temporary opening of some connections and
the temporary closing of others. A good example is the ‘reciprocal innervation ’
of antagonistic muscles—when one muscle of the antagonistic couple is thrown into
action the other is thrown out of action. This is only a widely spread special case
of a general principle. The general principle is the mutual interaction of arcs
which embouch upon one and the same common path. Unlike arcs have successive
use, but not simultaneous use of the common path. Like arcs mutually reinforce
each other in their action on the common path, Expressed teleologically, the
common path, although economically subservient for various purposes, is yet used
only for one purpose at a time.

Thus the reaction initiated by one receptor while in progress excludes in
various directions the reactions of other receptors. In this way the motor paths
at any moment accord in a united pattern for harmonious synergy, co-operating
for one effect. In the case of simple antagonistic muscles, and in the instances
of simple spinal reflex arcs, the shifts of pattern of the conductive network
from occasion to occasion are but of small extent. The co-ordination covers
one limb or a pair of limbs. But the same principle extended to the reac-
tions of the great arcs arising in the projicient receptor organs of the head,
e.g. the eye, that deal with wide tracts of musculature as a whole, involves much
further-reaching shift of the conductive pattern. The singleness of action from
moment to moment thus assured is a keystone in the construction of the indi-
vidual whose unity it is the specific office of the nervous system to perfect.
Releasing forces acting cn the brain from moment to moment shut out from
activity whole regions of the nervous system, as they conversely call vast other
regions into play. The interference of unlike arcs and the reinforcement of like
ares seem to lie at the very root of the great psychical process of ‘attention.’ I
will not trench on psychological ral es of the problem.

I have urged that the struggle between dissimilar arcs for mastery over their
final common path takes place in the synaptic field at origin of the final neurones.
Mutual reinforcement by similar arcs seems also referable to the same synaptic
field. As to the nature of the physiological processes involved, little, it appears to
me, can be said, The final common path seems an instrument more or less passive
in the hands of the various arcs that use it. Thus in the scratch reflex one are can
impress one rhythm on it, another another. And in ‘fatigue’ Fc reveals, though it
does not share, the failure of force of the tired are playing onit. In regard to the
reciprocal innervation of antagonistic muscles W. MacDougall has offered a sug-

estion of great interest, for which he obtains support from various sensual reactions,

e suggests that the neurones of an antagonistic pair are so coupled that when one

becomes active it drains energy from its fellow. This takes cognisance of the

significant fact that central inhibition seems always accompanied by heightened

activity at some related spot. Yet at certain times both the antagonists can
3B2

740 REPORT—1904.

show high contemporaneous activity (strychnia, some forms of ‘willed’ action).
I think, rather, that in some way the terminal of that are which for the moment
dominates the final common path, disconnects that path from all terminals dissi-
milar from itself.

Whatever be the nature of the physiological process in the conflict between
the competing reflexes, the issue of that conflict—namely, the determination
of which competing are shall for the time being reign over the final common path—
is largely conditioned by three factors. One of these is the relative intensity of
the stimulation of the rival reflexes. An arc strongly stimulated is ceteris
paribus more likely to capture the common path than one which is excited feebly.
In the spinal dog, retraction equally induced in both legs mutually excludes the
crossed extension of either side, but if unequally induced allows the crossed exten-
sion of the stronger reflex to exclude the weaker reflex altogether. The common
path is probably never out of the grasp of some one or other reflex. Thus, in the
spinal dog even, with its limb apparently at rest, this is true. The final common
path of the extensor of the knee lies, then, in the hands of a tonic reflex arising
in the muscle itself. Given a strong skin stimulus, and it passes under the mastery
of the reflex arising in the stimulated skin; but when that is over, the tonus are
immediately repossesses it, and for a short time, as shown by the knee-jerk, more
strongly than before.

A second main determinant for the issue of the conflict between the rival
reflexes is the functional species of those reflexes. Arcs belonging to species
of receptors which, considered as sense-organs, provoke strongly affective sensation
—e.g. pain, sexual feeling, &c—win the final common path with remarkable
facility. Such reflexes override and set aside with peculiar potency reflexes
belonging to touch organs, muscular sense-organs, &c. As the sensations evoked
by these arcs—e,g. pains—exclude and dominate concurrent sensations in con-
sciousness, so do the reflexes of these arcs prevail in the competition for posses-
sion of the common paths. They seem capable of pre-eminent intensity of action.

A third main factor deciding the conflict between the competing reflexes is
‘fatigue.’ An are under long continuous stimulation of its receptor tends, even
when it holds the common path, to retain its hold less well. Other arcs can then
more readily dispossess it. A stimulus to a fresh arc has, in virtue of its mere
freshness, a better chance of capturing the common path, The common path does
not tire. In the scratch reflex under stimulation of sa, when the motor discharge
becomes slow and irregular from fatigue, it is still perfect for 88, or L, &c.
(Fig. 1, B). This waning of a reflex under long-maintained excitation is one of
the many phenomena that pass in physiology under the name ‘fatigue.’ Its
place of incidence lies at the synapse. It seems a process elaborated and pre-
served in the selective evolution of the neural machinery. It prevents long con-
tinuous possession of a common path by any one reflex of considerable intensity.
It favours the receptors taking turn akout. It helps to ensure serial variety of
reaction. The organism, to be successful in a million-sided environment, must in
its reactions be many-sided. Were it not for such so-called ‘ fatigue,’ an organism
might, in regard to its receptivity, develop an eye, or an ear, ora mouth, or a
hand or leg, but it would hardly develop the marvellous congeries of all those
various sense-organs which it actually does.

But while talking of fatigue in general I forget the fatigue in particular of
listeners. The principle I have tried to outline to you has many and wide appli-
cations ; it seems fruitful for problems of Pathology and Psychology, as well as for
those of Physiology. But I keep you too long. Let me sum up. The reflex arcs
(of the synaptic system) converge in their course so as to impinge upon links
possessed by whole varied groups in common—common paths. This arrangement
culminates in the convergence of many separately arising arcs upon the efferent-
root neurone. This neurone thus forms a final common path for many different
reflex arcs and acts. It is responsive in various rhythm and intensity, and is
relatively unfatigable. Of the different arcs which use it in common, each can
do so exclusively in due succession, but different arcs cannot use it simultaneously,
There is, therefore, interference between the actions of the arcs possessing the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. TAL

common path, some reflexes excluding others and producing inhibitory phenomena,
some reflexes reinforcing others and producing phenomena of ‘bahnung.’
Intensity of stimulation, species of reflex, fatigue, and freshness, all these are
physiological factors influencing this interaction of the arcs—and under patho-
logical conditions there are many others—e.g. ‘shock,’ toxins, &c. Hence
follows successive interchange of the arcs that dominate one and the same final
common path. We commonly hear a muscle—or other effector organ—spoken of
as innervated by a certain nerve; it would be more correct as well as more
luminous to speak of it as innervated by certain receptors; thus, the hip flexor,
now by this piece of skin, now by that, by its own foot, by the opposite fore-foot,
by the labyrinth, by its own muscle-spindles, by the eye, by the ‘motor’ cortex,
&ce. This temporal variability, wanting to the nerve-net system of medusoid and
lower visceral life, in the synaptic system provides the organism with a mechanism
for higher integration. It tits that system to synthesise from a mere collection
of tissues and organs an individual animal. The animal mechanism is thus
given solidarity by this principle which for each effector organ allows and
regulates interchange of the arcs playing upon it, a principle which I would
briefly term that of ‘ the interaction of reflexes about their common path.’

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Reflex and Direct Response to Galvanic and Faradic Currents.
By Professor J. A. MacWILtiAm.

The author’s experiments had proved that eels were remarkably responsive to
electrical currents, a responsive fin movement of a reflex nature being readily
elicited. The negative pole was usually the effective one. Frogs, newts, carp,
&c., gave negative results. After death of the spinal cord much stronger currents
were necessary to evoke any movement, and these were of a different character,
being direct responses of the muscles.

2. On the Metabolism of Arginin. By Professor W. H. Tuompson, I/.D.

If arginin, an important crystalline base obtained by the cleavage of proteids,
is administered to animals, either by injection or with the food, from 80 per cent.
to 90 per cent. of its nitrogen is excreted as urea. In the laboratory only 50 per
cent. of the nitrogen can be split off from arginin as urea, the remainder appearing
as ornithin. Hence in the body the ornithin nitrogen is also converted, largely or
entirely, into urea.

3. On the Relation of Trypsinogen to Trypsin.
Sy Professor E. H. Sraruine, 7.2.8.

Pawlow and his pupils have shown that fresh pancreatic juice, obtained from
a pancreatic fistula, possesses no power of digesting proteids, but that after it has
been acted upon by intestinal juice it gains that power. He concluded that the
intestinal juice contained a ferment (enterokinase) which acted upon the trypsi-
nogen of the fresh pancreatic juice, converting it into trypsin. Against this view
French observers have brought forward another—viz., that the interaction of the
two secretions is analogous to that of the cytases, and that the trypsinogen can
only act upon proteids in the presence of enterokinase. Bayliss and Starling have
studied the action of enterokinase upon trypsinogen, and by observing the rate of
its action have, by finding that it follows the usual laws of ferment action,
brought strong evidence to prove that Pawlow’s view is the correct one, and that
enterokinase is a ‘ferment of ferments.’ They have now further evidence in the
same direction. By injecting rabbits with solutions of enterokinase they found
that an antibody could be produced which, acting upon the enterokinase, was

742 REPORT—1904.

able to inhibit its action upon trypsinogen. Although this in itself could not be
regarded as definite proof, because the facts might bear another interpretation, yet,
taken in conjunction with the former evidence, it was confirmatory of their view.

4. The Effect of Alcohol on the Heart. By Dr. W. E. Dixon.

The author pointed out that much of the literature upon the subject was
valueless, because the experiments had been conducted upon animals already
under the influence of anesthetics. The previous administration of chloroform or
ether entirely abolished the first effects of alcohol. The experiments must, there-
fore, be conducted upon unanzesthetised animals or upon surviving organs. He
proved that the first effect of alcohol upon the pulse was a slight acceleration,
which he thought was due to an irritative effect of peripheral origin. The first
action upon the heart was distinctly a stimulating one, as proved by cardiometer
experiments, The effect upon the peripheral blood-vessels was a dilatation of the
limb vessels, associated with a constriction of the vessels of the splanchnic area.
The effect upon the blood-pressure was a preliminary rise, which was only con-
verted into a fall when considerable doses had been given. If larger doses were
suddenly administered, the effect upon the heart was usually marked inhibition,
which he ascribed to a direct action of the drug upon the cardiac centre.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.

Discussion on Oxidation and Functional Activity. Opened by Sir J. S.
Burpon Sanperson, Bart., F.RS.

In undertaking to open this discussion I do not claim to contribute any
results of my own researches or to speak on any subject ex cathedra, or with any
degree of finality. I propose to state very shortly what seems to me the discuss-
able questions, z.e., those respecting which we have experimental data, and to
submit to the Section those on which we need enlightenment.

The title is ‘Oxidation and Functional Activity.’ May I say that, without
criticising it, I would ask for some latitude as regards the word oxidation? By
oxidation is meant the formation of an oxide. Now we know that in the living
organism oxygen may, and does, act without this happening ; e.g., in those processes
of which the oxygenating of the colouring matter of the blood is the type.

This is so important a distinction that I would suggest to substitute in these
cases the term ‘oxygenation.’ The subject of our discussion would then be rightly
stated as follows: ‘The Relation between Oxygen and the Chemical Processes
which Constitute Animal and Plant Life.’ The older notion of the part played
by oxygen in the chemical processes of life was that it was a destroyer, and not a
maintainer of the chemical energies of the cell. We now recognise that oxygen
may have a doublefunction to perform—first, as an element the presence of which
is essential to the anabolic process by which living matter is built up; and,
secondly, as equally essential to the disintegrative process, which, taking muscular
activity as the type of others, is associated with the performance of function. Of
these two actions, in each of which oxygen is concerned—the constructive and
the destructive—the second is better understood than the first. It can be proved
experimentally that in the living organism muscular work is accomplished by the
transformation of a corresponding amount of chemical energy, however imperfectly
we may understand how this transformation can occur at the temperature of the
body. But as regards the participation of oxygen in the process of restitution, we
are obliged to frame for ourselves a hypothesis and to clothe it in chemical lan-
guage, according to which each elementary function is represented by a specific kind
of living matter, 7.c., by an aggregate of Living molecules, each of which is endowed

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 743

in equal degree with the capacity of discharging the function which it represents.
The difficulty lies in this—that the physiologist finds himself compelled to use
chemical language in a sense which the chemist does not recognise. What we
mean thereby is that the hypothetical living molecule consists of a permanent
part, which is not concerned in the performance of function, and of a collateral
part, which is used, @.c., disintegrated in every transition of the molecule from the
inactive to the active state, to be immediately reconstituted when action ceases.
This notion of restitution is the nutshell in which the difficulty lies. All that we
know about it is that the access of oxygen is an essential condition for its accom-
plishment—oxygen not as an oxidiser, but as a restorer of functional capacity.

I now propose to pass from the general to the particular, é.e., to the considera-
tion of the chemical process of life as it presents itself in particular organs—
namely, first in muscle and in nerve centre, and, secondly, in such glands as have
up to this time been investigated—two groups of structures representing what
Bichat called respectively animal life and organic life. On the general principle
that in all our investigations we should proceed from the known to the unknown,
muscle must be taken first, for its metabolism is more within reach of investiga-
tion and is better understood than that of any other organ.

When oxygen enters the living substance of muscle it is not as an oxidiser,
but as a preparer and builder-up of material ready for explosion. For the muscle
molecule receives two things from the blood, oxygen and oxidisable material ;
but these two do not combine as a mere result of juxtaposition or of encountering
one another. As Ostwald says, ‘Der freie Sauerstoff ist ein sehr trager Stott,’
at the temperature of the body. It cannot be brought into action in the living
organism by a stimulus so long as it is in its free state. It must first become
what Pfiiiger calls ‘intramolecular,’ and thereby change its Trigheit for mobility.
The immediate effect of the access of oxygen is that the living substance of which
it becomes a part becomes more susceptible to mechanical and electrical dis-
turbance—i.c., more excitable than it was before. It requires, so to speak, to be
wound up so as to become capable of discharging its oxidising function when
awakened by a stimulus. Dr. Fletcher’s experiments, to which I will return
later, show that the more perfect this preliminary anabolic process is, the more
complete will be the catalysis.

You will, I think, agree with me that in different stages of the metabolic
process which is associated with muscular function oxygen acts in different ways—
at one time taking part in an integrating process, for which we might, perhaps,
employ the word oxygenation; at another in a process of oxidation, the molecule
in which this occurs retaining its existence notwithstanding the disintegration of
its oxidisable part.

We have now to pass on to the question how oxygen takes part in the
functional activity of the central nervous system. The only part of that system
which is within reach of experimental investigation is the spinal cord. We have
to consider in how far the results of investigations in the cord and in muscle
agree or differ.

Let me say on the threshold that our knowledge is largely due to work
recently done at Jena and Géttingen under the direction of (or in co-operation
with) Professor Verworn. I must first ask your attention to the method.

More than thirty years ago Cohnheim taught us the use of a preparation
which we used to call ‘the salt frog, in which the blood was replaced by
physiological salt solution. He discovered that notwithstanding the defect of
hemoglobin, and consequently of oxygen, the chief functions of life could be
carried on. With much more perfect methods Verworn has followed Cohnheim.
The improvement consists in this—that the circulation is maintained by
mechanical means, so that by varying the rate of flow and the percentage of
oxygen in the liquid the supply of oxygen to the cord can be increased or
diminished at will. The effect produced is judged of by the mechanical
responses to reflex excitation, the indications given by which are rendered more
delicate by the previous administration of a trace of strychnine. The first step
in the experiment is to establish a normal state of things by the circulation of

744 REPORT—1904.

salt solution which has been freely exposed to air or oxygen. Under these con-
ditions the response to stimulation of the surface consists of a succession of brief
tetani, each lasting two or three hundredths of a second. The next step is to
substitute salt solution which has been deprived of oxygen, and to observe that
the reflex centre is gradually paralysed, as indicated by the fact that single
tetani have taken the place of the serial responses, and that on renewing the
supply of oxygen the former state of things is restored; and, finally, that these
changes may be repeated over and over again with the same result.

All of these facts come under the general statement that, while oxygen has
no power of acting as a stimulus, it increases the excitability of the centre,
enabling it when excited to discharge itself so completely that after the discharge
it is wholly incapable of responding. It further shows that oxygen shortens the
time required for restitution to the normal—reintegration following disintegra-
tion—anabolism following catabolism so immediately that they may almost be
considered as simultaneous.

If we compare the behaviour of oxygen in the centre with its behaviour in the
muscle, we shall find that they differ chiefly in one particular—namely, in their
time-relations. In both cases oxygen acts as a predisposing, not as an exciting,
cause of functional activity. In both cases a tertiwm guid is wanted—a liberating
~ or letting-off mechanism; but in the muscle the functional cycle is accomplished
in scarcely more than =; second, whereas in the centre the effect occupies a few
hundredths of a second, and the preparation for it a much longer period. There
is, therefore, no difficulty in understanding why the so-called refractory period
can be so easily observed and measured in the centre (while in the muscle its
presence can only be inferred), a circumstance which is helpful as affording an
additional evidence of the anabolic action of oxygen; for it is easy to show that
the period in question is shortened by supply of oxygen, protracted by its
absence.

We now come to the last point which I am anxious to submit to you—that
of the relation of oxygen to the function of glands. I must begin by saying that
it is in this part of our subject that the crux lies, for the investigation of the
intimate metabolism of glands is beset with difficulties even greater than those of
muscle and spinal cord.

Mr. Barcroft, to whose admirable researches we shall have occasion to refer
repeatedly to-day, found, as the result of his estimate of the oxygen and carbonic
acid yielded by the blood circulating through the submaxillary gland under
different conditions, that this gland takes from the blood much more oxygen when
excited by the chorda tympani than when at rest, no such effect occurring when
the excitation had been rendered ineffectual by the previous administration of
atropine. These observations gave good reason for believing that oxygen pro-
motes the action of the cells, but afforded no evidence that this action is attended
by a corresponding discharge of carbon dioxide. Similarly, Professor Starling,
whose experiments were made with Mr. Barcroft’s co-operation, found that when
the pancreas is made to act by the injection of secretin, a similar want of relation
presented itself between the quantity of oxygen taken in and of carbon dioxide
discharged, Finally, the comparison which has been recently made by Dr. Brodie
(who will, I hope, explain to us his very admirable method) of the state of activity
of the kidneys with the state of rest points to the same conclusion as regards
that organ. When diuresis was produced by the injection of urea, the clearest
evidence was given of the increased demand for oxygen, the intake of which was
very largely increased, but there was no indication that the ultimate products of
oxidation found their way into the blood in quantities proportionate to the
oxygen supplied.

Taking these data as our point of departure, what can we infer from them as
regards the resemblances and differences between the two processes we have been
considering—viz., the functional activity of muscle and nerve centre on the one
hand, that of gland on the other? The odviows contrasts which exist between
secretion, muscular contraction, and reflex innervation need not be dwelt upon ;
the one thing with which we have to do is the nature of the chemical processes

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION I. 745

which are associated with these three forms of activity. If analogies are to be
sought for, it is here they will be found.

I submit to the Section, and particularly’ to those members of it who are
engaged in experimental researches on the subject, that the most important con-
trast between the concomitant chemical processes of gland function and muscle
function consists in this, that whereas the former is not in any marked degree
catabolic, the dominant process in the oxidation which is inseparably associated
with the performance of muscular function zs catabolic. We can readily account
for this by reference to the fact that whereas the processes in muscle and in
reflex centre are excitatory, those in glands are for the most part determined by
stimuli of a very different kind from those that evoke nervous or muscular
action, which last act exclusively as liberators of catabolic processes which are
waiting to be discharged.

We have long been accustomed to regard the process by which, in muscle,
chemical is translated into mechanical energy as explosive and instantaneous,
and to take the end result—the discharge of carbon dioxide—as the necessary
concomitant of the production of heat and work; but, as I remarked before,
Dr. Fletcher recently published experiments which seem to show that for the
attainment of this ultimate result it is essential that the muscle should be
abundantly supplied with oxygen, in failure of which the oxidation process may
stop short before its completion. I trust that we shall have the advantage of
hearing to-day the further results of his researches, and particularly that he will
give us information as to the relation between efficiency of contraction and the
degree of completeness of the oxidation process.

In conclusion, the questions which present themselves are :—

(1) Whether it may be generally stated that the oxygen which is conveyed
to the living matter of the tissues by the blood zs stored as ‘intramolecular
oxygen’ until it ts required for the performance of catabolic functions, and, if so,
what is the chemical relation between the stored oxygen and the living molecules
by which it is held? In submitting this question I must again ask that the use
of the term ‘living molecule’ may be condoned.

(2) Whether it may be assumed that every disintegrative process con-
ditionates a subsequent integrative process, by which the status quo is restored in
the same living molecule ; if so, does the anabolic effect which in muscle follows
the change of form constitute as much a part of the response to stimulation as
the catabolic etfect which precedes the change of form? Can this be said of the
chemical process which is associated with functional activity in gland?

Dr. W. M. Fletcher pointed out that in the muscle cell only the catabolic
processes had been effectively studied, and that these are characteristic of the
special material giving energy for contraction—a material probably without
analogue in the gland cell. The classical conceptions, due to Pfliiger and to
Hermann, of this material as a highly oxygenated substance breaking down,
whether rapidly as in contraction, or slowly as in survival periods, by inevitable
stages to the ultimate stages of carbonic acid and water, irrespective of a contem-
porary supply of oxygen, were discussed and compared with the views of Verworn.
It was urged that while a preliminary oxygenation of the living molecule may be
admitted on wide grounds as the condition of irritability, such a conception by no
means precludes the idea of additional oxidative processes occurring at some stage
or stages of the catabolic disintegration. Disintegration effected under anaérobic
conditions might, on this view, stop short of its normal end products, these being
replaced by representatives of earlier stages in the breakdown. Evidence in this
direction has been got from three main classes of experiment. In the case of
excised muscle, Dr. Fletcher’s observations of the relation of oxygen supply to
the yield of carbonic acid in rest and in activity, and to the onset of fatigue and
of rigor, were described, and held to be incompatible with the view that the
entrance of oxygen conditioned the lability of the molecule without further
influence upon the subsequent course of catabolism. A second class of evidence
was derived from the work of Chauveau and Kauffman, Ludwig and his pupils,
Minot and others, upon the respiration of muscles with artificial circulation, An

746 REPORT—1904.

increased yield of carbonic acid due to activity was claimed or denied by these
observers strikingly in proportion to the success with which the artificial circula-
tion had been made to reproduce the normal. A third and large body of evidence
is supplied by observers like Araki, Geppert, Meyer, and others, who have studied
the results of muscular contraction with normal circulation, but under conditions
of deficient oxidation. Anaérobic conditions always appear to diminish the
amount of carbonic acid expired, while increasing the amount of acid products in
the tissues, the blood, or the excreta.
The following letter from Professor Zuntz was read :—

‘Berlin, August 1, 1904.

‘Dear Sir,—I put off answering your letter of July 11 till to-day, because I
was always hoping to be able to arrange to come to the meeting. Now I must,
however, quite definitely give up all hope of this pleasure.

‘I should like, however, to take the liberty of making some remarks on the
questions, which I herewith return. Would you please read at the meeting just
so many of these remarks as you think a propos ?

‘In the case of Nos. 1-4 I should like to suggest the following question. Is
one justified in drawing a hard line between the anabolic and the katabolic pro-
cesses on theoretical grounds? Would it not be more correct to take Pfliiger’s
view (“ Ueber die physiologische Verbrennung in den lebenden Organismen,” P/.
Arch. x.), and regard that process as the normal one, in which every katabolically
decomposed molecule is at the very moment of decomposition anabolically rege-
nerated by taking up oxygen and oxidisable groups? In this case one would
regard the katabolic processes, which render the molecular structure less stable
and give rise to free affinities, as the factor which inaugurates and makes possible
normal anabolism. In this connection, however, the fact remains that anabolism
can also take place later on if an element, such as oxygen, necessary to the
building up of the molecule, should be wanting at the time that the katabolic
processes occur. It is, accordingly, a subject for investigationto decide whether
subsequent regenerative processes occurring in the above manner take place as
easily as normal assimilation occurring at the same time as the breaking down
of the molecule, or whether they use up more energy if they occur later.

‘I have already some experimental data which would tend to show that
anabolism demands more energy if tt has to take place at a period after the kata-
bolic processes, but I dare not yet give any definite verdict on the question.

‘In the case of 5, I should like to lay stress on the fact that the fundamental
importance of innervation for katabolic processes in muscle is not easy to reconcile
with the assumption that these processes are much affected by enzymes. Neither
does the great influence which the tension of a muscle has on oxidation pro-
cesses in it harmonise with our knowledge of the action of enzymes. In the case
of 7, you will permit me to refer to my observations on working men and animals
which, to some extent in contradiction to many less recent results, have proved
that under normal conditions of nourishment the respiratory quotient remains
the same for rest and for work; a fact which tends to show that the same foods
also are oxidised in the same way in both cases. (Compare ‘ Untersuchungen
iiber den Stoffwechsel des Pferdes,’ Berlin, 1898; ‘Studien zur Physiologie des
Marsches,’ Berlin, 1901. Pfliiger’s Arch. 83, Heft 10-12.

‘Part of the above I wrote as Question 8 on the enclosed sheet.

‘ With sincerest greetings, I am, yours truly,
‘N. Zunrz.

Questions referred to in the above Letter.

Is the anabolic process accompanied by absorption of oxygen?
Is the anabolic process accompanied by evolution of CO, ?

Is the katabolic process accompanied by absorption of oxygen?
Is the katabolic process accompanied by evolution of CO, ?

. How far is either of these processes the work of an oxidase ?

Our oo bor

. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 747

6. To what extent are the respiratory phenomena of living tissues the same
for all organs?

7. Are the respiratory processes of organs during activity different in kind, or
only in degree, from those of resting organs ?

8. [Does the anabolic process require a special amount of energy when it is
not connected with the katabolic process? (Zunt1z.)]

9. [Is there a difference between different carbohydrates with regard to their
immediate action upon the metabolism, and does the condition of the body, viz.,
the amount of glycogen stored up in the body, account for this action?
(JOHANNSON.) |

Professor T. G. Brodie described the results obtained in experiments, con-
ducted in conjunction with Mr. Barcroft, upon the gaseous exchanges in the kidneys
under the different conditions of rest and activity. In all cases they had found
that the amount of oxygen taken in by a kidney which was made to secrete urine
actively was greatly in excess of that absorbed by a resting kidney, while, on the
other hand, the quantity of carbonic acid eliminated showed far slighter varia-
tions. In the greater number of their experiments they had found that the kidney
at rest eliminated a greater volume of carbonic acid than it absorbed of oxygen.
Their results thus indicated that the performance of work by the kidney was
accompanied by an approximately proportional increase in the intake of oxygen,
while the output of carbonic acid, although increased, was usually much less in
amount. From the fact that the carbonic acid output was often in excess of the
oxygen intake, it would seem that the final metabolic change, as evidenced by
the carbonic acid output, was a more gradual process, though the results they had
obtained, up to the present, did not warrant the conclusion that the carbonaceous
waste products resulting from the activity of the tissue were confined to carbonic
acid only.

Mr. J. Barcroft, in discussing the metabolism of glands generally, pointed out
that there were three methods which had been used for the investigation of their
gaseous metabolism. In the first an excised organ was kept in an enclosed space,
and the surrounding air analysed. This method had been dealt with by
Mr. Fletcher, who had pointed out that the method shed light on the catabolic
phase of activity only. In the second method the general gaseous exchanges of
the body were watched during states of rest and activity of the organ to be
investigated. This, however, was inapplicable to the glands of the body on
account of their small size. The third method was that of measuring the blood
gases, combined with an estimation of the rate of flow of blood through the

land.

“i Three glands have been studied by this method up to the present—the sub-
maxillary, the pancreas, andthe kidney. In the submaxillary gland the problem
was very complicated, since the blood became concentrated, losing 4 tenth of its
water, or even more, and a considerable quantity of the carbonic acid left the gland
in the secretion. After due allowance had been made for these disturbing
factors, it appeared that the O intake and the CO, output were increased from
three- to four-fold during stimulation of the chorda tympani nerve. As to how
far these changes might be due to concomitant vascular changes was studied by
examining the gaseous exchanges of an atropinised gland during stimulation of
the chorda. It was found that this led to no increase in the amounts of O
withdrawn, though an increased output of CO, was observed.

In the pancreas, which had been studied in conjunction with Professor
Starling, there was often no increased flow of blood synchronously with a secre-
tion following an injection of secretin. They invariably found an increased
absorption of O. Usually this increase was considerable: thus, from eight com-
parisons the mean quantity of O taken up by the resting gland was 1°65 c.c. per
minute, and by the active gland 5°65 c.c. per minute. These results were entirely
in harmony with those brought forward by Professor Brodie for the kidney.

It seemed, then, that glandular activity was accompanied by a large and
instantaneous consumption of O, but that it was not necessarily accompanied by
an increased CO, output.

748 REPORT—1904.

Another point indicated was the magnitude of the gaseous metabolism ot
glands. In the submaxillary and in the pancreas, when at rest, about 0-025 c.c.
to 0:035 c.c. of O per minute per gram of gland substance was absorbed. In the
kidney, Professor Brodie had given one instance in which the organ was using as
much as one-fifth of the total quantity of O taken in by the lungs, and it was
common to find the O consumption of the kidney during diuresis to amount to
one-tenth of the total taken by the whole body.

Professor T. Clifford Allbutt suggested that the theories advanced as to the
part played by oxygen offered some explanation of the fact, often experienced
clinically, that the administration of oxygen gave relief to patients not only in
cases where the heart and lungs were affected, but in many others also. He had
long since given up the idea that oxygen was effective in these cases simply on
account of the more favourable conditions under which the respiratory functions
were placed. This was evidenced, for instance, by the tenacity with which the
patients adhered to the treatment; for example, in cases of the vomiting of preg-
nancy, where its administration was often of great service.

Sir John Burdon Sanderson, in bringing the discussion to a close, remarked
that it had been an exceedingly fruitful one, and none the less so because the
points under discussion had not been settled, but were still under investigation.
It seemed clear to him that oxygen played two parts in metabolic processes, one
of which was prominent in muscle, and was responsible for the final oxidation of
explosive material, while the other, which was more accentuated in glands, was
akin to a building-up process, as it was involved in the elaboration of new
material.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 20.

The following Papers were read :—
1. Lhe Spread of Plague. By Dr. E. H. Hanxry,

In accordance with our views on the origin of epidemics it is necessary to
believe that the plague which appeared in Bombay in the autumn of 1896 was
derived from some previously infected locality. Two such localities have been
suggested. The most obvious suggestion is to the effect that it was derived from
Hong Kong, which town had been the seat of a serious epidemic in 1894, and
which in 1896 remained still infected. An alternative suggestion was put for-
ward, in the Report of the German Plague Commission, to the effect that it was
derived from Garhwal. The suggestion was to some extent substantiated
by the fact mentioned in the Report in question that two thousand fakirs from
Garhwal had arrived in Bombay, on their way to a pilgrimage at Nassik, shortly
before the appearance of the disease. Plague is endemic in Garhwal (a district in the
Himalaya Mountains), and this locality is, therefore, a possible source of infection.
By conversation with a fakir who had attended the Nassik festival Mr. Hankin
learnt that the Garhwal fakirs only visit Western India on occasions when the
Nassik festival is being held. This festival is held regularly at twelve-yearly
intervals.

It occurred to Mr. Hankin that if Garhwal was the source of the Bombay
plague, by means of fakirs, it might also be the source of previous epidemics of
plague in Western India. On counting backwards from 1896 by twelve-yearly
intervals, one arrives at 1836, the date of the Pali plague, and at 1812, the date of
the Gujerat plague. That is to say, of the eight occasions on which these fakirs
visited Western India during the nineteenth century, on no less than three an
outbreak of plague appeared. This fact may be regarded as strongly substantiating
the suggestion of the German Plague Commission as to the origin of the Bombay
outbreak. Further, it is stated by Forbes that the Pali plague originated in a
village a few miles distant from the town of Pali shortly after the arrival of some
wandering fakirs, and that it was preceded by a mortality among the rats. It

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 749

was pointed out that these three plagues of Western India had certain characters
in common in which they differed from the majority of plagues in other parts of
the world. First, they were characterised by their greater intensity and persist-
ence; secondly, during the greater part of their course, at all events, they showed
more virulence in villages than in towns; thirdly, they spread over the affected
country, like a wave, from village to village, and showed but little tendency to
travel along trade routes; fourthly, in each of the outbreaks the pneumonic form
of the disease was frequently observed. The fact that these outbreaks resembled
each other, and differed in general from outbreaks elsewhere, in the above
characters accords with the idea that they have a common origin. One apparent
exception, however, which is of great importance, must be described. This is the
black death. So far as evidence goes this outbreak was distinguished by each of
the characters that have been ascribed to Indian plagues. In order, therefore, to
be able to hold that Indian plague is of Garhwal origin it is necessary to show that
the black death may possibly have been derived from the same source.

The black death is known to have been imported into Europe from the town
of Caffa, in the Crimea, where the Tartar army had been besieging some Italian
merchants. According to an Arab historian, Aboel Mahasin, the plague was
brought to the Tartar army from Tartary, where it was present in the year 1346,
if not earlier. At that period trade in horses and merchandise existed between
India and Tartary. It is therefore necessary to investigate whether a Nassik
festival occurred shortly before that time, and whether it was accompanied by an
outbreak of pestilence. At first sight a study of Indian history appeared to
negative the suggestion. It is stated, however, in Elphinstone’s ‘ History of
India’ that a rebellion broke out in Ma’bar in 1341, and that the army sent to
suppress it was destroyed by plague. It appeared desirable to investigate this
statement in detail. Counting back by twelve-yearly intervals, we arrive at 1344
as the year of a Nassik festival. In view of the great antiquity of Indian religious
festivals, we are safe in assuming that in that year a number of fakirs emerged
from Garhwal on their way to the sacred shrine. Ma’bar is situated on the
Coromandel coast, on the Madras side of India, and one would expect that the
army of the Emperor of Delhi would not march anywhere near to Nassik. But a
contemporary history dealing with the conquest of Ma’bar, some thirty-five years
previously, describes minutely the route then followed by the army. It appears
to have lain through, or near, Nassik, and the soldiers must have marched
along the same route as the fakirs forall the first part of their journey. It is
further recorded that when the army was destroyed by pestilence the Emperor
himself was attacked, and that when suffering from the disease he halted at
Deogiri, a town close to Nassik. It appears from a contemporary history that the
army originally sent in 1841 was insufficient for its purpose; that the Emperor
returned for reinforcements at a time when a famine was raging in Delhi, and
that it was these reinforcements that were destroyed by the pestilence. The date
of the famine is given as 1344. This is also given as the date at which the cam-
paign terminated, and at which the rebels recovered their independence. Thus
we have evidence that a plague broke out near Nassik in the year 1344, at a time
when Garhwal fakirs were present, and it is obvious that this plague may have
been carried to Tartary in time to have been the precursor of the black death,
which is first known to have been present there in the year 1346. Other sugges-
tions as to the origin of the black death, as, for instance, that it came from China,
or from the supposed endemic area in Mesopotamia, or from the then existing
endemic area of the Levant, if not contradicted by known facts, are at least
unsupported by any positive evidence.

2. Observations on the Senses of the Todas. By W.H. R. Rivers, UD.

The observations on the senses of the Todas were made by methcds similar to
those employed in the work of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to
Torres Straits, The results are in general confirmatory of the main conclusions

750 REPORT—1904.

reached by that expedition. The observations on Papuan and Toda seem to
show that there is no marked difference between uncivilised and civilised races
in purely sensory powers, Any superiority in the sensory and perceptual feats of
the savage is probably due to his powers of observation and of drawing inferences
based on familiarity with his surroundings.

When there are differences between Papuan, Toda, and European, the Toda
occupies in general an intermediate position between the Papuan and European,
just as he occupies an intermediate position between them in intellectual and
cultural development.

The only striking feature which marks oft the Toda from the others is the
great frequency of colour-blindness. Whereas this condition is absent or very
rare in some savage races, the proportion of colour-blind individuals amounts to
12°8 per cent. among Toda males, as compared with about 4 per cent. in European
races,

3. Recent Development of Helmholtz’s Theory of Hearing.
By Dr. C. 8. Myzrs.

Dr. Myers alluded in the first place to Ebbinghaus’s conception of an inter-
nodal vibration of the basilar fibres, and showed its value in providing a theo-
retical basis for the degree of relationship between the various musical intervals.
Next he referred to the discovery of intertones (Zwischentone) by Stumpf, and to
their importance in determining the number of adjacent basilar fibres thrown into
vibration by any simple tone, and in modifying the principle of specific nervous
energy as applied to the ear. Schiifer’s theory of the origin of subjective com-
bination-tones was then described, and the difference between objective and sub-
jective combination-tones was discussed. Lastly, he showed the great.value of
Helmholtz’s theory in best explaining the known pathological phenomena of
hearing, and suggested that the hair-cells rather than the basilar fibres might be
the sympathetically vibrating end-organs. Such a modification involved the
application of altered physical considerations to the organ of Corti, but appeared
more rational and less difficult on the whole.

4. Experimental Investigations on Memory. The Localisation of Remote
Memories. By Dr. N. Vascutpr.

I have been engaged for several years in studying the mechanism of memory,
and have tried several times to settle certain points in the psychology of this
phenomenon, which is apparently so simple, but in reality just as complicated as
the most complicated elements of thought. My researches date from 1896.
This time I shall try to determine the origin of remote memories and their
localisation.

My researches have been carried out on children, on normal subjects, and on a
large number of people suffering from psychic ailments. I employed the usual
methods for the determination of memory. In a first series of experiments I tried
to make the subjects under investigation learn either verbally or visually a given
number of syllables, of words, of phrases, &c., and in a second series I tried to
present to them scenes or objects, &c., or to make them be present at scenes or in
situations either accidental or premeditated. Then at more and more remote
epochs of time I proceeded to ask the subjects what they remembered of the
facts, and how they recalled them. In certain cases the subjects were conscious
of the effort which they were making, and they were asked to pay great attention
to their memory, because some time later they would be asked to recall things.
Next I tried asking a certain number of other subjects how they recalled and by
what mechanism they localised their memory of known social and historical facts,
in order to see the mechanism of localisation of certain memories which we may
have together at more or less remote epochs, which I wrote down definitely at
the time on account of my experiments. I may add, in conclusion, about record-

aT

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 7ol

ing and technique, that I analysed my own memories, and I tried to make clear
to myself the question of the memories of childhood, a little fogged by the re-
searches made on them.

The result of my researches seems to be that the localisation of remote or
mediate memories—in other words, the processes of localisation, whilst taking
account of conservation, reproduction, and recollection, elements of the memory—
and also of the association of ideas, are carried out to a certain extent in 4 way
slightly different from the processes of immediate localisation.

Direct localisation—that is to say, the proceeding which consists in fixing the
place of a word in a series, the place of an event or of a fact, the place being
assigned according to the knowledge of the memory itself, and without other
motive than memory—plays a more important part and, at all events, a more
certain one than in immediate localisations. There appears to be a close and
intimate relation between memorising, between the fixing of memory and the
reproduction at a remote epoch ; the intensity of that image has made it appear
spontaneously without the memory intervening or the association of ideas
classifying it.

Localisation by association is apparently the most utilised by the subjects, but
its results contradict one another: they form the basis of great discussions, and
guide minds at least towards analogous trains of thought, especially on account of
the elements connected together by circumstances and of neighbouring situations,
so to speak. The landmarks are not clearly defined, but they are very numerous.

Mediate localisation without association plays an important part; the subject
uses definite fixed landmarks, which fall into order in his mind without having
recourse to association.

The localisation by the association of a feeling is to be noticed in the most
remote memories, when the landmarks are not distinct and when the feel-
ing of the intensity of the image is dulled, and, at most, like a subservient
phenomenon, but always indefinite, utilised, however, as a directing idea.

To this mode of localisation can be opposed localisation by recollection ; reason
then comes in, and a long deliberation occurs which takes up all the attention of
the subject. These are in our case @ posteriori distinctions ; there may be mistakes,
and inquiries into the first recollections of childhood may form an exception.
Localisation by reason is the only conscious form; it must be imposed on the
attention of the subjects as a means of investigation, because, as I have already
said, the processes of localisation are based on reason. The subject looks for his
landmarks, he knows how to manipulate his images, and, above all, he tries to
take advantage of this recollection and of the examination of his mind,

In one word, briefly to recapitulate my researches, remote and mediate
memories are localised in time and space according to the same processes as imme-
diate localisation, but with a slightly different mechanism, Memory and association
of ideas play a secondary part, and the discovery of good landmarks is dictated
principally by reason. Thus we have the existence of a spontaneous automatic
cerebral localisation resulting from latent qualities and subservient to thought,
which localisation acts and exists independently of images. The mechanism is
certainly extremely complex, and I propose to discuss this subject in a work
on memory.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.

Discussion on Conduction and Structure in the Nerve-are and

Nerve Cell.

Professor J. N. Langley, in opening this discussion, said that he restricted
himself to a consideration of the general scheme of structure and arrangement of
the nervous system in vertebrates, and the broad relation of this scheme to nervous

752 REPORT—1904.

functions. At present there are two main ideas of structure, one often called the
neurone theory, according to which the nervous system is made up of a multitude
of neurones or cells which have no connection with one another, and the fibrillar
theory, according to which the nervous conducting part consists of minute fibrils
joined together here and there into a network. Professor Langley argued that
whatever view is taken of the structure of the nervous system, the facts of de-
generation of nerves show that it is made up of a number of trophic units, and that
the theory of trophic units held whether the unit consisted of one or of a hundred
cells, and whether the units were in continuity with one another or only in con-
tiguity.

< Assent point which seemed certain was that the properties of the central
nervous system required for their explanation some structure not present in the
peripheral nerves. This structure might be, in part, the nerve-endings of the
trophic units, but in part it must be referred to the nerve-cells, which, in fact,
consisted of different protoplasm from that of either nerve fibres or nerve-endings.

If the fibrillar theory were true, there were facts which showed that the fibrils
must be different in different parts of their course. This was illustrated by the
action of nicotine and of other poisons on the different parts of the nervous system.
With this modification the fibrillar theory simply transferred to a part of the cell
functions which were commonly supposed to belong to the whole. But it could
not be regarded as certain that there were any fibrils at all in the nerve cell, for
the microscopic appearances varied considerably according to the method of pre-

aration.
‘ A point which was much contested was the question whether the trophic units
were continuous with one another or not. This point was not of great physio-
logical importance, but physiological facts were best explained on the assumption
that the units were contiguous but not continuous.

The last point considered was whether the unit consisted of a single cell or of
many cells. The study of the development of nerves had led different observers
to entirely opposite conclusions. Experimentally, the question was of interest in
connection with the regeneration of nerves. Numerous surgeons had found new
nerve fibres in the peripheral ends of cut nerves, but their observations failed to
show that some central connection had not been established. In some recent
experiments made by Professor Langley, in conjunction with Dr. Anderson, it was
found that without a single exception the new fibres had become connected with
the central nervous system. The balance of evidence was, then, against the
occurrence of autogenic regeneration and in favour of the unit consisting of a
single cell.

Dr. A. Hill said that he was entirely prepared to give his approval to the
neurone theory as defined by Professor Langley, but he objected that this was
merely a statement of the cell theory, and did not require the special title given
to it by Waldeyer. He was inclined to think that the more light we gained on
this subject the more should we find that Bethe’s view was correct. Apathy has
shown a network of neuro-fibrille in nerve cells of invertebrates. This network
is easily shown, and is beyond all doubt a structure existing during life. In the
spinal ganglion cells of vertebrates a somewhat similar appearance is obtainable.
Itwas easy to make preparations of vertebrate nerve cells in which fibrille were
indisputably present, but how far this appearance was due to reagents it was
impossible to say ; but there was a strong probability that the net arranged itself
about an existing system of fibrils. The connecting-link appeared to him to be
the ‘thorns,’ and it was a remarkable fact that the spacing of the thorns cor-
responded to the spacing of the pericellular network. Far as we were from being
in a position to form a conclusion on this subject, it was not impossible that
neuro-fibrillz, Golgi’s net, and thorns form a system of conducting fibrils of ex-
treme tenuity and almost infinite complexity.

Professor Graham Kerr gave an account of the results of his researches on
the development of the nerves in Lepidosiren. His first studies on the mode of
growth of the nerves in these animals seemed all in favour of His’s view that the
nerves developed as outgrowths from the spinal system; but more extended

ny

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 753

observations upon embryos in various stages of development led him to the
conclusion that the fibres originated as strands of undifferentiated protoplasm
extending between the neuroblasts of the spinal cord on the one hand and the
developing myotonic cells on the other. At a somewhat later stage fibrille
appeared in these strands, and still later a sheath was formed from mesoblastic
tissue which surrounded and enclosed the group of fibrille. A more doubtful
conclusion which might perhaps be drawn was that the original path was one
along which impulses surged to and fro, and that consequent upon this use the
fibrillary structure was developed as a more convenient substratum for the
maintenance and extension of that function.

Dr. Mann pointed out that nerve cells might be theoretically in one of three
states—viz., separate units, or continuous with one another, or at one time con-
tinuous and at another separate. In all embryos at a certain period the motor
cells in the cord form a syncytium with scattered nuclei, an arrangement which
later on becomes less and less marked, until in most cases the cells form separate
units. Cells not derived from a common mother-cell are never in continuity.
He pointed out that great care was needed in drawing conclusions from any
preparations where such electrolytes as corrosive sublimate were used for pur-
poses of fixation, inasmuch as all coagulation by electrolytes invariably leads to
a very distinct fibrillar appearance. This is much less marked after the use of
such non-electrolytes as osmium tetroxide or formaldehyde free from formic
acid, At present, therefore, we are not in a position to make any assertions as
to the existence or non-existence of fibrils in nerve cells or in tissues,

Dr. W. B. Hardy also directed attention to the treacherous nature of the

evidence of fibres and networks in cells. A fibrillar structure can be produced
from a perfectly homogeneous solution of egg-white by fixing it with the
ordinary reagents and staining it in the usual way. Again, if a concentrated
viscous solution of egg-white be stretched between two points and then treated
with the ordinary fixing reagents, it can be shown that the fibrils produced in it
run longitudinally, and are connected by less prominent ones which run
transversely. These fibrils must, of course, be purely artificial.
_ Dr. H. K. Anderson emphasised the point that, though the neurones might
be physically continuous, yet on the whole they must be trophically discon-
tinuous. Experimenting upon very young animals, he had found that section of
a postganglionic segment led to degenerative changes in the corresponding
preganglionic segment. On the other hand, the converse was not true. As a
further point against the view that the fibrille of a preganglionic segment were
continued down into the postganglionic fibres, he pointed out that Langley had
shown that the mode of termination of the preganglionic fibres in the sympathetic
ganglia was not specific, since an ordinary motor nerve can be made to grow
down to a sympathetic ganglion, and, terminating there in its own specific
manner, could yet establish physiological continuity.

Dr. E. Overton pointed out that it had been proved that the presence of
sodium ions was an essential condition for the physiological activity of both
muscular and nervous tissues; and, in the second place, it had been shown that
both sodium and calcium ions were essential for the proper action of nervous
interconnections, thus tending to prove that some third substance intervened
between the two units—z.e., that there was discontinuity.

Dr. W. MacDougall argued that the fact that motor neurones could not
conduct backwards was the best evidence of discontinuity. Upon the same
hypothesis depended also the simplest explanation of another typical characteristic
of nervous activity—the effect of summation of weak stimuli. Moreover, the
‘law of nerve habit’ was most difficult to explain, except on the assumption that
there is some intermediate structure between successive nerve elements which
offers a resistance to the transmission of impulses—a block, however, which can
be overcome by the action of appropriate stimuli.

Professor Langley, in replying on the whole discussion, suggested, among
other points, that the strands of material described by Dr. Kerr in the develop-
ment of nerve fibres might be simply connecting structures along which the

1904, 30

754 REPORT—1904.

nerve fibrillz, ze. the true nerve-element, grew down from the developing
neuroblast,

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Methods of Artificial Respiration. By Professor E. A. ScuArer, F.2.S.

It is essential that any method of artificial respiration which is to be employed
with the view of resuscitating persons asphyxiated by drowning or otherwise should
be simple in application and capable of producing an efficient exchange between
the lungs and atmosphere. Artificial respiration may require to be performed by
a single individual, and the muscular exertion needed should not he great. The
methods (Silvester and Marshall Hall) which are commonly recommended for use
in this country fulfil none of these conditions. They are troublesome and com-
plicated and require a large amount of muscular exertion on the part of the operator.
In addition to this they are inefficient, z.e., they do not effect a sufficient exchange
of air between the lungs and atmosphere. This should average between 4,000 and
5,000 cubic centimetres per minute. The proof of the first statement is to be
found in the experience of anyone who has tried to perform artificial respiration
by these methods; the proof of the second is contained in the data given in the
table which accompanies this communication. A further convincing proof is to
be found in the fact that it is impossible to maintain the respiratory exchanges of
a normal individual who submits to allow himself to be ‘ respired’ by either of these
methods, z.e., he is unable to refrain from himself actively respiring on account of
the air-exchange being insufficient.

The only method of artificial respiration which is perfectly simple to apply,
and which effects a sufficient exchange of air per minute, is that of intermittent
pressure upon the lower part of the thorax. The introduction of this system,
although it had been suggested by Erichsen and others, is due to Dr. B. Howard
(1869). By Howard’s method the patient in a case of drowning is first turned face
downwards and the back is pressed upon two or three times to force out water from
the lungs, after which he is turned face upwards. The operator is then directed to
grasp the lower part of the chest and to press gradually forward with all his weight
for three seconds, then with a push to jerk himself back and wait three seconds,
repeating this eight to ten times a minute.

This method is simple, can be performed by one operator, and is fairly
efficient so far as air-exchange is concerned (see table). The drawbacks are
(1) that the tongue in the face-up position tends to fall back and block the pas-
sage of air through the pharynx; (2) that there is risk of rupturing the liver (which
is enormously swollen in asphyxia); (3) that there is risk of breaking the ribs if
the operator is heavy and powerful, and if the patient be advanced in years.

These drawbacks are avoided by keeping the patient in the face-down (or
prone) position during the whole operation. The tongue then tends to fall
forwards, and the weight of the operator’s body being communicated through his
hands, which are placed over the lower part of the back (lowest ribs), compresses
the thorax and abdomen in such a way that the pressure is diffused over a con-
siderable area, and is less localised than by the method described by Howard.
This produces greater efficiency and reduces the risk of injury to ribs or viscera to
aminimum., The muscular exertion required is only that needed to swing the
upper part of the body backwards and forwards on the hands about twelve or
thirteen times a minute, the operator kneeling by the side of or across the patient.
The pressure is gradually applied and gradually released. The amount of air
exchanged by this method per minute (see table) is greater than that yielded by
any other which has been tried, and may even exceed the ordinary rate of
exchange of the individual. It is perfectly simple and easy of application by boy,
woman, or man. It ought therefore to be practised in cases in which artificial
He es is required, in preference to methods which are both complicated and
inefficient.

—————

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 75D

Table showing the Amount of Air exchanged per Respiration and per Minute by
various Methods, as well as under Natural Respiration, with the Subject
Supine and Prone :—

Amount of Air per Amount of Air per
Method Raspitedtonh | Minute :
Natural respiration: subject supine . | 489 cub. cent. | 6460 cub. cent.
» 9 a) (yPFOne.,) 422) pris |) 5240 vy
Traction with pressure: subject supine
(Silvester method) . : F : LTS ign sal 39 2280) 55) al
Rolling with pressure (Marshall Hall |
method) . i : : é ‘ 7%, SS 33005 tsa bass
Intermittent pressure: subject supine
(Howard’s method) . a : mall pa hia saree: ADZ0 Ie ah tase
Intermittent pressure: subject pron F DAO sel ais, GTGO7 Tee a5

2. The Necessity of a Lantern Test as the Official Test for Colour
Blindness. By Dr. F. W. EpripGr-GReen.

The author described two cases, both naval lieutenants, which he had
examined. In both instances the men passed the wool test, but failed when
examined by the lantern test. These were selected because both had daily
experience with coloured lights, and not with wools. He concluded that because
a man can sort wools correctly it does not follow that he can distinguish between
coloured lights. In the author’s opinion many varieties of colour blindness may
escape detection by the wool test.

wy

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Protamines. By Professor A. Kosset and H. D. Daxin.

Formerly the current view on the structure of proteids was that the differences
between them were to be regarded as quite superficial. It was thought that the dif-
ferent proteids were, for physiological purposes, interchangeable, so that one might
without serious error substitute one proteid substance for another, Such a view is
no longer tenable, and we have now no right to conclude that the proteid of muscle
is equivalent as a source of energy with proteids derived from milk or from maize.
Their chemical constitutions are different, and as a consequence we must assume
a corresponding difference in their properties. For example, the amount of argi-
nine in different proteids is very different Some of the constituent groups are
not found at all in certain proteids; thus lysin is completely absent from the
proteids of corn and maize, which are soluble in alcohol. There are in addition
proteids in which the number of different groups is very small, as is the case with
the protamines,

In this class we find only four or five out of the seventeen or eighteen atomic

roups which occur in the majority of proteids. On the other hand, in the con-
jugated proteids we have proteids that contain many very remarkable components,
groups of the most diverse kind, which associate themselves with the already
numerous components of the proteid molecule, and so increase the complexity of
the whole.

The protamines offer the simplest relations for investigation. One of these
substances, salmin, which originates from the spermatozoa of salmon, has, when

3c2

756 REPORT—1904.

treated with boiling dilute mineral acids, given us five atomic groups: (1) Urea;
(2) diamidovalerianic acid (combined with urea to form arginine); (3) serine ;
(4) monoamidovalerianic acid; (5) pyrrolidincarboxylic acid. The relative
proportions in which we have found these products of hydrolysis are approximate
as follows:—Ten molecules diamidovalerianic acid, ten molecules urea, two mole-
cules serine, one molecule monoamidovalerianic acid, two molecules pyrrolidin-
carbonic acid. |

The composition of clupein (from the spermatozoa of herring) we have found to
be complicated by the presence of alanine, in addition to the constituents of sal-
mine, so that we have six atomic groups and not only five, as in the case of
salmine.

On the other hand, scombrine, according to recent investigations carried out
with Mr. H. D. Dakin, possesses an even simplercomposition. In addition to urea
and diamidovalerianic acid we find only alanine and pyrrolidincarboxylic acid.

Sturine, derived from the testes of the sturgeon, presents a different combina-
tion. In this protamine two diamido acids are present, namely, diamidovaleri-
anic acid and diamidocaproie acid, the former being combined with urea. To this
complex already consisting of five groups, still another, a heterocyclic group,
histidine, remains to be added.

Among other members of this class of substances, which, however, are as yet
incompletely investigated, are cyclopterine, which, in addition to urea and di-
amidovaleric acid, contains tyrosine and other monoamido acids, also a- and
B-cyprinine, which, so far as they have been examined qualitatively, resemble the
other protamines, but nevertheless offer certain points of difference.

The proteids, in the ordinary sense of the word, differ mainly from the prot-
amines in the increased proportion of monoamido acids, The different groups I
have enumerated, leucine, tyrosine, alanine, serine, diamidocaproic acid, one or
other of which only occurs in certain protamines, are all found combined in the
same proteid molecule, so that the complexity of molecule is extraordinarily great.
This complexity is further increased by the addition of other groups, ey., dibasic
acids, such as aspartic and glutamic acids, which are not present in the protamines,

2. The Metabolism of different Carbohydrates.
By Professor J. E. JoHannson.

Professor Johannson’s experiments dealt with the rate of excretion of carbonic
acid following the administration of various carbohydrates, and were conducted
upon man in a respiration chamber. He first showed that for a particular
‘individual the rate of excretion was practically constant if taken some hours after
a meal, and that this rate did not vary with differences in the previous diet
nor at different periods of the year. Tf, then, an individual is given a quantity of
a particular carbohydrate about eight hours after a meal, the amount of increase
-in CO, excreted is to be assigned to the food given. He showed in this way that
an increase of CO, followed the administration of glucose, saccharose, or levulose,
and that this increase, which amounted on the whole to from 8 per cent. to 20
per cent. of the total carbon given, began within the first half hour and lasted
from two to three hours. The increase persisted longer after saccharose or leyu-
lose than after dextrose, and the total amount was greater. He further showed
that the amount of the CO, surplus was in proportion to the amount of carbo-
hydrate given, if this did not exceed 150 grams. The effect of adose of sugar was
greatly influenced by the previous state of nutrition of the person experimented
upon. Thus, after a fasting period of forty hours the amount of carbon retained
was much greater than after a ten hours’ period. A further point of interest was
that the amount and rate of destruction of the various sugars were not influ-
enced by the performance of work. The two effects were additive, and did not
interfere with one another.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. resi,

3. Some Observations on Blood Pigments. By P. P. Larpiaw, B.A.

Hoppe-Seyler was the first to notice that iron in hemochromogen was unstable
to dilute acids, but his statements were contradicted by other observers.
There is, however, no doubt on the subject, as is very easily demonstrated ; not
only so, but reduced hemoglobin presents the same peculiar instability of iron,
yielding hzematoporphyrin to diluted HCl in the cold without heat. The fact
that oxygen renders the iron stable in oxy-pigments indicates that it is in relation
to the iron.

The instability of the iron in hemochromogen shows that hematoporphyrin is
present in the hematin molecule, and is not a product of intramolecular change.
This is absolutely proved from the fact that hematin may be reformed from
heematoporphyrin.

Tron-free hematoporphyrin is warmed in ammoniacal solution on the water-
bath, and Stokes’ fluid added ; on repeatedly reducing the mixture for an hour or
so, hteemochromogen is formed. The spectroscopic characters are identical in the
natural and artiticial pigments. If pure pigment is used hydrazine hydrate is
required to effect reduction to hemochromogen in both, and in the presence of
blood proteids ammonium sulphide is efficient in both natural and reformed
hematin. ‘The method of synthesis and the percentage of iron render it probable
that hematin does not contain an acetyl group, but that it is a combination
of two hematoporphyrin groups with one of iron.

The incineration tigure for iron appears to be a little less than 1 per cent., iden-
tical with that calculated for acompound of this sort. Compare Nencki’s views on
the point.

Turacin, the naturally occurring pigment in the wing feathers of some of the
plantain eaters, may be obtained from hematoporphyrin by boiling with cupram-
monium solutions.

The spectra and physical characters are identical in natural and artificial pig-
ments; both contain rather more than 7 per cent. of Cu.

A cobalt compound of hematoporphyrin may be obtained by boiling ammo-
niacal solutions of heematoporphyrin and corbaltamine. This substance presents
absorption bands in the same place as oxyhemoglobin, and will reduce to the
spectrum of reduced hemoglobin.

Bilirubin will not form an iron compound on the lines of the above hematin
synthesis, but what I believe to be a copper compound is obtainable by boiling
with cuprammonium solution, a green pigment changing to intense blue-purple
on acidification. This may be used as a test for bile pigment. The solutions in
acid and acid chloroform have characteristic spectra.

4. On the Distribution of Potassium in Animal and Veyetable Cells.
By Professor A. B. Macattum, Ph.D.

The continuation of the investigation on the distribution of potassium in cells
has furnished the following results :—

1. Potassium is never diffused throughout protoplasm, but is always localised,
either in the condition of a solution or in the form of a precipitate in what appears
to be inert material.

2, It is always more abundant in vegetable than in animal protoplasm. The
preponderance in the former is due to the greater accession of the element to
vegetable structures, in solution in sap and other currents, and to the precipitation
in the protoplasm of the potassium so carried which is thus rendered inert.

3. The nucleus is absolutely free from it, and so also are structures of nuclear
origin (heads of spermatozoids, animal and vegetable), as well as the ‘central
body’ of the cyanophyceze, which is regarded by some cytologists as a nucleus.

4, Only one tissue element, the nerve cell and the axis cylinder (the neuron),

758 REPORT—1904.

was found to be wholly free from potassium. The medulla, on the other hand,
may contain considerable quantities of it irregularly distributed, and some may be
found between the axon and the sheath.

5. The protoplasm of smooth muscle fibre is almost free from potassium,
but the doubly refractive substance in the dim bands of striated muscle is rich
in it,

6. The granular zone in ferment-forming cells (pancreas) is rich in potassium,
while the remainder of the cytoplasm is free from it. When the granular area
diminishes through secretion there is apparently a concurrent diminution in the
potassium-holding area.

7. All dead and inert material in a living tissue becomes charged with potas-
sium. This is particularly the case with intercellular material.

8. The intestinal epithelial cells in vertebrates and invertebrates excrete
potassium,

5. Investigations on the Nutrition of Man.
By Professor W. O. ATWATER.

The author gave an account of the inquiry regarding the food and nutrition of
man which is carried out in the United States by authority of Congress. The
work is done by co-operation between the Department of Agriculture and a large
number of universities, experiment stations, and other organisations from Maine
to California. The Federal Government devotes 20,000 dollars (4,000/.) a year
to the enterprise. This is used mainly as aid to research, and is supplemented
by grants of money and other aid from State Governments and other sources.
The inquiry has three aspects—one very practical, another more purely scientific,
and a third educational.

On the practical side, studies are made of the composition, the digestibility,
and the nutritive values of food materials commonly used in the United States.
This is done by chemical analyses and by actual experiments with men. Invyesti-
gations are also made of the kinds, amounts, and costs of the food consumed by
people of different classes and occupations in different parts of the country. The
results throw valuable light upon the physiological, hygienic, and economic
phases of the subject. At the same time experiments are made on various
collateral topics, and thus information of the greatest usefulness is being acquired.

The more abstract scientific researches have to do with the transformations of
matter and energy in the body, and consequently with the fundamental laws of
nutrition. The experiments are made with men by use of the respiration calori-
meter, an apparatus which serves to measure the changes which take place in the
body with different diets and under different conditions, as, for instance, with
physical or mental work or of rest. One very interesting result is the demon-
stration that the law of the conservation of energy obtains in the living body.
Such purely scientific research is difficult and costly, but the speaker insisted
earnestly upon its fundamental importance. These experiments show very
clearly how the demands of the body for energy, for warmth, and work decide the
needs for food. Taken in connection with the practical inquiries, they reveal
much that was previously unknown regarding the uses of food and the adaptation
of diet to health, purse, and welfare.

Numerous illustrations were given of the results of these inquiries. The
average man on average diet digests and utilises about 96 per cent. of the material
and 91 per cent. ofthe energy of his food, the rest being rejected in the excretory
products; but the proportions thus utilised vary with the person, and still more
with the food. The investigations bring out these differences in much detail.

The question of the nutritive values of bread made from ordinary white flour
as compared with the whole wheat meal or brown flour, such as is used to make
‘brown bread,’ was considered. Chemical analysis shows that the bran which is
removed in making the white flour contains considerable quanties of nitrogenous
materials, and also of mineral matters, such as phosphates. A natural inference

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 759

is that when the miller removes the bran he takes out the most valuable part of
the flour, But the analysis in the chemical laboratory is not the same as that in
the human body. The digestive apparatus of man has not the power to utilise
the bran, consequently, when we eat the meal from the whole wheat we digest
the part which makes the white flour and reject most of the ingredients of the
bran. Cattle and sheep can digest the bran; the miller is, therefore, right in
selling the bran for fodder for stock, and the white flour bread for man. This
last statement perhaps requires a slight qualification. A large number of experi-
ments with healthy men show that the nitrogenous, ingredients of the bran
escape digestion when made into bread, so that 1 lb, of white flour furnishes more
digestible material than 1 lb. of the whole wheat meal; but it may be that the
body obtains more phosphates from the whole wheat. This last question is still
under investigation. The present probability, however, is that the chief value of
the bran is as a stimulant to digestion in some cases where peristaltic action or
the secretion of digestive juices is enfeebled.

While Professor Atwater could hardly adopt the vegetarian theory of diet, he
believed that the idea of the need of large amounts of meat is often greatly
exaggerated.

The investigations emphasise the great importance of a liberal diet for people
engaged in muscular labour. They make it clear that in many cases the food of
the poor is inadequate for normal nourishment, and must remain so until they
have larger incomes or cheaper food.

The investigations also bring out clearly the reasons why people with seden-
tary occupations need less food than those with more physical exercise. Mental
labour ditters from muscular labour in requiring much less material and energy
for its support. In general, people with sedentary occupations have the larger,
and those whose labour is manual the smaller, incomes. Thus it comes about
that the well-to-do are apt to be overfed and the poor underfed.

The application of these principles to some of the economic questions of the
day was emphasised. High value was placed upon the inquiries of Mr, Rowntree
regarding the conditions of living of the labouring classes in York. Other in-
vestigations in England and Scotland were referred to, and the statements
of Mr. Charles Booth, in his monumental work on ‘ Life and Labour in London,’
regarding the need of such an inquiry in Great Britain were quoted with
approval.

‘Half the struggle of life is astruggle for food’; half the wages of the bread-
winner are spent on the food for himself and his family, Little regard is paid to
the relation between the real nutritive value of food and its cost. The poor
man’s money is worst spent in the market, the poor man’s food is worst cooked
and served at home; here it is emphatically true that ‘To him that hath shall be
given, nt from him that hath not shall be taken away, even that which

e hath.

The importance of proper diet as an aid to temperance reform was empha-
sised. In countless cases in the United States—and he presumed the same was
true in England—the home diet of the labouring classes is not what it should he,
and the cooking and the serving of the food are the opposite of attractive. It is
not strange that the people take to drink. One place to work against the evil of
alcohol is at the table.

The educational aspect of the subject was also dwelt upon, The Federal and
State Governments which support these inquiries, and the institutions and indi-
viduals who carry them on, lay great stress upon the distribution of the results
among the people at large. Not only are the seule printed in scientific memoirs,
but the practical outcome is condensed in pamphlets and leaflets which the
Government prints literally by the million, and distributes gratuitously. Copies
of these publications were shown. Schools, from the lower grades to the univer-
sities, are introducing the subject into their curricula, and leading educators are
coming to recognise that when such themes are treated in the true scientific spirit
as revelations of natural law, and their significance and their connection with
life and thought are explained, they are valuable both for mental discipline and

760 REPORT—1904.

for daily use. It is not a lowering, but a broadening, of the ideal of education
which thus makes these subjects in the best sense humanistic.

In closing, Professor Atwater urged the importance of such inquiries. He
showed how they were already being actively pursued in the different countries of
the world—in Europe, in Japan, and in the United States—and suggested that the

time had come for the development of the science of the comparative nutrition of
mankind,

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Reports were read:—

1. Motor Localisation in the Lemur. By Dr. W. Pace May and
Professor ELuior SMitH.

In this paper the authors showed the area stimulation of which produced
movements on the opposite side of the body, and demonstrated that the sequence
of representation of movement was in agreement with that of Sherrington and
Griinbaum on the ape. The discussion on the homologies of a small sulcus which
had previously been described as postcentral and precentral, but which is really
central, as Elliot Smith, arguing merely from morphology, pointed out two years
ago, was also cleared up.

The results of localisation in the dog obtained by Elliot Smith and Wilson,
who have shown that the excitable area is limited anteriorly by the crucial sulcus,
were described. This result was in harmony with the histological results of
Cushing.

2. On Descending Thalamus Tracts. By Dr. W. Pace May.

The author discussed the results of previous workers on the optic thalamus,
and described some experiments he had made on this subject. He showed that,
following lesions in the thalamus, certain motor disturbances were produced, and
that descending paths could be traced from the thalamus into the anterior and
lateral columns of the spinal cord. He also showed photographs and specimens of
a descending tract, hitherto undescribed, in the posterior columns of the cervical
and dorsal cord. This extended downwards from the thalamic region, and
occupied a position near the middle line at the anterior end of Goll’s column, In
rare cases fibres could be traced into the lowest portions of the spinal cord.

3. Jowné-ill in Foals. By Professor G. Sims Woopuxan, M.D.

This is an affection of especial importance to horse-breeders, in which, in
addition to certain constitutional symptoms, marked stiffness and swelling make
their appearance in the joints, while at a later stage abscesses form. Investigation
of the cause of this disease proved it to be due to a micro-organism which gained
admittance into the young animal through the cut end of the umbilical cord.
From the practical point of view it was therefore evident that such precautions as
are taken against septic infection in the case of the child at birth should also be
taken in the case of the foal.

4. A Committee of Pathological Research. By Dr. T. 8. P. StRANGEWAYS.

Dr. Strangeways gave an account of a committee of pathological research
which is being founded with the object of investigating some of the more
Important diseases the pathology of which is as yet undetermined. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 761

committee proposes to select some special disease and make an exhaustive study
of it from all sides, a study which will last for two to three years. It is pro-
posed to found a small hospital which shall be devoted entirely to cases of
that disease during its period of study. The committee is to be a comprehensive
one, and include all who will watch the course of the disease, or who will under-
take research work on the subject. These will report to a central body, which
will be responsible for the distribution of the collected facts and literature of
the subject to those actively engaged in the work.

5, The Effect of Chloroform on the Heart. By Professor C, 8. SHER-
RINGTON, JL.D., F.R.S., and Miss 8. C. M. Sowron.

This paper embodied the results of an investigation into the amount of chloro-
form which, when administered to the heart, can dangerously embarrass its
action. For this inquiry the authors had adopted the method, gradually evolved
of recent years, of keeping the excised heart of a mammal alive by perfusing its
blood-vessels with warm nutrient solutions. The heart used by them was that of
the cat. The beating of auricle and ventricle was recorded graphically. The
effect of chloroform was examined by allowing the perfusing fluid—pure saline,
serum, or blood, as the case might be—to be replaced by a similar fluid to which
chloroform in known quantity had been added. When this was done the chloro-
form showed its effect, practically at once, by diminishing the amplitude of the
beat without altering its rate. The amount of the diminution was proportionate,
within limits, to the concentration of the solution of chloroform. When exhi-
bited in saline solution, chloroform showed a depressant action even in a dilution
of 1 part in 150,000 of the saline solution. The full amount of the depression
caused by agiven solution was rapidly reached—e.g., in a minute—and then the
continued administration of that solution caused no further depression, even if
continued for half an hour at a time. That is to say, there is no cumulative
action of the drug detectable in the isolated heart so perfused for a period of
half an hour. On the contrary, there was generally evidence of a slight waning
of the depression as the exhibition of the drug was uninterruptedly maintained.
This tolerance was, however, quite evanescent, for on interrupting the perfusion
with the chloroform solution, and then returning to it, the depression recurred in
its original depth. On discontinuing the perfusion with chloroform solution and
reverting to the chloroform-free fluid, the depression caused by the chloroform—
unless the chloroform solution has been of great concentration—is extremely
rapidly removed, even when the beat of the heart has been for many minutes
practically abolished. This suggests the view that the effect of chloroform on the
cardiac muscle is due to the formation of some easily dissociable compound
between the chloroform and some active constituent of the tissue. It has been
recently urged by Moore and Roaf that this constituent is a proteid, and in
favour of this view is a further fact elicited inthe present inquiry. On comparing
the amount of depression of a chloroform solution of given concentration, in salt
solution on the one hand and in blood on the other, it is found that the effect of
that concentration in blood is much less than it isin salt solution. In other words,
the effect of a chloroform solution of given concentration in blood is only equivalent
to that of a solution barely one-twelfth as concentrated in salt solution. This can be
explained by supposing that the salt solution, though it supports the beat of the
heart, supports it less well than does blood; but the more important part of the
explanation seems to be that the tension of the chloroform in the blood is much
less than in the salt solution. In other words, the difference seems referable to
some constituent of the blood taking up and holding, in arelatively inactive form,
a considerable fraction of the chloroform added to it. The chloroform added
distributes itself in that complex fluid according to a coefticient of partition. It
is only what is left over, freely dissolved in it, which is available for acting on the
heart tissue. Comparative estimations of the depressant effect in blood, serum,

762 REPORT—1904.

and saline solution show that serum is intermediate between the other two, so
that evidently the corpuscles contain, in large measure, a substance that com-
bines with the chloroform.

6. Report on the Metabolism of the Tissues.—See Reports, p. 343.

7. Second Report on the State of Solution of Proteids.
See Reports, p. 341.

8. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors.
See Reports, p. 342.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 763

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section—Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following address :—

On the Perception of the Force of Gravity by Plants.

Wuen [ had the honour of addressing this Association at Cardiff as President
of the mother-section from which ours has sprung by fission—I spoke of the
mechanism of the curvatures commonly known as tropisms. To-day I propose to
summarise the evidence—still far from complete—which may help us to form a
conception of the mechanism of the stimulus which calls forth one of these
movements—namely, geotropism. I have said that the evidence is incomplete,
and perhaps I owe you an apology for devoting the time of this Section to an
unsolved problem. But the making of theories is the romance of research; and 1
may say, in the words of Diana of the Crossways, who indeed spoke of romance,
‘The young who avoid that region escape the title of fool at the cost of a celestial
crown,’ I am prepared for the risk in the hope that in not avoiding the region
of hypothesis I shall at least be able to interest my hearers.

The modern idea of the behaviour of plants to their environment has been the
growth of the last twenty-five years; though, as Pfeffer has shown, it was clearly
stated in 1824 by Dutrochet, who conceived the movements of plants to be
‘ spontaneous ’"—2.e., to be executed at the suggestion of changes in the environment,
not as the direct and necessary result of such changes. I have been in the habit of
expressing the same thought in other words, using the idea of a guide or signal, by
the interpretation of which plants are able to make their way successfully through
the difficulties of their surroundings. Inthe existence of the force of gravity we
have one of the most striking features of the environment, and in the sensitiveness
to gravity which exists in plants we have one of the most widespread cases of
a plant reading a signal and directing its growth in relation to its perception.
I use the word perception not of course to imply consciousness, but as a convenient
form of expression for a form of irritability. It is as though the plant discovered
from its sensitiveness to gravity the line of the earth’s radius, and then chose a
line of growth bearing a certain relation to the vertical line so discovered, either
parallel to it or across it at various angles. This, the reaction or reply to the
stimulus, is, in my judgment, an adaptive act forced on the species by the struggle
for life. This point of view, which, as I regret to think, is not very fashionable,
need not trouble us. We are not concerned with why the plant grows up into the
air or down into the ground; we are only concerned with the question of how the
plant perceives the existence of gravitation. Or, in other words, taking the
reaction for granted, what is the nature of the stimulus? If a plant is beaten
down by wind or by other causes into a horizontal position, what stimulative
change is wrought in the body of the plant by this new posture?

764 REPORT—1904.

It is conceivable in the case of a stem supported by one end and projecting
freely in the air that the unaccustomed state of strain might act as a signal.
The tissues on one side (the upper) are stretched, and they are compressed
below ; this might guide the plant; it might, in fact, have evolved the habit of
rapid growth in the compressed side. This is only given as an illustration, for we
know that the stimulus does not arise in this way, since such a plant, supported
throughout its length, and, therefore, suffering no strain, is geotropically stimu-
lated. The illustration is so far valuable, as it postulates a stimulus produced by
weight, and we know from Knight’s centrifugal experiment that weight is the
governing factor in the conditions. Since we cannot believe that the stimulus
arises from the strain as affecting the geotropic organ as a whole, we must seek
for weight-effects in the individual cells of which the plant is built. We must, in
fact, seek for weight-effects on the ectoplasm! of those cells which are sensitive
to the stimulus of gravity.

If we imagine a plant consisting of a single apogeotropic cell we shall see that
the hydrostatic pressure of the cell-contents might serve as a signal.

As long as the cell is vertical the hydrostatic pressure of the cell-sap upon
the ectoplasm at C (fig. 1) is equal to that at D. But the pressure on the basal
wall, B, differs from that at A (the apical wall) by the weight of the column AB.
If the plant be forced into the horizontal, the pressure at A and B becomes the
same, while the pressure at C no longer equals that at D, but differs by the
weight of the column CD. Here undoubtedly is a possible means by which
the plant could perceive that it was no longer vertical, and would have the
means of distinguishing up from down. So that if it were an apogeotropic plant

Fig. 1.

B

it would need to develop the instinct of relatively accelerated growth on the
side D, on which the pressure is greatest.

What is here roughly sketched is the groundwork of the theory of gravi-
perception” suggested by Pfeffer® and supported by Czapek,* which I shall speak
of as the radial pressure theory, and to which I shall return later.

It is obvious that there is another consideration to be taken into account,
namely, that cells do not contain cell-sap only, but various bodies—nucleus,
chloroplasts, crystals, &c.—and that these bodies, differing in specific gravity from
the cell-sap, will exert pressure on the physically lower or physically higher cell-
walls according as they are heavier or lighter than the cell-sap. Here we have
the possibility of a sense-organ for verticality. As long as the stem is vertical
and the apex upwards the heavy bodies rest on the basal wall, and the plant is
not stimulated to curvature ; but if placed horizontally, so that the heavy bodies
rest on the lateral cell-walls, which are now horizontal, the plant 7s stimulated to
curve. This is known as the statolith theory.

' See Noll’s ingenious reasoning by which he makes it clear that the stationary
ectoplasm, not the flowing eudoplasm, is the seat of stimulation. Noll (88).

* I propose this term in place of geoesthesia, which does not lend itself to the
formation of adjectives, or the hybrid word geoperception. By not using the form
‘geo’ we avoid any necessary connection with geotropism, and may thus use terms
compounded of gravi for phenomena other than those of curvature.

3 Pfeffer (81), ' Czapek (98), (01).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 765

It seems to me quite certain that the stimulus must originate either in the
weight of solid particles or in the weight of the fluid in the cells, or by both these
means together. And for this reason. Take the statolith theory first. There
undoubtedly are heavy bodies in cells; for instance, certain loose, movable starch-
grains. Now, either these starch-grains are specialised to serve the purpose of
graviperception or they are not. If they are so specialised, cadit questio; if they
are not, there still remains this interesting point of view: the starch-erains fall to
the lower end of the cells in which they occur; therefore, shortly before every
geotropic curvature which has taken place since movable starch-grains came into
existence, there has been a striking change in the position of these heavy cell-
contents. Now, if we think of the evolution of geotropism as an adaptive manner
of growth we must conceive plants growing vertically upwards and succeeding in
life, others not so behaving, and consequently failing. There will be a severe
struggle tending to pick out those plants which associated certain curvatures with
certain preceding changes, and therefore it seems to me that, if movable starch-
grains were originally in no way specialised as part of the machinery of eravi-
perception, they would necessarily become an integral part of that machinery,
since the act of geotropism would become adherent to or associated with the
falling of the starch-grains.

This argument must in fairness be applied to any other physical conditions
which constantly precede geotropic curvature; it is therefore not an argument in
favour of the statolith theory alone, but equally for the pressure theory, and
cannot help us to decide between the two points of view.

Are there any general considerations which can help us to decide for or
against the statolith theory? I think there are—namely, (1) analogy with the
graviperceptive organs of animals; (2) the specialisation and distribution of the
falling bodies in plants.

(1) Berthold’ (to whom the credit is due* of having first suggested that
Dehnecke’s falling starch-grains might function as originators of geotropic
reaction) is perhaps somewhat bold in saying that ‘the primary effect of gravity ’
as regards stimulation must depend on the passive sinking of the heavier parts.
Noll, too,’ says that Knight’s experiment depends on weight, and not the weight
of complete parts of the plant-body, but of weight within the irritable structure.
I cannot see that these downright statements are justified on direct evidence, and
I accordingly lay some stress on the support of zoological evidence. It has been
conclusively proved by Kreidl’s* beautiful experiment that in the Crustacean
Palemon the sense of verticality depends on the pressure of heavy bodies on the
inside of cavities now known as statocysts, and formerly believed to be organs
of hearing. The point of the experiment is that when the normal particles are
replaced by fragments of iron the Palemon reacts towards the attraction of a
magnet precisely as it formerly reached towards gravity.

It is unfortunate that Noll’s arguments in favour of the existence of a similar
mechanism in plants were not at once followed by the demonstration of those
easily visible falling bodies, which, in imitation more flattering than accurate, are
called statoliths, after the bodies in the statocysts of animals. Personally I was
convinced by Kreidl, as quoted by Noll, that here was the key to graviperception
in plants. But it was not till the simultaneous appearance of Haberlandt’s® and
Némec’s® papers that my belief became active, and this, I think, was the case with
others. ‘The whole incident is an instance of what my father says somewhere
about the difficulty of analysing the act of belief. I find it impossible to help
believing in the statolith theory, though I own to not being able to give a
good account of the faith that is in me. It isa fair question whether the

! Protoplasmamechanihk, 1886, p. 73. I was directed to this passage by Pfeffer’s
discussion (Pflanzenphysiologie, ed. 2, ii. p. 641).

2 Berthold’s remarks seem not to have received much notice, and it was not till
the publication of Noll’s Heterogene Induction, 1892, that a form of the statolith
theory was at all widely recognised as a possible explanation.

* Heterogene Induction, p. 41. * Kreidl (93).

5 Haberlandt (00). ® Némec (00).

766 REPORT—:1904.

analogy drawn from animals gives any support to the theory for plants. The
study of sense-organs in plants dates, I think, in its modern development, at least,
from my father’s work on root-tips, and on the light-perceiving apices of certain
seedlings. And the work on the subject is all part of the wave of investigation
into adaptations which followed the publication of the ‘ Origin of Species.’ It is
very appropriate that one of the two authors to whom we owe the practical
working out of the statolith theory should also be one of the greatest living
authorities on adaptation in plants. Haberlandt’s work on sense-organs,' especially
on the apparatus for the reception of contact stimuli, is applicable to our present
case, since he has shown that the organs for intensifying the effect of contact are
similar in the two kingdoms. No one supposes that the whisker of a cat and the
sensitive papilla of a plant are phylogenetically connected. It is a case of what
Ray Lankester called homoplastic resemblance. Necessity is the mother of
invention, but invention is not infinitely varied, and the same need has led to
similar apparatus in beings which have little more in common than that both are
living organisms.

But, whether we are or are not affected in our belief by the general argument
from analogy, we cannot neglect the important fact that Kyreidl proves the possi-
bility of gravisensitiveness depending on the possession of statoliths. We must
add to this a very important consideration—namely, that we know from Némec’s
work? that an alteration in the position of the statoliths does stimulate the stato-
cyte.® Such, at least, is, to my mind, the only conclusion to be drawn from the
remarkable accumulation of protoplasm which occurs, for instance, on the basal
wall of a normally vertical cell when that wall is cleared of statoliths by temporary
horizontality. The fact that a visible disturbance in the plasmic contents of the
statocyte follows the disturbance of the starch-grains seems to me a valuable
contribution to the evidence.

There is one other set of facts of sufficiently general interest to find a place in
this section. I mean Haberlandt’s result,’ also independently arrived at by myself,
that when a plant is placed horizontally and rapidly shaken up and down in a
vertical plane the gravistimulus is increased. This is readily comprehensible
on the statolith theory, since we can imagine the starch-grains would give a
greater stimulus if made to vibrate on one of the lateral walls, or if forced into
the protoplasm, as Haberlandt supposes. I do not see that the difference in the
pressure of the cell-sap on the upper and lower walls («e., the lateral walls
morphologically considered) would be increased. It would, I imagine, be
rendered uneven; but the average difference would remain the same. But in
the case of the starch-grains an obvious new feature is introduced by exchanging
a stationary condition for one of movement. And though I speak with hesitation
on such a point, I am inclined to see in Haberlandt’s and my own experiments a
means of distinguishing between the pressure and statolith theories. Noll,° how-
ever, considers that the shaking method is not essentially different from that of
Knight’s experiment, and adds that the result might have been foreseen.

Distribution.

As far as I know, the development of statop/asts® has not been made out. Are
they at first like ordinary immovable amyloplasts; and, if so, by what precise pro-
cess do they become movable? Where the two forms of starch are seen in close
juxtaposition the difference between them is striking, and it is hardly possible
to doubt that these differently situated bodies have different functions. In a seed-
ling Phalaris canariensis the apical part has only falling starch-grains, while
lower down both forms occur. It suggests a corresponding distribution of

! Haberlandt (01). 2 Némec (01, p. 153).

3 Td est, the cells containing statoliths.

4 Haberlandt (03) and F. Darwin (03).

5 Noll (03, p. 131.)

6 T would suggest the word statoplast in place of the cumbersome expression
movable starch-grains.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 767

graviperception; and, as a fact, the seedling is gravisensitive throughout, but is
especially so at the apex. If this is not the meaning of the statoplasts we must
find some other. For instance, are the loose starch-grains connected in an
unknown way with heliotropic sensitiveness, which often has the same distribution
as that of graviperception? Or is the looseness of starch connected in some way
with food storage? Is it to allow of starch being closely packed in part of the
cell, leaving the rest of the space free ?

Again, the most striking general fact about the distribution of falling starch is
its presence in the endodermis.' If we believe that the endodermis is essentially
a tissue of gravisensitive cells we can understand the striking fact that it contains
loose starch only as long as the stem is capable of growth curvature.” Otherwise,
the theories of the function of the endoderm, which have never been very satis-
factory, have the additional burthen of explaining this last-named fact.

According to Haberlandt (00), some monocotyledons whose leaves contain no
starch have falling grains in the endodermis. Némec (01, p. 24) quotes from
Sachs the case of Alliwm cepa, where statoplasts occur in the root-cap, the
endoderm, and punctum of the seedling, and not elsewhere. Then we have
oceurrence of starch in the pulvinus of grasses and not in the rest of the haulm,
Viscum is not geotropic, and has no statoplasts. In the holdfast roots of Hedera
and Maregravia there is no starch, and in Hoya, Pothos, and Ficus the starch is
not movable, and these roots are not geotropic.*

Jost (02) brought forward, as a serious objection to the statolith theory, the fact
that tertiary roots possess statoliths, but are not sensitive to gravitation. This
objection has been overcome by the discovery * that when the primary root is cut
off and a secondary assumes its place and manner of growth, the tertiaries springing
from it are diageotropic, and thus have at least an occasional use for their
statoplasts.

I have shown® that the cotyledon of Setaria and Sorghum is the seat of gravi-
perception, and it is there that the statoplasts are found.® Wiesner (02) was
unable to find statoliths in the perianth-segments of Chivia nobilis, which are
geotropic, nor in those of Chivia miniata, which are not geotropic. Here would
seem to be a serious objection to the statolith theory, but Némec (04, p. 58), on
repeating Wiesner’s observations, finds, on the contrary, a confirmation of his own
views. For movable starch-grains occur in the perianth of C. nobilis, but not in
those of C. miniata. In the case of roots the distribution of the statoplasts is
especially worthy of note. Physiologists have gradually come to believe that my
father’? was right in his view that the organ of graviperception is in the tip of the
root; and it is there—generally in the root-cap—and there only, that statoplasts
are found. But these facts do not entirely harmonise with the statolith theory,
as I shall show later on in the section devoted to experimental evidence. Here
I will only add that the group of statocytes in the root are strongly suggestive
of some special function, and those who deny that they form an organ of

1 See Haberlandt (03) for a description of certain special cases of statocyte
tissue, apparently replacing the endodermis.

2 According to Haberlandt (03, p. 451), it is easy to be deceived in asserting that
the endoderm contains no starch. Thus Fischer failed to find it in outgrown stems
of some plants which possess it when young. Tondera (03) asserts that in certain
Cucurbits the falling starch is only present in the older parts no longer capable of
geotropism. But Miss Pertz, who has examined most of the species investigated by
Tondera, finds statoplasts in the young parts where he failed to find these.
Tondera makes some interesting remarks on the distribution of starch in the
Cucurbits harmonising with Heine’s storehouse theory. It is obviously difficult in
the case of the endoderm to distinguish between starch serving as a reserve and
starch serving as part of the mechanism of perception. I see no reason why the
second function should not be evolved from the first.

3 Haberlandt (03, p. 461). 4 Darwin and Pertz (04).

5 F, Darwin (99).

® According to Némec they occur to some extent in the hypocotyl of Panicum.

7 CO, Darwin (Power of Movement).

768 REPORT—1904.

graviperception must find some other use for them; and this will be no easy task.
I must not omit to mention the ingenious experiments of Piccard (04), which prove
(if they prove anything) that the root-tip is not the seat of the graviperception,
but that this quality is found in even greater perfection in the growing region of
the root. But until the whole of the other experimental evidence is proved to
be illusory, I must suspend judgment on Piccard’s results and treat the question
provisionally from our previous standpoint.

The existence of statoliths in regions which have ceased to be capable of
ordinary geotropic curvature is at first sight a difficulty. Thus Miss Pertz has
found in the pith of the watercress (Nasturtium officinale) the most perfect stato-
plasts, and this in winter, when the capacity for geotropic curvature was probably
absent. Again, she has found movable starch in the xylem elements and in the
cortex of a number of trees. In this case we must remember that, according to
Meischke (99), Jost (01), and Baranetzky (01), woody branches of several years’
growth are capable of geotropic curvature. If so, graviperceptive organs must exist.
We must remember, too, that in the regeneration of cuttings Voéchting (78)
has shown that gravitation has an influence in certain cases; such cuttings must
therefore have organs of graviperception. Or, if this is not granted as necessary,
it seems to me conceivable that falling starch-erains, though made use of, and
in a certain sense specialised, for graviperception, should nevertheless exist and
serve other purposes in the economy of the plant. But this question needs further
detailed work.

Lastly, as part of the general question of distribution, it must be clearly pointed
out that in a large number of plants, such as Algze and Fungi, no statoliths are
known to exist, though their complete absence has not been proved.!’ Here we must
either believe in Noll’s minute and hitherto unseen statoliths or in a different
mechanism, such as hydrostatic pressure. There is no more impossibility in
this state of things than in the presence of statoliths in Palemon and their
absence in higher animals. And I am glad to note that both Pfeffer and Czapek
are not disinclined to believe in the possibility of various forms of graviperception.

Experimental Evidence.

A flaw runs through a great part of the experimental evidence, which may be
illustrated by an experience of my own. I found” that seedlings of Setaria and
Sorghum could be nearly deprived of statoplasts by means of a high temperature,
and, further, that such destarched plants were markedly less geotropic than
normal specimens. Here seemed a proof of the theory; unfortunately, however,
it turned out that the plants. in question were also rendered less heliotropic.
These facts make it impossible to allow Némec’s gypsum experiment to be
convincing. He caused a loss of starch by inclosing roots in plaster of Paris, and
found that they had in great part lost their geotropic power. But he did not
discover whether this loss depended on disappearance of part of the sense-
organ or on general loss of curving power, though he has since (02) made the
interesting observation that roots so treated are capable of hydrotropism. Again,
Némec found in resting seeds of Vicia Faba that the statoliths are undeveloped,
and that they appear synchronously with the power of geotroping. Would not a
similar thing be true of the apheliotropism of Sizapis roots—z.e., might it not be
found that they were not heliotropic until the starch appeared ?

The same objection must be brought against Haberlandt’s otherwise con-
vincing observation * that Zeénwm growing out of doors in late autumn or winter is
both devoid of statoplasts and incapable of geotropism, and that the power of

1 See Némec (Beihefte Bot. Central., B.xvii., 1904, p. 59), where he describes the
cases and the occurrence of statoliths in the mosses and liverworts. Giesenhagen
(01) has described heavy bodies at the tips of the rhizoids of Chara which fall to
the physically lower side.

2 F. Darwin (03).

* Haberlandt (03). It seems, however, that the starchless plants had some helio-
tropic capacity.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 769

curvature returns on bringing the plants indoors, when the starch reappears. The
full value of these experiments cannot be made clear without going into more
detail than is here admissible. They are particularly interesting because, as
Haberlandt remarks, so far as they prove the truth of the statolith theory, they
also disprove the pressure theory. This may also be said of other experiments
mentioned in the present section.

We must, [ think, object on similar grounds to Némec’s observations, sugges-
tive though they are, on the absence of geotropism in certain individual leaves
and roots which, through unknown causes, had no statoliths.?

The same must be said of the above-mentioned experiments of Haberlandt, in
which geotropism is increased by rapid shaking in a vertical plane. I attempted?
to avoid this fault in the similar experiments with a tuning-fork made inde-
pendently, which showed that the effect of vibration in increasing reaction is far
greater in the case of geotropism than in heliotropism,

Haberlandt (00) made the interesting observation that plants deprived of their
endodermis by means of an operation lose the capacity of geotropism. Here, again,
we ought to know how the operation affects sensitiveness other than geotropic ;
and, as Haberlandt grants, it may perhaps he said that the operation is too serious
to allow of the foundation on it of a very convincing argument.

The question how far the statolith theory is applicable to the root is a difficult
one. It involves the old and apparently insoluble difficulty of distinguishing
between the removal of the tip of the root, considered as a perceptive organ,
and the effect of the shock of the operation. The question is, moreover, complicated
by contradictory evidence. According to Czapek, cutting off a small part of the
root-tip, an operation which does not remove the whole of the statoliths, interferes
with geotropism in the same way as does actual amputation.®

Némec, on the other hand, finds evidence for the operation depending on
the removal of the sense-organ ; for according to him the power of geotroping
does not return with the appearance of general symptoms of recovery, such as cell
division and the growth of a callus, but only with the actual reappearance of
statocytes.

Némee’s most recent experiments‘ are confirmatory of this result. He finds
that Lupin roots, from which } mm., 1 mm., and 1} mm. respectively are cut off,
behave differently. ‘The $ mm. lot were clearly geotropic in seven hours, while
no curvature occurred in the others. After a further interval of thirteen hours
the 1 mm, lot had curved. Microscopic examination showed that statoplasts had
appeared in these roots, but not in the 13 mm. lot, which showed no geotropism.
It is particularly interesting that according to Némec the statoplasts appeared in a
new growth which was visible as a slight convexity of the cut surface.°

An experiment by Némec with the roots of V. Faba must also be mentioned.
One millimeter was cut from the tips of each of a number of roots, and they were
all placed horizontally. They were examined after fifteen hours, when considerable
variety in the result of the operation was evident; some of the roots had bent
geotropically, while others were still horizontal. On cutting sections it was found
that the geotropic roots had statoplasts, the horizontal ones none. It may of course
be said that the result depends on the effect of shock lasting longer in some
individual roots, since, as Czapek has well said, the only proof of the disappearance
of shock effect is the act of curving. But since the operation was approximately
the same in all the roots, it is hard to believe in such a malicious coincidence as
that the shock was smaller in all those roots which produced statoplasts. But it
may be said that shock prevented both geotropism and statoplast-formation in
certain roots.

Czapek (02) quotes the experiment of Brunchorst, who found that a circular
cut round the tip, not deep enough to free the terminal part, has the same effect as

' Némec (01). * F. Darwin (03).
§ Czapek’s results (02, p. 118) are in harmony with Rothert’s experiments on the
heliotropism of Setaria, &c. * Nemec (04, pp. 46, 53).

° This agrees, as Némec says, with Wachtel’s (99) result, who found geotropism
returning before the whole tip was regenerated.

1904, 3D

770 REPORT—1904.

amputation. On the other hand, Némec! states that geotropism persists, if the root-
tip is cut half through by two opposite incisions in different planes, so that the
whole of the tissues are divided, and yet the tip is not amputated. Thus four out
of five bean roots treated in this way showed distinct geotropism in 5} hours.
This seems to me a striking result, as showing that the shock of the operation is
not exclusively the decisive element. Némec has, moreover, shown that if geo-
tropic curvature has begun on a normal root, a wound interferes with the amount
of after-eflect, and that the precise nature of the wound is not decisive, and this,
as far as it goes, confirms the assumption that two half-cuts would produce as
much shock as actual amputation.

Czapek* finds that splitting a bean-root longitudinally has the same effect as
decapitation. This would mean that decapitation produces its results by shock
only, since in a split root there is no removal of the tip. I think I was the first to
make use of the splitting of roots in this connection. I wished to show® the
incorrectness of Wiesner's view—viz., that amputation prevents geotropism by
checking growth. In my experiments the split roots were greatly checked in
growth, but curved geotropically, behaving in this respect quite differently from
amputated specimens.

Another striking bit of evidence on Czapek’s side of the question‘ is the fact
that Lupin roots from which ‘3mm. of the tip has been removed, and which,
therefore, contain no statoliths,’ show the remarkable homogentisin reaction which
he has convincingly proved to be a symptom of graviperception. Ozapek adds
that the same is true of roots from which 1 mm. has been removed. It seems to
me that Némec’s reply to this® is of value. He finds that the root-cap in Lupin
is variable in length, but always longer than } mm.; therefore, in the roots from
which } mm. only was removed there should have been some statocyte tissue
remaining. Even after the removal of 1 mm. the root can, according to Némec,
rapidly form statocytes, since the section is in the neighbourhood of the
calyptrogen.°

Némec suggests it to be conceivable that differences of pressure in Ozapek’s
sense may give rise to the homogentisin reaction, while the true act of gravi-
perception is confined to the statoplasts. This is no doubt possible, but I
confess that, if the homogentisin reaction can occur in root-tips which have no
statoliths I should consider it a strong argument in favour of the view that
pressure-difference in Czapek’s sense supplies the machinery of perception in roots.
Czapek also claims that his experiments with bent-glass tubes (Czapek, 95) prove
the graviperceptive region of the root not to be confined to the region of stato-
plasts, since if the root-cap alone isin the vertical branch of the tube, geotropic
curvature is not excluded. Némec (04) has attempted a rejoinder to this objec-
tion ; with what success readers must judge for themselves.

It will be seen that, in my opinion, the balance of evidence is not fatal to the
statolith theory. Czapek, who treats the question in a broad and liberal spirit,
is by no means inclined to deny that statoliths haye a share in graviperception ;
all he claims to prove is that the statoplasts do not supply the whole of the
mechanism. It is not easy for an upholder of the theory to allow this much in
the present stage of the controversy. The best way of testing the theory is by
comparing the distribution of geotropism with that of statoliths; and if we are to
allow, in all cases which are opposed to the statolith theory, that the stimulus
depends on pressure differences in Czapek’s sense, we deprive ourselves of the
best means of proving the truth or falsehood of our theory. Those who uphold
the theory must have the courage of their opinions and finally trust to the facts
of distribution, But further knowledge is necessary before such a judgment can

fairly be made. ‘
y ee (Ol, p. 19). ? Czapek (98, p. 202), and (02, p. 118).
3 F. Darwin (82).
* Czapek (02, p. 468). 5 Némec (04, p. 53).

° He adds that the calyptrogen may in this way have an indirect importance,
and Firtsch’s belief that this tissue was the essential seat of graviperception may
be accounted for.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 77%

Centrifugal Force.

Jost! objects that plants on a centrifugal machine do not behave as the theory
would lead us to expect. Thus he found that certain roots and seedlings showed
geotropic curvature, although the statoplasts were scattered through the cell, not
spread out on the cell-walls furthest from the axis of rotation. Miss Pertz? and
I have repeated some of Jost’s experiments, and have come to an opposite con-
clusion. We find that Setaria does not curve with a centrifugal force of less
than 0:02 g., and this is about the limit for visible displacement of the starch-
grains. As the centrifugal force increases up to 0:04 we get slight amounts of
curvature and slight amounts of starch displacement. The two phenomena
cannot be accurately compared, but so much is clear: that the result of Knight's
experiment is not destructive of the statolith theory, but, on the contrary, is
roughly in harmony with it.

The result of an intermittent stimulus may seem to some a difficulty.
Jost* produced geotropic curvature by placing seedlings in the horizontal and
vertical positions for alternate periods of 34 minutes. With alternate periods of
50” horizontal and 2’ 30” vertical he sometimes failed to get a geotropic curve,
and exposures if less than 50” always failed. It is commonly said that
15-25 minutes are needed for the starch to fall on to horizontal cell-walls, and it
may seem, therefore, that in these experiments neither 3} minutes (nor, a fortior?,
50”) could produce a change of position in the statoliths, and that therefore the
experiment is destructive to the theory. But this would be a wrong conclusion,
for, according to my experience, the falling time of starch is often less than
15 minutes; and even if this were not so there would be no difficulty in under-
standing the above experiments, for, as Jost allows (loc, cit.), and as Némec (02)
has also pointed out, the statoplasts may stimulate the cell without the occurrence
of any visible displacement ; for if the statoplasts do not fall over and spread out
on the horizontal walls there must be a column or heap of starch-grains, whose
height equals the width of the cell, resting on the lateral wall of the cell instead
of, as in the normal position, a shallower layer pressing on the basal wall. Here
we have plain conditions of differentiation between the vertical and horizontal
positions.

The same considerations apply to the whole question of what is known as
the geotropic presentation time*—.e., the minimal period of horizontality needed
to induce a geotropic curvature. It has been said that the presentation time
corresponds with the time needed forthe statoliths to fall on to the horizontal walls
of the sensitive cells. It seems to me that we hardly have knowledge enough
to be certain of this coincidence, and since, as above pointed out, the statoliths
may begin to stimulate before they are visibly displaced, the question is not one of
much interest or deserving of special inquiry.

Theoretical.

Elfving’s® well-known experiment with grass haulms shows that (in this in-
stance) the action of the klinostat depends, not on the prevention of all gravi-
perception, but on the equal distribution of stimulus.6 But other plants react
differently—that is to say, they do not exhibit increased rectilinear growth on the

1 Jost (02).

? Darwin and Pertz (04). By an oversight we omitted to give a reference to
Némec’s (02, p. 347) interesting reply to Jost’s criticism.

* Jost (02), p. 175. See also Czapek (98), p. 206; and Noll (00), p. 462.

4 Czapek (98), p. 183.

° Elfving (84) proved that the pulvini of grass haulms increase in length when
kept in slow rotation on a klinostat.

® My experiments on the germination of Cucurbita demonstrate the same point
(Darwin and Acton, 94). Czapek (02, p 469) shows that the homogentisin
reaction occurs on the klinostat,

“ .
aD2

772 REPORT—1904.

klinostat. This can best be accounted for, as Noll! suggests, by the supposition
that the equally distributed stimulus tends to produce a simultaneous increase and
decrease of growth-rate on opposite sides of the rotating plant.” We, therefore,
get in an indirect way evidence in favour of what has not been directly proved—
namely, that in geotropie curvature the diminution of growth on the concave side
is not the result of compression produced by increased growth on the convex side,
but rather an independent reaction. It is necessary, therefore, to inquire what.
theoretical conclusions may be fairly made as to the stimulation correlated with
such a mechanism of curvature. Noll* uses the term ‘ Reizfeld, or ‘ stimulation-
area,’ to express the regions in which graviperception occurs. The distribution
of these areas is expressed in diagrams which serve as shorthand methods of
recording the geotropic reactions of various organs. All such ways of clarifying
and expressing our ideas of the laws of perception are useful. I must confess that
I do not find Noll’s terminology easy to use, and I prefer to express the same
ideas in terms of the distribution of the pressure of statoliths on the different
parts of the ectoplasm of the gravisensitive cells.

Imagine an apogeotropic shoot placed in the horizontal position as shown in
longitudinal radial section in fig. 2, where C and C’ are the cortical tissues and

Fie. 2.

the seat of motile power; E and i’ the endodermis, the supposed region of gravi-
perception ; M, the central tissues, which do not concern us.

The fact that the statoliths now rest on the horizontal (tangential) walls difter-
entiates the horizontal from the vertical position of stable equilibrium. But what
circumstance is there that can be conceived to originate curvature in one direction
more than another? It can only be that in the endodermis E on the physically upper
side the statoliths rest on the inner tangential wall, whereas in E’ they rest in the
outer wall, This view agrees with Noll’s hypothesis of the arrangement of stimu-
lation-areas, There is no difficulty in believing that the inner and outer
tangential walls have different individualities ; Véchting’s work * on transplantation
seems to indicate that this is the case. And if this analogy with formative
polarity is not allowable, we must still insist that the presumption is in
favour of E and E’ in fig. 2 being in different conditions, since we have certainly
no right to assume that the outer and inner walls are identical in what we have
called their individuality.

It is not here necessary to go into the question whether the radial walls of the
endodermis are or are not sensitive, since the problem of geotropism in its broad
outlines is not concerned with it.°

1 Noll (92. p. 35).

2 We have shown (Darwin and Pertz, 04) that in Se¢aria the statoliths undergo
changes of position on the klinostat, indicating a succession of stimuli, See Heine
(35), who briefly describes similar changes.

3 Noll (92, p. 19),

* Vochting (92, p. 151).

5 See the discussion in Haberlandt (03, p, 467).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 773

The Position of Maximum Stimulation.

This problem involves the question whether an orthotropic organ in the
vertical position is or is not freed from stimulus. We will first take the question
as to the existence of a stimulus in the normal (?.e., not the inverted) position.
One of Pfeffer’s! arguments for the existence of a stimulus is as follows. A root
haying been allowed to curve from the horizontal to the vertical position is placed
on a klinostat, and after a time the curve disappears. It is therefore assumed that
there existed a geotropic stimulus keeping the root curved until the stimulus in
question was rendered inoperative by the klinostat, when the rectipetality of the
root could have free play. But it is not a necessary conclusion that while the
root is strictly vertical any stimulus is acting. If from some internal cause the
root leaves the vertical, the ordinary geotropic curvature depending on the stimula-
tion of the tangential walls will come into action and bring the root back to the
vertical, To translate into the language of the statolith theory, it is not necessary
to assume that the lower walls of the graviperceptive cells are sensitive to the
pressure of the statoliths—the sensitiveness of the tangential walls will suffice. The
experiment above mentioned does not therefore seem to prove that an orthotropic
organ in stable equilibrium is stimulated. But it is quite conceivable that a
stimulus might be originated by the Joss of pressure on the lower wall, for this
would be a well-marked change in the internal condition of the cell, and therefore
might become associated with a reflex. ‘Thus, when an organ is placed
horizontal the stimulus from the pressure of statoliths on the lateral walls (now
horizontal) may be combined with, or in some way influenced by, the loss of
pressure on the terminal wall of the cell which was formerly horizontal. But if
the absence of pressure on a cell-wall acts in this way are we not bound to
consider the pressure (when present) as a stimulus? I think we are, and there-
fore, though I do not think that the particular experiment referred to supplies the
necessary evidence, I hold the lower wall of an orthotropic cell to be sensitive to the
stimulus of statoliths, though such stimulus cannot be of a directive nature,

Since an organ when accurately inverted? and prevented from circumnutating
receives no impulse to curve, it is assumed that the normally upper cell-wall
(which is now below) is not stimulated. According to the statolith theory it is
inconceivable that the organ should curve, since uniform pressure on the hori-
‘eg terminal wall cannot determine the direction in which such curve shall

in.
a But though no directive stimulus seems to be a possible result of uniform pres-
sure on the end-walls, it does not follow that such pressure has no effect. It seems
to me that such a striking change as pressure on a wall which under normal cir-
cumstances does not receive pressure may very well modify the result of the
normal stimulation of the lateral walls of the cell.

Czapek*® has shown that with both stems and roots the gravistimulus is
greater when the organ is removed from the normal vertical position by 185° than
when it deviates from the normal by 45°. In the case of an apogeotropic shoot
the position of the starch in the endoderm is given in fig. 8. The pressure of the
starch on the lateral walls is the same in the two cases. In i., however, the starch
rests partly on the basal wall (B), while in ii. it rests, to the same degree, on the
apical wall (A). On the usual assumption that the basal and apical walls are
insensitive, there is nothing to differentiate i. from ii. I cannot help suspecting
that the pressure on the apical wall does in some way affect the sensitiveness of
the tangential walls. If the pressure on the wall (A) was in itself the decisive

' Pfeffer (93, p. 19). I am only concerned with this special point, not with
Pfeffer’s general argument.

2 In the whole of this discussion the organs are supposed to be supported by
the morphological base.

3 Czapek (95, 1). As doubt has been expressed as to the actual facts, it is worth
while mentioning that Miss Pertz (99) has confirmed his results for the haulms of
grasses, :

774 REPORT—1904.

element we should expect the stimulus to increase as the angle increased—from
135° to nearly 180°—which is not the case. From my point of view we can dimly
understand why 135° should be the position of maximum stimulation. It would
he the result of a compromise, being a position in which the combined pressure on
both lateral and apical walls was as high as possible'—a mean, in fact, between
full pressure on the lateral walls (as in the horizontal position) and full pressure
on the apical walls (as in the vertical position).

If some such theory is not adopted we must imagine with Haberlandt that the
difference between positions i. and ii, depends on the weight of the statoliths in i.
being on the basal half of the lateral wall, and on the apical half in ii. It seems
to me that the difference of sensitiveness in the two regions would have to be very
great, considering that in the horizontal position, in which the gravistimulus is
less than in position ii., the full pressure of a considerable fraction of the total
starch acts on the supposed extra-sensitive region of the cell-wall.

But when all has been said there remains a difficulty with which I do not

Fria. 3.

i, ii.

know how to deal. It is clear that, according to either theory, the critical
position should be the horizontal, and that as the organ is moved further and
further from the normal (in successive experiments) the geotropic reaction ought
to increase decidedly as the horizontal is passed, and this is not the case,

Diageotropism.

The diagram, fig. 2, will serve to represent a diageotropie organ in stable
equilibrium. In spite of the fact that it is at rest in the horizontal position, we must
assume that the tangential (horizontal) walls of the endodermis are sensitive to
the pressure of the statoplasts. For when the organ is placed obliquely it has the
power of returning, by curvature, to the horizontal; and this requires that the.
plant shall distinguish up from down. If its apex is above the horizon it must
curve downwards, 7.c., towards that side on which the statoplasts rest on the
external walls of the endoderm cells, and vice versa if the apex is below the
horizon. But what signal tells the plant that it isnot horizontal? This can only
he effected by the statoplasts pressing on the basal or apical walls, as in fig. 3.

The difficulty is increased by the fact that when a diageotropic organ is fixed
vertically, the apex being up or down,’ no curvature follows. This, according to

' The fact that at angles above 135° the stimulus remains greater than when the
organ is horizontal seems to point to the conclusion that the share of the end
wall in graviperception is relatively great.

* Czapek (98, p. 243). Noll (92, p. 37), had foreseen on theoretical grounds that
this would prove to be the case. See also Noll (00, p. 473).

-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 779

the usual idea, would mean that the terminal walls are not sensitive. But the
walls must be sensitive in some way, or the plant would not react to the gravi-
stimulus, as it undoubtedly does. The only conclusion I can come to is that the
position of the statoliths shown in fig. 3, in which they rest partly on the terminal
wall and partly on the lateral (tangential) wall, must be capable of giving the
combined stimulus,' as above suggested.

Personally I do not attach great importance to the details of how the statoliths
act on the different walls of the cells, although as part of the history of the inquiry
I feel bound to discuss it. The broad fact that the statoliths rest on different parts
of the cell-walls when the geotropic organ is placed at different angles with the
vertical seems to me sufficient. The precise manner in which various reactions
are associated with the position of the statoliths may be confessed to be for the
present beyond our knowledge or powers of imagination, and such confession need
not weaken the position of our theory.

Finally, I desire to say a word on a subject having but a remote connection
with my theme. There is at the present time a tendency to pay an increasing
attention to what is known as rectipetality or autotropism—viz., the inherent
capacity of rectilinear growth. In my Cardiff Address* to Section D I showed
that rectipetality is really part of the phenomena of circumnutation. We must
believe that rectipetality does not merely come into play in those comparatively
crude experimental instances in which a geotropic curvature is flattened out by
means of growth on the klinostat. We must believe that it also corrects curvatures
which arise from the slight irregularity of normal every-day growth. This will imply
that normal growth is built of a series of internal corrections; in other words, of
circumnutation. The point I wish now to emphasise is that the stimuli, be they of
geotropic or any other nature, should be conceived as acting not on a stationary
but on a moving plant—acting, in fact, on the spontaneous correcting power,
whether we call it rectipetality, autotropism, or circumnutation. It is impossible
to say how this consideration might modify our speculations as to the manner of
action of the gravistimulus. It is quite conceivable that it might not alter our
theoretic views at all, but without more knowledge we cannot be certain. My
only point at present is that if we are led into contradictions or confusion by
attempts to analyse what goes on in the gravisensitive region according to the
statolith theory, such a result must not be held to be fatal to the theory until we
know more of the problem.

In conclusion—and to clear our minds of the doubtful speculations in which
I have entangled myself—I should like to reiterate my belief in the general,
though not the universal, applicability of the statolith theory. I find it impossible
to doubt that, in the case of the higher plants, sensitiveness to the pressure of
heavy bodies will be found to be by far the most important, if not the exclusive,
means by which gravity is perceived. We have seen that the stimulus must
depend on weight; and since neither the theory of radial pressure nor Noll’s
supposition of stimulation by small unknown bodies lends itself to experimental
n uiry we are driven, as practical people, to test the views of Haberlandt and

mec.

I base my belief partly on what I have aiready said, namely, that geotropism,
being an adaptive reflex action, must during its development have been correlated,
by that mysterious bond which unites stimulus to reaction, with some change, by
which in the natural course of events it is uniformly preceded, Now the most
obvious change which precedes geotropism is the disturbance of the falling starch-
grains, ‘This fact, together with what we know of the distribution of statoplasts,
would almost force conviction on me. But this is not the whole of the evidence.
We know from Némec’s researches that the protoplasm, in. the cells assumed

1 In Noll’s diagram of the stimulation-areas ina diageotropic organ the obliquely
placed areas seem to suggest a similarity to what is here given [see Noll (92, p. 29)].
But his stimulation areas in which only a single statolith occurs are not strictly
comparable to cells containing numerous statoplasts.,

3 F, Darwin (91),

776 REPORT—1904.

to be sense-organs, is sensitive to the pressure of the statoplasts; and we know
from zoological evidence that heavy bodies resting on a sensitive surface can
function as a sense-organ for gravitation. Finally, the experimental evidence,
though not absolutely convincing, has not revealed any absolute bar to our belief
in the statolith theory, and has brought to light a number of facts harmonising
with it ina remarkable manner. It seems to me that the theory of Némec and
Haberlandt may fairly hold the field until a better theory of graviperception and
a better theory of the function of falling starch-grains are established.

Literature.

Baranetzky, J. (01) . Ueber die Ursachen welche die Richtung der Aeste der
Baum- und Straucharten bedingen. Flora, 89, Bad.
1901 (Ergiinz.-Bd.), p. 138.

Berthold (86) . “ . Studien tiber Protoplasmamechanik, 1886, p. 73.
Czapek, F. (95, 1) . . Untersuchungen tiber Geotropismus, Jahrbticher fiir wiss.
Bot. 27. Bd. 1895, p. 243.
PA (95, 2) . . Ueber die Richtungsursachen der Seitenwurzeln und

einiger anderer plagiotroper Pflanzentheile. Sitzb.
d. k, Akad. d. Wiss, Wien. 104. Bd. 1895, p. 1197.

5 (98) - ot . Weitere Beitriige zur Kenntniss der geotropischen Reiz-
bewegungen, Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. 32. Bd., 1898,
p. 175.

“6 (Ol) tea . Ueber den Vorgang der geotropischen Reizperception in
der Wurzelspitze. Ber. D. Botan. Gesellsch. 19 . Bd.
1901, p. 116.

3 (O02) oer: . Stoffwechselprozesse in der geotropisch gereizten Wuyrzel-
spitze, &c. Ber. D. Bot. Gesellsch. 1902.

Darwin, F. (82). . On the Connection between Geotropism and Growth.

Linn. Soc. Journal (Bot.), vol. xix. 1882, p. 218.

. (91) ‘ . On Growth Curvatures in Plants. Report of the British
Association, 1891, p. 660.

. and Acton . Practical Physiology of Plants. Edit. 1, Cambridge, 1894,
p. 176.

5. (39) . On Geotropism and the Localisation of the Sensitive Region.
Annals of Botany, vol. xiii. 1899, p. 568.

5 (3). . The Statolith Theory of Geotropism. Proc. Royal. Soc.

vol. 71, 1903, p. 362.

3 and Pertz, D. Notes on the Statolith Theory of Geotropism. I. Experi-
ments on the Effect of Centrifugal Force. II. The
Behaviour of Tertiary Roots. Proc. Royal Soc. 73, 1904,

p. 477.
Dehnecke, C. (80) . . Ueber nichtassimilirende Chlorophyll-Kérper (Kéln), 1880.
, Bot. Zeitung, 1880, p. 795.
Elfving, F. (84) . . Ofversigt af Finska Vetenskaps Férhandlingar, 1884.
Giesenhagen, K.(01) . Ueber innere Vorgiinge beider geotropischen Kriimmungen
der Wurzeln von Chara. Ber. D. Botan. Ges. xix, 1901,
p. 277.
Haberlandt, G. (00) . Ueber die Perception des geotropischen Reizes. Ber. D.
Bot. Gesell. 18. Bd. 1900, p. 261.
5 (01) . Sinnesorgane im Pflanzenreich zur Perception mechanischer
Reize. Leipzig (Engelmann), 1901.
- (02) . Ueber die Statolithenfunction der Stiirkekérner. Ber. D.
Botan. Gesellsch., 20. Bd. 1902, p. 189.
4 (03) . Zur Statolithentheorie des Geotropismus. Jahrbiicher
fiir wiss. Bot. 38. Bd. 1903, p. 447.
Heine, H. (85). . Ueber die physiologische Function der Stirkescheide.
Ber. d. Deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, 3. Bd. 1885, p. 189.
Jost, L. (01). : . Ueber einige Eigenthiimlichkeiten des Cambiums der

Biume. Bot. Zeitung (Abt. i.), 1901, p. 1,

Jost, L. (02) .
Kreidl, A. (93)

Meischke, P. (99) .
Miehe, H. (02)

Némec, B. (00)

7 (01)

3 (02)

%» (04)
Noll, F. (88) .
Sako?) .

ae KOO)

Pertz, D. (99).
Piccard, A. (04)

Pfeffer, W. (93)

43 (81) .
Tondera, M. F. (03)
Vochting, H. (78).

a (92) .
Wiesner, J. (02)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 777
Die Perception des Schwerereizes in der Pflanze. Biolog.
Centralblatt, 22. Bd. Mir. 1902, p. 161.

Weitere Beitriige zur Physiologie des Ohrlabyrinthes (ii.).
Versuchean Krebsen. Sitzb.d. Wiener Akad. d. Wissensch.
102. Ba, 1893.

Ueber die Arbeitsleistung bei der geotropische Kriimmung.
Jahrb. fiir wiss. Bot. 33. Bd. 1899, p. 363, 2.

Ueber correlative Beeinflussung des Geotropismus einiger
Gelenkpflanzen. Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. 37. Bd.
1902, p. 527.

Ueber die Art der Wahrnehmung des Schwerkraftreizes
bei den Pflanzen. Ber. D. Botan. Gesellsch, 18. Bd.
1900, p. 241.

Ueber die Wahrnehmung des Schwerkraftreizes bei den
Pflanzen. Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. 36. Bd. 1901.

Die Perception des Schwerkraftreizes bei den Pflanzen.
Ber. D. Botan. Gesellsch. 20. Bd. 1902, p. 339.

Hiniges tiber den Geotropismus der Wurzeln. Beihefte zum
Botanischen Centralblatt, 17. Bd. 1904, p. 45.

Sachs’ Arbeiten, vol. iii. 1888, p. 466.

Ueber Heterogene Induktion, Versuch eines Beitrags zur
Kenntniss der Reizerscheinungen der Pflanzen. Leipzig
(Engelmann), 1892.

Ueber Geotropismus.
1900, p. 457.

Zur Controverse tiber den Geotropismus. Berichte d.
Deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, 20. Bd. 1902, p. 403.

On the Gravitation Stimulus in relation to Position.
Annals of Botany, 1899, p. 620.

Neue Versuche iiber die geotropische Sensibilitét der
Wurzelspitze. Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. 40, Bd. 1904,
p. 94.

Die Reizbarkeit der Pflanzen. Verhandlungend. Gesellschaft
Deutscher Naturforscher u. Aerzte, 1893.

Pflanzenphysiologie, edit. i. 1881, vol. ii. p. 330.

Contributions 4 la connaissance de la gaine d’amidon.
Anzeiger der Akad. d. Wissensch. in Krakau, July
1903, p. 512.

Organbildung im Pflanzenreich, 1878 and 1884.

Ueber Transplantation am Pflanzenk6érper (Tiibingen),
1892.

Studien tiber den Einfluss der Schwerkraft tiber die
Richtung der Pflanzenorgane. Sitzb. der Wiener Akad.
der Wiss. 111. Bd. 1902, p. 733.

Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. 34. Bd.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. A New Type of Sphenophyilaceous Cone from the Lower Coal Measures.
By D. H. Scott, 1/.4., Ph.D., FLRS.

This strobilus was found by My, J. Lomax, jun., in petrified material from
Shore Littleborough, in Lancashire, a locality rich in fossil remains, which has
only recently been opened up through the energy of Mr. Sutcliffe.

_ The specimen, which is incomplete, is about 24 inches in length by half an
inch in diameter. The preservation is good, and a number of excellent sections
have been obtained.

The axis of the cone is traversed by a triarch stele, exactly agreeing in
structure with that of a young stem of Sphenophyllum. The close relation to that
om is confirmed by the division of the appendages into dorsal and ventral
obes.

The cone differs, however, from all known Sphenophyllaceous fructifications

778 REPORT—1904.,

in the fact that, so far as could be ascertained, all its appendages were fertile.
No indication of sterile bracts is met with.

The appendages are only slightly connate at the base; each lobe, whether
dorsal or ventral, divides palmately into several segments, the sporangiophores.
‘The sporangiophore consists of a slender pedicel terminating in a peltate lamina
of somewhat complex structure, bearing two pendulous sporangia. In this respect
the new cone resembles the Bowmanites Rémeri of Solms-Laubach. The structure
of the sporangial wall agrees, on the whole, with that met with in other
Sphenophyllaceous and Calamarian strobili. The spores, so far as observed, are all
of one kind, and are of ellipsoidal form, with longitudinal ridges on the outer
membrane.

The fructification may provisionally bear the name Sphenophyllum fertile.

2. On some New Lagenostomas. By D. H. Scort, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
and K. A, Neweitt Arper, M.A.

The recent discovery, based upon evidence from petrified material, that
Lagenostoma Lomaxi, Will. in MS., is the seed of Lyginodendron, a genus of
Cycadofilices now placed in Pteridospermese, has been followed by the recognition
of more than one new species of Zayenostoma preserved in the condition of casts
or impressions, The specimens in question have also thrown light on the manner
in which the seeds were borne. The new species differ in their external mor-
phology from all those previously described. In one of them, which we propose
to name LZ. Kidstoni, the seeds are naked, but in the other, ZL. Sinclart, Kidston
in MS., there are indications of an external envelope or cupule. In ZL. Kidstoni
the seed is lobed at the free end, recalling the structure of the petrified seed
L.. physoides, Will. {

Both the new seeds are found in close association with rachis-like structures;
in the case of LZ. Sinclari continuity is obvious, for the seeds are borne terminally
on branches of the slender rachis.

In Z. Kidstoni the evidence of connection is less decisive, but in one case the
seeds appear to be iz situ on one of the finer branches of the rachis. Thus in
both cases the seeds were apparently borne on the ultimate branches of a frond in
which the lamina had been greatly reduced. There are indications that the fronds
were of the Sphenopteris type.

Both species are derived from the Lower Coal Measures of Scotland. The
authors are much indebted to Mr. R. Kidston, F.R.S., for his kindness in lending
them the specimens of Lagenostoma Sinclari for investigation.

3. Observations on Structure of the Leaf-trace of Inversicatenate Filicine.
By Professor C. Ea. Brrtranp and Professor F. CoRNAILLE.

In the living ferns the conducting element is a bipolar bundle (F). The
bundles arrange themselves into single chains joining one another by their poles.
When there is a breach of continuity, it occurs in the centre of figure. If
there is one breach involving two consecutive bundles of the chain, it isolates a
divergeant, which can also serve as distinct element, which we letter Y.

Again, all leaf-traces of living ferns present a posterior are, whose concavity
is turned towards the upper part of the frond; they have also two anterior half-
arcs, which are turned in from the marginal face towards the anterior face and
toward the plan of symmetry of the frond ; they can be also joining others at the
concavity of the posterior arc. The variations observed, such as the guadruple
element of Asplenium nidus, Scolopendrium officinale, Marsilia, are modifications
which can bear an obvious relation to the general arrangement of a chain, as the
one of Osmunda regalis.

The object of the study of Professors Bertrand and Cornaille is to show that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 779

the leaf-trace of Filicine is built on the same plan as that of Anachoropteris,
Botryopteris, Zygopteris—that it had the same elementary pieces, which unite in-
the same way. This study indicates the special characters of the three types of
traces and the inversion of the curvature of the chain in the leaves,

Anachoropteris shows in the leaf-trace bipolar bundles united pole to pole,
and breaches in the centre of figure. The inverse curvature of the chain in
Anachoropteris was indicated by Corda. It is confirmed by sections taken in the
ramifications of the petiole, and by the study of specimens in which the fronds
still surround the sézpe which bears them. The study of the last specimens was
made by M. Stenzel.

The leaf-trace in Anachoropteris is a binary chain, the curvature of which is
inverted. It has, consequently, two anterior double poles and wings which turn
backward. When these wings are long they are prolonged into spirals, but they
do not meet and the chain remains open.

The emission of lateral pieces (veins or petiolar traces) is always effected by
the separation of elosed inverse divergeant ‘a wil ouvert ’—that is to say, with an
ingrowth of phloem into the centre; or ‘@ etl plein, where no such ingrowth
occurs,

This mode of emission is comparable with that one of Aspleniwm nidus, and
with that of Microlepia, The lateral piece takes only a little part of the half
anterior arc. The lateral emissions come off between the interior face of the half-
anterior are and the anterior face of the leaves.

In the upper ramifications of the frond the leaf-trace is reduced to a closed
inverse divergeant retaining the character of its curvature even when much
reduced.

In the leaf-trace of the Botryopteris type the chain of the petiole may be
divided into (1) a trunk, (2) a receptive chain on either side, which receives
(8) the branch chains (or veins).

The characters of traces of the Botryopteris type are a binary chain of inverse
curvature, the posterior are of which is much reduced and may disappear. The
anterior half-ares are large; they may join posteriorly, and so close the chain.
The end bundle, F™®, touches on a large area the bundle of the posterior
arc, a

The branches always come off from the beginning of the anterior half-arcs,
The largest phloem elements (sieve tubes) oceur on the flanks of the anterior
bundle and in front of the posterior bundle. The surrounding phloem morpho-
logically is an internal phloem. The morphological external phloem is crowded
out. All the branches given off on the same side are reduced to a closed inverse
divergeant ‘a cil plein,’ and unite to form a receptive chain whose poles are
external, The two receptive chains of right and left unite together in front of the
point where the trunk chain is closed.

Here is a remarkable development of the anterior face, which begins to extend
round the far side. The trace retains the same characters even in the superior
ramifications, and this is found in the whole series, from Botryopteris forensis to
Rachiopteris tridentata.

The characters of the Zygopteris trace, taken in its most differentiated type,
say, Zygopteris Lacatti’, are a quatenary unopened chain of inverse curvature,
whose margins (points of ramification) are occupied by a complete bundle.
The anterior bundle, F™*, touches widely the posterior bundle, F™®, which is
nearer to the anterior face, The emissions occur in four symmetrical spots. There
are four large receptive lobes, constricted at the base, where they join a median
apolar piece.

The emission is effected by a closed inverse divergeant ‘a il plein. The
two emissions of the same side may unite, at least for a short distance, into a
single chain of apparently direct curvature. Two or four lines of lateral ramifica-
tion are possible. They are always formed of closed inverse divergeants associated
into a chain of direct curvature. The receptive lobes disappear in the forms
Zygopteris duplex, Dineuron pteroides. They become receptive prolongations in
Diplolabis esnostensis, and in the species from Zygopteris insignis to Zygopteris

780 REPORT—1904.

bibractensis, where the last chain at its emission unites the two polar marginal
“points. These remarkable peculiarities correspond at the emissions with an
unopened marge.

4. On the Presence of Parichnos in Recent Plants. By T. G. Hitt,

If a mature sporophyll of Isoctes Hystrix he examined, there will be seen in the
lateral expansions of its base two longitudinal cavities containing a certain amount
of mucilage, and situated one on each side of the vascular bundle in close proximity
to the sporogenous mass. :

By the examination of sporophylls in different stages of development, it may
be ascertained that the above-mentioned canals arise by the mucilaginous degenera-
tion of two strands of parenchyma.

The structure in question does not extend into the cortex of the stem, but is
confined entirely to the base of the sporophyll, its limits seemingly depending upon
the extent of the sporangium.

Whether the same features obtain in sterile leaves has not been determined,
owing to the lack of material. Indications of a similar structure were observed in
other species of Isoetes.

It is suggested that these strands of degenerating tissue, and the resulting
mucilage-containing canals of the mature leaf, represent the parichnos occurring in
Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Lemdocarpon, &e.

5. The Anatomy of Psilotum triquetrum. Zy Miss Sreinim O. Forp.

Psilotum triquetrum consists of a much-branched aerial stem and rhizome.
The leaves are much reduced and have no vascular supply. There are no roots.

The plant is monostelic throughout. At the base of theaerial stem a protostele
is found, and this, higher up, may be succeeded by a medullated stage with no
inner phloem or endodermis. Secondary tracheids may occur (Boodle). In the
aerial branches a central core of sclerenchymatous fibres is found, surrounded by
xylem with radiating groups of protoxylem. In the rhizome the xylem forms an
irregular mass with no fibres, and the protoxylem consists of ordinary scalariform
tracheids,

The phloem throughout is feebly developed, and lignification of this tissue may
occur in the aerial stem.

A three-sided apical cell is present both in the aerial stem and in the rhizome.

From the nature of the sporangial apparatus the Pszlotacee have been regarded
as possessing a close affinity with the fossil Sphenophyllales. There is also a
strong resemblance, anatomically, to some of the fossil Lycopods, especially to the
stem of Lepidodendron mundum, as well as to the axis of the cone of Lepidostrobus
Brownii.

6. Seed-coats of Cycads. By Marir C. Storrs, Ph.D., B.Se.

A number of species in various stages of the ovules of Cycas, Zamia, Macro-
samia, Ceratozamia, Encephalartos, Bowenia, and Dioon were examined.

The usual description of the integument as a single one, differentiated into two
layers, an outer fleshy and an inner stony, is found not to hold good. In all the
above-mentioned genera there is also a soft inner integumentary layer, which is
sometimes greater in diameter than the outer fleshy layer ; frequently it and the
nucellus are crushed together by the growing prothallium, but this is by no means
always the case ; sometimes it remains fresh quite late.

Two series of vascular bundles run in the ovule, and it is proved that the
inner series, frequently described as ‘nucellar, belongs to the soft inner layer of
the integument. These bundles do not invariably die out at the region where the
nucellus becomes free from the integument, as hitherto supposed, but in more than

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 781

one species are found continuing in the inner layer of the integument almost to
the micropyle.

The bundles running in the outer flesh are mesarch, centripetal xylem some-

times being developed in great quantity. The presence of this primitive type of
bundle in the ovules is in itself of interest, as is the comparison of these bundles
with the mesarch ones in the free fleshy ‘cupule’ of Lagenostoma.
_ The view is brought forward, chiefly on anatomical grounds, that the inner
fleshy layer with its system of bundles represents an inner integument. The
stone layer is considered as a differentiation of the outer flesh, and with its
distinct system of bundles forms the second or outer integument. The two are
completely grown together, as is the case in some genera of Rosaceze, &c.

On the basis of the arrangement of the bundles in the ovule and the supply
bundles of the sporophyll the genera may be placed in a series, of which Cycas
is not the ‘most primitive,’ but the least primitive of the group. All the genera
have approximately radial symmetry but Cycas, which is bilateral and shows dis-
tinct traces of an original radial symmetry.

7. A New Leature in the Morphology of the Fern-like Fossil Glossopteris,
By EK. A, Newett Anser, J/.A.

This preliminary note records the discovery of small, almost microscopic sac-
like bodies in association with the ‘ scale-fronds’ of Glossopteris; a fern-like fossil
abundant in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of India and the Southern Hemisphere.
These bodies are oval in form, measuring about 1 mm. along the greater diameter,
and are prolonged at one extremity into a short and often bent neck; thus
resembling a retort in shape. The anatomical structure is not preserved, but the
preservation, as impressions, is very perfect. The sacs are marked by pseudo-
parallel strize in the direction of their greater axis, and these stricz anastomose at
intervals. The strie are no doubt the impressions of the cell-walls of the sac.

The material showing these bodies is at present too scanty to permit of any
definite conclusion as to their nature, whether sporangial or otherwise.

8. On Keduction of the Gametophyte in Todea. By Li. A. Boovux,

It has often been observed that, among the homosporous ferns, germination of
spores under crowded and unfavourable conditions leads to the production of small
prothalli bearing antheridia only.

An extreme case of the formation of dwarf male prothalli occurs in Todea
Fraseri under certain cultural conditions. The dehiscence of the sporangia may
be delayed, sometimes permanently, and many of the spores then germinate within
the sporangia. The early stages of germination may be normal, or more often an
antheridium is produced almost at once. In the latter case the prothallus proper
may consist of only two or three cells contained in the burst exosporium, from
which the antheridium with its basal portion projects. Frequently no rhizoid is
present.

If ripe sporangia be artificially ruptured and the spores sown on a damp sub-
stratum or in water, germination is normal and the prothallus attains a considerable
size without production of antheridia. Dwarf prothalli bearing antheridia, when
released from the sporangia and sown, were not found to undergo any further
growth.

A comparison of the present case with that of the microspores of Salvinia has
a special interest, as illustrating how a reduction of the prothallus, approaching
that shown by the latter plant, may be brought about by the non-dehiscence of the
sporangium in a species of fern specialised to a very damp habitat, excessive damp-
ness of the atmosphere being very possibly the direct cause of the suppression of
dehiscence.

782 REPORT—1904.

9. On the Reduction of the Marchantiaceous Type in Cyathodium.
By Wiut1am H. Lane, .B., D.Sc.

The species of Cyathodium grow in damp, shaded situations in the tropics, and
exhibit a simplification of structure as compared with other Marchantiacew. A
detailed examination of C. fectidissimum, a larger, less reduced form, and C. auieo-
nitens (which agrees closely with C. cavernarum, investigated by Leitgeb) confirms
the systematic position close to Taryionia usually assigned to the genus.

As compared with Targionia the species of Cyathodium appear to constitute a
reduction series, the reduction affecting both the gametopbyte and the sporo-
gonium. The thallus, as is well known, is greatly reduced in thickness; the
layer of air-chambers opening by simple pores is retained, but assimilating fila-
ments are absent from the chambers. Assimilation is mainly performed by the
cells of the epidermis, which are adapted to utilise the feeble light in the same
way as the lens-shaped cells of the protonema of Schistosteya. The lower tissue
of the thallus is for the most part composed of a single layer of cells. C. fartidissi-
mum has, however, a narrow midrib several cells thick, the cells being inhabite
‘by an endophytic fungus, The amphigastria are reduced to small scales composed
of thin-walled cells in C. fetidisstmwm, and to simple rows of cells in the other
two species. Both smooth and peg rhizoids occur in C. fotidissimum, but in
C. aureo-nitens all the rhizoids are thin-walled. Branching of the thallus in both
species occurs dichotomously and by the formation of adventitious branches from
the lower surface just within the margin.

The archegonia in C. fetedissimum are produced from the apex of a branch
which becomes displaced towards the ventral surface. They thus occupy the same
position as those of Taryionia, and, as in that genus, the displaced margin grows
up as the involucre, which becomes completed behind by the further growth of the
apex itself. In C. awreo-nitens the archegonia are found in acropetal succession
on the upper surface of the apical region of a branch of the thallus. ‘The apex,
after forming the archegonia, grows on to form the involucre, which is roofed in
by the limiting layer of the last formed and incomplete air-chamber. The
development and structure of the archegonium is as in Targionia.

The antheridia are borne on short disc-shaped adventitious branches, In
C. feetidissimum an antheridial branch is situated in the middle line below, just
behind the archegonial group or groups. In C. awieo-nitens the branches are borne
close to the margin, and usually alternate with the archegonial groups. The
antheridia completely fill the cavities in which they are sunk singly; each
antheridium consists of a stalk two or three cells in length, a wall of a single
layer of large clear cells, and the central group of spermatocytes.

The first divisions of the fertilised ovum in C. fwtidissimum agree with those
in Targionia, but in C. aureo-nitens a row of four cells is formed before longitu-
dinal divisions appear. ‘The mature sporogonium consists of a capsule the wall
of which is one layer of cells thick, except at the apex, where a definite group of
thin-walled cells is present, and a short cylindrical foot. The foot in C. fartidissi-
mum is composed of four rows of cells, in C. awrco-nitens of a single row except
at the base, where a group of four cells is present. ‘These basal cells, which are
throughout recognisable by their larger size, grow out in both species into short
branched processes, which ramify among the surrounding cells; this occurs about
the time of the division of the spore-mother-cells. Thickening bands are present
on the cell-walls in the upper third only of the capsule wall in both species. ‘The
cells of the lower part of the wall in C. fetidissimwmn have their internal walls
brown, but present no special peculiarity. Those of this region in C, aureo-nitens
are thin-walled, packed with starch, and have nuclei which are enlarged and of
abnormal appearance.

The sporogonium of C. fetidissimum is much smaller than that of Targionia ;
the spores are smaller than those of the latter, but, like them, are thick-walled.
The sporogonium of C. aureo-nitens is only about half the length and breadth of
that of C. fetidissimum, but the spores are few in number and absolutely

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 783

as well as relatively larger than in the latter species. Well-developed elaters are
present in both capsules.

It appears probable that Cyathodium has been derived by adaptation to damp
and ill-lighted situations from a well-characterised Marchantiaceous form of about
the same grade of differentiation as Targionta. The modifications of vegetative
structure can readily be placed in relation to the change of habitat, while those
of the sporogonium may have been indirectly necessitated by the reduction in
bulk of the lower storage region of the thallus and especially of the portion
bearing the archegonia.

10. On some Peperomia Seedlings. Ly A. W. Hint, JA.

11. Exhibition of Specimens illustrating (1) the Comparative Constancy
of Specific Characters of Eucalypts ; (2) the Relation between the Leaf
Venation and the Oil Constituents. Dy R. T. Baxen, £.L.S.

These exhibits consisted of a large number of herbarium specimens of eucalypts
obtained from trees growing in different parts of the world, and demonstrate clearly
that the varying environments have produced little or no variation of systematic
characters, such as buds, leaves, fruits, and flowers. ‘There was also exhibited a
number of photographs, taken from living leaves, which show leaf venation of the
various groups of eucalypts, the disposition of which indicates an agreement with
the oil constituents, which latter were also exhibited.

12. Hxhibition of Fruits of Melocanna, Melocalamus, and Ochlandra.
By Dr. Orro Srarr.

13. Observations on Secondary Thickening in Amarantus spinosus.
By Horace A, Wacer, 4.2.0.

This species of Amarantus is very common in Natal, being a troublesome
weed and growing rapidly on any waste ground. It seems to be able to stand
the variations of climate better than a large number of plants; and plants in
Natal have to accustom themselves to extremely irregular conditions of heat and
moisture during the growing season.

In its mode of secondary thickening it corresponds generally to the type
described by De Bary (‘Comp. Anat.,’ &c., p. 590). The centre of the young
stem is occupied by a number of scattered bundles in a succulent ground tissue.
On the outside of these bundles is the meristem ring, from which new bundles are
formed on the inside. In the older part of the stem the intermediate cells given
off from the meristem ring become thickened and form a fibrous mechanical tissue,
which becomes more strongly pronounced near the base of the plant. In the
thickest stems of 5 centimétres diameter this strengthening ring is never more
than 5 to 8 millimétres thick, but the stem is very strong and sturdy, The leaf
trace bundles pass into the stem and immediately anastomose with those already
in the centre of the stem, and only run for a short distance alone, A trans-
verse section through a node shows a good deal of confusion, due to the anasto-
mosing of the stem-bundles among themselves and also with the leaf and
axillary traces.

In the lower part of the stem the bundles are more numerous in the mechanical
ring, and do not increase in size so much as those in the central tissue.

The elements of the xylem are of the usual kind. The phloem is well marked,
and contains fairly long sieve tubes with slightly oblique sieve plates. In most
cases well-developed callus can be quite easily made out. This development of
callus is surprisingly large in a plant which is an annual and only lives for a few

784 es REPORT—1904.

months. In the mechanical ring the phloem in many cases becomes separated
from its accompanying xylem to such an extent that the phloem appears like
phloem-islands.

The youngest roots exhibit a diarch structure with protoxylem in the centre.
On the face of each group of xylem elements is a layer of cambium, and outside
this a strand of phloem. In the older part of the root this becomes split up
into four or more distinct bundles. At a considerable distance from these central
strands of vascular tissue a meristem ring appears, and bundles are formed by it,
as in the stem, but more regularly. :

The origin of the secondary roots appears to be in the region of the proto-
xylem of the central strands, and they are always strongly connected from the
first with it. Where secondary roots appear after the formation of the meristem
ving, they are in all cases connected with the central strands and break through
the meristem ring in their passage to the exterior.

14. Report on the Respiration of Plants.—See Reports, p. 344.
15. Report on Botanical Photographs.—See Reports, p. 345

16. Report on Experimental Studies in the Physvology of Heredity.
See Reports, p. 346.

i7. Report on a Monograph of the Genus Potamogeton.

Sus-SEcTION OF AGRICULTURE.
CHAIRMAN—W. Somprvitie, M.A,, D.Sc., D.déc.
The Chairman delivered the following Address :—

Tun audience that I have to-day the honour of addressing may be assumed to
consist of a considerable proportion of the members of the British Association,
and some others, who are primarily interested in, and have themselves made
appreciable contributions to, the progress of Agricultural Science. I may, there-
fore, take the opportunity of congratulating you on this fresh evidence of progress
in the subject that you have at heart, and of offering to the British Association
our thanks for the encouragement and stimulus which are associated with the
formation of an Agricultural Sub-Section. Perhaps I rightly interpret your feelings
when I say that for the present we are satisfied with the position attained by our
subject, but that we trust to see this and other meetings demonstrating that
Agricultural Science is not unworthy of further advancement.

In view of the large amount of work that lies before us during the next few
days, I do not propose to intervene for long between you and the contributions to
original research which we have been promised. The scope of my remarks will
be limited no less by time than by the fact that it would be presumptuous in me
to attempt to traverse the whole field of Agricultural Science, including, as it
may be held to do, the no small compartments of Horticulture and Forestry.
What I propose to do, therefore, is to confine myself to touching upon a few of
the subjects that have recently been receiving attention at the hands of scientific
investigators, especially abroad. I have purposely avoided discussing English
work, partly because it may be assumed that we are all familiar with it, and
partly because, where friends are concerned, selection is difficult.

Although Agriculture has only now been elevated to a position of semi-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 785

independence in the programme of this Association, it has, in the aggregate,
received much attention at the meetings inaugurated with that at York in 1831.
It is interesting to turn up the early volumes of the Reports, and to ascertain what
was running in the minds of our predecessors, and what the problems that they
thought it vital to solve. In the account of the first meeting in this town in 1833
we find a Report by Lindley on the Philosophy of Botany, two of the items in
which are of interest to students of Rural Economy. Apparently at that time
much attention was being given to the mode of the formation of wood. Two
theories appear to have divided betanists—the one that wood was organised in
the leaves, and sent down the stem in the form of embryonic but organised fibres,
to be deposited on the surface of wood already formed. The other theory was
that wood was secreted zm situ by the bark and older wood. It is to the former
of these theories that Lindley gives his adherence. Although this problem has
ceased to interest, the same cannot be said of another subject discussed in the same
Report, namely, the so-called ‘ fecal excretions’ of plants. In the words of
Lindley, ‘A new apple orchard cannot be made to succeed on the site of an old
apple orchard unless some years intervene between the destruction of the one and
the planting of the other; in gardens no amount of manure will enable one kind
of fruit-tree to flourish on a spot from which another tree of the same species has
been recently removed, and all farmers practically evince, by the rotation of their
crops, their experience of the existence of the law.’ He attributes to Macaire
the demonstration of the fact that all plants part with a fecal matter by their
roots. These excretions he held to be poisonous, maintaining that, although plants
generate poisonous secretions, they cannot absorb them by their roots without
death, concluding that ‘the necessity of the rotation of crops is more dependent
upon the soil being poisoned than upon its being exhausted.’ He indicated the
lines along which investigation might with advantage proceed, one of the questions
put forward being ‘the degree in which such excretions are poisonous to the plants
that yield them, or to others.’

In 1833 botanists and agriculturists had not the advantage of the knowledge
that is at our disposal through the continuous growth for a long series of years of
certain crops at Rothamsted, but consideration of the fact that some crops (as, for
example, pure forests of beech, silver fir, Scots pine and other trees, as also per-
manent pasture) may be grown for hundreds of years on the same ground
without any evidence of poisoning, might have led to the conclusion that the law,
as it was called, was not of general application. It is, of course, true that rota-
tions are an advantage, and it is a matter of experience that certain crops—e.g.,
clover and turnips—cannot be grown continuously on the same land, but the cause
is not now associated with excretions. The reason for the failure of clover, or the
cause of land becoming ‘ clover-sick,’ as it is called, is still a debated point; but I
may hazard the conjecture that it is due to the fact that organisms or enzymes
inimical to the vital activity of the minute living bodies, that exist in symbiotic
relationship with the clover plants, increase with great rapidity when the living
bodies that they affect are present in abundance. Red clover is the species that
is usually associated with the term clover-sickness, but it would appear that a
precisely similar phenomenon is exhibited in the growth even of wild white
clover. It isa matter of common observation that on certain classes of land
white clover is stimulated to such vigorous growth by the use of phosphatic
manures that for one year at least it monopolises the area to the almost total
exclusion of other plants. But such rank luxuriance is not of long duration. In
a year or two the clover disappears to a very large extent, and cannot at once be
restored by any process with which we are acquainted. The land has, in fact,
become sick to white clover. But given a period of rest, during which the
inimical agents will disappear, and it again becomes possible to stimulate white
clover to vigorous growth. We have, it seems to me, an analogous state of things
in the case of certain insects. On the Continent the caterpillar of the Nun Moth
(Iuparis monacha, L.) periodically proves extremely destructive to certain conifers,
and it is found that in the first year the insects are moderately abundant, in the
second they are excessively abundant, while in the third the visitation ren to

1904. E

786 REPORT—1904,

decline, and usually terminates quite suddenly. The causes of this cessation have
been thoroughly worked out, and are found in the great increase of parasitic in-
sects, and insecticidal fungi, including bacteria. I believe it will be found that the
almost sudden cessation of our periodic visitations of the diamond-back moth is
due to a similar cause.

The failure of turnips is apparently largely, if not entirely, due to the increase
of insects and parasitic fungi.

The subject of harmful excretions has recently obtained renewed attention
through the work being done at the Woburn Fruit Station. No point has
received more striking demonstration there than the harmful influence that
growing grass exerts on fruit-trees. It has been shown that this prejudicial
influence is not due to the withdrawal of moisture, to the curtailment of supplies
of plant food, to interference with aeration, or to modifications of temperature.
In Mr. Pickering’s opinion, ' ‘the exclusion of all these possible explanations drives
us to believe that the cause of the action of grass is due to some directly
poisonous action which it exerts on the trees, possibly through the intervention of
bacteria, or possibly taking place more directly.’ It is satisfactory to know that
the subject, which is of considerable scientific and practical importance, is likely
to be vigorously followed up.

In the early forties attention was being directed to a subject that even now
has a great attraction for agriculturists, namely, the stimulating and exhausting
effect of artificial manures, especially nitrate of soda. The principle that
‘stimuli lose their full effect upon living matter when frequently repeated’ was
generally held to account for the want of response that crops exhibited to
repeated dressings of nitrate of soda; but Professor Daubeny in 1841? pointed out
what is now generally accepted as the true cause, namely, the exhaustion of the
soil of other substances. This, he said, can be counteracted by giving other
manures, of which he instanced bone meal. His suggestions for future investiga-
tions have been largely followed, though, as we now know, they are of theoretical
rather than practical importance. He proposed the alternatives:

1. Analysis of the soil, discovery of the amount of available plant food, and
the application of the substances found to be deficient up to the probable measure
of the crop’s requirements.

2. Discovery, by analysis of the yield, or estimation by calculation, of the
amount of plant food removed in the produce, and the application to the soil in
the form of manure of what was withdrawn by the crop.

Daubeny suggested that manuring should be undertaken on a system of book-
keeping—on the one side being entered all the items of plant food taken out by
crops, and on the other all that is applied in the form of manures, the two sides
of the account being made to balance. This theory of manuring is distinctly
suggestive, and often fits in rather remarkably with actual practice, though the
comparative agreement between theory and practice is due to causes that the
author of the theory probably hardly contemplated. Take, for instance, the case
of wheat. An average crop removes from an acre about 50 lbs, nitrogen,
30 Ibs. potash, and 20 lbs. phosphoric acid. This loss would be restored by the
use of some 8 cwt. nitrate of soda, 2 cwt. kainit, and 13 cwt. superphosphate ;
and on many soils wheat could, no doubt, be grown continuously for many years
on such a mixture, aided by good tillage, without the yield suffering materially.
But we now know that much of the plant food offered in manure never enters the
crop at all, so that the balancing of the account is due almost as much to chance
as to calculation. This becomes more apparent when we regard such a crop as
meadow hay, which in actual practice is often grown for a long series of years on
the same land. To balance the withdrawal of phosphoric acid by an average
yield of this crop only about { cwt. of superphosphate per acre is theoretically
necessary, but on most soils an average yield would not be maintained by the use
of so small a quantity.

' The Effects of Grass on Apple Trees. Journal R.A.S.E. Vol. Ixiy. p. 365,
* On Manures considered as Stimuli to Vegetation,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 787

During the fifties the volumes of the Association contain several important
contributions from the two distinguished Englishmen to whom the world’s
agriculture owes so much, Lawes and Gilbert. Their first contribution was made
in 1851, and dealt with Liebig’s mineral theory, a subject with which their names
will always be associated. They drew upon their rich store of experimental data
to prove that the yield of wheat is much more influenced by ammonia than by
minerals, and they gave it as their deliberate opinion that the analysis of the crop
is no direct guide whatever as to the nature of the manure required to be provided
in the ordinary course of agriculture. With the reservation ‘in the ordinary
course of agriculture,’ the dictum cannot be questioned, though under the circum-
stances of the continuous growth of wheat, as has been pointed out, conclusions
indicated by the analysis of a crop happen to accord, at least approximately, with
manurial practice.

Field experiments or demonstrations, which have been such a prominent
feature of the educational work of the past decade, appear to have been first
introduced at the meeting of the Association in 1861 by Dr. Voelcker.

While agricultural subjects have claimed a considerable share of the time of
the Association, forestry has not been altogether overlooked. As early as 1838
we find attention being directed to what has of recent years come to be a burning
question—namely, the maintenance of our timber supplies. At that early date,
when the industrial development of the country was, comparatively speaking, in
its infancy, the estimate of our timber requirements was, in the light of present
experience, amusing in its modesty. Captain Cook estimated that ‘100,000 acres
of waste taken from the Grampian Hills for the growth of larch would in two
generations not only supply the ordinary wants of the country, but enable us to
export timber.’* Assuming a rotation of eighty years, this estimate postulates
that the produce of some 1,200 acres, of a value of about 120,000/., was sufficient
to make us independent of foreign supplies. Such is the estimate of 1838; now
let us turn to the estimate of 1904. Dr. Schlich, in his volume on ‘Forestry in
the United Kingdom,’ passes in review Britain’s timber requirements, and, after
making allowance for woods like mahogany, teak, &c., which cannot be grown
here, he comes to the conclusion that ‘if all these items are added up we find
that we now pay for imports in timber... the sum of 27,000,000, all of
which could be produced in this country.’ Assuming as before that the value of
an acre of mature forest is 100/., it means that our imports are drawn from
270,000 acres, and to maintain our supplies merely at their present level a forest
area of more than 20,000,000 acres, worked on an eighty years’ rotation, is necessary.

Although it has been reserved for the Cambridge Meeting of 1904 to witness
the delivery of an Address from the Chair of an Agricultural Sub-section, this is
by no means the first occasion on which an agricultural subject has furnished the
theme for a Presidential Address. In 1880 the then Dr. Gilbert presided over
Section B, and chose for his subject Agricultural Chemistry ; in 1894 Professor
Bayley Balfour inaugurated the work of the Biological Section with an Address
on Forestry ; while in 1898 the President of the Association focussed the vision
of all thinking men on the greatest agricultural problem of all—the World’s
Supply of Wheat.

German Investigations on the Action of Conservation Agents on
Farmyard Manure.

Those who have followed the progress of Agricultural Science in Germany
must have noticed how much attention has been given during the past ten years
to investigating the changes that take place in farmyard manure during storage
under varying conditions. The stimulus and funds for this work have for the
most part been supplied by the German Agricultural Society, which in 1892
resolved to carry through an exhaustive inquiry. For this purpose it enlisted the

' Cook, On the Genera Pinus and Abies.
* Bradbury, Agnew & Co., 1904,

788 REPORT—1904.

co-operation of several of the most fully equipped stations in the Empire, and the
reports that have appeared bear testimony to the industry and analytical ingenuity
that have been brought to bear on this important subject.

The experiments were originally designed to extend over four years, the first,
1892-93, being devoted to preliminary, chiefly laboratory, experiments ; the others,
to work on a scale more in accordance with farm practice. But although the
period originally contemplated is now long past, the problem is by no means
solved, and the Society has recently been making a fresh grant for additional
experiments of a similar character. In point of fact, the subject has been found to
bristle with difficulties, and the results obtained with small quantities of manure,
or in summer, have not always been confirmed with large quantities of manure, or
in winter,

In 1897 I published an account! of the more important results obtained up to
that time, confining myself chiefly to questions of temperature and the loss of
organic matter, and the conclusion arrived at was that ‘none of the conservation
agents usually employed appears to have any very important influence on the
decomposition of farmyard manure.’

Since then several important reports * have appeared, and I propose shortly to
refer to their contents,

While the experiments have in almost all cases dealt with the fate of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, and potash, the chief interest centres round the nitrogen, for,
given reasonably satisfactory conditions of storage, it is only this constituent of
farmyard manure that is likely to suffer loss. But much importance, from the
experimental point of view, attaches to the analytical results obtained with the
other two substances, for the reason that the quantities of these found are the
surest test of the accuracy of the work. The general method of procedure has
been to employ a fairly simple but sufficiently nutritous food-mixture, and to
allow a definite quantity of this and of litter for a certain number of selected cows.
The weight of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the food is accurately
determined, all of which ultimately reaches the manure, less what goes into the
milk, and into the live-weight increase, if any. If the account of what the
animals receive as food and litter, and what they furnish as liquid and solid feces,
milk, and animal increase, approximately balances as regards mineral matter, it
may be assumed that the sampling and analysis have been sufliciently accurate to
justify definite conclusions being based on any deficiency innitrogen that may befound.

The work of Hansen and Giinther, Pfeiffer, and Immendorff was carried out
at consecutive periods from 1893 to 1902, at the experimental station of Zwiitzen,
near Jena, where stalls and dung-pits had been constructed for the purposes of
this research. Schneidewind’s experiments were conducted at the station of
Lauchstidt, near Halle.

Effects of Kainit.—This was used by Hansen and Giinther at the rate of °75
kg. per 1,000 kg. live weight of stock per day, while Pfeiffer and Immendorff
used twice as much. The kainit was in no case spread on the litter in the stall,
as this would have caused inflammation of the skin of the udder, legs, and abdomen
of the cows, but was sprinkled on the manure as spread and pressed into the pits.
In certain series of the experiments the manure was removed from the stalls daily,
in others it was only removed once a week. Two weeks was the usual time
necessary to collect a sufficient quantity of manure, which, with the liquids,
usually amounted to about 8,000 kg. at Zwiitzen, and about one-fifth of tl is
weight at Lauchstiidt. The period of storage was generally about four months.

Hansen and Giinther found that in pits the untreated manure lost 11'5 per
cent. of nitrogen; while the manure treated with kainit lost 14:4 per cent.

' Journal Board of Agriculture, September, 1897.

? Hansen and Giinther, ‘ Versuche iiber Stallmist-Behandlung,’ Arbeiten der Deut.
Land. Gesell. Heft 30, 1898. Pfeiffer, « Stallmist-Konservirung,’ ibid. Heft 73, 1902.
Immendorff, ‘ Ueber Stallmist-Bewahrung,’ Mitt. der Deut. Land. Gesell. Heft 21,
1903. Schneidewind, ‘Fiinfter Bericht iiber die Versuchswirtschaft,’ Lauchstadt,
Land. Jahrb. xxxiii. p. 190.

A tt a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 789

Pfeiffer found that the loss of nitrogen in untreated manure was 17:2 per cent.,
which compares with a loss of 19°5 per cent. in the presence of kainit. The loss
of nitrogen when kainit was used by Immendorff was 21:3 per cent., the loss in
the untreated manure not being given in his tentative report so far available.
Schneidewind did not experiment with kainit. The results of these experiments
are in complete relative agreement, and show that the loss of nitrogen is greater
when kainit is used than when it is withheld.

Effects of Superphosphate—This substance was spread twice daily over the
litter in the stall at the rate of ‘75 kg. per 1,000 kg. live weight. The results
obtained were as follows :—

| —— Loss per cent, of Total Nitrogen

|
|
\

In untreated dung When super. used
Hansen and Giinther : .
Pfeiffer ce boa eae OE 17:20 20°80

| Immendorff . rh Phe BA ale 19°80

With superphosphate, as with kainit, the loss of nitrogen during the storage
of dung has been increased. It may, however, be mentioned that Hansen and
Giinther and lmmendorff found that superphosphate conserved nitrogen to an
appreciable extent so long as the dung lay in the stall, but that its effects disappeared
whenever its acid phosphate and free sulphuric acid had been neutralised by
ammonia, and this rapidly occurred in the pit.

Effects of Precipitated Phosphatic Gypsum.—tThis at the rate of 1 kg. per
1,000 kg. live weight was tried by Hansen and Giinther and Immendorff, the
substance employed containing fully 8 per cent. P,O,. It was spread twice daily
on the litter in the stall. The result obtained by Hansen and Giinther was that
after lying for seventeen weeks in the pits the manure that had been untreated
had lost 10°35 per cent. of nitrogen, whereas that treated with the phosphatic
gypsum showed a loss of 14°47 per cent. The loss of nitrogen found by Immen-
dorff when this substance was used amounted to 19°8 per cent. This substance,
like the others, would therefore appear to be valueless as a fixer of nitrogen.

Effects of Gypsum.—This substance has long been recommended as an agent
for conserving nitrogen in the dung-heap. The results of its use, spread twice
daily on the litter in the stall at the rate of 1 ke. per 1,000 ke., live weight, in the
experiments conducted by Hansen and Giinther, were that in the presence of
gypsum the loss of nitrogen amounted to 11:89 per cent., which compares with a
loss of 8°56 per cent. when nothing was mixed with the dung.

Schneidewind, using a much larger quantity of gypsum, namely, 5 lbs. per
100 lbs. of dung, found that the loss of nitrogen was reduced from 35°69 per cent.
to 15:22 per cent. In this connection he says: ‘The use of gypsum has markedly
reduced the loss of nitrogen. Assuming the conserved nitrogen to have a good
action on the crop, this agent may be said to have paid. But as the bulk of the
nitrogen so conserved was found to consist of slow-acting albuminoid compounds,
and seeing that the sulphate of lime was largely reduced to sulphides, which are
directly injurious to plants, we cannot conclude that the use of gypsum has been
profitable. Investigations with this substance will, however, be continued.’

Hansen and Giinther carried their experiments the length of using the various
lots of manure on crops, but this part of their researches was hardly more favour-
able to the use of conservation agents than the other. They thus express them-
selves: ‘When the various manures were used on crops, five times in six the
treated manure acted no better than the untreated. Only on one occasion was an
improvement observable. Field and pit experiments alike have proved that the
conservation agents employed are of no value.’ Schneidewind expresses himself
equally forcibly when he says: ‘ As the result of many experiments conducted by
ourselves and others, we have arrived at the conclusion that chemical substances
are valueless as conserving agents.’

Pfeiffer also tried sulphuric acid sprinkled over the manure as it was placed

790 REPORT—1904.

daily in the pit, when it was found that the loss of nitrogen was reduced from
27°8 per cent. to 7-1 per cent. In this connection Pfeiffer says: ‘The cost, how-
ever, was nearly a mark for each kilo. of nitrogen conserved, and the use of
sulphuric acid is associated with so many drawbacks that its employment cannot
be recommended.’

Schneidewind came to a similar conclusion, and thus expresses himself: ‘ As a
result of numerous conservation experiments carried out with various quantities
of sulphuric acid, and with various acid sulphates, we cannot advise the use of
these substances.’

But although no benefits have been obtained from the use of the substances
indicated, some useful information is available as to the advantages of giving
attention in other directions to the management of farmyard manure. Hansen
and Giinther took four lots of manure of similar character, storing two of the lots
in pits and placing the other two in heaps in the open field. From the end of
September till the middle of December the pitted material had on the average
parted with 13:25 per cent. of total nitrogen, whereas the loss in the manure in
heaps averaged 25°3 per cent. When the behaviour of the ammoniacal nitrogen
was investigated it was found that the loss was 35°73 per cent. in the pits and
82°5 per cent. in the heaps. The loss, therefore, is greatest in that part of the
nitrogen which is the most active and the most valuable.

In another series of experiments by the same investigators the manure was all
placed in pits, but in one case it was spread equally and trodden down, while the
escape of liquids was prevented. In the other case the manure was simply thrown
loosely and irregularly into the pit without spreading or treading, the surface
being left uneven and therefore much exposed to the air, while the liquids were
allowed to drain away. After lying for twenty-two weeks the loss of nitrogen
was 15:76 per cent. in the pit containing the carefully treated manure, whereas in
the other pit the loss amounted to 34°58 per cent.

Pfeiffer in a series of experiments proved that much of the nitrogen that
disappears from manure is lost before the manure is transferred from the stall to
the dungstead. He is strongly of opinion that stalls, boxes, and the like, should
either be cleaned out twice daily, or, if the construction admits, the manure
should be left to accumulate till it is some feet in depth, as in the system of
management that prevails in cattle-courts and yards in this country.

The general conclusion arrived at, and clearly expressed by Pfeiffer, is that
excessive loss in manure can be best avoided by storing it ina deep mass ina
water-tight dungstead placed in a well-shaded situation, in which the material is
firmly compressed. The necessary compression can be secured in various ways,
perhaps most conveniently and effectively by means of the treading of cattle. The
use of a considerable proportion of moss-litter is strongly recommended. This
substance not only absorbs and retains the liquids, but, being acid, it fixes
ammonia. In the absence of moss-litter, loamy soil rich in humus will prove a
useful substitute.

The Chemical Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen,

It has for long been the dream of chemists to discover, or welcome the discovery,
of a chemical process, capable of industrial application, by which the nitrogen of
the air could be made available to replace or to supplement our rather limited
supplies of nitrogenous manures. In his Presidential Address, Sir William
Crookes had something to say on this fascinating subject, and looked hopefully to
electricity to solve the problem. He pointed out that with current costing one-
third of a penny per Board of Trade unit a ton of nitrate of soda could be produced
for 267. ; while ata cost of one-seventeenth of a penny per unit—a rate possible when
large natural sources of power, like Niagara, are available—the cost of such artificial
nitrate of soda need not be more than 5/, per ton.?

Dr. von Lepel, in giving an account of recent work on this subject to the

1 Crookes, The Wheat Problem, p. 47.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 791

winter meeting of the German Agricultural Society in February of this year,'
puts the cost of electric nitrate, as compared with Chili nitrate, in the proportion
of 24 to 39, which is in close agreement with Sir William Crookes’s estimate.
Lepel points out that the material obtained, neutralised by some alkali, consists of
a mixture of nitrate and nitrite. When used in pot-culture experiments it
has given results closely agreeing with those furnished by Chili nitrate.

Good progress would also appear to have been made in another direction in
the commercial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, and a short account of the results
was communicated by Professor Gerlach, of Posen, to the meeting of the German
Agricultural Society already referred to, and is published in the same issue of the
‘ Mittheilungen.’

When air which has been freed of oxygen is conducted through finely dis-
integrated calcium carbide at a high temperature, one atom of carbon is displaced
by two atoms of nitrogen, and calcium cyanamide (CaCN,) is formed. This
substance is also produced when a mixture of lime or chalk and charcoal is heated
to a temperature of 2,000 deg. C. in a current of air.» When pure, this substance
holds 35 per cent. of nitrogen, but in its crude commercial form it contains only
about 20 per cent. Treated with acids, calcium cyanamide is changed into
dicyandiamide, a substance holding nearly 67 per cent. of nitrogen, but directly
poisonous to plants. Or, if heated in superheated steam, calcium cyanamide parts
pe all its nitrogen as ammonia, which, of course, is easily brought into a portable
orm.

But experiments conducted at Posen and Darmstadt during the past three
years, both in pots and in the open field, have shown that calcium cyanamide
itself is a useful nitrogenous manure, field experiments giving results about
20 per cent. below those obtained by the use of an equal amount of nitrogen in the
form of sulphate of ammonia. In prepared soil in pots the results fully surpassed
those obtained both with nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, the less
satisfactory yields obtained in the field being perhaps due to the organic acids
inducing the formation of a certain amount of the poisonous dicyandiamide.

So far as one may judge from the information available, it would appear that
agriculture will not have long to wait till it is placed in the possession of new
supplies of that most powerful agent of production, nitrogen, and Sir William
ant will see the fulfilment of his prediction that ‘the future can take care of
itself,

Nitragin.

A few years ago much interest was excited in this and other countries by the
announcement that the scientific discoveries of Hellriegel and Wilfarth had received
commercial application, and that the organisms of the nodules of the roots of
Leguminose could be purchased in a form convenient for artificial inoculation.
The specific cultures placed upon the market were largely tested practically and
experimentally, but the results were such as to convince even the patentees, Nobbe
and Hiltner, that the problem which promised so much for agriculture had not
been satisfactorily solved. Since that time, however, investigators have not been
idle, and the present position of the subject is to be found in a recent Report by
Hiltner and Stérmer.®

It was early recognised that the organisms (bacteria) which inhabited the root
nodules of the various species of Leguminose were not all alike, and that, in fact,
they showed marked physiological if not morphological distinctions. Any par-
ticular species of leguminous plant is found to resist more or less successfully

1 Dr. von Lepel, ‘Neuere Versuche zur Nutzbarmachung des atmosphirischen
pee etols durch Elektrische Flammenbogen,’ Mitteil. d. Deut. Land. Gesell., 1904,
Stiick 8. ,

2 Bull, Zmp. Inst. June 30, 1904.

3 ¢ Bericht tiber neue Untersuchungen tiber die Wurzelkndllchen der Leguminosen
und deren Erreger,’ Arbeiten aus der Biol. Abteil. fiir Land+ und Forstivirtschaft am
XK, Gesundheitsamte, Band iii. Heft 3.

792 REPORT—1904.

the attempt of these various organisms to effect an entrance into its root-hairs,
and according to the power of the organism to gain access, and to establish
colonies, so 1s the particular plant benefited and the stock of fixed nitrogen
increased. This power of adaptability of the organism is designated its ‘ viru-
lence,’ a term, however, which is perhaps hardly suited to our English mode of
expression, though it may for the present be retained. It has been found that
organisms of what is called ‘high virulence’ are capable of entering with ease
the root-hairs of vigorous plants at an early stage of their growth, and of inducing
the formation of nodules that are large, numerous, and placed high up on the
roots. Organisms of low virulence, on the other hand, can only enter plants of
feebler growth, or plants that have passed the most vigorous stage of youth, so
that the nodules, in this case, are small and scarce, and distributed, for the most
part, near the ends of the roots. The practical object, therefore, would appear to
be the breeding of strains or varieties of organisms of high virulence, adapted to
the symbiotic requirements of the various important species of farm and garden
leguminous crops.

The nitragin put on the market a few years ago was used in two ways, being
either applied directly to the fields, or mixed with water and brought into
contact with the seed before sowing. Under the former method of procedure an
increase of crop was obtained only when the nitragin was used on land contain-
ing much humus. The explanation given for failure under other conditions was
that the bacteria artificially introduced perished for want of food before the
leguminous seed germinated and produced plants.

Failure of the nitragin to effect an improvement in the crop when it was
sprinkled on the seed is now believed to be due to the action of secretions pro-
duced by the seed in the early stages of germination. These secretions are found
to be rich in salts of potash, and when brought into contact with the bacteria in
question they induce changes allied to plasmolysis, and these changes are subse-
quently followed by death. This difficulty was found to be got over by moisten-
ing the seed and allowing it to sprout before the nitragin was applied; but
manifestly such a procedure would always be difficult, and often impossible, to
carry out in practice. The object, however, would appear to have been gained in
another way, namely, by cultivating the bacteria in a medium that imparts to
them the necessary power of resistance. Such nourishment may take various
forms, but that which gave the best results consisted of a mixture of skim milk,
grape sugar and pepton, and it is in this medium that the organisms of the
nitragin now distributed are cultivated.

Early in the present year the new nitragin was being offered free of cost to
all members of the German Agricultural Society on the condition that it was used
in accordance with the directions that accompany it. In consequence of the large
demand the free offer was in April withdrawn, but the substance may be pur-
chased from Professor Hiltner, of Munich, in quantities sufficient to treat the seed
of a half to one acre at the price of one shilling. The United States Department of
Agriculture are so convinced of the practical utility of the improved nitragin that
they are distributing large quantities to American farmers. In this way the
material will be thoroughly tried in two hemispheres under practical conditions,
and abundant evidence should soon be forthcoming as regards its effects. It is to
be hoped that British investigators will not be deterred by past disappointments
from putting the new form of nitragin to the test.

Improvement of Varieties of Crops.

Speaking generally, the attention of agricultural investigators during the past
fifty years has been directed more to manurial and similar problems than to the
improvement of the yield of crops through the agency of superior varieties. This,
it seems to me, is the outcome of the tradition that agricultural science is based upon
chemistry, using the term in its old-fashioned and restricted sense, and as a con-
sequence farmers have looked principally to the chemical laboratory for light and
leading. It is true that much excellent work has been accomplished from the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 793

botanical side, but this has been performed rather by farmers, seedsmen, or
amateurs, than by trained botanists. But fortunately the botanist is now getting
his opportunity, and the possibilities before him are sufficiently attractive.

Judging by the results that have been obtained, it would appear that wide
divergencies as regards yield, nutritive qualities, resistance to disease, and other
important properties exist between varieties of the same plant-species ; so much so,
in fact, is this the case, that attention to the relationship between variety and
locality would appear to be one of the most important matters to which a farmer
can give consideration. But it has been found that new varieties are frequently
unstable, reverting rather rapidly to an unsatisfactory form, or displaying a lack
of power of resistance to disease. It therefore becomes necessary constantly to be
producing new varieties to take the place of those that are worn out, and it seems
reasonable to anticipate that the professional botanist will take a much larger
part in this work than has been the case in the past.

Not only is the yield of a crop greatly influenced as regards quantity and
quality by the variety of seed employed, but, as is well known to practical farmers,
the local origin of the same variety of seed has a marked influence on many pro-
perties of plants (vigour, resistance to disease, and resistance to frost, and to
weather generally), and these properties quickly react on the yield. In this
country we have a prejudice in favour of the seed of English-grown red clover,
Provence Lucerne, Scotch potatoes, Belgian flax, Ayrshire ryegrass, pine and
larch from Scotland, Norfolk and Cambridge barley, Warp-land wheat, &c., and
there seems no reason to doubt that such preferences are based upon sound
experience. ‘This subject would appear to be one that is still full of interesting:
and important possibilities, and last year I had the opportunity of seeing some
striking results in a new and unexpected direction. During the past few years
the Austrian Experimental Forestry Station of Mariabrunn has given much
attention to the influence of the local origin of the seed on the resulting trees,
especially the common spruce, and, although it is still too early to pronounce a final
judgment on the results, these are already so conspicuous as to warrant my placing
some figures before you.!

In the autumn of 1896 a supply of seed was obtained from certain definite
localities, the trees that yielded it being of varying dimensions and situated at
various altitudes. The seed was sown in the spring of 1897 in the nursery
attached to the station, and, having been transplanted into lines, a portion of the
young trees are growing there now. Others were, in 1899, planted out in a wood
(Loimannshagen) in the neighbourhood. In the autumn of 1902 the young trees
were carefully measured, with the following results :—

Height | Average An- | (isos) oF Bie rane Average
Locality of Origin above Sea- | nual Height- These Growth in |
of the Seed level ofthe} growthof | = ——sSsss Height of the
Mother- | the Mother- | I Nursery Trees,
tree tree | Inthe | In the in 1902
Wood Nursery |
‘ metres cm. cm, | cm, cm.
Piesendorf, Salzburg . 1400 | 24 62 852 34:7
5 3 é 1750 14 47 61°6 23°3 |
St. André in Karnten. 1420 25 57 711 27:1
. : 1625 18 41 51-2 18-4
= ; 1650 15 35 391 | 142
Treibach, Kirnten 900 28 56 81-6 307
; : 900 29 53 80°9 29°7
Achenthal in N. Tyrol 900 31 64 87-9 | © 29-0
Hp 5 1300 28 67 80°5 27-9
7 A 1600 26 BOP. | "ae 21°8

' Programm der vierten Versammlung des Internat. Verlandes Forstlicher Versuchs-
anstalten zu Mariabrunn, 1903, p. 47.

794: REPORT—1904.

These figures show—

1. That where, in any particular locality, mature trees were measured at dif-
ferent elevations, the tallest trees, as was to be expected, were found at the lowest
elevation.

2. That where the seed of such trees was sown the height of the resulting
trees, at the age of six years, was in close relationship to that of the mother-trees.

3. That where mother-trees of approximately equal height from the same
locality and the same elevation (Treibach) were selected, the resulting progeny
were also of approximately equal vigour.

The differences in the height-growth of the young trees are so striking as to
lead to the conclusion that the financial returns of Forestry operations may be
profoundly modified by the origin of the seed, and it would apparently pay
nurserymen and planters well to give their careful attention to this subject.

Joint or Co-operative Work.

In conclusion, I may be allowed to call your attention to a prominent feature
of experimental or demonstrational work which is found to exhibit itself in all
countries of the world where serious attention is given to the improvement of
agricultural production. While, no doubt, it is the individual who plants the
germ of a new idea and fosters its growth till it is fairly established, it is by
systematised co-operative effort that the practical value of the idea is tested, and
that the knowledge is made available and acceptable to the workaday farmer.
Various objections have been urged against field experiments, and it need not be
denied that they are incapable of supplying a satisfactory answer to many scien-
tific questions. Such experiments are exposed in no small degree to the disturbing
influences of inequalities of soil, irregular cultivation, the attack of animals, and
the vicissitudes of climate; but when reasonable precautions are taken to guard
against these, and given a sufficient number of tests, the results of field trials are
of the highest value as a guide to practice. Apart from attention to the pre-
liminary details of the scheme, and to care in carrying it out, the main point to
aim at in field-trials is to have them so frequently duplicated or repeated that the
disturbing factors inseparable from field-work will be largely eliminated. Such
duplication may take the form of repetition of the same test on the same area
year after year, when one obtains some such series of results as those that have
helped to make the reputation of Rothamsted. But however convincing may be
the results of a series of experiments that have marched majestically on for half
a century, they lack attractiveness for the investigator who desires to solve not
one but many problems during his lifetime. For him, therefore, duplication in
time gives place to duplication in space—in other words, he secures the same
end, or an end that is in many respects equivalent, by repeating the test at
several places in the same season, or in a short series of seasons, This method of
work is, of course, by no means new. It was utilised with great advantage by
the late Dr. Voelcker, and by our more recently departed friend Dr. Aitken, and
it is a line that is still being followed by the two great societies with which these
distinguished workers were so long associated. The method is also being prac-
tised extensively, chiefly through the agency of societies, in Germany, France, and
other European countries, and it has taken firm hold in the United States and in
some of our colonies. One of the largest and most successful agencies in co-
operative demonstrations is to be found in Canada, where, during the past nine
years, an average of 37,000 farmers have annually received small parcels of
improved seeds through the Government experimental organisation directed by
Dr, Saunders. It is claimed that the financial results to the country as a whole
run to many millions of dollars, and there seems to be no reasonable doubt as to
the accuracy of the statement.

I trust you will pardon my referring in this connection to a matter that is
personal to a considerable proportion of this audience, and saying that, in my

c

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 798

opinion, one of the best pieces of work that has been done in this country in recent
years is the preparation of the scheme of joint experiments by the Agricultural
Education Association. The problems set for solution under that scheme are of
the simple, direct, practical kind that field-work is thoroughly qualified to deal
with. But the essence of success lies in the power of numbers, and the control
of this factor rests with the members of the Association themselves. Now, most
of the members of that Association are not only investigators but also teachers, and
many of the institutions that they represent have recognised the advantages of
keeping in touch with their past pupils through the agency of collegiate Associa-
tions. These old students, it seems to me, represent a large mass of most valuable
material for carrying through co-operative experimental work of the class referred
to, and I am convinced that the agriculture of the country would benefit in no
small degree were this powerful agency fully utilised.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Organisation of Agricultural Research in America.
By Professor ATWATER.

2. The Improvement of Wheats and Mendel’s Laws.
By R. H. Brrren, JA.

In the past many attempts have been made to improve our farm crops by
resorting to hybridisation in the hope that some valuable character in a variety
otherwise worthless might be transferred to a better variety. In some cases
results of great value have been obtained, but in others the complications have
been too great, and unfixed varieties have found their way into commerce, whilst
in other cases skilled observers have stated that the problem of obtaining fixed
types was hopeless.

The whole work, however, has been simplified by a knowledge of the princi-
ples established by Mendel, and now in place of the former chaos we can even
predict years ahead the results to be obtained from a given cross, and isolate the
required fixtures in the second or at all events the third generation. To accom-
plish this a detailed study of each crop will be essential. The experimental work
will probably follow along the same lines for most crops, so that the case of wheat
now to be described may, for the time at all events, be taken as typical of the
experiments necessary in the case of our other crops.

On crossing two varieties, A and B, the resulting plants are all similar.
The same is true whether A or B is the female parent, and consequently B or A
the male. Some of the characters shown by the hybrid may be present in one
parent, some in the other. Characters appearing in this generation Mendel
described as ‘dominant,’ those which do not appear as ‘ recessive.’ There is no
particular virtue in a character being dominant or recessive.

In wheat the more important dominant and recessive characters are :—

Dominant. Recessive,
Lax ears, Dense ears,
Beardless ears, Bearded ears.
Rough chaff. Smooth chaff.

Grey chatf. White chaff.
Red chaff. White chaff,
Red grain. White grain.

The seeds from the hybrid are then sown and produce plants, some of which
show all dominant characters, some dominant and recessives, and some recessives
only, in proportions readily deduced from a consideration of Mendel’s laws, The

796 REPORT—1904.

plants showing recessive characters only are fixed once for all; the others may or ~
may not be fixed, but a subsequent trial of, say, fifty seeds from each form is
sufficient for a test. Ifthe progeny consists of various forms it may be neglected.
The fixtures are then grown on for field and milling tests.

3. Hybridisation of Cereals. By Joun H. Witson, D.Sc.

The author described experiments with oats, wheat, barley, turnips, potatoes,
&c. The experiments with oats are in their fourth season. The crop now ripen-
ing represents the second generation from the hybrids. Certain white varieties
were crossed one with the other, and also black ones with white. The hybrids of
the latter are of most interest. They showed decided intermediate characters, the
ears partaking of the one-sided form and the grains the black colour of the Black
Tartarian used. The brown hybrid grains produced a crop of plants which bore
pyramidal or open-headed as well as one-sided panicles, and white grains as well
as black ones. The damage done to the crop by storms was so great that it was
found impossible to say for certain what the proportion of pyramidal to one-sided
panicles was. The colour of the grains, however, could be worked out. It was
obvious that the colour of the grains is a character to be relied on, and if a
sufficiently large number of plants be taken into consideration this character will
be found to exhibit distribution in accordance with Mendel’s law. The assumption
can fairly be made that, if the condition of the crop had permitted, other characters,
especially the form of the ear, would also have been found to conform to the above
law,

The following table shows the ratios of black to white grains :—

Goldfinder 9 Black Tartarian. ¢ —

Grains Plants Black White
sown. saved, grains, grains.

1,000 567 433 154 3°23: 1
900 566 415 151 2°75:1

Black Tartarian x White Canadian—
890 32 379 153 2°-48:1

Black Tartarian x Abundance—
600 274 209 65 Be eel

The plants bearing black grains were separated from those bearing white, and
grains were selected from many single plants of each kind and sown in rows of 50
or 100 each. The crop produced by these is, at the time of writing, too green to
admit of notes regarding colour of the grain being made, but the form of the ears
can be observed in a general way. Pyramidal and unilateral ears occur in all the
six plots sown with the black and white grains of the three hybrids, but there is a
decided majority of one or other form in each plot. The general appearance of the
ad justifies one in summarising as follows with regard to the predominant form
ot the ears :—

Ratio.

co

Colour of grain sown. Form of green ear.

i : Black Unilateral

Goldfinder x Black Tartarian . ; { White Unilateral
: é : Black Pyramidal

Black Tartarian x White Canadian . { White Pyramidal
Black Tartarian x Abundance. . { ee : Peramidal

It may be assumed that if the ears could have been studied last year it would
have been found that the same condition as shown above obtained, and that the
Black Tartarian, although dominant in all cases in respect of the colour of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 797

grain, was not so where the form of the ear was concerned. So far as has been
observed, there is likelihood of the white forms of the series conforming to theory
by continuing to produce white (recessive) ones only. It remains to be seen
whether the black forms will vary in the manner required by Mendel and produce
a stated proportion of white ones.

4, The Clover Mystery : a Probable Solution.
By Rosert H. Exxior.

The great uncertainty of the clover crop is noted. The following experiment
throws light on the most common cause of failure.

One half of a field was sown with a mixture of grasses and clovers purchased
locally, and the other half with a similar mixture bought from an English seeds-
man. On both halves the clover plant was equally good after harvest, but by the
following spring every plant from the seed locally supplied failed, while the clover
from the English seedsman was still vigorous. Reasons are given to show that
such a total failure after the clover has successfully come up must be owing to
the seed having been obtained from an unsuitable climate.

Where the failures are partial it is shown that these are mainly owing to the
presence of rye grass, and partly to six minor contributory causes, the details of
which are given.

For the most economical and uniformly successful growth of the fullest clover
crops three things are mainly necessary: (1) seed from a suitable climate;
(2) land deeply supplied with humus, and deeply tilled, with the agency of
the system pursued at the Clifton-on-Bowmont demonstration and experimental
farm; and (3) the exclusion of perennial rye grass, or its use in small degree.
With these conditions and general good management an increase of at least
25 per cent. may be obtained over crops grown under ordinary circumstances, and
that, too, without any manure being used excepting, perhaps, some artificials with
the turnip crops of the rotation, Evidences from an upwards of twenty-five years’
experience on a large scale are given to show that if rye grass is excluded, or
used in small proportion, and suitable clover seed sown, fair crops of clover can
be generally relied on, and that the extensive failures that often occur are owing
partly to the seedsman and partly to the farmer.

Evidences are given to show that the failure of crops generally, and especially
from over-wet or over-dry seasons, is mainly owing to humus deficiency in the
soil.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Problems of Ecology. By Professor A. G. Tanstey, U/.A., F.L.S.

Ecology may be defined as the study of those relations of plants to their environ-
ment dependent on geographical and topographical factors. The author pointed
out that the diversity of vegetation on the earth’s surface is an ordered diversity,
in which aggregates can be distinguished owing to definite, though often extremely
complex, causes. It is very largely with topographical aggregates, due to soil,
water, and other local conditions, that ecology has to do. The study of these
topographical aggregates, or plant-associations, falls into two parts, corresponding
with the two necessary stages of all scientific investigation, the descriptive and
the experimental. It was shown that the first of these, which largely takes the
form of ecological survey and the construction of maps of vegetation, is both a
necessary and a valuable part of the study, since problems are revealed, and their
solution often indicated at least, in the course of field-work, which would not be
suspected by the experimenter in his laboratory and garden. Attention was
called to the danger of wasting time and energy over trifling features, and was

798 REPORT—1904.

found to be often due to our present ignorance of what is important and what is
not. Finally, it was pointed out that the most certain way to obtain information
in what may be described as the higher branch of ecolocy, 7.e., the detailed investi-
gation of the functional relations of plant-associations to their surroundings, is the
establishment of experimental stations in regions characterised by definite and
specialised floras.

2. Botanical Survey of Britain.’ By W.G. Suiru, B.Se., Ph.D.

Knowledge of the ecological aspect of the British flora is imperfect when
compared with recent progress in ecology; a general survey of the chief plant-
associations of Britain has so far revealed some broad principles of distribution in
relation to soil and climate. When wider areas are investigated the chief plant-
associations will be known, and their occurrence as climatic, edaphic, or biological
formations may be defined,

3. Observations on the Biology and Distribution of Woodland Plants.
By T. W. Woopneap.

4. Interglacial and Postglacial Beds of the Cross Fell District,
By Francis J. Lewis, £.L.S.

In the older peat deposits at different altitudes in Great Britain we have
vegetable remains dating back to the glacial period, and much of the bottom
layers of the low level peat mosses belong to the period of local ice sheets in
Scotland. The glacial clay itself is in some cases traversed by peat beds of
varying thickness, and the plant remains are of considerable interest as throwing
light upon the duration and climatic conditions of the several glacial and inter-
glacial periods. The plant remains of the postglacial peat also show that con-
siderable fluctuations have taken place in climate since the close of the glacial
period. So far little has been done in the way of systematically working out the
plant remains in the peat mosses of Scotland and the peat beds which in some
districts traverse the glacial clay. An examination by means of borings and
sections is now being made of the larger peat mosses by the author of this paper
with the aid of a Government grant from the Royal Society.

The present note deals with some remains in the peat of the Cross Fell district
in Cumberland which have been found in the course of a botanical survey of that
district.”

The sections described below are situated on the eastern slopes of Cross Fell
at an altitude of 2,350 feet, near Slate Sike. The total thickness of the peat at
this place is about 12 feet, resting upon 43 feet of glacial clay.

The beds are described, starting from the base of the glacial clay upwards.

The base of the clay is composed of a mass of broken shale and sandstone
mixed with stiff grey clay and merges above into very stiff blue clay containing
only a few stones, most of which are fragments of shale.

The first interglacial peat layer occurs about a foot above the base of the clay,
and consists of dry brittle peat much compressed and about 3 inches in thickness,
and very sharply marked off from the clay both above and below. The plant
remains from this layer have only yielded so far quantities of one or two mosses,
such as Camptothecium nitens, Hypnum sarmentosum. No remains of Phanero-
gams have so far been found in this layer.

In the clay and about a foot above the first bed a second peat layer occurs.
This second interglacial layer is 3-4 inches in thickness, and consists of the much

1 Published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, December 1904.

* «Geographical Distribution of the Vegetation of the Basins of the Rivers Eden,
Tees, Tyne, and Wear,’ by Francis J. Lewis, Geographical Journal, March and Sep-
tember 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 799

compressed remains of mosses with numerous fragments of Alpine willows. ‘The
following plants have been recognised :—Salix reticulata, L., Empetrum nigrum,
L., Hypnum fluitans.

The character of the peat differs from layer 1, as a fine sandy silt occurs here
mixed with the moss remains.

A third peat layer runs through the clay about a foot above the second layer,
made up of mosses, Salix herbacea, S. reticulata, and a few Empetrum stems,
The upper surface of the clay is reached a few inches above the third peat bed.

A well-marked layer of Arctic plants rests upon the surface of the clay, the
following species having been recognised :—Salex reticulata, L., S. herbacea, L.,
S. Lapponum, L., S. Myrsinites, L., 8S. Arbuscula, L. Numerous Eimpetium
stems are mixed with the willow remains.

The whole section above this layer consists of compact peat, and no further
clay occurs. The peat, however, is not of the same character throughout. Above
the Arctic plant bed the peat is chiefly composed of Sphagnum remains, and this
passes upwards into a well-defined layer of shrubby willows, the stems being about
1-3 inches in diameter. Above this Sphagnum peat is again encountered for
about 2 feet, yielding to a second layer of willow. ‘This is overlaid by Sphagnum
peat mixed with Carex sp. and Zriophorum remains. About 2 feet below the
present surface of the peat abundant remains of the rhizomes of Sedum Rhodiola
occur. The presence of this plant in such quantities near the surface of the recent
peat is of interest, as it is only found very sparingly at the present day on the
Pennines at Highcup Gill and Cronkley Scar. The present surface of the peat
shows signs of rapid and extensive denudation. Sphagnum is almost absent from
the district, and no peat appears to be forming at the present time.

5, Plants of the Northern Temperate Zone in their Transition to the High
Mountains of Tropical Africa. By Professor A. ENGLER.

_ In building up theories of the evolution of species, those types which are either
fully identical or appear as closely allied forms in widely separated localities have
always received special attention. There is a large number of cases of single
or nearly allied species which are disjointedly distributed in a north-and-south
direction across the Equator. Sir Joseph Hooker was the first to give a list of the
so-called European types on Cameroon Peak. Now we know that many species
of the same character have been found on the Kilimanjaro and other high
mountains of tropical East Africa. In considering these plants the following
questions must always be borne in mind :—

1, Are they identical with the forms living in other latitudes, or do they show
any small variation from them ?

2. Is there any possibility of their having originated from a species which was
once distributed throughout the intermediate area between the present localities,
or in the lower regions, which has developed itself into identical or convergent
highland forms in the higher regions? Or is it to be supposed that the seeds have
been brought by birds or wind across so many latitudes ?

3. What are the means of transportation of seeds and fruits ?

4, What is the power of germination? Especially, how long are the seeds able
to keep it ?

5. Ser do the plants cultivated in Europe from tropical seeds compare with
their closest relatives which are indigenous to Europe?

Experiments to answer questions 4 and 5 have not yet been instituted. But
whatever the results may be, they will not unsettle the assumption of the close
affinity of an African to a European plant when based upon morphological
comparison.

Regarding question 2, the answer is given for those plants which are isolated
in the high mountains of Africa, whereas there are many closely allied forms in
Europe, This answer is definitively settled in the case of those species whose

800 REPORT—1904.

European forms belong to a larger group of related plants developed in Europe
or in the northern temperate zone generally.

From these I shall select for discussion principally forms which, not being
represented in Egypt, are to be found only in Abyssinia or further south.

1. Having carefully compared Luzula spicata (L.), DC., in a living state in
different parts of Europe, and also the so-called Luzula spicata, var. vimensis,
Hochst., in the Kilimanjaro, I come to the conclusion that the African plant must be
separated, under the name Luzula abyssinica, Parlat, from the widely distributed
L. spicata; that nevertheless the Luzula abyssinica has branched off from the
L. spicata, which, passing to Abyssinia, suffered only few transformations; the
inflorescence became erect, the basal axillary shoots were prolonged like stolons,
and the cauline leaves became obtuse like the basal leaves.

2. Also, L. campestris (L.), DC., var. Mannii, Buchenau on Cameroon Peak,
and Z. Johnstonii, Buchenau, which must have branched off from Z. Forsterz, show
deviations from the Kuropean types in the same direction as Luzula abyssinica
from L. spicata.

3. Anthozanthum nivale, K. Schum, growing on the Kilimanjaro in two forms
at 2,700 m., above sea level, and from 3,700-3,900 m., near melting snow, can
only have branched off from A. odoratum, which in Africa is only to be found in
Algeria, and, a little transformed, in Uluguru; the plant has taken a peculiar
course of development under the climatic conditions of the upper Kilimanjaro.

A, Koeleria cristata (L.), Pers, is absent from the lower regions of tropical
Africa, but it is to be found in Abyssinia, on Kilimanjaro, and the Cameroon Peak ;
on the Kilimanjaro up to 4,500 m. We see, again, a plant which, having reached
Africa from Europe, appears in varieties and forms somewhat different from those
produced in Europe.

5. Arabis albida, Steven, which came from Southern Europe to Abyssinia and
the Kilimanjaro, is there extremely variable in size of stem and in form of leaves
from the forest region upwards nearly to the uppermost limit of siphonogamic
vegetation.

6. Subularia monticola, A. Braun, in the highest parts of Abyssinia and close
to the melting snow of the Kilimanjaro, is most nearly related to S. aquatica, L.,
in Europe.

7. Stenophragma Thalianum (U.), Alak, has been very much modified in
size in Abyssinia and on the Kilimanjaro.

8. Cerastium caespitosum, Goldb., shows many modifications in the high
mountains of Africa.

All the species mentioned so far are closely allied to plants widely distributed
in Europe, or more generally throughout the northern temperate zone of the
Old World, growing there in the lower as well as the upper regions, whereas in
Africa they are to be found only in the upper or uppermost belts. I think that
immigration took place at some earlier date, during the pluvial epoch assumed
by geologists. The differences to be seen in most of these highland forms, as com-
pared with their relatives of the northern temperate zone, are always in harmony
with the different climatic conditions. The highland flora of tropical Africa is
not very rich in-peculiar components derived from types of the lower regions.
This, again, is the cause of the enormous extension of a few species and the
amount of yet tenantless ground in the upper regions. Such ground has been
always at the disposal of any seed brought e wind or birds as long as it kept its
power of germination.

I may also be allowed to refer to some species of the forest region of
tropical Africa which, being likewise nearly allied to those of the temperate zone,
have undoubtedly not reached tropical Africa by man’s intervention, viz., Sanicula
europea, var. elata (Hamilt.), Hook. f.; Sambucus ebulus, L., var. africanus,
Engl. ; Veronica afrochamedrys, Engl.; Veronica abyssinica, Fresen.

Further, I would mention the interesting fact that the well-known Populus
euphratica, Olivier, of the Mediterranean region (in the broadest sense), has nearly
reached the Equator, and has produced there the peculiar large-fruited sub-species
Denhardtiorum, Eng.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 801

In conclusion, I should like to add to the above-mentioned cases others of
disjointed distribution which seem to be the result of other evolutions than those
of the species considered so far: Canarina abyssinica, Engl., from Gallaland ;
C. Emini Aschers, from Ruwenzori mountain; C. campanula, Lam., of the
Canary Islands; seem to indicate that Canarina is an older genus, whose species,
having travelled in more remote periods, may have formerly had wider areas;
perhaps it was indigenous even to the Mediterranean region, like the genus
Sempervivum, sect. Aconium.

With regard to the species or varieties I have enumerated, I may be allowed
to make a generalremark. One can call such modifications adaptations, but only in
this sense, that the adaptation is a passive one, caused by the physical conditions of
the climate; not an active one, corresponding to Lamarckian views.

6. Mechanical Advantage among Plant Organs.
By J. CuarK, Ph.D., BSc.

Experiments with the asymmetric leaves of certain Commelinacex plants
confirmed the view (first published by Spencer and endorsed by Goebel) that light
is a factor in bringing about their asymmetric form. Closer examination, however,
showed me that difference in light intensity is a very improbable explanation of
this asymmetry, especially as by careful measurement another explanation pre-
sented itself, in which light is an indirect factor.

It became evident that the asymmetric leaves (which only occur on dorsiventral
shoots) are differently placed with regard to the stem which bears them, from
those on radial shoots whose leaves are quite symmetric. The former, in fact,
undergo a twist, whereby one side of the leaf is drawn towards the stem, thus
bringing about a ‘hemmage’ of the sap current to that side of the leaf. By
exciuding the light factor, it is possible to obtain symmetric leaves on dorsiventral
shoots, for in this case no leaf-twist takes place.

Wider Application of the Mechanical Advantage Hypothesis.

1. Other cases of Asymmetry (Begonia leaf for example) are clearly explainable
by the above view, for the larger side of leaf is always most directly continuous
with the leaf-stalk.

2. Anisophylly.—The upper leaves on many plagiotropous branches are smaller
than the lower leaves, because, while obtaining a favourable light position, the
former must twist into an angle of disadvantage with regard to the sap current.

8. Abnormal Palmate Leaves.—The leaflet in most direct communication with
the petiole is in the most favourable position for growth.

4, Mr. Zeleny’s experiment with palmate leaves.

5. Illustration showing the probable origin of peltate leaves through rotation
of leaf lamina into a position at right angles to its petiole.

6. Substitution of a main by a side shoot.

7. The double-U form obtained by gardeners.

8. Preference of side roots for convexities.

Besides offering a very probable explanation of many interesting phenomena in
lant life, weighty evidence is brought forward against that view of plant growth and
its relation to plastic substances which recognises a mere ‘ wandering of plastic sub-
stances,’ and endorses the view of Sachs when he says: ‘Die Anregung zu den
Stoffbewegungen aber wird immer durch das Wachstum der jungen Organe
gegeben ; die Knospen eines Baumes treiben im Friihjahr nicht etwa deshalb aus,
weil, wie die Leute sagen, der Nahrungssaft in sie eindringt, sondern gerade
umgekehrt: die Nahrungsstoffe werden in Bewegung gesetzt, weil die Knospen zu
wachsen anfangen.’

7. Exhibition of Pure Cultures of Alge. By Professor R. Cuopat.

1904, 3F

802 REPORT—1904.

8, Exhibition of Micro-photographs of Freshwater Plankton.
Ly Professor G. 8S. West.

9. Exhibition af Kammatograph Photographs showing the Movements of
Plants. By Mrs. D. H. Scorv.

10. On the Artificial Formation of a New Race. By Professor G. KiEss.

ll. The Present State of our Knowledge of the Cytology of the
Cyanophycee. By Harotp WaceEr, F.2#.S.

The Cyanophyces are in their cytological structure clearly marked off from all
other groups of plants, with the possible exception of the Bacteria. The cell
contents are differentiated into two distinct regions—a central colourless one (the
nucleus) in which granules of various kinds occur, anda peripheral layer in which
the colouring matters of the cell arecontained. According to the observations of
Hegler, and more recently of Kohl, the nucleus undergoes a true process of
karyolkinesis, and the colouring matters are contained in chromatophores,

In a recent paper’ I have tried to show that the central body presents a
sufficient number of nuclear characteristics to justify us in regarding it as a
nucleus of a simple or rudimentary type, but I am not prepared to agree with
Kohl that it produces true chromosomes and spindle fibres, or that it undergoes a
normal process of karyokinesis similar to that which takes place in the higher
plants. It seems to me to be a case of direct division, or at most a rudimentary
karyokinesis.

The structure of the resting nucleus is not unlike that of the higher plants, in
that it possesses a network with chromatin granules; but any one who examines it
attentively with high powers cannot help seeing that it differs in other respects,
It does not possess a definite nuclear membrane, and there is no true nucleolus.
The network structure is not so clearly defined as the normal nuclei; it gives one
the impression that it is more of a vacuolisation than a true network. In fact, we
may possibly regard the nucleus of the Cyanophycez as produced by the vacuoli-
sation of the central region of the cell (Butschliand Chodat), and the accumulation
of chromatin granules therein ; the fusion of the vacuoles and chromatin granules
giving ultimately the appearance of a normal nuclear network.

In addition to the chromatin granules, we find inside the nucleus granules of
another kind, called by Butschli the ‘red granules.’ They were first of all seen
by Zacharias, and called by him the ‘central substance.’ Their exact nature is
not known, but they probably consist of some albuminous substance produced
by the activity of the nucleus, and may represent either a reserve substance or a
stage in the production of chromatin, or possibly a waste product. They contain
phosphorus, and stain deeply in nuclear stains.

Outside the nucleus, distributed irregularly in the cytoplasm or forming
regular rows on the transverse walls, are the cyanophycin granules. These
have characteristic reactions of their own, and are probably of the nature of albu-
minous reserve substances. In some cases they give a reaction for phosphorus, and
appear to stand in close relationship to the activities of the nucleus.

The cell also contains glycogen, often in very considerable quantities. There
is some evidence to show that this is produced as a result of assimilatiye
activity. It is always abundant in a good light, and disappears in the dark.

The colouring matters are contained in small granules in the peripheral
cytoplasm. They are considered by Hegler and Kohl to represent the chromato-

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. 72, 1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 803

phores of the higher plants, but it appears to me that they are rather to be
compared to the ‘ grana’ which are found in the chloroplast, than to the chloroplast
itself.

12. The Virgin-woods of Java. By Dr. J. P. Lorsy.

The two great forces which cause the character of these virgin-woods are
moisture and light. By the former a number of hygrophilous leaf-structures are
initiated. The author sees no reason to think that the hygrophilous structure of
such leaves as Platycentrum multangulum and Nephrodium callosum are primitive
to those genera; on the contrary, nearly allied species have leaves with a well-
differentiated palisade- and sponge-parenchyma, It seems much more probable
that these species are descendants of plants with a differentiated leaf-structure,
which in some way or other entered the virgin-wood, and whose structure was
modified by the moist atmosphere of the latter.

The author has no doubt that a good many of the characteristic features of
the virgin-wood, as the large lenticels found on many twigs, the great number of
aerial roots developed by branches of the most different species, Cawliflory, which
occurs among the most different families, are the result of a direct action of the
surroundings here of the moist atmosphere in the wood, in the same way as the
formation of aerenchyma on the stems of Lycopus enropeus when put in water is
the direct result of the action of this water.

It seems of the utmost importance not to speak of adaptation, or of direct
adaptation, in cases like these, as such terms are misleading, inasmuch as adapta-
tion should embrace only such changes in the form or structure of a plant as are
useful modifications. Or many modifications, either experimentally produced—and
I need but mention such names as Goebel, Klebs, and Véchting to brine before
your mind a number of examples—or produced by Nature, need not be advan-
tageous: they are frequently indifferent, or even harmful.

Curt Herbst has, in an interesting article published some years ago in the
‘ Biologisches Centralblatt,’ shown the existence of a number of such modifica-
tions, which he calls hydromorphoses, barymorphoses, &c.; but it seems to the
author that for all such cases one single collective term should be used, indicating
that the form of each individual plant is not a form innate to that plant, but is
the result of that which Klebs calls its specific structure and the sum of all eaternal
circumstances which have acted upon it.

Or, in other words, to put it in a drastic way, a plant has not one definite
form caused by its specific structure (on the contrary, the latter allows it, a3
Klebs especially showed, a rather large variety of forms), nor is it at liberty to
choose between a number of possible forms, but every individual has to take that
form which external circumstances force upon it.

The form which an individual plant takes is consequently neither the only
form which it could make under any circumstances nor a choice between a
number of possible forms, but a form forced upon it, or, to use a Greek word: a
BIAIOMORPHOSE.

It seems to the author that the introduction of this or an equivalent word would
do good service, especially in making clear the opinions regarding direct adaptation
and similar questions. In his opinion direct adaptation savours too much
of teleology, and gives rise too easily to misconception, as if the plant thought out
the consequences of the one or the other measure to prevent mischief, while the
word biaiomorphose says nothing more than it means, viz., expresses the fact
that the surroundings mould the plastic plant-body into the form which we see.

It seems, therefore, preferable to call such cases, as described above, cases of
biaiomorphose, caused by the moisture of the virgin-wood, and to limit the word
adaptation to those referred to below. The author thinks it highly probable that
many useful structures have arisen accidentally as biaiomorphoses, together with
a large number of useless or even harmful ones,

The latter, if sufficiently harmful, disappeared in the struggle for life; the
former might either perish or remain along with the first. This would depend

3F2

804 REPORT—1904.

on the intensity of the struggle, while if the struggle be very intense those
biaiomorphoses which were from the beginning useful, although but accidentally
so, will survive. These are the adaptations proper.

SuB-SECTION—AGRICULTURE.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Analysis of the Soil by means of the Plant.
By A. D. Hatt, ILA.

In view of the many difficulties attaching to the interpretation of soil
analyses as a guide to the manurial requirements of the soil, attempts have
been made from time to time to use the living plant as an analytical agent.
It is well known that while the ash of a given plant possesses a characteristic
composition, variations in the proportion of constituents like the potash or
phosphoric acid will take place to a certain extent in response to the manuring.
Investigations on the utility of the analysis of plant ashes to ascertain the needs
of the soil for specific mineral manures have been undertaken by Heinrich,
Helmkampf, and others, and particularly by Atterberg, who used oats as his test

lant.

To try the agreement between this method and analysis of the soil, further
experiments were begun in 1902 with oats grown in pots containing six soils of
very different types. Although in certain striking cases both methods agreed in
their results, there was no strict measure of consistency between the two sets of
figures, while the variations between the material grown in duplicate pots of the
same soil were often greater than that between different soils.

For further information the data accumulated in the Rothamsted experiments
were consulted, and analyses of wheat, barley, mangels, and potatoes from certain
of the plots were compared with the analyses of the soil of the same plots. In
dealing with cereals it is necessary to examine the whole plant, the composition
of the grain fluctuates but little with the manuring ; any deficiency of a particular
constituent will result in less grain being formed, while any excess will be left
behind in the straw. From these Rothamsted results it seemed that though the
composition of the plant did reflect that of the soil, yet the range of variation
shown by the plant was less than that indicated by soil analysis. The ash of
the root crops showed, however, a wider range of variation, and, in view of the
greater sensitiveness of root crops to the lack of mineral plant foods as compared
with the comparative indifference of the cereals, they seemed likely to prove better
test plants to indicate the need or otherwise of specific mineral manures.
Samples of potatoes, mangels, and of swedes were obtained during 1903 from
experimental plots in various parts of the country, where the field trials indicated
a reaction to phosphoric acid or potash manuring; analyses of the ash were made
and compared with the analyses of the soil. The results indicate that the
analysis of the ash of the swede plant would often provide a better indication of
the phosphoric acid requirements of the soil than does the analysis of the soil
itself, and that similarly the mangel plant will serve to test the state of the soil
as to potash. A greater number of data as to the limits of normal variation in
the composition of the ash are, however, wanted before the method can be
employed for practically testing the soil.

2. The Probable Error of Agricultural Field Experiments.
By A. D. Haun, M.A.

Field experiments upon crops are subject to various sources of error: (1) errors
incident to the operations of measuring the plot, applying the manure, &c.,
gathering and weighing the produce ; (2) errors due to permanent inequalities of
the soil brought about by differences in texture and composition, variations in the
subsoil, drainage, &c., which errors again may vary with the season; (3) errors

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION K. 805

due to temporary differences in the soil caused by previous inequalities of manage-
ment or cropping, by the unequal incidence of pests and diseases, or by the indi-
viduality of the plants.

Of these sources of error, (1) diminishes with the skill of the experimenter and,
to a certain extent, with the size of the plot; (2) can only be corrected by
enlarging the number of the plots receiving the same treatment ; (3) can be
minimised by continuing the experiment for a sufficient number of years, The
Rothamsted experiments afford several cases which enable one to estimate the
magnitude of the errors (2) and (8), cases where there are two plots receiving
treatment which is wholly or nearly identical, so that both plots are likely to be
similarly affected by the season. The method adopted has been to reduce each
year’s results for the two plots to a uniform standard, taking the mean of the two
plots as 100, thus eliminating seasonal fluctuations and giving each year the same
weight in taking out a mean over the whole period. The results are plotted to
show graphically the individual variations from the mean; the probable error of
the mean result and the mean error of a single result are calculated by the method
of least squares.

For example, taking forty-nine years’ results of the two unmanured plots on
the grassland mown for hay every year, the true means of the two plots are in
the ratio 94°3 : 105°7, with a probable error of +0°8. The average deviation of a
single year’s result from the mean result for that plot amounts to +815. There
is thus a permanent difference of about 11 per cent. in the yield of the two plots,
due to differences of soil and situation ; this represents the magnitude of errors (2).
Putting the two sets together to represent the ideal unmanured plot we obtain a
probable error of 40°67 in the mean result, and an average deviation of any
single result from the mean of +9°9. As unmanured plots are subject to greater
sources of error, the results of other manured plots were examined by the same
method, with the following results :—

| Average Devia-
Cro | Sizeof . Durationof | Probable Error tion of Single
P | Plots | Comparison | of Mean Result Result from
Mean
Acre Years Per cent.
| Hay . - { 49 | + 0'8 + 815
| Wheat . oe = 52 + 0°6 + 6°2
Wheat . 5 52 +0°8 £82
Barley . rr 40 + 0°43 +40
Mangels } 28 +0°5 + 4°0

The observations are rarely numerous enough to permit of plotting the
differences from the mean to see if they yield a normal curve of error. Other
cases are discussed to ascertain the probable error when several plots are employed
or the experiments continued over a short period ; certain sources of error in the
interpretation of the results of field experiments were also considered, In general,
it is concluded that the probable error of any single plot result is not less than
10 per cent.

3. The Determination of the Availability of Insoluble Phosphate in
Manures. By T. 8. Dymonp, £.J.C., and Grorce CuarKe, 4.2.0.

Many suggestions have been made in recent years for the use of a solvent for
phosphatic manures which, while dissolving that part of the phosphate which is
quickly attacked in the soil and available as plant food, leaves the remainder
unacted upon. The two most largely employed solvents are a weak solution of
citric acid, and a stronger solution of citric acid partly neutralised by ammonia.

The authors have had occasion to use both these solvents in the analysis of a
large number of samples of basic slag (among other manures). They find that the
phosphate dissolved by the acid ammonium citrate solution per cent. of total
phosphate is generally lower the higher the percentage of total phosphate in the

806 REPORT—1904.

basic slag. With the weak citric acid solution this is not the case, so that the
results of the two methods of analysis are contradictory.

It is very remarkable that the weak citric acid solution dissolves more phos-
phate from basic slag than the acid ammonium citrate solution, although the
latter contains more free acid. This is doubtless because citric acid contains
one =COH.COOH group and two —CH,.COOH groups; and the former group,
being the more strongly acid, is the first to be neutralised by the ammonia. The
acid ammonium citrate solution therefore acts as a solvent in virtue only of the
—CH,.COOH groups it contains, while the weak citric acid solution contains
the stronger =COH.COOH group in addition. The former solution would there-
fore be likely to have a more discriminating action as a solvent, and to give analytical
results of greater value as far as the availability of the phosphate is concerned.

The authors are not satisfied, however, with the use of the acid ammonium
citrate as a solvent in analysis. In the first place it is extremely troublesome to
work with, and in the second place it in no way resembles the solvents at work in
the soil, the soil water being usually alkaline, not acid. The same two objections
can be urged against the use of a solution of carbonic acid which the authors have
tried but abandoned. The principal solvents in the soil are undoubtedly bi-
carbonates, and it therefore occurred to them to make experiments with these.

Of the bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and ammonium,
the bicarbonate of ammonium solution is by far the best solvent for phosphate of
lime. The following reaction probably occurs :—

Ca,2PO, + 8NH,IICO, =Call,2PO, + 4(NH,),CO, + 2CaH,2CO,,

whereas in the case of sodium bicarbonate probably no CaH,2PO, is formed, but
a mixture of CalIPO, (insoluble) and Na,HPO,; and, at any rate, no complete
solution can be obtained, however small the quantity of Ca,2PO, taken.

The presence of ammonium carbonate in the solution of ammonium bicarbonate
does not influence its solvent action. Ilence, the authors used in their experi-
ments a saturated solution of the ‘carbonate of ammonia’ of commerce. That
such a solution is far more convenient to work with than either citric acid or acid
ammonium citrate is obvious, since it is only necessary after extracting a sample
of basic slag with the solvent to filter and evaporate to dryness to get a residue of
nearly pure phosphate and carbonate of calcium,

The analytical process adopted is as follows:—Digest one gram of the
sample of basic slag with 200 c.c. of the saturated solution of ‘carbonate of
ammonia,’ shaking from time to time, for twenty-four hours. The flask should be
closed with an indiarubber cork, wired on to prevent loss of carbonic acid gas and
precipitation of calcium carbonate. Filter, and wash the residue with cold water,
evaporate the filtrate and washings to dryness, and determine the phosphate in the
residue in the usual way.

A number of experiments made with various samples of basic slag showed that
the quantity of phosphate dissolved was not appreciably increased either by
increasing the time of digestion or increasing the volume of solvent.

The results of analysis of four samples of basic slag are compared with those
obtained by other solvents in the following table :—

|

No. of Total Tricalcic phosphate | Tricalcic phosphate | Tricalcic phosphate |

sample | tricalcic dissolved by acid dissolved by 1 per | dissolved by satu- |

of | phosphate citrate of ammonium!) cent. citric acid solu- rated carb. of ammonia,

/ basic per cent. | solution per cent. of tion per cent. of solution per cent. of |

| slag of slag total phosphate total phosphate total phosphate |
|

| 1 | 25-94 916 920 10°9 |

2 | 30-00 89°3 | 91:2 40-4 |

| 3 36°15 80:3 93-4 10-4 |

4 43:10 84°6 | 863 40:2 |

* 150 grams citric acid and 27-9 grams ammonia in 1,000 e.c,

Further experiments are in progress.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 807

4, The Influence of Sulphates as Manure upon the Yield and Feeding-
value of Crops. By T. 8. Dymonp, P.J.C., F. Hucues, and
C, JuPE.

A determination of the sulphuric acid in twenty Essex soils showed that they
contained on the average ‘051 per cent. of SO,, an amount hardly more than
one-third the percentage of the phosphoric acid in the same soils. Even this
small amount of sulphuric acid is by no means entirely in a soluble state. The
extraction of a soil by a 1 per cent. citric acid solution yielded only one-eighth
of that extracted by concentrated hydrochloric acid, pointing to the existence in
the soil of insoluble basic sulphates. In the light of these results, it may well be
asked whether the available sulphuric acid in soils is sufficient for crops; for,
taking the average composition of ordinary farm crops, the sulphuric acid absorbed
amounts to 254 Ths. per acre, z.c. almost as much as the phosphoric acid, which
amounts to 28 lbs.

Field experiments have been made in Essex upon the use of sulphate as manure
for oats (two experiments), cabbages (three experiments), peas (two experiments),
and permanent pasture. In the case of chalky soils the sulphate was applied in
the form of gypsum ; in the case of non-chalky soils in the form of sulphate of
ammonium, as against chloride of ammonium. Except in the case of the
cruciferous crop, the result was negative, the crops being’ more often decreased
than increased by the application. In the case of the cabbages, 7.e. the crop
richest in combined sulphur, the application of sulphate increased the crop in each
of the three experiments.

That with so small a quantity of sulphuric acid in the soil the crops yet find,
as a rule, enough for their requirements is remarkable; but it must be remem-
bered, in the first place, that rain-water contains an appreciable quantity of
sulphuric acid, amounting in the case of a sample analysed at Chelmsford to
1 part per 100,000. This for the average annual rainfall in Essex during the
years 1895-1903 (500,000 gallons per acre) amounts to 50 lbs. SO, per acre, or
double the requirements of average farm crops. In the course of some pot-culture
experiments it was found that maize, clover, vetches, oats, mustard, and peas,
even when grown in sand washed free from sulphate by hydrochloric acid, failed
to respond to sulphate-manuring when exposed to the rain, and it was only when
kept under cover during rain and watered with distilled water that striking
differences were observed.

Tn the second place, Berthelot and André have shown that the total sulphur
in soils they examined amounted to nearly eight times the sulphur in the form of
sulphate, the principal part of the sulphur being in the form of organic sulphur
compounds. The present authors tind that in the presence of fermentative
organisms a fairly rapid oxidation of this organic sulphur takes place. A soil was
sterilised by heating at 100° for 1} hour on two successive days. One part was
inoculated with soil-washings, the other not. Air, previously heated, was passed
over both for 70 hours at the rate of 3 litres per hour. At the end of this
period the sterilised soil contained 0256 per cent. of SO,; the inoculated soil
contained as much as ‘0339, an increase of ‘0083 per cent., produced by
fermentation.

The question now arises whether, although crops grown under ordinary con-
ditions do not respond in yield to sulphate-manuring, the application of sulphate
may not influence the composition and feeding-value, and especially the proportion
of albuminoids, which are, as a rule, sulphur compounds. For this inquiry a long
series of determinations have been carried out of the total albuminoid nitrogen
and sulphur in crops grown with and without sulphate of lime in presence of
abundance of chalk. The crops included vetches, mustard, and oats grown in soil
in pots, oats, mustard, and vetches grown in sand in pots, and grass and clover
grown in the field. The sulphur was determined by Berthelot and André’s

808 REPORT—1904.

combustion method ; the nitrogen by the usual methods. The results of the whole
series are averaged in the following table :—

Per Cent. | Per Cent. Albuminoid
— of | of Albu- N. per Cent. | PerCent.of S.
Total N. | minoid N, | of Total N.
Sulphur applied ‘ : 2°026 1:269 | 60°422 403
No sulphur applied . . 1:754 1:130 63°338 317

In every single case the percentages of total nitrogen and albuminoid nitrogen and
of sulphur were increased by the application of sulphate as manure. The pro-
portion of albuminoid nitrogen to total nitrogen varied ; in the case of clover,
grass, mustard, and maize it was decreased ; and in the case of vetches and oats
it was increased by the application of sulphate.

These results are remarkable, and may have an important bearing on the
question of the frequently noticed differences in the feeding-value of pastures and
root crops. Further experiments are being made.

5. The Improvement of Poor Clay Soils by White Clover and other
Leguminos. Sy Professor T, H. Mippieron, M.A.

In the following table will be found some results obtained in six experiments
on poor pastures in the counties of Northumberland, Cambridge, Essex,
Northampton, Hampshire, and Norfolk. The figures give the increase in the
live weight of sheep produced by the action of various manures on pastures.
The soils in the first five cases varied from strong loam to clay, and the results are
the average figures of three years. The Norfolk soil was sandy, and the figures
for this station are averages for two years only :—

| Average Increase over Unmanured Land per Acre per Annum
| for Three Years
a | | bar
ge a | qd @
. Tr Wavy Boo] = x, (Ny vier ; Se
No. Treatment per Acre AA 2 Pie Ka FI | ee Elbe So Sas
Sq eS AS o.2 oR moe eS g'o % Sp
~e| 98 | 38 | 38 | #8 | ge | 88 | bea
Sge } ee | aS] Se | BS) ER See See
28] 83 a Of | w eae
ove O6 o 4
Of Z ae
M Ay
o i
Ib 1b Ih Ieee etl ay | ib Ib Ib.
1 200 lb. phos, acid in 27 107 85 68 56 44 —95 69
basic s'ag | |
2 | 100 1b, phos. acid in 134 44 64 30 PR ee — 3304)
basie slag. |
3 | 100 Ib. phos, acid in 19 42 57 18 95. . 3h | ae a4 |
superphosphate. | | |
(200 lb. ones acid in | |
| superphosphate, : 9 | - » |
4 |4egib, nitrogen in a} e a8 = me = sass RI “
phate of ammonia. | |
(Re lb, phe acid aia| | |
superphosphate. |) a a 7 Q) Rabelt
2 Wes tbe pole ie eul-{' Bigs s (004 mi x a a a ha
phate or kainit, | |
6 100 Ib. phos, acid in | 43 55 — — 49 27. | = d4
superphosphate and | |
1 ton ground lime. | | |
7 4 tons quicklime. 64 2 —- |) = 14 4°00") cme ae 6

ee ee eee eee ee
* Plots 3 and 5 received 200 lb, phos. acid in superphosphate, and Plot 5 50 Ib. potash in kainit

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 809

It will be seen that phosphatic manures have. produced a large increase
(Plots 1, 2, 8); that a nitrogenous manure has had little effect (Plot 4); that
otash and lime in conjunction with phosphates have caused a moderate increase
(Plots 5 and 6); and that lime by itself has had little effect, except at one station,
where there was a moderate increase (Plot 7). It will further be noticed that in
three of the five cases in which phosphates have proved beneficial the larger
application of phosphatic manure has produced twice, or more than twice, the
increase yielded by the smaller (half) quantity, although the latter would, in the
opinion of farmers, be a liberal dressing. The normal action of manures is strictly
governed by the ‘ law of diminishing returns, and this exception indicates that the
benefit produced by phosphates on the herbage is not of the direct or ordinary kind.
Inspection of the plots further shows that the immediate action of a phosphatic
manure is on the Leguminosae only, and that the marked improvement which
gradually takes place in the gramineous herbage is due to the soil-improving
qualities of leguminous plants.

Proof that phosphatic manures do not benefit the pasturage on poor clay soils
in the absence of Leguminose is furnished by an experiment at Wenden Lofts in
Essex. The soil was in every way adapted to the action of basic (phosphatic)
slag, but as no Leguminose could he found it was surmised that slag would not
improve the herbage. Some plots were marked off and manured with phosphates,
potash, and lime alone, and in combination ; on other plots white clover (Trifolium
repens) was sown, and some of the sown plots were treated with phosphates.
None of the manures produced any effect on the natural herbage. Where clover
was sown on unmanured land it grew, but the plants were small and valueless.
Where phosphates were applied, however, there was a luxuriant growth, similar
to that found on the Cockle Park pastures after treatment with basic slag.

The failure of phosphates to benefit the Trowse pasture (see table) was not
due to the absence of leguminous herbage, but to the dry character of the soil.
Rapid growth and the benefits which follow it are impossible in the absence of
a plentiful supply of moisture. Hence a marked improvement from phosphatic
manures is usually seen only on medium and heavy soils. With a high and con-
tinuous summer rainfall light soils would, however, show improvement. Of
ordinary Leguminose, Trifolium repens is by far the most valuable in improving
the soils of pastures. When properly fed and supplied with moisture it is capable
of developing at an extraordinary rate. It is especially luxuriant when growing
in association with Agrostis, which shelters it in winter and makes way for it in
summer, In the presence of grasses which form a close turf white clover grows
comparatively slowly. Next to Trifolium repens, Medicago lupulina is probably
most useful in improving poor soils. It grows very luxuriantly in damp seasons.
Trifolium minus and Lotus corniculatus are also of considerable value. The
latter has been very abundant this year. Trifoliwm pratense is most useful where
it grows, but it does not cover the surface so uniformly as the others, and it
disappears more readily.

The application of basic slag to pastures is now very common, but there have
been no systematic attempts to utilise it in conjunction with white clover in such
a way as to produce the maximum effects on the soil; and of the 93 millions of
acres now under pasture in England it is likely that at least two millions might be
improved so as to leave a net profit of 5s. per acre per annum if the white clover
plant were cultivated as skilfully as most of our farm crops are.

6. A New Method of Forming Nitrites and Nitrates.
By Epwaxp Joun Russ, D.Sc., and Norman Situ, M.Sc.

Whilst studying the oxidation of phosphorus in moist air the authors
observed that ammonium nitrite and nitrate are invariably formed in this reaction,
even when both air and phosphorus are carefully purified beforehand. Other
oxidations have now been investigated, and in a number of cases the reaction
appears to be accompanied by a simultaneous oxidation of nitrogen of the air,

810 REPORT—1904.

IIydrogen peroxide has long been recognised as a product of oxidation, but so far
as the authors are aware the formation of nitrites and nitrates has not before been
noticed.

The experiments have been carried out as follows:—A platinum dish contain-
ing the oxidisable substance and pure distilled water was placed in an empty
desiccator, supported over a large dish of sulphuric acid and covered with a bell-
jar to prevent free access of outside air. A second exactly similar apparatus was
put up as a control, the platinum dish containing water alone. The two were
allowed to stand side by side in sunlight for eight days and their contents then
tested. The results obtained are set forth in the following table. It will be observed
that on no occasion did the control experiment show the presence of either
ammonia, nitrite, or nitrate.

Substance in Dish Ammonia

| | Nitrite Nitrate |

| : Je eS OES Sieg AE

| UAV ALCL 0 Be hs oe cstwt! Feb ied cape Nil | Nil Nil
Iron . : ; : , ; ‘ Some | Nil Nil

Pe Abr iee ; , , . : : 5 Some le NG Some

| Magnesium j : : : j , Some | Some Little

| Manganese chloride + sodium carbonate . | Small quantity, Much Some

| Ferrous sulphate + sodium carbonate . Much | Some Much

Negative results were obtained with tin, stannous hydroxide (stannous chloride
+ sodium carbonate), cuprous chloride, cuprous hydroxide (cuprous chloride
+ sodium carbonate), and tartaric acid.

Sunlight favours this autoxidation; it is doubtful, in fact, whether it takes
place in the dark.

The reaction apparently goes on in soils. A soil rich in humus was washed to
remove ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates as far as possible; it was then placed into
the apparatus for a few days. All three substances were found to have formed
in very distinct amounts.

7. The Chemical Composition of Different Varieties of Mangels.
By T. B. Woop, J.A4., and R. A. Berry, 7.0.0.

A considerable number of well-known varieties of mangels were grown on the
University Farm at Impington, near Cambridge, on a medium loam soil, and at
four stations in Norfolk, and one in Bedfordshire. Two seasons’ crops have already
been harvested and examined. Samples were taken in the form of horizontal
cores through the greatest diameter of the root, and at least fifty roots were cored
from each plot. The dry matter was determined by drying at about 65° C. to
constant weight duplicate samples of fifty cores each. These were then ground
and used for the determination of nitrogen by Kjeldabl’s method (salicylic acid
modification, as the roots contain nitrates),

The sugar was determined in the juice expressed from the pulped cores. The
juice was first clarified with basic lead acetate, and then polarised, inverted by
Clerget’s method, and polarised again. It was found that in the autumn, when
the roots were examined, the sugar was nearly aJl cane sugar with ‘] to ‘5 per
cent. of dextrose.

The two years’ systematic examination shows clearly that mangels, leaving
out a few new and peculiar varieties, may be divided into four classes, each with
definite characters.

Group I—- Yellow Globe.—Yellowish skin, nearly white flesh; a very large
cropper on all the soils on which it has been tried. Low percentages of dry
matter and sugar; average percentage of nitrogen, less than one-third of which is

roteid.
4 The various seedsmen’s strains, such as Sutton’s Prize Winner, Webb’s
Smithfield, Carter's Windsor, are all practically identical. ;

Grovur II.— Golden Globe.—Orange skin, deep yellow flesh; a very fair

cropper on all the soils on which it has been tried. High percentages of dry

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ke 811

matter and sugar. Average percentage of nitrogen, about two-fifths of which is
roteid.

F The various seedsmen’s strains are similar, but not identical either in

appearance or composition.

Group Ill.—Golden Tankard.—Similar to the above in every point but
shape. Contain slightly lower percentages of dry matter, sugar, and nitrogen,
but rather more of the nitrogen is proteid.

The seedsmen’s strains are again similar, but not quite identical.

Grovr 1V.—Lony Red.—Red skin, white flesh with pink rings ; large cropper
on sufficiently deep and good soils. High percentage of dry matter and sugar ;
low percentage of nitrogen, but about half the nitrogen is proteid. =

On soils that suit it, Long Red gives more dry matter per acre than any other
variety. The various seedsmen’s strains appear to be identical.

The above groups include all the commonly grown varieties except the Inter-
mediates, which much resemble the Golden Tankards, but are rather more spindle-
shaped and lighter in colour, yield rather heavier crops, and contain rather smaller
percentages of dry matter and sugar. In addition to the commonly grown varieties,
three less well known ones were tried :—

Long Yellow, which resembles Long Red in shape and in chemical composition,
but has a yellow colour and is a lighter cropper.

Crimson Tankard.--A. distinct variety which has a tankard shape and the
colour of the Long Red, but does not crop well on the soils on which it has been
tried. It contains fairly high percentages of dry matter and sugar, about equal to
the other tankards.

Sugar Mangel—A hybrid between Long Red and the sugar beet, which
contains a very high percentage of sugar and dry matter, but crops poorly, buries
itself too deeply in the soil, and still splits into red, white and pink individuals.

8. Variation in the Chemical Composition of Mangels.
By T. B. Woop, M.A., and R. A. Berry, F.LC.

During the last two seasons ubout 400 samples, each consisting of at least
fifty cores, have been examined for percentage of dry matter and sugar, and in
many cases nitrogen. In addition, the dry matter has been determined in about
1,000 individual roots, and the sugar and proteid and non-proteid nitrogen in 100.
It has been found that very wide variation occurs, due to (1) variety, (2) soil and
climate, (3) season, (4) manuring, (5) individuality. The extent of the variation
in each case is briefly noted below.

Variety.—Yaking, first, percentage of dry matter, the worst variety at each
station in each season contained only about two-thirds as much dry matter as the
best. A crop of 20 tons per acre of the best variety would therefore contain as
much food as a 30-ton crop of the worst variety.

The variation in content of sugar and nitrogen is between much the same
limits.

Soil.—Variation due to differences of soil and climate is considerably less ; the
ratio of the average percentages of dry matter in eight varieties at the worst and
best stations is 100: 114. The heavier soils gave roots of the better quality.

Season.—Seasonal variation appears to be smaller still, but neither 1902 nor
1908 were extreme seasons, so that greater variation may be met with in the
future. The ratio of the average percentages of dry matter in all the varieties
grown in both years is 100 : 109, the percentage being higher in 1902.

Manuring.—Only one series of experiments on this subject has been worked
through, and the variation due to manuring in the ordinary course of farm
practice appears to be quite small (100: 107), Vurther work is necessary before
anything definite can be stated.

Individuality—It is when individual roots are examined that the greatest
variation is found, Thus, in 200 roots of one variety, all grown side by side on the

812 > REPORT—1904.

same plot, the lowest percentage of dry matter was only 10°7, and the highest
19:7, the ratio being 100: 184. In three other varieties the ratios came out
100 : 183; 100: 184; 100 : 179.

The sugar and nitrogen vary still more widely. In 100 individual roots of one
variety, grown side by side on the same plot, the following were the limits :—

Ratio.
Highest percentage of sugar eee BILL OV 100 : 190
Lowest percentage of sugar So Lid | ’ y 5
Highest percentage of nitrogen . "25 | 100 : 280
Lowest percentage of nitrogen. 094 ° i ‘ :

Throughout the examination of the individual roots careful records have been
kept of the shape, size and colour of each root which has been sampled and exa-
mined. Shape and colour do not appear to be in any way correlated with any
peculiarity of chemical composition, As regards size, a mixed sample from fifty
large roots is certain to contain a lower percentage of dry matter and sugar than
a mixed sample from fifty small roots of the same variety grown under identical
conditions, but there is nothing like inverse proportionality between size of root
and percentage of dry matter. Among the 1,000 roots examined many large ones
have been found containing high percentages of dry matter, and vice versa. By
saving such Jarge roots with high percentages of dry matter for seed-mothers it
should be possible to improve the race.

Again, there appears to be no definite correlation between percentages of dry
matter, sugar, and proteid and non-proteid nitrogen. Hach appears to vary inde-
pendently of the rest. It should therefore be possible, by continuously selecting
as seed-mothers roots of definite composition, to change the composition of the
race in any desired direction. Experiments of this kind are already in progress on
the University Farm.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Forms of Stems of Plants. By Lorp Avesury, D.C.L., FBS.

Some plants have round stems, some square, some triangular, some pentagonal.
No doubt there are reasons for these and other forms, but the author found no
explanation in botanical works,

It is, of course, important for plants, as for architects, to obtain the greatest
strength with the least expenditure of material. To do this it is necessary that
the plant should be equally liable to rupture at every point when the strain is
equal. If not, it is obvious that a certain amount of material may be removed
from the strongest part without increasing the danger of rupture. If the stem of
a plant, or any other pillar, is affected by pressure—say of wind—one side will be
extended and the other compressed, while between them will be a neutral axis,
and both extension and compression will be greatest along the surface farthest
from the neutral axis. It follows, therefore, that the strongest form is where
the material is collected as far as possible from the neutral axis. The two bars
cannot, however, be entirely separate, and must therefore be connected by a bar or
bars. This is the origin of the well-known girder (fig. 1).

If the forces to be resisted act in two directions at right angles to one another,
two girders must be combined, one at right angles to the other.

It the forces act in all directions, a circular series of girders will be required,
as Schwendener and others have pointed out. This is the case in the stems of
trees, where the woody fibres form a ring, only separated in places by what are
aoe as the ‘medullary’ rays. ‘This is the reason for the prevalent round form
of stems.

The question then arises, Why is this form not universal? As regards plants
having quadrangular stems, it may be pointed out that when the leaves were

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 813

in opposite pairs, each pair at right angles to those above and below, as, for instance,
in the dead nettle, the strain of the wind would be mainly in two directions, and
the ‘double girder’ (fig. 2) would be the best form. Ifso we should expect to
find quadrangular stems associated with opposite leaves. The author then took
the British flora, and showed that plants with quadrangular stems always have
opposite leaves, and that plants with opposite leaves have generally, though with
exceptions, quadrangular stems. The reasons for these exceptions were then
considered.

Passing to triangular stems, it was pointed out that they might be accounted for
by the same considerations. Many Monocotyledons, but not all, have the leaves in
threes. Sedges, for instance, all have more or less triangular stems, while in

Fig, 1. Fig. 2.

grasses they are round. Now, sedges have leaves in threes, while in grasses they
are distichous, z.e. in two rows or ranks,

In plants with pentagonal stems the same relation prevails. The bramble, for
instance, has a stem more or less pentagonal, and the leaves are in whorls of fives,
a character, as he incidentally observed, which throws light on the number of
petals and sepals. The petals represent a whorl of leaves, and asarule, when the
whorl consists of five leaves, the flower has five petals and five sepals; while when
the leaves are opposite a whorl would consist of four leaves, as, for instance, in
veronica, where also there are four petals.

Thus, then, the author finally remarked, plants have worked out for themselves,
millions of years ago, principles of construction so as to secure the greatest
strength with the least expenditure of materials, which have been gradually
pupled to the construction of buildings by the skill and science of our architects
and engineers,

2. On Recent Researches on Parasitic Fungi.
By Professor H. Marsuati Warp, /.2.S.

3. On the Vegetative Life of some Uridiner.
By Professor Jako Eriksson.

4. On the Development of the Aicidium of Uromyces Pox, and on the Life-
History of Puccinia Malvacearum. By V. H. Burackman and Miss
Hexen C, I. Fraser.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Sunshine and CO,-Assimilation : an Account of Experimental
Researches. By Dr. F, F. Buackman and Miss Marrnaet.

814 REPORT—1904.

2. Struggle for Pre-eminence and Inhibitory Stimuli in Plants.
By Professor L. Errera.

Vegetable physiology, like animal physiology, presents a great number of cases
of suspensory stimuli, or inhibitory phenomena: arrest of growth of the fructiferous
filament of Phycomyces during the formation of the sporangium ; influence of
wounds on the growth, and irritability of certain organs (traumatic shock) ;
retarding effect of light on elongation, &c. It is also in this way that the influ-
ence exercised by the apex of many plants on the subjacent ramifications with
which it finds itself in some way struggling for pre-eminence can best be understood.

The apex of Picea excelsa, for instance, hinders the side-branches from rising
geotropically. If one suppresses it, or if it is notably weakened, a conflict for
supremacy obtains between the branches themselves; generally one of the branches
nearest the summit, or the strongest among equidistant ones, prevails and forms
a new summit. The apex continues to make itself felt even after the removal of
a ring of bark; its action then probably proceeds through the living cells of the
pith and the medullary rays. On the other hand, in the Arauwcarias (where the
regeneration of the summit is effected hy new buds, and not by the rising of
already developed branches) the action of the apex is conducted by the bark,
and an annular incision is equivalent to cutting off the top.

Several arguments can be quoted to support the existence of inhibitory stimuli
emanating from the apex, and the production of ‘suckers’ (gourmands) and of
‘witches’ brooms’ can be connected with it.

3. On the Proteases of Plants.

By Professor 8. H. Vinks, 7.2.5.

As the result of observations made in the course of the last three years, of
which accounts have been published from time to time in the ‘ Annals of Botany,’
I have demonstrated the very general occurrence of proteases in all parts of

lants.

c With regard to the nature of the proteases, it has been ascertained, in the first
place by means of the tryptophane-reaction, that their action is peptolytic—that
is, that they decompose peptones and albumoses into non-proteid substances such
as leucin, tyrosin, and other amido-acids. In no case was peptonisation observed
without peptolysis; whence it follows that the proteases are not of the nature of
pepsin, but rather correspond to either the trypsin or the erepsin of the animal
body.

It has been found that in certain cases the juices or extracts of plants can
peptonise fibrin, indicating the presence of a tryptic protease; but more com-
monly they do not possess this capacity, The following are instances of the
peptonisation of fibrin :—

Pine-apple (juice); papain (solution); nepenthes (pitcher-liquid); yeast
(extract); mushroom (extract); cucumber (juice) ; melon (juice); wheat-germ
(extract); asparagus (juice); Phytolacca decandra (extract of leaves); fig
(extract of leaves).

It may be inferred that a tryptic protease is present in these plants.

It is not necessary to give a list of cases in which peptolysis of albumoses and
peptones (as contained in the commercial preparation known as Witte-peptone)
has been observed; it appears that the juice or watery extract of almost any
part of any plant can effect this process. Although fibrin is not digested in these
cases, yet any proteid matter naturally present in the juice or extract is digested
(autolysis). Hence it may be inferred that an ereptic protease is present.

I have found in the yeast and the mushroom that both a tryptic and an
ereptic protease are present; no doubt other cases of such an association of
proteases, analogous to that of the ‘trypsin’ of animals, remain to be discovered.

It may be stated generally that these proteases are most active at the natural
degree of acidity of the juices or extracts,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 815

It is, however, quite possible that the protease here described as ‘ tryptic’
may be found to be a mixture of erepsin with a pepsin.

4, Sexuality in Zygospore Formation. By Dr, A, F, BuaKESLEE.

1, The production of zygospores in the Mucorinew is conditioned primarily
by the inherent nature of the individual species, and only secondarily by external
factors.

2, According to their method of zygospore formation, the Mucorinee may be
divided into two main groups, which have been termed respectively homothallic
and heterothallic.

3. In the homothallic group, comprising the minority of the species, zygo-
spores are developed from branches of the same thallus or mycelium, and can be
obtained from the sowing of a single spore.

4. In the heterothallic group, comprising probably a large majority of the
species, zygospores are developed from branches which necessarily belong to thalli
or mycelia diverse in character, and can never be obtained from the sowing of a
single spore.

5. These sexual strains in an individual species show in general a more or
less marked differentiation in vegetative luxuriance, and the more or less luxuriant
may be appropriately designated by the use of (+) and (—) signs respectively.

G. In heterothallic species, strains have been found which from their failure
to react with (+) and (—) strains of the same form have been called ‘neutral,’
and a similar neutrality may be induced by cultivation under adverse conditions,

7. In all species of both groups in which the process of conjugation has been
carefully followed, the swollen portions (progametes) from which the gametes are
cut off do not grow toward each other, as currently believed, but arise from the
stimulus of contact between more or less differentiated hyphae (zygophores), and
are from the outset always normally adherent.

8. In some species the zygophores have been demonstrated to be mutually
attractive (zygotactic).

9. In the heterogamic subdivision of the homothallic group a distinct and
constant differentiation exists between the zygophoric hyphz and the gametes
derived from them, but in the remaining homothallic forms and in all hetero-
thallic forms no such differentiation is apparent.

10, A process of imperfect hybridisation will occur between unlike strains of
different heterothallic species in the same or even in different genera, or between a
homothallic form and both strains of a heterothallic species,

11. By taking advantage of this character it has been possible to group
together in two opposite series the strains of all the heterothallic forms under
cultivation.

12. When thus grouped the (—), or less luxuriant strains, will be in one series,
while the (+), or more luxuriant, will be in the other.

13. From the foregoing observations it may be concluded :—

(a) That the formation of zygospores is a sexual process ;

(b) That the mycelium of a homothallic species is bisexual ;

(c) While the mycelium of a heterothallic species is unisexual ;

(d) And, further, that in the (+) and (—) series of the heterothallic
group are represented the two sexes.

5. Some General Results on the Localisation of Alkaloids in Plants.
By Professor L. ERRERA.
Microchemistry does not claim in any way to supplant chemistry. Its great

value consists in permitting an approach to problems unattainable by ordinary
analytical methods, and in accomplishing for physiological (and also for petrographic)

816 REPORT—1904.

chemistry the work of penetration and localisation which the microscope performs
for structure.

For a long time botanical microchemistry has dealt with a limited number of
bodies and reactions: cellulose, starch, reducing sugars, inulin, proteid matters,
asparagin, tannins, silica, and calcium compounds. Gradually a series of interest-
ing bodies have been added to the original scanty list, such as sulphur, glycogen,
salts of iron and other bases, alkaloids, myrosine, certain glycosids, prussic
acid, &c.

Although a few valuable preliminary researches had already appeared, a more
methodical attempt to localise, in the various tissues, the important group of
alkaloids was made in a paper I published in 1887 in collaboration with two of
my pupils, Dr. Maistriau and the lamented Dr. Clautriau. We used a great
number of general as well as special reagents of the different alkaloids which we
examined, for the sake of their mutual control. In consequence of the fact that
many alkaloids are closely related to proteids, a great analogy exists in the action
of many general reagents on both classes of compounds. This is, of course, a
serious difficulty in microchemical determinations. But an alcoholic solution of
tartaric acid separates clearly the two groups, dissolving the former from the cells
and leaving the latter undissolved, and this method has always given very good
results.

Similar lines of investigation have been followed with success within the last
eighteen years by a number of my pupils and by many other observers, principally
in Holland and Sweden, but also in France, Germany, and Italy.

The more important conclusions arrived at by these researches (which must,
of course, be conducted critically) might be summarised as follows :—

(1) The qualitative and to some extent the quantitative distribution of alka-
loids (especially those belonging to the pyridic series) can be determined micro-
chemically in the various organs of plants with perfect certainty.

(2) In living cells the alkaloids are eliminated from the protoplasm and
gather in the vacuole. It is only in cells which have lost all their liquid contents
(as in ripe seeds) or in dead cells that they accumulate in the protoplasm or the
cell-wall.

(8) The alkaloids are generally localised :

(a) In very active tissues: chiefly in the neighbourhood of growing points
(a little behind the initial cells), in the ovules, &c. ;

(6) In the epidermis, the epidermic hairs, often also in the sub-epidermic
layers of vegetative organs, as well as the outer layers of fruits and seeds;

(ce) Round the fibro-vascular bundles, in certain of their phloem-elements and
in the neighbourhood of the pericycle ;

(d) In the phellogen and the youngest cork-cells (either normal or consecutive
to traumatism) ;

(e) In the laticiferous or similar elements, when present.

(4) By means of the microchemical tests many new alkaloid-plants have been
discovered, the result being afterwards confirmed by the usual chemical methods,
e.g. certain Orchidacese (where alkaloids were formerly quite unknown), Amaryl-
lidaceze, Papaveracese, Ranunculacee, Solanacez, &c.

(5) Although the investigation of animal tissues is particularly delicate, obser-
vations (yet unpublished) show that even here a microchemical identification of
organic bases is sometimes possible—for instance, in Salamandra,

(6) Granting that the physiology of alkaloids is far from settled, I think a
critical study of their topography as well as their behaviour in germination,
growth, etiolation, maturation of seeds, &c., supports the view that they are
waste-products, resulting from the catabolism of cytoplasm, and secondarily
utilised for defence against animals. A few grams of an alkaloid constitute a
protection not less efficient than the strongest spines.

The diminution of the proportion of alkaloids in a given plant is often wrongly
interpreted as a proof of their direct consumption as plastic material, But the

TRANSACTIONS -OF SECTION K, 817

decrease may be only apparent—for example, when, the alkaloids remaining
unchanged, the amount of other substances becomes greater. Secondly, the fact
that a body disappears from the plant does not demonstrate that it has been used
as food : it may have been eliminated in a volatile state or otherwise transformed,
Thirdly, it must not be forgotten that the percentage of nitrogen in alkaloids is
generally very small, so that they would be a very poor nitrogen-store. Even in
the case of caffeine, which is exceptionally rich in nitrogen, numerous experiments
of Clautriau, confirmed afterwards by Suzuki, lead to the conclusion that it is not
a plastic substance. This, nevertheless, does not exclude the possibility of certain
products of the splitting-up of the alkaloid molecule being ulteriorly resumed by
anabolism, just as the essentially catabolic CO, formed in respiration can serve to
regenerate starch in the green cell.

6. Lhe Discovery of a New Alkaloid in Strychnos Nuw Vomica.
By Dr. J. P. Lorsy.

While experimenting on the physiological significance of the alkaloid in the
leaves of cinchona, I found that both brucine and strychnine could be made to
disappear, which led me to believe that the Jeaves were entirely devoid of alkaloid
at the end of the experiment. Closer investigation showed, however, that an
alkaloid remained, and this alkaloid proved to be a new one, entirely unknown at
the time, in strychnos. It was later, at my request, isolated, analysed, and de-
scribed by Dr. Boorsma.

7. On the Significance of the so-called Anti-ferment Reaction in Geotropi-
iy cally Stimulated Roots. Ly Professor F. Czapux.

Up to the present time we have had only one method of deciding whether or
no a plant perceives a stimulus of orientation, namely, the method of observing
the presence or absence of a reflex reaction, The fact that no reaction occurs may
depend either on the stimulus not being perceived, or on the reaction being absent
though the stimulus is perceived. In 1897 the author discovered qualitative
chemical differences between stimulated and unstimulated root-tips. More
recently he has shown that in geotropism (and other tropisms) the oxidation of
aromatic amidic acids is checked, especially in the metabolism of tyrosin. This
leads to an accumulation of homogentisinic acid, a substance having a well-marked
power of reducing silver solutions. This checking action is caused by the
formation of an anti-enzyme, which retards the action of the oxydase on the
homogentisinic acid. By autolytic experiments which permit the control of the
decrease of the reducing power this ‘ anti-ferment’ reaction can easily be established.
The reaction in question takes place within 5-6 minutes after the roots have been
placed horizontally, and can be applied to the investigation of a number of
questions; for instance, the localisation of geotropic sensibility in the root-tip, the
behaviour of roots on the klinostat, the relation between geotropic activity and
the angle at which the organ is placed. It has been conclusively proved that
the anti-ferment reaction is not produced by any general disturbance of normal
metabolism, such as is due to poison, mechanical injury, electrical influence, tem-
perature, or light. The anti-ferment reaction only occurs in consequence of
perception of stimuli of orientation, and can be used, to the best advantage, to find
out whether or no roots or other organs perceive such a stimulus in certain contro-
yersial cases.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—

1. A Measurement of the Great Swamp Cypress at Santa Maria del Tule,
Mexico. By Aurrep P. Maupstay.
1904. 3G

818 REPORT—1904.

2. Oxidising Enzymes and Katalases in Plants.
Ly Professor R. Cuovat.

3. On the Pollination of Gymnosperms. By Professor K, Fusu.

4. The Dissemination and Germination of Arceuthobium occidentale.
Ly Dr. Guorce J. Peirce,

As is well known, the fruits of Arceuthobiwn explode, discharging the ‘seed’
to a distance often of 25 feet. ‘The conditions for developing the greatest
explosive force are (1) an abundance of water in the soil and the host-plant,
a species of pine, and (2) moist air. The structure of the fruit is such that it will
withstand great internal pressure, and when the fruit finally breaks at the base,
the force which stretched the walls of the fruit and compressed the ‘seed’ is
applied against and violently expels the ‘seed.’ The force develops mainly in
consequence of the absorption of water by the gelatinous walls of the cells in
certain layers in the fruit.

Germination can take place upon anything, but moist air and moderate warmth
are essential. The roots of the seedlings are markedly negatively phototropic.
Unless the forward growth of the root be stopped by some obstacle, the root does
not attach itself and form a holdfast. Only on rough bark, never on leaves or
smooth parts of the bark, is germination followed by attachment and penetration
into the host. ‘lhe haustorium, after penetrating into the cortex, sends out slender
branches penetrating the medullary rays and attaching themselves to the
tracheids of the host. Meantime buds develop on the mass of parasitic cells in
the cortex of the host, and these quickly grow out into branches which at first
vegetate and later flower. There is perfect connection between the xylem
elements in the bundles of host and parasite. Between the phloem clements of
host and parasite parenchymatous cells intervene, as is the case in other green
parasites.

5, On the Transpiration Stream vi Smali Plants.
Ly Dr, Ovrvo V, DarsisHiRe.

6, Ona Brilliant Pigment appearing after Injury ww Species of Jacobinia
(N.0. Acanthacew). By J. Parwin, ALA,

Shoots of certain species of Jacobinia,' when bruised and extracted with water,
yield a beautiful purplish liquid. Liebmann discovered these species while travel-
ling in Ceutral America about half a century ago, and found the Indians using
them for dyeing purposes. ‘Thomas,* while in Mexico, submitted the colouring
principle cf Jacobinia Mohintli to a brief examination. Since then these plants
seem to have received no further investigation, and their peculiarity is apparently
little known to botanists. ‘The object of the present paper is to direct attention
to this conspicuous example of pigment-formation, and to give a few details con-
cerning the chromogen and the colouring matter resulting from it. The author
hopes to make a full investigation later. So far the observations have been made
on the two very similar species, Jacobinia tinctoria and Jacobinia Mohintli. The
peculiar behaviour of the former plant was brought to the writer’s notice, when in
Ceylon, by Mr. Willis, the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya.

The pigment does not exist as such in the living plant, but appears only on
death. Leaves, however, killed by boiling water remain green and do not darken.

1 Jacobinia tinctoria, J. Mohintli, J. mcana, J. neglecta, and J. verrucosa,
2 Journ, de Pharm. et de Chimie, 1866, sev. iv. t. iii. p. 251.

rt ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 819

Hence the pigment most likely arises through enzymic action. Slight alkalinity
hastens its appearance. Oxygen is also necessary for its formation. It is readily
soluble in water and gives a fluorescent solution, purple to violet by transmitted
and blood-red by reflected light. A trace of acid robs the solution of most of its
colour. The original tint reappears on neutralisation. Alkali turns it bluer, and
if strong changes it to green, eventually destroying it. Light does not alter it.
All parts of the plant except the flower can produce the pigment.

Such a reducing agent as stannous chloride decolorises an aqueous solution of
the pigment. Micro-organisms can also readily bleach it, when oxygen is excluded.
On allowing air to enter, the original colour at once returns.

The whole phenomenon bears some resemblance to the way in which indigo
arises in plant-tissues. The chromogen of Jacobinia is probably a glucoside. In
the living cell this substance and its enzyme may be differently situated, perhaps
one in the protoplasm and the other in the sap. On the destruction of the cell
the two come in contact. ‘he first result is the formation of a colourless body.
Then this through the oxygen of the air, possibly assisted by an oxidase, is changed
into the pigment.

This behaviour of Jacobinia is perhaps only a striking instance of a common
feature of plant-juices, viz., their tendency to darken on exposure to the air.

7. Saponarin (‘Soluble Starch’). By Guorcu Barger.

Dissolved in the cell-sap of the leaf epidermis of a number of plants there
occurs a substance which is coloured blue by a solution of iodine in potassium
iodide. This so-called ‘soluble starch * was first observed in 1857. Sanio found
it in the leaf epidermis of Gagea lutea, and Schenk in that of three species of
Ornithogalum. Similar observations were afterwards made by Trécul, Nigeli, and
Kraus. The last important paper was by the Swiss botanist Dufour, in 1886; he
found the substance in about twenty different plants, and investigated its physio-
logical importance. The first (and unpublished) attempt to isolate the substance
was made by the late G. Clautriau. Later, when the author was his successor as
assistant to Professor L. Errera at the Brussels Botanical Institute, the latter
suggested a renewed investigation of the substance.

Fairly large quantities of the chemically pure substance have been isolated
from the leaves of Saponaria officinalis, L. It has accordingly been called
Saponarin; it may or may not be identical with the ‘soluble starch’ of all the
other plants.

Saponarin is a glucoside; it crystallises in small needles, and its probable
formula is C,,H,,O0,,, On hydrolysis it yields glucose and a substance which is
closely related to the class of bodies known as flavones.

Flavone derivatives are widely distributed in plants, either as such or combined
with sugar, as glucosides. Their physiological function is doubtful ; perhaps they
are merely waste products.

For the detection of saponarin under the microscope the following reactions
cau be applied to sections or to strips of the epidermis :—

1, With iodine and potassium iodide the whole of the cell-sap is coloured
uniformly blue or violet, and the substance which issues from injured cells pro-
duces the same colour outside these cells. On warming, the colour disappears ; it
reappears on cooling outside the cells.

2. Dilute alkalis and alkaline carbonates, as well as strong hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid, produce an intense golden-yellow colour, first inside the cells con-
taining saponarin, and then outside,

3. Ferric chlovide produces a reddish-brown colour in these cells ; sometimes
the colour is green or violet, owing to the simultaneous presence of tannins.

These micro-chemical reactions of saponarin were used in the investigation
of its physiological importance, but no very definite results were arrived at.

8G 2

820 REPORT—1904.

Dufour’s observation was confirmed that the substance does not disappear if
the plant is kept in the dark. In etiolated shoots, grown entirely in the dark
from a rhizome, the substance is not formed, but it appears when these shoots are
transferred to the light, even after they have been cut off from the rhizome and
placed in water. Saponarin is therefore produced by the leaves themselves, and
only when these are kept in the light.

No enzyme could be found capable of hydrolysing the glucoside, and Professor
Beyerinck, of Delft, was kind enough to inform the author that he could not split
it with bacteria. From the way in which the substance disappears in Hordeum
and Bryonia after the death of the plant, it seems nevertheless likely that an
enzyme exists capable of hydrolysing the glucoside.

Nothing is known about the way in which saponarin is useful to the plant.
Professor Errera has suggested that as it is only found in the epidermis it might
act as a deterrent to animals, after the manner of many alkaloids. The substance
is, however, physio'ogically inactive.

Pfeffer has suggested that aromatic substances combine with sugar to form
substances which diosmose with difficulty, and so to store up a greater supply of
sugar than would be otherwise possible. In this connection it may be observed
that saponarin does not truly dissolve in water, but only forms a suspension like
starch, so that it does not raise the osmotic pressure of the cell-sap in which it
occurs.

8. On the Centrosome of the Hepaticw. By K. Miyuxen, M.A., Ph.D.

The present communication is a part of my uncompleted study on the spermato-
genesis of the Hepatic. The study was originally started with the cbject of
repeating the recent remarkable observations of Ikeno on Merchantia polymorpha,
and was afterwards extended to Fegatella conica, Pellia epiphylla, Makinoa crispa,
and a species of Aneura.

When the nuclear division is about to take place the nucleus assumes a more or
less elliptical shape, and two cytoplasmic radiations or asters are seen at opposite
poles of the nucleus. In the centre of the aster no distinct hody corresponding
to the centrosome was observed. When the spindle is formed the aster entirely
disappears, and no structure which might be taken for a centrosome was seen at
the spindle pole. I also failed to see, either in the resting stage or in the dividing
nucleus of the young antheridium, the structure corresponding to the centrosome
of Ikeno.

Only, in the last division in the antheridium of Merchantia and Fegatella 1
found a deeply staining body at each pole of the spindle, as figured by Ikeno,
Although I have not studied the further behaviour of this body in the develop-
ment of the spermatozoid, there can be little doubt that it will take part in the
formation of cilia as [keno described, and may properly be called a blepharoplast.
On the other hand, at the spindle pole of the last division of Makinoa I was able to
recognise neither centrosome nor blepharoplast. However, I often observed two
granular bodies, nearly opposite to each other, at some distance from each pole of
the spindle. In the spermatid I often observed a deeply staining spherical body in
the cytoplasm, which is very probably a blepharoplast.

The identity of these two structures is very probable, although it has not been
conclusively proved.

The presence of centrosome in the flowering plants and ferns seems to have
been almost conclusively dis,roved by the careful researches of cytologists during
the last ten years. On the other hand, it is still generally believed that in the
Bryophytes and Thallophytes centrosome does exist. But my present study seems
to show that there is no true centrosome, at least in the Hepatic, agreeing with
the recent investigation of Gregoire in Pellia. The centrosome hitherto reported
in the cells of the Hepatic is nothing but a centre of cytoplasmic radiations.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 821

9, Further Cultural Experiments with ‘ Biologic Forms’ of the
Erysiphacee. By Ernest 8. Satmon, £.L.S.

In a recent paper! the author described a method of culture by means of
which the conidia of ‘biologic forms’ of Erysiphe Graminis, DC., can be induced
to infect leaves of host-species which normally are immune to their attacks. In
this method of culture the vitality of the inoculated leaf was affected by cutting
oS piece of its tissue, or by injuring the leaf by touching it with a red-hot

nife.

In the present paper further methods are described by which the same result
can be obtained.

A preliminary series of experiments proved that the ascospores of a ‘ biologic
form’ are able, in the same manner as the conidia, to infect leaves injured by the
removal of a piece of the leaf-tissue, although quite unable to cause any infection
of the uninjured leaf of the species used.

An extensive series of experiments was then made in which the leaf previous
to inoculation had been injured in one of the following ways: By pricking with
a pin, by stamping out a circular piece of the leaf with a cork-borer, by allowing
slugs to eat away portions of the leaf, by pressure with weights, or by nipping
the leaf with a pair of forceps,

Leaves injured by the action of narcotics and heat were also used, the leaf
previous to inoculation being exposed to ether, chloroform, or alcohol vapour, or
immersed in a mixture of alcohol and water, or heated gradually in water to
49°:5 or 50° C.

The results of the experiments carried out prove that not only mechanical
injuries, such as wounds from cuts, bruises, attacks of slugs, &e., but also injuries
due to the action of narcotics and heat, cause a leaf to become susceptible to a
‘biologic form’ of a fungus to which it is normally immune.

Attention is directed to the fact that these cases of the loss of immunity
brought about by causes which affect the vitality of the leaf find their exact
parallel in the recorded instances of induced susceptibility in animals to certain
diseases caused by bacilli.

To describe cases where a form of a fungus which is specialised to certain
host-plants and confined to them under normal circumstances proves able to
infect injured parts of a strange host the author proposes the terms wvenoparasite
and wenoparasitism. The terms may be used also in the cases where fungi which
live usually as saprophytes prove able to infect injured parts of living plants. In
the case of the specialised fungus, when on its proper host, the terms @coparasite
and. ecoparasitism are proposed.

A series of experiments was carried out with the object of ascertaining the
infection-powers of the conidia of the first generation produced on barley-leaves
inoculated—after having been rendered susceptible by the action of ether, or
alcohol, or heat—with conidia taken from wheat. In the sixteen cases the conidia
produced on such treated barley-leaves proved, when sown simultaneously on
normal leaves of barley and wheat, totally unable to cause any infection on the
barley, while causing in every case full, and usually virulent, infection on the
wheat. In order to see if any subsequent variation would occur in the infection-
powers of the conidia of the fungus produced on the treated barley-leaves, conidia
of the successive generations produced on wheat, up to the sixteenth generation,
were cultivated. In every case the conidia proved able to infect fully leaves of
wheat, while never producing any sign of infection on barley.

These experiments demonstrate the fact that the infection-powers of a ‘ biologic
form’ are not altered by its residence for one generation on a strange host-plant
treated in the manner described, and give also some evidence in favour of the idea
of the hereditary nature of the infection-powers of certain ‘ biologic forms.’

\ Phil. Trans., vol, exevii. 1904, pp. 107-122.

822 REPORT—1904.

10. The Inheritance of Susceptibility and Immunity to the Attacks of
Yellow Rust. By R. H. Birren, J.A.

Evidence was brought forward to show that the liability to certain diseases is
inherited, and the results of crossing together races of wheat relatively immune
and highly susceptible to the attacks of Puccinia glumarum were described in
detail. It appears that susceptibility is dominant over immunity in the hybrid,
whilst in the second and third generations the immune, or recessive, forms are
found in approximately the Mendelian ratio of 1 to 3.

1). Infection Experiments with various Uredinee. By Miss C. M, Gipson,

The following list summarises the results of successful and doubtful cases of
the entry of the stomata by the germ tubes of the spores employed :—

Result

Spores Species of Fungus from Host

Uredospores | Uredo chrysanthemi Chrysanthe- | R. ficaria | Enter freely

MUM |

| Alcidiospores | Phragmidium rose- | Rosa i ;
alpine
AMecidiospores | Uromyces Pow Ranunculus a | 3
TEPens
Aicidiospores Peidium Buniti | Bunium re | Negative?
Alexuosum |
AXicidiospores Puceinia Poarum Tussilago | Caltha Enter freely
Sarfara palustris
Uredospores Tromyces geranii Geranium 9 ¥
pyrenaicum
Aicidiospores Puccinia Menthe Mentha as Enter not
very freely
| Uredospores Puceinia hieracii Carduus ? Caltha | Enter freely
|
| Jicidiospores Phragmidium Poterium iy 2 or 3 doubt-
sanguisorbe sanquisorba ful entries
Uredospores Puceinia glumarum Triticum 3 1 certain
vulgare entry

From the above results it is evident—
1, That the germ tubes from the spores of any uredine may enter almost any
lant.
‘ 2, That the attractive substance causing entry is not specialised in each species,
but is something common to all plants.
3. That the entrance of the stoma by any germ tube cannot be taken as an
index of the infective capacity of that germ tube.

The paper also dealt with some experiments on chrysanthemum rust and time
experiments on the germinating power of uredo- and :cidio-spores.

12. On the Normal [Histology of the Uredo of Puccinia glumarum.
By T. B. P. Evans,

13. Pineapple Galls of the Spruce. By E. R. Burpon, B.A.

The galls are caused by the hibernating generation of certain aphid belonging
to the genus Chermes. a
In the autumn a Chermes larva drives its long proboscis into the stem of the

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 823

spruce, just below a winter bud or into the bud itself, and thus anchored passes
into a hibernating condition. The tip of the proboscis lies in the neighbourhood
of the cambium. In the spring the insect awakens, commences to suck, undergoes
three eedyses, and then lays a great number of eggs. It probably injects an
irritant into the bud, which is forced into precocious growth, and by the time
the bud-scales are thrown off the rudimentary shoot has become enormously
swollen and stunted. The swelling proceeds outwards through the cortex into
the bases of the young needles, and takes place in such a manner that the spaces
in the axils of the needles become converted into chambers. Into the chambers
the young larve make their way, and there remain until the gall is ripe, when the
chambers open and the inhabitants emerge as winged insects, which carry the
infection to other trees.

In the early stages the chlorophyll, tannin, resin, resin canals, and secretory
cells of every description disappear within the gall area, which consists entirely
of enormously swollen parenchymatous cells. After the shoot emerges from the
bud-seales and becomes exposed to light these all reappear, though in abnormal
situations.

Starch is found in great abundance round the periphery of the gall area, and
it is suggested that it may be the ultimate product of the disintegration of the
tannin.

The nuclei of the galled cells also become enlarged, and the chromatin network
becomes aggregated into numerous wart-like nucleoli. The mitotic figures are of
Ma usual somatic type, and no indication of heterotypical mitoses has yet been
ound.

The later stages of the gall are still under examination.

The complicated life-cycle of the insect and the connection between it and the
well-known larch-blight will be shown by means of a table thrown on to the
screen.

The pests may he got rid of by washing hoth spruces and larches with a
paraffin wash during the winter.

14. The History and Distribution of Catesby’s Pitcher Plant (Sarracen
Catesbei). Py Professor Joun M. MACFARLANE.

15. Observations on Two Species of Alpine Rose and their supposed
Hybrids. By Professor Joun M. MACFARLANE.

16. Exhibition of a Bigenerie Hybrid between Gymnadenia and
Nigritella. By Professor Jonn M. MAcrARLANR.

17. The Destruction of Wooden Paving Blocks by the Fungus
Lentinus lepideus, /’r. 2y A. H. Reaiwatp Butier, D.Sc, Ph.D.

The destruction of a great many paving blocks, made of pine- or fir-wood, in
the city of Birmingham is being brought about by Lentinus lepideus, a fungus
belonging to the Agaricini, Considerable repairs to the pavement are thereby
necessitated.

Single blocks, or small groups of blocks, at intervals in the streets go
completely rotten, so that one can break up the wood with the fingers. The
streets affected become unduly bumpy. In wet weather water collects above
places where rotten blocks are,

824, REPORT—1904.

A number of rotting blocks, obtained from time to time from the streets, were
placed in a large damp-chamber. In the course of a few weeks fruit-bodies of
Lentinus lepideus appeared upon them.

The spores remain unchanged in distilled water and tap-water, but germinate
readily in Pasteur’s Fluid and in beef-gelatine. They also germinate in decoctions
of horse-dung and of pine-wood.

The pavement is probably infected by spores after the blocks have been laid
down. ‘The mycelium of the fungus often grows from a rotten block to the
neighbouring sound ones. No fruit-bodies are produced in the streets, owing to
the traffic.

The wood is rotted by Lentinus /epideus in very much the same manner as by
the Dry Rot Fungus (Merudius lacrimans), It becomes red and is spongy when wet.
It shrinks and cracks considerably on drying, and is then very brittle. Cellulose
is removed from the cell-walls. Hadromal and a red friable substance are left -
behind.

The paving blocs, used in the pavements referred to, were dipped in creosote
before use. Had they been fully impregnated with that substance, the ravages of
Lentinus lepideus or any other wood-destroying fungus would have been prevented.

18. The Reactions of the Frivit-bodies of Lentinus lepideus, /r., to
External Stimuli. By A. WW. Reetwwatp Buiter, D.Se., Ph.D.

The fruit-bodies of Lentinus lepideus were grown upon rotting paving blocks,
taken from the streets of Birmingham. The fungus belongs to the Agaricini.

The papille, from which the fruit-bodies arise, are not somatotropic, so far as
the surface of the wooden substratum is concerned, but grow out perpendicularly
to the surface of the mycelial layer on which they develop. Their formation takes
place equally well in light or darkness.

Before the development of the pileus, the stipe is perfectly indifferent to
geotropic stimuli. In the absence of light it is rectipetal, and in its presence
positively heliotropic.

In the absence of light the stipe may continue to grow for weeks or
months, and may attain a length of 17 centimetres, but no signs of a pileus make
their appearance. The development of the pileus depends on the presence of
sufficient illumination. Grown in the dark, therefore, the fruit-bodies are all
monstrous and abortive.

While the pileus is developing, the stipe alters its reactions to external stimuli.
It becomes negatively geotropic and ceases to be heliotropic.

The pileus is sometimes developed unequally in fruit-bodies with oblique stipes.
The longest gills are always formed on the lower side of the stipe. The inequality
of development is induced by the stimulus of gravity.

The gills begin their development in such manner as to become perpendicular
to the surface of the pileus, from which they are formed. They are never helio-
tropic, but they become positively geotropic.

Fruit-bodies grown in darkness or weak light are prone to branching, and
often become grotesque. Branching may be due to internal causes or to injury of
young pilei.

It may be shown that the reactions of the fruit-bodies to external stimuli, as
described above, are admirably adapted for the economical distribution of the
spores.

19. The Structure of the Ascocarp in the Genus Monascus.
By B. T. P. Barker, J/.A.

Since the publication of the author's earlier paper on this subject Ikeno and
Dangeard have published accounts of the structure of the ascocarp of Monascus
purpureus, and the latter also describes the ‘ Samsu’ fungus, which he has named

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 825

Monascus Barkeri. He agrees with the author that the fructification is not an
invested sporangium, but an ascocarp containing numerous small asci, but differs
as to the sexual nature cf the archicarp, and affirms that a layer of nutritive
hyphe surrounds the asci in the place of the enlarged central cell. Ikeno, on the
other hand, disputes the presence of asci, and declares that spore-formation takes
place in an enlarged sporangium-like central cell by the massing together and
subsequent division of dense portions of its protoplasm.

The author has made a fresh examination of both species, confirms his
previous results for M. Barkeri, and finds that M. purpureus yields corresponding
results, the only points of difference being the formation of a basal cell in the
ascogonium in many instances and the production of a more vivid red pigment
in the case of the latter species. Fusion between the antheridial branch and the
ascogonium occurs before the division of the ascogonium, but nuclear fusion at this
stage has not been observed with certainty, although pairs of nuclei have been
frequently found. The central cell swells considerably, and eventually almost
completely encircles the ascogenous hyphe which originate from it. The cells of
the ascogenous hyph are often multinucleate, in which case the nuclei are
usually paired, but in many instances they are binucleate. The asci appear to be
developed from the sub-terminal binucleate cells of branches of these hyphe,
the nuclei fusing and the fusion nucleus then dividing to form eight daughter-
nuclei, which become the nuclei of the spores. The spores are formed in the
manner described by Harper for other Ascomycetes. By repeated cultivation of
M. purpureus in beer-wort at 34° C.a variety was isolated which produced conidia
only, although normally ascocarps are also formed.

20. Further Observations on the Ascocarp of Ryparobius.
By B. T. P. Barker, JA.

In an earlier paper on this subject it was shown that the archicarp of a species
of Ryparobius therein described possessed the characters of the archicarp of
Thelebolus, as described by Brefeld, and differed from those of other species of
Ryparobius, as figured by Zukal. Recently in some old cultures archicarps were
found which, while retaining the typical structure in essentials, varied from the
usual type as to the position and the manner of development, and resembled in
many respects the type described by Zukal. Further details have also been
obtained concerning the cytology of the ascocarp at various stages of its develop-
ment. Both the antheridial branch and the ascogonium are uninucleate when first
formed ; but subsequent nuclear division occurs in each organ near the time of
fusion. The fusion takes place at the point of contact of these structures, this
usually being at or near their apices. Probably a nucleus passes from the former
to the latter at this period, and shortly afterwards walls are formed in both, so
that the resulting cells are uninucleate, with the exception of the subterminal cell
of the ascogonium, which is sometimes found to contain two nuclei close together.
Investing hyphe then develop and encircle the ascogonium, which enlarges
considerably and for a short period consists of a row of several uninucleate cells.
These are later found in a binucleate, or occasionally a quadrinucleate, condition.
From them ascogenous hyphse arise, and the asci are formed from their binucleate
subterminal cells. The two nuclei in these fuse together, and the fusion nucleus
enlarges to an enormous extent, keeping pace with the growth of the ascus. The
nucleolus now becomes a most striking structure, considerably larger than the
vegetative nuclei, and containing apparently almost the whole of the chromatin of
the nucleus, so that the nuclear body resembles alarge vacuole. Nuclear division
then takes place, the nucleolus giving up chromatin and showing very distinct
signs of a reticulated structure. The number of chromosomes is probably not less
than eight. Successive divisions take place very rapidly, and when sixty-four
nuclei are formed they become regularly grouped in dense granular protoplasm
around the periphery of the ascus. Other series of divisions now usually occur,

826 REPORT— 1904.

and eventually uninucleate spores are formed, these being ovoid pointed bodies,
arranged at the time of their first appearance with their long axes parallel to the
radii of the ascus. The protoplasm passes through a series of characteristic
changes during the development of the ascus, and the whole process of spore
formation seems to be intermediate between the typical methods in sporangia and
ascl,

21, Some Features in the Development of the Geoglossacere,
By Dr, Extas J, Duranp.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 827

Sretion L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT oF THE Srction—The Right Rey. the Lord Bisnop
oF Hererorp, D.D., LL.D.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 18.
The President delivered the following Address :-—

I am moved to begin this address with a word of personal apology, the
strongest feeling in my mind, as I rise to deliver it, being that in the fitness of
things some one of the many distinguished representatives of education in this
University would have been the natural occupant of this chair on the present
oceasion ; and for my own part I could hardly have brought myself to accept the
invitation with which I have been honoured had I not been led to understand
that on occasions of this kind it is preferred by the members of the University
visited that some one from the outside should be invited as I have heen.

Thus I have accepted, not without hesitation and misgiving, but with the more
gratitude, as feeling that I am here because of the wish of the Cambridge
authorities to have some one connected with the University of Oxford, and I
desire that the grateful acknowledgment of this courtesy and kindness should be
my first word as President of the Educational Section.

The inclusion of Education among the various sections of this Association for
the Advancement of Science is sufficient evidence that a new educational era has
beeun in this country.

Whatever may be the defects of our educational system or want of system,
whatever changes may be necessary to bring it, in the current phrase, up to date,
the days of unthinking tradition are over.

Scientific method is entering on its inheritance, and it has begun to include the
field of education along with other fields of life and thought within the sphere of
its influence.

And scientific minds are asking on every side of us what is the end of true
education, and are we on the right way to it ?

Mee education, almost insuperably difficult in practice, has been often defined
in words,

Plato told us long ago how it is music for the soul and gymnastic for the
body, both intended for the benefit of the soul, how it is a life-long process, how
good manners are a branch of it and poetry its principal part, though the poets
are but poor educators, how great is the importance of good surroundings, how the
young should be reared in wholesome pastures and be late learners of evil, if they
must learn it at all, how nothing mean or vile should meet the eye or strike the
ear of the young, how in infancy education should be through pleasurable interest,
how dangerous it is when ill directed, how it is not so much a process of acquisition
as the use of powers already existing in us, not the filling of a vessel, but turning
the eye of the soul towards the light, how it aims at ideals and is intended to
promote virtue, and is the first and fairest of all things.

Tn this description, I take it, we most of us agree, though some of Plato’s views

828 REPORT— 1904.

would doubtless elicit differences of opinion amongst us, as, for instance, that
education ought not to be compulsory, or that it should be the same for women as
for men.

One of his statements may be soothing to our English self-complacency, for, as
is the habit of idealists in every age, he says that even in Athens they care nothing
for educational training, one of the most brilliant of their younger statesmen plead-
ing that it does not matter, because others are as ignorant as he.

Or again, our own Milton sums it up in fewer words, but very impressively,
when he says true education fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnani-
mously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.

It is a noble aim which he thus sets before us, to make our sons skilful, just,
magnanimous, and every description of aims and methods can be little more than
an expansion of it.

Of the importance of right aims and ideals there can, as Plato reminded us, be
no question, because of the danger of ill-directed aims, and the lasting nature of
early impressions. ;

What we learnt at school, when all the world was young to us, whether we
learnt it with weariness or pain, or under happier influences with a quickening
pulse and the glow of enjoyment, passed into the blood, as Stevenson said some-
where, and became native in the memory.

True education, then, as we all acknowledge, aims at cultivating the highest
and most efficient type of personality, men not only appropriately and technically
equipped for their professional business, but men endowed with the best gifts and
inspired with high purposes, men who desire to follow the more excellent ways
and to lead others in them, who love knowledge, truth, freedom, justice, in all the
relations of life, whether individual or social, men marked by sense of duty and
moral thoughtfulness, public spirit, and strength of character.

Such an education is the true basis of individual and national welfare, and
experience has abundantly shown how necessary this is to save men from distorted
views of history, from wrong conceptions of patriotism and public duty, from
mistaken aims and disastrous policy.

Thus, for instance, a good and true education shows us that the true basis of
life is moral and economic and not military, and the true aim of both individuals
and nations is knowledge, justice, freedom, peace, magnanimity, and not pride,
ageoression, force, or greed.

Scientific consideration of our subject will of course dea] largely with such
details as the relative claims of the humanist and the realist, subjects and methods
of instruction, the correlation of different grades of education, the adaptation of
this or that system to special needs, and so forth; but through all this these
fundamental requirements of the true education, as placarded before us by Plato
or by Milton, must always hold the chief place, and all others must be kept in due
and conscious subordination to these.

This very obvious remark calls for repetition, as we are so apt to lose sight of
ideals amidst the dust of controversy about details or methods or practical needs.

How, then, does our English education stand when thus considered? And
what signs are there in our life of our having fallen short or fallen behind, or
missed the best that was possible in our circumstances ?

It may, I venture to think, be fairly said that to a reflective observer, various
things are patent which seem to make it expedient that the subject of education
should have its place in the proceedings of a scientific association like this, although
there may be difference of opinion as to how it should be handled there.

In saying this I have to admit that some educational reformers seem to have
doubts as to the propriety of its inclusicn in your programme.

The element of personality is so pre-eminently vital in all education that some
men say it cannot be treated as wholly scientific in the ordinary sense, and that
there is serious risk in subjecting it too rigidly to the methods of investigation
which naturally hold the field in the main departments of this Association, and
that men who are wholly accustomed to such methods are not the best equipped,
for dealing with the problems involved in the education of the young.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 829

If I endeavour ina few paragraphs to express what, so far as I understand it,
is the ground of this fear in the minds of some thoughtful objectors, I trust I may
not be thought to be wasting your time.

This Section is still in its swaddling-clothes. It has to justify its existence in
the coming years. It is therefore of moment that it should be started on its
course of early growth as free as may be from prejudice and with the sympathy
and support of all who, whatever be their views as humanists or realists, as men
of letters or men of science, as teachers of religion or men of practical affairs, desire
to see the education of the young in our country advancing and expanding on the
best lines.

On this account the misgivings or warnings of every thoughtful critic deserve
our attention and may be helpful.

In what I am saying it will be understood, I hope, that I am not expressing
views of my own, but endeavouring to act as the recording instrument, a very
inadequate and old-fashioned instrument, of views which come to me from one
quarter and another.

The inclusion of the study of education by the British Association for the
Advancement of Science among its subjects of investigation is, they say, not alto-
gether free from risk.

If you treat education too exclusively according to the analytic naturalistic
methods of scientific men you incur the danger of unfitting teachers for the best
part of their work, which depends on the inspiring influence of personal ideals
breathing through all their lessons, on a vivid sense of the subtle element of per-
sonality in the pupil, and on their responsible exercise of the power of their own
personality.

In giving the scientifically educated teacher the analytic knowledge of the
dissecting chamber you may possibly rob him of the magnetic power of personal
sympathy and influence. In this sense, at all events, you must not dehumanise
him, The most eminent psychologists, the critics tell us, are beginning to recog-
nise the danger, and they bid the educator beware of science which has a great
deal to say about mental processes but takes too little account of the emotions
and the will, and seems inclined to forget that men are personalities and not plants
or trees or machines, and that boys will be boys.

The combination of a living and fruitful experience, these critics assert, with
systematic organised scientific methods and processes is more difficult in educa-
tion than in any other realm of knowledge, because the data are so complicated
and so subtle and elusive.

Hence, they say to me quite frankly, the risk of failure to do much that will
be of real value in your Educational Section.

In particular I have the impression that they set no great store by presidential
addresses, although the address to which you are now listening has at least one
merit, that it has no claim to be technically scientific, but is wholly based, so far
as any positive conclusions or recommendations are concerned, on practical
personal observation and experience.

This section, say the critics, will do its best work by seeking first of all to
determine and to set forth:

(1) What field is to be covered when education is to be treated as a scientific
study, and what are the limits of the field, taking care to give due regard to
right ideals of moral and social progress as a primary part of the whole.

(2) What methods of investigation are appropriate and what are inappropriate
to the study of education.

Such are some of the warnings with which we are asked to begin our discus-
sions. The critics ask the men of science to remember that they are leaving
their accustomed field of purely natural phenomena, and entering a field of inves-
tigation which is largely, if not mainly, social, political, religious, moral, and lends
itself only in a limited degree to those problems which men whose sphere is
natural science are more accustomed to handle,

830 REPORT—1904.

These are some of the criticisms which, as men of science, you have to meet,
and I may safely leave them to your tender mercies.

For myself my attitude in the whole matter must of necessity be a humble
one. For many years of my life I was a teacher, but entirely untrained, or
rather self-taught, that is to say, relying for my instruction and guidance
entirely on my own reading, observation, experience, and practice,

I belong to the pre-scientific age of Englishmen engaged in education, I grew
up to my profession anyhow, like so many others; and now for some years I
have ceased even to teach, and so even as an untrained teacher I am out of date.

It is due to this audience and to my subject that I should say thus much. It
is my appeal for your kind indulgence.

As regards the critics whose views I have endeavoured to express, I may say
at once that I do not go with them, because I am profoundly convinced that our
‘nglish education needs the influence of more light and more thought from every
quarter, and especially from those who are familiar with scientific methods.
‘Blessed are they that sow beside all waters,’

Moreover, I hail the application of scientific intelligence and scientific methods
to this subject, because, looking back, I am profoundly conscious that I should
have done my own educational work far less imperfectly if in my youth I had
undergone any rational scientific illuminating preparation for it.

In such a process I should have lost no personal gift or aptitude that I
possessed, and I should have gained some early knowledge and confidence and
power which would have saved me much discomfort and anxiety and some
mistakes and failures, and would have saved my pupils some loss and possibly some
distress.

When I turn with these thoughts in my mind and look out over the field of
Inelish life I see very strong and valid reasons why our education, its merits,
its defects, its methods and results, should be seriously considered here, as also in
very different assemblies elsewhere.

Above all, the persistently traditional and unscientific spirit that still pervades
so much of it from top to bottom, its lack of reasoned reflection, demands our
special attention.

‘The want of the idea of science, that is of systematic knowledge,’ said Matthew
Arnold, ‘is, as I have said again and again, the capital want at this moment of
Inglish education and English life. Our civil organisation (including our educa-
tion) still remains what time and chance have made it.’

This was written about thirty-six years ago, and it is, to say the least, a sur-
prising thing that in an age of unusually rapid scientific development it should be,
in the main, still so true, as it undoubtedly is, of a great part of our English
educational system,

_ There is the lack of any systematic preparation for the business of teaching
which still prevails throughout our middle and upper-class education, although
here in Cambridge and in Oxford some excellent pioneer work is being done in the
training of teachers.

There is the general lack of interest in education which is still so noticeable in
a great deal of English society of all grades, the spirit of indifference to it, and
even the tendency to depreciate the intellectual life.

There is the excessive influence of tradition and routine on our great schools
and universities, and in some quarters an inert or suspicious conservatism.

There is throughout our middle-class education a state bordering on chaos, a
country largely unexplored, a mixture of things good and bad, involving a vast
amount of wasted opportunity and undeveloped faculty.

Even in elementary education, which has received the largest share of public
attention, there is much that needs to be done in a more thoughtful and scientific
spirit.

; Party politics have to be eliminated as far as possible, especially ecclesiastical
politics.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 831

The fitness of a great deal of the teaching to the special needs and require-
ments of the children has to be considered afresh.

The tendency to overlook the interests and the attainments of each individual
child has to be checked,

The wastefulness of our absurdly truncated system of elementary education
stopping abruptly at about twelve years of age and then leaving the children to drift
away into au unexplored educational wilderness has to be superseded by some
rational system of continuation classes made obligatory. ‘Truly the harvest is a
plenteous one for those who desire to uplift our English life by helping forward
the best modes of educating the rising generation in a scientific, or, in other words,
a wise, intelligent, and large-minded spirit.

Much, it is true, has been done in almost every part of the educational field
during the last half-century, but not nearly so much as ardent friends of education
anticipated forty years ago.

I have already quoted some significant words from Mr. Arnold’s illuminating
Report on the Schools and Universities of the Continent as he saw them thirty-
seven years ago, If that report had been turned to immediate practical account
at the time, if some English statesman, like William von Humboldt, had been
enabled with a free hand to take up and give effect to Mr. Arnold’s chief suggestions,
as Humboldt and his colleagues gave effect to their ideas in Prussia in the years 1808
onwards, the advantage to our country to-day would have been incalculable.

In our insular disregard or depreciation of intellectual and scientific forces
actually working in other countries, we have undoubtedly wasted some of that
time and tide in human affairs which do not wait for cither men or nations.

But, putting regrets aside and turning to some of the practical problems that
seem to confront us to-day, I venture to put before you for consideration such
cursory and unsystematic observations or suggestions as my personal experience
has led me to believe to be of practical importance. Jor more than this I have no
qualification.

In the first place, the growth of crowded city populations and the conditions
under which multitudes have for at least two generations been growing up
and passing their lives in our great cities have set us face to face with the very
serious preliminary problem of physical health.

If our physical manhood decays all else is endangered, so that the first business
of the educator is to look well to the conditions of a healthy life from infancy
upwards.

Hence the great educational importance of the petition presented by 14,718
medical practitioners, including the heads of the profession, to the central educa-
tional authorities of the United Kingdom.

This petition opens with these impressive words :—

‘Having constantly before us the serious physical and moral conditions of
degeneracy and disease resulting from the neglect and infraction of the elementary
laws of hygiene, we venture to urge the Central Educational Authorities of the United
Kingdom (the Board of Nducation of England and Wales, the Scotch Education
Department, the Commissioners of National Kducation in Ireland and the Inter-
mediate Hducation Board of Ireland) to consider whether it would not be possible
to include in the curricula of the Public Elementary Schools, and to encourage
in the Secondary ‘Schools, such teaching as may, without developing any tendency
to dwell on what is unwholesome, lead all the children to appreciate at their true
value healthful bodily conditions as regards cleanliness, pure air, food, drink, &c.
In making this request we are well aware that at the present time pupils may
receive teaching on the laws of health, by means of subjects almost invariably
placed upon the Optional Code. By this method effective instruction is given to
a small proportion of the pupils only. ‘This does not appear to us to be adequate.
We believe that it should be compulsory and be given at a much earlier age than
at present.’

And it concludes as follows :—

‘In many English-speaking countries, definite attempts are being made to train

832 REPORT—1904.

the rising generation to appreciate from childhood the nature of those influences
which injure physical and mental health. Having regard to the fact that much
of the degeneracy, disease, and accident with which medical men are called upon
to deal, is directly or indirectly due to the use of alcohol, and that a widespread
ignorance prevails concerning not only the nature and properties of this substance
but also its effects on the body and the mind, we would urge the Board of Hduca-
tion of England and Wales, the Scotch Education Department and the Irish
Education Authorities to include in the simple hygienic teaching which we desire,
elementary instruction at an early age on the nature and effects of alcohol. We
gladly recognise (1) the value of the teaching on this subject given in some
schools in Ireland and in a proportion of the schools of Great Britain, by means
of reading primers, moral-instruction talks, &c., and (2) the excellence of the
occasional temperance lessons provided in certain schools by voluntary organisa-
tions ; but until the four Central Educational Authorities of the United Kingdom
include this subject as part of the system of National Education, it appears to us
that the mass of the pupils must fail as at present to receive that systematic
teaching of hygiene and of the nature and effects of alcohol which alone we con-
sider adequate to meet the national need. Finally, we would venture to urge the
necessity of ensuring that the training of all teachers shall include adequate
instruction in these subjects.’

This petition, coming, as it does, with all the weight of the medical profession,
as the expression of their experience and convictions, is, to my mind, one of the
most important educational documents which have been published in our time,
and it can hardly be disregarded without incurring the charge of folly.

It may be worth while to set it for a moment side by side with the fashionable
cult of athleticism, as bringing into relief our curiously unscientific inconsistency
in such matters.

On the one hand, in our absent-minded way, we have allowed these genera-
tions of town-dwellers, to say nothing of rural villagers, to grow up and live under
insanitary conditions which inevitably produce a physically degenerate, enfeebled,
and neurotic race of men and women.

On the other hand, in the upper and middle classes, we have been sedulously
cultivating the taste for physical exercises, outdoor life, athletics, and sport, think-
ing nothing of such importance as the development of the body, admiring nothing
so much as bodily prowess; carrying all this to such an extent that a natural and
wholesome use of athletic exercise has been fostered into a sort of fashionable
athleticism, with all its parasitic professionalism, possessing both soul and body.

And the result has been curiously significant ; at one end of the scale neglect
of the rudiments of sanitation, the loss of the corpus sanum, at the other end the
idol worship of athleticism, the depreciation of the intellectual life, and the loss of
the mens sana.

Are we not then in some danger of drifting into the ways of the Greeks, not in
their best days but in their decadence, and of the Romans under the demoralising
influences of the Empire ?

The Greeks, as we are constantly reminded, in the great period of their creative
influence, found nothing so absorbing as the things of the mind; a pre-eminent
characteristic of their life was their love of knowledge, their fine curiosity, their
enjoyment of the things of the imagination and of thought. It has been noted that
what specially conciliated an Athenian voter was the gift of a theatre ticket; and
this is a very instructive and significant fact when we bear in mind that the
theatre was the great teacher of religion, morals, poetry, patriotism, all in one;
that it combined the influences of Westminster Abbey, the plays of Shakespeare,
and the heroic achievements of the race; whereas to an ordinary English voter
these things are too often only as caviare to the general.

Tf so, our education has before it the task of doing what can be done to alter
this; and from the Greeks we may derive both lessons and warnings. It was in
the days when this decadence was beginning that their excessive admiration of
the professional athlete, what we might call their athletic craze, called forth the
bitter jibes of Euripides, and his impressive warnings and exhortations to admire

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 833

and to crown with their highest honours, not those who happened to be swiftest
of foot or strongest in the wrestling bout, but the man of sound mind, wise and
just, who does most to guide others in the more excellent ways, and to uplift the
life of his community :
GoTis Hyetra TOAEL
Kddducra, copper kai Sixatos dv avnp.

Here we have a warning by no means inappropriate to our own life and its
tendencies. It is, indeed, high time to bring serious and, let us say, scientific
thought to bear upon the whole matter.

As I look with such thoughts in my mind over those portions of the educa-
tional field with which I have been personally familiar, I note various things
which seem to call for both consideration and action.

Taking first the elementary school, it is to be noted that our system does too
little to draw out and stimulate the faculties or to form the tastes of each
individual child.

Classes are still in many cases far too large.

The system of block grants, being inadequately safeguarded or supplemented
by inducements to individual children to apply and prepare for certificates of merit
or proficiency, however attractive it may be to inspectors and teachers, needs to
be very carefully watched in the interests of individual children. The individual
child requires the hope and stimulus of some personal recognition or distinction, if
its faculties are to be fully roused and its tastes properly cultivated.

Moreover, the aid of scientific thought and experience is needed to bring both
the subjects and methods of instruction into closer and more vital relationship
with the environment of the children and with their practical requirements, and
more weight has to be given to specific ethical teaching, that moral and spiritual
training day by day, which has for its end the development and strengthening of
character, and taste, and issues in conduct, which is the greater part of life.

And seeing that it is of the essence of any rational or scientific system to avoid
needless waste, it is time that our elementary education should no longer be left
in its absurdly truncated condition, which allows a child’s education to be stopped
abruptly and finally at or about the age of twelve, when in the nature of things it
should be only beginning. As things are at present, just when the parent of the
upper classes is anxiously considering what school will be the best for his son, a
vast number of the children of the poorer classes are left by the State to drift out
into a wilderness where all things are forgotten.

In this connection, however, it is due to the Board of Education that we take
note of the reminders lately issued in the Introduction to the New Code and the
memorandum prefixed to the Regulations for the Training of Teachers.

This Introduction to the Code reminds every parent, school-manager, and
teacher, very emphatically, that the purpose of the school is to form and strengthen
the character and to develop the intelligence of the children, to fit them both
practically and intellectually for the work of life, to send them forth with good
and healthy tastes and the desire to know, with habits of observation and clear
reasoning, with a living interest in great deeds and great men, and some
familiarity with, at all events, some portion of the literature and history of their
country ; and this being so, the special charge and duty of their teachers is by the
spirit of their discipline and of their teaching, by their personal example and
influence, to foster in the children, as they grow up in their hands, habits of
industry, self-control, endurance, perseverance, courage, to teach them reverence
for things and persons good or great, to inspire them with love of duty, love of
purity, love of justice and of truth, unselfishness, generosity, public spirit, and so
not merely to reach their full development as individuals, but also to become
upright and useful members of the community in which they live and worthy
sons and daughters of the community to which they belong.

Hardly less valuable, as a contribution to education which shall be more
thoughtful than hitherto, is the memorandum prefixed to the new Regulations lor
the Training of Teachers.

1904. 3H

834 REPORT—1904.

I confine myself to one significant quotation from this valuable document :

‘Much of the instruction which is given in all subjects must necessarily be
founded upon the statements and the experience of other persons; but every
education which deserves to be called complete must include some training of
the student in those systematic methods of inquiry which are necessary for any
assured advance in knowledge, and which are the most truly educative of all
mental processes.

‘Tf this scientific spirit is to find its right expression in the teaching given in
elementary schools it must be made to imbue the whole study of the intending
teacher during his course in the Training College. It must not he confined
to any one branch of the curriculum. It is true that, partly as the result of
tradition and partly from other reasons, the term “scientific method” has come
to be associated more particularly with the study of natural phenomena. But as
a matter of fact, scientific method is of equal importance, and is indeed of ancient
application, in the fields of history, literature, language, and philosophy ; and
wherever knowledge of these has made advance, it may be discerned that the
essential processes of scientific inquiry have been employed. When Matthew
Arnold declared in 1868 that the want of the idea of science, of systematic know-
ledge, was the capital want of English education and of English life, he was
thinking of science as a method and not as a prescribed portion or subject of a
curriculum. It cannot be doubted that this want has been seriously prevalent
in a large portion of the education and training hitherto provided for elementary
school teachers.’

We might, indeed, widen the scope of these observations and say that this
want of regard for scientific method has been and is a prevalent want in almost
every department and grade of English education.

These unaccustomed utterances from Whitehall may very well prove memor-
able in the history of English education, as the words of William von Humboldt,
quoted by Matthew Arnold, are so memorable in connection with the education of
Germany: ‘The thing is not to let the schools and universities go on in a drowsy
and impotent routine; the thing is to raise the culture of the nation ever higher
and higher by their means.’

Passing from the sphere of the elementary schools to that of secondary educa-
tion, we enter on a sphere in which there is much greater need of careful study and
the guidance of those who know.

Our secondary education has by the Act of 1902 been handed over very largely
to county councils, excellent but heterogeneous bodies, and for the most part not
only ignorant of educational needs, methods, and possibilities, but quite un-
accustomed to their practical consideration—altogether unprepared and untrained
for the responsible work now thrown upon them, and hampered by their besetting
fear of the ratepayers.

Add to these difficulties the prejudice, so common in the ordinary English
mind, against what is known as the ‘expert,’ that is, the man who knows trom
experience, and is therefore likely to be earnest for improvement, and to believe
that wise educational expenditure will repay itself, and you see how manifold are
the obstacles in the way of immediate progress.

These county authorities need first of all to be themselves instructed and
persuaded as to the right subjects for their schools, the co-ordination or proportion
of subjects in any scheme to be encouraged, the methods of instruction, the sort of
teachers to be appointed, the wisdom of spending public money on good education,
as exemplified in other countries, like Germany, Switzerland, the United States,
Denmark.

Our local authorities feel and recognise that something is needed, but very often
they seem to be like children erying in the dark. From lack of educational know-
ledge and educational experience they do not always know the difference between
the right and the wrong method, or between the good and the bad school.

In our rural districts at all events it may be said further that one of our first
needs is to persuade the local authorities by some convincing proof that expendi-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 835

ture on popular education higher than elementary is a wise economy, and that
their bread cast on educational waters will come back to them, not after many
days, but very soon and in their own homes. Thus my observation has led me to
the conclusion that by way of preliminary to progress our new educational
authorities need instruction or persuasion as to the importance of a sufficient
provision for really good secondary education; and it would greatly expedite
progress if the Government could and would offer more liberal secondary education
grants to be earned by efficient schools, and initial grants towards buildings and
scientific equipment, to be met by contributions from local rates or other local
sources, public or private.

Many persons and localities would be ready to tax themselves with the view
of securing a Treasury grant not available without such taxation. Meanwhile
the wheels of our local educational chariots are tarrying on every side so far as
higher education, whether general or technical, is concerned.

It would also stimulate our local educational authorities if they could be more
fully informed as to the practical advantages which have been derived from a
practical system of popular education in such a country as the United States of
America; and still more if they had set plainly before them the wonderful results
derived by a poor country like Denmark during the last twenty-five years, and in
the face of every disadvantage, from the system of education initiated by Bishop
Grundtvig and taken up by the Government.

And the need of our middle classes, especially that of the farmer and trades-
men classes, is very pressing. A great deal of the education they receive is given
in schools of which the public know very little, whether as regards qualifications
of the staff—moral and intellectual—equipment, or methods of teaching, or even
sanitary arrangements ; and it is to be feared that much of this education would
on inquiry be found to be very poor, if judged by any reasonable standard of
modern requirements.

When we pass to the class of schools generally spoken of as public schools,
those that look to the ancient Universities as the goal of their best pupils, we
enter on another very interesting and important field of study.

But for the beginning of our investigation we have to go behind these schools
to the preparatory schvol, which has now assumed a definite place in secondary
education, and therefore calls for serious attention. Some of these schools are
very good, so far as the conditions under which they work admit of excellence ; in
others there is, it is to be feared, much room for improvement.

And such schools are now so largely used by parents that their condition
becomes a matter of vital importance, as a boy’s progress and prospects, his
moral and intellectual future, are very frequently determined for good or ill by
his experience in the preparatory school, by the bent which has there been given
to his morals, tastes, ambitions, by the fostering of his intellectual gifts or the
failure to foster them.

In the course of my own experience I have known many boys whose prospects
in life were spoilt by their unhappy beginnings in some preparatory school, and
who consequently entered their public school foredoomed to failure.

These schools are in most cases private-adventure schools, conducted for private
gain. Their staff consists very often of young men untrained for the work of
education, and sometimes underpaid. They are subject to no public inspection or
examination ; in fact, the general public have no knowledge of their condition.

Seeing how grave are the considerations involved, I hold it to be one of the
things needed for the general improvement of our secondary education that every
private school, of whatever kind, should be liable to public inspection and public
report thereon ; that a licence should be required for every such school ; and that
the staff and their qualifications, and the remuneration given to each of them, the
sanitary condition, suitability, and educational equipment of the premises, should
all be considered in connection with the giving or withholding of a licence.

As regards the curriculum of the schools preparatory to the public schools,
the subjects taught, and the proportion of time allotted to each, it has to be borne
in mind that they are nct free agents. In this respect they are dependent on the

3H 2

836 REPORT—1904.

requirements of the entrance examination at the public schools which they supply ;
just as those schools in their turn are dependent on the requirements of the
university to which they send. their pupils.

Thus, when we come to confer with the authorities of the public schools, our
first inquiry is whether their entrance examination is such as to conduce to the
best system of education from infancy upwards.

Believing, as [ do, that there is room for improvement, I would ask them to
consider and come to a general agreement as to the subjects on which special stress
should be laid. What place, for instance, is occupied in the Eton entrance
examination by such subjects as English language and literature, English com-
position, spelling, handwriting, and reading aloud? What weight is given to
elementary drawing, or to an elementary knowledge of natural phenomena, so as
to encourage in the preparatory school an interest in the mineral, vegetable, and
animal world around us, and to stimulate in early years the habit of observation,
and to impress the difference between eyes and no eyes ?

Such subjects as these, it is now generally recognised, ought to be given a
foremost place and equal weight with the modicum of arithmetic, French, and
ancient languages, which have hitherto, as a rule, formed the staple of this
entrance examination, and have consequently given an unnatural twist to the
earlier education of our boys.

As regards the public schools themselves, if we consider them critically—
though, on the other hand, I trust, by no means forgetting their many and great
excellencies—the points that invite attention would seem to be such as the
following :—

There is undoubtedly a great deal of waste in these schools owing to the poor
teaching of untrained masters, who in some cases cannot even maintain reasonable
discipline, and in many more have no real knowledge or mastery of the best
methods of teaching their subject, be it linguistic, or historical, or literary, or
scientific, and have not acquired that first gift of an efficient teacher, the art of
interesting their pupils and drawing out their faculties and their tastes.

It would, therefore, be reasonable, as it would certainly be stimulative and
advantageous, to require that all masters should be bound to go through some
system of well-considered and serious preparation or training for the teacher's
work, or at the least a probationary period.

It should, I venture to think, be made a rule that no master could be placed
on the permanent staff until he was certified and registered as having fully satisfied
this requirement and given proof of his efficiency.

And here I would venture to point out to existing masters and mistresses in
the leading schools how great a service they may do to the cause of good
education if they themselves apply to be registered,

Seeing the advantages which registration is destined to bring to our secondary
education by winnowing out inefficient teachers and otherwise, the higher
members of the profession may fairly be expected to give their personal adhesion
to it as a part of their duty to their profession.

We might almost say to them nodlesse oblige.

Again, it must, I fear, be admitted that one of the chief defects in our public
school education is still to be found in over-attention to memory work, and in the
comparative failure to develop powers of thought, taste, and interest in the things
of the mind.

And even in the teaching of languages attention has been too exclusively
devoted to mere questions of grammar, as if to learn the language were an end in
itself, whereas, in the words of Matthew Arnold, ‘the true aim of schools and
instruction is to develop the powers of our mind and to give us access to vital
knowledge.’

For this end, as he reminds us, the philological or grammatical discipline
should be more consciously and systematically combined with the matter to which
it is ancillary, the end should be kept in view; whereas nine out of ten of our
public-school boys seem never to get through the grammatical vestibule at all;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 837

and yet we agree that ‘no preliminary discipline should be pressed at the risk of
keeping minds from getting at the main matter, a knowledge of themselves and
the world.’

This also was written by Mr. Arnold thirty-six years ago, and thoughtful critics
are still repeating, and with some reason, that the majority of boys who grow up
in our public schools seem hardly to have received an adequate training for many
of the higher duties of life.

We hear much more than formerly about the public schools being the best
training-place for good citizenship. Therefore, say the critics, it is reasonable
to inquire how far their educational system, their ideals, their traditions, their
fashions, and the pervading spirit of their life fit the mass of their pupils intel-
lectually and otherwise for the duties of citizenship, and for grappling in the right
spirit with the problems that will confront them.

‘ Any careful observer,’ says one of these writers, himself a loyal public-school
man, and intimately acquainted with school life, ‘any careful observer, who has
studied the political moods and opinions of the middle classes in this country
during the past few years, can hardly have failed to notice two obviously decisive
influences : an ignorance of modern history and a want of imagination. For both
of these defects the public schools must bear their full share of blame.

‘It may be doubted whether any other nation teaches even its own history so
little and so badly.’

The result is that ‘to the average public-school and university man the foreign
intelligence in his daily paper is of less interest than the county cricket; and
though events of far-reaching importance may be happening almost under his eyes
he is in the dark as to their significance.’

‘ As regards the duties and aims of citizenship in all the various affairs of his
own country, political, social, economic, he goes out from his school almost wholly
uninstructed by the lessons of history, or by any study of the life and the
needs of our own times. Again, as it is urged, the lack of imagination is hardly
less dangerous to us than lack of instruction in the lessons of history and the social
conditions and needs amongst which we have to live and work. No doubt the
gift of imagination is a natural gift,—it cannot be created. But, given the thing
in the germ, it can be stimulated and developed, or starved, stunted, or even
crushed out. No system of education that neglects it is even safe. For, without
it, principle becomes bigotry and zeal persecution. It is conscientiousness divorced
from imagination that produces Robespierres. Now, it is precisely here that we
should expect the public schools to be most helpful, for it is through literature
that the faculty is most obviously cultivated, and they all profess to give some-
thing of a literary training. But though the intention is excellent the performance
is often terribly meagre.’ Whatever may be thought of such criticisms as these,
which come from within our public-school life, it is, I imagine, generally agreed
by those who know both our national needs and the work and influence of our
public schools, that there is much room for improvement in regard to methods of
teaching, the cultivation of intellectual interests and tastes, and the stimulating
habits of thought in the majority of their pupils. In close connection with these
considerations there are two questions of practical importance which deserve a
prominent place in any study of our public-school education.

The first of these is whether it is good for all boys alike to continue their life
at school, especially at a boarding school, up to the age of eighteen or nineteen ;
and the other is whether more encouragement and pains should not be given to
developing the best type of day school, or, to put it somewhat differently, whether
the barrack life of the boarding school has not, through fashionable drift and class
prejudice, become too predominant a part of our English education at the expense
of the home life with all its finer educational influences.

As regards the first of these questions, it will be remembered that Dr. Arnold
considered it a matter of vital importance to expedite the growth of a boy from the
childish age to that of a man.

In other words, the boy should not be left to grow through the years of
critical change from fourteen to nineteen without special regard to his growth in

838 REPORT—1904,

intellectual taste and moral purpose and thoughtfulness. His education during
these critical years should be such as to rouse in him the higher ambitions of a
responsible manhood.

Does, then, the actual life of a public school really conduce to this early
development in the majority of cases P

My own experience has led me to the conclusion that it cannot be confidently
held to do so.

The boys in any of our public schools may be said to fall into two classes—
those who in due course reach the sixth form, and during their progress through
lower forms have an ambition to reach it; and, on the other hand, a numerous
class who do not expect to rise to the sixth, don’t care about it, and never exert
themselves to reach it.

For the first class, I doubt if any more effective preparation for life has been
devised than that of our best English schools; but the case of the second class is
somewhat different.

Many of these come to the end of their school time with their intellectual facul-
ties and tastes and their sense of responsibility as men to a great extent undeveloped.

From sixteen to eighteen or nineteen their thoughts, interests, and ambitions
have been largely centred in their games and their out-of-school life, with the
natural results that their strongest tastes in after life are for amusement and
sport.

3 Some of these boys, after loitering at school to the age of eighteen or nineteen,
go to the University as passmen, some begin their preparation for the work of a
doctor or a solicitor, and many go straight from school into City life as men of
business ; and nearly all of them suffer from the lack of intellectual and moral
stimulus during these later years of their school life.

Now many of these boys could without difficulty pass the entrance examina-
tion to the University at sixteen or seventeen, if well and carefully taught ; and 1
have long held the view that such boys would greatly benefit by going to Oxford
or Cambridge at the age of seventeen, or even sixteen, if suitable arrangements
could be made.

It was with this conviction in my mind that I published a scheme showing
how this experiment might be tried about twenty years ago.

The interval has confirmed me in the opinion that it would be a distinct gain
to many boys to take advantage of such a scheme if made available. They would
go out into the world from the University at the age of twenty far better
equipped and prepared for life, both as regards knowledge and interests, tastes,
and character, than by going straight from school at nineteen.

And looking to my own University of Oxford, I see no reason why such
younger students should not be safely received.

There are at least three Colleges in that University which would find it easy
to adapt their arrangements so as to secure this. Each of these Colleges has a
hall in connection with it, well suited for the residence of a college tutor who
might have special charge of these younger students, residing in the hall during
their first year with somewhat stricter rules as to ordinary discipline and liberty,
but in all other respects exactly on a par with the senior undergraduate members
of the College.

On the subject of the day school, as compared with the boarding school, a
subject which has not hitherto received the attention it deserves, I may venture
to repeat here what in substance I have said on other occasions.

Many parents are so situated that they have no choice in the matter; but ta
the educational inquirer it is a question of much interest and importance.

The boarding school is admitted to excel in turning out strong, self-reliant,
sociable, practical men of affairs, men who have learnt by early experience not to
think or make too much of small injustices, to rough it, if need be, with equani-
mity and cheerfulness, and to count it a man’s part to endure hardness in a
manly spirit. It is a fine type of character which is thus produced, at its best;
but the best is not always seen in the result, and the system too often produces
an undue deference to public opinion, a spirit of moral compromise, and a loss of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 839

moral enthusiasm. The human soul in its finer parts is a very sensitive thing,
and I do not think the barrack life of an average boarding school is always the
most favourable for its healthy growth.

As I look back over the school days of my own pupils I feel that those of
them had, on the whole, the best education who grew up as day boys in good
homes at Clifton College. There they enjoyed all the advantages of the cultivated
home, which I need not here enumerate, and at the same time, through the
arrangements we made for them, all the best elements in the life of a great
boarding school.

In the upper school of 500 boys, we had about 160 day boys living at easy
distances from the school.

These boys were divided into two houses—North Town and South ‘Town—about
eighty boys in each house, and they were treated for school purposes just as if they
were living together in a boarding house.

They were under the same rules as boarders in regard to hours of locking up,
or the bounds beyond which they might not go without a note from their parents
giving express leave.

Their names were printed in a house list, a master was appointed as their
tutor, whose duty it was to look to their educational needs and progress, to their
reports and conduct, just as if they had been boarders and he their house master.
Each house had its own room or library on the College premises, with books of
reference, and so forth, for spare hours, and took its part with the boarding houses,
and held its own in all school affairs, games, and other competitions. And
my experience of this system compared with others has led me to the conclusion
that the form of education which may on the whole claim to be the best is that of
a well-organised day school, in which it is clearly understood to be the duty of the
masters to give their life to the boys in school and out of school, just as
if they were at a boarding school, and in which the boys are distributed into
houses for school purposes, just asif they were living in a boarding house. Under
such a system they get the best of both worlds, home and school.

From the public school we pass naturally to the Universities, and the first
question that meets us is the influence they exercise on school education, through
their requirements on admission or matriculation and the bestowal of their
endowments and other prizes.

On this part of my subject I have seen no reason to alter or modify what I said
at Glasgow three years ago, and therefore I merely enumerate and emphasise the
suggestions which I put forward on that occasion for the improvement of educa-
tion both at school and college.

I hold that it would be equivalent to pouring a new stream of intellectual
influence through our secondary education if Oxford and Cambridge were to agree
on some such requirements as the following :—

1. In the matriculation examination (a) candidates to be free to offer some
adequate equivalent in place of Greek.

(6) An elementary knowledge of some branch of natural science, and of one
modern language to be required of all candidates.

(c) A knowledge of some period of English history and literature also to be
required of every candidate, and ability to write English to be tested.

(d) The examination in Latin and any other foreign language to include
questions on the subject-matter of any prepared books offered, some ques-
tions oe history and literature, and translation of easy passages not previously

repared.
Y (e) Marks of distinction should be given for work of superior merit in any
branch of this examination, as, indeed, of every pass examination conducted by
the University.

Candidates should not be excluded from residence before passing this examina-
tion, nor should they be required to pass in all subjects at the same time; but the
completion of this examination would be the necessary preliminary to entry for
any other examination required for a degree.

2. On the question of endowments and the minimising of waste in the adminis-

840 REPORT—1904,

tration of them there is much to be said, and I would suggest for considera-
tion:

(1) That, as a rule, open scholarships and exhibitions might be reduced to
free tuition, free rooms, and free dinners in hall, or thereabouts.

(2) That every holder of an open scholarship or exhibition, whose cireumstances
were such that he needed augmentation, should, on application, receive such
augmentation as the College authorities considered sufficient.

(3) That care should be taken to discourage premature specialisation at school.

For this end it should be required that no scholar should enjoy the emoluments
of his scholarship until he had passed the matriculation examination described
above; and a fair proportion of scholarships should be awarded for excellence in
a combination of subjects.

The Universities might also do good service in the way of stimulating secondary
education, if some small proportion of their entrance scholarships were distributed
over the country as county scholarships, on condition that the county contributed
an equal amount in every case.

In this way some equivalent for the endowments, so cynically confiscated by
the Education Act of 1902, might be recovered and used for the benefit of poor
and meritorious students.

Other reforms, which would, as I believe, be productive of valuable results, are
the requiring from every candidate for a degree a knowledge of some portion of
our own literature and history, and the encouragement of intellectual interests
and ambitions by abolishing all purely pass examinations. A pass examination,
in which the candidates are invited simply to aim at a minimum of knowledge or
attainment, is hardly worthy of a university. The opportunity of winning some
mark of distinction in this or that portion of what is now a pass examination
would frequently rouse some latent ambition in an idle man, and transform the
whole spirit of his work.

Thus a modest reform of this kind might be of great practical benefit to the
nation by helping in its degree to intellectualise the life of a great many of our
young men, and draw out unsuspected interests, faculties, and tastes.

My observations have run to such a length that I must, perforce, conclude,
leaving untouched other aspects of University education and training, whether in
the old or the new universities, as also the whole subject of the higher education
of women, and its proper relationship to traditional systems of instruction and
study, framed and intended for men.

And my last word is a word of practical inquiry. How is this Section to be
made of most value as an instrument of educational progress ?

I leave the answer to this question to those more competent to give it, merely
putting on record my own feeling that it may do a valuable service and supply one
of our special educational needs, if the working committee of the Section, enlarged
by the addition of various representative persons, makes it a duty to collect and
publish year by year in succession a series of papers, the best that can be written
by recognised authorities, on the chief branches of our English education, dwelling
on its immediate and pressing needs, and how best to supply them. To do this the
Committee should set to work systematically, commencing in October with monthly
meetings, and formulating, without delay, the scheme or series of papers to be
prepared and presented to the next meeting of the Association.

The following Papers were read :—
1. The Present Hducational Position of Logic and Psychology.
By Miss E, E. C. Jonus.
_ There are several reasons for paying special attention at present to the teach-
ing of logic and psychology :
(a) Some knowledge of these subjects is part of the qualification for getting
on to the new Teachers’ Register,

4

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 841

(6) Secondary teachers are now called upon to undergo training, and some
logic and psychology are required for the teachers’ training examinations.

(c) There is a widespread movement towards bringing the standard of
religious knowledge up to the level ordinarily required in other departments.

(d) There are signs of a widening interest in philosophical questions.

It is very necessary that those who take up logic and psychology as a stepping-
stone to the profession of teaching should give to those subjects serious and
well-directed study, and should have genuine interest in them and some grasp of
their scope and meaning. It is likewise desirable that students of religious
doctrine, or of the great questions of philosophy, should bring to their study an
equipment of logical method and psychological knowledge. At the same time,
it will not be disputed that at present these requirements are not, and perhaps
hardly can be, adequately met.

My aim here is briefly to draw attention to this state of things—to the facts
that, on the one hand, from various causes, logical and psychological studies
hold a position of great and growing importance in English thought and educa-
tion, while, on the other hand, to some extent at least, the quality, quantity, and
organisation of the instruction supplied leaves much to be desired ; and to point
out that, consequently, the practical treatment of these subjects calls for special
recognition and careful attention from educationists.

2. Comparison of the Intellectual Power of the Two Sexes.
by Dr. J. DE Korésy.

The material of the following statistics is drawn from observations made
during the last twenty-seven years in the schools of Buda Pest, where, since 1873,
a special report on the progress of each pupil has to be sent to the author’s office.
These individual reports (amounting latterly to 60,000 per annum) represent
together 808,350 cases; they relate at first to the elementary schools (ages six to
twelve years) only ; later they include the higher elementary schools (‘ citizen
schools,’ ten to sixteen years), and in the last years the grammar schools also.

(1) General Progress in the Elementary Schools ; twenty-seven years’ Observations.

The test applied is the number of children who have to repeat their year’s
work instead of passing on to the next standard. Of 412,758 boys and 350,582
girls, 69,422 boys (16°8 per cent.) and 54,391 girls (15:8 per cent.) repeated their
work. These figures show a slight superiority on the part of the girls. If we
observe the divergence standard by standard, we see that the boys and girls are
nearly level at first, but that the advantage of the latter increases with age,

Percentage repeating the Number of Girls to
Standard cae Work 7 100 Boys
Boys Girls

16 22°5 22:2 99

II. | 16°6 15:4 . 93
Iii. 16°3 13°8 84
IV. 12:2 9°2 75

v. | 9°8 56 BT

VI. | 4-7 27 58

(2) Special Progress in the Fourth Standard of the Elementary Schools
(172,477 cases).

The frequency of the best marks (‘very good’ and ‘ good’) was—

Boys Girls
In Mother-tongue . . 23°6 per cent. 32:3 per cent.
In Arithmetic ; . 28:0 “ a73 gy

In Geography 3 s 22 RP), 36:9 yy

842 REPORT—1904.

(8) Progress in the Higher Elementary Schools.

(a) Of 14,201 boys and 20,588 girls, 840 boys (6-2 per cent.) and 450 girls
(2:2 per cent.) had to repeat their work.
(6) By standards :—

Percentage repeating their Number of Girls to
Bede Year’s Work 100 Boys
Boys Girls
I. 11:0 a1 28
1B 4°8 2°7 57
II. 4:6 18 35
TV. 30 0°6 20
Average ‘ : 6:2 gb! 22 35

(c) Frequency of the best marks in the Fourth Standard :—

Boys Girls
In Mother-tongue . . 16°7 per cent. 44-6 per cent.
» German 5 - = 412-2 + BO2 yas,
», History 5 ; .. 20°9 + ATS
» Arithmetic . : ANOS 2% 3 35:3,

The superiority of girls is really puzzling here, especially in arithmetic.

In this division, however, there are difficulties, for the female group is more
selected than the male; for the boys who follow the higher elementary classes,
instead of entering secondary schools, are from a class less gifted than the ordinary,
while the contrary is the case with the girls. This disturbing cause exercises
greater influence in the grammar school, as only the most talented and most
ambitious girls enter the Latin schools. Besides this the system of teaching and
examination is more favourable to the girls.!_ Thus the elementary schools furnish
the most reliable measure, especially where their attendance is, as in Hungary,
compulsory.

Conclusion.

The results are all in favour of the female sex, but relate only to children.
Since not only in sciences, but also in poetry and (with exception of the stage)
in arts, the great work of human progress has been accomplished by the male
sex, one is obliged to suppose that with the age of ripening the feminine intellect
develops itself more slowly than the masculine,

3. The Teaching of Experimental Science in the Secondary Schools of
Ireland. By the Right Rev. Gzratp Motuoy, D.D., D.Sc,

The education given in the secondary schools of Ireland is controlled and
guided, in large measure, by a body of Commissioners known as the Intermediate
Education Board. This Board was constituted by Act of Parliament in 1878,
and administers a fund of about 90,000. a year. For many years this fund was
distributed on the results of examination alone; and the programme of the Board
was not favourable to the study of experimental science in the schools. But in
the year 1900 the Board was empowered, under a new Act, to supplement examina-
tion by inspection, and, in the distribution of grants, takes account of the results
of inspection as well as the results of examination.

‘ At the examination, which takes place at the end of the grammar school
course, there were rejected (1900-03) 494 young men—22°4 per cent.
22 girls —10°3 4

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 845

This change led to an important reform, in which the Board has been greatly
aided by the co-operation of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc-
tion, To this Department was transferred, in 1901, the administration of the
Parliamentary vote for science and art in Ireland, which had been previously
administered from South Kensington. As the Intermediate Board and the
Department were dealing with practically the same schools, it was agreed to
adopt a common programme in science subjects, and to carry out a common
system of examination and inspection.

The programme adopted under this arrangement, which includes two years of
a preliminary course and two years more of advanced teaching in various special
subjects, is fully set out in the paper. It involved, in effect, an entirely new
departure in the teaching of experimental science in Ireland; substituting, to a
large extent, practical work in the laboratory for the study of books, and testing
the efficiency of schools by actual inspection of the work done, as well as by
written papers.

One of the chief difficulties encountered in the introduction of this new system
was to provide a supply of competent teachers. This task was taken up by the
Department, as the training of teachers does not fall within the functions of the
Intermediate Board. The plan adopted was twofold. First, summer classes for
teachers were held at various centres; and teachers who attend these classes, and
afterwards satisfy the examiners, obtain provisional certificates to teach the course
in which they have been so trained. This is only a temporary expedient, intended
to meet the urgent need of the moment.

But as the permanent element in their scheme the Department propose to grant
the ‘Irish Teacher's Science Certificate’ to all students who pass through a three
years’ course, prescribed for the purpose, in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
They will also recognise as qualitied teachers students who have followed a similar
course in any university or technical college, and who haye obtained the corre-
sponding degree or diploma.

The next difficulty was the want of laboratories and laboratory equipment.
This difficulty has been met by the cordial and very remarkable co-operation of
the schools and the local authorities with the efforts made by the Department
and the Intermediate Education Board. The Department designed plans to suit
the circumstances of each particular school, and prescribed the necessary apparatus
to be provided. Then loans were advanced by the Intermediate Board, and grants
were made by the Department to help the schools to meet the cost of building
and equipment, ‘The county and borough councils also lent their aid in many
cases, by allocating to the same purpose a portion of the funds placed at their
disposal for technical education. The result has been that 214 schools are now
provided with all that is needed for the two years’ instruction of the preliminary
course; and many of these are further provided with the equipment prescribed
for one or more years of the special courses,

The new system now embraces all the secondary schools of the country, about
250 in number, with a school population of about 20,000 pupils. Of these 20,000
pupils, somewhat more than 9,000 were under instruction in the preliminary
course during the school year 1903-4, and about 1,500 in one or more of the
special subjects. This represents a very satisfactory progress, in what is practically
a new line of study, within the short period of four years.

It is encouraging to hear that the subject of experimental science, taught on
the new lines, is popular both with teachers and pupils. I am informed that a
large number of pupils have developed quite a remarkable taste for laboratory
work, and that many who had been regarded as dull and inert in other studies,
have shown themselves alert and bright in this new field of nature knowledge
that has been opened to them.

844, REPORT—1904.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Specialisation in Science Teaching in Secondary Schools.
By J. H. Lronarp, B.Sc.

While it is admitted that too early a specialisation is an evil, indications
are not wanting which show that the efficiency of science teaching in schools is
itself threatened with a particular kind of specialism.

A sketch was given of the broad lines which school science teaching may be
supposed to follow, emphasis being laid upon its practical nature and the mental
training involved.

In contrast to this, certain cases were cited where mechanics is studied in
some detail before any attention is paid to such branches of physics as optics,
electricity, and magnetism. In other cases, again, experiments in titration are
performed before sufficient progress has been made in elementary chemistry.

Botany and physiography meet with no recognition in such schools.

It was maintained that such instances as these exemplify what may be termed
‘specialisation’ for want of a better word, ze, one study is accorded undue
prominence,

It was shown that the effects of such ‘ specialism’ are bad, since the school
time is not proportionately allotted—e.., the omission of botany—while the effect
on the scholars themselves, so far as can be judged, is to weary them instead of
maintaining their interest.

2. Short Description of ‘ Realistic Arithmetic.’
By Lieut.-Colonel G. Macxintay, late R.A.

This apparatus consists of a series of blocks of different sizes, each approxi-
mately of the proportions of an ordinary brick, threaded on cords for convenience
of manipulation.

The exact proportions of each block are such that ten of one size placed
together exactly make the figure of one of the next larger blocks, and all
the blocks are similar figures. No other proportions except those adopted in
‘Realistic Arithmetic’ (in which the lengths of edges always increase by the
factor</ 10, which is approximately 2°1544) will fulfil these conditions. Evidently
a cube will not do so, as ten cubes will not build up into one larger one.

This harmonious arrangement leads to a very simple and real demonstration of
‘carrying’ in addition and ‘decomposing,’ or ‘ borrowing,’ in subtraction. Sums
in addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, &c., can be actually carried out
with magnitudes which are 7eally what they profess to be.

Considerable magnitudes can be faithfully represented ; for instance, one of the
smallest blocks is really one-millionth part of a large block.

Decimals follow in the most natural manner, and all difficulties can be cleared
away ; for instance, it can be shown at once that a long string of decimals is less
than 1.

Fractions and proportion can also be illustrated by means of ‘ Realistic
Arithmetic.’ Though chiefly intended for the use of little children, older ones
may refer to it occasionally, as such things as ‘scales of notation,’ ‘ limits, and
even an illustration of the differential calculus, can be given by its aid.

3. Report on the Influence of Examinations.—See Reports, p. 360.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 845

4. Discussion on School-leaving Certificates.
Opened by the Rev. Canon G. C. Brtx, JA.

The multiplicity of preliminary examinations either held by the various pro-
fessional councils, or recognised by them as guaranteeing a sufficiently high
standard of general education to enable candidates to begin professional training,
led to a conference of all parties concerned, and ultimately to the proposals of the
Board of Education. The want of uniformity in curricula and in details of indi-
vidual subjects demanded by the various examining bodies causes the greatest
possible disorganisation in a class or form in which, perhaps, several pupils are
being prepared for different examinations of similar general standard, but varying
greatly in detail.

English schools have gradually become entangled in the coils of an incredibly
complex system of examinations; such bodies as the Oxford and Cambridge
Joint University Board and the Local Examinations Board have endeavoured to
adapt their examinations to the needs and convenience of the schools, but have
not completely remedied the disadvantages of the present system, in that they
have not succeeded in getting into touch and sympathy with the teachers and
their pupils.

Uniform regulations for different types of schools tend to mould unwisely
the curricula and methods of teaching. The new proposals aim at combining
freedom with a scientific co-ordination of various types and stages of education.

Government aid was, until 1902, given exclusively to ‘schools of science,’ but
since that date grants have been given to ‘ Division B’ schools, in which much
less time is devoted to scientific subjects.

The Consultative Committee recognises that it would be an evil for the State
to become solely responsible for examinations of school-leaving type, and recom-
mends that considerable freedom should be allowed to schools in choosing their
examinations, which, however, in every case are to be subject to the influence of
the University and the teaching staff of the school.

Effective means of co-ordinating the examination with the teaching are pro-
vided by the following proposals :—

(1) Schools presenting pupils for certificates will previously be inspected, and
reported upon to the examining body, which can then adapt its examination to
the special aims and character of the school.

(2) The examination will be conjointly conducted by representatives of the
examining body and of the teaching staff.

The proposals are issued tentatively, in order to obtain by the end of the present
year an expression of opinion as to their feasibility ; it is hoped that such opinion
will not be so negative as to induce the Board of Education to abstain from
action.

Sir A. Riicker said that the subject was rather inconvenient for discussion,
because the Board of Education had only just submitted the proposals of the Con-
sultative Committee to the authorities concerned, and their views had not yet been
pronounced. He must speak for himself, and not for the University of London,
which for two years had been carrying out a scheme similar to that now pro-
pounded by the Consultative Committee. There could be no doubt as to the
immense importance of the proposed reform in its general character. The multi-
plication of examinations of the same standard was indefensible. The University
had abandoned the name of school-leaving examinations, because it made the
parent suppose that the examination implied the desirability of the child leavin
school at once. There was every desire to keep in close working contact with the
schools, and though in the ordinary Matriculation Examination it was impossible
to carry out a practical examination, such a feature was now introduced into
school examinations for matriculation. His main feeling in regard to the scheme
of the Board of Education was one of great disappointment, because the Consul-
tative Committee had not really faced the difficulties of the situation. It was
easy to draw up a scheme which would work well if we were starting aé initio.

846 REPORT—1904.

But the situation was complicated by the fact that the Universities of Oxford,
Cambridge, and London stood on a separate footing, in that for many years they
had held what were at least the nearest possible approach to school-leaving
examinations. Frankly, it was necessary to consider the finances of the whole
position, and this point the Consultative Committee had put completely on one
side. The University of London, for instance, had been started on its new career
with the magnificent endowment of 8,000/. a year, and it could not be forgotten
that, even when only a reasonable fee was charged, examination carried out on a
large scale was a profitable thing for the examining body. But it must not be
supposed that he was not absolutely in favour of some such scheme as that pro-
pounded by the Consultative Committee.

Mr. Gray, M.P., said that no educational proposal more far-reaching than this
of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education had been made for many
years. It would revolutionise the secondary schools of the country, and was
equivalent to a large addition to the length of the school life of the children. The
Consultative Committee was bound to have regard to the interests of the children
rather than to the fees of any university. If the examination of the university
were adapted to the curriculum of the school examined, and if the teaching staff of
the school were allowed to play a large part in the examination, the influence of
the reform was sure to be beneficial. It was especially necessary to define the
sort of examination to be insisted on in view of the fact that the new local educa-
tion authorities, who were to have charge of secondary education, would certainly
insist on some examination test as a qualification for their grant.

The Rey. R. D. Swallow noticed that the scheme did not seem to recognise
the two classes of secondary schools which were coming into existence. Side by
side with the older endowed schools there were springing up everywhere new
secondary schools which were only revived Cockerton schools, and the scheme
was inappropriate for these. He said that though the Headmasters’ Association
had not had time to consider the proposals of the Consultative Committee, he could
assert that it was strongly opposed to the examinations for leaving certificates
being left in the hands of a central board, but it deprecated no less strongly the
idea, which was gaining ground, of attaching schools to special universities, which
would be a first step to the denationalisation of Oxford and Cambridge.

Dr. Mangold agreed to the general principles laid down in the paper which
had been read. He emphasised the importance of examining the whole career of
candidates, and not depending on one performance only. Germany is satisfied
with this feature of her leaving examinations, and he had no doubt that the
system would prove a success in this country.

Principal Griffiths said that the danger of a central board was that it became
too much involved in routine and red-tape. He hoped that the central board
proposed by the Consultative Committee would be a purely advisory and inspect-
ing body, and not one charged with executive responsibility. At present the new
education authorities regarded the teachers with some distrust. They would not
readily allow the teachers to take their proper place in the conduct of examina-
tions, but gave a heart-breaking attention to the exact number of marks earned
by candidates. Any new scheme should be directed to subordinating the effect
of direct examination marks and increasing the importance of teachers’ reports.
The chief business of educationists at present was to educate the new local educa-
tion authorities.

Sir Oliver Lodge said that the departure heralded in the Report of the
Consultative Committee was allied to one which the Birmingham University
intended to put in practice. They proposed there to hold school examinations in
which the teachers should be asked to co-operate, and in which the certificates
should be awarded in consultation with the teachers. In time all the universities
would no doubt recognise each other's results, for at present the multiplicity of
examinations was intolerable, and the preparation for purely external examination
was not good for methods of teaching. The business of the university or educa-
tional centre of the district was simply to unify the standard of examination as
much as possible. The school teacher might be left to determine the relative

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. $47

value of his pupils, and then the absolute value could be determined by the
outside authority. He was sure that the country was ready for some such
experiment as that proposed, and no mere vested interests ought to be allowed
to stand in the way.

Dr. R. D. Roberts: The scheme of the Consultative Committee sets out an
ideal and embodies two essential principles. First, that the tyranny exercised
by the multiplicity of entrance examinations to the universities and various pro-
fessions must be broken; and, second, that the teacher should have a share in
conducting the examinations. The serious difficulty in the way of imposing a
new system of examinations is that the three great Universities of Oxford,
Cambridge, and London have all established systems of examination, which have
been to some extent doing the work—viz., the Joint-Board Examination, the Local
Examinations of Oxford and Cambridge, and the Matriculation Examination and
School-Leaving Certificate system of London. It seemed to him that the solution
of the difficulty would be found in the voluntary co-operation of the universities.
Negotiations are going on between the three universities named with the view of
seeing whether a plan might not be devised for the mutual recognition of each
other’s certificates. A joint committee had reported favourably, and had recom-
mended a plan which had been approved by the Senate of the University of
London and by the Council of the Senate of the University of Cambridge. The
matter was still under the consideration of the Hebdomadal Council of the Uni-
versity of Oxford. Ifthe plan were approved by the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge, the beginnings of a practical scheme for carrying out the principles of
the Consultative Committee’s Report would have been laid down. The Univer-
sity of London has already for nearly two years been carrying on a school-leaving
certificate system on the lines of the Consultative Committee’s Report, and he
believed it was by experiments of that kind, carried on by different universities,
that the difficult problems could be most successfully attacked.

Mr. Fordham said that the new local education authorities were most anxious
to work in touch with every part of the great mechanism of education, and they
regarded the teachers as the basis of that system. He did not think they were
(as had been suggested) suspicious of the teaching staff. He thought the
universities, while retaining their national, and even international, position and
importance, should take a large share in the new local educational work. They
could help to standardise education in all its grades; and he thought the
University of Cambridge might act in this way for East Anglia. Possibly the
new authorities would not be for long satisfied with the present system of
inspection by officers of the Board of Education, but would be inclined to set up
standards of educational progress of their own, in all stages of education. In
such a work the universities could take a large and valuable part. He hoped
they would not hold aloof from the general progress of education, but would
associate themselves cordially with the new authorities and their efforts.

Miss A. J. Cooper said that the consideration urged by Sir Arthur Riicker was
much more than a question of the vested interest of universities. It was the
question of utilising the great body of experience gained in the field of examination
through a long course of years. What was wanted really was some system which
would make examinations various, but of corresponding standard, and if at the
start all the work done by existing examining bodies were ignored, that equating
standard might be missed. It was desirable to keep in the examination system
the best elements of our present secondary schools, and also to make more use of
teachers in examination work than had hitherto been done.

Mr. Oscar Browning said that neither the examinations of the Joint Board nor
the Local Examinations could be regarded as an adequate substitute for the exami-
nation which was now proposed in the Report of the Consultative Committee.

The Rey. T. C. Fitzpatrick, speaking as one closely concerned with the work of
the University Joint Board, said that that Board had shown itself not. only
responsive to a great need, but fully alive to the deficiencies of the old system and
to the demands of the new. They now held a school-leaving examination in
which the character of the education giyen in the school was duly recognised.

848 REPORT—-1904.

Mr. Cloudesley Brereton hoped that the local authorities would not establish
examination boards of their own, or the examination evil would be increased
tenfold.

Mr. W.L. Mollison regretted that the proposed scheme indicated an intention
to consider Oxford and Cambridge as local or district Universities instead of
national institutions. Considering how universally examinations were condemned
as destructive of true education, he regarded it as amazing that a new scheme of
examination should be put forward as a panacea for our educational woes. The
Moseley Commission on American education showed how the Commissioners
regarded the absence of examinations as among the best features of American
education and one to be imitated in England. Further, he urged that a central
board, as advocated by the Advisory Committee, would become infinitely more
rigid than any of the existing examining bodies. The true solution was modifica-
tions by the Universities themselves and arrangements for the interchange of
their first public examinations. Negotiations for this purpose were now going on
between Oxford, Cambridge, and London.

The Rev. Dr. Gray said that he would not have intervened in the debate
had not a reference been made to the Moseley Commission, of which he happened
to have been a member. Mr. Mollison had said that American education was
characterised by a freedom from examinations, a freedom unknown to English
educationists. This was an unmixed blessing, and had had a beneficial effect on
education in America. We in England wanted some stimulus, apart from exami-
nations, to make our children love work for itsown sake. He, however, believed
that we were starting a new educational era in this respect.

The Bishop of Hereford said it was obvious that there must be a period of
transition before the new system could be introduced, and he hoped that con-
tinuity would not be broken. The financial side of the question could not be
altogether neglected, but he was of opinion that we can evolve a new system, and
that the financial difficulty could be easily settled. In conclusion, he would read
a summary of the discussion which had been drawn up by Sir Oliver Lodge :—
‘Tf the universities thought fit each to inaugurate a scheme whereby, in addition
to existing examinations, which for the present can be taken as options, schools
may submit themselves for specific inspection and examination on the general
lines of the Report of the Consultative Committee and the Board of Education ;
the result being that scholars above a certain grade shall receive a certificate
specifying the range of subjects on its face, a certificate which shall be taken into
account, and, if satisfactory, admitted as excusing the holder from the whole or
any part of a general entrance test for any university or professional body; the
members of this Section would welcome such a procedure and consider it educa-

tionally desirable.’

5. The Need of Scientific Method in Elementary Rural Instruction.
By A. D. Haut, JA.

The author said that for some years now there had been a widespread effort to
introduce into our rural elementary schools some form of instruction which
should be based on things rather than on books, and which should be in touch
with the activities of country life. It was of far more importance that the
intelligence of the country child should be educated than that of the town child,
who, as a clerk or artisan, had in after-life to carry out some small detail of a
great organisation with care and despatch. But the country child would need to
be an individual, as even the care of stock or the growing of cabbages could not
be done purely by rote. The prime condition in the form of instruction needed
was that it should be based on experiment, so that parent and child might both
realise that school had something to do with life and was not a wholly useless
convention. The particular subject of instruction was of less moment than the
method, which should teach observation and the reasoning from observation.
The experiment in every case ought to be done, and not merely described on the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 849

blackboard, and in this matter the current generation of teachers were not
honest. A detached series of lessons was to be avoided. One lesson ought to
grow out of the other, and things learnt in previous lessons should be necessary
to the proper interpretation of the later work. Incidentally the work should draw in
all the other school subjects; composition, for instance, should be concerned with
the description of experiments already performed. As to the subjects of study,
nothing lent itself better to school treatment than the life of a plant. No doubt
the difficulties of training colleges were great; but, unfortunately, it was those
institutions which had least learnt the lesson of working on the scientific method.
They regarded their function as that of providing information instead of enlighten-
ment. The time now given to getting up books about Herbert and Froebel
might be better devoted to practising what those theorists were dimly feeling
after—education from the thing, and not from words, experiment as a means of
observation and research. The ‘ nature study’ which prevailed so largely in our
schools to-day had too often no more relation to the study of nature than art
muslins had to art. Nature study should not consist of little lessons picked up
here and there—the interesting sugar-plums of science—of a lesson on seed
dispersal, followed by one on tadpoles. There must be system and an avoidance
of the formal science of the text-books. Above all, there must be no attempt to
make the teaching complete. From the lowest to the highest forms of teaching
gaps must be left for the student to fill up on his own account.

MONDAY, AUGUST 22.

1. Discussion on the Training of Teachers and the Local Education
Authorities. Opened by the Right Hon. Henry Hosunouss, MP.

Probably the most important factor in our educational progress at the present
moment is the training of our teachers. This has been recognised as a matter of
national concern, not only by a formal resolution passed last March by the House
of Commons, but by training being insisted upon as a condition of registration
under the recent regulations. But the actual establishment of training colleges
has more nostro long been left to private initiative, and the deficiencies which
have naturally resulted are now under the Act of 1902 to be supplied by the action
of the local authorities and not of the State. The object of the present paper is
briefly to indicate the difficulties which beset local bodies in their endeavours to
perform what is really a national task.

It must first be noted that (taking county councils and county borough
councils only) there are some 130 local authorities for higher education in England
and Wales. Some of these dispose of very small funds, considering the numerous
and important objects of their expenditure, which include secondary and evening
schools, scholarships, and technical classes of all kinds. In default of pressure
from the central authority some of these local bodies will be slow to raise more
money for the training of teachers. The Government, it will be said, offer liberal
contributions, amounting, in the case of the larger training colleges, almost to the
whole cost of maintenance. But it is the initial cost of establishing new institu-
tions with expensive buildings and equipment which is likely to prove most
formidable to the ratepayers’ representatives. Nor are any substantial building
grants to be expected from the Government unless a great deal more pressure is
applied to the Treasury to carry into effect the very shadowy promise made in the
House of Commons last spring.

Next to the deficiency of funds comes the difficulty of getting any proper co-
operation between so many authorities, autonomous and often jealous of each
other. Some inspiring and propelling force would seem to be required in many
cases to effect the necessary combinations between counties and boroughs to
establish training colleges. Possibly a lever towards this end may be found in the
vaguely worded section of the Education Act which requires local education

1904. 31

850 REPORT—1904.

authorities in forming their schemes of higher instruction to enter into ‘ consulta-
tion’ with the Board of Education.

But the most serious difficulty of all lies in what may be called the ‘ localisa~
tion’ of the individual teacher. The ratepayers who naturally wish to see their
money’s worth will put this question to their county councillor: ‘If you rate me
for sending teachers to a training college, what guarantee can you give me that
they will return to teach in our schools, or that an equivalent number of teachers
trained by other councils will do so?’ This question can probably be answered
with satisfaction to the ratepayer in the case of the metropolis and some other
large towns and counties, where the salaries of the teachers and the conditions of
their employment are all that they can desire. But it is different in the rural
counties, where plenty of good material for training is to be found, but where the
schools are small and salaries, even under the new conditions, are likely to be
moderate. There is also some danger that certain local authorities may prefer to
secure teachers trained elsewhere by the offer of high salaries rather than train
them themselves. Unless, therefore, some State machinery is devised for requiring
each local authority to contribute its proper quota towards such training—a
course which at present seems impracticable—the local authorities, either indi-
vidually or in combination, will have to bind each teacher they train to serve
exclusively in their schools for a reasonable number of years. Such a system of
indenture may be found financially necessary, but it does not seem educationally
desirable, and its result must be seriously prejudicial both to the free circulation
of educational energy and to the interests of the weaker counties and boroughs.

I have hitherto had in mind the training of teachers in training colleges from
the age of eighteen and upwards; but it must be remembered that for a long time
to come many of our elementary teachers, at all events, will require liberal
facilities for training in special subjects elsewhere than at training colleges, and
that the local authorities will be required to find funds both for this purpose and
to supplement the Government grants for training pupil-teachers. This strengthens
the case for throwing the cost of training colleges upon the national exchequer
rather than on local rates.

There is one argument against centralisation which deservedly has some
weight—viz., the desirability of encouraging local experiments and variety of
curricula in the training colleges. But there seems no good reason why this
object should not be secured by widening the field of Government grants and
aiding equally various types of training courses, as was recommended to the
Board by the Departmental Committee which sat in 1901. Equality of standard
may be maintained through the Government inspectorate without imposing
uniformity of teaching on institutions that ought to suit the different needs of
town and country, of large and small schools.

In short, the present problem seems to be how to encourage and impel our
local education authorities each to bear its fair share in the task of increasing the
supply of competent teachers without forcing them all into one groove and
depriving them of all initiative and independence.

Mr. H. Macan suggested that there should be two classes of teachers—one
highly trained, for the permanent work and higher posts corresponding to the
manager or foreman of a business, and other persons of good general education,
without pretensions to training, but sufficiently qualified for the temporary work
of teaching in the lower grades. Such a division would be consonant with a
state of things in which such a large number of teachers left the profession at a
comparatively early age and took up other employments. This was an economic
necessity, and the number of assistants was out of all proportion to the number
of well-paid higher posts to which they might aspire. All these lower-grade
teachers should have another trade or profession at their back.

Mr. G. F. Daniell said that Mr. Hobhouse’s paper was very comprehensive.
There was need of better provision of men to teach in secondary schools, and
such teachers must be trained. The number of secondary teachers required was
relatively small, and if adequate salaries were offered the supply would respond
to the demand. But the demand now was for good athletes, who are sure

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 851

to get a post in a good school; this encouraged athletics, and a demand for
trained teachers might encourage training. Teaching should not be regarded as
a passing occupation, but as a life work, and the training of teachers would
tend to bring this about. It was very important that the conditions of service as
a teacher should be improved. There should be a prospect of rising in the pro-
fession, and there should be more security of tenure.

Mr. Ernest Gray, M.P., said that the local authorities had no greater difficulty
at present than that of providing their schools with an adequate staff of well-
equipped teachers. They were counting the cost, and some of them had come to
the conclusion that it was easiest to throw the cost of training on other authori-
ties, and then attract the trained teacher by offering him a slightly higher salary.
It was not desirable that the teaching staff should be mainly drawn from certain
centres. No local authority ought to be allowed to escape from the obligation of
training a certain number of teachers. But then came the question of cost, and
the money available for the purposes of higher education, including the training
of teachers, was not sufficient unless the localities rated themselves heavily. The
charge now imposed by elementary education was so considerable that any further
burden might lead to a reaction. It was, therefore, impossible to escape from the
conclusion that the training of teachers should be a national charge. As might
be expected, the local authority that trained teachers was now putting them
under legal bond to serve in its schools ; educationally this was most objectionable,
and, from the point of view of the poorer counties, it would be disastrous if the
authorities of the great cities were to follow the same policy. The time had
arrived for the more scientific training of secondary school teachers. At present
these teachers sometimes gained their experience at the expense of their pupils.

Dr. E. H. Cook pointed out the difficulties of the local authorities, and
thought that in the great majority of cases they were performing an admittedly
difficult task very well indeed. ‘The question of the training of teachers was one
of the most pressing troubles, in regard to which he thought the training colleges
might improve their methods. In some cases teachers who had been ‘hall-
marked’ as trained were found inefficient, and in other cases teachers had abso-
lutely come back from training colleges less valuable as imparters of knowledge
than when they entered. The cause of this was probably that in the curriculum
of the ordinary training college a very short time—about six weeks or two
months in the year—was devoted to instruction in the art of teaching. A
certain amount of education was given, which was really that of the secondary
school. For good training the practising schools should be carefully selected, and
the actual teachers should be the best to be found, so that the pupils might
study from the best examples and have fixed firmly in their minds the most
effective methods of bringing out the latent powers of the children. The point
referred to by Mr. Hobhouse, as to local authorities insisting that locally trained
teachers should remain in the district in which they were trained, was in a great
measure a ratepayers’ question. It must not, however, be forgotten that the
greater the number of local authorities who undertake the training of their own
teachers, the less the difficulty in regard to localisation. Because,if A loses
teachers to B, it would also gain from B, inasmuch as if B trains all it wants,
then taking some from A will obviously give it an excess. In Bristol this view
has been taken, and it has not been insisted upon that the locally trained teachers
shall return to work in the city, notwithstanding that for some years now we
have provided for many more pupil-teachers than we want. The training of
secondary teachers was most important, as it was, unfortunately, the fact that a
large number of such teachers, whilst good students and well stored with know-
ledge, could not impart that knowledge to others. Fortunately, we have in our
university colleges centres which can be utilised for this purpose, and in the
proper development of these institutions seemed to lie the solution of the difficulty
of training secondary teachers.

Principal Griffiths said that the one important question was whether the
training of teachers should be a national or a local undertaking. In Wales the
present difficulty was about to be considered by a congress of all the education

312

852 REPORT—1904.

authorities in the Principality, and the attempt was to be made to devise one
scheme for the whole of Wales. It was most important that those who were
training for the teaching profession should be associated with the students for
other professions, and that the hard-and-fast division between primary and
secondary teachers should be obliterated.

Mr. Culverwell said that to make the training of teachers a national rather
than a local concern would secure a more immediate supply of trained teachers.
But he doubted whether the former would be as effective as the latter in the long
run. People took much more care in expending their own than national money,
and the most important of all reforms in education was to increase and sustain
the interest of the parents in the school. Moreover, central control was apt to
get into the hands of doctrinaires, and it was extremely hard to reform a Govern-
ment department when once it got wrong.

Mr. J. L. Holland drew attention to some of the dangers accompanying the
administration of the new regulations for the training of pupil-teachers. The
pupil teachers should not monopolise all the scholarships given in various areas.
In some areas it was a fact that a clever pupil could not obtain a scholar-
ship if he were not willing to become a teacher. The intending pupil-teachers
should enter the secondary schools at twelve, and not at fourteen years of age, as
some people, misreading the regulations, seemed to imagine. The proportion of
intending pupil teachers in any one school should not be large. To found
schools, as was being done in some places, entirely for the sake of their pupil-
teachers would defeat the real object of the new regulations.

Sir John Gorst said that the question was how to increase the supply of
competent teachers. That supply had been short before the Act of 1902 was
passed, and it was much shorter now. The passing of an Act of Parliament did
not create a body of teachers. It was most ridiculous to decide before the student
was trained whether he was to be an elementary, a secondary, or a technical
teacher, and he objected fundamentally to this attempt to divide education into
these three watertight compartments. To suppose that anyone could be com-
petent for one kind of teaching without any knowledge of the other kinds was a
delusion. No doubt the supply of head-masters of public schools could be left to
take care of itself; but to increase the great body of teachers it would be neces-
sary to draw on a class which could not afford the necessary training without
State help. There was no difficulty in obtaining teachers in Ireland. Why not
recruit the teaching staff from that country? The system of training teachers
which had hitherto obtained had been a disastrous failure, and a revolution was
necessary. The burden laid on the young pupil-teacher was greater than any-
one could bear, and he was never more indignant than when he heard Sir William
Anson, in the House of Commons, reading out the ridiculous answers which pupil-
teachers had given in examinations. Such answers were the exact result to be
expected from the system now pursued. Assistance for the training of teachers
must be given both from Imperial and from local funds; but he was opposed to
the old-fashioned training college, where students for the teaching profession
were completely isolated. The whole training of the teachers could be supplied
in such existing educational institutions as the county schools and the univer-
sities, if the Government gave adequate grants. The qualification of the teacher
should be certified to by the university, and not by a Government department,
and invidious distinctions between one class of teachers and another should be
avoided. Then the profession of teaching might offer an honourable career.

Mr. Oscar Browning: One of the worst enemies of the training of teachers is
to be found in the curricula which are from time to time sent to us by the Board
of Education. Whenever it occurs to anyone that some subject ought to be
taught in the elementary schools, an attempt is made to force it upon the teachers
who are in training and to make it part of the training-college course. Surely it
is only important that the teacher should be a well-educated man, and it may
fairly be claimed that the University Training Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge
have fulfilled this end. The Cambridge College has now been at work for twelve
years—only two years less than the limit given by a previous speaker to the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 853

average life of a male teacher. Sir William Anson said the other day in the
House of Commons that pupil-teachers were, as a whole, not competent to take
university degrees. Speaking with a considerable knowledge of public schools,
I can confidently assert that they are just as fit to take these honours as the
average public-school boy, and in some cases much more fit. The list I hold in my
hand contains three first classes, including a nineteenth wrangler, eight second
classes, and three third classes, a record which might do honour to many a Cam-
bridge college. It is also objected that our students are not trained to be
elementary teachers, but that they drift into secondary teaching. This we do not
find to be the case. During the twelve years’ existence of the College only three
students have given up education altogether, and only twelve, or an average of
one a year, are now engaged in secondary education, and these have satisfied their
obligation by serving in most cases as elementary teachers. I therefore maintain
that the pupil-teachers we receive, who are by no means a picked or selected lot,
are fully competent to profit by a university education, and that they do, when so
trained, continue to be elementary teachers. We have also tried the experiment
of training primary and secondary teachers together. We were the first to do
this, and our example has been imitated elsewhere. We find that this condition
is indispensable to our success, and that both classes of teachers gain largely by
being trained together.

M. Emile Hovelaque said that he had extreme diffidence in speaking on a
subject mainly administrative and wholly English, but he was encouraged to
do so by the protests which had been made against introducing any narrow and
parochial spirit into the training of the teachers. If it were desirable that
teachers from one part of the country should have experience in other parts,
might it not be equally desirable for teachers to have experience of foreign
countries? In France there had recently been instituted a scheme which,
though not primarily designed for the training of teachers, might easily be made
to work in with that object. In the French universities, secondary schools, and
training colleges it was now the practice to have foreign visitors in residence,
and their business was not to teach, but to give to advanced pupils the benefit of
opportunities for unconstrained conversation and for deriving accurate and living
impressions of foreign countries. It was found that this informal intercourse with
foreigners was much more instructive for the students than any conversation
with or teaching by the regular professors. It would be a great advantage if
a larger number of English students for the higher branches of the teaching
profession could be induced to take up residence in this way at the French
schools and colleges, where they would receive free board and lodging in ex-
change for a few hours’ conversational work a day. The advantage tothe English
student would be great, because he would not only be able to learn the French
language, but he would have every opportunity of studying the methods of
teaching practised in the French educational institutions. In regard to the
teaching of the mother-tongue, the example would be especially valuable, for
particular attention had been devoted to that subject in France; and in England
the teaching of English had been surprisingly neglected. The scheme, it should
be noted, was not one for international exchange of secondary school teachers,
but rather for the interchange of those who in the future were intending to
become teachers in secondary schools.

Miss Edna Walter said that it was useless to consider how to increase the
supply of teachers without increasing the rewards of the profession. Instead of
giving bursaries and scholarships to attract young people into the profession, it
would be better to spend the money in increasing the salaries of teachers, so as to
keep them in the profession.

The Rev. W. T. A. Barber laid emphasis on the necessity of a broadening
element in the training of elementary teachers. He mentioned an experiment
which is being worked out in the Eastern Counties. Intending teachers are
removed at twelve, on scholarships, to secondary schools; are there mixing with
children of another social style till eighteen, and then, all school subjects laid on
one side, are sent for a single year of pedagogics to a training college. The train-

854 REPORT—1904.

ing accommodation will thus be at once doubled. In the training of secondary
teachers now made necessary by the registration conditions the great difficulty
is to get any teachers to train. The superior attractions of the Civil Service, the
professions and business, practically leave no first-class men for schoolmastering.
ft is not easy to add another costly year to the costly training which already
attracts so few. All training must be in connection with some university centre,
and a great future is to be anticipated for the Cambridge Training School, where
secondary and primary teachers are taught together. Experience shows the
difficulty of a practising-ground for the secondary teachers, for classes in primary
schools are often entirely unlike those in secondary.

The Rev. J. F. Tristram said that he protested against the light-hearted
suggestions made concerning the training of secondary teachers. ‘Those who
thought that it would be wise to send into our secondary schools men and
women who had had no special preparation for their duties, ‘and see how their
new ideas would work, and those who believed it unwise to differentiate the
training of elementary and secondary teachers, but to ‘see what sort of teachers
they would turn out to be’ after a generalised course of training, were not good
guides at the present crisis. They forgot the facts. Teaching was becoming
more and more a highly specialised craft, demanding peculiar gifts and a
laborious apprenticeship, and the difference between the subject-matter of the
education of those attending primary and higher schools surely required a
different training. This divergence was not likely to diminish, but to increase.
As for the expedients for attracting children of a lower social class into the ranks
of secondary teaching, to remedy the great and increasing demand for recruits,
he had the gravest doubts of its success and of its influence upon our public
schools, and demanded that the ordinary commercial law of supply and demand
should be applied to the profession, saying that the attractions of other careers
than teaching would always take away the most promising young people until
the remuneration offered by this profession should be raised and the conditions
of tenure should be rendered more reasonable. This surely was the way to
attract better and more recruits, and until the supply were increased in this
honest and natural way the talk about methods of training was idle, because
there would be no candidates for the teaching profession to be trained.

Dr. Mangold said that in Germany elementary and secondary teachers were
trained separately and differently. Financial difficulties would diminish if the
training of secondary teachers was entrusted to prominent masters as an additional
work, and paid accordingly. The most important thing was practical training.
Pupil-teachers ought to see the imparting of knowledge by excellent masters.

2. The Research Method applied to Experimental Teaching.
Ly Professor H. E. Armstrone, LL.D., #.RS.

Dr. Armstrong insisted at the outset that no other method was possible; that
merely to follow directions, as is done in so much of our laboratory work, is not
experimenting in any sense of the term. The practical verification by students
of statements brought under their notice often affords valuable discipline in mani-
pulation, and it may bring facts home and fix them in the memory in a way not
otherwise possible ; but such teaching does not serve to develop in any proper way
logical habits of thought and alertness of mind, nor does it serve to cultivate the
spirit of inquiry.

Rightly viewed, an experiment has three stages: (1) the stage of conception;
(2) that of performance ; (3) that of utilisation. Of these the second is relatively
very easy ; but it is the mere mechanical bridge between the first and third, and
yet, as arule, it all but monopolises the attention of the student. It is essential
that in every experiment there should be some clearly defined purpose or motive
in view, some definite problem to be solved; that some question should be asked
from the outset for which an answer can be sought. Then must come the question
whether any clue can be found and worked upon. The best way of making the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 855

experiment must next be thought out gradually in every detail. During the
experiment everything that is noticéable or that happens must be most carefully
recorded. Finally, the results obtained must be interpreted in the light of the
question asked, and they must be utilised as stepping-stones towards the further
prosecution of the inquiry. It is because students so rarely make ‘ experiments’
with any clearly conceived purpose in view that we have made so little pro-
gress hitherto in making ‘science’ an éffective educational discipline.

Dr. Armstrong dwelt on the impropriety of adopting the Euclidian method of
stating the answer in advance, so usual among teachers. He insisted on the need
of writing down as the work proceeds (a) the complete argument on which the
experiment is based ; (6) everything that is done as it ts done ; (c) the observa-
tions made ; (d) every inference that can be drawn from the observations, both those
bearing on the original problem and also those which serve to raise new issues.
He further insisted that the writing of such records was of supreme value as a
literary exercise, and that experimental teaching could not be conducted properly
with the object of giving training in the art of inquiry unless it were combined
with careful instruction in the art of composition. Taking limestone by way of
example, he pointed out at length why it should be studied, and how it might be
studied, following the lines laid down in the well-known British Association
programmes, which have been more fully developed in his book on the ‘ Teaching
of Scientific Method’ (Macmillan).

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

The following Paper and Reports were read :—

1. Discussion on Methods of Imparting Manual Instruction in Schools.
Opened by Sir Puttie Maenus, B.Sc.

It was at the meeting held in Birmingham in 1886, long before the Educational
Science Section existed, that I had the privilege of first bringing under the notice
of the Association the subject of manual training as a part of general education.
Since then great strides have been made. The Association of Manual Training
Teachers, of which till last year I was President, has done much to improve the
method of teaching in our public elementary schools. It was, however, to the joint
committee, composed of representatives of the City Guilds’ Institute and the
Drapers’ Company, which supplied the funds, and of the late School Board for
London, which gave the use of its rooms, that the introduction of this subject
into our schools and its recognition by the Board of Education are mainly due.

One reason for the rapid appreciation of the value of manual instruction as a
part of the curriculum of school teaching was that we were fortunate enough to
adopt from the first in the teaching of the subject a correct method, based on
sound educational principles. This was not so in science teaching, in which the
aim of the teaching for many years was information as to facts—facts which
might be learned from any text-book. Hence we had far less to unlearn in
manual instruction than we had in science teaching. We had to resist the too
utilitarian tendency of educational effort a decade since to make manual instruc-
tion the means of teaching in school a trade; but we did resist it. From the
first we recognised that such teaching must be a discipline—a means of exciting
intellectual activity through manual work, and of bringing children’s minds into
direct contact with real things. Incidental advantages were soon found to follow
from the methods of teaching first adopted. It was demonstrated as a fact that
the instruction made all children generally more intelligent, quicker at their
mental work, and more resourceful ; and whilst the time taken from other studies
in no way impeded the children’s progress in those studies, but, on the contrary,
quickened their grasp of new ideas, the special teaching was found to excite the
interest of such children as showed signs of possessing a particularly lethargic

856 REPORT—1904.

temperament, and to stimulate them, as nothing else had done, to work at other
things. This was the great advantage of manual teaching.

The difficulty at first experienced, and now by no means wholly overcome,
was the supply of competent teachers. As a matter of educational principle, the
teachers should be the ordinary school teachers. It was recognised at first, by
those who had the direction of manual instruction, that to insure good methods
the instruction should be given by highly trained teachers, and that the village
carpenter or blacksmith would not make a competent instructor. For this reason
the City Guilds’ Institute, which was the first body to give a certificate of com-
petency to teachers, admitted to its examinations none other than certificated
teachers in elementary schools. But the pressure of opinion, the practice of the
late School Board for London, and the demand for teachers, which rapidly over-
took the supply, compelled the Institute to widen the door of admission to its
examination. Moreover, the Institute was not averse from trying the double
experiment of training educated teachers in manual work, and of training skilled
artisans in the methods of instruction. Both experiments have been attended
with fairly satisfactory results, although it must be admitted that, however the
teacher may have been trained, it is essential that he should be first of all well
educated and skilled in the methods of imparting knowledge, in order that manual
work may become an integral part of the school curriculum, and may be closely
associated with the teaching of other subjects of the school course.

It is not until we recognise the fact that many subjects of instruction may be
taught in connection with workshop training, and that the methods of the work-
shop may be made applicable to the teaching of other subjects, that manual in-
struction will have found its proper place in our elementary and higher schools.

To this end the instruction must be continuous from the early Kindergarten
exercises till the boy or girl leaves the school. Hitherto the material employed
in manual instruction has been wood and iron. But if the instruction is to be con-
tinuous, other materials and other methods than those at present adopted must be
employed. The manual instruction must be made the means of progressively de-
veloping the child’s intelligence, and of providing subjects for inquiry and thought
in the region of elementary geometry, arithmetic, and mensuration, and to some
extent in the rudiments of natural and experimental science, from the earliest
age throughout the child’s entire school career. This is essential, and this funda-
mental proposition must dominate and determine methods of imparting manual
instruction in all types of schools.

Accepting this general proposition, we see how small a part of the manual
training field has, so far, been systematically surveyed. We have to remember
that at present the course of manual instruction in all our schools is discontinuous
and broken. Between the age when Kindergarten exercises cease and the time
when a boy is fit to pass to wood-working tools, z.c., roughly, between the ages of
eight and eleven, a boy receives no instruction by manual methods, except per-
haps in drawing, and relies almost exclusively upon oral teaching. This lacuna
in his practical education has to be filled in. Methods of instruction have to be
discovered and materials for workshop exercises have to be suggested which will
serve for this unexplored interval—from the time he leaves the infant school till
he is qualified to enter the ordinary school workshop. In connecting these two
periods care must be taken that the secondary influence of manual instruction
shall also be continuous—that the training in observation, measurement, and
reasoning shall be developed by appropriate exercises for each successive year.

In the training of girls much has to be done in this direction. Without
favouring early specialisation, I cannot arrive at any other conclusion than that
manual instruction should be different, not in aim, but certainly in subject, for
the two sexes. Except as regards sewing, which although in some cases useful
for boys, is essential for girls, the manual instruction for girls, from eleven or
twelve years onwards, should be largely, if not entirely, associated with the
domestic arts. In cookery and in needlework, and generally in subjects relating
to household management, there is ample scope for that practical teaching, that
workroom training which may be made to yield the same educational discipline

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 857

as wood-work and metal-work afford to boys. We cannot escape from the con-
clusion that education must be, in the first place, individual, and prepare us for
complete living. For this reason the subjects of instruction must be selected with
reference to the usefulness of the training in the discharge of the primary duties
of life. We have yet to show how the different branches of domestic economy,
as it is generally called, may be taught so as to serve asa centre of interest for
the acquisition of knowledge of other cognate subjects and as a rigorous exercise
in the practice of scientific method. Progressive schemes of instruction have to
be elaborated suitable for different types and grades of girls’ schools. But in all
such schemes the aim and purpose must be educational, and not professional. The
method of instruction should be such that the girl may grow in intelligence and
resourcefulness, may have her interests enlarged and her general knowledge
widened, whilst at the same time she is acquiring that special skill in the
domestic arts which is essential to her well-being and will increase her usefulness
in every womanly occupation in which she may be engaged. Underlying the
domestic arts are scientific principles, the roots of which stretch out wide and far.
The scheme of instruction, therefore, which should vary with the age when the
child leaves school, should carefully associate theory with practice, and should
show in detail the kind of experiments that the child should perform in order to
acquire that amount of accurate scientific knowledge which will be helpful in her
work. Under good instruction there should be no learning by heart useless
scraps of information, to be reproduced verbatim without any intelligent under-
standing of the meaning of the terms employed, and with very varied spelling.

No; the methods of manual instruction, some of which have to be worked out,
must be the same for boys and girls. The aims of the teaching should also be
identical ; but the subject-matter should be such as has some relation to the future
life-work of each sex, and this differentiation should commence when the child
is about eleven years old.

My observations have been limited to manual work as it should be taught from
the close of the Kindergarten to the end of a child’s elementary school course.
Our chief aim should be to make this instruction continuous. After the elemen-
tary school age, the instruction in certain types of school tends to become profes-
sional in character. This kind of teaching has become fully developed in France
and in the United States; but I do not propose to discuss it now. In ordinary
secondary schools a somewhat different kind of instruction has to be considered,
but the method does not differ essentially from that of the lower school. It is
satisfactory to find that manual instruction is now a recognised part of the train-
ing-college course. But the subject is treated somewhat as an intruder, and
sufficient time is not yet given to it. The introduction of such teaching, how-
ever, is likely to exercise a very beneficial influence on the methods of teaching

‘other subjects. This fact has only now begun to be realised, and important and
at present unforeseen consequences are likely to follow.

Mr. Millis expressed his belief that opposition on the part of trade unions
was frequently a sign that the manual training was either improperly done or
improperly explained. He had known cases in which the fitting up of a manual-
training (metal) workshop had been an attempt to copy the fittings of an
engineer's shop, and years ago much harm was done by talking about the teaching
of carpentry, instead of the giving of instruction in manual woodwork, and car-
penters then frequently asked why theirs should be the only trade taught. Mr.
Millis further added that he was certain that if manual training was given in
connection with other school subjects, and not treated as a special subject outside
school work, opposition from trade unions would cease to exist. Manual train-
ing should be connected with drawing, drawing with geometry, geometry with
arithmetic, and then we should get much better educational results.

Mr. Oscar Browning said that he wished to bear testimony to the value of
manual training as a part of education. He had been led to this opinion in the
first instance by the teachings of Rousseau and Goethe. He believed that every
member of the House of Hohenzollern was taught a trade, the present German
Emperor having been taught bookbinding. As an Eton master he had learnt

858 REPORT—1904.

that some boys could not be intellectually educated except through their own
hands. Some boys could not be affected by books or by abstract ideas. On the
other hand, if you set them to do something, they will be led to abstract ideas.
If you set boys to use their hands they would soon begin to use their heads.
This had been shown by the Mechanical Sciences Tripos, the pupils of which were
singularly active and intelligent in all respects.

Mrs. Marvin held that women themselves were to blame if they were not con-
sulted about the drawing up of schemes of manual instruction for girls. If they
showed sufficient interest in the matter they could have it all their own way.
She held that the manual training of girls should not be restricted to the domestic
arts. The domestic occupations were mostly poor as a training in manual
strength and skill. Girls were generally found to be inferior to boys in dexterity
and accuracy of hand, and many competent judges attributed this largely to their
unfamiliarity with the great variety of tools and objects with which a boy busies
himself. She would enlarge the scope of girls’ manual training, using specially
various artistic occupations. At the same time, the domestic arts as usually
taught in schools were capable of being greatly improved as a means of manual
training; sewing, ¢.g., as now taught, was often little more than the making of
stitches ; it might be made a valuable discipline.

Dr. Walmsley said that there was a danger in manual training of not follow-
ing out the professed ideals, but of allowing the training to become a means of
teaching trades. In America, schools of manual training were more developed
than here, but the American schools must not be confused with ours. The pre-
sidents of the schools might have the same ideals as ourselves, but the teachers
carried these out in a very different manner. The effect of their teaching was to
turn out artisans, and they taught things which possessed no educational value.
It was difficult to obtain the right kind of teachers and of teaching. We must be
very careful that the ideals are properly carried out, and the aim in view must —
never be forgotten.

Miss Cooper hoped that the appeal made to women would be fuily responded
to. We want the co-operation of both sexes. With regard to girls, we must study
what to put in and what to leave out. We must not forget domestic arts and
crafts. Takethe art of stitchery; the employment of the needle had come down
to use from prehistoric times. It might be connected with many other things,
such as weaving and dress in general. Needlework should also be connected
with literature and history, and thus be made a foundation for artistic and his-
torical study. Indeed, the study of the needle crafts might be an education
in itself,

Miss Maud Taylor differed from the remarks of two speakers; first, with the
statement that women were not interested in the manual instruction of girls. In
her experience women of all classes were most interested, and anxious to improve
the existing conditions of such education, but were unable to escape from the
cramping regulations of the Education Department. She pointed out the
impossibility of teaching genuine household economy and management under
the present elementary school system, by which girls received only two or
three hours’ instruction per week. Any practical housewife understands that
such instruction must deal only. with individual items of knowledge and omit
management asa whole. The price of the food and the cost per head of dishes
cooked were worked out in all schools with which she was acquainted. The
Domestic Economy Centres, under the London School Board, are at present giving
the best (because consecutive) courses of such instruction.

2. Interim Report on the Course of Experimental, Observational and
Practical Studies most Suitable for Elementary Schools.

3. Report on the Conditions of Health Essential to the Carrying-on of the
Work of Instruction in Schools.—See Reports, p. 348.

Hb DN DD Be

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark } indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Jowrnal or Newspaper

where the paper is published in extenso.

BJECTS and rules of the Association,

Xxxi.

List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1904, xlii.

List of Trustees and General Officers,
1831-1904, lvi.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, lvii.

List of Evening Discourses, 1xxvii.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixxx.

Officers of Sections present at Cambridge,
Ixxxii. 4

Committee of Recommendations at
Cambridge, Ixxxiii.

Treasurer’s account, Ixxxiv.

Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, lxxxvi.

Officers and Council for 1904-1905,
lxxxviil.

Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Cambridge, Ilxxxix.

Resolutions passed by the General
Committee at Cambridge :

(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, xcvi.

(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, cii.

(3) Papers ordered to be printed in
extenso, Cvi.

(4) Resolutions referred to the
Council for consideration, and
action if desirable, cvi.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes in 1904, cvii.

Places of meeting in 1905 and 1906, cviii.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, cix.

General meetings, exxviii.

Address by the President, Rt. Hon. A. J.
Balfour, D.C.L., M.P., FRS., 3,

Aberdeenshire clay, the occurrence of
pebbles of white chalk in, A. W.
Gibb on, 573.

ABNEY (Sir W. de W.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 66.

on the courses of studies most suit-
able for elementary schools, 352.

ABRAHAM (Prof. M.), the reaction of the
radiation on a moving electron, 436.

Abraxas grossulariata, experiments on
heredity and sex-determination in,
Rev. G. H. Raynor and L. Doncaster
on, 594.

Accuracy and comparability of British
and foreign statistics of international
trade, report on the, 302.

Acetylides, double, Major A. E. Edwards
and Prof. W, R. Hodgkinson on, 502.
ACKROYD (W.) on the bearing of the
colour phenomena presented by radium

compounds, 524.

ADAMS (Prof. W. G.) on magnetic obser-
vations at Falmouth, 29.

on practical electrical standards, 30.

ADAMS (W.G.58.), the modification of
the income-tax, 663.

ADENEY (Dr. W. E.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements
and compounds, 66.

ADIE (R. H.) on the courses of studies
most suitable for elementary schools,
352.

Aeroplane, the development of the, by
Major B, Baden-Powell, 481.

Agricultural field experiments, the pro-
bable error of, by A. D. Hall, 804.

Agricultural improvements, the influence
of, on rent, by Prof. A. W. Flux, 647.

*Aericultural research, the organisation
of, in America, by Prof. Atwater, 795.

Agriculture, Address to the Sub-Section
of, by Dr. W. Somerville, 784.

860

*AHMAD (Z. U.) on the use of divergent
series in astronomy, 464.

Air-currents, upper, and their relation to
the audibility of sound, by Rev. J. M.
Bacon, 482.

Alcohol, the effect of, on the heart, by
Dr. W. E. Dixon, 742.

*Aleze, exhibition of pure cultures of,
by Prof. R. Chodat, 801.

Alkaloids in plants, some general results
of the localisation of, by Prof. L.
Errera, 815.

*Alkyl derivatives of sulphur, selenium,
and tellurion, Dr. A. Scott on some,
531.

*Alloys, methods of investigating, illus-
trated from the copper-tin series, by
C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville, 500.

*Alloys of iron, the electric and thermic
conductivities of certain, Prof. W. F.
Barrett and R. A. Hadfield on, 479.

*Alpine rose, two species of, and their
supposed hybrids, Prof, J. M. Macfar-
lane on, 823.

Alps, passes of the: a geographical ob-
ject-lesson, by A. W. Andrews, 637.
Alternate-current motors, the testing of,
by continuous current, by W. Cramp,

687.

tAlternating current induction motors,
testing by a Hopkinson method, by
W. E. Sumpner and R. W. Weekes, 679.

Alternating stresses, rapidly, the effect
of, on structural steels, 684.

Aluminium alloys, the electrical conduc-
tivity of certain, as affected by ex-
posure to London atmosphere, and a
note on their micro-structure, by Prof.
E. Wilson, 686.

Amarantus spinosus, secondary thicken-
ing in, Horace A. Wager on, 783.

Ammonia, the decomposition and syn-
thesis of, by Dr. E. P. Perman, 528.

Ammonium salts and metals, some re-
actions between, Prof. W. R. Hodgkin-
son and A. H. Coote on, 502.

Amorite crania, exhibit of, by Prof.
A. Macalister, 718.

Analysis of the soil by means of the
plant, by A. D. Hall, 804

ANDERSON (Dr. Tempest) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest,
242,

—— on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kermington, Lincolnshire, &c., 272.

“5 the Lipari Islands and their vol-
canoes, 634.

ANDREWS (A. W.), a geographical object-
lesson: passes of the Alps, 637.

*ANDREWS (Dr. C. W.), Egyptian eocene
vertebrates and their relationships,
particularly with regard to the geo-
graphical distribution of allied forms,
596.

REPORT—1904.

ANnGoT (A.), the relation between the
minima and following maxima of sun-
spots, 460.

AnestRrém (Prof. K.) on the ultra-red
absorption spectrum of ozone and the
existence of that gas in the atmo-
sphere, 461.

—— an instrument for the measurement
of the radiation from the earth, 462.
Animal relationships, the precipitin test
in the study of, by Dr. G. H. F. Nuttall,

607.

Ankylostoma, the probability of its be-
coming a permanent inhabitant of our
coal mines in the event of its introduc-
tion, interim report on, 292.

—— (the miners’ worm), Prof. Loos’s
recent researches on, A. K. Shipley on,
596.

ANNANDALE (N.) on anthropometric in-
vestigation in Great Britain and
Treland, 330.

*Antarctic expedition, the Scottish, by
W.S. Bruce, 637.

Anthropological teaching,
state of, report on, 341.

Anthropological view of the origin of
tragedy, an, by Prof. W. Ridgeway,
710.

Anthropology, Address by H. Balfour to
the Section of, 689.

Anthropometric identification: a new
system of classifying the records, by
J. Gray, 717.

Anthropometric investigation in Great
Britain and Treland, report on, 330.
Anthropometric investigations among the
native troops of the Egyptian army,

report on, 339.

Anthropometric survey, an: its utility to
science and to the State, by J. Gray,
704.

*Anthropometric survey and physical
deterioration, discussion on, 705.

Anthropometric work in Scotland, recent,
by J. F. Tocher, 706.

Anticline, a small, in the Great Oolite
Series at Clapham, north of Bedford,
H. B. Woodward on, 544.

Anti-ferment reaction, the so-called, in
geotropically stimulated roots, the
significance of, Prof. F. Czapek on,
817.

*Anuran tadpoles, the hatching of, by
E. J. Bles, 608.

Apes, the embryos of, Prof. F. Keibel on,
596.

ARBER (KE. A. N.) on the fossil plants of
the Upper Culm Measures of Devon,
549.

on derived plant petrifactions from

Devonshire, 549.

a new feature in the morphology of

the fern-like fossil Glossopteris, 781.

the present

INDEX.

ABBER (E. A. N.) and Dr. D. H. Scort
on some new lagenostomas, 778.

Arceuthobium occidentale, the dissemina-
tion and germination of, by Dr. G. J.
Peirce, 818.

Archeological and ethnological researches
in Crete, report on, 321.

ARCHIBALD (D.) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites,
17

Arginin, the metabolism of, Prof. W. H.
Thompson on, 741.

Arithmetic, realistic, by Lieut.-Col. G.
Mackinlay, 844.

ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the courses
of studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

—— on the influence of examinations,360.

—— the research method applied to ex-
perimental teaching, 854.

FABNOLD (Prof. J. O.), the effect of
rapidly alternating stresses on struc-
tural steels, 684.

*Arsenic, the presence of, in the body,
and its secretion by the kidneys, W.
Thomson on, 531.

Artificial respiration, methods of, Prof.
KE. A. Schafer on, 754.

ASCHAN (Prof. O.) on the pentavalent
nitrogen atom, 517.

ASHBY (T.) on excavations on Roman sites
in Britain, 337.

Asia Minor, Ptolemy’s map of: method
of construction, by Rev. H. 8. Cronin,
627.

Astragalus, some variations in the, by
R. B. 8. Sewell, 716.

*Astronomy, problems of, by Sir David

Gill, 469.

—— the use of divergent series in, Z.

U. Ahmad on, 464.

Astronomy and Cosmical Physics, Ad-
dress by Sir John Eliot to the Sub-
Section of, 443.

Asymmetric nitrogen atom, the, by Prof.
E. Wedekind, 518.

Atmosphere, the, the ionisation of, Prof.
A. Schuster on, 471.

Atmosphere, the upper, investigation of,
by means of kites, third report on, 17.
tAtoms, plan of a combination of, having
the properties of polonium or radium,

by Lord Kelvin, 472.

ATWATER (Prof. W. O.), investigations
on the nutrition of man, 758.

*____ the organisation of agricultural
research in America, 795.

* Australian siderite, exhibitions of photo-
graphs of sections of an, by Prof. A.
Liversidge, 530.

Australian tribes, group-marriage in, by
A. W. Howitt, 709.

AVEBURY (Lord) on the forms of stems
of plants, 812.

*

861

Axolotl, the fertilisation of the egg of
the, J. W. Jenkinson on, 600.

*AYRTON (Mrs. H.) on the origin of sand
ripples, 676.

AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 30.

*B-rays, changes produced by the, by Sir
W. Ramsay, 517.

BAcKstROM (Dr. Helge) on the origin
of the great iron-ore deposits of Lap-
land, 560.

BAcon (Rey. J. M.), upper air-currents
and their relation to the audibility of
sound, 482.

BADEN-POWELL (Major B.), the de-
velopment of the aeroplane, 481.

BAILEY (Lieut.-Col.) on terrestrial sur-
face waves and wave-like surfaces, 301.

BAINES (J. A.), the relation between
population and area in India, 662.

BAKER (R. T.), exhibition of specimens
illustrating (1) the comparative con-
stancy of specific characters of euca-
lypts; (2) the relation between the
leaf venation and the oil constituents,
783.

BALFOUR (Rt. Hon. A. J.), Presidential
Address, 3.

BAuLFouR (H.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 324.

—— on the present state of anthropo-
logical teaching, 341.

—— Address to the Anthropological
Section by, 689.

*BALL (Sir R.) on a special homographic
transformation of screw systems, 464.
BARCROFT (J.) on metabolism of the

tissues, 343.

BARGER (G.), saponarin, a glucoside
coloured blue by iodine, 530.

—— saponarin (‘soluble starch’), 819.

BARKER (B. T. P.), the structure of the
ascocarp in the genus Monascus, 824.

on the ascocarp of Ryparobius, 825.

*BARNES (Rev. E. W.) on linear dif-
ference equations, 464.

Barometric pressure, the variation of,
and the electric conductivity of air, a
correlation between, by J. Don, 469.

*BARRETT (Prof. W. F.) and R. A.
HADFIELD on the electric and thermic
conductivities of certain alloys of iron,
479.

Basic patches in the granite of Mount
Sorrel, Leicestershire, by R. H.
Rastall, 562.

BATESON (Wm.) on experimental studies
in the physiology of heredity, 346.

Address to the Zoological Sectio
by, 574.

*__.. fowls and sweet peas, 595.

862

BATHER (Dr. F. A.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 226.

——on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 297.

BEASLEY (H. C.) on the fauna and flora
of the Trias of the British Isles,
275.

BEAZLEY (C. R.), the first true maps,
637.

*Bee cult in British folklore, the, by
G. L. Gomme, 727.

BEILBY (G. T.), the relation between
the crystalline and the amorphous
states as disclosed by the surface flow
of solids, 499.

—— the action of certain gases on glass
in the neighbourhood of hot metals,
500.

Belgium, changes in nominal and real
wages in, by Prof. E. Mahaim, 658.
BELL (Canon G. C.) on school-leaving

certificates, 845.

*BELLARS (A. EH.) and R. S. MORRELL,
the oxidation of carbohydrates by
hydrogen peroxide in presence of
ferrous sulphate, 514.

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
report on, 55.

Bermuda Islands, the madreporaria of
the, report on, 299.

Berry (R. A.) and T. B. Woop, the
chemical composition of different
varieties of mangels, 810.

variation in the chemical composi-
tion of mangels, 811.

BERTRAND (Prof. C. Eg.) and Prof. F.
CoRNAILLE on structure of the leaf-
trace of inversicatenate filicine, 778.

BEVAN (Rev. J. O.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 377.

BEVAN (P. V.), the change of conductivity
in solutions during chemical reactions,
501.

BIDDER (G. P.) on the probability of
Ankylostoma becoming a permanent
inhabitant of our coal mines in the
event of its introduction, 292.

BIFFEN (R. H.), an ‘ intermediate’
hybrid in wheat, 593.

the improvement of wheats and

Mendel’s laws, 795.

the inheritance of susceptibility
and immunity to the attacks of yellow
rust, 822.

*Bigenric hybrid between Gymnadenia
and Nigritella, exhibition of a, by
Prof. J. M. Macfarlane, 823.

Binary canon extension, by Lt.-Col. A.
Cunningham, 443.

BINGLEY (Godfrey) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.
*BIRKELAND (Prof.), the relation be-
tween solar physics and meteorology,

460.

REPORT—1904.

BLACKMAN (Dr. F. F.) on the madre-
poraria of the Bermuda Islands, 299.

* and Miss MATTHAEI, sunshine and
CO,-assimilation: an account of ex-
perimental researches, 813.

*BLACKMAN (V. H.) and Miss H. C. I.
FRASER on the development of the
zecidium of Uromyces Poe, and on the
life history of Puccinia Malvacearum,
813.

BLAKE (Rev. J. F.) on the nature and
origin of earth movements, 556.

BLAKESLEE (Dr. A. F.), sexuality in
zygospore formation, 815.

BLANC (Dr. G. A.) on the radio-activity
of the hot springs of Aix-les-Bains, 471.

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the zoology of
the Sandnich Islands, 298.

Blende, some curious crystals of, from
the Lengenbach quarry, Binnenthal,
R. H. Solly on, 563.

BuEes (E. J.) on the development of
Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis (Daud),
605.

*___ the hatching of anuran tadpoles,
608.

Blood pigments, P. P. Laidlaw on, 757.

BoNE (W. A.) and R. V. WHEELER, the
union of hydrogen and oxygen in con-
tact with a hot surface, 527.

BONNEY (Prof. T. G.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 237.

——- on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 242.

BooDLe (L. A.) on reduction of the
gametophyte in Zodea, 781.

BOSANQUET (R C.) on archeological and
ethnological researches in Crete, 321.

excavations at Heleia (Palaikastro)
and Praisos in Eastern Crete, 721.

—— a find of copper ingots at Chalcis,
722.

BOSANQUET (Mrs.), the economic im-
portance of the family, 655.

Botanical photographs, the registration
of, report on, 345.

Botanical survey of Britain, by Dr. W. G.
Smith, 798.

Botany, Address by F. Darwin to the
Section of, 763.

BotTroMLEy (Dr. J. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 30.

Boulders from the Cambridge district,
R. H. Rastall on, 571.

BowLey (A. L.) on the accuracy and
comparability of British and foreign
statistics of international trade, 302.

——. tests of national progress, 647.

Boyce (Prof. R.) on the physiological ~
effects of peptone and its precursors
when introduced into the circulation,
342.

INDEX.

BoycotT (Dr. A. E.) on the probability
of Ankylostoma becoming a permanent
inhabitant of our coal mines in the
event of its introduction, 292.

Boys (C. Vernon) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites,
Lt.

on seismological investigations, 41.

BRABROOK (EH. W.) on excavations on
Roman sites in Britain, 337.

—— on the conditions of health essential
to the carrying on of the work of in-
struction in schools, 348.

Bray (G.) on the movements of under-

ground waters of North-west Yorkshire, |

225.

British and foreign statistics of inter-
national trade, the accuracy and com-
parability of, report on, 302.

BromMwicHu (T. J. I’a.) on the roots of
the characteristic equation of a linear
substitution, 440.

BroueH (B. H.) on underground tem-
perature, 51.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 55.

Brown (Dr. H. T.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 377.

tBRowN (Major Sir Hanbury), the con-
trol of the Nile, 684.

*BRUCE (W.S.) the Scottish Antarctic
expedition, 637.

*BRUHL (Prof. J. W.) on the formation
of salts in solutions, especially amongst
tautomeric compounds, 500.

Brunanburh : identification of this battle
site in North Lincolnshire, by Rev. A.
Hunt, 633.

{Bryce (Dr. T. H.), the histogenesis of
the blood of the larva of Lepidosiren,
608.

-—— on a phase of transition between
the chambered cairns and closed cists
in the south-west corner of Scotland,
713.

—— and F. R. Cougs on an interment
of the early iron age found at Moredun,
near Edinburgh, 712.

BucHAN (Dr. A.) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites,
17.

on meteorological observations on
Ben Nevis, 55.

Budgett Memorial, the: on the develop-
mental material of Polypterus obtained
by the late Mr. J. S. Budgett, by
Prof. J. G. Kerr, 604; on the develop-
ment of Phyllomedusa hypochon-
drialis (Daud), by E. J. Bles, 605.

BULLEID (A.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 324.

' BULLER (Dr. A. H. R.), the destruction

of wooden paving blocks by the fungus
Lentinus lepideus Fr., 823.

863

BULLER (Dr. A. H. R.), the reactions of
the fruit-bodies of Lentinus lepideus
Fr. to external stimuli, 824.

Burpon (E. R.), pineapple galls of the
spruce, 822.

Burpon (Major J. A.), the Fulani
emirates of Northern Nigeria, 628,

Buregss (C. H.) and D. L. CHAPMAN
on active chlorine, 529.

BURKE (J. Butler) on W-rays, 467.

— on a modification of FitzGerald’s
model of the ether, 478.

{Burton (C. V.) and H. Darwin, side
slip in motor-cars, 686.

BuRTON (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 237.

Busz (Prof. Karl) on the granite from
Gready, near Luxullian, in Cornwall,
and its inclusions, 563.

CALKins (Prof. G. N.), Cytoryctes
variole Guarnieri: the organism of
smallpox, 597.

CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on practical
electrical standards, 30.

on underground temperature, 51.

* indicator tests on a small petrol
engine, 686.

Cambridgeshire, well-sections in, by W.
Whitaker, 266.

—— the geology of, by Dr. J. K. Marr,
541.

CANNAN (Dr. E.) on the accuracy and
comparability of British and foreign
statistics of international trade, 302.

Cape Colony, the Upper Karroo rocks of,
Prof. H. G. Seeley on footprints of
small fossil reptiles from, 549.

*Carbohydrates, the oxidation of, by
hydrogen peroxide in presence of
ferrous sulphate, by R. S. Morrell and
A. E. Bellars, 514.

*Carbon monoxide and oxygen, the
combining volumes of, by Dr. A. Scott,
531.

Carboniferous system round Edinburgh,
the base-line of the, Drs. B. N. Peach
and J. Horne on, 546.

CARR (Prof. J. W.) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, §c., 272.

CARTER (Rev. W. Lower) on the move-
ments of underground waters of North-
west Yorkshire, 225.

—— on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire, Sc., 272.
river capture in the Don System,

558.

—— the glaciation of the Don and
Dearne valleys, 565.

Casey (James), the proposed barrage of
the river Thames, 686.

864

*Catesby’s pitcher plant (Sarracen
Catesbei), the history and distribution
of, by Prof. J. M. Macfarlane, 823.

Caucasus, the glaciers of the, by M. de
Déchy, 631.

CAVE (Miss F. E.), the application to
meteorology of the theory of correla-
tion, 481.

Cellular fields of force, the elucidation of,
by magnetic models, Prof. M. Hartog
on, 610.

Centrosome of the hepaticw, Dr. K.
Miyeke on the, 820.

Cereals, the hybridisation of, by Dr. J. H.
Wilson, 796.

Chalcis, a find of copper ingots at, by
R. C. Bosanquet, 722.

Chambered cairns and closed cists in
the south-west corner of Scotland, a
phase of transition between the, Dr.
T. H. Bryce on, 713.

CHAPMAN (D. L.) and C. H. BURGESS on
active chlorine, 529.

CHAPMAN (Prof. 8. J.) on the accuracy
and comparability of British and
foreign statistics of international trade,
302.

*Charnian range, evidence in the
secondary rocks of persistent move-
ment in the, by Prof. P. F. Kendall, 558.

Chemical Section, Address by Prof.
Sydney Young to the, 488.

Chlorine, active, C. H. Burgess and
D. L. Chapman on, 529.

Chloroform, the effect of, on the heart,
by Prof. C. 8. Sherrington and Miss
8. C. M. Sowton, 761.

*CHODAT (Prof. R.), exhibition of pure
cultures of algze, 801.

. oxidising enzymes and katalases
in plants, 818.

Cimaruta, the, a Neapolitan charm, by
R. T, Giinther, 714.

City populations, the influence of selec-
tion by disease on the constitution of,
suggestions as to, by Dr. F.C. Shrub-
sall, 702.

CLARK (Dr. J.), mechanical advantage
among plant organs, 801.

Clark's cell, the electromotive force of a,
A. P. Trotter on, 40.

CLARKE (G.) and T. 8. DymMonpD, the
determination of the availability of
insoluble phosphate in manures, 805.

CLARKE (Miss L. J.) on the courses of
studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

Classification sociale, by E. Demolins,
724,

Clay soils, poor, the improvement of, by
white clover and other Leguminose,
by Prof. T. H. Middleton, 808.

{CLERK (Dugald), flame temperatures in
internal combustion, 676.

REPORT—1904.

*Cleveland area, exhibition of a model
of the, showing glacier lakes, by Prof.
P. F. Kendall, 565.

CLOSE (Major C. F.), methods of topo-
graphical survey, 629.

Clover mystery, the: a probable solu-
tion, by R. H. Elliot, 797.

Coast erosion, recent, in Suffolk—Dun-
wich to Covehithe, by John Spiller,
544.

CoATES (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 242.

CorFEY (G.) on the exploration of the
Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, 288.

CoLE (Prof. G. A. J.) on the exploration
of the Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, 288.
CouEs (F.R.) and Dr. T. H. BRYCE on
an interment of the early iron age
found at Moredun, near Edinburgh, 712.

Colloidal iron hydrate, magnetic double
refraction of, by Dr. A. D. Denning, 477.

—— the viscosity of, Dr. A. D. Denning
on, 476.

Colour blindness, the necessity of a
lantern test as the official test for, by
Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, 755.

Colour phenomena presented by radium
compounds, W. Ackroyd on the bear-
ing of the, 524.

Colour physiology of the higher crustacea,
report on the, 299.

Concretions as the result of crystallisa-
tion, by Prof. H. A. Miers, 561

Conditions of health essential to the
carrying on of the work of instruction
im schools, report on, 348.

Conduction and structure in the nerve-
arc and nerve-cell, discussion on, 751.
Conductivity in solutions, the change of,
during chemical reactions, by P. V.

Bevan, 501.

*Continuous groups, the theory of, Prof.
A. R. Forsyth on, 464.

Conway (Prof. R. §.), the linguistic
character of the Eteocretan language,
722.

CooPmR (Miss A. J.) on the cowrses of
studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

Coors (A. H.) and Prof. W. R. HopGKIN-
SON onsome reactions between ammo-
nium salts and metals, 502.

Copepoda from the Atlantic slopes, some
new, by G. P. Farran, 602.

Copper ingots, a find of, at Chalcis, by
R. C. Bosanquet, 722.

Coral reefs of the Indian region, fifth
report on the, 298.

CORNAILLE (Prof. F.) and Prof. C. E.
BERTRAND on structure of the leaf-
trace of inversicatenate filicinz, 778.

CORNISH (Dr. Vaughan) on terrestrial
surface maves and wave-like surfaces,
301.

INDEX.

CornisH (Dr. Vaughan) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 377.
Correlation, the theory of, its application
to meteorology, by Miss F. E. Cave, 481.

Corresponding Societies Committee :

Report, 377.

Conferences at Cambridge, 379.

List of Corresponding Societies, 402.

Papers published by Corresponding
Societies, 405.

CorTIE (Rev. A. L.), the spectra of sun-
spots, 458.

Cosmical Physics and Astronomy, Address
by Sir John Eliot to the Sub-Section
of, 443.

Cotton-growing in the Empire, by J. A.
Hutton, 656.

Prof. Dunstan on, 657.

CRAMP (Wm.) the testing of alternate-
current motors by continuous current,
687.

CREAK (Capt. E. W.) on magnetic observu-
tions at Falmouth, 29.

Crete, archeological and ethnological re-
searches in, report on, 321.

—— Dr. A. J. Evans's excavations at
Knossos, 322.

Crick (G. C.) on life-zones in the British
carboniferous rocks, 226.

*Criteria of stellar temperatures, by H. F.
Newall, 459.

CRONIN (Rev. H.S.), Ptolemy’s map of
Asia Minor: method of construction,
627.

Crook (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 242.

Cross Fell district, interglacial and post-
glacial beds of the, by F. J. Lewis, 798.

CROSSLEY (Dr. A. W.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 60.

Crystal structure and its relation to
chemical constitution, Prof. Paul Groth
on, 505.

Crystalline, the, and the amorphous
states, the relation between, as dis-
closed by the surface flow of solids, by
G. T. Beilby, 499.

CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. A.), binary canon
extension, 443.

CUNNINGHAM (Prof. D. J.) on the ea-
ploration of the Edendale caves, co.
Clare, 288.

—— on anthropometric investigation in
Great Britain and Treland, 330.

—— on anthropometric investigations
among the native troops of the Egyptian
army, 339.

on the present state of anthropo-
logical teaching, 341.

*___ the alleged physical deterioration
of the people, 701.

Cyanophycez, the cytology of the, the
present state of our knowledge of, by
Harold Wager, 802.

1904.

865

Cyathodium, the reduction of the mar-
chantaceous type in, by Dr. W. H. Lang,
782.

Cycads, seed-coats of, by Dr. Marie C.
Stopes, 780.

Cyrene: an illustration of the bearing of
geography on history, by D.G. Hogarth,
626.

*Cytoplasmic figures in segmenting eggs
of Rynchelmis (Prof. Vejdovsky), de-
monstration of, by Prof. M. Hartog,
611.

Cytoryctes variole Guarnieri: the organ-
ism of small-pox, by Prof. G. N. Calkins,
597.

CZAPEK (Prof. F.) on the significance of
the so-called anti-ferment reaction in
geotropically stimulated roots, 817

DAKIN (H. D.) and Prof. A. KossEL on
protamines, 755.

DARBISHIRE (A. D.) on the result of
crossing Japanese waltzing with albino
mice, 591.

*DARBISHIRE (Dr. O. V.). on the trans-
piration stream in small plants, 818.
DARWIN (Francis) on the coral reefs of

the Indian region, 298.

on the respiration of plants, 344.

—— on the registration of botanical
photographs, 345.

—— Address to the Botanical Section
by, 763

DarRwINn (Prof. G. H.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

—— onthe tidal régime of the Mersey, 318.

DARWIN (H.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 41.

*____ an electric temperature alarm, 686.

¢-—— and C. V. Burrow, side-slip in
motor cars, 686.

DARWIN (Major L.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

Davius (H. N.), the discovery of human
remains under stalagmite in Gough’s
Cave, Cheddar, Somerset, 569.

DAWKINS (R. M.), painted vases of the
Bronze Age from Palaikastro, 721.

DAWKINS (Prof. W. Boyd) on the lake
village at Glastonbury, 324.

—— on excavations on Roman sites in
Britain, 337.

—— on the nature and origin of earth
movements, 557.

DEACON (G. F.) on underground tempera-
ture, 51.

DicHy (M. DE), the glaciers of the
Caucasus, 631.

DEMOLINS (E.), classification sociale,
724.

Denmark, the latest discoveries in pre-
historic science in, by Prof. V.
Schmidt, 723.

3K

866

DENNING (Dr. A. D.) on the viscosity of
colloidal iron hydrate, 476.

—— magnetic double refraction of col-
loidal iron hydrate, 477.

DE RANCH (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 237.

Descending thalamus tracts, Dr. W. P.
May on, 760.

Development of towns, the, by T. C.
Horsfall, 660.

DEWAR (Prof. Sir J.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 66.

Ls on new low-temperature pheno-
mena and their scientific applications,
531.

DICKINSON (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 51.

DIETERICI (Prof. C.) on the energy of
water and steam at high temperatures,
513.

DIETZEL (Prof. H.), free trade and the
labour market, 653.

*Diffraction process of colour photo-
graphy, recent improvements in the,
by Prof. R. W. Wood, 464.

DINES (W. H.) on the investigation of the
upper atmosphere by means of kites,
ie

{Diptera for hymenoptera, the mimetic
resemblance of, by Prof. E. B. Poulton,
607.

Discussions :

On JV-rays, 467.

*On units used in meteorological
measurement, 469.

*On the radio-activity of ordinary
matter, 471.

On the nature and origin of earth
movements, 550.

*On physical deterioration and anthro-
pometric survey, 705.

On oxidation and functional activity,
742.

Ov conduction and structure in the
nerve-are and nerve-cell, 751.

On school-leaving certificates, 845

On the training of teachers and the
local education authorities, 849.

On methods of imparting manual
instruction in schools, 855.

*Divergent series, the use of, in astro-
nomy, Z. U. Ahmad on, 464.

DIVERS (Prof. E.) on the study of hydro-
aromatic substances, 60.

*Drxon (Prof. A. C.) on the Schwarzian
derivative, 464.

Dixon (Prof. A. F.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
treland, 330.

Drxon (Prof. H. B.) on underground
temperature, 51.

*_.__ on the specific heats of gases at
high temperatures, 514, 676.

REPORT—1904.

Dixon (Dr. W. E.), the effect of alcohol
on the heart, 742.

Dolichoglossus, a new species of, W. M.
Tattersall on, 603.

Don (John), a correlation between the
electric conductivity of air and the
variation of barometric pressure, 469.

Don and Dearne valleys, the glaciation
of the, by Rev. W. L. Carter, 565.

DONCASTER (L.) and Rev. G. H. RAYNOR
on experiments on heredity and sex-
determination in Abraxas grossu-
lariata, 594.

DoNNAN (F. G.), a suggested explanation
of the phenomena of opualescence ob-
served in the neighbourhood of critical
states, 504.

Drift in the Valley of the Stour, a great
depth of, W. Whitaker on, 543.

DuckwortH (W. L. H.) on the brain of
a foetal gorilla, 715.

—— graphical representation of the
various racial human types, 718.

DUNSTAN (Prof.) on cotton-growing in
the Empire, 657.

*DURAND (Dr. H. J.) on the development
of the Geoglossacee, 826.

DWERRYHOUSE (A. R.) on the movements
of underground waters of North-west
Yorkshire, 225.

on the erratic blocks of the British

Isles, 237.

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §c., 272.

Dymonp (T. 8.) and G. CLARKE, the
determination of the availability of
insoluble phosphate in manures, 805.

——, F. HUGHES, and C. JUPE, the in-
fluence of sulphates as manure upon
the yield and feeding-value of crops,
807.

Dynamic isomerism, by Dr. 1. M. Lowry,
193.

*Dynamic isomerism of a- and 8-crotonic
acids, R. 8. Morrell and E. K. Hanson
on the, 512.

Earth movements, the effects of, on
rocks, by J. J. H. Teall, 551.

—— the nature and origin of, discussion
on, 550.

—— in the North-West Highlands, Dr. J.
Horne on the, 550.

—— near Naples, the effects of, R. T.
Giinther on, 634.

Ecology, the problems of, Prof. A. G.
Tansley on, 797.

Economic importance of the family, the,
by Mrs. Bosanquet, 655.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to the Section of, by Prof. W. Smart,
639.

INDEX.

Economic theory and fiscal policy, by
L. L. Price, 654.

Eddy-current losses in three-phase cable-
sheaths, by M. B. Fields, 476.

Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, final report on
the exploration of the, 288.

EpGEwortsH (Prof. F. Y.), the law of
error, 463.

—— a moot point in the theory of iater-
national trade, 647.

EDRIDGE-GREEN (Dr. F. W.), the neces-
sity of a lantern test as the official test
for colour-blindness, 754.

Educational Science, Address by the
Bishop of Hereford to the Section of,
827.

EDWARDS (Major A. E.) and Prof. W. R.
HODGKINSON on double acetylides,
502.

EGG@ar (W. D.) on the influence of ex-
aminations, 360.

an experimental verification of
Newton’s second law, 478.

Egyptian army, anthropometric investiga-
tions among the native troops of the,
report on, 339.

*Egyptian eocene vertebrates and their
relationships, particularly with regard
to the geographical distribution of
allied forms, by Dr. C. W. Andrews, 596.

{+Ehnasya, in Egypt, excavations at, with
special reference to a series of Roman
lamps, by Prof. W. M. F. Petrie, 701.

Hifel, the lava-domes of the, by E.
Greenly, 561.

Electric air-currents, the effect of, Prof.
8. Lemstrom on, 482.

Electric conductivity of air, the, and the
variation of barometric pressure, a
correlation between, by J. Don, 469.

*Electric temperature alarm, an, by H.
Darwin, 686.

Electric waves, the propagation of, along
spiral wires, by Dr. J.A. Fleming, 474
Electrical conductivity, the, of certain
aluminium alloys as affected by ex-
posure to London atmosphere, and a
note on their micro-structure, by Prof.

E. Wilson, 686.

*Hlectrical conductivity of flames, by Dr.
H. A. Wilson, 472.

{Electrical insulation in vacuum, by Lord
Kelvin, 472.

Electrical measurements, experiments for
improving the construction of practical
standards for, report on, 30.

Electrical properties of hot bodies, the,
by Dr. O. W. Richardson, 472.

Electrical vibrations in an optically
active medium, an effect of, by Prof.
W. Voigt, 466.

Electricity, the use of, on the North-
Eastern Railway and on Tyneside, by
C. H. Merz and W. McLellan, 678.

867

Electricity from water-power, by A. A. C.
Swinton, 677.

Electromotive force of a Clark’s cell, A. P.
Trotter on the, 40.

Elementary mathematics, a fragment of,
by Prof. F. Morley, 439.

Elementary rural instruction, the need
of scientific method in, by A. D. Hall,
848,

Elephant trench, the, at Dewlish, Dorset :
was it a pitfall? by Rev. O. Fisher,
559.

ELIoT (Sir John), Address to the Sub-
Section of Astronomy and Cosmical
Physics by, 443.

ELLINGER (B.), a proposed substitute
for the sugar-tax, 664.

ELuioT (R. H.), the clover mystery: a
probable solution, 797.

Energy losses in magnetising iron, by
W. M. Mordey and A. G. Hansard, 679.

Energy of water and steam at high
pressures, Prof. C. Dieterici on the,
513:

Engineering, Address by Hon. C. A.
Parsons to the Section of, 667.

ENGLER (Prof. A.), plants of the northern
temperate zone in their transition to
the high mountains of tropical Africa,
oor

*Entomology of scarabs, Prof. W. M. F.
Petrie on the, 700.

*Hquations, linear difference, Rev. E. W.
Barnes on some, 464.

*Equations, linear partial differential,
the theory of, by Major P. A. MacMahon,
440.

*HRIKSSON (Prof. J.) on the vegetative
life of some Uridinee, 813.

Erratic blocks of the British Isles, ninth
report on the, 237.

ERRERA (Prof. L.), struggle for pre-
eminence and inhibitory stimuli in
plants, 814.

some general results of the localisa-
tion of alkaloids in plants, 815.

Erysiphacee, further cultural experi-
ments with ‘ biologic forms’ of the, by
E. S. Salmon, 821.

ETARD (Dr. A.) sur les manganates et
les permanganates, 523.

Eteocretan language, the linguistic
character of the, by Prof. R. 8. Con-
way, 722.

Ether, the, experiments to decide whether
it moves with the earth, by Prof. W.
Wien, 433.

—— FitzGerald's model of, J. B. Burke
on a modification of, 478.

Ethnographic survey of Madras, the pro-
gress of the, by E. Thurston, 705.

Eucalypts, the comparative constancy of
specific characters of, by R. T. Baker,
783.

3K2

868

Eucalypts, the relation between the leaf
venation and the oil constituents of,
by R. T. Baker, 783.

EVANS (Dr. A. J.) on archeological and
ethnological researches in Crete, 321.

—— on excavations at Knossos, 322.

on the lake village at Glastonbury,

324.

on excavations on Roman sites in

Britain, 337.

preliminary scheme for the classifi-
cation and approximate chronology of
the periods of Minoan culture in Crete,
from the close of the Neolithic to the
early Iron Age, 719.

Evans (Sir J.) on archeological and
ethnological researches in Crete, 321.
—— on the lake village at Glastonbury,

324.

on anthropometric investigations

among the native troops of the Egyptian

army, 339.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

*Evans (T. B. P.) on the normal his-
tology of the uredo of Puccinia glu-
marum, 822.

Eve (H. W.) on the influence of examina-
tions, 360.

EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec- .

trical standards, 30.

on underground temperature, 51.

Evolution of the horse, the, by Prof. H. F.
Osborn, 607.

Ewine (Prof. J. A.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

Examinations, the influence of, report on,
360.

Excavations on Roman sites in Britain,
report on, 337.

jExhaust gas calorimetry, by Prof. B.
Hopkinson, 676.

* Heperimental, observational, and prac-
tical studies most suitable for elemen-
tary schools, interim report on, 858.

Experimental science, the teaching of,
in the secondary schools of Ireland, by
Rt. Rev. G. Molloy, 842.

Experimental teaching, the research
method applied to, by Prof. H, E. Arm-
strong, 854.

Facial expression, by F. G. Parsons, 717.

FAIRLEY (T.) on the movements of under-
ground waters of North-West York-
shire, 225.

FALLAIZE (KH. N.) on anthropometric in-
vestigation in Great Britain and
Ireland, 330.

FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on the respiration
of plants, 344.

—— on experimental studies in the physi-
ology of heredity, 346.

REPORT—1904.

FARRAN (G. P.), some new copepoda
from the Atlantic slopes, 602.

Fauna and flora of the Trias of the
British Isles, second report on the, 275.

Fauna of the Upper Old Red Sandstone
of the Moray Firth area, Dr. R. H.
Traquair on the, 547.

Fen district, changes in the, by H. Y.
Oldham, 635.

—-— vegetation of the, by Prof. R. H.
Yapp, 636.

Fenton (H. J. H.), mesoxalic semi-
aldehyde, 512.

—— on the influence of radium radia-
tions on atmospheric oxidation in
presence of iron, 512.

a reaction for keto-hexoses, 513.

-———and J. P. MILLINGTON, a colour
reaction for methylfurfural and its
derivatives, 513.

Fretps (M. B.), eddy-current losses in
three-phase cable-sheaths, 476.

Fiscal policy and economic theory, by
L. L. Price, 654.

Fish-remains recently collected at Salis-
bury Crags, Craigmillar, Clubbiedean
reservoir, and Torduff reservoir, in the
Edinburgh district, Dr. R. H. Traquair
on the, 547.

FIsHER (Mrs.), the town housing ques-
tion, 660.

FIsHpR (Rev. O.) on the nature and
origin of earth movements, 553.

—— on the elephant trench at Dewlish,
Dorset : was it a pitfall? 559.

FitzGerald’s model of the ether, a modifi-
cation of, J. B. Burke on, 478.

FITzPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 30.

+Flame temperatures in internal com-
bustion, by Dugald Clerk, 676.

FLEMING (Prof. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 30.

the propagation of electric waves

along spiral wires, and on an applica-

tion for measuring the length of waves

used in wireless telegraphy, 474.

on large bulb incandescent electric
lamps as secondary standards of light,
682,

FLETCHER (G.) on the courses of studies
most suitable for elementary schools,
352.

Flora and fauna of the Trias of the
British Isles, second report on the, 275.

*Flugfrage, zur, by Dr. F. Hirtel, 482.

Fuiux (Prof. A. W.), the influence of
agricultural improvements on rent,
647.

FoorpD (Dr. A. H.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 226.

Footprints of small fossil reptiles from
the Upper Karroo rocks of Cape Colony,
Prof. H. G. Seeley on, 549.

INDEX.

ForD (Miss S. 0.), the anatomy of Psi-
lotum triquetrum, 780.

Forster (Dr. M. 0.) on the study of
hydroaromatic substances, 60.

*ForsyTH (Prof. A. R.) on the theory of
continuous groups, 464.

Fossil plants of the Upper Culm Measures
of Devon, E. A. N. Arber on the,
549.

Fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, §c., report on, 272.

FosTER (Prof. G. Carey) on practical elec-
trical standards, 30.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

Foster (Sir M.) on metabolism of the
tissues, 343.

on the influence of examinations, 360.

*Fowls, experiments on heredity in, by
R. C. Punnett, 593.

*Fowls and sweet-peas, by W. Bateson,
595.

Fox (H.) on life-zones mm the British
carboniferous rocks, 226.

Fox (W. L.) on magnetic observations at
Falmouth, 29.

France, the influence of protective duties
on the industry and food supply of, by
Yves Guyot, 648.

*FRASER (Miss H. C. I.) and V. H.
BLACKMAN on the development of the
zcidium of Uromyces Poe and on the
life-history of Puceinia Malvacearum,
813.

Free trade and the labour market, by
Prof. H. Dietzel, 653.

FRESHFIELD (D. W.), Address by, to the
Geographical Section, 612.

Frog, the, the influence of salt and other
solutions on the development of, report
on, 288.

*Fusil (Prof. K.) on the pollination of
gymnosperms, 818.

Fulahs of Nigeria, E. F. Martin on the,
726.

Fulani emirates of Northern Nigeria,
the, by Major J. A. Burdon, 628.

Functional activity and oxidation, dis-
cussion on, 742.

*Funeral customs of the Todas, some, by
Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, 726.

*GABRIEL (Prof. 8.) ueber isocystein
(isothioserin), 530.

GALLOWAY (W.) on underground tempe-
rature, 51.

GAMBLE (Dr. F. W.) on the colour physi-
ology of the higher crustacea, 299.

GARDINER (J. Stanley) on the coral reefs
of the Indian region, 298.

—— on the madreporaria of the Bermuda
Islands, 299.

869

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 377.

GARSTANG (John), the so-called tomb of
Mena at Negadeh, in Upper Egypt, 711.

GARSTANG (W.) on the occupation of a
table at the marine laboratory, Ply-
mouth, 297.

GARWOOD (Prof. E. J.) on life-zones in
the British carboniferous rocks, 226.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 242.

*Gases at high temperatures, the specific
heats of, Prof. H. B. Dixon on, 514, 676.

GEIKIE (Sir A.) on underground tempera-
ture, 51.

GEIKIE (Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.

* Geoglossacez, Dr. E. J. Durand on the
development of the, 826.

Geography, Address by D. W. Fresh-
field to the Section of, 612.

—— the bearing of, on history: Cyrene,
an illustration of, by D. G. Hogarth,
626.

Geological photographs, fourteenth report
on the collection of, 242.

Geology, Address by Aubrey Strahan to
the Section of, 532.

Geology of Cambridgeshire, the, by Dr
J. E. Marr, 541.

Geology of the Oban Hills, Southern

Nigeria, J. Parkinson on the, 570.

Geometric period in Greece, the, by Prof.
O. Montelius, 723.

German industries, the effect of Pro-
tection on some, by Prof. W. Lotz, 651.

GIBB (A. W.) on the occurrence of pebbles
of white chalk in Aberdeenshire clay,
573.

GIBBS (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 66.

GIBSON (Miss C. M.) infection experi-
ments with various uredinez, 822.

GIFFEN (Sir R.) on the accuracy and
comparability of British and foreign
statistics of international trade, 302.

*GILL (Sir David), problems of astro-
nomy, 469.

GINSBURG (Dr. B.) on the accuracy and
comparability of British and foreign
statistics of international trade, 302.

Glaciation of Holyhead mountain, E.
Greenly on the, 559.

Glaciation of the Don and Dearne
Valleys, Rev. W. L. Carter on the, 565.

Glacier-bursts, by C. Rabot, 632.

Glaciers of the Caucasus, M. de Déchy on
the, 631.

Glass, the action of certain gases on, in
the neighbourhood of hot metals, by
G. T. Beilby, 500.

Glastonbury, the lake village at, report
on, 324.

870

GLAZEBROOK (Dr. R. T.) on the investi-
gation of the upper atmosphere by
means of kites, 17.

on magnetic observations at Fal-

mouth, 29.

on practical electrical standards, 30.

on seismological investigations, 41.

5 recent work at the National Phy-
sical Laboratory, 465.

Glossopteris, the fern-like fossil, a new
feature in the morphology of, by
E. A. N. Arber, 781.

GODMAN (Dr. F. Du Cane) on the zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, 298.

*GOMME (G. L.), the bee cult in British
folklore, 727.

GOODCHILD (J. G.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.
GOODRICH (E. 8.) on the occupation of
the table at the Zoological Station at

Naples, 300.

Gorilla, a foetal, the brain of, W. L. H.
Duckworth on, 715.

GotcH (Prof.) on metabolism of the
tissues, 343.

Gough’s Cave, Cheddar, Somerset, the
discovery of human remains under
stalagmite in, by H. N. Davies, 569.

Graduate, the employment of the, by
H. A. Roberts, 666.

GRAMONT (Comte A. DE) sur la photo-
graphie des spectres d’étincelle directe
des minéraux sulfurés, 514.

—— sur le groupement des raies du
spectre du silicium d’aprés l’effet de la
self-induction, et sur leur présence
dans les spectres stellaires, 515.

Granite from Gready, near Luxullian,
in Cornwall, the, and its inclusions,
Prof. K. Busz on, 563.

Graphical representation of the various
racial human types, by W. L. H.
Duckworth, 718.

GRAY (H. St. George) on the lake village
at Glastonbury, 324.

GRAY (J.) on anthropometric investiga-
tion in Great Britain and Treland,
330.

an anthropometric survey: its
utility to science and to the State,
704.

—— anthropometric identification: a
new system of classifying the records,
717.

GRAY (J. M.), Dr. Grindley’s experiments
on steam in the light of the ether-
pressure theory, 474.

GRAY (M. H.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 41.

GRAY (W.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest, 242.

Gready, near Luxullian, in Cornwall, the
granite from, and its inclusions, Prof.
K. Busz on, 563.

REPORT—1904,

Great eastern glacier, the, by F. W.
Harmer, 542.

*Great swamp cypress, the, at Santa
Maria del Tule, a measurement of, by
A. P. Maudslay, 817.

Great Zimbabwe, recent explorations at,
by R. N. Hall, 701.

Greece, prehistoric archeology in, by
Dr. P. Kabbadias, 718.

—— the geometric period in, by Prof.
O. Montelius, 723.

GREENLY (E.) on the glaciation of Holy-
head mountain, 559.

—— the lava-domes of the Hifel, 561.

GREGORY (Prof. R. A.) on the courses of
studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

on the influence of examinations,
360.

GRIFFITHS (Principal E. H.) on practical
electrical standards, 30.

on the courses of studies most suitable

Sor elementary schools, 352.

Address to the Conference of Dele-
gates, 381.

Grindley’s, Dr., experiments on steam in
the light of the ether-pressure theory,
by J. M. Gray, 474.

GROTH (Prof. Paul) on crystal structure
and its relation to chemical constitu-
tion, 505.

Group-marriage in Australian tribes,
A. W. Howitt on, 709.

GUNTHER (R. T.) on the effects of earth-
movements near Naples, 634.

the cimaruta, a Neapolitan charm,
714.

Guyot (Yves), the influence of protec-
tive duties on the industry and food-
supply of France, 648.

*Gymnosperms, the pollination of, Prof.
K. Fujii on, 818.

HADDON (Dr. A. C.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Ireland, 330.

—— on the present state of anthropo-
logical teaching, 341.

*HADFIELD (R. A.), exhibition of a
metallic alloy containing no iron, 468.

—— the production of magnetic alloys
from non-magnetic metals, 685.

*____ and Prof, W. F. BARRETT on the
electric and thermic conductivities of
certain alloys of iron, 479.

HALDANE (Dr. J. 8.) on the probability of
Ankylostoma becoming a permanent
inhabitant of our coal mines in the
event of its introduction, 292.

Haut (A. D.) on the cowrses of studies
most suitable for elementary schools,
352.

INDEX.

HALL (A. D.), analysis of the soil by
means of the plant, 804,

—— the probable error of agricultural
field experiments, 804.

—— the need of scientific method in
elementary rural instruction, 848.

HALL (R. N.), recent explorations at
Great Zimbabwe, 701.

HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) on the state
of solution of proteids, 341.

HAMILTON (C. J.), some features of the
labour question in America, 665.

HANKIN (Dr. E. H.), the spread of
plague, 748.

HANSARD (A. G.) and W. M. Morpey,
energy losses in magnetising iron,
679. :

*HANSON (E. K.) and R. 8. MORRELL on
the dynamic isomerism of a- and p-
crotonic acids, 512.

Harcourt pentane lamp, the ten-candle
power, some investigations on the, by
C. C. Paterson, 683.

HARDCASTLE (Miss Frances) on the
theory of point groups, 20.

Harpy (G. H.) on the zeroes of two
classes of Taylor Series, 441.

HARKER (Alfred), exhibition of speci-
mens of Tertiary plutonic rocks (in-
cluding gneisses) from the Isle of
Rum, 561.

HARMER (F. W.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 237.

——. on the fossiliferous drift deposits
at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, Sc., 272.

—— the great eastern glacier, 542.

HARMER (Dr. 8. F.) on the coral reefs
of the Indian region, 298.

HARRISON (Rev. S. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 237.

HARRISON (W. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.

HARTLAND (KE. 8S.) on a votive offering
from Korea, 726.

HARTLEY (Prof. W.N.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 66.

HARTOG (Prof. M.) on a new apparatus
for producing magnetic fields of force,
479.

— onthe elucidation of cellular fields
of force by magnetic models, 610.

*____ demonstration of cytoplasmic
figures in segmenting eggs of Ryn-
chelmis (Prof, Vejdovsky), 611.

Harvard embryological collection, the,
by Dr. C. S. Minot, 606.

+HAYWARD (J. W.), the effect of receiver
drop in a compound engine, 676.

Hearing, Helmholtz’s theory of, recent
development of, by Dr. C. S. Myers,
750.

Heart, the effect of alcohol on the, by
Dr. W. E. Dixon, 742.

871

Heart, the effect of chloroform on the,
by Prof. C. 8. Sherrington and Miss
8. C. M. Sowton, 761.

+HEDGES (K.), the action of lightning
strokes on buildings, 688.

HELE-SHAW (Prof.) on the tidal régime
of the Mersey, 318.

Heleia (Palaikastro) and Praisos in
Eastern Crete, excavations at, by R. C.
Bosanquet, 721.

HELLER (W. MM.) on the courses of studies
most suitable for elementary schools,
352.

Helmholtz’s theory of hearing, recent
development of, by Dr. C. 8. Myers,
750.

Hepaticz, the centrosome of the, Dr. K.
Miyeke on, 820.

*HEPWORTH (Commander C.), relation
between pressure, temperature, and
air circulation in the South Atlantic
Ocean, 461.

HERBERTSON (Dr. A. J.) on the courses
of studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the fauna
and flora of the Trias of the British
Isles, 275.

—— on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 298.

on the madreporaria of the Bermuda
Islands, 299.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

Heredity, experimental studies in the
physiology of, report on, 346.

Heredity and sex-determination in
Abraxas grossulariata, experiments
on, by Rev. G. H. Raynor and L,
Doncaster, 594.

*Heredity in fowls, experiments on, by
R. C. Punnett, 593.

Heredity in rabbits, experiments on, by
C. C. Hurst, 592.
Heredity in stocks,

Saunders, 590.

Heredity in web-footed pigeons, experi-
ments on, by R. Staples-Browne, 595.

HEREFORD (Bishop of) on the influence
of examinations, 360.

Address to the Section of Educa-
tional Science by, 827.

HERSCHEL (Prof. A. 8.) on underground
temperature, 51.

Hexachlor-a-picoline and its derivatives,
by W. J. Sell, 501.

*HEYoook (C. T.) and F. H. NEVILLE,
methods of investigating alloys, illus-
trated from the copper-tin series, 500.

Hickson (Prof. §. J.) on the influence of
salt and other solutions on the develop-
ment of the frog, 288.

on the zoology of the Sandwich

Islands, 298.

by Miss E. R.

§72

Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on the coral reefs
of the Indian region, 298.

—— on the madreporaria of the Bermuda
Islands, 299.

—— onthe colour physiology of the higher
crustacea, 299.

on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 300.

High-level or plateau gravels on the
north side of the Tamisian area, cer-
tain, and their connection with the
Tertiary history of central England,
Dr. A. Irving on, 572.

HILL (A. W.), a journey around Lake
Titicaca, 631.

*____ on some Peperomia seedlings, 783.

HIuu (T. G.) on the presence of parichnos
in recent plants, 780.

HILTON (Harold) on plane curves, 463.

HIND (Dr. Wheelton) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 226.

HINDE (Dr. G. J.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 226.

*HIRTEL (Dr. F.), zur flugfrage, 482.

HOBHOUSE (Rt. Hon. H.), the training
of teachers and the local education
authorities, 849.

*HOBSON (Dr. E. W.) on the theory of
transfinite numbers, 443.

HODGKINSON (Prof. W. R.) and A. H.
CooTE on some reactions between
ammonium salts and metals, 502.

——and Major A. E. EDWARDS on
double acetylides, 502.
HoGartH (D.G.) on archeological and
ethnological researches in Crete, 321.
——— Cyrene: an illustration of the bear-
ing of geography on history, 626.
HoumEs (T. V.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 377.
tHoLT (EH. W. L.) and W. M. Tarrer-
SALL, some new and rare schizopoda
from the Atlantic slope on the West
of Ireland, 602.

Holyhead mountain, the glaciation of,
E. Greenly on, 559.

tHOPKINSON (Prof.
calorimetry, 676.

HOPKINSON (J.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 377.

—— on the conformity of the publica-
tions of scientific societies with certain
bibliographical requirements, 394.

—~- the rainfall of the Midland and
Eastern counties of England, 483.

—— the rainfall of England, 1861-1900,
485.

Horne (Dr. J.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 237.

—— on earth movements in the North-
West Highlands, 550.

—— and Dr. B. N. PEACH, the base-line
of the carboniferous system round
Edinburgh, 546.

B.), exhaust-gas

REPORT—1904.

Horse, the evolution of the, by Prof. H.
F. Osborn, 607.

HORSFALL (T. C.), the development of
towns, 660.

HowartuH (J. H.) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoin-
shire, §c., 272.

Howes (Prof. G. B.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 300.

Howitt (A. W.) on group-marriage in
Australian tribes, 709.

HOYLE (Dr. W. E.) on the compilation
of an wmdex generum et specierwm
animalium, 297.

on the madreporaria of the Bermuda
Islands, 299.

—— onthe colour physiology of the higher
crustacea, 299.

HuGHES (F.), T. S. Dymonpb, and C.
JUPE, the influence of sulphates as
manure upon the yield and feeding-
value of crops, 807.

HuGuHEs (Prof. T. McK.) on the nature
and origin of earth movements, 554.
Huuu (Prof. E.) on underground tem-

perature, 51.

Human brain, the persistence of certain
features usually supposed to be dis-
tinctive of apes in the, by Dr. G. Elliot
Smith, 715.

Human remains under stalagmite in
Gough’s Cave, Cheddar, Somerset,
H. N. Davies on the discovery of,
569.

Hunt (Rev. A.), Brunanburh: identifi-
cation of this battle site in North
Lincolnshire, 633.

Hurst (C. C.), experiments on heredity
in rabbits, 592.

Hutton (J. A.), cotton-growing in the
Empire, 656.

Hybridisation of cereals, by Dr. J. H.
Wilson, 796.

*Hydrazine hydrate, the vapour density
of, by Dr. A. Scott, 531.

Hydro-aromatic substances, report on the
study of, 60.

Hydrogen and oxygen, the union of, in
contact with a hot surface, by W. A.
Bone and R. V. Wheeler, 527.

Income-tax, the modification of the, by
W.G.S. Adams, 663.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
report on the compilation of an, 297.
India, the relation between population

and area in, by J. A. Baines, 662.
*Indicator tests on a small petrol-engine,
by Prof. H. L. Callendar, 686.
Influence of examinations, report on the,
360.

INDEX.

Insoluble phosphate in manures, the
determination of the availability of,
by T. S. Dymond and G. Clarke, 805.

Intellectual power of the two sexes,
comparison of the, by Dr. J. de
KGrosy, 841.

Interglacial and postglacial beds of the
Cross Fell district, by F. J. Lewis,
798.

Interment of the early iron age found at
Moredun, near Edinburgh, F. R. Coles
and Dr. T. H. Bryce on an, 712.

International trade, the accuracy and
comparability of British and foreign
statistics of, report on, 302.

——a moot point in the theory of, by
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, 647.

Inversicatenate filicinz, on structure of
the leaf-trace of the, by Profs. C. E.
Bertrand and F. Cornaille, 778.

Tonisation of the atmosphere, Prof. A.
Schuster on the, 471.

Ipswich, further excavations on a palzo-
lithic site in, by Miss N. F. Layard,
725.

Trish caves, final report on the explora-
tion of : the Edenvale Caves, co. Clare,
288.

Tron-ore deposits, the great, of Lapland,
Dr. H. Backstr6m on the origin of,
560.

Irvine (Dr. A.) on certain high-level or
plateau gravels on the north side of
the Tamisian area, and their connec-
tion with the Tertiary history of
central England, 572.

*Tsocystein (isothioserin),
Prof. 8. Gabriel, 530.

Isopoda, some new and rare, taken in the
British area, by W. M. Tattersall, 601.

ueber, by

Jacobinia (N.O. Acanthacee), on a
brilliant pigment appearing after
injury in species of, by J. Parkin, 818.

Java, the virgin-woods of, by Dr. J. P.
Lotsy, 803.

*JEANS (J. H.), the kinetic theory: de-
termination of the size of molecules,
473.

JENKINSON (J. W.) on the influence of
salt and other solutions on the develop-
ment of the frog, 288.

—— on the fertilisation of the egg of
the axolotl, 600.

JOHANNSON (Prof. J. E.), the metabolism
of different carbohydrates, 756.

JOHNSON (Rev. W.) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, Sc., 272.

the utilisation of local musewms,
with special reference to schools, 388.

Joint-ill in foals, by Prof. G. 8. Wood-
head, 760.

873

JonES (Rev. HE.) on the movements of
underground waters of North-West
Yorkshire, 225.

JONES (Miss E. E. C.), the present edu-
cational position of logic and psycho-
logy, 840,

Jonus (Dr. H. 0.), the stereochemistry of
nitrogen, 169.

the constitution of nickel carbonyl,
503.

JuDD (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 298.

JuPE (C.), T. 8S. Dymonp, and F.
HuGuus, the influence of sulphates as
manure upon the yield and feeding-
value of crops, 807.

KABBADIAS (Dr. P.) on prehistoric
archeology in Greece, 718.

tKayseR (Prof.), standards of wave
length, 468.

KEEBLE (F. W.) on the colour physiology
of the higher crustacea, 299.

KEIBEL (Prof. F.), ‘normantafeln’ of
the development of vertebrata, 596.

—— on the embryos of apes, 596.

KELTIE (Dr. J. Scott) on terrestrial
surface maves and wave-like surfaces,
301.

KELVIN (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 30.

—— on seismological investigations Al.

on underground temperature, 51.

on the tidal régime of the Mersey,

318.

+—— plan of a combination of atoms
having the properties of polonium or
radium, 472.

t electrical insulation in vacuum, 472.

KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on the movements
of underground waters of North-west
Yorkshire, 225.

—— on life-zones in the British car-
boniferous rocks, 226.

— on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 237.

_—— on the fossiliferous drift deposits at

Kirmington, Lincolnshire, 5'¢., 272.

on the fauna and flora of the Trias
of the British Isles, 275.

— on the nature and origin of earth
movements, 557.

*____ evidence in the secondary rocks of
persistent movement in the Charnian
Range, 558.

* exhibition of a model of the Cleve-
land area, showing glacier lakes, 565.-

Kure (Prof. J. Graham) on the develop-
mental material of Polypterus ob-
tained by the late Mr. J. 8. Budgett,
604.

874

Keto-hexoses, a reaction for, by H. J. H.
Fenton, 513.

KipsTon (R.) on life-zones in the British
carboniferous rocks. 226.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 242.

Kimmins (Dr. C. W.) on the conditions
of health essential to the carrying on of
the work of instruction in schools, 348.

on the courses of studies most suit-
able for elementary schools, 352.

—— on the influence of examinations,
360.

*Kinetic theory, the: determination of
the size of molecules, by J. H. Jeans,
473.

*Kites, experiments with, in the Medi-
terranean, by L. Teisserenc de Bort,
460.

*KLEBS (Prof. G.) on the artificial for-
mation of a new race, 802.

Knossos, excavations at, by Dr. A.J. Evans,
322.

Knorr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

*___ magnetic and electric properties
of nickel at high temperatures, 476.
Korea, a votive offering from, KE. §.

Hartland on, 726.

Korosy (Dr. J. DE), comparison of the
intellectual power of the two sexes,
841.

KossEL (Prof. A.) and H. D, DAKIN on
protamines, 755.

Kundt’s law of anomalous dispersion,
the dynamical significance of, Prof.
J. Larmor on the, 438.

Labour question in America, some
features of the, by C. J. Hamilton,
665.

Lagenostomas, some new, Dr. D. @.
Scott and E. A. N. Arber on, 778.

LAIDLAW (P. C.) some varieties of the
os calcis, 716.

LAIDLAW (P.P.) on blood pigments, 757.

Lake Titicaca, a journey around, by
A. W. Hill, 631.

Lake village at Glastonbury, report on
the, 324.

LAMB (Prof. H.), Address to the Mathe-
matical and Physical Section, 421.

LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 226.

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §c., 272.

—— on the exploration of the Edenvale
caves, co. Clare, 288.

on lower cretaceous phosphatic-

beds and their fauna, 548.

on marine fossils from the iron-

stone of Shotover Hill, near Oxford,

548.

REPORT—1904.

LANG (Dr. W. H.) on the reduction of
the marchantiaceous type in Cyatho-
dium, 782.

LANGLEY (Prof. J. N.) on conduction
and structure in the nerve-arc and
nerve-cell, 751.

Languages of savages, a plan for a uni-
form scientific record of the, by Sir
R. Temple, 708.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the occu-
pation of a table at the marine labora-
tory, Plymouth, 297.

on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 300.

Lapland, the great iron-ore deposits of,
Dr. H. Backstrom on the origin of, 560.

Lapworthura Miltoni, the Silurian ophi-
urid, Prof. W. J. Sollas on the struc-
ture of, 546

LARMOR (Prof. J.) on the dynamical
significance of Kundt’s law of anoma-
lous dispersion, 438.

on the relation of the Rontgen
radiation to ordinary light, 438.

Lava-domes of the Eifel, the, by E.
Greenly, 561.

Law of error, the, by Prof. F, Y. Edge-
worth, 463.

LAYARD (Miss N. F.), further excavations
on a palzolithic site in Ipswich, 725.
Leaf-trace of inversicatenate filicine,
structure of the, Profs. C. E. Bertrand

and F, Cornaille on, 778.

LEBouR (Prof. G. A.) on underground
temperature, 51.

——- on life-zones in the British carbo-
niferous rocks, 226.

LEMSTROM (Prof. S.) on the effect of
electric air-currents, 482.

Lemur, motor localisation in the, by Dr.
W. P. May and Prof. E. Smith, 760.
Lengenbach quarry, Binnenthal, three
new minerals and some curious crystals
of blende from the, R. H. Solly on, 563.

Lentinus lepideus Fr., the fungus, the
destruction of wooden paving blocks
by, Dr. A. H. R. Buller on, 823.

—— the reactions of the fruit-bodies of,
to external stimuli, by Dr. A. H. R.
Buller, 824.

LEONARD (J. H.), specialisation in
science teaching in secondary schools,
844,

}+Lepidosiren, the histogenesis of the
blood of the larva of, by Dr. T. H.
Bryce, 608.

LEPPER (R. 8.) on the Malabar coast of
India, 636.

the passing of the matriarchate, 709

LE SuEuR (Dr.) on the study of hydro-
aromatic substances, 60.

LEwIs (F. J.), interglacial and post-
glacial beds of the Cross Fell district,
798.

INDEX.

Life zones in the British carboniferous
rocks, report on, 226.

Light, secondary standards of, large bulb
incandescent electric lamps as, Prof.
J. A, Fleming on, 682.

{Lightning strokes, the action of, on
buildings, by K. Hedges, 688.

*Linear difference equations, Rev. E. W.
Barnes on some, 464.

*Linear partial differential equations, the
theory of, by Maj. P. A. MacMahon,
440.

Linear substitution, the roots of the
characteristic equation of a, J. T. Ia,
Bromwich on, 440.

*Lipari Islands, the, and their volcanoes,
by Dr. Tempest Anderson, 634.

LISTER (J. J.) on the coral reefs of the
Indian region, 298.

Liveine (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 66.

*LIVERSIDGE (Prof. A.), exhibition of
photographs of sections of an Aus-
tralian siderite, 530.

Local museums, the utilisation of, with
special reference to schools, by Rev. W.
Johnson, 388.

Lock (R. H.), experiments on the be-
haviour of differentiating colour-
characters in maize, 593.

Lockyer (Sir J. Norman) on wmave-
length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, 66.

* ____ the temperature of the stars, 459.

Lockyer (Dr. W. J.8.), the short-period
barometric see-saw and its relation to
rainfall, 459.

—— some results with the Solar Physics
Observatory photo-spectro heliograph,
480.

LODGE (Sir Oliver) on practical electri-
cal standards, 30.

—— on the influence of eraminations, 360.

Logic and psychology, the present edu-
cational position of, by Miss HE. E. C.
Jones, 840.

Lomas (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Tsles, 237.

on the fauna and flora of the Trias
of the British Isles, 275.

Loos’s, Professor, recent researches on
Ankylostoma (the miners’ worm), A. B.
Shipley on, 596.

Lotsy (Dr. J. P.), the virgin-woods of
Java, 803.

the discovery of a new alkaloid in
strychnos nux vomica, 817.

Lotus ornament, the evolution of the, by
Prof. O. Montelius, 700.

Lotz (Prof. W.), the effect of Protection.

on some German industries, 651.
Low (Sidney), the increase of suburban
populations, 661.

875

*Low-temperature phenomena, new, and
their scientific applications, Prof. Sir
J. Dewar on, 531.

Lower cretaceous phosphatic beds and
their fauna, G. W. Lamplugh on, 548.

Lowry (Dr. T. M.), dynamic isomerism,
193.

LuMMER (Dr. O.) on the separation of
the finest spectral lines, 465.

—-- on W-rays, 467.

MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on the coral reefs
of the Indian region, 298.

— on archeological and ethnological
researches in Crete, 321.

on anthropometric investigations

among the native troops of the Egyptian

army, 339.

on the present state of anthropological
teaching, 341.

— exhibit of Amorite crania, 718.

MACALLUM (Prof. A. B.) on the distribu-
tion of potassium in animal and vege-
table cells, 757.

*MACFARLANE (Prof. J. M.), the history
and distribution of Catesby’s pitcher
plant (Sarracen catesbet), 823.

*___ observations on two species of
Alpine rose and their supposed hybrids,
823.

*____ exhibition of a bigeneric hybrid
between Gymnadenia and Migritella,
823.

McHEnrY (A.) on the exploration of the
Edenvale caves, co. Clare, 288.

McIntosH (Prof. W. C.) on the oceupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 300.

—— on the Pacific, Atlantic, Japanese,
and other ‘ Palolos,’ 608.

MaAcIvER (Randall) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Treland, 330.

MACKINLAY (Lieut.-Col. G.), ‘realistic
arithmetic,’ 844.

McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 55.

McLELLAN (W.) and C. H. MERz, the
use of electricity on the North-Eastern
Railway and on Tyneside, 678.

MACMAHON (Major P. A.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
377.

*____ the theory of linear partial dif-
ferential equations, 440.

MacWini1Am (Prof. J. A.) on reflex and
direct response to galvanic and faradic
currents, 741.

Madras, the progress of the ethnographic
survey of, by E. Thurston, 705.

Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands,
report on the, 299.

876

*Magnetic alloy containing no iron, ex-
hibition of a, by R. A. Hadfield, 468.
Magnetic alloys from non-magnetic
metals, the production of, by R. A.

Hadfield, 685.

Magnetic double refraction of colloidal
iron hydrate, by Dr. A. D. Denning, 477.

Magnetic fields of force, a. new apparatus
for producing, Prof. M. Hartog on, 479.

+Magnetic induction, distribution of, in
multipolar armatures, by W.M. Thorn-
ton, 682.

Magnetic observations at Falmouth, report
on, 29.

Magnetising iron, energy losses in, by
by W. M. Mordey and A. G. Hansard,
679.

MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the courses of studies
most suitable for elementary schools,
352.

——on the influence of examinations,
360.

——on methods of imparting manual
instruction in schools, 855.

MAHAIM (Prof. E.), changes in nominal
and real wages in Belgium, 658.

MAITLAND (Miss) on the conditions of
health essential to the carrying-on of
the work of instruction in schools, 348.

Maize, experiments on the behaviour of
differentiating colour-characters in,
by R. H. Lock, 593.

Malabar coast of India, R. S. Lepper on
the, 636.

Malignant new growths, certain bio-
logical aspects in the general pathology
of, by J. A. Murray, 598.

Man, the nutrition of, investigations on,
by Prof. W. O. Atwater, 758.

Manganates, les, et les permanganates,
Dr. A. Etard sur, 523.

Mangels, the chemical composition of
different varieties of, by T. B. Wood
and R. A. Berry, 810.

variation in the chemical composi-
tion of, by T. B. Wood and R. A.
Berry, 811.

Manual instruction in schools, methods
of imparting, discussion on, 855.

Maps, the first true, by C. R. Beazley,
637.

Marine fossils from the ironstone of
Shotover Hill, near Oxford, G. W.
Lamplugh on, 548.

Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, report on
the occupation of a table at the, 297.
MARR (Dr. J. E.) on the movements of
underground maters of North- West

Yorkshire, 225.

-—— on life-zones in the British car-
boniferous rocks, 226.

— onthe erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 237. :

—— the geology of Cambridgeshire, 541.

REPORT—1904.

*MARSHALL (Dr. Hugh), some remark-
able occurrences of struvite crystals,
573.

MARTIN (EK. F.) on the Fulahs of Nigeria,
726.

Mathematical and Physical Science, Ad-
dress by Prof. H. Lamb to the Section
of, 421.

Mathematics, elementary, a fragment of,
by Prof. F. Morley, 439.

Matriarchate, the passing of the, by
R. 8S. Lepper, 709.

*MATTHAEI (Miss) and Dr. F, F. BLACK:
MAN, sunshine and CO,-assimilation :
an account of experimental researches,
813.

MattHeEy (G.) on practical electrical
standards, 30.

*MAUDSLAY (A. P.), a measurement of
the great swamp cypress at Santa
Maria del Tule, Mexico, 817.

May (Dr. W. Page) on descending
thalamus tracts, 760. :

and Prof. Exiiort SMrItH, motor
localisation in the lemur, 760.

Mechanical advantage among plant
organs, by Dr. J. Clark, 801.

MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

*Melocalamus, exhibition of fruits of, by
Dr. O. Stapf, 783.

*Melocanna, exhibition of fruits of, by
Dr. O. Stapf, 783.

Memory, experimental investigations on,
by Dr. N. Vaschide, 750.

Mena, the so-called tomb of, at Negadeh,
in Upper Egypt, by J. Garstang, 711.
Mendel’s laws and the improvement of

wheats, by R. H. Biffen, 795.
Mersey, the, the tidal végime of, report on,

318

—— tidal action in, in recent years,
J. N. Shoolbred on, 572.

Merz (C. H.) and W. MCLELLAN, the use
of electricity on the North-Eastern
Railway and on Tyneside, 678.

Mesoxalic semialdehyde, by H. J. H.
Fenton, 512.

Metabolism of arginin, Prof. W. H.
Thompson on, 741.

Metabolism of different carbohydrates,
Prof. J. KE. Johannson on the, 756

Metabolism of the tissues, report on, 343.

*Meteorological measurement, units used
in, discussion on, 469.

Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
report on, 55.

Meteorology, the application of the
theory of correlation to, by Miss F. E.
Cave, 481.

*Meteorology and solar physics, the re-
lation between, by Prof. Birkeland, 460.

EE ES Te .

INDEX.

Methylfurfural and its derivatives, a |
colour reaction for, by H. J. H. Fenton |

and J. P. Millington, 513. ,
Mnyer (Prof. R.), the constitution of
phthalein salts, 509.

MIALL (Prof. L. ©.) on the registration |

of botanical photographs, 345.
on the conditions of health essential

to the carrying on of the work of |

instruction in schools, 348.

Mice, Japanese waltzing and albino, the
result of crossing, A. D. Darbishire on,
591.

MIDDLETON (Prof. T. H.), the improve-
ment of poor clay soils by white clover
and other Leguminose, 808.

Mrinrs (Prof. H. A.), concretions as the
result of crystallisation, 561.

Mitt (Dr. H. R.) on the investigation
of the upper atmosphere by means of
kites, 17.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 377.

on the unsymmetrical distribution
of rainfall about the path of a baro-
metric depression, 480.

— on the nomenclature of the physical
features of England and Wales, 635.
Mituineton (J. P.) and H. J. H.
FENTON, a colour reaction for methyl-

furfural and its derivatives, 513.

MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological inves-
tigations, 41.

——on terrestrial surface maves and
wave-like surfaces, 301.

— on the nature and origin of earth
movements, 557.

Minerals, three new, from the Lengen-
bach quarry, Binnenthal, R. H. Solly
on, 563.

Minoan culture in Crete, the periods of,
from the close of the Neolithic to the
Early Iron Age, preliminary scheme
for the classification and approximate
chronology of, by Dr. A. J. Evans, 719.

Minor (Dr. C. 8.), rejuvenation, 606.

—— an experiment with telegony, 606.

—— the Harvard embryological collec-
tion, 606.

Miocene ungulates of Patagonia, the, by
Prof. W. B. Scott, 589.

MIyEKE (Dr. K.) on the centrosome of
the hepaticz, 820.

Modern and ancient peoples, the vari-
ability of, by Dr. C. 5. Myers, 718.

Mo.toy (Rt. Rev. Gerald), the teaching of
experimental science in the secondary
schools of Ireland, 842.

Monascus, the genus, the structure of the
ascocarp in, by B. T. B. Barker, 824.
MonrTeE.ivs (Prof. O.), the evolution of

the lotus ornament, 700.

— — the geometric period in Greece,

723.

877

Moore (J. E. 8.) on the occupation of
a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 300.

Morpey (W. M.) and A. G. HANSARD,
energy losses in magnetising iron, 679.

Moruny (Prof. F.), a fragment of ele-
mentary mathematics, 439.

*MORRELL (R. 8.) and A. E. BELLARS,
the oxidation of carbohydrates by
hydrogen peroxide in presence of
ferrous sulphate, 514.

*____ and EH. K. HANSON on the dynamic
isomerism of a- and £-crotonic acids,
512.

Morrison (Walter) on the movements of
underground waters of North-West
Yorkshire, 225.

Motor localisation in the lemur, by Dr.
W. P. May and Prof. E. Smith, 760.
*Movements of plants, the exhibition of
kammatograph photographs showing,

by Mrs. D. H. Scott, 802.

MUuIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 30.

Munro (Dr. R.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 324.

on the present state of anthropologi-
cal teaching, 341.

Murray (Sir John) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 55.

Murray (J. A.), certain biological
aspects in the general pathology of
malignant new growths, 598.

Myers (Dr. C. 8.) on anthropometric in-
vestigation in Great Britain and Ire-
land, 330.

on anthropometric investigations
among the native troops of the Egyptian
army, 339.

—— the variability of modern and
ancient peoples, 718.

recent development of Helmholtz’'s
theory of hearing, 750.

Myres (J. L.) on archeological and
ethnological researches in Crete, 321.

on anthropometric investigation in

Great Britain and Treland, 330.

on excavations on Roman sites in
Britain, 337.

—— on the present state of anthropologi-
cal teaching, 341.

NV-rays, discussion on, 467.

Naples Zoological Station, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 300.

Narcosis, a contribution to the theory of,
by Prof. T. Traube, 525.

*National Physical Laboratory, recent
work at the, by Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
465.

National progress, tests of, by A. L.
Bowley, 647.

878

Nerve-arc and nerve-cell, conduction and
structure in the, discussion on, 751.

NEVILLE (Ff. H.) on the influence of exa-
minations, 360.

4 and C. T. HEycock, methods of
investigating alloys, illustrated from
the copper-tin series, 500.

*New race, the artificial formation of a,
Prof. G. Klebs on, 802.

*NEWALL (H. F.), criteria of stellar
temperatures, 459.

NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 298.

NEWTON (E. T.) on the fossiliferous drift
deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire,
*§e., 272.

—— on the fauna and flora of the Trias
of the British Isles, 275.

Newton’s second law, an experimental
verification of, by W. D. Eggar, 478.
*Nickel at high temperatures, magnetic
and electric properties of, by Prof.

C. G. Knott, 476.

Nickel carbonyl, the constitution of, by
Dr. H. O. Jones, 503.

Nigeria, the Fulahs of, by E. F. Martin,
726.

—— Northern, the Fulani emirates of,
by Major J. A. Burdon, 628.

tNile, the control of the, by Major Sir
Hanbury Brown, 684.

Nile Valley, scenes and studies in the,
by A. Silva White, 631.

Nitrites and nitrates, a new method of
forming, by Dr. E. J. Russell and
N. Smith, 809.

Nitrogen, the stereochemistry of, by Dr.
H. O. Jones, 169.

Nitrogen atom, the asymmetric, by Prof.
E. Wedekind, 518.

—— the pentavalent, by Prof. O.
Aschan, 517.

Nomenclature of the physical features of
England and Wales, Dr. H. R. Mill on
the, 635.

‘Normantafeln’ of the development of
vertebrata, by Prof. F. Keibel, 596.
Nutrition of man, investigations on the,

by Prof. W. O. Atwater, 758.

NurtTaLy (Dr. G. H. F.) on the proba-
bility of Ankylostoma becoming a per-
manent inhabitant of our coal mines in
the event of its introduction, 292.

—— the precipitin test in the study of
animal relationships, 607.

Oban Hills, Southern Nigeria, the geology
of the, by J. Parkinson, 570.

*Ochlandra, exhibition of fruits of, by
Dr. O. Stapf, 783.

OLDHAM (H. Yule), changes in the Fen
district, 635.

REPORT—1904..

OLDHAM (R. D.) on seismological investi-
gations, 41.

Olefinic ketonic compounds, the action
of organic bases on, by Dr. R. 8. Ruhe-
mann and EK. R. Watson, 527.

OMOND (R. T.) on meteorological observa-
tions on Ben Nevis, 55.

Opalescence observed in the neighbour-
hood of critical states, a suggested
explanation of the phenomena of, by
F. G. Donnan, 504.

Organic bases, the action of, on olefinic
ketonic compounds, by Dr. 8. Ruhe-
mann and EK. R. Watson, 527.

*Organic persulphates, pseudomorphosis
in, by Prof. R. Wolffenstein, 525.

*ORR (Prof. W. McF.), the stability of
the steady motion of a viscous fluid,
464.

Os calcis, some varieties of the, by P. C.
Laidlaw, 716.

OsBoRN (Prof. H. F.), the evolution of
the horse, 607.

Osmosis, on the velocity of, and on
solubility ; a contribution to the theory
of narcosis, by Prof. I. Traube, 525.

*Oxalates, the action of heat on, by
Dr. A. Scott, 531.

Oxidation and functional activity, dis-
cussion on, 742.

*Oxidising enzymes and katalases in
plants, by Prof. R. Chodat, 818.

Oxygen and hydrogen, the union of, in
contact with a hot surface, by W. A.
Bone and R. V. Wheeler, 527.

Ozone, the ultra-red absorption spectrum
of, and the existence of that gas in the
atmosphere, Prof. K. Angstrém on,
461.

Painted vases of the Bronze Age from
Palaikastro, by R. M. Dawkins, 721.
Paleolithic man, records of, from a new
locality in the Isle of Wight, by Prof.

E. B. Poulton, 715.

Paleolithic site in Ipswich, further exca-
vations ona, by Miss N. F. Layard, 725.

Palaikastro, excavations at, by R. C.
Bosanquet, 721.

—— painted vases of the Bronze Age
from, by R. M. Dawkins, 721.

PALGRAVE (R. H. Inglis), om the accu-
racy and comparability of British and
foreign statistics of international trade,
302.

‘Palolos,’ the Pacific, Atlantic, Japanese,
and other, Prof. W. C. McIntosh on,
608.

*Parasitic fungi, recent researches on,
by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, 813.

Parichnos, the presence of, in recent
plants, T. G. Hill on, 780.

INDEX.

PARKIN (J.) on a brilliant pigment
appearing after injury in species of
Jacobinia (N.O. Acanthacez), 818.

PARKINSON (John), the geology of the
Oban Hills, Southern Nigeria, 570.

Parsons (Hon. C. A.), Address to the
Engineering Section by, 667.

PARSONS (F. G.), facial expression, 717.

Patagonia, the miocene ungulates of, by
Prof. W. B. Scott, 589.

PATERSON (C. C.), some investigations
on the ten-candle power Harcourt
pentane lamp, 683.

Pathological research, a committee of,
by Dr. T. S. P. Strangeways, 760.

PEACH (B.N.), on life-zones in the British

carboniferous rocks, 226.

—— and Dr. J. Horn#, the base-line of
the carboniferous system round Edin-
burgh, 546.

PEAKH (A. H.), superheated steam ; wire-
drawing and other experiments, 676.
*Peano’s symbolic method, by A. N.

Whitehead, 440.

PEIRCE (Dr. G. J.), the dissemination
and germination of Arceuthobiwm
occidentale, 818.

Pentavalent nitrogen atom, Prof. O.
Aschan on the, 517.

*Peperomia seedlings, A. W. Hill on
some, 783.

Peptone and its precursors, the physio-
logical effects of, when introduced into
the circulation, interim report on, 342.

Periodic law, a new theory of the, by
Prof. G. J. Stokes, 525.

PERKIN (Prof. W. H.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 60.

—— on securing the use of duty-free
alcohol for scientific research, 170.

PHRMAN (Dr. E. P.), the decomposition
and synthesis of ammonia, 528.

Permanganates, les, et les manganates,
Dr. A. Etard sur, 523.

PERRY (Prof. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 30.

on seismological investigations, 41.

—— on the courses of studies most suit-
able for elementary schools, 352.

PHTRIE (Prof. W. M. Flinders) on the
present state of anthropological teach-
ing, 341.

on the entomology of scarabs,

*

700.

t———_ excavations at Ehnasya, in Egypt,
with special reference to a series of
Roman lamps, 701.

PHILLIPS (C. E. 8.), the production of
radio-active surfaces, 473.

PHILLIPS (J. St. J.), on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.

Photographie des spectres d’étincelle
directe des minéraux sulfurés, Comte
A. de Gramont sur la, 514.

879

Photographs of geological interest, fif-
teenth report on the collection of, 242.

*Photography, colour, recent improve-
ments in the diffraction process of,
by Prof. R. W. Wood, 464.

Photo-spectro heliograph of the Solar
Physics Observatory, some results
with the, by Dr. W. J. 8. Lockyer, 480.

Phthalein salts, the constitution of, by
Prof. R. Meyer, 509.

Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis (Daud),
the development of, EH. J. Bles on, 605.

Physical and Mathematical Science,
Address by Prof. H. Lamb to the
Section of, 421.

Physical characters of hospital patients,
a comparison of the, with those of
healthy individuals from the same
areas, by Dr. IF. C. Shrubsall, 702.

*Physical deterioration and anthropo-
metric survey, discussion on, 705.

*Physical deterioration of the people, the
alleged, Prof. D. J. Cunningham on,
701.

Physical features of England and Wales,
the nomenclature of the, Dr. H. R.
Mill on, 635.

Physiology, Address by Prof. C. §. Sher-
rington to the Section of, 728.

Physiology of heredity, experimental
studies in the, report on, 346.

Pineapple galls of the spruce, by E. R.
Burdon, 822.

Plague, the spread of, by Dr. E. H.
Hankin, 748.

Plane curves, Harold Hilton on, 463.

*Plankton, freshwater, exhibition of
micro-photographs of, by Prof. G. S.
West, 802.

Plant organs, mechanical
among, by Dr. J. Clark, 801.

Plant petrifactions, derived, from Devon-
shire, E. A. N. Arber on, 549.

Plants of the northern temperate zone in
their transition to the high mountains
of tropical Africa, by Prof. A. Engler,
799.

PLATNAUER (H. M.), on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, §c., 272.

*Plato’s theory of the planets, by Prof.
D’A. W. Thompson, 482.

PLUMMER(W. E.)on seismological investi-
gations, 41.

Plymouth marine laboratory, report on
the occupation of a table at the, 297.
Point groups, the theory of, report on, 20.
Polypterus, the developmental material
of, obtained by the late Mr, J. S.

Budgett, Prof. J. G. Kerr on, 604.

Population and area in India, the rela-
tion between, by J. A. Baines, 662.

*Potamogeton, the genus, report on a
monograph of, 784.

advantage

880

Potassium, the distribution of, in animal
and vegetable cells, Prof. A. B. Mac-
allum on, 757.

tPouLtTon (Prof. E. B.), the mimetic
resemblance of diptera for hymeno-
ptera, 607.

records of paleolithic man from a
new locality in the Isle of Wight, 715.

PoyNnTING (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

on the tangential stress due to light
incident obliquely on an absorbing
surface, 434.

PRAEGER (R. Lloyd) on the exploration
of the Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, 288.
Praisos and Heleia (Palaikastro) in
Eastern Crete, excavations at, by R. C.

Bosanquet, 721.

Precipitin test, the, in the study of
animal relationships, by Dr. G. H. F.
Nuttall, 607.

PREECE (Sir W. H.) on magnetic observa-
tions at Falmouth, 29.

on practical electrical standards, 30.

Prehistoric archzology in Greece, Dr. P.
Kabbadias on, 718.

Prehistoric science in Denmark, the latest
discoveries in, by Prof. V. Schmidt,
723.

*Pressure, temperature, and air circula-
tion in the South Atlantic Ocean, the
relation between, by Commander C.
Hepworth, 461.

PRICE (L. L.), economic theory and fiscal
policy, 654.

Protamines, Prof. A. Kossel and H. D.
Dakin on, 755.

Proteases of plants, Prof. 8. H. Vines on
the, 814.

Protection, the effect of, on some German
industries, by Prof. W. Lotz, 651.

Protective duties, the influence of, on
the industry and food supply of France,
by Yves Guyot, 648.

Proteids, the state of solution, of, second
report on, 341.

*Pseudomorphosis in organic persul-
phates, by Prof. R. Wolffenstein,
525.

Psilotum triquetrum, the anatomy of, by
Miss 8S. O. Ford, 780.

Psychology and logic, the present educa-
tional position of, by Miss E. EH. C.
Jones, 840.

Ptolemy’s map of Asia Minor: method
of construction, by Rev. H. 8. Cronin,
627.

Publications of scientific societies, on the
conformity of, with certain bibliogra-
graphical requirements, by John Hop-
kinson, 394.

*Puccinia glumarum, the normal his-
tology of the uredo of, T. B. P. Evans
on, 822.

REPORT—1904.

*Puccinia Malvacearum, the life-history
of, V. H. Blackman and Miss H. C. I.
Fraser on, 813.

*PUNNETT (R. C.), experiments on
heredity in fowls, 593.

{Quantitative determination of the ano-
malous dispersion of sodium vapour,
by Prof. R. W. Wood, 438.

Rabbits, experiments on heredity in, by
C. C. Hurst, 592.

RABOT (C.), glacier-bursts, 632.

Racial human types, graphical repre-
sentation of the various, by W. L. H.
Duckworth, 718.

Radiation, the reaction of the, on a
moving electron, by Prof. M. Abraham,
436.

Radiation from the earth, an instrument
for the measurement of the, by Prof.

K. Angstrém, 462.

Radio-active surfaces, the production of,
by C. E. 8. Phillips, 473.

*Radio-activity of ordinary matter, dis-
cussion on the, 471.

Radio-activity of the hot springs of Aix-
les-Bains, Dr. G. A. Blanc on the, 471.

Radium compounds, the bearing of the
colour phenomena presented by, W.
Ackroyd on, 524.

Radium emanation, a volatile product of
the, by W. C. D. Whetham, 474.

Radium radiations, the influence of, on
atmospheric oxidation in presence of
iron, H. J. H. Fenton on, 512.

Rainfall, the relation of the short-period
barometric see-saw to, by Dr. W. J. 8.
Lockyer, 459.

Rainfall, the unsymmetrical distribution
of, about the path of a barometric
depression, Dr. H. R. Mill on, 480.

Rainfall of England, 1861-1900, by J.
Hopkinson, 485.

Rainfall of the Midland and Eastern
counties of England, the, by J. Hop-
kinson, 483

*RAMSAY (Sir Wm.), changes produced
by the B-rays, 517.

RASTALL (R. H.), basic patches in the
granite of Mount Sorrel, Leicester-
shire, 562.

—— on boulders from the Cambridge
district, 571.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 30.

RAYNOR (Rev. G. H.) and L. DONCASTER
on experiments on heredity and sex-
determination in Abraxas grossulariata,
594.

INDEX.

Reactions between ammonium salts and |
metals, Prof. W. R. Hodgkinson and
A. H. Coote on some, 502.

READ (C. H.), on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 324.

on the present state of anthropologi-
cal teaching, 341.

——on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

‘Realistic arithmetic,’ by Lieut.-Col. G.
Mackinlay, 844.

{Receiver drop in a compound engine,
the effect of, by J. W. Hayward, 676.
Reflex and direct response to galvanic
and faradic currents, Prof. J. A. Mac- |

William on, 741.

REICHEL (Principal) on the courses of
studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

REID (A. S.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 242.

REID (Clement) on seismological investiga-
tions, 41.

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire, Jc., 272.

REID (Prof. E. Waymouth), on the state
of solution of proteids, 341.

Rejuvenation, by Dr. C. 8. Minot, 606.

RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical
standards, 30.

Rent, the influence of agricultural im-
provements on, by Prof. A. W. Flux,
647.

Research method, the, applied to ex-
perimental teaching, by Prof. H. E.
Armstrong, 854.

Respiration of plants, report on the, 344.

** Reststrahlen’ and the optical qualities
of metals, Prof. H. Rubens on, 465,

REYNOLDS (Prof. Osborne) on the tidal
régime of the Mersey, 318.

REYNOLDS (Prof. 8. H.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest, 242.

RICHARDSON (H.) on the courses of
studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

RICHARDSON (Nelson) on seismological
investigations, 41.

RICHARDSON (Dr. O. W.), the electrical
properties of hot bodies, 472.

RIDGEWAY (Prof. W.) on archeological
and ethnological researches in Crete,
321.

an anthropological view of the
origin of tragedy, 710.

River capture in the Don system, by
Rev. W. L. Carter, 558.

*RIVERS (Dr. W. H. R.), some funeral
customs of the Todas, 726.

—— on the senses of the Todas, 749.
RoBERTS (H. A.), the employment of the
graduate, 666.
Roman sites in Britain, excavations on,
report on, 337. |
1904.

881

Rontgen radiation, the relation of, to
ordinary light, Prof. J. Larmor on, 438.

Rosco (Sir H. E.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 66.

Rorcn (A. L.), the temperature of the
air in cyclones and anticyclones, as
shown by kite-flights at Blue Hill Ob-
servatory, U.S.A., 468.

RorH (H. Ling), on the present state of
anthropological teaching, 341.

RotTHPLETz (Prof. A.) on the nature and
origin of earth movements, 556.

*RUBENS (Prof. H), on ‘reststrahlen ’
and the optical qualities of metals, 465.

RUCKER (Sir A. W.) on magnetic observa-
tions at Falmouth, 29.

—— on practical electrical standards, 30.

—— on the influence of examinations, 360.

RUDLER (F. W.), on the present state of
anthropological teaching, 341.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

RUHEMANN (Dr. S.) and E. R. Watson,
the action of organic bases on olefinic
ketonic compounds, 527,

RUSSELL (Dr. E. J.) and N, Smrrn, a
new method of forming nitrites and
nitrates, $09.

*RUSSELL (Dr. H. N.) on the masses of
the stars, 469.

*Rynchelmis (Prof. Vejdovsky), demon-
stration of cytoplasmic figures in
segmenting eggs of, by Prof. M.
Hartog, 611.

Ryparobius, the ascocarp of, B. T. P.
Barker on, 825.

SALMON (E. S.), further cultural experi-
ments with ‘biologic forms’ of the
Erysiphacee, 821.

*Salts in solutions, the formation of,
especially amongst tautomeric com-
pounds, by Prof. J. W. Briihl, 500.

*Sand ripples, the origin of, Mrs. H.
Ayrton on, 676.

SANDERSON (Sir J. S. B.) on oxidation
and functional activity, 742.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the
Sourteenth report on, 298.

Saponarin, a glucoside coloured blue by
iodine, by G. Barger, 530.

—— (‘soluble starch’), by G. Barger,
819.

SAUNDERS (Miss E. R.), heredity in
stocks, 590.

“Scarabs, the entomology of, Prof.
W. M. F. Petrie on, 700.

ScHAFER (Prof. E. A.) on the state of
solution of proteids, 341.

— on the physiological effects of
peptone and its precursors when intro-
duced into the circulation, 342.

3L

882

Scuirmr (Prof. E. A.) on methods of
artificial respiration, 754.

ScHARFF (Dr. R. F.) on the exploration
of the Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, 288.
+Schizopoda, some new and rare, from
the Atlantic slope on the West of
Ireland, by E. W. L. Holt and W. M.

Tattersall, 602.

Scumipr (Prof. V.), the latest discoveries
in prehistoric science in Denmark,
723.

School-leaving certificates, discussion on,
845.

ScHUSTER (Prof. A.) on the investigation
of the wpper atmosphere by means of
kites, 17.

—— on magnetic observations at Fal-
mouth, 29.

on practical electrical standards,

30.

—— on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 66.

on the ionisation of the atmo-

sphere, 471.

*Schwarzian derivative, Prof. A. C.
Dixon on the, 464.

Science teaching in secondary schools,
specialisation in, by J. H. Leonard, 844.

ScLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 297.

_— on the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 298.

Scotland, recent anthropometric work in,
by J. F. Tocher, 706.

*Scort (Dr. A.), the vapour density of
hydrazine hydrate, 531.

*_"_ the combining volumes of carbon
monoxide and oxygen, 531.

* the action of heat on oxalates,
531 y

43 some alkyl derivatives of sulphur,
selenium, and tellurion, 531.

Scott (Dr. D. H.), a new type of spheno-
phyllaceous cone from the lower coal
measures, 777.

—— and KE. A. N. ARBER on some new
lagenostomas, 778.

*Scort (Mrs. D. H.), exhibition of
kammatograph photographs showing
the movements of plants, 802.

Scorr (Prof. W. B.), the miocene un-
gulates of Patagonia, 589.

*Scottish antarctic expedition, W. S.
Bruce on the, 637.

*Screw systems, a special homographic
transformation of, Sir R. Ball on, 464.

SEDGWICK (A.) on the occupation of a

table at the Marine Laboratory, Ply-
mouth, 297.

—_—— on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 298.

on the occupation of a table at the

zoological station at Naples, 300.

REPORT—1904.

SEELHY (Prof. H. G.) on footprints of
small fossil reptiles from the Upper
Karroo rocks of Cape Colony, 549.

Seismological investigations, ninth report
on, 41.

SHLL (W. J.), hexachlor-a-picoline and
its derivatives, 501.

SEWARD (A. C.) on the fauna and flora
or the Trias of the British Isles,

75.

—— on the madreporaria of the Ber-
muda Islands, 299.

—— on experimental studies im the
physiology of heredity, 346.

SEWELL (RK. B. S.), some variations in the
astragalus, 716.

Sexuality in zyospore formation, by Dr.
A. F. Blakeslee, 815.

SHARP (Dr. D.) on the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 298.

on eaperimental studies in the phy-
siology of heredity, 346.

SHAW (Dr. W. N.) on the investigation
of the upper atmosphere by means of
kites, 17.

on practical electrical standards,

30.

SHAw (Mrs.W.N.) on the courses of studies
most suitable for elementary schools, 352.

—— on the influence of ewaminations, 360.

SHENSTONE (W. A.) on the influence of
examinations, 360.

SHEPPARD (Thomas) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, §¢., 272.

SHBRRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on the madre-
poraria of the Bermuda Islands, 299.
—— on the physiological effeots of peptone
and its precursors when introduced

into the circulation, 342.

on the conditions of health essential

to the carrying on of the work of

instruction in schools, 348.

Address to the Physiological
Section by, 728.

—— and Miss S. C. M. SowrTon, the
effect of chloroform on the heart, 761.

SHIPLEY (A. E.) on the probability of
Ankylostoma becoming a permanent
inhabitant of our coal mines in the
event of its introduction, 292.

— on Professor Loos’s recentresearches
on Ankylostoma (the miners’ worm),
596.

SHOOLBRED (J. N.) on the tidal régime
of the Mersey, 318.

—— on tidal action in the Mersey in
recent years, 572.

Short-period barometric see-saw, the,
and its relation to rainfall, by Dr.
W. J.8. Lockyer, 459.

Shotover Hill, near Oxford, marine
fossils from the ironstone of, G. W.
Lamplugh on, 548.

INDEX.

SHRUBSALL (Dr. F. C.), a comparison of
the physical characters: of hospital
patients with those of healthy indivi-
duals from the same areas, with sug-
gestions as to the influence of selection
by disease on the constitution of city
populations, 702.

¢Side-slip in motor cars, by H. Darwin
and C. V. Burton, 686.

Silicium, le groupement des raies du
spectre du, d’aprés l’effet de la self-
induction, et sur leur présence dans
les spectres stellaires, Comte A. de
Gramont sur, 516.

*Silver chromate, exhibition of effects
produced by precipitating in gelatine,
by Prof. I. Traube, 530.

Small-pox, the organism of, by Prof.
G. N. Calkins, 597.

SMART (Prof. Wm.), Address to the Sec-
tion of Economic Science and Statis-
tics, 639.

SMITH (EH. A.) on the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 298.

SMITH (EF. E.) on anomalies of standard
cells, 33.

SMITH (Dr. G. Elliot), the persistence in
the human brain of certain features
usually supposed to be distinctive of
apes, 715.

—— and Dr. W. Pac May, motor
localisation in the lemur, 760.

SMITH (Prof. Michie) on wnderground
temperature, 51,

SMITH (Norman) and Dr. E. J. RUSSELL,
a new method of forming nitrites and
nitrates, 809.

SmiTH (Dr. W. G.), botanical survey of
Britain, 798.

SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on the movements
of underground waters of North-West
Yorkshire, 225.

on the cowrses of studies most suitable
for elementary schools, 352.

SNAPE (Dr. Lloyd) on the courses of
studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 352.

{Sodium vapour, quantitative determina-
tion of the anomalous dispersion of,
by Prof. R. W. Wood, 438.

*Solar physics and meteorology, the re-
lation between, by Prof. Birkeland, 460.

SoLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 237.

-—— on the structure of the Silurian
ophiurid Lapnorthura Miltoni, 546.
—— on the nature and origin of earth

movements, 555,

SoL_y (R. H.) on three new minerals and
some curious crystals of blende from
the Lengenbach quarry, Binnenthal,
563.

Solution of proteids, report on the state
of, 341,

883

SOMERVILLE (Dr. W.), Address to the
Sub-Section of Agriculture, 784.

Sound, the relation of upper air-currents
to the audibility of, by Rev. J. M.
Bacon, 482.

*South Atlantic Ocean, the relation
between pressure, temperature, and
air circulation in the, by Commander
C. Hepworth, 461.

SowTon (Miss 8. C. M.) and Prof. C. S.
SHERRINGTON, the effect of chloroform
on the heart, 761.

*Specific heats of gases at high tempera-
tures, Prof. H. B. Dixon on the, 514,676.

Spectra of sun-spots, the, by Rev. A. L.
Cortie, 458.

Spectral lines, the separation of the finest,
by Dr. O. Lummer, 465.

SPENCER (L. J.) on the different modifi-
cations of zircon, 562.

Sphenophyllaceous cone from the lower
coal measures, a new type of, by Dr.
D. H. Scott, 777.

SPILLER (John), recent coast erosion in
Suffolk—Dunwich to Covehithe, 544.
Spruce, pineapple galls of the, by H. R.

Burdon, 822.

*Stability of the steady motion of a
viscous fluid, the, by Prof. W. McF.
Orr, 464.

Standard cells, anomalies of, F. EB. Smith
on, 33.

{Standards of wave length, by Prof.
Kayser, 468.

*STAPF (Dr. O.), exhibition of fruits of
Melocanna, Melocalamus, and Ochlan-
dra, 783.

STAPLES-BROWNE (R.), experiments on
heredity in web-footed pigeons, 595.
STARLING (Prof.) on metabolism of the

tissues, 343.

on the relation of trypsinogen to
trypsin, 741.

*Stars, the, the masses of, Dr. H. N.
Russell on, 469.

*____the temperature of, by Sir N.
Lockyer, 459.

STATHER (J. W.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 237.

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §c., 272.

Statistics and Economic Science, Address
to the Section of, by Prof. W. Smart
639.

Steam, Dr. Grindley’s experiments on, in
the light of the ether-pressure theory,
by J. M. Gray, 474.

STEBBING (Rev. T.R. R.) on the compila-
tion of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 297.

——on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

*Stellar temperatures, criteria of, by
H. F. Newall, 459.

3L2

884

Stems of plants, the forms of, by Lord
Avebury, 812,

Stereochemistry of nitrogen, the, by Dr.
Hi. O. Jones, 169.

STOBBS (J.T.) on life-zones in the British
carboniferous rocks, 226.

Stocks, heredity in, by Miss EH. R. Saun-
ders, 590.

SToKEs (Prof. G. J.),a new theory of the
periodic law, 525.

Stoney (Dr. G. J.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 30.

Stopes (Dr. Marie C.), seed-coats of
cycads, 780.

STRAHAN (A.) on underground tempera-
ture, 51.

——- on life-zones in the British carboni-
Ferous rocks, 226.

—— Address to the Geological Section,
532.

-— on the nature and origin of earth
movements, 550.

STRANGEWAYS (Dr. T. P. §.), a com-
mittee of pathological research, 760.
Struggle for pre-eminence and inhibitory
stimuli in plants, by Prof. L. Errera,

814.

*Struvite crystals, some remarkable
occurrences of, Dr. Hugh Marshall on,
573.

Strychnos nux vomica, the discovery of a
new alkaloid in, by Dr. J. P. Lotsy, 817.

Studies, the courses of, most suitable for
elementary schools, report on, 352.

Suburban populations, the increase of,
by Sidney Low, 661.

Suffolk, recent coast erosion in, Dunwich
to Covehithe, by John Spiller, 544.

Sugar-tax, a proposed substitute for the,
by B. Ellinger, 664.

Sulphates as manure, the influence of,
upon the yield and feeding-value of
crops, by T. 8. Dymond, F. Hughes,
and OC, Jupe, 807.

{SuMPNER (W. E.) and R. W. WEEKES,
testing alternating current induction
motors by a Hopkinson method, 679.

*Sunshine and CO,-assimilation: an ac-
count of experimental researches, by
Dr. F. F. Blackman and Miss Matthaei,
813.

Sun-spots, the relation between the
minima and following maxima of, by
A. Angot, 460.

aE the spectra of, by Rev. A. L. Cortie,

58.

Superheated steam: wire-drawing and
other experiments, by A. H. Peake, 676.

Surnames in Hast Aberdeenshire, the
distribution and variation of the, in
1696 and 1896, by J. F. Tocher, 707.

*Sweet peas and fowls, byW. Bateson, 595.

Swinton (A. A. C.), electricity from
water-power, 677.

REPORT—1904.

SYMINGTON (Prof. J.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Treland, 330.

Tangential stress due to light incident
obliquely on an absorbing surface,
Prof. J. H. Poynting on the, 434.

TANSLEY (Prof. A. G.) om the madre-
poraria of the Bermuda Islands, 299.

——on the registration of botanical
photographs, 345.

—— on the problems of ecology, 797.

TATTERSALL (W. M.), some new and rare
isopoda taken in the British area, 601.

—— on anew species of Dolichoglossus,
603.

T and E. W. L. Hout, some new and
rare schizopoda from the Atlantic slope
on the West of Ireland, 602.

Taylor series, the zeroes of two classes
of, G. H. Hardy on, 441.

Teachers, the training of, and the local
education authorities, discussion on,
849.

TEALL (Dr. J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.

—— the effects of earth movements on
rocks, 551.

*TEISSERENC DE Bort (L.), experiments
with kites in the Mediterranean, 460.
Telegony, an experiment with, by Dr.

C. §. Minot, 606.

Temperature of the air, the, in cyclones
and anticyclones, as shown by kite-
flights at Blue Hill Observatory, U.S.A.,
by A. L. Rotch, 468.

*Temperature of the stars, the, by Sir N.
Lockyer, 459.

TEMPLE (Sir R.),a plan for a uniform
scientific record of the languages of
savages, 708.

Terrestrial surface waves and wave-like
surfaces, fourth report on, 301.

Tertiary bases, the products obtained by
the action of, on some acid chlorides,
Prof. E. Wedekind on, 522.

Tertiary plutonic rocks (including
gneisses) from the Isle of Rum, exhi-
bition of specimens of, by A. Harker,
561.

Testing machine, a universal, of 300 tons
for full-sized structural members, by
J. H. Wicksteed, 684.

Tests of national progress, by A. L.
Bowley, 647.

Thames, the river, the proposed barrage
of, by J. Casey, 686.

Thermal dilation of compressed hy-
drogen, by A. W. Witkowski, 431.

*THOMPSON (Prof. D’A. W.), Plato’s
theory of the planets, 482.

THOMPSON (Prof. 8. P.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 30,

a

INDEX,

THOMPSON (Prof. W. H.) onthe physiologi-
cal effects of peptone and its precursors
mhen introduced into the circulation,
342.

—— on the metabolism of arginin, 741.

THOMSON (Prof J. J.) on practical
electrical standards, 30.

*THOMSON (W.) on the presence of
arsenic in the body and its secretion
by the kidneys, 531.

;THoRNTON (W. M.), distribution of
magnetic induction in multipolar
armatures, 682.

THURSTON (Edgar), the progress of the
ethnographic survey of Madras, 705.
Tidal action in the Mersey in recent

years, J. N. Shoolbred on, 572.

Tidal régime of the Mersey, report on the,
318.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 237.

TocHER (J. F.), recent anthropometric
work in Scotland, 706.

—— the distribution and variation of
the surnames in Hast Aberdeenshire
in 1696 and 1896, 707.

*Todas, the, some funeral customs of,
by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, 726.

—— the senses of, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers
on, 749.

Todea, reduction of the gametophyte in,
by L. A. Boodle, 781.

Topographical survey, methods of, by
Major C. F. Close, 629.

Town-housing question, the, by Mrs.
Fisher, 660.

Tragedy, an anthropological view of the
origin of, by Prof. W. Ridgeway,
710.

‘Training of teachers, the, and the local
education authorities, discussion on,
849.

*Transfinite numbers, the theory of, Dr.
E. W. Hobson on, 443.

*Transpiration stream in small plants,
Dr. O. V. Darbishire on the, 818.

TRAQUAIR (Dr. R. H.) on the fish-remains
recently collected at Salisbury Crags,
Craigmillar, Clubbiedean reservoir, and
Torduff reservoir, in the Edinburgh
district, 547.

—— on the fauna of the Upper Old Red
Sandstone of the Moray Firth area,
547.

TRAUBEH (Prof, I.) on the velocity of
osmosis and on solubility : a contribu-
tion to the theory of narcosis, 525.

*___ exhibition of effects produced by
precipitating silver chromate in gela-
tine, 530.

Trias of the British Isles, second report
on the fauna and flora of the, 275.

TROTTER (A. P.) on the electromotive
force of w Clark's cell, 40.

885

Trypsinogen, the relation of, to trypsin
Prof. E. H. Starling on, 741.

TUCKER (W. T.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 237.

TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

TYLOR (Prof. E. B.) on the present state
of anthropological teaching, 341,

Ultra-red absorption spectrum of ozone
the, and the existence of that gas in

the atmosphere, Prof. J. Angstrém on,
461.

Underground temperature, twenty-third
report on, 51.

Underground waters of North-West York-
shire, the movements of, fifth report on,
225.

*Units used in meteorological measure-
ment, discussion on, 469.

Unwin (Prof. W. C.) on the tidal régime
of the Mersey, 318.

*Uridinez, the vegetative life of some,
Prof. J. Eriksson on, 813.

—— various, infection experiments with,
by Miss C. M. Gibson, 822.

*Uromyces Pow, the development of the
zcidium of, V. H. Blackman and Miss
H. C. I. Fraser on, 813.

USSHER (R. J.) on the exploration of the
Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, 288.

UssHER (W. A. E.) on the fauna and
jiora of the Trias of the British Isles,
275.

Variability of modern and ancient
peoples, the, by Dr. C. 8S. Myers, 718.
VASCHIDE (Dr. N.), experimental in-

vestigations on memory, 750.

Vertebrata, ‘normentafeln’ of the de-
velopment of, by Prof. F. Keibel, 596.

*Vibrations, the theory of, by Prof. V.
Volterra, 464.

VinEs (Prof. S. H.) on the occupation of
@ table at the Marine Laboratory,
Plymouth, 297.

—— on the proteases of plants, 814.

Virgin-woods of Java, Dr. J. P. Lotsy on
the, 803.

Viscosity of colloidal iron hydrate, Dr, A.
Denning on the, 476.

*Viscous fluid, the stability of the steady
motion of a, by Prof. W. McF. Orr,
464.

Voter (Prof. W.), an effect of electrical
vibrations in an optically active
medium, 466.

*VOLTERRA (Prof. V.), the theory of
vibrations, 464.

Votive offering from Korea, BE, 8. Hart«
land on a, 726.

886

WAGER (Harold) on the respiration of
plants, 344.

on the courses of studies most suitable

for elementary schools, 352.

the present state of our knowledge
of the cystology of the cyanophycez,
802.

WAGER (Horace A.), on secondary
thickening in Amarantus spinosus,
783.

Wages in Belgium, nominal and real,
changes in, by Prof. E. Mahaim, 658.
WALLIS (E. White) on the conditions of
health essential to the carrying on of
the work of imstruction in schools,

348.

WAED (Prof. H. Marshall), on the respira-
tion of plants, 344.

——on experimental studies
physiology of heredity, 346.
-——— on the influence of examinations,

360.

*___ on recent researches on parasitic
fungi, 813.

WATERSTON (Dr.), on anthropometric in-
vestigation in Great Britain and
Treland, 330.

WATSON (E. R.) and Dr. S. RUHEMANN,
the action of organic bases on olefinic
ketonic compounds, 527.

Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 66.

WAtTTs (Prof. W. W.) on the movements of
underground waters of North-West
Yorkshire, 226.

——on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 242.

—— on the fauna and flora of the Trias
of the British Tsles, 275.

—— onthe courses of studies most suitable
Sor elementary schools, 352.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 377.

TWave-length, standards of, by Prof.
Kayser, 468.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
oo and compounds, report on,

an the

6.

Web-footed pigeons, experiments on
eo in, by R. Staples-Browne,

WEDEKIND (Prof. E.), the asymmetric
nitrogen atom, 518.

— on the products obtained by the
action of tertiary bases on some acid
chlorides, 522.

{WaEKEs (R. W.) and W. E. SumpNer,
testing alternating current induction
motors by a Hopkinson method, 679.

Wuiss (Prof. F. E.) on the registration
of botanical photographs, 346.

WELCH (R.) on the collection of plhoto-
graphs of geological interest, 242.

REPORT—1904.

WELDON (Prof. W. F. BR.) on the in-
fluence of salt and other solutions on
the development of the frog, 288.

on the occupation of a table at the

Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, 297.

on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 300.

Well-sections in Cambridgeshire, by W.
Whitaker, 266.

*West (Prof. G. §.), exhibition of micro-
photographs of freshwater Plankton,
802

WETHERED (E.) on underground tem-
perature, 51.

Wheat, an ‘intermediate’ hybrid in, by
R. H. Biffen, 593.

Wheats, the improvement of, and
Mendel’s laws, by R. H. Biffen, 795.
WHEELER (R. V.) and W. A. BONE, the
union of hydrogen and oxygen in con-

tact with a hot surface, 527.

WHEELER (W. H.) on terrestrial surface-
maves and wave-like surfaces, 301.

WHETHAM (W. C. D.) on a volatile pro-
duct of the radium emanation, 474,

WHITAKER (W.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.

—— well-sections in Cambridgeshire, 266.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 377.

on a great depth of drift in the
Valley of the Stour, 543.

WHITE (A. Silva), scenes and studies in
the Nile Valley, 631.

*WHITEHEAD (A. N.), Peano’s symbolic
method, 440.

WICKSTEED (J. H.), a universal testin
machine of 300 tons for full-size
structural members, 684.

WIEN (Prof. W.), experiments to decide
whether the ether moves with the
earth, 433.

Wiuson (Prof. E.), the electrical con-
ductivity of certain aluminium alloys -
as affected by exposure to London
atmosphere, and a note on their micro-
structure, 686.

*WILsON (Dr. H. A.), electrical conduc-
tivity of flames, 472.

WILSON (Dr. J. H.), hybridisation of
cereals, 796.

Wireless telegraphy, an application for
measuring the length of waves used
in, Dr. J. A. Fleming on, 474.

WITKOWSKI (A. W.), thermal dilation of
compressed hydrogen, 431.

*WOLFFENSTEIN (Prof. R.), pseudo-
morphosis in organic persulphates, 525.

tWoop (Prof. R. W.), quantitative de-
termination of the anomalous disper-
sion of sodium vapour, 438.

* recent improvements in the dif-
fraction process of colour photography,
464.

INDEX.

Woop (T. B.) and R. A. Berry, the
chemical composition of different
varieties of mangels, 810.

—— variation in the chemical composi-
tion of mangels, 811.

WoopHeE4D (Prof. G. Sims), joint-ill in
foals, 760.

*WoOODHEAD (T. W.) on the biology and
distribution of woodland plants, 798.
*Woodland plants, the biology and dis-

tribution of, T. W. Woodhead on, 798.

Woopwakrp (Dr. H.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 226.

—— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animatium, 297.
Woopwakp (H. B.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 242.
—— on a small anticline in the Great
Oolite Series at Clapham, north of

Bedford, 544.

WYNNE (A. B.) on undergrownd tempera-

ture, 51.

887

Yapr (Prof. R. H.), vegetation of the
Fen district, 636.

Yellow rust, the inheritance of suscepti-
bility and immunity to the attacks of,
by R. H. Biffen, 822.

Yorkshire, North-West, fifth report on the
movements of underground waters of,
225.

Youne (Prof. Sydney), Address to the
Chemical Section, 488.

Zircon, the different modifications of,
L. J. Spencer on, 562.
Zoological station at Naples, report on
the occupation of a table at the, 300.
Zoology, Address by W. Bateson to the
Section of, 574.

Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, four-
teenth report on the, 298.

Zygospore formation, sexuality in, by
Dr. A. F. Blakeslee, 815.

ye gs

. . ’ ve
rotiaha wayne

wh,

Say a
PE uty Noes WAIL PIEp ah
2. Mea j

iy wk vase de

a eee
oye Gili Aa
at; i

V4
.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.

Associates for the Meeting in 1904 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

REPORT or tuts SEVENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Southport,
September 1903, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Report of the Council, List of Com-
mittees, Grants of Money, &c. = C * XxXVli-cxviii
Address by the President, Sir Norman “Lockyer, K.C.B. 3

Second Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of
Kites. : . 31
Report on Magnetic Observations at Falmouth . : : ¢ : “ eos
Report on Electrical Standards . - : . ‘ ‘ - 38
On the Use of Vectorial Methods in Physics. By Professor O. HENRICI, F.R.S. 51
Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis 56
Report on the Theory of Point-groups.—Part III. By FRANCES HARDCASTLE . 65
Eighth Report on Seismological Investigations . : : : Fy (i
Fourth Report on Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of Benzene. 85

Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds 87

890

PAGE
Fifth Interim Report on the Relation between the se te Spectra and
Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances 3 126
Report on the ss ate of Making Special Reports more available than at
present . : . - 169
Report on securing Duty- free Alcohol for Scientific Research. : 4 =~ LTO
Report on Isomeric Napthalene Derivatives : 4 ° : : = - 174
Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances . ; : : - 179
Report on the Exploration of Irish Caves . - c : - : - 183
Report on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks . 185
Fourth Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of North- West York-
shire. 192

Fourteenth Report on Photographs of Geological Interest i in the United Kingdom 197
Preliminary Report on the Estuarine Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire . 218
Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles. = : « 219
Eighth Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles . : 5 = . 231

Report on Changes in the Sea Coast of the United Kingdom . c . 258
Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at N aples - . 282
Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium_ . ; . 288
Sixth and Final Report on Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland ° . 289
Report on the State of Solution of Proteids “ A - . 394
Thirteenth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands - : : - 305
Fourth Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region é . 805
Report on Investigations in the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion of the West of Scotland at Millport . . : . - 308
Report on the Micro-chemistry of Cells. : a“ c 5 : : . 310
Report on Terrestrial Surface-waves . -F 312
Third and Final Report on the Economic Effect of Legislation regulating Women’ s
Labour . : . 315
Report on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction - 865
Report on the Means by which Practical Effect can be given to the Introduc-
tion of the Screw-Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884. 38
Report on Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland : - 389
Report on Archzological and Ethnological Researches in Crete - - 402
Report on the Silchester Excavations . - . : : - . 412
Fifth Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury i x . Ala
Report on a Pigmentation Survey of the School Children of Scotland - 415
Report on the Psychology and Sociology of the Todas and other Tribes of
Southern India . : - 415
Report on the Registration of Negatives of Botanical Photographs ; : - 416
Report on the Cyanophyceze : : : : . 419
Report on the Teaching of Botany in Schools. - 5 3 . 420
Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools . $ 2 : . 429
Report on the Influence of Examinations . 434
Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the Carrying on of the Work of
Instruction in Schools . . 455
Report of the Corresponding Societies ‘Committee 4 465
Report of the Conference of pie sei of Corresponding Societies held at
Southport . “ é : : e : . 467
The Transactions of the Sections 2 ; - - 4 : 4 ; . 525
Index . 5 4 : 5 : : "i 5 : : : : . 889
List of Publications : ’ : : : ; : : : Ey - 915
List of Members, &c. . = - - - - : : : : : 1-112

Publications on sale at the Office of the Association.

Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the
Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to, 4s.

Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included).
Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 43d.).
Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.

Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s.

891

On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
ning, 2s.; Weaving, 1s.

Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 1867, 6d.

Second Report on the present Methods of teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.

Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
in Electrical Measurements, 1892, 6d.; Report, 1894, 1s.

Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
1892, 1s.

Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d.

The Action of Magnetism on Light, by J. Larmor, F.R.S., 1893, 1s.

Table of Electro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled by Rev. T. C.
Fitzpatrick, 1893, 1s. 6d.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
G. H. Bryan, with an Appendix by Prof. L. Boltzmann, 1894, 1s.
Report on Planimeters, by Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S., 1894, 1s.
Discussion on Agriculture and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d.
Reports on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1s. or 1s. 6d. each.
Fourth Report on the Erosion of the Sea Coast, 1895, 9d.
Second Report on a Gauge for Small Screws, 1884, reprinted 1895, 6d.
First Report on giving practical effect to the Introduction of the British Association
Screw Gauge, 1896, 6d.
oon Ere Modification of the Thread of the B.A. Screw, 1900, 6d. ; Report
, 6d.
Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds made at Lighthouses, by W. Eagle
Clarke, 1896, 6d.
Report on the Migratory Habits of the Song-thrush and the White Wagtail, by W.
Eagle Clarke, 1900, 6d.
Report on the Migratory Habits of the Skylark and the Swallow, by W. Eagle
Clarke, 1901, 6d.
Report on the Migratory Habits of the Fieldfare and the Lapwing, by W. Eagle
Clarke, 1902, 6d.
Report on Tables of the Bessel Functions, 1896, 1s.
Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments, 1896, 4d.
ono Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country,
Report on Seismology, 1898, 1s. 6d.; 1899, 1s.; 1900, 1s. 6d.; 1901, 1s.; 1902, 1s.
Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy in continuation of 1894 Report, 1898,
1s. 6d.; 1901, 1s. 6d.
a 1899, 1s.; with Index to Tables from 1884 to 1900, ls.
1901, ls.
Tables of F (7, v) and H (7, v) Functions, 1899, 1s.
Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada, 1899, 1s. 6d. ; 1900, 1s. 6d.; 1902; 1s.
The ear Compounds contained in Alloys, Report by F. H. Neville, F.B.S.,
beilep
The Constitution of Camphor, by A. Lapworth, D.Sc., 1900, 1s.
Future Dealings in Raw Produce, Report, 1900, 1s.
Note sur l’Unité de Pression, par le Dr. C. E. Guillaume, 1901, 3d.
Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water, by Prof. H. L. Callendar, 4d.
ee Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances,
fal:
Report on the Structure of Crystals, 1901, 1s.
The Relative Progress of the Coal-Tar Industry in England and Germany during the
past Fifteen Years, by Arthur G. Green, 1901, 6d.
The Methods for the Determination of Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salt Solutions, by
R. C, Farmer, 1901, 6d.

892

The Application of the Equilibrium Law to the Separation of Crystals from Complex
Solutions and to the Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits, by Dr. E. Frankland
Armstrong, 1901, 1s.

Report on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction, 1901, 3d. ; 1902, 1s.

The Influence of the Universities on School Education, by the Right Rey. John
Percival, D.D., Lord Bishop of Hereford, 1901, 3d.

The President's Address, and Sectional Addresses, for 1889, 1892, 1893, 1895, 1896,
1897, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1902, each 1s.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

BEST

OF

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

Corrected to December 31, 1904,

Office of the Association:
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.,

Hove Ainvz6
f, riGi H Ai ‘THAT.

TUR AA: e7r\ tyr
CEO LATS

.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1904-1905,

PRESIDENT.
THe Ricut Hon. A, J. BALFOUR, D.O.L., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh

VICE-PRESIDENTS.,
His Grace the Duge or Drvonsarne, K.G., LL.D., | The Rev. F, H. CaAsE, D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the

a Ohancellor of the University of Cam- | University of On smbridge,

ridge.

ALEXANDER PEckoveR, LL.D., Lord Lieutenant a eae Bb MONE ACE Ear Ey Paria
of Cambridgeshire.

The Right Re. ihe Lorp Bisnor or Ey, D.D. | J. H. Onmssuyre Daron, M.D., Mayor of Cam-

The Right cn. Lorp Watsmncuam, LL.D., | bridge.
F.R.S., Uich Steward of the University of | Roperr SrepHenson, Ohairman of the Oambridge-
Cambri 1 :e, | shire County Council,

ihe Bight con. LorD RAyiEIGH, D.C.L., LL.D., | Josppy Martin, Ohairman of the Isle of Ely

ee County Council,
The Rigi* Hon. Lorp KeEtvin, G.C.V.0., D.C.L., |
LL.v, TRS. ¢ * | P. H. Youna, Deputy Mayor of Cambridge.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor G. H, Darwin, M.A., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S,

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Excellency the Right Hon. Lorp MinNer, | Sir W. H. Miron, K.0.M.G., Administrator of

G.C.B., G.C.M.G., High Oommissioner for | Southera Rhodesia,
South Africa. | a 7 :
The Hon. Sir WALTER F. Hety-HutcHINsON, © oe CHARTS HT MEIATIN, Batl MAe
G.C.M.G., Governor of Cape Colony. | Sir DAvID Gxt, K.O.B., LL.D., F.R.S,
Colonel Sir Henry E. McCanuum, K.O.M.G., R.E., | THEODORE REUNERT, M.Inst.C.E.
Governor of Natal. 7 :
Captain the Hon. Sir ARTHUR LAWLEY, K.C.M.G., pike Mor OF ORES baal
Lieutenant-Governor, Transvaal. | The Mayor or JOHANNESBURG.

Major Sir H. J. Gootp-ApAms, K.C.M.G., Lieu- | The PRESIDENT OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
tenant-Governor, Orange River Colony. | or SouTH AFRICA.

GENERAL TREASURER,
Professor JOHN PERRY, D.Sc., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Major P. A. MAcMAnov, R.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. | Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S,

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
A. SinvA WHITE, Burlington House, London, W.

CENTRAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE AT CAPE TOWN, SOUTH AFRICA.

Sir Davip Git, K.O.B., F.R.S,, Ohairman, | J.D. F. @incurist, M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc., Secretary.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABNEY, Sir W., K.O.B., F.R.S. Hieas, Henry, LL.B.
ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. LANGLEY, Professor J» N i ES
Bonar, J., LL.D. MACALISTER, Professor is F.R.S.
Bourne, G. O., D.Se, McKenpnicx, Professor J. G. ie Hea
BoweEnR, Professor F. O., F.R.S. MACKINDER, H. J., M.A.
BRABROOK, E. W., C.B. NOBLE, Sir A., Bart., K.C.B , F.R.S.
Brown, Dr. Horacke T., F.R.S. PERKIN, Professor W. H., F. R. Ss.
CALLENDAR, Professor H. L., F.R.S. SEwanp, A. O., F.R.S.
CUNNINGHAM, Professor D. J., F.R.S, SHAw, Dr. W.N., F.R.S.
DarRwIy, Major L., Sec. R.G.S. SHIPLEY, A. E., F.R.S.
GorcH, Professor F., F.R.S, Watts, Professor W. W., F.R.S.
Hanppov, Dr. A. 0., F.R.S. ‘ Woopwanb, Dr. A. SMITH, F.R S,
HAWESLEY, C., M.Inst.0.E.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former vears,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for
the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord Avrpury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S,

The Right Hon. Lord RayLeiau, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Sir ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

Sir Joseph D. ae G.C.S.1. Sir Archibald Geikie, Sec.R.S. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.0., F.R.S, Prof. Sir J.S. Burdon Sanderson, | Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Lord Avebury, D.C. ie "7 oa R.S. Bart., F.R.S. Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D. oe ., F.R.S. Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S. Sir J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S, Sir John Evans, K. 0. B., F.R.S. Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,
SirWm.Huggins, K.O. BE Pres.R.S.! Sir William Crookes, F. R. Ss. F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.RS,
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. Dr. G. Oarey Foster, FB RS,
P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S. Sir A. W. Riicker, D. Se., F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
| Prof. E, A, Schiifer, B.RS, |
AUDITORS.
E, W. Brabrook, Esq., O.B, | H, Higgs, Esq., LL.B,

A2

” x iy; ivy

+

ay resem

eS
TT

a ol 5. 2s

« +

LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1904.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report for 1904.
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report,
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known

are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
Seerctary, Burlington House, W.

Year of
Election.

1887. *ABBE, Professor CLevELAND. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri=
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1897. tAbbott, A. H. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1898. §Abbott, George, M.R.C.S., F.G.S. 33 Upper Grosvenor-road,
Tunbridge Wells.

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1887, {Abbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,

1902. {ABERcoRN, The Duke of, K.G. Barons Court, Ireland.

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1885, tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1885. {Abernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

1873, *Abney, Captain Sir W. pr W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
(Pres. A, 1889; Pres. L, 1903; Council, 1884-89, 1902- :
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-gardens South, Earl’s Court, S.W.

1886, {Abraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

1884, tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.

1873. Ackroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford,
Yorkshire,

1900, §Ackroyd, William. Borough Laboratory, Crossley-street, Halifax.

1882. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S. W.

6

LIST OF MEMBERS.

: of
lection. ; : :
1869, {Acland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

1877.

1875.
1894.
1877.
1904.
1898.
1901.
1887.

1892.
1884.
1901,
1871.
1904,
1869.

1901.
1896.
1898.
1890.
1890,

1899.
1883.
1902.
1864,
eval
187].
1895.
1891.
1871.
1901,
1898.
1884.
1886,
1904,
1900.
1896.

1894.
1891.
1883.
1888.
1896.
1891,
1883.
18838,

1867.
1885.
1871.
1901.
1879.

*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

*Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Lamorva, Falmouth.

*Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. Lamorva, Falmouth.

*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D, 19 Bryanston-square, W.

§Acton, T. A. 3 Grove-road, Wrexham.

tAeworth, W. M. 47 St. George's-square, S.W.

{Adam, J. Miller. 15 Walmer-crescent, Glasgow.

f{Apamt, J. G., M.A., M.D., Professor of Pathology in McGill Univer-
sity, Montreal, Canada.

tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.

fAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada,

{Adams, John, M.A. 12 Holyrood-crescent, Glasgow.

tAdams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W.

§Adams, W. G.8.,M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

*ApaMs, WILLIAM GryLis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.
(Pres. A, 1880; Council 1878-85), Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London. 48 Campden
Hill-square, W.

{Adamson, P. 11 Fairlie Park-drive, Glasgow.

tAdamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

fAddison, William L. T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada.

{Addyman, James Wilson, B.A, Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.

{Aprnny, W. E., D.Sc., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earls-
fort-terrace, Dublin.

§Adie, R. T., M.A., B.Sc. 156 Tuntingdon-road, Cambridge,

tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

{Agnew, Samuel, M.D. Bengal-place, Lurgan.

*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D, Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff,

§Arrken, Jomn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

§Aitken, Thomas, M.Inst.C.. County Buildings, Cupar-Fife.

{Axers-Dovetas, Right Hon. A., M.P. 106 Mount-street, W,

"Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange-road, Sutton, Surrey.

*Albright, G. 8. Broomesherrow Place, Ledbury.

*Alleock, William Burt. Emmanuel College, Cambridge,

*Aldren, Francis J.. M.A, The Lizans, Malvern Link.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C,E. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, 8. W.

{Alexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax,

{Alexander, D.'T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.

{Alexander, George, Kildare-street Club, Dublin.

*Alexander, Patrick Y. Pinehurst, Mytclett, Farnborough, Hants,

tAlexander, William. 45 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

*Alford, Charles J.. F.G.S, 15 Great St. Helens, E.C.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

fAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.

tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, E.C,

*Allan, James A. Westerton, Milngayie.

*Allen, Rev, A. J.C. 34 Lensfield-road, Cambridge,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 7

Year of

Election.

1898. §AxuEN, Dr. E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1888. {Atren, F.J.,M.A. 108 Mawson-road, Cambridge.

1884, {Allen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,

1891. tAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.
1887. {Allen, John. 14 Park-road, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, vii Preston.

1878.
1889.

fAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, W.C.
{Allhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.

1896, {Alsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.
1882, *Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D., F.RS.

1887.
1873.
1891.

1883.
1883,
1884,

1883,
1885.
1901.
1874.
1892,
1899.
1888.
1887,

1889.
1880.

1902.
1901.
1901.
1895.
1891.
1880,
1886,
1883.
1877.

1886,
1900.
1896.
1886.
1878.
1890.
1901.

1900,
1898.
1894,
1884,
1883,
1883.

1903

Hornton Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, W.

tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorlishire.

{Ambrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks,
Cardiff. -

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

tAmr, Henry, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa,
Canada.

tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.

*AnpERson, Hue Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Anderson, James. Ravelston, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, Miss Mary Kerr. 15 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 5 Westminster-chambers, S.W.

tANDERSON, Professor R. J., M.D., F.L.S. Queen’s College, and
Atlantic Lodge, Salthill, Galway.

tAnderson, R. Simpson. LTlswick Collieries, Newcastle- upon -
Tyne.

*AnpErson, Trmprst, M.D., B.Se., IF'.G.S. (Local Sec. 1881.)
17 Stonegate, York.

*Anderson, Thomas. Embleton, Osborne Park, Belfast.

*Anderson, Dr. W. Carrick. 2 Florentine-gardens, Glasgow.

tAnderson, W. F.G. 47 Union-street, Glasgow.

tAndrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), 8. W.

tAndrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.&. Cefn Hithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.

§AneELt, Joun, F.C.S., F.1C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.

tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.

tAnnandale, Nelson. 384 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.

{Annett, R. C.F. 4 Buckingham-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

tAnsell, Joseph. 38 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, 8.W.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

tArakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street
Within, E.C.

§Arber, E. A. Newell, M.A., F.L.S, Trinity College, Cambridge.

tArcher, G. W. 11 All Saints’-road, Clifton, Bristol.

tArchibald, A. The Bank House, Ventnor.

*Archibald, 8. Douglas, 382 Shaftesbury-avenue, W,

§Armistead, Richard. 17 Chambres-road, Southport.

*Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton.

. *Armstrone, Dr. E, Franxtanp, 55 Granville-park. Lewisham,

8.E.

8 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1873, *AgmstRonG, Henry W., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885;
Pres. I, 1902; Council 1899- ), Professor of Chemistry in
the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution,
Exhibition-road, 8.W. 55 Granville-park, Lewisham, 8.9.

1889, {Armstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1893. {Arnold-Bemrose, I., M.A., F.G.S. 56 Friar-gate, Derby,

1901. {Arthur, Matthew. 78 Queen-street, Glasgow.

1904. §Arunachalam, P. Ceylon Civil Service, Colombo, Ceylon.

1870. *Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon,

1903. *Ashby, Thomas, jun. The British School, Rome.

1874. {Ashe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

1889. tAshley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridze, Yorkshire.

1887. {Ashton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 386 Charlotte-street, Manchester.

Ashworth, Henry. ‘Turton, near Bolton.

1903. §Ashworth, J. H., D.Sc. 4 Cluny-terrace, Edinburgh.

1888. *Ashworth, J. Jackson. Kingston House, Didsbury, near Manchester.

1890. {Ashworth, J. Reginald, D.Sc. 105 Frechold-street, Rochdale.

1887. {Ashworth, John Wallwork, I’.G.S. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.

1887. {Ashworth, Mrs. J. W. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.

1875. *Aspland, W. Gaskell. Tuplins, Newton Abbot.

1896, *Assheton, Richard. Grantchester, Cambridge.

1903. §Atchison, Arthur F. T., B.Sc. Royal Engineering College,
Cooper's Till, Staines.

1896, §Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Rockferry.

1887. §Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, D.D, Ingestre, Ashton-on-Mersey.

1898. “Atkinson, J. Cuthbert. Care of C. W. Atkinson, Esq., 31 Manor-
road, Beckenham, Kent.

1894, tAtkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, S.W.

1894, *Atkinson, Harold W. Boys’ High School, Pretoria, South Africa.

1881. {Atkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

1831. {Arkinsoy, Ropert Wiriiam, F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1891.)
44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

1894. §Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

1863. *ArrrrEeLp, J.,.M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Ashlands, Watford, Herts.

1884, fAuchincloss, W.S. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, U.S.A.

1908, {Austin, Coartes EK. 37 Cambridge-road, Southport.

1853. ‘Avebury, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Presipent,
1881; Truster, 1872~ ; Pres. D, 1872; Council 1865-71.)
High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

1901. tAveling, T. C. 32 Bristol-street, Birmingham.

1877. *Ayrton, W. J., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1898; Council 1889-96),
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the City und Guilds ot
London Institute, Central Institution, Ixhibition-road, S.W.,
41 Norfolk-square, W.

1884. {Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
1900. {Baccuus, RamspEn (Local See. 1900). 15 Welbury-drive, Bradford.
1883. *Bach, Madame Henri. 19 Avenue Losquet, Paris.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
1863. {Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
1883. *Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.O., Durham.
1887. *Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.
1887. {Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
1903. §Baden-Powell, Major B. 22 Prince’s-gate, S.W.
1883. t{Bagnold, Mrs, Berkeley House, High Park, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Year o
Election

1883.
1892.
1883.

1893.

1870.
1887.
1899.
1855.
1894.
1878.
1897.
1885.
1882.

1886.
1898.
1898.
1881.
1875.
1881.
1884.
1904.

1871.
1894,

1875.

1883.
1878.

1866.

1883.
1886,
1869,

1890.
1899.
1882.
1898.

1866.
1890.
1861.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 9

{Baildon, Dr. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.

tBaildon, H, Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh,

*Bailey, Charles, F.L.58. Atherstone [Llouse, North-drive, St.
Anne’s-on-the-Sea, Lancashire.

§Baitey, Colonel I., Sec. R.Scot.G.8., F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place,
Edinburgh.

{Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Se., Ph.D. Marple Cottage, Marple, Cheshire,

{Bailey, T. Lewis. J ernhill, Formby, Lancashire.

{Bailey, W. Horseley Iields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.

*Barty, Francis Grsson, M.A, 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

{Bairy, Wattrr. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

§Barn, JAmes. Public Library, Toronto, Canada.

{Bain, William N, Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

*Baxer, Sir Bensamin, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.1s. (Pres. G, 1885; Council, 1889-96.) 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

§Baker, Harry, F.1.C, Epworth House, Moughland-lane, Runcorn.

{Baler, Herbert M. Walleroft, Durdham Park, Clifton, Bristol,

{Baker, Hiatt C. Mary-le-Port-street, Bristol.

{Baker, Robert, M.D. ‘The Retreat, York.

{Baxer, W. Procror. Bristol.

{Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Warshill Vicarage, York.

{Balete, Professor E, Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

§Batrovr, The Right Hon, A. J., D.C.L., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S.,
Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. (PREsIDENT.)
10 Downing-street, S.W.

{ Balfour, The Right Hon.G.W.,M.P. 24Addison-road, Kensington, W.

§Batrour, Henry, M.A. (Pres. H., 1904.) 11 Norbam-gardens,
Oxford.

{Baxrovr, Isaac Bayrey,M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
(Pres. D, 1894; K, 1901), Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

{ Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the
University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Batt, Sir Roperr Srawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A,
1887; Council 1884-90, 1892-94; Local Sec. 1878), Lown-
dean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University
of Cambridge. The Observatory, Cambridge.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S. W.

{Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. 3 Albany-street, Glasgow.

§Bampton, Mrs. 42 Marine-parade, Dover.

}Bance, Colonel Iidward, J.P. Oak Mount, Highfield, Southampton.

Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. The Lindens, Sydenham-
road, Croydon,

{Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

*Barber-Starkey, W.J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

1871. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

1860.
1887.
1886.
1902,

*Barclay, Robert. Tigh Leigh, Iloddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.
{Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.

{Barcroft, H., D.L. The Glen, Newry, Co, Down.

10

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1902. {Barcroft, Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge.
1881. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

1882.

1904.

1899

1882,
1879.

1898,
1886,
1873.

1889.

1883.
1878.

1883.
1885.
1902,

1861,
1881.
1904,
1889,
1899,
1884,
1901,
1899.
1881,

1890.
1859.
1902.
1891,

1904,
1883.
1872.

1883.
1899,

1887.
1874,

1874.

1866.
1893.

1886,
1886,

1896,
1886.

{Barford, J.D, Above Bar, Southampton.

§Barker, B. T. P. Fenswood, Long Ashton, Bristol.

§Barker, John H. 2 Collingwood-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Barker, Miss J. M. The Fox Covers, Bebington, Cheshire.

“Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Priddy Vicarage, Wells,
Somerset.

§Barker, W. R. 106 Redland-road, Bristol.

{Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Barlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Fordwich House, Sturry,
Kent.

{Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S.. The Park Hospital, Hither
Green, S.E.

{Barlow, J. J. 84 Cambridge-road, Southport.

{Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in St. Mungo’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.

tBarlow, John R, Greenthorne, near Bolton.

*BaRtow, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Red House, Great Stanmore.

§Barnard, J. E. Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea-
gardens, S.W.

*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham.

{Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

§ Barnes, Rey. E, W., M.A., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham,

{Barnes, Robert. 9 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, W.

{Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

{Barnett, P. A. Pictermaritzburg, South Africa,

{Barnett, W.D. 41 Threadneedle-street, E.C.

{Barr, Arcuiparp, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineer-
ing in the University, Glasgow.

{Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.

{Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, Hast Grinstead, Sussex.

*Barr, Mark. The Cedars, Cowley, Middlesex.

{Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.

§Barrett, Arthur. 6 Mortimer-road, Cambridge.

{Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

“Barrett, W. F., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

{Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.

{Barrerr-Hamitron, Captain G. E. H. Kilmannock House,
Arthurstown, Waterford, Ireland.

{Barrington, Miss Amy. 18 Bradley-gardens, West Ealing, W.

*Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

*Barrington-~Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.

{Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

"Barrow, Guoren, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-
street, 8.W.

{Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.

{Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham,

§Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B.

{Barrows, Joseph, jun, Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,

se

LIST OF MEMBERS, 11

flsction.

1858. {Barry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.
1883. {Barry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.

1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.

1884, *Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

1890

1890
1892

. “Barstow, J. J. Jackson, The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare,

. {Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.

1858, *Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.. Ridgeway House,

1884,
1878.

1892.
1893,
1852.
1892.
1904.
1887.

1888.
1891.
1866.
1889.

1871.

1883.

1889,
1884,

1881.

1863.
1904,
1867.
1892.
1875,
1876.
1887.
1883,

1886.

1886,
1860,

1884.
1872,

Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Bartley, Sir G. C.T., K.C.B,, M.P, St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-
street, 8. W.

{Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

{Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.

tBarton, James, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Farndreg, Dundalk.

{Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh,

*Bartrum, C. O., B.Sc. 3 Holford-road, Hampstead, N.W.

{Bartrum, John 8. 13 Gay-street, Bath.

*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.

*BasseT, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berkshire.

{Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

{Bastabin, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1894.) 6 Tre-
velyan-terrace, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

{Bastran, H. Cuartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University
College, London. 84 Manchester-square, W.

{Batreman, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G., Controller-General Statistical
Department, Board of Trade, 7 Whitehall-gardens, S.W.

tBates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.

{Bareson, Wittiam, M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1904.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

*Batuer, Francis Arruur, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. British Museum
(Natural History), 5. W.

§Baverman, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, 8. W.

§Baugh, J. Hl. Agar. 92 Hatton-garden, F.C.

{Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.

tBayly, F. W. 8 Royal Mint, E.

*Bayly, Robert. Torr Grove, near Plymouth.

*Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Baynes, Mrs. R. HE, 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Bazley, Gardner 8. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.

Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Winterdyne, Chine
Crescent-road, Bournemouth.

{Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.

{Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*BEALE, Lionren S., M.B., F.R.S. 6 Bentinck-street, Manchester-
square, W.

{Beamish,G. H.M. Prison, Liverpool.

{Beanes, Ndward, F.C.S, Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley, Kent.

1883. {Beard, Mrs. Oxford.

1889.
1904,

§BearE, Professor T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E, The
University, Edinburgh.

§Beasley, H.C, 25a Prince Alfred-road, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1889, {Beattie, John, 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

12 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1902. {Beatty, HW. M., LL.D. Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

1855. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MLS., F.S.S. 18 Picea-~
dilly, W.

1886. {Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal, Canada.

1900. {Beaumont, Professor Roberts, M.I.Mech.. The University, Leeds.

1861. *Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

1887. *Beaumont, W. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1885. *Beaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E. Outer Temple, 222 Strand, W.C.

1896. {Beazer, C. Hindley, near Wigan.

1887. *Beckett, Jonn Hamrpen. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

1904. §Beckit, H.O. Balliol College, Oxford.

1885, {Bepparp, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Prosector to the Zoo-

logical Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

. §Benpor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1870-75.) The Chantry,

Bradford-on-Avon.

. {Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

. *Bedford, T. G., M.A. 9 Victoria-street, Cambridge.

. {Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

. {Bepson, P. Pures, D.Se., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1889), Professor of

Chemistry in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

. {Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Iall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

{Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-

shire,
. *Beilby, G.I. 11 University-gardens, Glasgow.
. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
. *Belinfante, L. L, M.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.
. {Bell, A. Beatson. 17 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
. {Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
. {Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.
. { Burt, F. Jerrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. British Museum, 8.W.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Issex.

. {Bett, Rey. Goren Cuarres, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
. *Bell, H. Wilkinson. Holmehurst, Rawdon, near Leeds.
. {Brert, James, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 52 Cromwell-road,

Hove, Brighton.

. {Bell, James. Care of the Liverpool Steam Tug Co., Limited,

Chapel-chambers, 28 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

. *Bes1, J. Carter, F'.C.S. The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
. *Bell, John Henry. 102 Leyland-road, Southport.

. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

. *Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

. §Bellars, A. E. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

. {Berrer, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.
. “Bemrose, H. Arnold. Ash Tree House, Derby.

. {Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada,

. {Bennam, WiLt1AM Braxtanp, D.Sc., Professor of Biology in the

University of Otago, New Zealand.

. [Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 44 Manor Park-road, Harlesden, N.W.

. {Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton, Cheshire.

. {Bennett, John Ryan. 3 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

. *Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon.

. §Bennett, Professor Peter. 6 Kelvinhaugh-street, Sandyford,

Glasgow.

. {Bennett, Richard. 19 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
. }Bennett, Rev. 8S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,

York,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 18

f
lection.
1903. §Benson, D. E, 18 Lansdowne-road, Southport.

1889. tBenson, John G, 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1901. *Benson, Miss Margaret J., D.Sc. Royal Holloway College, Egham,

1887. *Benson, Mrs, W. J. Care of W. J. Benson, Esq., Standard Bank,
Johannesburg, Transvaal.

1863. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1898. *Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

1884. {Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada,

1904, §Bentley, B. H. University College, Sheffield.

1897. {Bently, R. R. 97 Dowling-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1896, *Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.

1901. {Bergins, Walter L. 8 Marlborough-terrace, Glasgow.

1894. §Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of, F.G.S. Foxcombe, Boarshill,
near Abingdon.

1863. {Berkley,C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

' 1886. {Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.

1898. §Berridge, Miss C. E. 17 Rotunda-terrace, Cheltenham.

1894. §Berridge, Douglas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

1904. §Berry, R. A. 5 St. Mary’s-passage, Cambridge.

1862. {Besant, Witt1am Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

1882. *Bessemer, Henry. Moorlands, Bitterne, Southampton.

1890. { Best, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

1880. *Bevan, Rey. JAmes Oxrtvmer, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.8S. Chillenden
Rectory, Dover.

1904. *Bevan, P. V., M.A. Garden-walk, Chesterton, Cambridge,

1885. {Reveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

1884. *Beverley, Michael, M.D, 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

1903. {Bickerdike, C, F. 1 Boveney-road, Honor Oak Park, 8.E.

1870. { Bickerton, A. W. Newland-terrace, Queen’s-road, Battersea, S. W.

1888, *Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

1885. *BmpwELL, SHELFORD, Sc.D., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.

1882. §Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, 8.E.

1904. §Bigg-Wither, Colonel A. C. ‘Tilthams, Godalming, Surrey,

1898. {Billington, Charles. Studleigh, Longport, Staffordshire.

1901. *Bilsland, William, J.P. 23 Park-circus, Glasgow.

1886, {Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

1887. *Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Buxton.

1884, *Bingham, Colonel Sir John E., Bart. West Lea, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

188], {BryntF, Sir AtpxanpER R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, (Pres. G, 1900).
77 Ladbroke-grove, W.

1900. {Bird, F. J. Norton House, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

1880. {Bird, Henry, F'.C.8. South Down House, Millbrook, near
Devonport.

1888. *Birley, Miss Caroline. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, W.

1887. *Birley, H. K. Penrhyn, Ivlams o’ th’ Height, Manchester,

1904, §Bishop, A. W. Edwinstowe, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

1894, {Bisset, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Greenhill-park, Edinburgh.

1885. {Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.

1886. BRB olen W.H. 246 Belvidere-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
S.A ;

1901. tBlack, John Albert. Lagarie-row, Helensburgh, N.B.

1889. {Black, W. 1 Lovyaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1881, {Black, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E, Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

14

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS,

of

Election.

1901

1876.
1884,
1900.
1877.
1855.

1884.
1903.
1896.
1886,

18965.
1883.
1892.
1892.
1883.
1902.
1891.

1894.
1900.
1881.
1895.
1904,
1884,
1869,

1887.

1887.
1887.
1884,
1902.
1888.

1885.

1867.
1887.
1901.

1870.
1887.
1900.
1889.
1884.
1900.

1887.
1898.
1894.
1898.
1898.

. §Black, W. P. M. 136 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshyen, Fort William, N.B.

tBlackburn, Robert. New Edinbureh, Ontario, Canada,

{Blackburn, W. Owen. 3 Mount Royd, Bradford.

}Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

*Brackig, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. (Local Sec, 1876). 1 Belhaven-
terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Blackman, F. F., M.A., D.Sc. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

t Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.

{Blaikie, John, F.L.S. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Stafford-
shire.

{Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrayve-crescent, Edinburgh.

TBlair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

{Blair, Alexander. 35 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.

*Brake, Rey. J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 35 Harlesden-gardens, N.W.

{Blake, Robert F., F.L.C. 66 Malone-avenue, Belfast.

{Braxestey, Tuomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.

{Blakiston, Rev. C. D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.

*Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

{Blamires, Thomas H. Olose Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

{Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield,

§Blane, Dr. Gian Alberto. Istituto Fisico, Rome.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

tBranrForp, W. T.,C.LE., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. C,
1884; Council 1885-91.) 72 Bedford-gardens, Campden
Hill, W.

*Bles, A. J. S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bles, Edward J., M.A., B.Se. The University, Glasgow.

{Bles, Marcus 8. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

tBlount, Bertram, F.1.C. 76 & 78 York-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.

Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.

{Bryra, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.

*Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

{Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

§Biyruswoop, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D. Blythswood, Ren-
frew.

TBoardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.

*Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

{Boprineron, Principal N., Litt.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 53 Victoria-street, S.W.

tBody, Rey. C. W. E.,M.A. ‘Trinity College; Toronto, Canada.

}Boileau, Lieut.-Colonel A. C. T.,R.A. Royal Artillery Institution,
Woolwich.

*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam,

§Boxton, H., F.R.S.E. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

§Bolton, John, 15 Cranley-gardens, Highgate, N.

{Bolton, J. W. Baldwin-street, Bristol.

*Bonar, JAMES, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1898; Council 1899- .)
Civil Service Commission, Burlington-gardens, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 15

Year of
Election.

1883. {Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

1871. *Bonney, Rev. Tuomas Grorer, D.Se., LL.D., F,2.8., F.S.A.,,
F.G.S. (Secretary, 1881-85; Pres. C, 1886.) 23 Denning-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

1888, {Boon, William. Coventry.

1893. {Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

1890. *Bootn, Right Hon. Cuartes, D.Sc., F.RS., F.S.S. 24 Great
Cumberland-place, W.

1888. {Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

1876. Booty Rey. William H. St. Paul’s Rectory, Old Charlton,

ent.

1883. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Weston-super-Mare.

1901. poorer, Herbert E., M.A., B.Se. Sidney Sussex College, Cam-
bridge.

1900. {Borchgrevink, C. E. Lindfield, Sussex.

1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 5 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick, W.

1901. {Borradaile, L. A., M.A. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

1876. *Bosanauet, R. H. M., M.A., F.RS., FLR.A.S, Castillo Zamora
Realejo-Alto, Teneriffe. ;

1903. §Bosanquet, Robert C. Rock Hall, Alnwick.

1896. {Bose, Professor J. C., C.LE., M.A., D.Se. Calcutta, India.

1881, §BotHamiry, Cuartes H., F.IC., F.C.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee, Tangle-
wood, Southside, Weston-super-Mare,

1887, {Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.

1872. {Bottle, Alexander. 4 Godwyne-road, Dover.

‘1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

1887, Epeeomey James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.

1871. *Borromiry, James Tomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.B.S.E., F.C...
13 University-gardens, Glasgow. ; }

1884, *Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1892. peor, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany in King’s College,

1876. {Bottomley, William, jun. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1890. {Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. 44 Campden House Court
Kensington, W. :

1903. §Boulton, W. 8S. 2 Kymin-terrace, Penarth.

1888, {Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, 8.W.

1883. {BournE, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
Presidency College, Madras. i]

1893. *Bournz, G. C.,M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. (Council, 1903- ; Local Sec
1894.) Savile House, Mansfield-road, Oxford, "7

1890. {Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.

1904. *Bousfield, E.G. P. Hungate Mills, York.

1902. {Bousfield, William, 20 Hyde Park-gate, W.

1898. {Bovey, Edward P., jun. Clifton-grove, Torquay.

1884, {Bovny, Henry T., M.A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering and Applied Mechanics in McQill University
Montreal. Ontario-avenue, Montreal, Canada. :

1888. {Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath,

1881. "Bower, F. O., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.L.S, (Pres. K, 1898:
Council 1900-_), Regius Professor of Botany in the Uaivek.
sity of Glasgow.

1898. *Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Seal, Sevenoaks,

1856, * Bowlby, Miss F. E, 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham,

1898. §Bowzzy, A. L., M.A, Lynwood, Southern Hill, Reading,

16

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1880.
1887.
1899,
1899.
1887.

1895.

1901.
1871.
1884,
1892,

1872.
1869.

1894.
1893.
1904.
1899.

1903.

1892.
1863.

. 1880.
1888.
1898.

1867.
1861.
1885.

1902.

1890.
1902.

1898.
1882.
1866.
1891.

1886.

1887.
1870.
1886.
1879.
1870.
1890.
1904.

1893.
1868.

{Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

{Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

*Bowman, Herbert Lister, M.A. Greenham Common, Newbury.

*Bowman, John Herbert. Greenham Common, Newbury.

{Box, Alfred Marshall. Care of Messrs. Cooper, Box, & Co., 69
Aldermanbury, E.C. ;

*Boyrce, Rupert, M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the
University of Liverpool.

{Boyd, David T. Bhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark.

{Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

*Boyle, R. Vicars, 0.S.I. 3 Stanhope-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

§Boys, CHARLES VERNON, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1908 ; Council, 1893-99.)
97 The Grove, Boltons, 8. W.

*Brasroox, FE. W., C.B., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1898; Pres. F, 1903 ;
Council, 1903- _). 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, S.W. E

*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington
Middlesex. pies

*Braby, Ivon, Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

§Bradley, F. L. Ingleside, Malvern Wells.

*Bradley, Gustay. ‘Town Hall, Barrow-in-Furness.

*Bradley, J. W., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Westminster City Hall,
Charing Cross-road, W.C.

*Bradley, O. Charnock, M.B., F.R.S.E. Royal Veterinary College
Edinburgh. :

{Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

{Brapy, GrorcE S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.

*Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, 8.0., Essex.

§ Braikenridge, W.J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

alae Lieut.-Colonel James R., F.S.A, Seafield, Weston-super-

Tare.

{Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

*Brandreth, Rev. Henry. 72 Hills-road, Cambridge,

*Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Hale, Bowdon, Cheshire,

tBraun, Henry C. 1 North-street, King’s Cross, N.

*Bray, George. Belmont, Wood-lane, Headingley, Leeds.

*Brereton, Cloudesley. Briningham House, Briningham, 8.0., Nor-

folk.

§Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W.

*Bretherton, C. EE. 12 The Paragon, Blackheath, 8.E,

{Brettell, Thomas. Dudley.

{ Brice, Arthur Montefiore, F.GS., F.R.GS, 28 Addison-mansiona,
Kensington, W.

§Brivex, T. W., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Birmingham. ‘

{Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.

{Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.

{Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Idgbaston, Birmingham,

{Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.

*Brica, Joun, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

*Briggs, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S., University Tutorial
Press, Burlington House, Cambridge.

{Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.

{ Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S, United Service Club, Pail

Mall, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 17

Wear of

Election.

1893. {Briscoe, Albert E., B.Sc., A.R.C.Sc. Municipal Technical Institute,
Romford-road, West Ham, FE.

1904, §Briscoe, B. H. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridgeshire.

1884, {Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

1898. {Bristot, The Right Rev. G. F. Browne, D.D., Lord Bishop of,
17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

1879. *Brirrarn, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.

1878. {Britten, James, I’.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
S.W.

1884. *Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh-hill, Black-
heath, S.E.

1899. {Broadwood, Miss Bertha M. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

1899. {Broadwood, James H. E. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

1897. {Brock, W. R. ‘Toronto.

1896. *Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1883. *Brodie, David, M.D. Slingsby Villa, Regent’s Park-road, N.

1901. §Brodie, T. G., M.D., F.R.S. 4 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park,

N.W.

1884. {Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue,-Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A

1901. {Brodie, W. Brodie, M.D., F.R.S.E.~ 28 Hamilton Park-terrace,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. 5 Devonsbire-place, Eastbourne.

1903. {Broprick, Harorp, M.A. (Local Sec., 1903.) 7 Aughton-road,

’ Birkdale, Southport.

1904. §Bromich, T, J. ’A., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s

. College, Galway.

1881. {Brook, Robert G. Wolverhampton House, St. Helens, Lanca-
shire.

1864, *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.

1887. §Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Man-
chester,

1863. {Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

1887. {Brooks, 8. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

1883. *Brotherton, FE. A., M.P. Arthington Hall, Wharfedale, via
Leeds.

1901. §Brough, Bennett H., F.LC., .G.8. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

1883. *Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. Frankville, Eastern Villas-road, Southsea.

1886. {Brough, Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.
(Pres. B, 1874; Local Sec, 1871), Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Edinburgh. 8 Belzrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

1892, {Brown, Andrew, M.Inst,C,E, Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.

1896. {Brown, A. T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.

1867. {Brown, Sir Charles Gage, M.D., K.C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, S.W.

1855, {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

1871. {Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.

1863, *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

-1883, sage pet Ellen F, Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liver-
pool,

1903, {Brown, F. W. 6 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

1881. {Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

1883, {Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

1807. §Brown, Horacr T., LL.D, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. B, 1899;
Council, i904- .) 52 -Nevern-square, S.W.

1904. B

18 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870. *Brown, J. Campsett, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Liverpool.

1876. SoU be oun, F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1902.) Longhurst, Dunmurry,

ast.

1881. *Brown, John, M.D. c/o James Dick, Esq., St. Thomas-road, Beven,
Durban, Natai.

1882. *Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham.

1895. *Brown, John Charles. Burlington-road, Sherwood, Nottingham.

1894, {Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

1882. *Brown, Mrs. Mary. c/o James Dick, Esq., St Thontas-road, Beven,
Durban, Natal.

1898. §Brown, Nicol, F.G.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.

1897. {Brown, Price, M.B. 37 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

1886. {Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.

1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897. tBrown, Richard, Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1901. {Brown, R. N. R., B.Se. University College, Dindee.

1896. {Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.

1891. §Brown, T. Forster, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1891.) Springfort, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol.

1885. {Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.

1884, tBrown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co,, Virginia, U.S.A.

1863. {Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, .M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

1900. *Browne, Frank Balfour. The Cottage, Catfield, Great Yarmouth,

1895, *Browne, H. T. Doughty. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

1879. {Brownye, Sir J. Cricuron, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
place-mansions, Victoria-street, 5.W.

1891. {Browne, Monracu, F.G.8. Town Museum, Leicester.

1862, *Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland.

1872. aii R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks,
Kent.

1865. {Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 78 Strand, W.C.

1883. Browning, Oscar, M.A. [King’s College, Cambridge.

1892. {Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

1901. {Bruce, John. Inverallan, Helensburgh.

1893. tBruce, William 8. 11 Mount Pleasant, Joppa, Edinburgh.

1902. {Bruce-Kingsmill, Captain J., R.A, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.

1900. *Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1875. {Brunlees, John, M.Inst.C.l. 12 Victoria-street, Westminster,
5.W.

1896. *Brunner, Sir J.T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1868. {Brunton, Sir T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, W.

1897. *Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

1878. {Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

1886. *Bryan, G. H., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
University College, Bangor,

1894, {Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

1884, {Brycn, Rev. Professor Gzorcu. Winnipeg, Canada,

1897. {Bryce, Right Hon. Jamus, D.C.L.,M.P.,F.R.S, 54 Portland-place, W.

1901. §Bryce, Thomas H. 2 Granby-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1894, {Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.

1902. *Bubb, Miss E. Maude. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham,

1890. §Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

1871, §Bucnan, ArexanpeR, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 19

Year of
Election.

1867.
1902.
1901.
1881.
1871.

1883.
1886,
1884,

1851.

1904.
1887.

1875.
1893.

1903.
1871.
1883.
1895.
1886.

1842.
1869.
1881.

1891.
1894.
1884,

1899.

1904.
1888.
1883.

1876.
1885,

1877.
1884,

1899.
1860,
1894.
1891.
1888.
1888.
1894,
1866,
1889,
1897.

{Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

*Buchanan, Miss Florence, D.Sc. University Museum, Oxford.

tBuchanan, James, M.D. 12 Hamilton-drive, Maxwell Park, Glasgow.

*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

{Bucwanan, Jonn Younes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.8.,
Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, W.C.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W.

*“Buckton, Grorer Bowpter, F.R.S., F.L,8., F.C.8. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

§Buckwell, J.C. Northgate House, Pavilion, Brighton.

{Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

{Budgett, Samuel. Penryn, Beckenham, Kent.

§Butteip, ArtHuR, F.S.A. The Old Vicarage, Midsomer Norton,
Bath.

*Bullen, Rev. R. Ashington. Pyrford Vicarage, Woking, Surrey.

{Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

{Bulpit, Rev. W. T. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

{Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.

§Bursury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn,
W.C.

*Burd, John, Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.

{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness, 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

{Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccas
dilly, W.

{Burge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

{Burxs, Jonn B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Burland, Lieut.-Col. Jeffrey H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal,
Canada.

tBurls, Herbert T, Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., Cornhill,
E.C

§Burn, R. H. 21 Stanley-crescent, Notting Hill, W.

{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

*Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.I.E., K.C.S.L, F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.

{Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. Migvie House, North Silver-street,
Aberdeen,

{Burns, David. Vallum View, Burgh-road, Carlisle.

{Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A,

{Burr, Malcolm, Dorman’s Park, East Grinstead.

{Burrows, Montagu, M.A. Oxford.

{Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, N. W.

tBurt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.

{Burt, Sir John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Burt, Lady, 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W

{Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, W.

*Burton, Freperick M., F.LS., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.

tBurton, Rey. R. Lingen, Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.

{Burton, S. H., M.B. 650 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1892. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S, 12

1904

Union-crescent, Margate.
. §Burtt, Arthur H., D. Se. 4 South View, Holgate, York,
BQ

20

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1897,

1887.
1899.
1895.
1884.

1884,
1884,
1872.
1887.
1881.
1868.
1872.

1899.
1852.
1883.

1889.

1892.
1894,
1863.
1861.
1901.
1868.
1887.

1897,

1892.
1901.
1857.
1896.
1884.
1870.
1901.

1884,
1876.

1897.
1901.
1902.
1897,
1882.
1890.

1897.
1904,
1888.
1894.

1887.

{Burwash, Rev. N., LU.D., Principal of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada.

*Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey.

§Bush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham,

{Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G:S._ 19 Cromwell-road, S.W.

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

tButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

*Butterworth, W. Park-avenue, Temperley, near Manchester.

Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

{Buxton, Sydney C., M.P. 15 Katon-place, 5. W.

{Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.

{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., G.C.M.G.; F.R.G.S. Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Issex.

§Byles, Arthur R. ‘Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

tByrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.

{Byrom, John R, The Rowans, Fairfield, near Manchester.

tCackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Cadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.

{Caillard, Miss If. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.

{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire,

*Caird, James Key. 8 Roseangle, Dundee.

{Caldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Monmouthshire.

tCaley, A. J. Norwich.

{CaLtAway, Carus, M.A., D.Se., F'.G.S. 16 Montpellier-villas,
Cheltenham.

§Cattpypar, Huen L., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1900- ),
Professor of Physics in the Royal College of Science. 2 Ches-
ter-place, Regent’s Park, N.W.

{Calvert, A. F., F.R.G.S, Royston, Eton-avenue, N.W.

{Calvert, H. T. Roscoe-terrace, Armley, Leeds.

{Cameron, Sir Cnartets A., C.B., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

§Cameron, Irving II. 807 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.

{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

§Campbell, Archibald. Park Lodge, Albert-drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.

{Campbell, Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House,
Brechin.

{Campbell, Colonel J. C. L. Achalader, Blairgowrie, N.B.

{Campbell, M. Pearce. 9 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.

tCampbell, Robert. 21 Great Victoria-street, Belfast.

{Campion, B. W. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

jCandy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.

{Cannan, Epwir, M.A., LL.D., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1902.) 46 Wel-
lington-square, Oxford.

§Cannon, Herbert. Woodbank, Frith, Kent.

§Capell, Rev. G. M. Passenham Rectory, Stony Stratford.

{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.IL.E, 27 Kensington Court-gardens, W.

§Carrer, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.

{Carsrick, Joun WALTON. Trinity College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

1873.

1896,
1877.
1898.
1901.
1867.

1876.

1897.
1884,
1902.
1884,

1897.
1889.

1893,

1889.
1867.

1886,

*Carsurt, Sir Epwarv Hawer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, W.

*Carden, H. Vandeleur. Fassaroe, Walmer.

{Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

{Carlile, George M. 7 Upper Belgrave-road, Bristol,

Carlile, W. Warrand. Harlie, Largs, Ayrshire.

{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

{Carmichael, Niel, M.D. 177 Nitherdale-road, Pollolshields,
Glasgow.

{ Carmichael, Norman It. Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada,

{Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

{Carpenter, G. H., B.Sc. Science and Art Museum, Dublin.

{Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Coloradc,

{Carpenter, R. C. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

{Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{Carr, J. Westey, M.A., F.LS., F.GS., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{Carrurners, WituaM, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1886.)
14 Vermont-road, Norwood, 8.E.

{Carstaxe, J. Barwam (Local Sec. 1886). 30 Westfield-road,
Birmingham.

. {Carslaw, H. S., D.Se., Professor of Mathematics in the University

of Sydney, N.S.W.

. {Carson, John. 41 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

. *Cart, Rev. Henry. 49 Albert-court, Kensington Gore, S.W.
. *Oarteighe, Michael, F.C.S., F.I.C. 180 New Lond-street, W.
. {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

. {Carter, Dr. William. 78 Iodney-street, Liverpool.

*Carter, Rev. W. Lower, M.A., F.G.S. Hopton, Mirfield, Yorkshire,

. {Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street-chambers, Bryanston~

square, W.

. *Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. Myskyns, Ticehurst, Sussex.
. §Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.1. Peel-chambers, Market~

place, Bury, Lancashire.

2, tCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Rosehill-street, Derby.
. {Carus, Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.
. *Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham

Common, 8.W.

. {Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, S.W.
. {Carver, Thomas A. B., B.Sc., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. 118 Napiershall-

street, Glasgow.

. jCasartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Man-

chester.

. *Case, J. Monckton. Hampden Club, Phaniv-street, N.W.

. *Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

. *Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, 1.C.

. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax.

. §Caspair, W. A. National Physical Laboratory, Bushy House,

Teddington, Middlesex.

. *Cassie, W., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Holloway

College. Brantwood, Englefield Green.

1897. {Caston, Harry Edmonds Featherston. 340 Brunswick-ayenue,

Toronto, Canada.
. $Caton, Richard, M.D, Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool,

22

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1859.
1886,

1859,
1901

1881.
1865.
1865.
1888,

1902.

1861,

1897.
1889,
1899.

1877.
1874.

1874.
1904.
1903.

1886.

1904.

1884,

1886.
1867.

1904.
1884.
1883.
1864.

1900,
1887.
1887.
1896.
1874,

1884,
1896.
1879.
1883.
1884,
1889.
1894.

1900,
1899.
1899,
1899,
1904,

1882.
1887.

tCatto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Cave-Moyle, Mrs. Isabella. St. Paul’s Vicarage, Cheltenham.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.

{Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.

§Chamen, W. A. 75 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.

*Champney, John E. 27 Hans-place, 8. W.

tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tChandler, 8S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

§Chapman, D. L. 10 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester.

*Chapman, Edward, M.A., M.P., F..S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram,
Manchester.

{Chapman, Edward Henry. 17 St. Hilda’s-terrace, Whitby.

{Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Chapman, Professor Sydney John, M.A. Victoria University,
Manchester.

tChapman,'T. Algernon, M.D. 17 Wesley-avenue, Liscard, Cheshire.

{Charles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.

{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland,

§Cnasp, Rev. F. H., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

{Chaster, G. W. 42 Talbot-road, Southport.

{tChate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Chattaway, I’. D, Longfield, Kenton-road, Harrow.

*CHarrerton, Gurorer, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 The Sanctuary,
‘Westminster, S.W. é

*Cuarrock, A. P., M.A., Professor of Experimental Physics in
University Collece, Bristol.

*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.

*Chaundy, Theodore William. 49 Broad-street, Oxford.

{CuauveEav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.

{Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

{Curavite, W. B., M.A., M.D, F.R.G.S. 19 Portman-street,
Portman-square, W. :

§Cheesman, W. Norwood. The Crescent, Selby.

| Cheetham, I. W. Limefield House, IHyde.

{ Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.

{Chenie, John. Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

*Chermside, Major-General Sir H. C., R.E., G.C.M.G.,C.B. Care of
Messrs. Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, 8. W.

{ Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

{Cherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

*Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

{Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

{Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.

{Cutsnorm, G. G., M.A., B.Se., F.R.G.S. 59 Drakefield-road,
Upper Tooting, 8. W.

{CHIsHomM, Sir Samvurn. Glasgow.

§Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

§Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

§Chitty, G. W. Brockhill Park, Hythe, Kent.

§Chivers, John, J.P. Histon, Cambridgeshire.

{Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

tChoriton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 28

Year of
Election.

1893, *CurEs, CHARLES, D.Se., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey,

1900, *Christie, R. J. Duke Street, Toronto, Canada.

1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting
Common, 8.W.

1876, *Curystat, Grorer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Pres. A, 1885),
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh.
5 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. §Caurcu, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew.

1898. §CHuRcH, Colonel G. Fart, F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1898.) 216 Crom-
well-road, S. W.

1860. {CHurcu, Sir WinrtAM SELby, Bart., M.D., D.Se. St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, B.C.

1896, {Clague, Daniel, F.G.S. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.

1903. §Clapham, J. H., M.A., Professor of Kconomics in the University
of Leeds.

1901. §Clark, Archibald B., M.A. 16 Comely Bank-street, Edinburgh.

1876. {Clark, David R., M.A. 8 Park-drive West, Glasgow.

1890, (Clark, FE. K. 13 Wellclose-place, Leeds.

1877. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

1902. {Clark,G.M. Cape Town.

1892, {Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.

1901. {Clark, James M., M.A., B.Sc. 8 Park-drive West, Glasgow.

1876, {Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glascow.

1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Se. Lilegarth, Ashburton-road, Croydon.

1901. *Clark, Robert M., B.Se., F.L.S. 27 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1855, {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Beechcroft, Jordan-hill, Glasgow.

1887. {Clarke, C. Goddard, J.P. South Lodge, Champion-hill, 8.E.

1875. {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1886, {Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.

1875. {CiarKe, Joun Henry. (Local Sec. 1875.) 4 Worcester-terrace,
Clifton, Bristol.

1902. §Clarke, Miss Lilian J., B.Sc. 81 Hornsey Rise, N.

1897. { Clarke, Colonel S. C., R.E. Parklands, Caversham, near Reading.

1896, {Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.

1884. {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889. *Craypen, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.

1890. *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

1861. {CreLanp, Jonny, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1902. §Clements, Olaf P. Tana, St. Bernard’s-road, Olton, Warwick.

1904. §Clerk, Dugald, M.Inst.C.E. 18 Southampton-buildings, W.C.

1861, *Crirron, R, Bettamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 8 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford,

1898. {Clissold, H. 30 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893, {Clofford, William. 36 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

1873, {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1892, {Clouston, T.S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.

1883, *Ctowxs, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec, 1893.) The Grange,
College-road, Dulwich, S.E.

1885. {Clyne, James, Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

1891. *Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

1897. {Coates, J., M.Inst.C.E. 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, Australia.

1903. “Coates, W. M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

1901, {Coats, Allan. Hayfield, Paisley.

1884, §Cobb, John, Fitzherries, Abingdon.

24 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1895, *Copsotp, Ferix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.

1889. {Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1864, *Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham.

1889. {Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1892. {Cockburn, John. Gilencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.

1901. {Cockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone-road, Upper
Norwood, S.E.

1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

1861, *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

1898. {Coffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

1881. *Oorrry, Wattrr Harris, F.C.S. 26 Belgrave-road, Necleston-
square, S, W.

1896. *OCoghill, Perey de G. 4 Sunnyside, Prince's Park, Liverpool.

1884. *Cohen, B. L., M.P. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

1887. {Cohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1901. §Cohen, N. L. 11 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

1901. *Cohen, R. Waley, B.A. 11 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

1895. *Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorlshire,

1895. *Colby William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

1893. {Cole, Professor Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science,,
Dublin.

1903. {Cole, Otto B. 551 Boylston-street, Boston, U.S.A.

1879, {Cole, Skelton. 3887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1864, {Colefaa, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S, 14 Chester-terrace, Chester
square, S.W,

1897, §CotemaNn, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

1893. {Coleman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.

1899. §Coleman, William. The Shrubbery, Buckland, Dover.

1878. {Coles, John, F.R.G.S. Liphook, Hants.

1854, *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire,

1899. §Collard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

1892. {Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Ooleridge-road, N.

1892, {Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.

1887. {Corxin, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry:
in the University of London. 16 Campden-groye, W.

1869, {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon,

1893. {Collinge, Walter E. The University, Birmingham.

1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Trene-road, Parson’s Green,
S.W

1876. {Cottins, J. H., F.G.S. 162 Barry-road, S.F.

1865. *Collins, James Tertius, Churehfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1902. {Collins, T. R. Belfast Royal Academy, Belfast.

1882, {Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 17 Victoria-street, S.W.

1884. {Colomb, Right Hon. Sir J.C. R., K.C.M.G., M.P., F.R.G.S. Drom-
quinna, Kenmare, Kerry, Iveland; and Junior United Service
Club, 8. W.

1897. {Colquhoun, A. H. U., B.A. 39 Borden-street, Toronto, Canada.

1888. {Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.

1891. {Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.

1900. {Common, T, A., B.A. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing, W.

1892. {Comyns, Frank, M.A., F.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham,

1884, {Conklin, Dr. William A, Central Park, New York, U.S.A.

1890. {Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.

1871. *Connor, Charles C, 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.

1902, {Conway, A. W. 100 Leinster-road, Rathmines, Dublin.

“Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 25

Election.

11893.
1903.
1899.

1898.
1900.
1882,

1876,
1881.
1868.
1868.
1884,
1881.
1896.
1899

1902.
1903.
1895,

1901.
1893.
1868,
1889,
1878.
1871.

1904,

1904,
881,
1901.
1891.
1887.
1894,

1883.

1901.
1893.
1889.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1900,
1891.
1891,
1891.
1874.
1904.
1876,
1876,
1896,

{Conway, Professor Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. The Red House,
Hornton-street, W.

§Conway, R. Seymour, Litt.D., Professor of Latin in Owens College,
Manchester.

{Coopz, J. Cuartes, M.Inst.C.E, Westminster-chambers, 9 Vic-
toria-street, S.W.

§Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

{Cook, Walter. 98 St. Mary’s-street, Cardiff.

{Cooxg, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R,G,S, Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, 5. W.

*CooxE, Conrap W. 28 Victoria-street, 8. W,

{Cooke, F, Bishopshill, York.

{Cooke, Rey. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

{Cooxr, M. C., M.A. 53 Castle-road, Kentish Town, N.W,

{Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada,

{Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

jCookson, E, H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.

*Coomaraswimy, A. K., B.Sc., F.LS., F.G.S., Director of the
Mineral Survey of Ceylon. Kandy, Ceylon.

*Coomaraswamy, Mrs. A. K, Kandy, Ceylon.

§Cooper, Miss A, J. 22 St. John-street, Oxford.

{ Cooper, Charles Friend, M.ILE.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
SW.

*Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{ Cooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

{Cooper, W.J. New Malden, Surrey.

{Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCope, Rey. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.

{CopELanp, Ratpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh,

*Coppman, S. Monckton, M.D., F.R.S. Local Government Board,
Whitehall, 8. W.

*Copland, Miss Louisa. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensmgton, W.

{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.

§Corbett, A. Cameron, M.P. Thornliebank House, Glasgow.

{Corbett, E. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.

*Corcoran, Bryan. Fairlight, 22 Oliver-grove, South Norwood, 8.E.

§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R, The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

*Core, ‘Gialencor Thomas H.,M.A. Groombridge House, Withington,
Manchester.

*Cormack, Professor J. D., B.Sc. University College,Gower-street, W.C.

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.

{CornisH, Vauauan, D.Se., F.R.G.S. 72 Prince’s-square, W.

*Cornwallis, F. S. W., M.P., F.LS. Linton Park, Maidstone.

{Corry, John. Rosenheim, Park Hill-road, Croydon.

{Corser, Rey. Richard K. 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon.

§Cortie, Rev. A. L., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

{Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

{Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. The Cedars,Cobham-road,Norbiton, SW.

*Correritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Braeside, Speldhurst, Kent.

§Coulter, G.G. 28 Pall Mall, S.W.

{Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

}Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Courtney, Right Hon. Leonarp (Pres, F, 1896). 15 Cheyne-walk,
Chelsea, 8. W,

26

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1890.
1896.

1863.
1872.

1903.
1900.
1895.

1899.
1867.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1867.
1890.
1902,
1884,

1876.
1884.
1887,
1887.
1871.

1871.

1846.
1890.
1883,
1870.
1885.

1901.
1896.
1879.
1876.
1887.
1896.
1904.
1880.

1890.
1878.

1857.
1885.

1885.
1908.
1901.

1887,

{Cousins, John James, Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
{Coventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.

f{Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.8S, 10 Buckingham-street,
Strand, W.C.

tCoward, H. Knowle Board School, Bristol.

§Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Westleigh, Leich, Lancashire.

*CowELL, Puitip H., M.A. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and 74
Vanbruch-park, Blackheath, S.1.

{Cowper-Coles, Sherard. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.

{Cox, Robert. 384 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh,

{Cox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the 8., P., and D. Railway,
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, S.W.

{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

{Cradock, George. Wakefield.

tCraig, H.C. Strandtown, Belfast.

§Crateiz, Major P. G., C.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1900.) Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries, 3 St. James’s-square, 8. W.

${Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

}Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colin-
ton-road, Edinburgh.

*CRAWFORD AND Batcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S, 2 Cavendish-square, W.; and Haigh
Hall, Wigan.

*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.

§Creaxk, Captain E. W., C.B., R.N., F.R.S. (Pres. I!., 1903; Council
1896-1903.) 9 Hervey-road, Blackheath, 8.1.

{Cree, T.S. 15 Montgomerie-quadrant, Glasgow.

{Cregeen, A.C, 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

{Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffield.

*Crewdson, Rey. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

{Crichton, Hugh. 6 Rockfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.

§Crilly, David. 7 Well-street, Paisley.

*Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.8. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, W.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A, Clouneagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, Co,
Limerick.

{Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

{Cromstg, J. W., M.A., M.P. (Local Sec. 1885), Balgownie Lodge,
Aberdeen.

{Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Crompton, Holland. Binfield, Northwood, Middlesex.

{Crompton, Colonel R. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1901.)
Kensington Court, W.

§Croox, Hunry T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Election.

1898.
1865.

1879.

1897.

1870.

1894.
1870.

1890.
1904.
1853.

1904.

1887.
1894.

1897.

1883.
1882.

1890.

1863.

1885.
1888.

1898.
1888.
1883.

1883.

1897.
1898.

1861,
1861.

1882,
1877.
1891.
1885,
1869.
1883,

1892.

1900.
1892.

1884,
1902.
1898,

§Crooke, William, Langton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

§Crooxrgs, Sir Wixtr1AM, D.Sce., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (PRESIDENT, 1898 ;
Pres. B, 1886; Council 1885-91). 7 (Kensington Park-
gardens, W.

{Orookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*CrooxsHank, K. M., M.B. Ashdown Forest, Forest Row, Sussex.

{Crosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C, Undereroft, Reigate.

*CROsFIELD, WILLIAM. 3 Fulwood-park, Liverpool.

{Cross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

§Cross, Professor Charles R. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, U.S.A.

{Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crosstey, A. W., D.Sc, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 7A Crediton-road,
West Hampstead, N.W.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.i.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup,
Kent.

*Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. 116 Manningham-lane, Bradford.

{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Neweastle-upon-
Tyne. - :

jOfutekhank: Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.

{Crummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.

{Crunpact, Sir Witttam H. Dover.

{Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

tCulverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

f{Cumberland, Barlow. Toronto, Canada.

§Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

*OunnineHAm, Lieut.-Colonel Annan, R.E., A.L.C.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

*CunnincHaM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H,
1901; Council, 1902— ), Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Edinburgh.

{Cunningham, J. H. 2 Ravelston-place, Edinburgh.

{Cunnineuam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

{CunnineHam, Roperr O., M.D., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

*“CunnincHam, Rey. W., D.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1891). Trinity
College, Cambridge.

§Cunningham-Craig, EK. H., B.A., F.G.S. 144 Dublin-street,
Edinburgh.

*Cunnington, W. Alfred. 13 The Chase, Clapham Common, 8.W.

“Currie, James, jun., M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Golden Acre,
Edinburgh,

{Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.

§Curry, Professor M., M.Inst.0.E, 5 King’s-gardens, Hove.

{Curtis, John. 1 Christchurch-road, Clifton, Bristol.

28 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1878. {Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

1884. {Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A,

1883. {Cushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.

1881. §Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depdt, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, S.W.

1854, {Daglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

1883, {Diihne, F, W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

1898. §Dalby, W. E., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil and Mechanical
Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Institute,
Exhibition-road, S.W. 45 Olifton-road, Crouch End, N,

1889. *Dale, Miss Elizabeth. 45 Oxford-road, Cambridge.

1863. {Dale, J. B. South Shields.

1867. {Dalgleish, W. Dundee.

1870, {DatiincEr, Rev. W. H., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8. Ingleside,
Newstead-road, Lee, 8.E.

1904. *Danron, J. H.C., M.D. The Plot, Adams-road, Cambridge.

1862, {Danny, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

1901. {Daniell, G. F., B.Sc. 44 Cavendish-road, Brondesbury, N.W.

1876, *Dansken, John, F.R.A.S. 2 Hillside-gardens, Partickhill, Glasgow,

1896. §Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,
Liverpool.

1849. *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

1894. {Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W,

1897. {Darbishire,C. W. Elm Lodge, Elm-row, Hampstead, N.W.

1897. §Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D. Hulme Hall, Plymouth-grove,
and Owens College, Manchester.

1903. §Darbishire, Dr. Otto V. Owens College, Manchester.

1861. *DARrBIsHIRE, Rosert Douxryrrerp, B.A. (Local Sec. 1861.)
Victoria Park, Manchester.

1896. {Darbishire, W. A. Penybryn, Carnarvon, North Wales,

1904. *Darwin, Charles Galton. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

1899, *Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1882. {Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1891; Pres,
K, 1904; Council 1882-84, 1897-1901). 80 Kensington~
square, W.

1881. *Darwin, Grorar Howarp, M.A., LL,D., F.R.S,, F.R.A\S, (PREsI-
pENt Exnxecr; Pres, A, 1886; Council 1886-92), Plumjan Pro-
fessor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambyidge,

1878, *Darwin, Horace, M.A., F.R.S. The Orchard, Hyntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

1894, *Darwin, Major Leonarp, Hon. Sec. R.G.S. (Pres. , 1896 ; Coungi}
1899- ). 12 Egerton-place, South Kensington, S.W.

1882. {Darwin, W. E., M.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.

1880. *Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., I.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1898. §Davey, William John. 6 Water-street, Liverpool.

1884. {David, A, J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C,

1904. §Davidge, HI. T., B.Se., Professor of Electricity in the Ordnance
College, Woolwich.

1870, {Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

1902. *Davidson, 8. C. Seacourt, Bangor, Co. Down.

1870, {Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.

1887. *Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

1904, §Davies, Henry N. St. Chad’s, Weston-super-Mare,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Election.

1896.
1893.

1898.
1873.
1870.
1882.
1896.

1885,
1886.
1886.
1857.
1869,
1869,
1860.
1864.

1886.
1891.
1885.

1901.
1884.

1859.

1892,
1870.

1900.
1887.
1861.
1901.
1884.
1866,

1884,
1893.
1878.
1896.
1902,

1897.
1896.
1889.

1874,
1896.

1874,
1894,
1903.

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Davies, Rey. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic
Languages in University Colleze, Bangor, North Wales.

{Davies, Wm. Howell, J.P. Down House, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

*Davyis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke-grove, W.

*Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

tDavis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.

*Davis, John Henry Grant. Valindra, Wood Green, Wednesbury,
Staffordshire.

*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. Hopefield, Evesham.

{Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham,

{Davison, Cuartes, D.Sc. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.

TDavy, Ik. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.

tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter,

tDaw, R. R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter,

*Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.

}Dawxins, W. Boyp, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., F'.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ;
Council, 1882-88), Professor of Geology and Paleontology in
the University of Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Man-
chester,

{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.

{Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

*Dawson, Lveut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington, Burnsall,
Skipton.

*Dawson, P. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.

{Dawson, Save (Local Sec, 1884), 258 University-street, Montreal,

Canada.

* Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common,
Kent.

tDay, I. C., F.C.S, 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Deacon, G.F., LL. D., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1897.) 19 Warwick-
square, S.W.

§Deacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield.

{Deakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.

{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

*Deasy, Capt. H. H.P. Cavalry Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Debenham, Frank, F°.8.8. 1 Fitzjohn’s-ayenue, N.W.

{Desus, Herricnu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres, B, 1869; Council,
1870-75). 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen.

{Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

{Deeley, R. M. 88 Charnwood-street, Derby.

{Delany, Rev. William, University College, Dublin.

§Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

{Dendy, Professor Arthur, Care of Messrs. Dulau & Co., 37 Soho-
square, W.

{Denison, I’. Napier. Meteorological Office, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

{Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham-place, S.W.

§Denny, Atrrep, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in University College,
Sheffield.

Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, W.

{De Nance, Cuarrzs K., F.G.S. 33 Carshalton-road, Blackpool.

{Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G., G.C.B. Knowsley,
Prescot, Lancashire. ‘

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S._ 76 Lancaster-gate, W.

*Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, S.E.

ae Rev. E. R. Price. Drachenfeld, Tenison-ayenue, Cam-

ridge.

30 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1899. {DevonsHtRE, The Duke of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. Devonshire House,
Piccadilly, W.

1899. t{ Dewar, A. Redcote. Redcote, Leven, Fife.

1868, *DrwaR, Sir JAmus, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.,
Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution,
London, and Jacksonian Professor of Naturaland Experimental
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. (PResrpent, 1902 ;
Pres. B, 1879; Council 1883-88.) 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-
bridge.

1881. {Dewar, Lady. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

1883. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E, Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.

1884. *Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby.

1872. {Dewick, Rev. E.S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.

1884, {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.

1896. tD’Henry, P. 136 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

1897, {Dick, D. B. Toronto, Canada.

1901. §Dick, George Handasyde. 31 Hamilton-drive, Hillbead, Glasgow.

1901. {Dick, Thomas. Lochhead House, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

1889. {Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.

1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1887. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.

1904. §Dickson, Charles Scott, K.C., LL.D., M.P., Lord Advocate for
Scotland. Scottish Office, Whitehall, S.W.

1881. {Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S, 2 Starkie-street, Preston.

1887. cyan st a N., BSc, F.R.S.E., F.R.GS. 2 St. Margaret’s-road,

xford.

1902. §Dickson, James D. Hamilton, M.A., F.R.S.E. 6 Cranmer-road,
Cambridge.

1885. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.

1862. *Dinxr, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartes Wentworrs, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S8. 76 Sloane-street, S.W.

1877. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.K. 386 Dawson-street, Dublin.

1901. §Dines, W. H. Oxshott, Leatherhead.

1900, §Drvers, Dr. Epwarp, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1902.) 3 Canning-place,
Palace Gate, W.

1898. *Dix, John be 8. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Down, Clifton,
Bristol.

1899 *Dixon, A. C., D.Se., F.R.S. Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s
College, Belfast. Almora, Myrtlefield Park, Belfast.

1874, *Dixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.

1900. {Dixon, A. Francis, Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Dublin.

1883. {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.

1888, §Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshire.

1900. *Dixon, George, M.A. St. Bees, Cumberland.

1879. *Drxon, Harotp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1894), Professor
of Chemistry in the Victoria University, Manchester.

1902. {Dixon, Henry H., D.Sc. 28 Northbrook-road, Dublin.

1885. {Dixon, John Henry. Dandarach, Pitlochry, N.B.

1896, §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Eccleston Park, Prescot.

1887. {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire,

1902, {Dixon, W. V. Scotch Quarter, Carrickfergus.

1885. {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1890, {Dobbie, James J., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the Museum of Science
and Art, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 31

Year of
Election.

1885. §Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D, The University, Edinburgh,

1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Fylde Cottage, Branksome-
avenue, Bournemouth.

1902. {Dobbs, F. W. 2 Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor.

1897. {Doberck, William. The Observatory, Hong Kong.

1892, {Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

1891. {Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

1876. {Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1897. {Dodge, Richard EK. Teachers’ College, Columbia University, New
“York, U.S.A.

1889, {Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

1898. {Dole, James. Redland House, Bristol.

1893. {Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.

1885. {Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

1904. §Doncaster, Leonard. Jing’s College, Cambridge,

1889. { Donkin, R. S., M.P. Campville, North Shields.

1896. {Donnan, F. EK. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

1901. {Donnan, I’. G, University College, Gower Street, W.C.

1881. {Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire,

1863. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. Illawara House, Tunbridge Wells.

1884. {Douglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

1890. {Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.

1883. [Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.

1834, {Dove, Miss Frances. Wycombe Abbey School, Buckinghamshire.

1903. §Dow, Miss Agnes R. Fiat 1, 27 Warrington-crescent, W.

1876. {Dowie, Mrs. Muir, Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

1884, *Dowling, D. J. Sycamore, Clive-avenue, Hastings.

1865. *Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk,

1881. *Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.6. Merry Hall, Ashtead, Surrey.

1887. {Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester,

1894. {Doyne, R. W., F.R.C.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

1883. {Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.

1892. *Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

1868. {DressER, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, 1.0.

1890. {Drew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.

1892. {Dreyer,JohnL. E.,M.A.,Ph.D., !.R.A.S. The Observatory, Armagh.

1893. §Druce, G. Crariper, M.A., F.L.S8. (Local Sec. 1894.) 118 High-
street, Oxford.

1889. {Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897, {Drynan, Miss. Northwold, Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

1901. {Drysdale, John W. W. Bon Accord Engine Works, London-road,
Glasgow.

1892. {Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse 39, Berlin.

1856, *Duciz, The Right. Hon, Henry Jonny Reynotps Moreton, Karl
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.; and Tortworth
Court, Falfield, Gloucestershire.

1870. {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. 7 Grey Friars, Chester.

1900, *Duckworth, W. L. H., M.A. Jesus College, Cambridge.

1895. *Duddell, William. 47 Hans-place, S.W.

1867. *Durr, The Right Hon, Sir Mounrsruart Expainstone GRant-,
G.C.S.IL, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. F, 1867, 1881 ; Council 1868,
1892-93.) 11 Chelsea-embankment, S.W.

1904, §Duftield, W.G. 5 Bridge-approach, Teddington, Middlesex,

1875, {Duflin, W. E, L’Estrange. Waterford.

$2

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1890.
1884,
1883.
1892.
1891.
1896.
1893.
1892.

1896.

1865.
1876.
1884.

1859.
1893.

1891.
1885.

1869.
1898.
1895,

1884.
1885.

1895,

1868.
1895.
1877.
1874,
1899.

1871,

1863.
1876,
1883.
1893.
1905.

1884.
1861.
1870.
1899.

1887.
1884.

1887.

{Dufton, S. F, Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

{Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

{ Dulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

*Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

{Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Liverpool.

*Dunell, George Robert. 33 Spencer-road, Grove Park, Chiswiek, W-.

{Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Baytholo-
mew House, E.C.

*DuNKERLEY, S., M.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.1.

{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

{Dunnachie, James. 48 West Regent-strect, Glasgow.

§Dunnington, Professor F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia, U.S.A.

tDuns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

*Dunstan, M. J. R., Principal of the South-Eastern Agricultural
College, Wye, Kent.

{Dunstan, Mrs. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Dunstan, WynpHam R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.8., Director of the
Imperial Institute, S.W.

{D’Urban, W. S. M. Newport House, near Exeter.

{Durrant, R. G. Marlborough College, Wilts.

*Dwerrynousr, ArtHUR R., M.Sc., F.G.S. 5 Oalcfield-terrace,.
Headingley, Leeds.

{Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,.
Glasgow.

§Dymond, Thomas S., F.C.8, County Technical Laboratory, Chelms--
ford, Issex.

{Eade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

{Earle, Hardman A, Salford Iron Works, Manchester.

{Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.

{Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

§East, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technolegy;,
Dover.

*Easron, Epwarp, (Pres. G,1878; Council 1879-81.) 7 Victoria-
street, Westminster, 5. W.

{Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham,

{Easton, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B:.

tEastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.

*Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.

§Eccles, W. H., D.Sc. 1 Owen’s-mansions, Queen’s Club-gardens,
West Kensington, W.

{Eckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.

{Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.-

{Eddowes, Alfred, M.D. 28 Wimpole-street, W.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

tEde, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.

oes ers R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. Sywell House, Llan-

udno.
§Epcewortn, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889; Council.
: 1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the

University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford.

LIS! OF MEMBERS, 33

Year of

Election.

1870, *Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.

1883. {Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

1888. *Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

1884, *Edmunds, James, M.D. 4 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town,
Brighton.

1883. {Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.M., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple,

1901. *EpripcE-Green, F. W., M.D., F.R.C.S. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.

1899. §Edwards, FE. J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 252 Trinity-road, Wandsworth,
S.W.

1903, {Edwards, Mrs. Emily. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport.

1903, {Edwards, Francis. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport.

1908, {Edwards, Miss Marion K. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road,
Southport.

1887. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford,

1901. fEggar, W. D. Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor.

1896. {Ekkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

1876, {Elder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

1890. §Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxtord.

1885. *Enear, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Leaden«
hall-street, E.C.

1904, §Eliot, Sir John, K.C.1LE., M.A., F.R.S. 54 Prince of Wales-
mansions, Battersea Park, S.W.

1901. *Elles, Miss Gertrude L. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1883, {Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S.W.

1904, §Elliot, R. H. Clifton Park, Kelso, N.B.

1904, §Elliot, T. R. B. Holme Park, Rotherfield, Sussex.

1891. {Elliott, A. C.,D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,

1904, §Elliott, Miss Agnes I.M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1883, *Extiort, Epwin Battery, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete

1886,

1875.
1880.

1891.
1884.

1887.
1862.

1897.
1883.
1887.
1870.

1897.
1891.
1884.
1863.

19¢

Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford,
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.

fExxror, Sir Toomas Hunry, K.C.B,, F.S.S. Board of Agriculture,
4 Whitehall-place, S.W.

*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

*E1tis, Joun Henry (Local Sec. 1883.) 3 Carlisle-terrace, The Hoe,
Plymouth.

§Ellis, Miss M. A. 129 Walton-street, Oxford.

fEllis, Professor W. Hodgson, M.A., M.B. 74 St. Alban’s-street,
Toronto, Canada.

Ellman, Rey. EK. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.

tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.

fElphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln's Inn, W.C.

§Elvery, Mrs. Elizabeth. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

{Eiwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.

§ELwortny, Freprricx T.,F.S.A. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.

*Ety, The Right Rev. Lord Axwynz Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.

fEly, Robert E. 23 West 44th-street, New York, U.S.A.

tEmerton, Wolseley, D.C.L. Banwell Castle, Somerset.

tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

tEmery, The Ven, Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire,

04, c

34 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1894. {Emtage, W. T. A., Director of Public Instruction, Mauritius.

1866. tEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

1884, {England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.

1853. {English, E. Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull.

1869. *Enys, John Davis. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.

1894, Pepecne ae James, D.Sc., F.R.S.E, University College, Not-
tingham.

1862, *Esson, Wrrtram, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,
Oxford.

1887. *Esteourt, Charles. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Manchester.

1887. *Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

1901. {Ettersbank, John, Care of Messrs. Dalgety & Co., 52 Lombard-
street, F.C.

1889. *Evans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

1870, *Evans, AntHUR Jonny, M.A., F.RS., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1896.)
Youlbury, Abingdon.

1865. *Evans, Rev. Cuartes, M.A. Parkstone, Dorset.

1896, {Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Bromborough, Cheshire,

1889, {Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.

1887, *Evans, Mrs. Isabel. Hoghton Hall, Hoghton, near Preston.

1883, *Evans, Mrs. James C. 38 Crescent-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1861, *Evans, Sir Joun, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.L.S., F.G.S. (Prestpent, 1897; Pres. C, 1878; Pres. H,
1890; Council 1868-74, 1875-82, 1889-96.) Nash Mills,
Hemel Hempstead.

1897. *Evans, Lady. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1898, |Evans, Jonathan L. 4 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

1881. {Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach, R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.

1885. *Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1865. t{Evans, Sesastran, M.A., LL.D. Abbot's Barton, Canterbury.

1899. {Evans, Mrs. Abbot’s Barton, Canterbury.

1865. *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1891. {E£van-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,

1903, tEvatt, E. J., M.B. 8 Kyveilog-street, Cardiff.

1871, {Eve, H. Weston, M.A. 87 Gordon-square, W.C.

1902, *Everett, Percy W. Oaklands, Elstree, Hertfordshire.

1895, t{Everett, W. H., B.A. University College, Nottingham.

1863, *Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire,

1886. {Everitt, William E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.

1883, tEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

1881, {Ewart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.

1874. a F a W. Quartus, Bart. (Local Sec. 1874.) Glenmachan,

elfast.

1876, *Ewrne, James Atrrep, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst,
C.K. Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

1883. {Ewing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.

1903. §Ewing, Peter, F.L.S. The Frond, Uddingston, Glasgow.

1884, *Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A,

1882, {Eyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants,

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

1890, {Faber, Epmunp Beckett. Straylea, Harrogate.
1896. {Fairbrother, Thomas. 46 Lethbridge-road, Southport.
1901. §Fairgrieve, M. McCallum, 115 Dalkeith-road, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election.

1865.
1896.
1902.

1898.
1877.

1902.
1892.

1886.
1897.
1897.

1904.
1883.
1885.
1886.

1885.
1883.
1904.
1897.
1883.
1903.

1890.
1900.

1902.
1901.

1886.

1900.
1904,
1883.
1890.
1876.
1883.
1902.

1871.

1896.
1867.

1901,
1883.
1883.
1873.
1892:

1897,

*FarrRuey, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.

§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Cheshire.

§Fallaize, E. N., M.A. 25 Alexandra-mansions, Middle-lane,
Hornsey, N.

§Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near
Manchester.

§Farapay, F. J., F.LS., F.S.S. (Local See. 1887.) College-
chambers, 17 Brazennose-street, Manchester.

{Faren, William. 11 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*Farmer, J. Breriand, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S8., Professor of Botany,
Royal College of Science, Exhibition-road, 8. W.

fFarncombe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Eastbourne.

*Farnworth, Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

*Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton.

§Farnworth, Miss Olive. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

{Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

tFarquhar, Admiral. Cuarlogie, Aberdeen.

tFarquHarson, Colonel Sir J., K.C.B., RE. Corrachee, Tarland,
Aberdeen.

*Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Tillydrine, Kincardine O'Neil, N.B.

{Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

§Farrer, Sir William. 18 Upper Brook-street, W.

}Farthing, Rev.J.C., M.A. The Rectory, Woodstock, Ontario, Canada.

{Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

§Faulkner, Joseph M. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Man-
chester.

*Faweett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

{Fawcert, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900.) Low Royd, Apperley
Bridge, Bradford.

*Fawsitt, C. E., Ph.D. 9 Foremount-terrace, Dowanhill, Glascow,

*Fearnsides, W. G., B.A., F .G.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cam-

bridge.

{Felkin, Ro'ert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 48 Westhourne-gardens, Bays-
water,

*Fennell, William John. Deramore Drive, Belfast.

§Fenton, H. J. H. 19 Brookside, Cambridge.

{Fenwick, !', H. 29 Harley-street, W.

{Fenwick, ‘I. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

tFerguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

{Frreuson, Goprrey W. (Local Sec. 1902.) Cluan,. Donegall
Park, Belfast.

*Frreuson, Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.8., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

*Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon.

tFerguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmonth-terrace,
Edinburgh.

tFerguson, R. W. Municipal Technical School, The Gamble Insti-

tute, St. Helens, Lancashire.

tFernald, H. P. Clarence House, Promenade, Cheltenham.

*Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

{Ferrrer, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London, 34 Cavendish-square, W.

tFerrier, Robert M., B.Sc., Professor of Engineering, University
College, Bristol.

tFerrier, W. F. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada,

G2

36 |

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Tlection.

1897.
1882.

1887.
1875.
1863.
1897.

1886.
1882.
1888.
1878.
1904.

1902.
1887.
1881.
1895.
1891.
1902.
1884.
1869.

o=

1875.
1858.
1887.
1885.
1871.
1883.
1878.
1835.

1894,

1838.
1904.
1897.
Jasl.

1904.
1876.
1876.
1870.
1890.
1892.
1838.

1901.
1889,
1890.

1877.
1891.
1903.

{Fessenden, Reginald A., Professor of Electrical Engineering,
University, Alleghany, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. a

§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Se. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

{Fiddes, Thomas, M.D, Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.

tFiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

tField, Edward, Norwich.

tField, George Wilton, Ph.D. Experimental Station, Kingston,
Rhode Island, U.S.A.

Field, H. C. 4 Carpenter-road, Hdgbaston, Birmingham.

{Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.

*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.

*Findlater, Sir William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin,

*Findlay, J. J., Ph.D., Professor of Education in the University of

Manchester.

§Finnegan, J., B.A., B.Sc. Kelvin House, Botanic-avenue, Belfast.

{Finnemore, Rev. J., M.A., Pb.D., F.G.S. 10 Albion-place, Doncaster.

{Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.

§Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich.

{Fisher, Major H.O. ‘The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.

{Fisher, J. R. Cranfield, Fort william Park, Belfast.

*Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.

tFisner, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-iill, Rochdale.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 47 Dartmouth-road, Willesden Green, N.W.

{Fison, K. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.

*Frson, Freperick W., M.A., M.P., F.C.S. 64 Pont-street, 5. W.

{Fitch, Rev. J. J. 5 Chambres-road, Southport.

{Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

*FirzGpratp, Professor Maurice, B.A. (Local Sec. 1902.) 82
Eeglantine-avenue, Belfast.

{Fitzmaurice, M., C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, S.W.

*Frrzpatrick, Rev. THomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

§Flather, J. If., M.A. Camden House, 90 Hills-road, Cambridge.

tFlavelle, J. W. 565 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

tFleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael’s Vicarage, Kbury-
square, S.W.

§Fleming, James. 198 York-street, Belfast.

{Fleminz, James Brown. Beaconstield, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Fleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.

Fletcher, B. Edgington. Marlingford Hall, Norwich.

tFletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, S.W.

Fletcher, George, F.G.S. Dawson Court, Blackrock, co. Dublin.

*“FietcHer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. (Pres. C,
1894), Keeper of Minerals, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W. 35 Woodville-gardens, Ealing, W.

{Flett, J.S., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

*Frux, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in McGill
University, Montreal, Canada. ‘

tFoale, William. The Croft, Madeira Park, Tunbridge Wells.

{Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

§Foord-Kelcey, W., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military

Academy, Woolwich. The Shrubbery, Shooter's Hill, 8.E.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
¥lection.

1880.
1875.
1885.

1897.
1885.
1890.

1875.
1894.
1887.

1902.
1883.

1900.
1884.
1877.
1896.

1865.

1883.
1857.

1896.

{Foote, RK. Bruce, F.G.S8. Care of Messrs, HL. 8. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, F.C.

*Forses, GEORGE, M.A., F.R.S., F.RS.E., MInst.C.6, 384 Great
George-street, S.W.

fForses, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor-
poration of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

tForbes, J., K.C. Hazeldean, Putney-hill, S.W.

tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.

{Forp, J. Rawxryson (Local Sec. 1890). Quarry Dene, Weetwood-
lane, Leeds.

*ForpHAM, H. Gzorcr. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Ierts.

tForrest, Frederick. Beechwood, Castle Hill, Hastings.

tForrest, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., I°.G.S.
Perth, Western Australia.

§Forster, M. O., Ph.D. Royal College of Science, S.W.

tForsyru, A. R., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897), Sadlerian
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
Trinity College, Cambridge.

tForsyth, D. Central Higher Grade School, Leeds.

tFort,George H. Lalefield, Ontario, Canada.

{Forrescug, The Right Hon. the Harl. Castle Hill, North Devon..

tForwoop, Sir Wiriam B., J.P. Ramleb, Blundellsands, Liver-

oo).

filoster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham,

tFoster, Lady. 86 Coleherne-court, Earl's Court, S.W.

*Foster, GEORGE Oargy, B.A., LL D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER, 1898-1504; Pres, A, 1877 ; Council 1871-76, 1877-
82.) Ladywalk, Rickmansworth.

{ Foster, Miss Harriet. Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.

. “Foster, Sir Micnaet, K.C.B., M.P., M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,

F.RS., F.L.S. (Presippnr, 1899; Gen. Sec. 1872-76;
Pres. I, 1897; Council, 1871-72). Great Shelford, Cambridge.

. §Poster, T. Gregory, Ph.D., Principal of University College, W.C.

Chester-road, Northwood, Middlesex.

. §Foureade, H. G. Forest Department, Cape Town.
. {Fowkes, . Hawkshead, Ambleside.
. [Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Basford Mall, near Notting-

ham.

. [Fowler, G. G. Gunton IIall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
. {Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-circus,

E.C

; tFowlis, William. 45 John-street, Glasgow.
. *Fox, Charles. The Pynes, Warlingham-on-the-Hill, Surrey.
. §Fox, Sir Cuarnes Dovaras, M.Inst.0.E. (Pres. G, 1896.)

28 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

. *Fox, Charles J. J., B.Se., Ph.D. 33 Ashley-road, Crouch Hill, N.

. §Fox, Francis Douglas, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. “28 Victoria-street, 8. W.
. ]Fox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.

. {Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

. "Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.

. "Fox, Thomas. Pyles Thorne House, Wellington, Somerset.

» “Foxwetr, Wererr S., M.A., F.S.S. (Council 1894-97), Professor of

Political Economy in University College, London. St. John’s
College, Cambridge. ;

. fFrain, Joseph, M.D, Grosyenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne,

38

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1894,
1895.
1882,
1885.

1892.
1865.

1871.
1871
1884.
1884.

1877.
1884,

1886.
1901.

1887.

1892.
1882,
1887.
1899,
1898.

1898.
1875.
1898.
1895.

1872.

1859.
1869,
1884,

1891.

1887.
1863.

1896.
18650.

1885
1889.
1875.
1887.

1899.

*FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1901), Pro:
fessor of Chemistry i in the Universit ty of Birmingham.

{Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 650 Porchester-terrace, W.

§Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.

*Fraser, Alexander, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal
College of Surgeons, Dublin.

tFraser, Anoeus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1885.) 232
Union-street, Aberdeen.

tFraser, Mrs. J.G. 4 Parkside, Cambridge.

*Fraser, JouHn, M.A., M.D., F.G.8. Chapel Ash, Wolver-
hampton.

tF Raser, Sir THomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

. {Frazer, Kvan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*Fream, W., LL.D., BSc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.

§Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.

*FremMantie, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1892 ; Council
1897-1903.) 4 Lower Sloane-street, S.W.

{FREsHEIELD, Doveras W., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E. 1904.) 1 Airlie-

gardens, Campden Hill, W.

{Frew, William, Ph.D. King James-place, Perth.

tFries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

*Frost, Edmund, M.B. Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, W.

tFry, Edward W. Cannon-street, Dover.

{Fry, The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

{Pry, Francis J. Leigh Woods, Clifton, Bristol.

*Iry, Joseph Storrs. 17 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{lryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 18 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

{furtarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.

*Fuller, Rey. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, 8.1.

tFurter, Freprrick, M.A. (Local Sec. 1859.) 9 Palace-road,
Surbiton,

{Futter, G., M.Inst.C.E. (Local Sec, 1874), 71 Lexham-gardens,
Kensington, W.

{Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.

{ Fulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

tGaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hali, Spilsby.

{Gair, H. WwW. 21 Water-street, , Liverpool.

{GarRpNER, Sir W. T., K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 32 pigeons
square, Edinburgh.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

tGalloway, Walter. Hichton Banks, Gateshead.

tGattoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J., M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

§Galton, Lady Douglas. Himbleton Manor, Droitwich.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 39

Election.

1860. *Gatton, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.RS., F.R.G.S. (Guy.
Src. 1863-68; Pres. E, 1862, 1872; Pres. H, 1885; Council
1860-63). 42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, S.W.

1870, §Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel Sir D., Bart., K.C.B, St. Helens, Lancashire,

1889, {Gamble, David. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay.

1870. {Gamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1888. *GamBie, J. Sykes, C.1.E., MA., F.RS., F.LS. Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

1877. {Gamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1868. {Gamerr, ArrHuR, M.D., I’.R.S. (Pres. D, 1882 ; Council 1888-90),

1899.
1898.
1900.
1887,
1882.
1896.
1894,
1882,
1887.

1882.
1873.

1883.
1903.
1903.
1894.

1874.

1882.
1892.
1889.

1870.
1896.

1896.
1875.
1892.
1871.
1885.
1887.
1867.

1871,

1898.
1832.

5 Avenue du Kursaal, Montreux, Switzerland,

*Garcke, E. Ditton House, near Maidenhead.

tGarde, Rey. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

§Gardiner, J. Staniey, M.A. Dunstall, Newton-road, Cambridge,

t{GarpinerR, Water, M.A., F.R.S, 45 Hills-road, Cambridge.

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne.

tGardner, James. The Groves, Grassendale, Liverpool.

tGardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.

{GarpNeER, JoHN SraRrKin, 29 Albert Embankment, S.E.

*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,
Lancashire.

fGarnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-
gardens, S.W.

fGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.

tGarson,J.G.,M.D. (Assisr.Grn. Sro.1902-04.) 14 Stratford-pl.,W.

tGarstang, A. H. 20 Roe-lane, Southport.

*Garstang, T. James, M.A. Bedale’s School, Petersfield, Hampshire.

*Garstane, WAtTeER, M.A., F.Z.S. Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth.

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

tGarvie, James. Bolton's Park, Potter's Bar.

tGarwoop, Professor i. J., M.A., F.G.S, University College,
Gower-street, W.C.

*Gaskell, Holbrook. Erindale, Frodsham, Cheshire.

*GASKELL, WALTER Horproox, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I,
1896 ; Council 1898-1901.) The Uplands, Great Shelford, near
Cambridge.

tGatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

{Gavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

{Geddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

1Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Gepprs, Professor Patrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

{Gerxre, Sir Ancurpatp, LL.D., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S,.
(PREsIDENT, 1892; Pres. C, 1867, 1871, 1899 ; Council 1888-91.)
10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, N.W.

{Guixtz, JAmus, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1889; Pres. E, 1892), Murchison Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colinton-
road, Edinburgh.

eres James F., M.A., M.D, 21 Endsleigh-gardens, Partickhill,

lasgow.

*GenEsE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwyth.

40

Year of
Election

1875.
1902,

1899,
1885.
1884.
1865.
1902.
1874.
1892.

1901.
1876,

1892.
1884.
1904,
1896.

1889,
1893,
1887.

1898.
1884,
1883.
1857.
1884,
1895,

1896.

1878.
1871.

1902.
1884,
1892,

1867.
1893.
1904,

1900.
1867.
1884,
1886.

1860.
1883.
1871.
1901.

1897.
1883,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*George, Rev. Hereford Brooke, M.A., F.R.G.S. Holywell Lodge,
Oxford.

“Gepp, Antony, M.A., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, 8.W.

*Gepp, Mrs. A. 26 West Park-cardens, Kew.

{Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. Joln-street, Oxford.

Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.

Gibson, Andrew. 14 Cliftonville-avenue, Belfast.

tGibson, The Right Hon. Edward, K.C, 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{Gibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George-
square, Hdinburgh.

§Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 8 Sandyford-place, Glasgow

*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 3 Drumsheugh-
gardens, Edinburgh.

tGibson, James. 20 George-square, Edinburgh.

tGibson, Rey. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Gibson. Mrs. Margaret D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-road, Cambridge.

tGusson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the
University of Liverpool.

*Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.

tGibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*GirFEeN, Sir Rosert, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.~.S.S. (Pres. F,
1887, 1901.) Chanctonbury, Hayward’s Heath.

*Gifford, J. William. Oaklands, Chard.

{Gilbert EK. E, 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada,

§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.

TGilbert, J. T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.

*Gilbert, Philip H. 68 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

tGilchrist, J. D. F., M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc. Marine Biologist’s Office,
Department of Agriculture, Cape Town.

*Gitcuprist, Percy C., F.R.S.,M.Inst.C.E, Frognal Bank, Finchley-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

{Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromserove.

*Gr1, Sir Davy, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Vice-
President, 1905.) Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

§Gill, James F. 72 Strand-road, Bootle, Liverpool.

tGillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B.,¥.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B. :

tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.

*Gimingham, Edward. 28 Stamford Hill-mansions, Stamford Hill, N.

§Ginn, S. R., D.L. (Local Sec. 1904.) Brookfield, Trumpington-
road, Cambridge.

§Ginsburg, Benedict W., M.A., LL.D. 23 Ladbroke-square, W.

tGrnssure, C. D., LL.D. Oakthorpe, Palmer’s Green, N.

{Girdwood, Dr.G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada,

*Gisborue, Hartley, M.Can.S.C.E. Caragana Lodge, Ladysmith,
Vancouver Island, Canada.

*Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton,

*Gladstone, Miss. 19 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W.

*GLAISHER, J. W.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890;
Council 1878-86.) Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Glaister, Professor John, M.D., F.R.S.E. 18 Woodside-place,
Glasgow.

tGlashan, J.C., LL.D. Ottawa, Canada.

tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 41

Year of
Election,

1881. *Guazesrook, R. T., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1893; Council
1890-94.) Director of the National Physical Laboratory. Bushy
House, Teddington, Middlesex.

1881. *Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W.

1859. {Glennie, J.S. Stuart,M.A. Sandycroft, Haslemere, Surrey.

1874. [Glover, George T. Corby, Hoylake,

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

1870. {Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1872. tGopparp, Ricuarp. (Local Sec. 1873.) 16 Booth-street, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

1886. {Godlee, Arthur. ‘fhe Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

1887. {Godlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.

1878. *Godlee, J. Lister. Wakes Colne Place, Essex.

1880. {Gopmay, I. Du Cangz, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-
street, Cavendish-square, W.

1883. {Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.

1852. {Godwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

1879. {Gopwin-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.
(Pres. E, 1833). Nore, Godalming.

1876. tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

1898. {Goldney, I’. Bennett, F.S.A. Goodnestone Park, Dover.

1886. {Gotpsmip, Major-General Su F. J.. K.O.S.1, C.B., F.R.GS.
(Pres. E, 1886.) 29 Phoenix Lodge-mansions, Brook Green, W.

1899. {Gomme, G. L., F.S.A. 24 Dorset-square, N.W.

1890. *Gonner, E. C. K., M.A. (Pres. F, 1897), Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Liverpool.

1852. {Goodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

1878. [Goodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

1884, ¢{Goodbody, Robert. Tairy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

1884. *Goodridge, Richard E. W. Lupton, Michigan, U.S.A.

1884, {Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,

Canada.

1885. {Gordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S. Chetwynd Rectory, New-
port, Salop.

1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s-mansions, West-
minster, S.W.

1893. {Gordon, Mrs. M. M., D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

1884, *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E.,F.R.G.S. Fairview, Dartmouth, Devon.

1885. {Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.

1865. {Gorn, GrorcE, LL.D., F.R.S. 20 Easy-row, Birmingham.

1901. §Gorst, Right Hon. Sir Jonn E., M.A., K.C., M.P., F.R.S. (Pres, L,
1901). Queen Anne’s-mansions, S.W.

1875. *Gorcu, Francis, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Council, 1901- ), Pro-
fessor of Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Lawn,
Banbury-road, Oxford.

1873. {Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1849. tGough, The Hon, Frederick, Perry Hall, Birmingham.

1881. {Gough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

1894, {Gould, G. M., M.D. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

1888. {Gouraud, Colonel. Edison House, Brighton.

1901. {Gourtay, Roperr. Glasgow.

1901. §Gow, Leonard. Hayston, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1876. {Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

1883. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

1873. pig soe me? D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,

orkshire.

42

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1886.
1901.
1902.
1875.

1904,
1892.
1893.

1896.
1892.
1864.

1876.
1881.
1899.
1890.

1899,
1864.
1881.
19038.
1902.
1904.
18938.

1892.

1904.
1892.
1887.

1887.
1886.
1901.
1881.

1873.

1883.
1883.
1886.
1866.
1893.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1904.
1904.
1888.

1903.
1882.

1881.
1884.

{Grabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

{Graham, Robert. 165 Nithsdale-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
*Graham, William, M.D. District Lunatic Asylum, Belfast.

re es James (Local Sec. 1876). Reform Club, Pall Mall,

§Gramont, Comte Armand de. 81 Rue de Liile, Paris.

tGrange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.

TGranger, Professor F. §., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street,
Nottingham.

tGrant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

{Grantham, Richard F., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland-cham-
bers, Northumberland-avenue, W.C.

tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

{tGray, Albert Alexander. 16 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

{Gray, Anprew, M.A., LL.D., F.RS. F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

tGray, Charles. 11 Portland-place, W.

*Gray, Rey. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, Ernest, M.A., M.P. 99 Grosvenor-road, 8. W.

tGray, G., M.D. Newcastle, Co. Down.

§ Gray, Rey. H. B., D.D. The College, Bradfield, Berkshire.

tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.

*Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 141 Hopton-road, Streatham,
S.W.

§Gray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbrole-crescent, W.

§Gray, Joun, B.Sc. 9 Park-hill, Clapham Park, 8.W.

tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. St. Elmo, Leckhampton-road, Chelten-
ham.

{Gray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

§Gray, R. W. 7 Orme-court, Bayswater, W.

tGray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical
Institute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

tGray, William, M.R.LA.’ Glenburn Par k, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel Wittiam. Farley Hall, near Reading.

tGray, William Lewis. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tGray, Mrs. W. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tGreaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham.

§Greayes, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

TGreaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, N.W.

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. 146 Station-road, Redhill, Surrey.

*Green, A.G. 2 Dartmouth-road, Brondesbury, N.W.

§Green, F. W. Thorntield, Tunbridge Wells.

§GreEn, J. Reynoips, M. ‘A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1902),
Professor of Botany to "the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain. 61a St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.

§Green, W. J. 22 Sheepcote-road, Harrow.

{Grerenaitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in tke
Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 1 Staple Inn, W.C.

{Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

{Greenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, N. W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 43

Election. »

1898.
1884.
1884,
1887.
1863.
1890.

1875.

1887.
1861,
1894,
1896.

1904.
1883.
1881.
1859.
1878.
1836.
1894,

1884,

1884.
1891.
19038,
1847.

1888.

1884,
1894.
1894,
1896.
1904.
1891.
1869.

1897.
1897.
1886,
1891.
1887.

1842.
1891.
1866.

1894,
1880.
1904,
1902.
1883.
1896,

*GREENLY, Epwarp. Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales.
{Greenshields, EK. B. Montreal, Canada.

t{Greenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

t{Greenwell, G. C. Beechfield, Poynton, Cheshire.

tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

tGreenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.

tGreenwood, F., M.B. Brampton, Chesterfield.

Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Gree, Ropert Puuinirs, F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

*Gruaory, Professor J. Water, D.Sc., F.R.S.,F.G.S. The Univer-
sity, Glasgow.

*Gregory, Professor R. A., F.RA.S. Dell Quay House, near
Chichester.

§Gregory, R. P. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.

tGregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, S.O., Yorkshire.

{Grrerson, THomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,

{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

Gritin, S. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N.

*Griffith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Selworthy, College-road,
Harrow.

tGrirvirus, EK. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of University
College, Cardiff.

tGriffiths, Mrs. University College, Cardiff.

{Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Se., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff,

TGriffiths, Thomas, J.P. 101 Manchester-road, Southport.

fGriffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. 65 Elchester-gardens,
Bayswater, W.

{Grinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

Groom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. Hollywood, Ugham, Surrey.

§Groom, T. T., D.Sc. University College, Reading.

t¢Grossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

§Grosyenor, G. H. New College, Oxford.

tGroyer, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.

tGruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rockdale, Orwell-road,
Rathgar, Dublin.

tGriinbaum, A.S., M.A., M.D. 45 Ladbroke-grove, W.

tGriinbaum, O. F. F., B.A., D.Se. 45 Ladbroke-crove, W.

tGrundy, John, 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.

tGrylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.

}GuictemarpD, F. H. H.,M.A.,M.D. The Mill House, Trumpington,
Cambridge.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.

Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.

t¢Gunn, Sir John. Llandaff House, Llandatt.

{Gtnruer, Atpert C. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.Z.8. (Pres. D, 1880.) 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.

tGiinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

§Gurney, Eustace. Sprowston Hall, Norwich.

*Gumey, Robert. Ingham Old Hall, Stalham, Norfolk.

{Guthrie, Malcolm. Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

{Guthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

44 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1904. §Guttmann, Leo F., Ph.D, 18 Aberdare-gardens, N.W.
1876. {GwyrHEr, R. F., M.A. Owens College and 33 Heaton-road,
Withington, Manchester.

1884. {Hadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

1881, *Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. I,
1902; Council, 1902- .) Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.

1888. *Hadfield, R. A., M.Inst.C.E. Parkhead House, Sheffield.

1892. t Haigh, £., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

1870. tHaigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

1879. t Hake, H. Wizson, Ph.D., F.CS. Queenwood College, Hants.

1899, {Hall, A. D., M.A., Director of the Rothamsted Experiment Station,
Ilarpenden, Herts.

1903. §Hatt, KE. Marswary, K.C., M.P. 75 Cambridge-terrace, W.

1879, *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

1883. *Hall, Miss Emily. Jessop Hospital, Sheffield.

1881. tHall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

1854, *Hart, Huan Ferrer, F.G.8. Cissbury Court, West Worthing,
Sussex.

1898. §Hall, James P. The ‘ Tribune,’ New York, U.S.A.

1899. {Hall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, 37 Nicholas-lane, E.C,

1885. § Hall, Samuel, F.1.C., F.C.8. 19 Aberdeen-park, Highbury, N.

1900. {Hall, T. Farmer, I’.R.G.S. 39 Gloucester-square, Hyde Park, W.

1896. {Hall, Thomas B. Larch Wood, Rockferry, Cheshire.

1884. {Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.

1896. {Hall-Dare, Mrs. Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

1891. *Hallett, George. Oak Cottage, West Malvern.

1891. tHallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

1873. *Hatterr, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

1888. §Hattrpurton, W.D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1902; Council 1897-
1903), Professor of Physiology in King’s College, London.
Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

1904. *Hallidie, A. H.S. Avondale, Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

1358. *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Fairley, Weston,
Bath.

1904. *Hamel de Manin, Anna Courtess de. 35 Cireus-road, N.W.

1883. *Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

1885. {Hamilton, David James. 41 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1902. {Hamitton, Rev. T., D.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1881. *Hammond, Robert. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1899. *Hanbury, Daniel. Lenqua da Ca, Alassio, Italy.

1892. {Hanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

1878. {Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 17 Percy-street, Liverpool.

1875. {Hancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

1897. { Hancock, Harris. University of Chicago, USA.

1861. {Hancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, £.C,

1890. {Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1884. {Hannaftord, E. P., M.Inst.C.E. 2578 St. Catherine-street, Montreal.

1894. §Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, W.

1886. §Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester.

1902. {Harbison, Adam, B.A. 5 M[avenhill-terrace, Ravenhill-road, Bel-
fast.

1859, *Harcourtr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
(Grn. Sxc. 1883-97; Pres. B, 1875; Council 1881-83).
St. Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1890. *Harcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1895;
Council 1895-1901). 6 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

1897. §Harcourt, Hon. R., LL.D., K.C., Minister of Education for the Pro-
vince of Ontario. Torontu, Canada.

1386. *Hardcastle, Colonel Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens,
Hampstead, N.W.

1902, *IIarpcastie, Miss F’rances. 14 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1903. *Hardcastie, J. Alfred. The Dial House, Crowthorne, Berkshire.

1892. *Harpen, Artuur, Ph.D., M.Sc. Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, Grosvenor-road, 8. W.

1877. {Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

1869. {Harding, William D, Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.

1894, {Hardman, 8. C. 120 Lord-street, Southport.

i894, {Hare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East ‘Twickenham, Middlesex,

1394. tHlare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East T'wickenham, Middlesex.

1898. t{Harford, W. H. Oldown House, Almondsbury.

1858. tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

1883. {Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1883, {Hargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1890. {Hargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.

1881. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

1890. *Harxer, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.

1896, {Harker, Dr. John Allen. Springfield House, Stockport.

1887. tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1871. { Harkness, William, F.C\S. 1 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

1875, *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S.,F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest Hill, S.E.

1883. * Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

1862. *Hartey, Rev. Ropert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West-

; bourne-road, Forest Hill, 8.E.

1899. {Harman, Dr. N. Bishop. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1868. *Harmer, I. W., F.G.8. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

1881. *Harwer, Srpvey F., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

1872. {Harpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton,

1884, {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. University-street,
Montreal, Canada.

1888. {Harris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, N.W.

1842. *Harris, G@. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia.

1889. §Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1903. {Harris, Robert, M.B. 18 Duke-street, Southport.

1898, {Harrison, A. J., M.D, Failand Lodge, Guthrie-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1888. {Harrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, S.W.

1904. §Harrison, E. K. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1860, tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.

1904. §Harrison, Frank L. 83 Clarkehouse-road, Sheftietd.

1904. §Harrison, HI. Spencer. 137 Richmond-road, Cardiff. >

1889. {Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

1858. *Harrison, J. Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, W.

1892. tHarrison, JoHN (Local Sec. 1892). Rockville, Napier-road,
Edinburgh.

1870. {HARRIson, yee F.R.C.S. (Local See. 1870). 6 Lower
Berkeley-street, Portman-square, W.

46

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1853.
1892.
1895.
1901.
1886.

1885.

1876.
1905.
1875.
1893.
1897.
1871

1896.
1886.
1887.
1897.
1898.
1885.
1862.
1884.
1893.
1903.
1903.
1904.
1875.
1903.
1889.
1903.
1893.
1904.
1904.
1887.
1872.
1864.

1897.

1889.
1887.
1890.
1861.

1885.

1891.
1900.
1908.
1894.
1896.
1896.
1873.
1898,

tHarrison, Robert. 386 George-street, Hull.

tHarrison, Rey. S. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

tHarrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.

*Harrison, W. E. 15 Lansdowne-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

{Harrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham,

tHart, Colonel C. J. (Local Sec. 1886.) Highfield Gate, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

*Hart, Thomas Clifford. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*Harrianp, E. Srpney, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester.

tHartley, E.G.S. Wheaton Astley Hall, Stafford.

*Hartiey, Water Nos, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. (Pres. B,
1903), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science,
Dublin. 386 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

{Hartley, W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.

*Hartoa, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.

t{Hartoe, P.J., B.Sc. University of London, South Kensington, S. W.

tHarvey, Arthur. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

tHarvey, Eddie. 10 The Paragon, Clifton, Bristol.

§ Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.

{Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, 8.W.

*Hastie, Miss J. A. Care of Messrs. Street & Co., 30 Cornhill, I..C,

§Hastie, William. 20 Elswick-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Hastings,G. 15 Oak-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Hastines, G. W. (Pres. F,1880.) Chapel House, Chipping Norton.

§Hastings, W.G. W. Chapel House, Chipping Norton.

{Hatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Hathaway, Herbert G. 45 High-street, Bridgnorth, Salop.

tHatton, John L. 8. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, E.

*Haughton, W. T. H. The Highlands, Great Barford, St. Neots.

§Havyilland, Hugh de. Eton College, Windsor.

*Hawkins, William. Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, S.W.

*HawksHaw, JoHN CrarxkeE, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Council
1881-87.) 22 Down-street, W., and 33 Great George-
street, S. W.

§Hawxstey, Cuartes, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1903; Council,
1902— .) 30 Great George-street, S.W.

tHaworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

{Hawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.

*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., G.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S. W.

*Haycrarr, JoHN Berry, M.D., B.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in University College, Cardiff. .

tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff. -

§Hayden, H. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Calcutta, India.

*Haydock, Arthur. 197 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

{tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford.

tHayes, Rev. F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin.

tHayes, William. Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Hayes, Rey. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.

tHayman, C. A. Kingston Villa, Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

Bisetion.

1903. {Hayward Joseph William, M.Se. 29 Bishop’s-mansions, Fulham,

1896, “Beyzond Lieut.-Colonel A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundell-
sands.

1879. *Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Roclferry.

1883. tHeadley, Frederick Halcombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

1883. tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

1883. {Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

1883. {Heape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.

1883. {Heape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale.

1882. *Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

1877. tHearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.

1877. tHearder, William Keep. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.

1898. sient. ome Arthur J., B.A., F.G.S. 71 St. Michael’s-hill, Redland,

ristol.

1902. {Heath, J. W. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W.

1898. {Hratu, R.S., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Birmingham.

1884, {Heath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

1902. §Heathorn, Captain T. B., R.A. 10 Wilton-place, Knightsbridge,S.W.

1883. tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

1892. *Heaton, Witt1am H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1893), Professor of
Physics in University College, Nottingham.

1889, *Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1888. *Heawood, Edward, M.A. 38 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, S.E.

1888. *Heawood, Percy J., Lecturer in Mathematics in Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham.

1855. tHecror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.

1887. *Hepees, Kintivewortu, M.Inst.C.E. 10 Cranley-place, South
Kensington, S.W.

1881. *Herz-Suaw, H. 8., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 27 Ullet-road,
Liverpool.

1901. *Heller, W. M., B.Sc. 18 Belgrave-square, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1887. §Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S, Langford, Sidcup, Kent.

1897. §Hemming, G. W., K.C. 2 Earl’s Court-square, 8. W.

1899, §Hemsalech, G. A., D.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.

1873. *Henderson, A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

1883, {Henderson, Mrs. A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

1901.
1891.

1892.
1880.
1896.
1904,
1873.

1892.
1855.

1890.
1890.

tHenderson, Rev. Andrew, LL.D. Castle Head, Paisley.

*Henverson, G. G., D.Sc., M.A., F.LC., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow.

t Henderson, John. 3 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.

*Henderson, Rear-Adwiral W. H.,R.N. Royal Dockyard, Devonport.

{ Henderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool,

*Hendrick, James. Marischal College, Aberdeen.

*Hewrici, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1883; Council,
1883-89), Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, S.W. 34 Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.

t{Hepsurn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Uni-
versity College, Cardiff.

*Hepbum, J. Gotch, LL.B, F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford
Heath, Kent.

tHepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds,

tHepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.

48

LIST OF MEMBERS.

_

Year of
Election.

1904,
1892.

1902.
1887.

1893.
1875.

1891.
1871.

1874.

1900.
1900.
1903.

1895.

1894.
1894.

1896.
1908.
1903.

1898,
1883.
1882.
18838.

1866.
1897,
1901.
1879.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1898.
1877.

1886.
1884.
1887.

1864,
1891.

1885.
1903.
1881.

§Hepworth, Commander M. W. C., R.N.R., C.B. Meteorological
Office, Victoria-street, S.W.

*HeRBERTSON, ANDREW J., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 4 Broad-
street, Oxford.

{Herdman, G. W., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 2 Fyfield-road, Enfield.

*HEeRDMAN, WILLIAM A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (GEnerat
Srecrerary, 1903— ; Pres. D, 1895; Council, 1894-1900;
Local Sec. 1896), Professor of Natural History in the University
of Liverpool. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs, Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{HereErorD, The Right Rev. Jonn Prrcrtvat, D.D., LL.D., Lord
Bishop of. (Pres. L, 1904.) The Palace, Hereford.

tHern, S. South Chiff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

*HERSCHEL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.

§HerscHrz, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks. :

*Herschel, J.C. W. Littlemore, Oxford.

tHerschel, Sir W. J., Bart. Littlemore, Oxford.

*HesxerH, Cuartes H. B., M.A. The Rookery, North Meols,
Southport.

§Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street,
Southport.

{Hewetson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1896.) 89 Henley-road, Ipswich.

tHewins, W. A.S., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy in

King’s College, Strand, W.C.

§Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

tHewitt, E.G. W. 87 Princess-road, Moss Side, Manchester.

tHewitt, John Theodore, M.A., D.Se., Ph.D. 8 Montpellier-road,
Twickenham.

tHewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.

tHewson, Thomas. Junior Constitutional Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Heycock, Ouartes T., M.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S8. 27 Arkwright-street,
Bolton.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

tHeys, Thomas. 180 King-street West, Toronto, Canada.

*Heys, Z. John. Stonehouse, Barrhead, N.B.

tHeywood, Sir A. Percival, Bart. Duffield Bank, Derby.

{Hrywoop, Henry, J.P. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

tHeywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

{Hichens, James Harvey, M.A. The School House, Wolverhampton.

tHicks, Henry B. 44 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Hicks, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1895),
Principal of University College, Sheffield. Dunheved, Endcliffe-
crescent, Sheffield.

tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

tHickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Hicxson, Sypney J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1903), Professor
of Zoology in Victoria University, Manchester.

*Hiern, W. P., M.A., F.R.S. The Castle, Barnstaple.

{Hices, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1899; Council 1904.)
H.M. Treasury, Whitehall, 8. W.

*Hitt, Avexanper, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.

*Hill, Arthur W. King’s College, Cambridge.

“Hitz, Rey. Epwin,M.A. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury St. Edmunds.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 49

Year of
Election.

1887. {Hill,G. H., M.Inst.C.f., F.G.8. Albert-chambers, Albert-square,
Manchester.

1884. {Hill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.

1886. {Hroz, M. J. M., M.A., D.Se., F’.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.

1885. *Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

1898, *Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

1888. {Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts.

1876. THill, William HI. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

1885, *HintuHousr, WittaM, M.A., I’.L.8., Professor of Botany in the
University of Birmingham, 16 Duchess-road, Edebaston, Bir-
mincham.

1886. §Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, near Bedford.

1887. {Hilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowtield, Manchester.

1903. “Hilton, Harold. Bryn Teg-terrace, Bangor, North Wales.

1903. §Hinp, Dr. WHertton, F.G.S. Roxeth House, Stoke-on-Trent.

1870. {Uinpz, G. J., Ph.D., F.RS., F.G.8. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surrey.

1883. *Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

1888. *Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.

1898. §Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

1886. {Hingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.

1881. {Hingston, J.T. Clifton, York.

1884. {Hineston, Sir WitttAmM Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 37 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.

1900. §Hinks, Arthur R., M.A. 10 ILuntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1903. *Hinmers, Edward. Glentwood, South Down-drive, Hale, Cheshire.

1884. {Hirschfilder,C. A. Toronto, Canada.

1899, §Hobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

1887, *Hobson, Bernard, M.Sc., F.G.S. Thornton, Didsbury, near Man-
chester.

1883. {Hobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

1883. {Hobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.

1904. § Hobson, Ernest William, Sc.D., F.R.S, The Gables, Mount Pleasant,
Cambridge.

1877. {Hodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 58 Tavistock-place, Plymouth,

1876. {Ifodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1863. *lopexsn, Tomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1887. *Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.

1896. {Hodgkinson, Arnold, 22 Park-road, Southport.

1880. §Hodekinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.RS.E., F.G.8S, Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
18 Glenluce-road, Blackheath, S.1.

1884. {Hodgezon, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.

1862. {Hodgson It. W. 7 Sandhill, Nowcastle-upon-Tyne.

1898. tHodgson, T. V. Municipal Musenm and yer Gallery, Plymouth.

1896. {Hodyson, Dr. William, J.P. Helensville, Crewe.

1904. §Hlodson, F. Bedale’s School, Petersfield, Hampshire.

1904. §Hogarth, D. G., M.A. Chapel Meadow, Forest Ruw, Sussex.

1894. t{Hogg, A. F., M.A. 153 Victoria-road, Darlington.

1894. tHolah, Ernest. 6 Crown-court, Uheapside, E.C.

1883. tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.

1883. tHolden, John J, 75 Albert-road, Southport.

1884. tHolden, Mrs, Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Cana la,

1904, D

50

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1896.
1900.

1887.
1891.

1904.
19038.
1896.
1898,

1889.
1886.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1892.
1882.
1903.
1896.
1897.
1875.
1904,
1847,

1892.
1865.
1877.

1904,

1901.
1884.

1882.
1871.

1858.
1891.
1898.
1885,

1903.
1902.
1875.

1884.
1887.
1893.

1884.
1899,
1859.
1896,

*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Sheet, near Petersfield.

tHolder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.

§Hoxpica, Colonel Sir THomas H., R.E., K.C.B., K.0.LE., F.R.G.S.
(Pres. E, 1902.) 41 Courtfield-road, S.W.

“Holdsworth, C.J. Sunnyside, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

tHolgate, Benjamin, F.G.S. The Briers, North Park-avenue,
Roundbay, Leeds.

§Holland, Charles E. 9 Downing-place, Cambridge’

§Holland, J. L., B.A. 72 Kingsley Park-terrace, Northampton.

{Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton, Cheshire.

tHolland, Thomas H., F.R.S., F.C.S. Geological Survey Office,
Calcutta.

tHollander, Bernard, M.D. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.

{Hollingsworth, Dr. T.S. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth.

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Haling, Middlesex, W.

*Holmes, Charles. 24 Aberdare-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.

*Hotmps, Toomas Vincent, F.G.8. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E,

*Holt, Alfred, jun., J.P, Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tHolt, William Henry. 11 Ashyille-road, Birkenhead,

tHolterman, R. F. Brantford, Ontario, Canada.

*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

§Hooke, Rev. D. Burford. Bonchurch Lodge, Barnet.

tHooxer, Sir Jossrn Darron, G.C.S.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Presrpent, 1868;
Pres. E, 1881; Council 1866-67.) The Camp, Sunningdale,
Berkshire.

tHooxsr, Ruervatp H., M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Streatham Common, 8S. W.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

§Hopewell-Smith, A., M.R.C.S. 37 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
S.W

*Hopkinson, Bertram, M.A. Holmwood, Wimbledon.

*Hopxinson, CHARLES (Local Sec. 1887). The Limes, Didsbury,
near Manchester. ;

*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Ferns, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Hopxrnson, Jonny, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
84 New Bond-street, W.; and Weetwood, Watford.

tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.

tHorder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

*Hornby, R., M.A. Haileybury College, Hertford.

tHorne, Jonny, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1901.)
Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

§Horne, William, F.G.S. Leyburn, Yorkshire.

tHorner, John. Chelsea, Antrim-road, Belfast. ;

*Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Falmouth House, 20
Hyde Park-terrace, W.

*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.

tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

*Horstey, Sir Vicror A. T., BSc. F.R.S., F.R.C.S. (Council,
1893-98.) 25 Cayendish-square, W.

*Hotblack. G.S. Brundall, Norwich.

tHotblack, J.T. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.

tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton,

"Hough, 8. 8., F,R.S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town, ,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 5]

Year of

Election.

1886. tHoughton, I. T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 183 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1887. {Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. 85 Grosyenor-place, §.W.

1896. tHoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1884. tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada,

1883. *Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,

1893.
1883,
1887.
1899.
1901.
1903.
1886.
1876.
1899.

1889.
1857.

1898.
1891.

1886.

1901.
1884.
1865,

1863.

1883.
1883.
1887,
1903.
1888,

1898,
1867.
1858,
1887.
1883.
1871.
1887.
1896.

1891.
1868.

1891.
1867.

West Dulwich, 8.E.

tHoward, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. The Cottage, Poynton, Stockport.

tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandyeroft, Shaw.

*Howard, 8.8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

§Howard-Hayward, H. 16 Blakesley-avenue, Kaling, W.

§Howarth, E. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield.

*Howarth, James H., F.G.8. Somersley, Rawson-avenue, Ialifax.

{Howatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.

tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

tHowden, Ian D.C. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Dover.

{Howden, Robert, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Durham College of Medicine. Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

{Howoll, Henry H., F.G.S. 13 Cobden-crescent, Edinburgh.

tHowell, J. H. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

tHowell, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Holy Trinity Parsonage, High
Cross, Tottenham, N.

t{Howss, G. B., LLD., D.Sc, F.RS, F.LS. (Pres. D, 1902;
Council, 1902-04), Professor of Zoology in the Royal College
of Science, South Kensington, 8. W.

t{Howie, Robert Y. 3 Greenlaw-avenue, Paisley.

{Howland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 414-street, Washington, U.S.A.

*How tert, Rev. Freverick, F.R.A.S. 7 Prince’s-buildings, Clifton,
Bristol.

tHoworrz, Sir II. H., K.C.LE., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A. 30 Colling-
ham-place, Cromwell-road, S.W.

{Howorth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.

tHoyle, James. Blackburn.

§Hoyix, WittiaM E., M.A.,D.Se. Victoria University, Manchester.

§Hiibner, Julius. Ash Villa, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.

{Hudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. Clinton House, Pembroke-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

§Hupiestoy, W. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1898.)
8 Stanhope-gardens, 8. W.

*Houpsoyn, Witttam H. H., M.A. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham
Common, S.W.

*Hucerns, Sir Writuam, K.C.B., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb.,
Pres.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Presrpent, 1891; Council, 1868-74,
1876-84.) 90 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester

{Hughes, Miss E. P. Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.

*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.

tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.

tHughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool.

tHughes, Thomas, F.C.S. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Hueuss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Profersor of
Geology in the University of Cambridge. (Council, 1878-86.)
Ravensworth, Brooklands-avenue, Cambridge.

tHughes, Rey. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.

tHurt, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C., 1874.)
14 Stanley-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

D2

62 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1903. {Hulton, Campbell G. Palace Hotel, Southport.

1897. tHume, J.G., M.A., Ph.D. 650 Church-street, Toronto, Canada,

1901. {Hume, John H. Toronto, Canada; and 63 Bridgegate, Irvine.

1890. {Humphrey, Frank W. 68 Prince’s-gate, 8. W.

1904. *Humphreys, Alexander C., Sc.D., LL.D., President of the Stevens
Institute of Technolozy, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A.

1880, tHumphreys, Noel A., F.S.S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.

1877. *Hunt, Arravr Roors, M.A., F.G.S8. Southwood, Torquay.

1891. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

1886. {Hunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.

1891. tHunt, D. de Vere, M.D. Aubrey House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.

1875. *Hunt, William. North Cote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

1881. tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

1889. tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

1901. t{Hunter, G. M., Assoe.M.Inst.C.E. Newyards, Maybole, N.B.

1881. tHunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.

1901. *Hunter, William. Evirallan, Stirling.

1879. t{Huntineton, A.K.,F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
W.C

1885. tHuntly, The Most Hon, the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

1898. tHurle, J. Cooke. Southfield House, Brislington, Bristol.

1903. §Hurst, Charles C., F.L.S. Burbage, Hinckley.

1832. *Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. Kirkgate, Tadcaster, Yorkshire.

1861. *Hurst, A eae John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

1894, *Hurcuinson, A., M.A., Ph.D. (Local Sec. 1904.) Pembroke
College, Cambridge.

1903. §Hutchinson, Rev. H. N. 94 Fellows-road, N. W.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire,

1864 *Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1887. *iLutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1901. *Hutton, R.8., M.Sc. The Victoria University, Manchester.

1883. Hyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.

1871, *Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

190u., *Hyndman, H. H. Francis. Physical Laboratory, Leiden, Nether-
lands.

1902. {Hyndman, Hugh. Crosshill, Windsor-avenue, Belfast.

1883. §Idris, T. H. W. 110 Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

1884, *Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

1885. tim Thurn, Everard F., C.B.,C.M.G. Colombo, Ceylon.

1888. *Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Keni.

1858. {Ingham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

1893. tIngle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.

1901. {Ineis, Jouyn, LL.D. 4 Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1891. {Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.

1852, t{Ineram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.1LA. (Pres. F. 1878), Senior Lecturer
in the University of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1885. tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 53
Year of
Election.
1898. {Inskip, James. Clifton Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1901. *Ionides, Stephen A. 23 Second-avenue, Hove, Brighton.
1892. {Irvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.

1882,
1903.

1859.
1876,

1901.
1883.

1903.
1874.

1883.
1885,
1899.
1866,
1897,
1898.
1869,
1887,

1874.
1891.
189].
1891.
1860.
1886.
1891.
1896.
1904.
1858.
1896.
1884.
1881.

1885,
1859.
1889,

1896.
1905.

1870.
1904.
1904.

1891.
1897.
1894.
1875.
1880,

§Irvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort-
tord, Herts.
firving, W. B. 27 Park-road, Southport.

{Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

*Jack, Witt1aM, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.

§Jacks, William, LL.D. Crosslet, Dumbartonshire.

*JAckson, Professor A. II., B.Sc. 849 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia,

§Jackson, C.S. 96 Herbeit-road, Woolwich, S.E.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur, Penalya Ranche, Millarville, Alberta,
Calgary, N.W.T., Canada,

*Jackson, F. J, 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

{Jackson, Geoffrey A. 351 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, S.W.

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

§Jackson, James, F.R.Met.Soc. Seabank, Girvan, N.B.

*Jackson, Sir John. 51 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Jackson, Moses, J.P. The Orchards, Whitchurch, Hants,

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

*Jaffe, John, Villa Jaffe, 388 Prom. des Anglais, Nice, France.

tJames, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Henry, J.P. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Russell. 6 Raymond-buildings, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Wailsall.

{James, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

{James,O.S. 192 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

§James, Thomas Campbell. 4 Belmont-terrace, Llanelly.

tJames, William C, Woodside, Plymouth.

*Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. Technical College, Derby.

f{Jameson, W. C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, W.

tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

tJamieson, Thomas. 175 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Jamieson, Thomas F,, LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

*Jarp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

*Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

tJarrarr, J. Exngst. (Local See. 1903.) 10 Cambridge-road,
Southport.

{Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.

*Jeans, J. H. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Jebb, Sir R. C., Litt. D., M.P., Professor of Greek in the University
of Cambridge. Springfield, Cambridge.

fJefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.

{Jeffrey, KE. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

jJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.

{Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, 8. W.

*JENKINS, Sir Jonn Jonxs. The Grange, Swansea,

64 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1903. §Jenkinson, J. W. The Museum, Oxford.

1904. §Jenkinson, W. W. 6 Moorgate-street, E.C.

1852. {Jennings, Francis M., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.

1893. §Jennings, G. HE. Glen Helen, Narborough-road, Leicester.

1897. {Jennings, W. T., M.Inst.CE. Molson’s Bank Buildings, Toronto,
Canada.

1899, {Jepson, Thomas. Evington, Northumberland-street, Higher Brough-
ton, Manchester.

1887, {Jervis-Smitu, Rev. F. J., M.A.,T.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

1889. jJevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.

1900, *Jevons, H. Stanley. 19 Chesterfield-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

1884, {Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

1884. jJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1884, tJounson, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal, 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

1883. tJohnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge,

1865. *Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

1888. {Johnson, J.G. Southwood Court, Highgate, N.

1881. {Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

1890, *Jounson, Tuomas, D.Sc., F'.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1902. *Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Sc. Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar
School, York.

1898. *Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. The Dignaries, Blackheath,
S.E.

1887. tJuhbnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1883. tJohnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

1861. {Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

1899. tJohnston, Colonel Duncan A., C.B., R.E. Ordnance Survey, South-
ampton.

1888. ican, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F-.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s-
mansions, 8S. W.

1884. tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

1883 j{Johuston,Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.

1884. {Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada.

1884, *Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

1885. {Jounston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,
France,

1886, {Johnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.

1871. {Jotxy, Wint1aM, F.RS.E., F.G.S. Blantyre Lodge, Blantyre, N.B.

1888. {Jolly, W. C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

1896. *Jory, Cuartes JAsper, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Royal
Astronomer of Ireland and Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy
in the University of Dublin. The Observatory, Dunsink,
Co. Dublin.

1888. {Jory, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Dublin. Geological Depart-
ment, Trinity College, Dublin.

1898. tJones, Sir Alfred L., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs, Elder, Dempster,
& Co., Liverpool.

1887. tJones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools. Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, S.W.

1904. §Jones, Miss E, Constance. Girton College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 55

Yenr of

Election.

1890. §JonEs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay, Slopton.
1896. {Jones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor.

1903.
1887,

1891,
1883.

1908.
1895.
1877.

1901.
1902.
1873.
1880.
1860.

1896.
1883.
1875.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1879.
1890.
1872.
1883.
1886.
1891.

1870.

1903.
1894,
1883.

1888,

1904,
1875.
1886.
1894,

1878.
1884,
1864,
1902,
1885.

1847,

§Jones, Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare.
fJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S, Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.
*Jonus, Rey. G. Harrwett, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.
*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Jonges, H. O., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
tJones, Harry, Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.
tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal College of Science, South Kensing-
ton, S.W.
§Jones, R. E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury.
tJones, R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-cireus, E.C.
{Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
tJonzs, Toomas Rurerrt, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1891.) 17 Par-
*son’s Green, Fulham, 8. W.
{Jores, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester.
tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
*Jose, J. EH. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.
tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Jotham, F. H. Penarth.
fJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.
+Jowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.
{Jowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.
{Joy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, 8, W.
{Joyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,
tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
tJoynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.
tJupp, Joun Westey, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1885:
Council, 1886-92), Professor of Geology in the Royal College of
Science, London. 22 Cumberland-road, Kew.
§Julian, Henry Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.
§Julian, Mrs. Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.
tJustice, Philip Middleton. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-
lane, W.C.

{Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 3 Lindenallee, Westend,
Berlin.

§Kayser, Professor H. The University, Bonn, Germany.

tKeeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

{Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.

{Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
Essex.

*Kelland, W. H. 80 Lothian-road, S. W.

{Kelloge, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. Ferring, near Worthing.

*Kelly, William J., J.P. 25 Oxford-street, Belfast.

§Kettiz, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.8., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1897 ;
Council, 1898-1904.) 1 Savile-row, W.

*Kervin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V.O., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. (Presipent, 1871; Pres. A, 1852,
1867, 1876, 1881, 1884.) Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire; and 15
Eaton-place, 8. W.

56

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1877.
1887.

1898.

1884,
1890.
1891.

1875.
1897.
1884.

1876,
1884,
1884.
1886,

1893.

1901.

1886.

1857.
1876.
1881.
1884.
1883.

1901.
1892.

1889,
1887.
1869,

1869.

1903,
18838.
1902.
1876.
1886.

1897.
1901.
1885.
1896.

1890.
1878.
1860.

1875.
1888.
1888.
1875.

*Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire; and 15 Eaton-place,
Swe

tKemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

*Kemp, John T., M.A. 4 Cotham-grove, Bristol.

{Kemper, Andrew C. ., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

JKempson, Augustus. Jildare, 17 Arundel-road, Eastbourne.

§Kenpatt, Pprcy I, .G.8., Professor of Geology in the Univer-
sity of Leeds.

j{Kenyepy, Ee W., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G
1894.) 1 Queen Amne-street, Cavendish-square, We

§Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D. Crown Lands Department, Toronto,
Canada.

{Kennedy, George T., M.A., I.G.S, Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Kennedy, Ilugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.

{Kennedy, John. 115 University: -street, Montreal, Canada.

tKennedy, William. Hamilton, ‘Ontario, C Canada.

fKenrick, George Hamilton. Ww hetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Kenr, A. If. Sranzpy, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Physio-
logy in University College, Bristol.

{Kent, G. 16 Premier-road, ‘Nottingham.

§KENWARD, JAMEs, F.S.A. 43 Streatham Iligh-road, 5. W.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Ker, William. 1 Windsoyr-terrace West, Glasgow.

{Kermopr, Puitre M.C. Claughbane, Ramsey, Isle of Man.

{KXerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.

}iurr, Rev. Jonny, LL.D., F.RS. Free Church Training College,
113 Hill-street, Glasgow.

{Kerr, John G., LL.D. 15 India-street, Glaszow.

{ Kerr, J. Granam, M.A., Professor of Natural Ilistory in the Uni-
versity, Glasgow.

{Kerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

{Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes, Elysée Villa, Manchester-road,
Altrincham, Cheshire.

§Kewley, James. King William’s College, Isle of Man.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

§Kidd, George. Junmurry, Co. Antrim.

}IXidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Kapston, Robert, F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.G.8. 12 Clarendon-place,
Stirling.

{Kiekelly, Dr. John, LL.D. 46 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

*Kiep, J. N. 4 Hughenden-drive, Nelvinside, Glasgow.

*Kilgour, Alexander. JLoirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterlco,
Liverpool.

§Kamumuins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Dame Armstrong House, Harrow.

tKinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

tKiwawan, G. Henry, M.R.I.A. Dublin.

*Kincu, Epwarp, F. GS. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

*King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Wlection.

1899, jIine, Sir Georex, K.C.ILE., PRS. (Pres. K, 1899). Care of
Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55 Pavliament-street, S.W.

1871. *King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

1855. {King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

1888. *King, John Godwin. Stonelands, West Hoathly.

1870. tKing, John Thomson, 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.

1883. *King, Joseph. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming.

1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. Mercbants’ Hall, Bristol.

1875. *King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

1901. ting, Robert. Levernholme, Nitshill, Glasgow.

1870. tKing, William, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

1903. §Kingsford, H. S., B.A. Anthropological Institute, 3 IJanover-
square, W.

1897. {Kingsmill, Nichol. Toronto, Canada.

1875. t{Kinezerr, Cnartes T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst.

1867. tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.

1892, ¢Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. 2 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

1900, tKirrtne, Professor F. Srantey, D.Se., Ph.D., F.RS, University
College, Nottingham.

1899. *Kirby, Miss C. F. 74 Kensington Park-road, W.

1870. { Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1904. §Kitson, Arthur. 209 Gloucester-terrace, Iyde Park, W.

1890, *Kitson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.

1901. §Kitto, Edward. The Observatory, Falmouth.

1886. {Klein, Rev. L. M. de Beaumont, DSc, F.L.S. 6 Gloucester-
terrace, Regent’s Park, N. W.

1886, {Knight, J. McK., F.G.8. Bushwood, Wanstead, Issex.

1898, {Knocker, Sir E. Woxtastoy, K.C.B. (Local See. 1899.) Castle
Hill House, Dover.

1888. {Knorr, Professor Carcitn G., D.Se., F.RS.E. 42 Upper Gray-
street, Ediiburgh.

1887. *Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

1887. *Knott, John F. Oak Hill, Windermere.

1874, {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co, Antrim.

1908. {Knowlson, J. F. 26 Part-street, Southport.

1297. {Knowlton, W. H. 36 King-street East, Toronto, Canada,

1876. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

1902. {Kwox, R. Kytn, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast.

1875, *Knubley, Rev. b. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

1883. jKnubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

1892. t{Koun, Cuartes A.. Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute,
Jewry-street, Aldgate, F.C.

1898. ¢{Krauss, A. Hawthornden, Priory-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1890, *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Stonycroft, Knutsford-road, Wilmslow,
Cheshire.

1901. tKuenen, Professor J. P., Ph.D. University College, Dundee.

1888. *Kunz, G.F., M.A., Ph.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-
square, New York City, U.S.A.

1870. {Kynaston, Josiah W.,F.C.5S. 3 Qak-terrace, Beech-street, Liverpool.

1885. *Laing, J. Gerard. 5 Pump-court, Temple, E.C.

1897. {Laind, Professor G. J. Wesley College, Winnipeg, Canada.
1904, §Lake, Philip. St. John’s, College, Cambridge.

1877. tLake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.

1904, §Lamb, ©. G. Ely Villa, Glisson-road, Cambridge,

58

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS,
of

Election.

1889

1887.

1887.
1896,
1895.
1908.
1884.
1893.
iteyAls
1886.
1904,

1883.
1859.
1898.
1886.

1870,
1865.

1880,
1884.

1878.
1885.

1887.
1881,

1883.
1896.
1870.

1900.
1870.

1891.
1892.

1888.
1883.
1870.
1884.

1870,
1881.
1900.
1889,
1885.

. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

t{Lams, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1904), Pro-
fessor of Pure Mathematics in the Victoria University, Manchester,
6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Lamb, James. WKenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

tLambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowan, Newland, Lincoln.

Lambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

tLambert, Joseph. 9 Westmoreland-road, Southport.

{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada,

*LampLucH, G. W., F.G.S. 13 Beaconsfield-road, St. Albans.

tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

{Lancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham,

§Landor, A. TH. Savage, F.R.G.S. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co.,
55 Parliament-street, 5. W.

tLang, Rey. Gavin. Mayfield, Inverness.

fLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. The University, Aberdeen,

*Lang, William H. 10 Jedburgh-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Lanetey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899; Council,
1904— ), Professor of Physiology in the University of Cam-
bridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLanxester, IX. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1883;
Council 1889-90, 1894-95, 1900-02), Director of the Natural
History Museum, Cromwell-road, 8. W.

*LANSDELL, Rev. Hryry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S, Morden College,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.

§Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,

tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

tLapwortn, Cartes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1892),
Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University of
Birmingham, 48 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

tLarmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.

{Larmor, Josnry, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§ Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Longridge, Harrow.

*Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, 8.W.

*LatHam, Barpwin, M.Inst.C.E., I°.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
‘Westminster, 8. W.

tLauder, Alexander, Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the Edin-
burgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture, Edinburgh.

tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 5 Pepys-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

tLaurie, A. P. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh, ,

tLavrre, Matcorm, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.8., Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo’s College, Glasgow.

tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, E.C.

tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.

tLaw, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.

{Lawrence, Hdward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.

tLawrence, W. Trevor, Ph.D. 57 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

§Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 95 Osborne-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tLawson, James, 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of
Election.
1888. §Layard, Miss Nina F, Rookwood, Tonnereau-road, Ipswich.

1856.
1883.
1875.
1894,

1884.
1901.
1884,
1904.
1884.

1872.

1884,
1895.
1898.

1896.
1891.
1894.
1884.
1896.
1892,

1886.
1859.
1896.

1889.

1881.
1872.

1869.
1892.
1868.
1856.
1891.
1903.

1859.
1882.

tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-bill, Birmingham,

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

tLeach, Colonel Sir G., K.C.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, S.W.

*Leany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University College,
Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Treland.

*Lean, George, B.Sc. 15 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Leathem, J.G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

{Lesovr, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tLeckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate.

tLue, Artur, J.P. (Local Sec. 1898). 10 Berkeley-square, Clifton,
Bristol.

§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. 35 Cross Park-terrace, Heayitree, Exeter.

{Lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandaff-road, Cardiff.

*Lee, Mrs. W. Ashdown House, Forest Row, Sussex.

*Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire,

*Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

*Lres, Cuartes H., D.Se. 42 Lorne-grove, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

*Lees, Lawrence W. Old Ivy House, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton

{Lees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.

tLees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.

*Leese, Joseph. 8 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., O.M., F.LS., F.G.8. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

{Lx Frvvrr, J. E. (Local Sec. 1882). Southampton.

{Lzrrvre, The Right Hon. G. SHaw, F.R.S. (Pres. F, 1879;
Council 1878-80.) 18 Bryanston-square, W.

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

{Lenretpr, Rosert A. 56 Norfolk-square, W.

{Lercesrer, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.

tLxren, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,

tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

§Leighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Pathology in the
Royal Veterinary College, Edinburgh.

tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

§Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Lansdowne House, South-
ampton.

. *Lempfort, R. G. K., M.A. Meteorological Office, 63 Victoria-street,
fo)

S.W.
tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
tLennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

2, tLennox, R.N. Rosebank, Hammersmith, W.

*Leon, John T. Elmwood, Grove-road, Southsea.

{Lronarp, Hueu, M.R.LA, 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.

§Leonard, J. H., B.Sc. 2 Carlingford-road, Hampstead, N.W.

§Lepper, Alfred William. 6 Trinity College, Dublin.

t+Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

*Lester, Joseph Henry. Royal Exchange, Manchester.

{Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

60

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Klection.

1904.
1900.

1894.
1896.
1887.
1890.
1893.

1879.

1870.
1891.
1891.

1899.

1904.

1897.

1891),
1891.
1891.
1884.
1503.
1878.
1871.

1904.
1898,
1883.

1896.
1888.

1861,

“Le Sueur, H. R., D.Se. Chemical Laboratory, St, Thomas’s Hos-
pital, S.E.

{Letts, Professor IE. A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Queen’s College, Bel-
fast.

tLeudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

{Lever, W. H. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.

*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Levy, J.H. 11 Abbeville-road, Clapham Park, S8.W.

*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

{Lewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, 8. W.

{Lewts, Atrrep Lionet. 54 Highbury-hill, N.

{Lewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.

§ Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.

{Lewis, Professor KE. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.

§Lewis, Hugh. Glanafrau, Newton, Montgomeryshire.

{Lewis, Rev. J. Pitt, M.A. Rossin House, Toronto, Canada.

tLewis, Thomas. 9 Hubert-terrace, Dover.

tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

{Lewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.

*Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.

§Lewkowitsch, Dr. J. 71 Priory-road, N.W.

{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

fLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glas-
gow.

§Link, Charles W. Eversley, Chichester-road, Croydon.

{Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, Almondsbury, near Bristol.

{ Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.

*ListeR, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.C.S., D.C.L., D.Se, F.R.S.
(PRestDENT, 1896.) 12 Park-crescent, Portland-place, W.

{Lister, J. J., M.A., F.R.S. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E.

*Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S, (Pres. B, 1882; Council 1888-95 ;
Local Sec. 1862), Professor of Chemistry in the University of

Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.

. “Liversiper, ARcuIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.B.GS.,

Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

. §Llewellyn, van. Working Men’s Institute and Hall, Blaenavon.

. TLLEWELYN, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.

. §Lloyd, Godfrey I. H. Grindleford, near Sheffield.

. {Lloyd, J. Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir-

mingham.

. *Luoyn, R. J., M.A., D.Litt., F.R.S.E 49a Grove-street, Liverpool.
» {Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.

. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Park Lane House, Wednesbury.

. §Lloyd-Verney, J. Hi. 14 Hinde-street, Manchester-square, W.

. *Lonpiey, J. Logan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 36 Palace-street, Bucking-

ham Gate, S.W.

. §Locu, C.8., B.A. 15a Buckingham-street, W.C,

. §Lock, Rev. J. B. Herschel House, Cambridge.

. *Locke, John. 144 St. Olaf’s-road, Fulham, 8.W,

. {Lockhart, Robert Arthur, 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

. {Lockyenr, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1903 ;

Council 1871-76, 1901-02.) 16 Penywern-road, 8. W.

2. *Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.
. §Lockyrr, W. J. S., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, 8.W.
. *Lopen, AtrreD, M.A. The Croft, Peperharow-road, Godalming.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1875.

1894.
1889.
1896.
1899.
1902.

1903.

1876.
1885.
1883.
18838.
1904.
1866.
1901.
1898.
1901.
1875.

1872.

1881.
1899.

1883.
1894.
1889.
1903.
1897.

1883.
1896.

1887.

1886,
1876,
1883.
1904,
1875.
1885.
1891.
1885.
1892.
1886.
1894,
19038.
1881.
1881.
1870.
1889.
1901.
1878.
1889.
1891.
1881.

*Lonag, Sir Ontver J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1891; Council,
1891-97, 1899-1908), Principal of the University of Birmingham.

*Lodge, Oliver W. F. 225 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

§Lomas, J., F.G.S. 13 Moss-grove, Birkenhead.

§Loneq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

{LonponpERRY, The Marquess of, K.G., H.M. Lieutenant of the City
of Belfast. Londonderry House, Park-lane, W.

§Long, Frederick. The Close, Norwich.

tLong, H. A. Brisbane, Queensland.

*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

{Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

{Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys,near Warrington.

*Longden, J. A., M.Inst.C.K. Stanton-by-Dale, near Nottingham.

tLongdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

tLonge, Francis D. ‘The Alders, Marina, Lowestoft.

*Longfield, Miss Gertrude. High Halstow Rectory, Rochester.

*Longstaff, Frederick V., F.R.G.S. _Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., 1.C.8., F.S.5. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.

*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

*Longstatiy Mr. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*Longstaff, Tom G., B.A., F.R.Met.Soc. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

*Longton, £. J., M.D. Brown House, Blawith, vid Ulverston.

tLord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

tLord, Sir Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tLoton, John, M.A. 23 Hawkshead-street, Southport.

tLoupon, Jams, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto,
Canada.

*Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, W.

§Louis, Henry, M.A., Professor of Mining in the Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Love, A. E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Oxford. 84St.Margaret’s-road, Oxford,

*Love, E. F. J., M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

*Love, James, I’.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

{Love, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport.

*Love, J. B. Outlands, Devonport.

*Lovett, W. Jesse. Panton House, Panton-road, Hoole, Chester.

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda's, Barry, Glamorgan,

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Mdinburgh.

*Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Spondon, Derbyshire.

tLowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Hudderstield.

*Lowry, Dr. T. Mariry. 44 Blenheim-crescent, W.

tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe, High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.

{Lubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, W.

tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, W.

tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

*(ucas, Keith. Greenhall, Forest Row, Sussex.

tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, 5.W.

tLuckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

*Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-pare, Whitchurch, near Carditf.

{Luden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

62

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1866,
1873.
1850.
1892.

1853.
1883.
1874.

1900.
1864.
1898.
1903.
1871.
1899.
1884.
1884.
1874.
1885.
1896,
1862.

1868.

1878.

1904.
1896.
1897.
1896.

1879.
18835.

1883.
1866.

1896. {

1896.
1904.
1896.

1884.

1902.
1886,
1887.

1884.
1904.
1876.
1902.

1868.

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

{Lund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tLunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-buildings
Edinburgh. Pe

{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 25 Charlotte-street, Hull.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

*Lupton, Sypnpy, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890.) 102 Park-street
Grosvenor-square, W. ‘

{Lupron, Writram C. Bradford.

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

§Luxmoore, Dr. C. M._ University College, Reading.

§Lyddon, Krnest [1. Lisvane, near Carditt.

{Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., F.G.S. 48 Eaton-place, S.W.

tLyle, Professor Thomas R. The University, Melbourne.

{Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada,

tLyman, 1. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.

tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

tLyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

{Lyster, A. G. Dockyard, Coburg Dock, Liverpool.

*Lyrn, Ff, Maxwett, M.A., F.C.S, GO Iinborough-road, 8. W.

{MACALISTIER, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892;
Council, 1901— ), Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Oambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

csr ie Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-

ridge.

§Macalister, Miss M. A. M. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

{Macalister, R. A. S. 2 Gordon-street, W.C.

t{McAllister, Samuel. 99 Wilcox-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Macattum, Professor A. B., Ph.D. (Local Sec, 1897.) 59 St.
George-street, Toronto, Canada.

Te cecesicdahe James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South

eyon,

{MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, [vybridge, South Devon.

§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.

*M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W.

McArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Cheshire,

*Macaulay, F.S., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W,

*Macaulay, W. H. King’s College, Cambridge.

{MacBrrpe, Professor E. W., M.A. MeGill University, Montreal
Canada. .

{McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa
-Canada. : :

*Maccall, W. T., M.Sc. 225 Burrage-road, Plumstead.

{MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

*McCarthy, James. Care of Sir Sherston Baker, Bart., 18 Cavendish-
road, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.

§ McClean, Frank Kennedy. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.

*M‘Cretiann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

{McClelland, J. A., M.A., Professor of Physics in University Col-
lege, Dublin.

{M‘Crrvrock, Admiral Sir Francs L., R.N., K.C.B., FBS.
F.R.G.S, United Service Club, Pall Mall, S,W, }

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Year of
Election.

1878. *M‘Comas, Henry. Pembroke House, Pembroke-road, Dublin.

1901. *MacConkey, Alfred. Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine,
Chelsea-gardens, 8. W.

1901. {MacCormae, J. M., M.D. 31 Victoria-place, Belfast.

1892, *McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. Henderson-street, Bridge of Allan, N.B.

1892. tMcCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.

1901. ¢{McOrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow.

1904, §McCulloch, Major T., R.A. 68 Victoria-street, S.W.

1899. {McDiarmid, Jabez. ‘lhe Elms, Stanmore, Middlesex.

1904, §Macdonald, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Clare College, Cambridge.

1900, t{MacDonald, J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

1890. *MacDonald, Mrs. J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

1886. t{McDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.

1884, {MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.

1884. *McDonald, Sir W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1483 St. Catherine-street, Montreal,
Canada.

1897. }McEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

1902. tMacfadyen, Allan, M.D., B.Sc. Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, 8. W.

1881. {Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A. j

1885, {Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.

1897. t{McFarlane, Murray, M.D. 32 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

1879. tMacfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.

1901. tMacfee, John. Marguerite, Blackhall, Paisley.

1897. {McGaw, Thomas, Queen’s Hotel, Toronto, Canada.

1888. t{MacGeorge, James. 7 Stonor-road, Kensington, W.

1884, tMacGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {MacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. Dunayon, Westmount,
Montreal, Canada.

1884, *MacGrecor, James Gorpon, M.A., D.Se., P.R.S., F.RS.E., Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh,

1885. {M‘Gregor-Robertson, J., M.A., M.B. 26 Buckingham-terrace,
Glasgow.

1902. {MclIlroy, Archibald. Glenvale, Drumbo, Lisburn, Ireland.

1867. *McInrosn W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D,
1835), Professor of Natural History in the University of
St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

1883. [Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.

1884. §MacKay, A. H., B.Sc., LL.D., Superintendent of Education.
Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1885. §Macxay, Jonn Yur, M.D., LL.D., Principal of and Professor of
Anatomy in University College, Dundee.

1897. {McKay, T. W.G., M.D. Oshawa, Ontario, Canada.

1896. *McKechnie, Duncan. Eccleston Grange, Prescot.

1873. {McKxrnprick, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres: I,
1901; Council, 1903- _), Professor of Physiology in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. 2 Buckingham-terrace, Glasgow.

1897. tMcKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1884. {MacKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 18 Cavendish-square, W.

1884. {McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.

1901. *Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. Calder View, Motherwell.

1883. {Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.

1872. *Mackey, J, A, 175 Grange-road, 8.I.

64 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1867. {Macxiz, SAmMugeL Josery. 17 Howley-place, W.

1901. §Mackie, William, M.D. 15 North-street, lgin,

1887. {Macxinppr, H. J.. M.A., F.R.G.S. (Pres. HE, 1895; Council,
1904- .) London School of Mconomics, Clare Market, W.C.

1891. {Mackintosh, A.C. 88 Plymouth-road, Penarth.

1892. {Maclagan, Philip R. D. St. Catherine's, Liberton, Midlothian.

1892. {Maclagan, Rk. Craig, M.D., I.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent, Edin-
burgh,

1885. *M‘Larey, The Hon, Lord, I’.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.

1894. *McLaren, Mrs, E. L. Colby, M.B., Ch.B. 4 Duke-street, Edin-
burgh,

1897, tMacLaren, J. F. 3880 Victoria-street, Toronto, Canada.

1901. {Maclaren, J. Malcolm. 62 Sydney-street, South Kensington, S.W.

ttt tt tt

3. tMacLaren, Walter 5. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
. [MacLaren, Rev. Wm, DD. 57 St. George-street, Toronto,

Canada.

. {Maclay, James. 38 Woodlands-terrace, Glasgow.

. {Maclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glascow.

. §McLean, Angus, B.Sc. Ascog, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

2. *Mactpan, Macnus, M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901),

Professor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

. {McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,

. {McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

. (McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.

. §McLeop, Hurzrrr, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; Council, 1885-90).

9 Coverdale, Richmond, Surrey.

. {Macleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.
. {MacManon, Major Poercy A., R.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Guenurat

Srcretary, 1902- ; Pres. A, 1901; Council, 1893-1902 )
Queen Anne’s-mansions, Westminster, S.W.

2. {McMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down,
. {MeMurrick, J. Playfair. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,

Michigan, U.S.A.

. {M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
. {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
. {Maconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros., Lowes-

toft.

. {Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

MacRitchie, David. 4 Archibald-place, Edinburgh.

McWeeney, HE. J.. M.D. 84 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

McWhirter, William. 9 Walworth-terrace, Glasgow.

Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.

Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.

Magill, R., M.A., Ph.D. The Manse, Maghera, Co. Derry.
Magnay, I’. A. Drayton, near Norwich.

Macenuts, Sir Putrir, B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

*

. t{Maguire, Thomas Philip. Eastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

2. t{Mahon, J. LL. 2 May-street, Drumcondra, Dublin.

. {Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.

. {Mainprice, W.S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.

. §Maitland, Miss Agnes C. Somerville College, Oxford.

3. tMaitland, P. C. 136 Great Portland-street, W.

. {Makarius, Saleem. ‘Al Mokattam,’ Cairo.

. t Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

. {Matter, Joan Wittram, Ph.D., M.D., I.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of

Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Alhemar’e Co., U.S.A.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

Year of
Election.

1896.
1897.
1887,

1903.
1901.
1888.
1894.
1888.

1891.
1887.

1902.
1870.
1898,
1900.
1887.
1883.
1887,
1864,

1863.
1888,
1888,
1881.

1993.

1887.
1884.

1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889.

1904.
1892.

1890.
1901.
1886.

1849.
1865.
1899.
1891.
1887.
1884.
1889,

1865.

190

*Manbré, Alexandre, 15 Alexandra-drive, Liverpool.

tMancs, Sir H.C. 32 Earl’s Court-square, 8. W.

{MancuestER, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.

§Manifold, C. C. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.

{Mann, John, jun., M.A. 137 West George-street, Glasgow.

{Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

{Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

{MansereH, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.RS, F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street
Westminster, 8. W. :

tManuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

labeee Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-
shire.

*Marchant, Dr. EZ. W. University College, Liverpool.

{Marcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

tMargerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds.

}{Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

{Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire,

{Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.

tMarxuam, Sir Crewents R., K.C.B., F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S., I'.S.A,
(Pres. 2, 1879; Council 1893-96), 21 Kecleston-square, S. W.

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., D.Sc, F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres, C, 1896 ; Council
1896-1902). St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Marriott, William. Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria-
street, S.W.

{ Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.

*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leflingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire,

*Marsh, Henry. 72 Wellington-street, Leeds.

{Marsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 387 Grosvenor-place, Bath.

*MarsHAaLt, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1890), Professor of
Political Keonomy in the University of Cambridge, Balliol
Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge.

§Marshall, I’. H. A., D.Sc., F.R.S, University of Ndinburgh.

tMarshall, Hugh, D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.S.E. 12 Lonsdale-terrace,
Edinburgh.

tMarshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

§Marshall, Robert. 97 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

*MARsHALL, WILLIAM Baytzy, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Iill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.
*MarsHatt, Wittiam P., M.Inst.C.E, Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,

Birmingham,
{Marren, Epwarp Brnpon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge,
§Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks.
*Martin, Edward P., J.P. The Hill, Abergavenny, Monmouthshire,
*Martin, Rev. H.A. Grosvenor Club, Grosvenor-crescent, S. W.
capsid N. H., J.P., F.L.8. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead-on-
ne.
*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.2, Northdene, Now
Barnet, Herts,
tMartineau, R. F, 18 Highfield-road, Edghaston, Birmingham,
4, E

66 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1883. t{Marwick, Sir J. D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1871, 1876, 1901.)
Glasgow.

1891. {Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

1873. *Masuam, Lord. Swinton Park, Swinton.

1847, {Masxenyne, Nuvit Story, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Council
1874-80). Basset Down House, Swindon.

1886. {Mason, Hon. J. EK. Fiji.

1893. *Mason, Thomas. Endersleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

1891. *Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

1885. {Masson, Orme, D.Sc. F.R.S. University of Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia.

1898. tMasterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B.

1901. *Mather, G. R. Boxlea, Wellingborough.

1883. {Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

1887. *Mather, Sir William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Man-
chester. @

1890, {Mathers, J. S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.

1865. {Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

1898, {Mathews, E. R. Norris. Cotham-road, Cotham, Bristol.

1894, {Maruews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S, St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1889, {Mathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

1881. {Mathwin, Henry, B.A. 26 Oxtord-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1883. {Mathwin, Mrs. H. 26 Oxford-voad, Birkdale, Southport.

1902. {Matley, C. A. 90 St. Lawrence-road, Clontarf, Dublin.

1904. *Matthaei, Miss G. L. C. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1904. §Matthews, D. J. The Laboratory. Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1868. {Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.

1899. {Marrurws, WittiAm, C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, S.W.

1893. {Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.

1865, *Maw, Guores, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

1894. §Maxim, Sir Hiram 8, 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, 8. W.

1908. {Maxwell, J. M. 387 Ash-street, Southport.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

1901. *May, W. Page, M.D., B.Sc. 9 Manchester-square, W.

1884. *Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 8 Heathcote-street, W.C.

1878, *Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.

1904, §Mayo, Rev. J.. LL.D. 6 Warkworth-terrace, Cambridge.

1871. {Meikle, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.

1879. §Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

1887. {Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, StraitsSettlements.

1881. *Mrtpora, Rapwakt, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.IC. (Pres. B,
1895 ; Council 1892-99), Professor of Chemistry in the Finsbury
Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute. 6 Bruns-
wick-square, W.C.

1883, {Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street, Southport.

1879. *Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

1866. {Mzxtxo, Rey. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Cliff Hill, Warwick.
1883. {Mello, Mrs. J. M. Cliff Hill, Warwick.
1896. §Mellor,G. H. Weston, Blundellsands, Liverpool.
1881. §Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.
1887. tMelvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.
1863. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
1901. {Mennell, F. P. 8 Addison-road, W.
t

1862. Mavaatly Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,

1879. {Merrvate, Joun Herman, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889). Togeton Hall,
Acklington.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 67

Yeat ot
flection.

1899.

1880.
1899.
1889.
1863.
1896.

1869.

1903.
1866.
1865.
1881.

1893.
1881.

1904.
1804.

1889,
1886.
1881.

1885.
1889,

1895.
1888.
1885.
1886,
1895.
1834,
1876.
1897.

1902.
1904.
1883.

1880.

1902.
18865.
1882,
1903.
1885.
1898.
1882.

1880.
1859.

*Merrett; William H, WHatherley, Grosvenor-roud, Wallington,
Surrey.

Merry, Alfred 8. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea,

{Merryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.

*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Neweastle-upon-T yne.

tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.

{Metzler, W. I., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

fMratz, Louis C., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1897; Local
Sec. 1890), Professor of Biology in the University of Leeds.
Richmond-mount, Headivgley, Leeds.

tMicklethwait, Miss F.G. Queen’s College, Galway.

{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birminghum.

{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

“Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.

tMiddleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.

oe R. Morton, F.LS., F.Z.5. 46 Windsor-road, Ealing,
y :

§Middleton, T. H., M.A., Professor of Agriculture in the University
of Cambridge. South House, Barton-road, Cambridge. i

*Mirrs, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford. r

{Milburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.

{Mizes, Morris (Local Sec. 1882). Warbourne, Hill-lane, South-
ampton.

§Mitt, Hueu Ronert, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1901.) 62 Camden-square, N.W.

*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 80 York-place, Edinburgh.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.

}Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Bosmere House, N orwich-road, Ipswich.

{Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

tMiller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

tMiller, Rey. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.

{Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughtare, Ipswich.

{Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

fMiller, Willet G., Professor of Geology in Queen’s University,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada. i

tMillin, 8S. T, Sheridan Lodge, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.

§Millis, C. T. Hollydene, Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon.

*Miiis Epuunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S, 64 Twyford-avenue, West
Acton, W.

JMills, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Sherwood Hall, Mans-
field.

}Mills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry.

tMilne, Alexander D. 40 Aibyn-place, Aberdeen.

*MitnB, Jon, F.R.S., F.G.S, Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight.

*Milne, R. M. Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.

tMilne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Milner, S. Roslington, D.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

}Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 22a Goldhurst-terrace, South Ilamp-
stead, N.W.

t¢Mincuin, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Surrey.

{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D, Old Rain, Aberdeen.

H2

68

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1901.
1883,

1883.
1901.
1885.
1895.
1885.
1883.
1877.
1884.
1900.

1887.
1891.

1882.
1892.
1872.
1872.
1896.
1894.
1890.
1901.
1896.
1891.
1901.
1881.

1895.
1873.

1891.
1896.
1902.

1887.
1902.
1882.
1901.
1892.
1889.

1893.
1891.
1883.

1889.
1896.
1881.
1883,
1892.

1883,

*Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 IHuntly-gardens, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
W

t{Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington, W.

*Mitchell, G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, P. Chalmers, M.A., D.Sc ,Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, W.

*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire. |

{Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.

tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

*Molloy, Right Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

t{Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.

§Monckton, H. W., F.L.S., F.G.S. 3 Harcourt-buildings, Temple,
E.O.

*Monp, Lupwie, Ph D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1896.) 20
Ayenue-road, Regent's Park, N.W.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.

{Montgomery, Very Rev. J. F. 17 Athole-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road, W.

t{Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.

tMoore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man.

§Moore, Harold E, Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent.

{Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.

*Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

*Mordey, W. M. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

tMorel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff.

*Moreno, Francisco P. La Plata Museum, Argentina.

t{Morean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A

{Moraay, C. Lroyn, F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal of University College,
Bristol. 16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.
{Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.
tMorgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.
§Morgan, George. 21 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
tMorean, Gitpert T., D.Sc. F.1.C. Royal College of Science,
S.W.
{Morgan, John Gray, 88 Lloyd-street, Manchester.
*Morgan, Septimus Vaughan. 387 Harrington-gardens, S.W.
{Morgan, Thomas, J.P, Cross House, Southampton,
*Morison, James. Perth.
{Morison, John, M.D., F.G.S. _ Victoria-street, St. Albans,
§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tMorland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.
{Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.
*Moriey, Henry Forsrur, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road,
Hampstead, N.W.
{Mortry, The Right Hon. Jony, M.A. LL.D. MP. PRS.
Flowermead, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.
tMorrell, R. S. Caius College, Cambridge.
tMorrell, W. W. York City end County Bank, York.
{Morris, C. 8. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
si Sir Danret, K.0.M.G., M.A., D.Se., F.L.8, Barbados, West
ndies,
Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
1 g' ?

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

Year of
Election.

1880.
1896.
1874,

1899.

1865.
1869.
1858.
1887.
1886.
1896,

1878.
1876,

1892,
1878.
1892.
1866.
1878.

1863.
1877.

1899.
1887.
1888.
1884,

1884,
1899.
1894.
1902.
1874,

1904,
1872.

1876.

1902.
1884.

1880.
1904,
1897.
1398.
1901.

1904,
1876.
1901.
1898.

§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.

*Morris, J. T. 13 Somers-place, W.

{Morrison, G. James, M.Inst.C.E. 7 The Sanctuary, Westminster,
S.W.

§Morrow, Captain Joun, M.Se. 19 LElliston-road, Redland,
Bristol.

{Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.

{tMortimer, William. . Bedford-circus, Exeter.

*Morton, Henry Josrrm. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough,

tMorton, Percy, M.A. Llltyd House, Brecon, South Wales.

*Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W.

*Morton, Wittiam B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Moss, Jonn Francis, I'.R.G.S. (Local Sec. 1879.) Beechwood,
Brincliffe, Sheffield.

§Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co, Dublin.

{Mossman, R. C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, idinburgh.

{Mossman, William. St. Hilda’s, Frizinghall, Bradford.

*Mostyn, S. G., M.A., M.B. Health Office, South Shields.

tMort, Freprrick T., .R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.

*Moutron, J. Frercuer, M.A., K.C., M.P., F.R.S, 57 Onslow-
square, S.W.

t{Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

t{Mount-Epecumse, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.

§Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

{Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

tMoyle, R. E., M.A., F.C.S. Heightley, Chudleigh, Devon.

{Moyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.

{Moyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Mutl, Herbert B. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.

t{Mugliston, Rev. J.. M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham,

§Muir, Arthur H.,C.A. 2 Wellington-place, Belfast.

tMurr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
bridge.

§Muir, William. Collector's Office, Custom House, I.C,

*MurrgHEaD, ALEXANDER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S, 12 Carteret-street,
Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.

*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., D.Sc. 24 Kersland-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Mullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry.

*Mitier, Hvco, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 18 Park-square Fast,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

tMuller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.

§Mullinger, J. Bass, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

t¢Mullins, W. E. Hampstead, N.W.

{Mumford, C. E. Bury St. Edmunds.

*Munby, Alan E. 7 Chalcot-crescent, Primrose Hill, N.W.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig Tree-court, Temple, E.C.

§Munro, A. Queen’s Colleze, Cambridge.

t¢Munro, Donald, M.D., F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.

tMunro, Donald, M.D., J.P. Wheatholm, Pollokshaws, Glasgow.

tMunro, John, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Merchant
Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

70

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1883.

1855.
1890,
1889.
1884.
1887.
1891.

1884.

1884,
1903.
1872.
1892.
1863,
1897.
1870.
1902.
1902.
1890.

1886.
1892.
1890.
1876,
1872.

1887.
1896.
1887.
1883.
1837.
1855.
1897.

1898.
1866.

1839.
1885.

1901.
1886,
1901.
1889.

1860.

1892.

1867.
1887.

*Munro, Roperr, M.A., M.D. (Pres. H, 1893). 48 Manor-place,
Edinburgh.

{Murdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

{Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

tMurphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.

§Murphy, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.

tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.

{Murray, G. R. M., F.RS., F.RS.E., F.L.S. British Museum
(Natural History), South Kensington, 8. W.

{Murray, Sir Joun, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(Pres. E, 1899.) Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D. 111 McKay-street, Montreal, Canada,

{Murray, J. D. Rowbottom-square, Wigan.

tMurray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

{Murray, T.S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

tMurray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

tMusgrave, James, M.D. 511 Bloor-street West, Toronto, Canada,

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles, Seaforth Hall, near Liverpooi.

{Myddleton, Alfred. 62 Duncairn-street, Belfast.

*Myers, Charles S., M.A., M.D. 62 Holland-park, W.

*Myres, Joun L., M.A., F.S.A, 1 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Nacen, D. H., M.A. (Local See. 1894.) Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Sir Michael B., Bart. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

§Nalder, Francis Henrv. 34 Queen-street, E.C,

{Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Narrs, Admiral Sir G. S., K.C.B., RN., F.RS., F.R.G.S.
11 Claremont-road, Surbiton.

tNason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D. Troy, New York, U.S.A,

tNeal, James K., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool,

§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel-walks, Manchester.

*Neild, Theodore, B.A. The Vista, Leominster.

{Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.

tNesbitt, Beattie S. A., M.D. 71 Grosvenor-street, Toronto,
Canada.

§Nevill, Rey. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South
Devon.

*Nevill, The Right Rey. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

§Nevitte, I. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

*Newall, IT. Frank, M.A., F.R.S., F.R,A.S. Madingley Rise, Cam-
bridge.

§Newbigin, Miss Marion, D.Se. 1 Greenbank-road, Morningside,
Edinburgh.

tNewbolt, F. G. Oakley Lodge, Weybridge, Surrey.

{Newman, F. H. ‘Tullie House, Carlisle.

ioe A, Hi. L., B.A. 88 Green-street, Bethnal Green,

*Newron, ALrred, M.A., F.R.G., F.L.S. (Pres, D, 1887; Council
1875-82), Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

LOS, E, T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,

2 Wis
{Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
*Nicholson, John Carr, J.P, Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 71

Election.

1884,

1883.
1887.
1895.

1887

1901.
1885.
1896.
1878.

1877.
1863.

1879.
1887.
1863.

1888.
1865,

1872.

1883.

1886.
1894.

1903,

1896,

1898,
1878.
1885.
1858.

1894.
1902.
1896.
1885.
1876.
1885.

1859,
1884,
1881.

1896,
1892.

{Nicuotsoy, Josnrm S., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh, Eden Lodge,
Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh,

{ Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Parl, Southport,

tNicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull,

tNickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.

{Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester,

tNrcon, James, City Chamberlain. Glasgow.

{Nicol, W. W. J., D.8c., F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

{Nisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

{Niven, Coaries, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdecn. 6 Chanonry, Old
Aberdeen.

tNiven, Professor James, M.A, King’s College, Abérdeen.

*Nosie, Sir ANDREW, Bart., K.C.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S,
(Pres. G, 1890; Council, 1903- ; Local Sec. 1863.) Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

tNoble, T.S. Lendal, York.

{Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.

§Norman, Rev. Canon ALFRED Mrrte, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.3.S.,
F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted.

t{Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

{Norris, Ricuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.

tNorris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.

*Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire.

Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, 5.W.;
and Hamshall, Birmingham.

tNorton, Lady. 85 Eaton-place,S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.

§Norcurt, S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec, 1895.) Constitution
Hill, Ipswich.

{Noton, John, 45 Part-street, Southport.

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.

tNugent, the Right Rey. Monsignor, Harewood House, Formby,

Lancashire,

*O’Brien, Neville Forth. Queen Anne’s-mansions, 8.W.

{O’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.

tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, E.C.

*Optine, WittraM, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864; Coun-
cil 1865-70), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

§Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

§Ogden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.

tOgden, Thomas. 4 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

{Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

tOeitviz, F. Grant, M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1892.)
Board of Education, 8.W.

tOgilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.

*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Duffield-road, Derby.

{O’Halloran, J. S.,C.M.G. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land-avyenue, W.C.

fOldfield, Joseph, Lendal, York.

fOldham, G. 8S. Town Hall, Birkenhead,

fOrpnam, H. Yurn, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. MKing’s College, Cambridge,

72 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1885. {Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

1893. *OrpHAm, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs,
H.S. King & Co., 9 Pall Mall, 8.W.

1868, {OniveR, Danter, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,
Surrey.

1887. {OLIVER, in W., D.Se., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. 2 The Vale, Chelsea, S.W.

1883. §Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.

1889, §Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1882, §Olsen, O. T., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby.

1880. *Ommanney, Rey. i. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.

1902. {O’Neill, Henry, M.D. 6 College-square East, Belfast.

1902, {O’Neill, James, M.A. 5 College-square Kast, Belfast.

1872. {Onslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James's, 8.W.

1883. {Oppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Berlin

1902. {O’Reilly, Patrick Joseph. 7 North Earl-street, Dublin.

1899, {Orling, Axel. Moorgate Station-chambers, E.C,

1858. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

1883. {Orpen, Miss. St. Leonard’s, Kilkenny, Co. Dublin.

1884, *Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R, T., R.E. Monksgrange, Enniscorthy, Co.
Wexford.

1884, *Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.

1901. §Orr, Alexander Stewart. Care of Messrs. Marsland, Price, & Co.,
Nesbit-road, Mazagon, Bombay, India,

1904. *Orton, K. J. P., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University

College, Bangor.

1899. {Osborn, Dr. F. A. The Chalet, Dover.

1897. {Osborne, James K. 40 St. Joseph-street, Toronto, Canada.

1901. {Osborne, W. A., D.Sc. University College, W.C.

1887. §O'Shea, L. T., B.Se. University College, Sheffield.

1897. {Osler, I. B., M.P. Rosedale, ‘Toronto, Canada,

1865. *Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.

1884, {Oster, WitrtAM, M.D., LL.D., F.RS., Regius Professor of Medicine

in the University of Oxford.

1884. { O'Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-Trent,

1882. *Oswald, T, R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

1881. *Ottewell, Alfred D, 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

1896, {Oulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.

1882. {Owen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1903. *Owen, Edwin, M.A. ‘Terra Nova, Birkdale, Lancashire.

1889. *Owen, Alderman If. C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

1896. §Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester.

1903. *Page, Miss Ellen Iva. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex.

1889, tPage, Dr. F, i Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

1883. {Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport,

1894, {Paget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, E.C.

1898. {Paget, The Right Hon. Sir R. H., Bart. Cranmore Hall, Shepton
Mallet.

1875. {Paine, William Henry, M.D. Stroud, Gloucestershire.

1870, *Paterave, Rovert Harry Ineus, F.R.S., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1883.)
Belton, Great Yarmouth,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73°

Year of
Election.

1896, {Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

1889, {Patmer, Sir Cuartes Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, York-
shire,

1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybracl, Co. Dublin.

1866. §Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

1886. {Panton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

1883, {Park, Mrs. Wigan.

1880, *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.8. St. John’s, Wakefield, York-
shire.

1904. §Parxker, KE, H., M.A. Thorneycreek, Herschel-road, Cambridge.

1898. {Parker, G., M.D. 14 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1903. §Parker, Rey. J. Dunne, LL.D., D.C.L., V.R.A.S. Bennington
House, vii Stevenage, Hertfordshire.

1886, {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1899, {Parker, Mark. 30 Upper Fant-road, Maidstone.

1891, {Parker, Witt1am Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

1899. *Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

1879. *Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

1887. {Parkinson, James. Greystones, Langho, Blackburn.

1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.

1903. §Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo-road, Liverpool.

1883. {Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

1878. {Parsons, Hon. C. A., C.B., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1904.) | Holeyn Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne.

1904. § Parsons, Professor F. G. St. Thomas’s Hospital, 8.E.

1898. *Partridge, Miss Josephine M. 15 Grosvenor-crescent, 8.W.

1898. {Pass, Alfred C. Clifton Down, Bristol.

1887. {ParErson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Liverpool.

1897. {Paterson, John A. 23 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1897. {Paton, D. Noél, M.D. 22 Vorrest-road, Edinburgh,

1883. *Paton, Rey. Henry, M.A. 120 Volwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

1884. *Paton, Hugh. Box 2400, Montreal, Canada,

1902. { Patterson, Robert, F'.Z.S., M.R.I.A. “Ivy Dene, Malone Park, Belfast.

1876. {Patterson, T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. IL, M.R.I.A. 26 Hich-street, Belfast.

1863, {Partinson, Jonn, F'.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1879, *Patzer, F, R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1883, {Paul, George. 10 St. Mary’s-avenue, Harrogate.

1892. {Paul, J. Balfour. 80 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

1863. [Pavy, FrepericK WILLIAM, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, W.

1887. *Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.

1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Ilayward’s Heath.

1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1877. *Payne, J. C. Charles, J.P. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast.

1881. {Payne, Mrs. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast.

1866, {Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, W.

1888. *Paynter, J. B. Iendford Manor House, Yeovil.

1886. {Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.

1876. {Peace,G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

1879. {Peace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.

1885. {Peaca, B.N., F.1.S., F.RS.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

1875, {Peacock,Thomas Francis, 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, WC,

74 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886. *Pearce, Mrs. Horace, Orsett House, Birmingham-road, Kidder-
minster,

1886. tPearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Pmt gns Se NW

1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, S. W.

1891. {Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Carditt.

1893, *Pearson, Charles E. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire.

1898. §Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.

1883. {Pearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport,

1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York,

1883. {Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

1892. {Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock,

1904. §Pearson, Karl, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Nisihometee in
University College, London, W.C.

1881. {Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York,

1889, {Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

1855. *PeckoverR, ALEXANDER, LL.D., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank
House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

1888. {Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

1885. { Peddie, W ‘aliam, D.Se., F.RSF. 2 Camer on parks, Edinburgh,

1884, {Peebles, W. EX, 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin,

1878. *Peek, William. Summerslea, Lingfield, Surrey.

1901, *Peel, Hon. William, M.P. 13 King's Bench-walk, Temple, F.C,

1878. {Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

1887. {PenpLEBURY, Wrtttam IL, M.A., F.0.8. (Local Sec, 1899,)
Woodford House, Mountfields, Shrewsbury.

1894. §Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

1897. {PenHALLow, Professor D, P,, M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

1896. {Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

1898. {Pentecost, Rev. Harold, M.A. The School, Giggleswick, Yorkshire,

1889. {Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-Tyne,

1898. {Percival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 2 Southwick-place, W.

1895. {Percival, John, M.A., Professor of Botany in the South-Eastern
Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Perigal, Frederick. Chalcots, Lower Kingswood, Reigate.

1804, Perkin, A. G., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.C.S., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-
terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds.

1902. §Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. The Firs, Hengrave-road, Honor Oak

Park, S.E.

1868. *Prrxin, Wrtttam Henry, Ph.D., LL.D.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres.
B, 1876; Council 1880-86), The Chestnuts, Sudbury, Harrow,
Middlesex.

1884, {PerKin, WitttaM Henry, jun., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(Pres. B, 1900; Council 1901— ), Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the Owens College, Manchester. Fairview, Wilbraham-road,
Fallowfield, Manchester.

1864. *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

1898. *Perman, E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff.

1885, {Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, N.W,

1886. {Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

1886. {Perrin, Mrs. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

1874. *PErny, Joun, M. ae D.Se., F.R.S. (GunERAL TREASURER, 1904- ;
Pres. G, 1902 ; Council 1901-04), Professor of Mechanics and
Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, 8. W,

1883, {Perry, Russell R, 34 Duke-street, Brighton,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Year of
Election,

1904, *Pertz, Miss D. F. M. 2 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

1900. §Petavel, J. E. The Owens College, Manchester.

1897. {Peters, Dr. George A. 171 College-street, Toronto, Canada.

1898. {Pethick, William. Woodside, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

1901. {Pethybridge, G. H. Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

1883. {Petric, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

1895. {Prrriz, W. M. Frinpers, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor
of Egyptology in University College, W.C.

1871. *Peyton, John KE. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Hove,
Brighton.

1886. {Phelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birming-

am.

1863, *PuEnfé, Joun Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton
terrace, Oakley-street, S.W.

1896, {Philip, George, jun. Weldon, Bidston, Cheshire.

1903. {Philip, James C. 20 Westfield-terrace, Aberdeen.

1892. {Philip, R. W. M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1853. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

1853. *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

1877. §Philips, T, Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, Crescent-road, South
Woodford, Essex.

1863, {Philipson, Sir G. H. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1883. {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1899. *Phillips, Charles E. S. Castle House, Shooter's Hill, Kent.

1894. {Phillips, Staff-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1887. { Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 183 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

1902. {Phillips, J. St. J., BE. 64 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

1890, {Phillips R. W., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Biology in University
College, Bangor.

1883. {Phillips,S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.

1881. tPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

1898. {Philps, Captain Lambe. 7 Royal-terrace, Weston-super-Mare,

1884, *Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. Airedale, Oxford.

1883, “Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.

1901. §Pickard, Robert H., D.Se, Isca, Merlin-road, Blackburn.

1894. {Pickarp-Camprines, Rey. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.

1885. *Prckerinc, Spencer P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.

1884. *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.

1888, *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W.

1865. {Pixz, L.OwEn. 4a Marlborough-gate, Hyde Park, W.

1873. {Pike, W. H., M.A., Ph.D. Toronto, Canada.

1896. *Pilkington, A.C. Rocklands, Rainhill, Lancashire.

1896, *Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing.

1877. {Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1868, { Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew's, Norwich.

1887. {Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, E.C,

1876, {Pitman, John. Redclift Hill, Bristol. ,

1883, { Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D, 24 St. Thomas-street, Borough,
SL.

1883. {Pitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Hoiborn-circus, E.C.

1893, *Pitt, WattTErR, M.Inst.0.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

1900, *Platts, Walter. Fairmount, Bingley.

1898, {Playne, H.C, 28 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893, {Plowright, Henry J, Ashdown House, Fawley, near Southampton,

76

Year of
Election.

1897.
1898.

1899.
1857.

1900.
1881.
1888.
1896.
1904,
1898.
1896.
1862.

1891,
1900,
1892,

1868,
1901.

1883.
1883.

1887.
1883,
1886,
1898.
1873.
1887.

1883.
1894.

1875.
1887.

1867.
1883.

1884.
1869.
1888.

1904,
1892.

LIST OF MEMBERS, °

{Plummer, J. H. Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

§Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston, .
Birkenhead.

{Plumptre, Fitzwalter. Goodnestone, Dover.

tPlunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Queen’s
Co., Ireland.

*Pocklington, H. Cabourn. 41 Virginia-road, Leeds.

§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

{ Pocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath,

{Pollard, James. High Down, Hitchin, Herts. :

§Pollard, William, 12 Aberdare-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

{PozLeN, Rev. G. C. H., F.G.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn,

*Pollex, Albert. Tenby House, Egerton Park, Rockferry.

*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S8. Poliwiele: Truro,
Cornwall.

}Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.

§Porr, W. J., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Municipal
School of Technology, Manchester. 16 Hope-street, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

{Popplewell, W. C., M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The Yew, Marple,
near Stockport.

{Porrat, Sir Wynpmam §., Bart. Malshanger, Basingstoke.

§Porter, Alfred W., B.Sc. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions, Lissenden-
gardens, N.W.

*Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D., D.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

}Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. University College, Gower-street,
W.C.

{ Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.

{Potter, M. C., M.A., I°.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Highbury, Newcastle-upon-

ne.

nace. Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. D
1896; Council 1895-1901), Professor of Zoology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Poulton, Edward Palmer. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Powell, Sir Francis 8., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S8. Horton Old Tall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge- “square, MZ

*Powell, Horatio Gibbs, F.R.G.S. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, :
Wolverhampton.

{Powell, John. Brynmill-crescent, Swansea.

*Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street,
Cavendish-square, W.

{Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton, :
Bristol.

§Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, I.C.

tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

{Porntine, J. Il., D.Sc., ERS. (Pres. A, 1899), Professor of
Physics in the University of Birmingham, 10 Ampton-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*PREECE, Sir WILLIAM Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1888 ; Council 1888-95, 1896-1902.) Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon
Common, Surrey; and 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

*Preece, W. Llewellyn. Bryn Helen, Woodborough-road, Putney, -
S.W

§Prentice, Mrs. Manning. Thelema, Felixstowe.
§Prentice, Thomas, Willow Park, Greenock,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 77

Election.

1889.

1894,
18938.
1884,

1903,
1888.

1875.
1891.
1897.
1897.
1892.
1889.

1876.
1888.
1881.
1863.

1884.
1879.
1872.
1871.
1873.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1903.

1874,
1866,

1878.
1884.
1860.
1898.
1883.
1883,
1868.

1879.

1893,
1894,

1870,

§Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

tPreston, Arthur E. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.

*Preston, Martin Inett. 48 Ropewalk, Nottingham.

*Prevost, Major L. de T., 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.

§Price, Edward E, Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent.

Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshive.

}Pricr, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. I, 1895; Council, 1893-
1904.) Oriel College, Oxford.

*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.

tPrice, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff. :

*Price, W. A., M.A, The Mill House, Broomfield, Chelmsford.

{Primrose, Dr, Alexander. 196 Simcoe-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Prince, Professor Edward E., B.A. Ottawa, Canada.

*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South
Hampstead, N.W.

*PritcHARD, Urnan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.

{Probyn, Leslie C. 79 Onslow-square, 5. W.

§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

tProctor, R. 8. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 100 State-street, Chicago, U.S.A.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe.

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

*Puckle, Rey. T. J.. Chestnut House, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

tPullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.

*Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.

*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.

tPullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.

§Pullen-Burry, Miss. Care of Mrs. Kilyington, Coniston, Avondale-
road, South Croydon.

. §PumpHrey, Wittiam. (Local Sec. 1888.) 2 Oakland-road, Red-

land, Bristol.

. §Punnett, R. C. Caius College, Cambridge.
. ¢Purpre, Taomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the

University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

. {Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The

Deanery, York.

{Porser, Frepertck, M.A. Rathmines Castle, Dublin.

{Pursmr, Professor Joun, M.A., LL.D., M.R.DLA. (Pres. A, 1902.)
Rathmines Castle, Dublin.

tPurser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 ee Oxford-street, W.

*Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

tPye-Smith, Mrs, Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Oroydon.

{Pyz-Suiru, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-sireet, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, 8.1.

tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

tQuick, James, University College, Bristol.
tQuick, Professor W. J, University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A,

tRabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, 8,W,

28

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election:

1855.
1887.
1898.

1896.
1894.

1863,
1884,

1884.
1861.
1885,
1889.
1876,

1883.
1869.
1901,
1868.
1893.
1863.
1861.

1889.

1903.
1864.
1892.
1874.

1889.
1870.
1887.
1868.

1895.

1883.
1897.
1896.
1902.
1870.
1884.
1899.
1852.

1892,
1889.

1889.
1890,

*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.

*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester.

*Raisin, Miss Catherine A.; D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place,
Baker-street, W.

*RamaGeE, Huen. The Technical Institute, Norwich.

*RampauT, ARTHUR A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

tRamsay, ALEXANDER. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.

tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.

tRamsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.

tRamsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.

tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.

{Ramsay, Major R.G. W. Bonnyrizg, Edinburgh.

*Ramsay, Sir Witx1am, K.C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1897 ; Council
1891-98), Professor of Chemistry in University College,
London. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tRamsay, Lady. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, W.

{Rankin, James, M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

tRansom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.

}Ransom, Witi1amM Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.

{Ransome, ArtHuR, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861.)
Sunnyhurst, Deane Park, Bournemouth.

Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.

tRapkin, J. B. Thrale Hall, Streatham, 8.W.

Rashleigh, Jonathan. 8 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

§Rastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, East Twickenham.

*Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

tRavenster, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1891.) 2 York-
mansions, Battersea Park, S.W.

tRawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

tRawlins, G. W. ‘The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.

tRawson, Harry. Earlswood, Hllesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.

*RayteicH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LI..D., F.R.S.,
T.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. (Presiprnt, 1884; Trusrep,1883-— ; Pres.
A, 1882; Council, 1878-83), Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the Royal Institution. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.

{Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
Basingstoke.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D.. M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.

*Rayner, Edwin Hartree, M.A. 19 Tiviot Dale, Stockport.

*Reap, Cuarnes H.,F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1899). British Museum, W.C.

tReade, R. H. Wilmount, Dunmurry.

{Reapz, Toomas Metrarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§Readman, J. B., D.Se., F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.

tReaster, James William. 68 Linden-grove, Nunhead, S.E.

*Reprurn, Professor Prrer, M.D. (Pres. D, 1874.) 4 Lower-
crescent, Belfast.

tRedgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.Inst.C.H. The Elms, Westgate-road,
Beckenham, Kent.

tRedmayne, J M. Harewood, Gateshead.

tRedmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Redwood, Loverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Wadham Lodge, Wadham-
gardens, N.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

Year of
Election.

1861.

1889.
1891.
1894,
1891.

1888.
13875.
1897.
1903.
1901.
1904.

1881

1883.
1903.
1892.

1889.
1901.
1876.
1901.
1904.
1897.
1892.
1887.
1893.
1875.

1863.
1894,
1891.

1903.

1885.
1889,
1904.

1883.
1871.

1900,
1870.

1896.
1877.
1890.
1884,
1899,
1877.

1891.
1891.
1889,

tRexp, Sr Epwarp James, K.0.B., F.R.S. Broadway-chambets,
Westminster, 8. W.

tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle,

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8.G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton.

*Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E, Blaenypant, near Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.C.

TRees-Mogge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

tReeve, Richard A. 22 Shuter-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Reeves, HE. A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

*Reid, Andrew T 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

§Reid, Arthur H. P.O. Box 120, Cape Town.

§Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.

*REID, CLEMENT, F'.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Reid, Mrs. E. M., B.Sc. 36 Sarre-read, West Hampstead, N.W.

tRerp, E. Waymourn, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, Dundee.

tReid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow.

tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

tReid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glascow.

§Reid, P. J. German Cottage, Marske-by-the-Sea.

§Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

tReid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

tReinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.

tRetnotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council 1890-95), Professor of
Physics in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

tRenats, E. ‘ Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.

tRenpatt, Rey. G. H., M.A., Litt.D. Charterhouse, Godalming.

*Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

§Renpie, Dr. A. B, M.A., F.L.S. 47 Wimbledon Park-road,
‘Wimbledon.

tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen,

*Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

§RevneRT, THEODORE, M.Inst.CE. (Vicse-Presiprnt, 1905.) P.O.
Box 92, Johannesbure.

*Reynolds, A. H. Bank House, 135 Lord-street, Southport.

{Rrynoxps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Pres.C.S8., M.R.LA.
(Pres. B, 1893; Council 1893-99). 29 Campden Hill-court, W.

*Reynolds, Miss K. M. 4 Colinette-road, Putney, S.W.

*Reynoips, Osporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1887), Professor of Engineering in the Owens College, Man-
chester. 19 Lady Barn-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

t{Rhodes, Albert. Fieldhurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire.

*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

tRhodes, J. M., MD. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.

tRhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.

*Ruys, Professor Joun, D.Sc. (Pres. H, 1900). Jesus College, Oxford.

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.

fRichards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

tRichards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

cao, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,

80

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1869.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1884.
1896.

1901.
1870.
1889.
1876.
1891.
1891.
1886.
1883.
1902.

1894.

1861.
1881.
183.
1892.

1892.
1889.
1903.
1900.
1898.
1902.
1887.
1859.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1896.
1904.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1897.

1897.
1901.

1892.
1886.
1898.

1861.
19038,
1897.
1887,

*Richardson, Charles. 8 Cholmley-villas, Long Ditton, Surrey,
{Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. Walcote, Winchester.
*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W.
tRichardson, Hugh, M.A. Bootham School, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

*Richardson, Owen Willans. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Kdinburgh.

{Richardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-vpon-Tyne.

§Richardson, William Haden, City Glass Works, Glasgow, =~

{Riches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

tRichmond, Robert. Heathwood, Leighton Buzzard.

*RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F'.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Ridgeway, William, M.A., Professor of Archeology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Ten Ditton, Cambridge.

§Riptey, i. P., F.G.S. (Local See. 1895.) Burwood, Westerfield-
road, Ipswich.

{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, [ampstead, N.W.

*Rige, Arthur. 15 Westbourne Park-villas, W.

*Riae, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, FE.

{Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

*Rrron, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.1E.,
DG Ly TE Bant ayes nie ee ek ka lan aaa
S.W.

Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E, 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Ritson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Rivers, W. H. R., M.D, St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Rixon, F. W., B.Sc. 79 Green-lane, Heywood, Lancashire,

§Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

*Roberts, Bruno. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N. W.

*Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.

{Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 4 Regent-street, Cambridge.

tRoberts, Samuel, M.P. The Towers, Sheffield.

{Roberts, Samuel, jun, The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Thomas J. 33 Serpentine-road, Liscard, Cheshire.

*Robertson, Miss Agnes. 9 Klsworthy-terrace, Primrose Hill, N.W.

tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

{ Robertson, E. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin,

tRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

{Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

§Roprrtson, Sir Grorcr 8., K.C.S.1. (Pres. EB, 1900.) 1 Pump-
court, Temple, H.C.

§Robertson, Professor J. W. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,
Canada.

*Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E, 154 West George-street,
Glasgow.

tRobertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, Edinburgh,

*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.

§Robinson, Charles E., M.Inst.C.E, Holm Cross, Ashburton, South
Devon.

tRobinson, Enoch, Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

§Robinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport.

}Robinson, Haynes, St. Giles’s Plain, Norwich.

§Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E, 18 Victoria-street, 8, W,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 81

Year of
Election.

1902.
1902.
1901.
1878.
1895.
1876.
1899.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
1901.
1865.
1904.
1904.
1891.

1888.
1870.

1872.
1890.

1896.
1896.
1885,
1885.

1866.
1898.

1890.

1883.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1897.
1876,

1891.
1881.
1855,

1883.
1894,

1900.

1885.
1887.
1859.
1902.
1901.

{Robinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool.

{Robinson, James, M.A., I.R.G.S. Dulwich College, Dulwich, 8.E.

§Robinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Robinson, M. lv. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Belsize-crove, N.W.

{Robinson, Richard. Belltield Mill, Rochdale.

{Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, S.W.

*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.. Beechwood, Darlington.

{Robinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Robinson, T, Eaton. 33 Cecil-street West, Glasgow.

{Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

§Robinson, Theodore R. 25 Campden Hill-gardens, W.

§Robinson, W. H. MLtibblesdale, Cardiff-road, Llandaff.

{Robinson, William, M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Uni-
versity College, Nottingham.

{Robottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, N.W.

*Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,
S.W.

*Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

{Rochester, The Right Rey. EH. 8. Talbot, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Kennington Park, 8.E.

{ Rock, W. H. 73 Park-road East, Birkenhead.

tRodger, Alexander M. The Museum, Tay Street, Perth.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Olairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

*Rodriguez, Epifanio. New Adelphi Chambers, 6 Robert-street,
Adelphi, W.C,

{Roe, Sir Thomas. Grovye-villas, Litchurch.

{RoeErs, Bertram, M.D. (Local Sec. 1898.) 11 York-place, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Leeds. 15 Regent Park-avenue, Leeds.

fRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

§ Rogers, Rev. Canon Saltren, M.A. 15 Somerset-place, Bath.

*Rogers, Walter. Hill House, St. Leonard’s,

{Rogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.

tRogerson, John. Barrie, Ontario, Canada,

tRoxuit, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon,
Fellow K.C.L. 45 Belgrave-square, S.W.

{Rénnfeldt, W, 43 Park-place, Cardiff,

*Roper, W. O. Beechfield, Yealand Conyers, Carnforth.

*Roscor, Sir Henry Enrretp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1887; Pres. B, 1870, 1884; Council 1874-81 ;
Local See, 1861.) 10 Bramham-gardens, 8. W.

*Rose, J. Holland, Litt.D. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, S.W.

*Rose, T. K., D.Sc, Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint. Royal
Mint, E.

{Rosenhain, Walter, B.A. 185 Monument-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.

{Ross, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.

*Ross, Rey. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

§Ross, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden Hill, W.

}Ross, Major Ronaxp, O.B., F.R.S., Professor of Tropical Medicine
and Parasitology in the University of Liverpool, 36 Bentley-
road, Liverpool,

1904, ¥

82

LIST OF MEMBERS,

istion.

1869. *Rossr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
ERAS., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.

1891. *Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescot-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.

1893. {Rothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

1865. *Rothera, George Bell. Hazlewood, Forest-grove, Nottingham.

1901. *Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co.,

1899
1884
1901
1861

1885.
1903.
1877.
1890.
1881.
1881.
1876,
1885.
1899.
1875.

1892.
1869.
1901.
1904.
1896.
1887.
1904,

1889.
1875.
1884.

1890.
1885,
1852.
1876.
1886.
1852.

1886.
1897.
1891.
1887.

1889.
1897.
1898.
1865,

1903.

Glasgow.

*Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, S.E.

*Rouse, M.L. Hollybank, Hayne-road, Beckenham.

tRouse, W. H. D. Perse School, Cambridge.

tRourn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.

tRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glaszow.

*Rowe, Arthur W., M.B., F.G.8. 1 Cecil-street, Margate.

tRowg, J. Brooxina, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth.

tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

*Rowntree, Joun 8. Mount-villas, York.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 88 St. Mary’s, York.

{Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

{Roy, John. 83 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.

{Rubie, G.S. Belgrave House, Follestone-road, Dover.

*Rucker, Sir A, W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
of London. (PRrusipenr, 1901; Trusrer, 1898- ; GENERAL
TREASURER, 1891-98; Pres. A, 1894; Council 1888-91.) 19
Gledbow-gardens, South Kensington, 8. W.

§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

§Rupter, Ff. W., F.G.S. 18 St. George’s-road, Kilburn, N. W.

*Rudorf, C. C. G., Ph.D., B.Sc. 26 Weston-park, Crouch End, N,

§Ruhemann, Dr. 8. 3 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.

*Rundell, T. W., F'.R.Met.Soc. 25 Castle-street, Liverpool.

{Ruscoe, John. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

§Russell, E. J., D.Se., Professor of Chemistry in the South-Eastern
Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

{Russell; The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere.

{ Russell, George. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, S.L.

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

tRussell, Sir J, A., LL.D. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh,

*Russell, J. W. 131 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W.

{Russell, Robert, F.G.8. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

{Russell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

*Russett, Wittram J., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1873;
Council 1873-80). 34 Upper Hamilton-terrace, St. John’s
‘Wood, N.W.

{Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester,

{Rutherford, A. Toronto, Canada. a

tRutherford, George. Dulwich House, Pencisely-road, Cardiff. .

{Rutherford, Wiliam. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Mans
chester.

{Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Ryerson, G.8., M.D. Toronto, Canada.

§Ryland, C.J. Southerndon House, Clifton, Bristol.

tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.

{Sadler, M. E., LL.D., Professor of TEducation in the Victoria
University, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 83

Year of
Election.

1883.
1871,
1903.
1881.
1873.
1904,

1887.
1861.
1901,
1894,

1883.
1893,
1872,
1883.
1896.

1896.
1892.

1903.

1886,
1896,
1896.

1901.

1886.
1886,
1900,
1868.
1886.
1903.
1881.
1883,
1846.

1884.
1891.
1887.

1883.
1885.
1901.
1887.

1884,
1883.
1903.
1903,
1879,

1888,

{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, E.C.

§Sagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax.

{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

§Salter, A. E., D.Se., F.G.S. 20 Shell-road, Loampit Hill, Lewis-
ham, S.E.

tSamson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.

*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

§Samuel, John S., J.P., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow.

{Samuetson, The Right Hon. Sir Bernwarp, Bart., F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

tSanderson, Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United Service
Club, St. James’s-square, 8. W.

{Sanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.

§SanpErson, Sir J. S. Burpon, Bart., M.D., D.Se., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Presipent, 1893; Pres. D, 1889; Council
1877-84). 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

tSanderson, Lady Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich,

tSaner, Mrs. Highfield, Northwich.

§Sang, William D. Tylehurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

tSankey, Captain H. R., R.E, Bawmore, Bilton, Rugby.

§Sankey, Percy E. 44 Russell-square, W.C.

*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

tSarruf, N. Y. ‘Al Mokattam,’ Cairo.

tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.

{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund-street, Birmingham,

*Saunder, S. A. Fir Holt, Crowthorne, Berks.

{Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

{Saunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

*Saunders, Miss E. R. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tSaunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, W-

{Saunders, Rev. J. C. Cambridge.

{Saunpers, Tretawnry W.,F.R.G.S. 8 Elmfield-on-the-Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.

{Saunpprs, Dr. Witt1AM. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.

jSaunders, W. H. R. Llanishen, Cardiff.

tSavage, Rey. Canon KE. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Vicarage,
Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.

{Savery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.

{Sawers, W. D. 1 Athole Gardens-place, Glasgow.

§Saycge, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of
Assyriolory in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College,
Oxford,

jSayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

§Scarisprick, Sir Cuartes, J.P, Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

{Scarisbrick, Lady. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

*Scudrmr, I, A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.C.S. (Gen. Sec. 1895-1900;
Pres. I, 1894; Council 1887-93), Professor of Physiology in
the University of Edinburgh.

*Scuarrr, Ropert F’., Ph.D., B.Se., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

F2

84

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1880.

1892.
1887.
1883.
1885.
1878.

1847,

1883,

1867.
188].

1878.
1881.
1889,

1885.
1857.

1884,
1902.
1895.

1883.
1895.

1890.
1859.
1880,

1861.

1891.
1893.

1855,
1879.
1904,
1904.
1897.
1885.
1888,

1888,
1901,

1870.
1892,

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs, Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

tSchloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, S.W.

tSchofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.

tSchofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

§Scholes, L. Arneliffe, Trinity-road, Sale, Cheshire.

*ScuustErR, Arruur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1892;
Council 1887-93), Professor of Physics in the Victoria Univer-
sity, Manchester. Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester.

*Scnater, Puri Loriey, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. (GpNERAL SECRETARY 1876-81; Pres. D, 1875;
Council 1864-67, 1872-75) Odiham Priory, Winchfield.

*Scrarer, W. Luriry, M.A., F.Z.8, South African Museum, Cape
Town.

{Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

*Scorr, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Sec.C.S. Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle-street, W.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. Dayid’s College, Lampeter.

{Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Bryn Mawr College, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A.

*Scort, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (GQpnerat SEcRETARY,
1900-03 ; Pres. K, 1896.) The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.

tScott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen,

*Scorr, Rosrrt If., M.A., D.Sc, F.RS., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park-
gardens, S.W.

*Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, S.E.

§Scott, William R. The University, St. Andrew’s, Scotland.

{Scott-Elliot, Professor G. I*., M.A., B.Se., F.L.8. Ainslea, Scots-
tounhill, Glasgow.

tSerivener, Mrs. Haglis Tlouse, Wendover.

§Scull, Miss I. M. L. The Pines, 10 Langland-gardens, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

*Searle, G. F.C., M.A. Wyncote, Hills-road, Cambridge.

tSeaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.

{Sepewicx, Apam, M.A.,F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1899.) 4 Cranmer-read,
Cambridge.

*SEELEY, Harry Govirr, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geology in King’s College, Londen. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, W.

{Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.

{Setny-Biecr, L., A., M.A. Charity Commission, Whitehall,
S.W.

{Selieman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

}Selim, Adolphus, 21 Mincing-lane, E.C.

§Sell, W. J. 19 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

§Sella, Professor Alfonso. Istituto Fisico, Rome.

{Selous, F. C., F.R.G.S. Alpine Lodge, Worplesden, Surrey.

jSemple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.

*SENIER, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

*Sennetr, ALFRED R., A.M.Inst.C.E. 304 King’s-road, Chelsea,
S.W.

{Service, Robert. Janefield Park, Maxwelltown, Dumfries,

*Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

{Seton, Miss Jane, 37 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85
of

Election.

1895.

*Seton-Karr, If. W. 51 Lingfield-road, Witibledon; Survey.

1892. *Sewaxp, A.C., M.A. F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres, K,1903; Council, 1901;

1891.
1868,
1904.
13899,

1891,
1888.
1904,

1902.

1867.
1881,
1878.

1904.
1886,
1904,
1883.
1904,

1870.

1896.

Local Sec. 1904.) Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

{Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.

§Sewell, R, B, Seymour, Christ’s College, Cambridge. .

§Seymour, Henry J., B.A., F.G.S. St. Peter's, Ailesbury-road;
Dublin.

{Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.

§Shackleton, Ernest H. Royal Scottish Geographical Society,
Edinburgh.

es, The Right Hon, the Earl of, D.L. Belfast Castle,
Belfast.

{Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.

{Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.

{Smarr,, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.

§Sharp, Mrs. E. M. Drumna House, Whetstone, N.

{Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.

§Sharp, Walter. Drumna House, Whetstone, N.

{Sharples, Charles H. 7 Fishergate, Preston.

§Sharples, George. 181 Great Cheetham-street West, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.

{Shaw, Frank, Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool,

1870. {Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.

1891.
1889.
1883.

1883.
1904.
1903.
1891,
1878.

{Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, F.C.

*Shaw, Mrs. M. 8., B.Sc. Sydenham Damard Rectory, Tavistock.

*Suaw, W.N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council 1895-1900, 1904-.)
Meteorological Office, Victoria-street, S.W.

{Shaw, Mrs. W. N. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensingten, S.W.

§Shaw-Phillips, Miss. 19 Camden-crescent, Bath.

§Shaw-Phillips, T., J.P. 19 Camden-crescent, Bath.

{Sheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.

Shelford, Sir William, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-
street, S.W.

1865. {Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

1881.
1885.

{Suenstonz, W. A., F.R.S, Clifton College, Bristol.
{Shepherd, Rey. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.

1890. {Shepherd, J. 80 Prince of Wales-mansions, Battersea, S.W.

1883.

1900.
1883.
1883,
1883.
1896.

1888.
1886.

1892,

19Ci.
1902.
1883.

{Shepherd, James, Birkdale, Southport.

§Sheppard, Thomas, F.G.S. The Municipal Museum, Hull.

{Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

{Sherlock, Mrs, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

{Sherlock, Rey. Edgar, Bentham Rectory, vid Lancaster.

§SHerrineron, C. 8, M.D, IRS. (Pres. I, 1904), Professor of
Physiology in the University of Liverpool. 16 Grove-park,
Liverpool.

*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath

{Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, S.W.

{Shields, John, D.Se., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland

tShields, Thomas, M.A., B.Sc. Englefield Green, Surrey. ;

*Shillington, T. Foulkes, J.P. Dromart, Antrim-road, Belfast.

*Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.

1887. *Sairtey, Artuur FE., M.A.,F.R.S. (Council 1904- .) Christ’s

College, Cambridge.

86 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889, {Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.

1885, {Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.

1870. *SHoorsren, J. N., B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, 8. W.

1888. {Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

1897. {Suorn, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1875. {Suorzn, Tomas W., F.G.S. 157 Bedford-hill, Balham, S.W.

1882, {Suorn, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Heathfield, Alleyn Park, Dul-
wich, S.E.

1901. §Short, Peter M., B.Sc. 1 Holmdene-ayenue, Herne Hill, 8.E.

1897. {Shortt, Professor Adam, M.A. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada.

1904. *Shrubsall, F. C., M.A., M.D. Brompton Hospital, 8.W.

1889, {Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 8 Duke Street-mansions, Grosvenor-
square, W.

1883. {Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes, Flook House, Taunton.

1902. {Siddons, A. W. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex.

1883, *Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

Sidney, M. J. I’. Cowpen, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1873. *Srmmens, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E, 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

1903, *Silberrad, Dr. Oswald, Experimental Ustablishment, Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich.

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.

1898, {Simmons, Henry. Kingsland House, Whiteladies-road, Cliftun,
Bristol. :

1862, {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, I.C.

1874. {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.

1876. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, W.

1901. {Simpson, Rey. A., B.Se., F.G.8. 28 Myrtle-park, Crossbill,
Glasgow.

1871. *Srmpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh,

1887. {Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne,

1901. *Simpson, J. Y., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1894. §Simpson, Thomas, I’.R.G.S, Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, W.

1883. {Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport,

1896. *Simpson, W., F.G.S, Catteral Hall, Settle, Yorkshire.

1887. {Sinelair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester,

1874. {Srncrarr, Right Hon. Tomas (Local See, 1874). Dunedin, Belfast.

1897. {Sinnott, James, Bank of England-chambers,12 Broad-street, Bristol.

1864. *Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., O.I.E, 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.

1892, {Sisley, Richard, M.D. 1 Park-row, S.W.

1902. §Skeffington, J. B., M.A., LL.D. Waterford,

1883, {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

1885, {Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.

1898, §SKINNER, Sipney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) South-\Western
Polytechnic, Manresa-road, Chelsea, S.W

1889, §Siater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire,

1877. lesan, Leys Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S, 65 Pembroke-road, Clifton,

ristol, ,
1891. §Slocombe, James, Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Election.

1849,

1887.

1887,

1903.
1904.
1889,

1902.
1898.
1876.

1877.

1890.

1876.
1867.

1892.
1897.

1901.
1874,

1887.

1873.
1887.
1889,

1886,
1886.
1886.
1900.
1886,

1892,

1897.
1901,

1866,
1885,
1897.

1860.

1903.
1870,
1889,

1888.
1876.

1902.
1901.
1885.
1903.
1883.

1885.

{Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
§Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Mount, Radbourne-street,
Derby.
§Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham.
*Smallman, Raleigh 8. Wressil Lodge, Wimbledon Common,
§Smart, Edward. Benview, Craigie, Perth, N.B.
*Smart, Professor William, LL.D. (Pres. F, 1904.) Nunholme,
Dowanhill, Glasgow,
§Smedley, Miss Ida. 11 Mecklenburgh-square, W.C.
{Smeeth, W. F., M.A., F.G.8. Mysore, India.
{Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tSmelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
{Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
{Smieton, James, Panmure Villa, Broughty lerry, Dundee.
{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago
Illinois, U.S.A.
{Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada,
*Smith, Miss Annie Lorrain. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensington, W.
*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, 5. W.
{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
{Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Charles. 759 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
*Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S, The Ob-
servatory, Kodaikanal, South India.
{Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.
{Smith, KE. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
§Smith, E. J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.
{Smith, E. 0. Council House, Birmingham.
{Smith, E. Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, S.W.
{Smith, Sir Frank, 54 King-street East, Toronto, Canada.
§Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq., Burlington House,
Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, 8. W.
*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
{Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 22 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.
{Smith, G. Elliot, M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Heywood, M.A.,M.D. 25 Welbeck-street, Cavendish-square, W,
*Smith, H. B. Lees. 16 Park-terrace, Oxford.
{Smith, H. L. Crabwali Hall, Cheshire.
*Smith, H. Llewellyn, C.B., B.A., B.Sc., F.S.8. 49 St. George’s-
square, S.W.
{Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.
*Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow. ;
{Smith, J. Lorrain, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the Victoria
University, Manchester.
{Saara, Right Hon. J. Parker, M.P. Jordanhill, Glasgow.
{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
§Smith, James, Pinewood, Crathes, Aberdeen. :
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire. pa
{Smith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance-buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax.
{Suuru, Ropert H., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, Ellerslie, Sutton, Surrey. -

88

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1873.
1867.
1894.

1892.
1885,
1896,
1852.
1876,
1885.

1885.
1883.
1882.
1874.
1857.

1888.
1889,
1898.
1879,

1892.
1900.
1859,

1879.
1901.
1888.
1903.
1886.
1903.
1865,
1883.

1890.
1893.
1887.
1884.
1889.
1864,

1894,
1864,
1864.
1854,
1883.
1897.
1888,
1897.
1903,

1883.

{Smith, Sir Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

§Smith, T. Walrond. Care of Frank Henderson, Esq., 25 Pearfield-
road, Forest Hill, 8.14.

{Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Watson, 54 Upper Park-road, Haverstock Hill, N.W.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. Newquay, Cornwall.

{Smith, William, Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow,

{Smith, William, 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Smirmects, Arruur, B.Se., F.R.S, (Local Sec. 1890), Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Leeds,

Smithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York,

{Smithson, Mrs. 15 Lendal, York.

{Smithson, T, Spencer, Facit, Rochdale.

tSmoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

*Smyro, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.1.1 Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

*Snare, H. Lioyp, D.Sc., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom-road, Southport.

{Snell, W. Ii. Lancaster Lodge, Amersham-road, Putney, 8. W.

{Snook, Miss L. B. V. 13 Clare-road, Cotham, Bristol.

*Sottas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.RBS., I.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1900 ; Council 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the University
of Oxford. 173 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

*SOMERVAIL, ALEXANDER. ‘The Museum, Torquay.

*SoMERVILLE, W., D.Sc. Board of Agriculture, Whitehall, 8. W.

*Sorsy, H. Crirron, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1880; Council
1879-86 ; Local Sec. 1879). Broomfield, Sheftield.

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

}Sorley, Robert, The Firs, Partickill, Glasgow.

{Sortey, Professor W. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Soulby, R. M. Sea Holm, Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

{Southall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birmingham.

§Southall, Henry T, The Graig, Ross, Herefordshire.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parktields, Ross, Herefordshire.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S, Chatterley Ilouse, Hanley,
Staffordshire,

{Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

*Speak, John, Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

{Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

{Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E, Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury,

*Spencer, John. Newbiggin House, Kenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. 14 Aberdeen-park, High-
buy, N.

{Spiers, A. H. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk.

*Srinier, JouHn, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 107 Sloane-street, 8. W.

*SpracuE, Tuomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D. VRS LE, 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.

{Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S8, Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,

Brockley, 8.15.

§Squire, W. Stevens, Ph.D, Clarendon House, 30 St. John’s Wood
Park, N.W.

*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 164 Shoreditch, E.C.

{Stafford, Joseph. Morrisburg, Outario, Canada.

§Stallworthy, Rey. George B. The Manse, Hindhead, Haslemere,
Surrey.

“Stanford, Edward, F.R.G.S. 12-14 Long-acre, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. §9

Year of
Election.

1881.

1883.
1894.
1900.
1899.

1876.
1899.
1898.

1894.

1873.
1900.
1881.
1881.
1884,
1892.

1896,
1891.
1884.
1884.
1884,

1902.
1901,
1901.
1880,
1900.

1892.

1863.
1890.

1885.
1864,

1892.
1885.
1886.
1875.

1901.

1892.
1901,
1901,
1901.
1867.
1876.

1867.
1904.

“Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S, Cumberlow, South Norwood,
S.E.

{Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, 8.1.

“STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. McGill University, Montreal, Canada

*Stansfield, H., B.Sc. Municipal Technical School, Blackburn.

{Srarrine, Li. H., M.D, F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, London, W.C,

{Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 32 Craven-street, Strand, W.C.

§Statham, William, The Redings, Totteridge, Herts.

tStather, J. W., F.G.S. 16 Louis-street, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

{Stavert, Rev. W. J., M.A. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-Craven.
Yorkshire.

*Stead, Charles. Red Barns, Freshfield, Liverpool.

*Stead, J, E., F.R.S. Laboratory and Assay Ottice, Middlesbrough.

{Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, I.

{Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

{Stearns, Sergeant P, U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.

*Sresbine, Rey. Thomas R.R., M.A., F.R.S, Ephraim Lodge, The
Common, Tunbridge Wells. :

*Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.S. 169 Gloucester-terrace, W.

{Steeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.

{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Stephens, W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York,
ULS.A.

§Stepkenson, G. Cuilin, Glasneyin, Dublin,

{Steven, William, 420 Sauchieball-street, Glasgow.

{Steven, Mrs. W, 420 Sauchiehall-street, Glasgow.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpill, R.S.O.

{Srkvens, Freperick (Local Sec. 1900.) Town Clerk's Office,

Bradford.
{Stevenson, D. A,, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.

*Strevrenson, James C., M.P. Eltham Court, Eltham, Kent.

*Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S, The Cedars, Anglesea-road,
Ipswich.

*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Murtle, Aberdeen.

{Srewart, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hunterian Professor of
Anatomy and Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

{Stewart, C. Hunter. 3 Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.

*Stewart, Duncan. 14 Windsor-terrace West, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.

*Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 85 Stow Park-ayenue, New-
port, Monmouthshire.

{Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.

§Stewart, Thomas. St, George’s-chambers, Cape Town.

{Stewart, Walter, M.A., D.Sc, Gartsherrie, Coatbridge.

{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

{Srretine, Witr1aM, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.

*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,

§Stobbs, J. T. Dunelm, Basford Park, Stoke-on-Trent.

90

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1901,

1865.
1890,
1885.
1898,
1898,

1887.
1899.
1886.
1886.
1874,

1876,
1857.

1895,
1878.
1861,

1903.

1883.
1887.
1884,
1888.
1874,
1871.

1881,

1863.
1882.
1881.

1889.
1879.
1884,

1883.
1898.

1887.

1887.

1876.
1872.
1884,
1892.

1896,
1885.
1897.
1879.

1891.

gach ae Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbartonshire,

*Stock, A Tosoph S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.

{Stockdale, R, The Grammar School, Leeds.

*Stocker, W.N., M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford.

tStoddart, I’, Wallis, F.1.C. Grafton Lodge, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

*Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. Riversdale, Sunday’s Well,
Cork.

{Stone, E. D., F.C.S. Rose Lea, Alderley Edge, Cheshire,

*Stone, Rev. F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

{Stone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham,

{Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., FL. s, F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’ s-buildings,
Temple, 1.C.

{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.8. Rothbury House, Westclifl-gardens,
Bournemouth.

{Sroney, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 30 Ledbury-road, ’ Bayswater. We

*Stoney, G. Gerald. Oakley, Heaton-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyue.

*Srongy, GroreE Jonnstone, M.A., D.Sc. JE. R.S.,M.R.LA. (Pres. A,
1897.) 30 Ledbury-road, Bayswater, W.

*Stopes, Miss Marie, Ph.D., B.Sc. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead,
N.W

{Stopes, Mrs, 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster.

{Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

*Stothert, Perey K. Woodley Grange, Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.

{ Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

*SrracuEy, Lieut.-General Sir Ricwarp, RE., G.C.S.1., LL.D.,
FRS., F.R.GS., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. i, 1875 ; "Council,
1871-75.) 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, W.

{Srrawan, Avsprey, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1904.) Geo-~
logical Museum, Jermyn-street, 8. W.

{Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

{Strange, Rey. Canon Cresswell, M.A. The College, Worcester.

{Srraneways, C, Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W

{Streatfeild, H.8., F.G.8. | Ryhope, near Sunderland.

{Strickland, Sir Charles W., Bart., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.

{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.

§Strong, aged i, M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

*Strong, W. M. 8 Champion-park, Denmark Hill, 8.E.

*Stroud, H., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Physics in the College of
Science, Newecastle-upon-Tyne.

*Srroup, WiniiAM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the University
of Leeds.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

*Stuart, Rey. Edward A.,M.A. 5 Prince’s-square, W.

{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

{Stuart-Gray, Hon. Morton, M.A.,I'.G.S. 2 Belford-park, Edinburgh.

{Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Pat Liverpool.

{Stump, EdwardC. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.

{Stupart, R. F. The Observatory, Toronto, Canada.

*Styring, Robert. Brinkcliffe Tower, Sheffield.

*Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., D.Sc. University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 91

Year of
Hiection.

1902. §Sully, H. J. Avalon House, Priory-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1898. §Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Priory-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1884, {Sumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada,

1887. *Sumpner, W. E., D.Sc. Technical School, Suffolk-street, Birming-
ham.

1883. {Sutcliffe, J. 8., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.

1873. {Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

1863. {Sutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1886. {Suthier leat Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

1892. {Sutherland, James B, 10 Windsor-street, Mdinburgh.

1884. {Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.

1863. {Surron, Francois, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.

1889. {Sutton, William. LEsbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1891. {Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.

1903. §Swallow, Rev. R. D., M.A. Chigwell School, Essex.

1881. §Swan, Sir Jossrpn Witson, M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S, 58 Holland-park, W.

1897. {Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Golly er Factory, Belfast.

1879. tSwanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

1887. §Swrypurne, Jaws, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

1870, *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
1887. *Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. 22 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1890. {SwinHog, Colonel C., F.L.S. Avenue House, Oxford.
1873. {Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
. 1895. {Sykes, HE. R. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.
1902. *Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire.
1887. *Sykes, George H., M.A.,M.Inst.C.1., F.S.A, Glencoe, 64 Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, 8. W.
1896. *Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. Kensington House, Pensford, near Bristol.
1902. *Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Elcombs, Lyndhurst,
Hampshire.
1893. {Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 aa ee Nottingham.
1870. {Symzs, RIcHARD. Guascorr, M.A., F.G.S , Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
1903. §Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough.
1885. {Symineron, Jonunson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903),
Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s College, Belfast.
1886, {Symons, W. H., M.D. (Brux.), M.R.C.P., F.C. Guildhall, Bath.

1896, {Tabor, J. M. Holmwood, Harringay Park, Crouch End, N,

1898, {Tagart, Francis. 199 Queen’s-gate, 5. W,

1865, {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E, Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.

1894, {Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.

1904. §Tallack, H. T. Clovelly, Birdhurst-road, South Croydon,

1903. TW, Ellen G. 48 Campden House Court, Gloucester-
wal

1890. §TANNER, HL. W. Luoyp, D.Se., F.R.S. (Local See. 1891), Professor
of Mathematics and Astronomy in University College, Cardiff.

1897. {Tanner, Professor J. H. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

1892. *Tansley, Arthur G., M.A., F.L.S. University College, W.C.

1883. *Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, F, R.A.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

1878. {Tarrry,Hven. Dublin.

1861. *Tarratt, Henry W. Broadhayes, Dean Park, Bournemouth.

92

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1893.
1902.
1901.
188,
1887.
1898,
1887.
1881.
1884.
1882,
1860.
188],
1865.
1899.
1884.
1900,
1887.
1883.
1901,
1903.
1895,

1893.
1894,
1901.
1858.

1885,

1898,
1879,
1889.
1882,
1896.

1892.
1883,
1883.
1882,

1889.

{Tate, George, Ph.D. College of Chemistry, Duke-street, Liverpool.

{Tate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

{Taylor, Benson, 22 Hayburn-crescent, Partick, Glasgow.

*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.

{Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

{Taylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L. Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham.

{Taylor, George Spratt. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.

*Taylor, H. A. 69 Addison-road, Kensington, W.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity Colleze, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. G Queen Street-place, E.C.

“Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.

{Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham,

[Taylor, Robert H., Assoc.M.Inst.C.I. 5 Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

tTaylor, T. H. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

{ Taylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

§Taylor, William. 57 Sparkenhoe-street, Leicester.

{(‘Taylor, William, 61 Cambridge-road, Southport.

{Taylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburgh.

{ Taylor, W. FF. Bhootan, Whitehorse-road, Croydon, Surrey.

*Taylor, W. W., M.A. 30 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Kingsborough-gardens, Glascow.

{Teatzr, Tuomas Pripvern, M.A., F.R.S. 88 Cookridge-street,
Leeds,

{Teatt, J. J. H., M.A., FBS. F.G.S.. (Pres. C, 1893; Council
1894-1900), Director of the Geological Survey of the United
Kingdom. 89 Thurlow Park-road, West Dulwich, 8.1.

§Tebb, Robert Palmer. Inderfield, Chislehurst, Kent.

{Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.

{Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

{Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

*Terry, Rev. T. R., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Rectory, East Isley, New-
bury, Berkshire.

*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Tetley, C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

{Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

*THann, GEorcE Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University
College, London, W.C.

{Thetford, The Right Rev. A. T. Lloyd, D.D., Bishop of. North
Creake Rectory, Fakenham, Norfolk.

. {Tutsenron-Dygr, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., O.1.E., M.A., B.Se., Ph.D.,

LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8. (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. K, 1895; Council
1885-89, 1895-1900.) Royal Gardens, Kew.

{Thom, Robert Wilson, Lark Hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

{Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

{Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
moutbshire.

*Thomas, Miss Olara. Penurrig, Builth.

tThomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.

{Thomas, FE. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.

§Thomas, Miss Ethel N, 8 Downe-mansions, Gondar-gardens, West
Hampstead, N.W.

{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

{tThomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 93

Year of
Election,

1881.
1869.
1880.
1899.
1902.
1904.

1883.
1898.
1883,
1886.
1904.
1886.
1875.
1891.
1883.

1891.

1882,

1888.
1885.
1896,
1883.
1891.
1904,

1893.

1883.
1891.
1891.
1897.

1891,
1861.
1876,
1883.
1876.

1883.
1896.

1896.
1867.
1894,

1889.
1891.
1896.

1890,
1883.

1871,

{THomas, J. Brount. Southampton.

{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. 86 Breakspears-road, Brockley, S.E,

*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent,

*Thomas, Mrs. J. W. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

§Thomas, Miss M. B. 200 Bristol-road, Birmingham.

§Thomas, Northcote W. 7 Coptic-street, W.C,

{Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Carditf.

{Thomas, Rev. U. Bristol School Board, Guildhall, Bristol

{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

§Thomas William. Bryn-heulog, Merthyr-Tydfil.

{Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, Northampton.

Thompson, Miss C. i. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.

{Thompson, Charles O, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A,

*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.

{Taompson, D’Arcy W., B.A., C.B., Professor of Zoology in Univer-
sity College, Dundee.

*Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop.

*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon,

{Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.

*Thompson, G. R., B.Se., Professor of Mining in the University
of Leeds.

*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs, Grindlay

. & Co., Parliament-street, S.W.

“Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon,

{Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff,

{Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Thompson, J. Barclay. 37 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

{Thompson, J. Tatham, M.B. 23 Charles-street, Carditt.

*THompson, JosePH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

{THompson, Sirvanus Puitiirs, B.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A,S,
(Council 1897-99), Principal and Professor of Physics in the
City and Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury, F.C.

*Thompson, T. H. Oldfield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*THompson, W. H., M.D., D.Sc., King’s Professor of Institutes of
Medicine (Physiology) in Trinity College, Dublin. 14 Hatch-
street, Dublin,

{Thompson, W. P, 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.

{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

{THomson, Artur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in
the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

*Thomson, James, M.A, 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Thomson, John. 70a Grosyenor-street, W.

{ Thomson, John. 3 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.

{THomson, Professor J. ARTHUR, M.A., F.R.S.E. Castleton House,
Old Aberdeen.

jTuomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1896; Council
1893-95), Professor of Experimental Physics in the University
of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Tuomson, Joun Mittar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council 1895-1901), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in King’sCollege, London, 85 Addison-rd., W.

94 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1902. {Thomson, J. Stuart. Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

1901. §Thomson, Dr. J. T. Kilpatrick. 148 Norfolk-street, Glasgow.

1874, —, Wun, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

1880. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

1897. {Thorburn, James, M.D. Toronto, Canada.

1871. ¢{Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A, 1 John’s-place, Leith.

1887. {Thornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.

1898. eee W.M. The Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-

e.

1902. Thonmyatottl Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Eyot Villa, Chis-
wick Mall, W.

1883. {Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.

1903. §Thorp, Edward. 87 Southbank-road, Southport.

1881. {Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

1881. *Thorp, Josiah. 37 Pleasant-street, New Brighton, Cheshire,

1898. §Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.

1898. {Thorpe, Jocelyn Field, Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.

1871. {Tuorrz, T. I., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.O.S.
(Pres. B, 1890; Council 1886-92), Principal of the Government
Laboratories, Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C.

1883. §Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 1 London-street, Southport,

1899, §THRELFALL, RicwarD, M.A., F.R.S. 80 George-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1896. §Thrift, William Edward, M.A., Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Dublin. 80 Grosyenor-
square, Rathmines, Dublin.

1868, {Tuurimer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., OS.1, F.RS., F.R.G.S,
Tudor. House, Richmond Green, Surrey.

1889. {Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.

1870, {Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.L.A. Apotheearies’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

1873. *TrppEMAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 175 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1874, {Trupen, Witriam A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Treas.C.S. (Pres. B, 1888,

Council 1898-1904), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
College of Science, London. The Oaks, Northwood, Middlesex.

1883, {Tillyard, A. I.,M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1883. {Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1896. §Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton, Liverpool.

1899, {Tims, = W. Marett, B.A., M.D., F.L.S. 10 Bateman-street, Cam-
bridge.

1902. §Tipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 21 Greenside, Kendal.

1900. §Tocher, J. F., F.C. 5 Chapel-street, Peterhead, N.B.

1876. {Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, 8.E.

1891. {Todd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.

-1897. {Todhunter, James. 85 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1889, §Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

1857. t{Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

1888. {Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1896. { Toms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, S.W,

1887. {Tonge, James, F.G.S. 24 Hampton-road, Southport.

1865. { Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwickshire.

1873. *Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Portland Hotel, Great Portland-street, W.

1875. {Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.

1884, *Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,

1873. {Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 95

Year of
Election.

1875,
1901.

1876.
1883.
1870.
1868,
1902.
1891,
1884.
1868,

1891.
1887.

1903.
1889.

1884.
1879.
1871.
1860.

1902.

1884,

1885,
1891,
1887,

1898.
1885.
1847,
1888.
1871.
18838.

1392.
1855,
1901.
1901.
1893.
1894,

1886,

1863.

1893,
1890

{Townsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

fTownsend, J. S. E., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physies in the
University of Oxford. New College, Oxford,

*Tratt, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.RS., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen,

tTramt, A., M.D., LL.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.
Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

tTrarnt, Wittam <A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

{TRaquarr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS. (Pres. D,
1900), Keeper of the Natural History Collections, Museum of
Science and Art, Edinburgh.

{Travers, Ernest J. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.

{Trayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, Newport Monmouthshire.

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.

{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

{Treharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber-
ford, Leeds.

{Trenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield.

{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berkshire.

{Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,U.S.A.

{Trickett, F, W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield,

{Trrmen, Roranp, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S. 26 Campden-groye,
Campden Hill, W.

§TRistRaM, Rev. Henry Baxzr, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Durham. The College, Durham.

§Tristram, Rev. J. F., M.A., B.Sc. 160 Cecil-street, Moss Side,
Manchester.

*Trotter Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond-terrace, Whitehall, S.W.

§Trorrer, Courts, F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 10 Randolph-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Trouton, Frepurick T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics
in University College, W.C.

§Trow, Albert Howard. Glanhafren, 50 Clive-road » Penarth.

*Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place, W. °

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

{Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D, 18 Daniel-street, Bath.

tTuke, Sir J. Batty, M.D., M.P. Cupar, Fifeshire.

{Turrer, The Hon. Sir Cuartes, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B. Ottawa,
Canada.

{Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.

{Turnbull, John. 87 West George-street, Glasgow.

§Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction, Dublin.

{Turner, A. Crosbie. 65 Bath-street, Glasgow.

§TuRNER, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinbureh,

*Turner, H. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astro-
nomy in the University of Oxford. ‘The Observatory, Oxford.

*TuRNER, THomas, A.I.S.M., F.C.S., F.1.C., Professor of Metal-
lurgy in the University of Birmingham. 35 Wellington-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

“Turner, Sir Winx, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS, F.RS.E,
(Prusipent, 1900; Pres. H, 1889, 1897), Principal of the
University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Turney, Sir Jonny, J.P. Alexandra Park, N ottingham.

*Turpin, G. 8., M.A., D.Se. High School, Nottingham,

96

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1886.
1898.
1899.
1888.
1865.

1883.
1897.

1884,
1888.
1886,
1905.
1885,
1883.
1876,

1887.
1876.
1866.
1898,
1902.
1880.

1885.
1896.
1887.
1903.
1888.
1884.

1885,
1868.

1865,
1903.
1884,
1895.

1875.
1883.
1881.
1873.

1883.
1904,
1896.
1896.
1890,
1899,

*Twigg, G. H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

{Twiggs, H. W. 65 Victoria-street, Bristol.

t{Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

{Tyack, Llewelyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

§Tytor, Epwarv Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1884;
Council 1896-1902), Professor of Anthropology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford.

{Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Ohemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, E,

{Tyrrell, J. B., M.A., B.Sc. Ottawa, Canada.

*Underhill, G. F., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

{Underhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.

{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.

{Underwood, Captain J. C. 60 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

§Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

§Unwin, John. Eastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council,
1892-99.) 7 Palace Gate-mansions, Kensington, W.

{Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

tUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glaszow.

{Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

{Usher, Thomas. 3 Elmgrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

§Ussher, R. J. Cappagh House, Cappagh, Co. Waterford.

{Ussurr, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

tVachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.

{Vacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

§Vallack, Edmund, 5 St. Michael’s-terrace, Stoke, Devonport.

{Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.

{Van Horne, Sir W. C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.

*Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

{ Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S, Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay~
avenue, Stoke Newington, N.

*Vartey, 8S. ALFRED. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N.

{Varwell, H. B. 2 Pennsylvania Park, Exeter,

{Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, W.

§Vaughan, D.'T. Gwynne. Botanical Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow.

{ Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

{ Vaughan, William, 42 Sussex-road, Southport.

§Vetey, V. H., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 20 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

ss Sir Epmunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S, Claydon House, Winslow,

ucks.

*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

*Vernon, H. M., M.A., M.D. 38 Bevington-road, Oxford.

*Vernon, Thomas T, Wyborne Gate, Birkdale, Southport.

*Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.

*Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R.de,R.E. Carlisle Lodge, Rickmansworth,

*Vincent, Professor Swatz, M.B. Physiological Laboratory, Uni-
yersity of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada,

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS, 97

of

Election.

1883

1902.
1891
1904

1904

1886,
1902.
1860.

1909.
1888,

1890.

1900.
1891.
1902.
1884,

1836,
1870. +
1884.
1891.
1891.
1804.
1882,
1885.
1893.
1890,
1901.
1897,

18833.
1904.
1891.
1897.
1894.

1866.
1896.
1890,
1894.
1866,
1866,
1884,
1888,
1887.
1883.
1896.
1896.
1896.
1883,
1863.

. “Vines, SypNry Howarp, M.A., D.Sc, F.RS., F.LS. (Pres. K,
1900; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University
of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

. §Vinycomb, T. B. Riverside, Holywood, Co. Down.

. [Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.

. §Volterra, Professor Vito. Regia Universita, Rome.

- §Wace, A. J.B. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. 33 Portland-street, Leamington.

{ Waddell, Rev. C. H. The Vicarage, Saintfield.

pieidogham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester=
shire.

{Waddington, Dr. C, E. 2 Mawlborouzh-road, Manningham, Bradford.

tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford,

et W. T., F.R.S., F.L.S. Arnold House, Bass-street,

erby.

t Wagstaff, C.J.L, B.A. 8 Highfield-place, Manningham, Bradford.

tweet VE Tees RiGEECAeAa. Cardiff ae é

{Wainwright, Joel. Finchwood, Marple Bridge, Stockport.

{ Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Teu-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.

t{ Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.

WAKE, CHARLES STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire,

{Waldstein, Professor C., M.A., Ph.D. King’s College, Cambridge.

{ Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.

{ Walford, Edward, M.D. ‘Thanet ILouse, Cathedral-road, Cardiff,

{Watronp, Epwin A., F.G.S. 21 West Bar, Banbury.

*Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistocl,

{ Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.

§ Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe Place, Maidstone, Kent.

{Walker, A. Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds.

*Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.LC. 8 Crown-terrace, Glasgow.

*Watker, B. E., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1897), Canadian Bank of
Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

{ Walker, Mrs. mma. 13 Lendal, York. -

§ Walker, EK. R. 19 Roe-lane, Southport.

Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leeds.

{Waiker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.

*Watker, G. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS, Meteorological
Office, Simla, India.

t Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.

{ Walker, Horace. Belvidere-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

{ Walker, Dr. James. 19 Springfield, Dundee.

*Wacker, JAMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Watker, J. Francis, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S, 45 Bootham, York.

{Walker, 8. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.

{ Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, S.E.

{Walker, Syduey F. Bloomfield-crescent, Bath.

tWalker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, 8. W.

{ Walker, Thomas A, 7 Cambridge-road, Southport.

{Watker, Wittras G., A.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpoot.

tWaliker, W.J. D. Glenhanna, Laurencetown, Co. Down, Ireland.

{tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

¢Watracez,Atrrep Russet, D.C.L.,F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S, (Pres. D,
1876; Council 1870-72.) Broadstone, Wimborne, Dorset.

1904. G

98

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1897.
1892.
1901.
1887.
1889.
1895,

1883.
1886,

{Wallace, Chancellor. Victoria University, Toronto, Canada.

{ Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

{Wallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-place, Glasgow.

*Waxtper, Auveustus D., M.D., F.R.S. 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.

{Wattis, FE, Were ache Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,
Margaret-street, W.

{ Wallis, Rey. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.

t{Wallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Cheyening, Montague-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

. *Warmistey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E, 9 Victoria-street, Westminster, :

S.W

a Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.

§ Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell,
E.C.

‘ {Walsh , W. T. H. Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, E.
. {WatsryeHam, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,

Thetford.

. *Walter, Miss L. Edna. 88 Woodberry-grove, Finsbury Park, N.

*Walters, William, jun. Albert House, Newmarket.

. { Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.
. §Ward, A. H. M., B.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
. }Warp, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.

§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

. {Waxp, H. Marsnarr, D.Sc, F.RS., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1897;

Council 1890-97), Professor of Botany, University of Cam-
bridge. New Museums, Cambridge,

. {Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds,
. §Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.

}Warp, Jonny, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staflordshire.

{ Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

*Ward, J. Wesney. 4 Chepstow-mansions, Chepstow-place, Bays:
water, W.

tWard, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton.

{ Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.

tWardle, Sir Thomas, I°.G.8. St, Edward-street, Leek, Stafford-
shire.

{ Wardwell, George J. 31 Groye-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.

*Waring, Richard 8, Standard Underground Cable Co., 16th-street,
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

{Warrneron, Ropert, F.R.S., F.C.S. High Bank, Harpenden, St. -
Albans, Herts.

*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

{Warrand, Major-General, R.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.

{ Warren, Lieut.-General Sir Cantus, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G,
¥.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1887.) Athenzeum Club, S.W.

. | Warringten, Arthur W. University College, Aberystwyth,

{ Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.

. “WarERHOUSE, Major-General J. Oak Lodge, Court-road, Eltham,

Kent.

. §Waters, A. H., B.A. 48 Devonshire-road, Cambridge.
. { Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.
. §Waterston, David, M.D. 23 Colinton-road, Edinburgh.

{Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh,
;Watherston, Rey. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R,A.S. The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 99

Year of

Election,

1884, { Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

1901, *Watson, Arnold Thomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent~
road, Sheffield.

1886, *Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham. ’

1883, { Watson, 0, Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, W.C.

1892, SW ster G., Assoc.M.Inst.C.6. Stonegate, Pool-in-Wharfedale,

eeds,

1885. { Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G, A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

1884, { Watson, John, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

1889.
1863.
1863,
1867.
1894,

1892.
1879.

1882,
1884,
1901.

1875.
1884,

1870.

1896.
1873.
1883,

1891.
1869,
1883.
1871.
1891.
1859,
1884,

1903.
1889.
1890.

1886.
1865.

1902.
1894,
1876.

1880.
1897.
1881.

{Watson, John, F.I.C. P.O. Box 317, Johannesburg, South Africa,
{ Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead,

{ Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
{ Watson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.
pee Professor W., D.Sc. F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row,

§ Watson, William, M.D. The Lea, Corstorphine, Midlothian.

*Warson, Wittiam Henry, F.C.S., F.G.8. The Crofts, Seascale,
Cumberland.

tWatt, Alexander. 29 Grange Mount, Claughton, Birkenhead.

tWatt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

alan Henry Anderson. Ardenslate House, Hunter's Quay, Argyll-
shire.

*Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford,

*Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. The Red House, Bemerton, Salis:

ury.

§ Watts, William, F.G.S. Little Don Waterworks, Langsett, near
Penistone.

{ Watts, W. H. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.

*Warrts, W. Marswart, D.Sc. 166 Venner-road, Sydenhatn, 8. E.

*Warts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc, F.R.S., Sec.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903;
Council 1902- __), Assistant Professor of Geology in the
University of Birmingham. Holmwood, Bracebridge-road,
Sutton Coldfield.

{ Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

{ Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

{Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.

§ Webber, Thomas. The Laurels, 83 Newport-road, Roath, Cardiff,

{ Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.

*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Jahnstrasse 5, Karlsruhe,

§ Weekes, R. W., A.M.Inst.C.E. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent.

}Weeks, John G. Bedlington.

*Wuiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
Victoria University, Manchester.

{ Weiss, Henry. Westhourne-road, Birmingham.

{ Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, 8. W.

{Welch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast.

{Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Wexpon, Professor W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres, D, 1898.)
The Museum, Oxford.

*Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

{ Welford, A. B., M.B. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada,

§Wellcome, Henry 8, Snow Hill-buildings, B.C,

G2

100

LIST OF MEMBERS

Year of

Election.

1881. {Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.
1894, tWells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.
1883, { Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.

1881.

1864.
1886,

1866,

1853.
1898.
1858.
1900.
1905.
1897.
1882,
1882.
1882.

1900.

1904,
1886,

1884,

1878.
1888.
1893,
1888,
1888,
1879.

1898.
1883,
1859.

1884,

1886.
1897.
1886.
1886,

1898.
1904,
1882.
1885.
1873.
1883.
1865.
1895.

1884,

*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Were, Anthony Berwick. Joslyn, Walland’s Park, Lewes.

*Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
of Chemistry inthe Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

tWesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, W. ’

{ West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.

{ West, Charles D. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

{ West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

§ West, William, F.L.S. 26 Woodville-terrace, Horton-lane, Bradford.

§ Westaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford.

tWestern, Alfred IX. 386 Lancaster-gate, W.

*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Fordingbridge, Salisbury.

t{Westiake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

{WersereD, Epwarp B.,F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-

ham.

tWethey, KE. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham,
Bradford.

§Weymouth, E.S., M.A. 27 Southampton-street, Strand, W.C.

*Wuarron, Admiral Sir W. J. L., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1894; Council 1890-91.) Florys, Prince’s-
road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.

olla or Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
U.S.A

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.0.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.

§Whelen, John Leman, 18 Frognal, Hampstead, N.W.

*Wueruim, W.C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cambridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

*WHIDBORNE, Rey. GrorcE Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. Hammerwood
Lodge, Kast Grinstead, Sussex.

*Whipple, Robert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge.

*Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in- Wharfedale.

*WaitAkEeR, WittIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895;
Council 1890-96.) 3 Campden-road, Croydon.

ace Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{ Whitcombe, KE. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham,

{Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

{ White, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Wauurs, A. Srzva, Hon. F.R.S.G.S. (Assisranr Secretary.) 63
St. James’s-street, S. W.

{White, George. Clare-street House, Bristol.

§ White, H. Lawrence, B.A. 2 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Cheltenham.

{ White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, Southampton.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

{White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

White, Joseph. 6 Southwell-gardens, S.W.

{ White, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College,
Bangor, North Wales. : ;

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 101

Year of

Election,

1898. { White, Samuel. Clare-street House, Bristol.

1859. { White, Thomas Henry, Tandragee, Ireland.

1877. *White, William, 20 Hillersdon-avenue, Church-road, Barnes, S.W,

1897. *Wuire, Sir W. H., K.C.B,, F.R.S. (Pres. G, 1899; Council 1897-
1900). Cedarcroft, Putney Heath, 8.W.

1904. NE EENED, J. E, L., M.A, (local See, 1904). Guildhall, Cam.

ridge,

1883. { Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.

1893. §Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.LC. 5 Bagnall-street, West
Bromwich.

1881. {Whittield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

1900. { Whitley, E. N. Heath Royde, Halifax.

1891. §Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Hyde Park, Leeds.

1896. § Whitney, Colonel C, A. The Grange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

1897. {Wuirraxer, KE. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1901. §Whitton, James, City Chambers, Glasgow.

1857. *Wuirty, Rey. Joun Irwin, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Alpha Villa,
Southwood, Ramsgate.

1887. {Whitwoll, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

1883, {Whitworth, James. 36 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

1870. { Whitworth, Rev, W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, W.

1897. {Wickett, M., Ph.D. 339 Berkeley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1865.
1886,
1896,
1878,
1889,

1887.
1887,

1896,
1904,
1900.
1892,
1886,
1872.
1890,
1872.
1903.
1894,

1904,

1891,
1861,

1887,

1883.
1861.

1875.

1883,
18838.

1891.
1885.

1888,

j Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham.

{ Wiggin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

{ Wigglesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool,

}Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

*WILBERFORCE, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University
of Liverpool.

tWild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.

*Wixpr, Henry, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.

f{Wildermann, Meyer. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W.

§ Wilkinson, Mrs, Caroline. Dringhouses Manor, York.

§ Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill, Bradford.

{Willkinson, Rev. J. Frome., M.A. Barley Rectory, Royston, Herts.

*Wilkinson, J. H. Elmhurst Hall, Lichfield,

} Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

{ Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.

{ Witerr, Henry (Local See. 1872). Arnold House, Brighton,

} Willett, John E. 3 Park-road, Southport.

{ Willey, Arthur, D.Se., F.R.S. The Museum, Colombo, Ceylon,

*Williams, Miss Antonia, 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

_{Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.
? ’ g

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.

} Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.0.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.

“Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-

ort, Monmouthshire.

{ Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

{ Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entry Hill, Bath.

§Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Ramalho, Oatlands Park,
Weybridge.

*Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W.

*Willianis, Miss Katharine TJ. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale,
Clifton, Bristol,

102

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1901

1891.

1886.
1883.

1883.
1877.

1857.

1876.
1894.
1895.
1895.

1896,

1859.
1898.
1899.
1899.
1886.
1901.
1878.

1876.
1904.
1894.

1903.

1874,

1876.
1904.
1900.
1890.
1863.

1847.

1903.
1874.
1863.
1895.
1901.
1902.
1883.

1879.
1885.
1890.
1866.
1884,

1879.

1901.

1901.
1876,
1847,
1883,

. *Williams, Miss Mary, 6 Sloane-gardens, 8. W.

t Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.

{ Wilkiams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

{ Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool.

*Wirtiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. University College, Sheffield.

saree a Benga, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.

{ Williamson, Rey. F. J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.

*Williamson, Mrs. Janora. Ardoyne, Birkbeck-road, Muswell Hill, N.

{Witnnk, W. (Loeal Sec. 1896). 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

{Willis, John C., M.A., F.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanical
Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon.

{Wu1tison, J. 8. (Local Sec. 1897). - Toronto, Canada.

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Saxholm, Basset, Southampton.

{ Wills, H. H. Barley Wood, Wrington, R.S.O., Somerset.

§ Willson, George. 12 St. Leonard’s-terrace, Streatham, S.W.

§ Willson, Mrs. George. 12 St. Leonard’s-terrace, Streatham, S.W.

{ Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

tWilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down.

{ Wilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.

{ Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

§ Wilson, Charles John. Deanfield, Hawick, Scotland.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.1.C., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.

§ Wilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

{Wutson, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.RAS., F.R.G.S, (Pres E, 1874, 1888.) The Athenszeum Club,
S.W.

{ Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

§ Wilson, David, M.D. Grove House, Paddock, Huddersfield.

*Wilson, Duncan R. Menethorpe, Malton,

{ Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

} Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, N.W.

§ Wilson, George. The University, Leeds.

*Wilson, George Orr. 20 Berkeley-street, W.

{ Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

{Wilson, Dr. Grege. Queen’s College, Belfast.

§ Wilson, Harold A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 146 High-street, Southampton.

*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, R.S.0.,
Kent.

{Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

{ Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall-gate, Doncaster,

{Wutson, Ven. Archdeacon James M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage,
Rochdale.

{Wilson, James S. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

{Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

*Wilson, Joseph. Hillside House, Avon-road, Walthamstow, N.E.

§ Wilson, Mrs. Mary R., M.D. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

{ Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke,

{Wilson, T, Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 108

Year of
Election.

1892,
1887.
1871.

1904.
1877.
1886.

1863,

1888,
1875.

1883,
1898.
- 1884,

1883.
1863.
1883,
1901.
1875,
1878,

1883.
1893.

1864,
1871.
1904,
1899,
1901.
1872.
1853,
1899.

1883,
1884.
1896,
1888,
1904.
1904.

1887.

1869.

1886.
1866.

1870.
1894,

§Wilson,T.Stacey,M.D. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.

*Witson, Wittiam E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Daramona House, Streete,
Rathowen, Ireland.

§Wimperis, J.T. 37 Half Moon-street, W.

{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.

tWrnvtz, Berrram C, A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of
Queen’s College, Cork.

*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864.)
11 Cavyendish-crescent, Bath.

{Woprnovsg, Right Hon. E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, S.W.

{}Wotre-Barry, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
ey Council, 1899-1903.) 21 Delahay-street, Westminster,

{Wolfenden, Samuel, Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.

t Wollaston, G. H. Clifton College, Bristol.

{ Womack, Frederick, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Physics and Applied
Mathematics at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Bedford College,
Baker-street, W.

tWood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey,

*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

tWood, Miss Kmily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.

*Wood, Miss Ethel M. 3 Shorncliffe-road, Folkestone.

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.

tWoop, Sir H. Trumman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, W.C.; and 16 Leinster-square, Bayswater, W.

*Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

}Wood, Joseph T. 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire,

{ Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.

tWood, T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,

§Wood, T. B., M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire,

*Wood, William James. 266 George-street, Glasgow.

t{ Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.

*Woodall, J. W., M.A. 5 Queen’s-mansiouns, Victoria-street, 5S. W.

*Woodcock, Mrs. E. M. Lohaghur, zza Solat, Panighatta P. O.,
Siliguri, North Bengal, India.

tWoodeock, Herbert S. The Elms, Wigan.

{ Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, N.W.

§WoopHeEAD, Professor G. Sims, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.

*Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire,

§Woodrow, John. Berryknowe, Meilkleriggs, Paisley.

§ Woods, Henry, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

Woops, Samvet. 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, 1.C,

*Woopwarp, ArTHuR SmitH, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Council
1908- ), Keeper of the Department of Geology, British
Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, S.W.

*WoopwarD, ©. J., B.Se, F.G.S. 127 Metchley-lane, Harborne,
Birmingham.

t{ Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, 5.W.

}Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1887;
Council, 1887-94.) 129 Beaufort-street, Chelsea, S.W.

tWoopwarp, Horace B., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W,

104

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884,

1890,
1883.

1856.
1878.

1865.
1901,
1904.

1855,

1884,
1896.
1383,
1883.
1890.
1886.
1884,
1876.
1902.
1874.
1865.
1884.

1904,
1876.
1903.
1871.

1898.

1902.

1897.
1901.
1902,

1885.
1871.
1862,

1899,

1875.
1901,

1894,
1877.
1884,
1904,
1891.
1886.

1884,
1894,

*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St, Bees,

*Woolleombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F’.L.Inst., F.S,5., M.R.LA.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin,

*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

{ Woolley, Thomas Smith, South Collingham, Newark.

{Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Noydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol,

tWorth, J. T. Oakenrod Mount, Rochdale.

§$Worthington, A. M., C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
Nayal Engineering College, Devonport. Mohuns, Tavistock,

*Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford, Stour-
bridge.

tWragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

{ Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Baslow, Derbyshire.

*Wright, Rey. Arthur, D.D. Queen’s Collece, Cambridge.

*Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford,

{ Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.

{ Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.

{ Wright, Harrison, Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

{ Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

§Wright, John. The White House, Burns-street, Nottingham.

{ Wright, Joseph, F.G.S. 4 Alfred-place, Belfast.

{Wright, J. S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,

{Waicut, Professor R, Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.

§Wright, R. T. Goldieslie, Trumpington, Cambridge.

tWhright, William, 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.

§Wright, William. The University, Birmingham.

} Wricutson, Sir Tuomas, Bart.,M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, Neasham
Hall, Darlington.

{ Wrong, Professor George M. The University, Toronto, Canada,

ft Wyatt, G. H. 1 Maurice-road, St, Andrew’s Park, Bristol.

{Wyld, Frederick. 127 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

§ Wylie, Alexander. Kirkfield, Johnstone, N.B.

fWylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast.

{Wyness, James I)., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen,

{ Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Plas-yn-Cefn, St. Asaph.

{Wynne, Arrour Brevor, F.G.S. Gelogical Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

{Wyryne, W. P., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Sheftield. 106 Whitham-road, Sheffield.

{Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 28 Oalifield-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Yapp, R. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in University College,
Aberystwyth.

*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster,

*Yarrow, A. F, Poplar, E.

{Yonge, Rey. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.

{York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, W.

§Young, Alfred. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

§Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 534 Algiers-road, Ladywell, S.E.

*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S. (Local Sec. 1887), Professor of
Anatomy in Owens College, Manchester.

{ Young, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, S.W.

*Young, George, Ph.D, University College, Sheffield.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 105

lection.

1884, {Young, Professor George Paxton, 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada,

1876. *Young, John. 2 Montague-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow,

1896. { Young, J. Denholm, 88 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1885. {Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1901. Young, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna, Belfast.

1883. *Youne, Sxpnzy, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1504), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin. 12 Raglan-road, Dublin.

1887. {Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, F.C,

1890, {Young, V. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.

1901, {Young, William Andrew. Milburn House, Renfrew.

1903, §Yoxall, J, H., M.P, 67 Russell-square, W.C.

1886, {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
1886, {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.

106

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Hlection,

1887.
1892,

1881.
1897.
1894,
1894,

1887.
1892.

1894,
1893.
1880.
1887.
1884.

1890.
1893.

1887.
1884.

1894,
1897.

1887.
1887.

1894.

1861.

1901.
1894.
1887.

1873.
1889.

1901.
1872.
1870.
1890,

Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18).

Professor G. F. Barker. 3909 Locust-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor F. Beilstein. 8th Line, No. 17, St. Petersburg.

Professor E. van Beneden. 50 quai des-Pécheurs, Liége, Belgium.

Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.

Professor M. Bertrand. 75 rue de Vaugirard, Paris.

Deputy Surgeon-General J. 8. Billings. 40 Lafayette-place, New
York, U.S.A.

Professor Christian Bohr, Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. XVIII. Haizingergasse 26, Vienna.

Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
U.S.A.

Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D., LL.D, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen.

Professor Dr. W. OC. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Kristiania, Norway.

Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.

Professor George J. Brush. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
U.S.A.

Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.

M. C. de Candolle. 38 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy.

Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. C. 8, No. 9, Mannheim, Germany.

Emile Cartailhac. 5 rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Universitiitstrasse 15, Leipzig.

Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. A. Chauveau. 7 rue Cuvier, Paris.

F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Professor Guido Cora. Via Goito 2, Rome.

W. - a United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,

S.A.

Dr. Yves Delage. Paris. a

Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohm, D.C.L. Naples.

Professor V. Dwelshauyers-Dery, 4 Quai Marcellis, Liége, Belgium,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 107

Year of
Election.

1876.
1894,
1892.
1901.
1894.

1892.
1901.
1874,
1886,
1887.
1894.
1872.
1901.
1894,
1887.
1892.
1881.
1866.
1901.
1884,
1892.
1870.
1889.
1889,
1884,
1892.

1876,
1881.
1895.

1893.
1894.
1893.

1895,
1897.
1881,

1887.
1884,

1867,
1876.
1881,

1887.
1876.
1884.
1873.
1894,
1896.

1856.
1894,
1894,

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor H. Elster. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor T. W. W. Engelmann, D.C.L. Neue Wilhelmstrasse 15,
Berlin, N.W.

Professor Léo Errera. 38 rue de la Loi, Brussels.

Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A.

Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Alteurekring N. 19b, Braunschweig, Germany.

Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Iincke Platz 3a, Berlin, S.W. 48.

W. de Fonvielle. 50 rue des Abbesses, Paris,

Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor Léon Fredevicq. Rue de Pitteurs 20, Liege, Belgium.

Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague, Bohemia.

Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Dorotheen Strasse 35, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris.

Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis rue des Saints Péres, Paris.

Professor Dr. H. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

Daniel C. Gilman. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

Professor Gustave Gilson. Université, Louvain, Belgium.

A. Gobert, 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.

Dr. C. KE. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 37 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.

Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 23, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. Univeraitiit, Kénigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. The University,
Utrecht, Netherlands.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, IR.1., U.S.A.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. L’Observatoire, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. 116 rue de Carouge, Geneva, Switzerland.

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. 32 East Preston-street, Baltimore, U.S.A.

Professor C. Julin. 153 rue de Fragnée, Liége.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Bastions Vittoria 31, Milan.

Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan,

Professor Dr, Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen.

Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

Dr. Kohlrausch, Mbchstxhtes 25B, and Physikalisch-technische
Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Berlin.

Professor A. von KGlliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.

Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.

Maxime Koyaleysky. 13 Avenue de l’Observatoire, Paris, France,

108

Year of
Election

1887,
1877.

1887,
1887.

1882.

1872.
1901.
1887.
1883.
1877.
1837.
1871.

1894.
1887.
1867,
1887,
1890,

1887.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1894,
18935.
1877.

1894,
1897,
1897.

1887.
1889.
1894,

1864,
1884,

1887,
1894.
1894.
1890.
1889.

1890.
1895,
1887,
1901.
1890.
1894,
1870.
1886.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,

,

Professor W. Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, 17/I, Charlottenburg, bei
Berlin,

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. Universitit, Bern,
Switzerland,

Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 108, Breslau,

Professor J. W. Langley. 77 Cornell-street, Cleveland, Ohio,
U.S.A.

Dr. S. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, U.S.A.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris.

Professor Philipp Lenard. Kiel.

Professor A. Lieben, IX. Wasagasse 9, Vienna,

Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/[, Munich,

Dr. M. Lindemann. Sennorrstrasse 62, I], Dresden,

Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Universitit, Zurich.

Professor Jacob Liiroth. Mozartstrasse 10, and Universitit, Freiburg
in-Breisgau, Germany.

Professor Dr. Otto Maas. Universitiit, Munich.

Dr. Henry C. McCook. 3700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Professor Mannheim. 1 Boulevard Beauséjour, Paris.

Dr. CO. A. Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W. .

Professor 5. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 rue de l'Université,
Paris.

Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. Université, St. Petersburg.

Professor N. Menschutkin, St. Petersburg.

Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djuvsholm, Stockholm.

Professor H. Moissan. ‘The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).

Professor V. L. Moissenet. 15 rue du Chateau Paillot, Chaumont,
Haute Marne, France.

Dr. Edmund yon Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna, III/3.

Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden. -

Professor E, W. Morley, LL.D. Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio,
U.S.A. f

E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Dr. F'. Nansen, Lysaler, Norway.

Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico dell’ Universita, Padova,
Italy.

Dr. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

Professor Simon Neweomb. 1620 P-street, Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A.

Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Klsass, Germany.

Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.

Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2; Leipzig.

Professor A. S. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

Maffeo Pantaleoni. 20 Route de Malagnou, Geneva.

Professor F, Paschen. Universitit, Tiibingen.

Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany,

Hofrath Professor A. Penck. Marokkanergasse 12, Vienna.

Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockhoms Hogskola, Stockholm.

Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. - Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig.

Professor Felix Plateau, 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium,

Professor F, W. Putnam, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS, 109

Year of
Election,

1887. Professor Georg Quincke. Hauptstrasse 47, Friederichsbau, Heidel-
berg.

1868. L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7.

1895. Professor Ira Remsen. Jolins Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

1897. Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 rue de l'Université, Paris, France.

’ 1873. Professor Baron von Riclithofen, MKurfiirstetistrasse 117, Berlin, W.

1896. Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

1892. Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

1890. A. Lawrence Rotch, Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachusetts,

U.S.A.

1895. Professsr Karl Runge. [Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 5, Kirchrode, bei
Hannover.

1901. Gen.-Major Rykatchew. Central Physical Observatory, St. Peters-
bur,

1894, Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Netherlands,

1874. Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 75, Berlin.

1897. Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

1892. Dr. Maurits Snellen, Clief Director of the Royal Meteorologital
Institute of the Netherlands, de Bilt, near Utrecht.

1887. Professor H. Graf Solms. Botanischer Garten, Strassburg.

1887. Ernest Solvay. 25 rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

1888. Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

1889. Professor G. Stefanescu. Strada Verde 8, Bucharest, Roumania.

1881. Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘lhe University, Athens.

1894. Professor E, Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

1881. Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm, Frinkelplatz 9, Breslau.

1887. Dr. 7. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.

1887. Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University

of Pesth, Hungary.

1890. Professor Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff. Ublandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg,
Berlin. .

1889, Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow.

1886. Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium.

1887. Professor TI. F. Weber. Zurich.

1887. Professor Dr, Leonhard Weber. Moltke Strasse GO, Kiel.

1887. Professor August Weismann, Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden.

1887. Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

1881. Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A.

1887. Professor E. Wiedemann. Hrlangen. (C/o T. A, Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig.)

1887. Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
Baden.

1887. Dr. Otto N. Witt. 21 Siegmundshof, Berlin, N.W. 23.

1876. Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,

1887. Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A,

1896. Professor E. Zacharias. DBotanischer Garten, Hamburg.

1887, Professor F. Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig.

110

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED,

GREAT BRITAIN

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Midland Institute.

Bradford, Philosophical Society.

Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

, The Museum.

Cambridge Philosophical Society,

Cardiff, University College.

Chatham, Royal Mngineers’ Institute.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

, Royal College of Surgeons in

Ireland.

, Royal. Geological Society of |
Treland.

—-, Royal Irish Academy.

——, Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

——, Royal Medical Society of.

, Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Institute of Science.

——, Philosophical and Literary |
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

, Royal Institution.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

, Anthropological Institute.

, Arts, Society of.

—.,, Chemical Society.

——,, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

—— , Geological Society.

—, Geology, Museum of Practical,
28 Jermyn Street.

——, Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

——,, Guildhall, Library,

——, King’s College.

——, Linnean Society.

——, London Institution,

AND IRELAND.

London, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.

——, Physical Society.

——, Meteorological Office.

——., Royal Asiatic Society.

——.,, Royal Astronomical Society,

——,, Royal College of Physicians.

, Royal College of Surgeons.

-, Royal Geographical Society.

—-, Royal Institution.

, Royal Meteorological Society.

-—, Royal Society.

-, Royal Statistical Society.

——, Sanitary Institute.

——., United Service Institution,

——, University College.

——, War Office, Library.

, Zoological Society.

| Manchester Literary and Philosophical

Society.

, Municipal School of Technology.
Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Natural History
Society.

| ——., Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

——, Marine Biological Association.

Richmond, Surrey, National Physical
Laboratory (Observatory Depart-
ment),

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield, University College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

_ The Corresponding Societies.

111

EUROPE,
Berlin .........0++ Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.
demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.
; schaften. Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists.
BONN ccasces. ...University Library. sae ee eens University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.
Sciences. Naples ........... Royal Academy
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Paris ............ Association Frangaise
servatory. pour ’Avancement
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of des Sciences.
Sciences, —— ens cepnettes Geographical Society.
Dorpat, Russia.. cg temeeared Library, Settle ticat Geological Society.
Dresden ...,.....Royal Museum. ——seseeveeeees Royal Academy of
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- Sciences,
CET ES ya Ne | ae Mle ic, School of Mines.
Geneva............ Naturl History So- | Pultova ......... Imperial. Observatory.
ciety. [iy EROTIGE fee euseaes Accademia dei Lincei.
Gottingen ...... University Library. ...Collegio Romano.
Gratz ............Naturwissenschaft- SSE ev sctenens Ttalian Geographical
licher Verein. | Society.
ERRGS .nccesse0-.. Leopoldinisch-Caro- | —— sssseeevees Italian . Society of
linische Akademie. | Sciences.
Tfarlem ......... Société Hollandaise | St. Petersburg . University Library.
des Sciences. | ——— sasseeencees Imperial Observatory.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Helsingfors...... University Library. cM iinieressess nedees Royal Academy of
Jena......... ...... University Library. Sciences.
Kazan, Russia ... University Library. Upsala....:..:000 Royal Society of
Lice eae Royal Observatory. Science.
LSC Tinecoocteesaaeae University Library. Utrecht <........ University Library.
Lausanne......... The University. Vienne.......000.: The Imperial Library.
Leyden ......... University Library e cmaeeweetnes Central Aunstalt fiir
Liege ............ University Library Meteorologie und
Lisbon ............ Academia Real mS Erdmagnetismus,
Sciences.
ASIA.
LAGGY AaReeppeooee The College. | Calcutta ......... Medical College.
Rombay .........Elphinstone Institu- |—— —....... Presidency College.
tion. Ceylonicc ses. .0s The Museum,Colombo.
——_seeeerees Grant Medical Col- | Madras............ The Observatory.
lege. ea Sereoccercee University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society. | TOKYO wseeseseees Imperial University.
= ttrvrvere Hooghly College.
AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope. .

. The Royal Observatory.

AMERICA.
Albany © .....0+0 The Institute. New York... American Society of
Amberst .....:... The Observatory. Civil Engineers.
Baltimore ......Johns Hopkins Uni- —— ......... Lyceum of Natural
versity. History.
Boston ........0++ American Academy of Ottawa . .-Geological Survey of
Lash Arts and Sciences. Canada. :
California ...... The University. Philadelphia... American Philosophical
ahem Lick Observatory. Society,
——— severe Academy of Science. ©—— —.....seee Franklin Institute.
Cambridge ...... Harvard Beary = seeeeeee University of ro
Library. Vania.
Chicago ..... .... American Medical Toronto’ i.!..4%. The Observatory.
Association. . Seantanes The Canadian Insti-
—. eeeeess-- Field Columbian Mu- tute.
seum. | ———_ eveeeees The University.
Kingston .........Queen’s University. | Washington...Bureau of Ethnology.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- = —— _....ssee Smithsonian Insti¢u-
tific Society. tion.
Mexico .........Sociedad Cientifica. ——~ .....4... The Naval Observatory.
‘Antonio Alzate, | —— ni. United States Geolo-
Missouri ......... Botanical Garden. gical Survey of the
Montreal ......... Council of Arts and | Territories.
Manufactures. | —— .....4... Library of Congress,
— seeeveseeMeGill University. | —— _ .........Board of Agriculture
AUSTRALIA,

Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.

. . « « The Royal Geographical Society.
Brisbane. . . . Queensland Museum.

Melbourne . . . Public Library.

Sydney . . . .« Public Works Department.

—— . . . » Australian Museum.

Tasmania. . . . Royal Society.

Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury Museum.

PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., NEW-STREET SQUABE
LONDON

re

“ut

ALS Yi

a