CK Ay Watt tee Pest vie ¥ 4 Téa Perey AN Pritt y' CLO % REPORT OF THE SEVENTY-SEVENTH MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE LEICESTER 31 JULY—7 AUGUST, 1907 LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET 1908 Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W. PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., NEW-STREET SQUARE LONDON CONTENTS. Page RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCTATION........ccccsssccccccsscsseccessccsecsevesece XXVIL OEFICERS AND COUNCID, 1907-08 co ciccctcdeccccncccsecsorecsscvcsccesss egeeadeenes HXXW Tasies: Past ANNUAL MEETINGS: Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local Secretaries xliii Trustees and: General Officers: ....:.scseecce-rssersncsossseeceeoesdccavee LVL Sectional Presidents and Secretaries ........s.sscsseseeeecseeeeeeeseeeee LX Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates ............... Ixxx Evening Discourses...... Porannn enaieetencon ccueteedtscesevertaresnsasenns LRRD Lectures to the Operative Classes...... co.ccsssasccsscssccsscerercsscseees LXEXIV PATENORNEEN ANG RECEIDES). +. cb aasretacsent rcs sivosha<6¥pepeheeresesseneccs LXXXVL PAM BLY SIS IOL Aten GANGES) Os -.ceeoesscocussisctevece-Dasedsesicdscuecs su-sveno I XXXVIIL Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes ..........ssssscsseereeseeeceeeee IEXXIX REPORT OF THE CoUNCIL To THE GENERAL Committes, 1906-07 ...... cx GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, 1906-07 ........csssceccscsreceeccesceesees CXLV LEICESTER MEETING, 1907: Mpc NEER LANES «15... < By J, Lomas cA cRsO.5.3,2.Gt0s:),. cdkg ooops: ep h agiaeclninwestecinarts aad 573 5. The Kurdish Tribes of Asiatic Turkey. By Mark SYKES .............s0008 574 MONDAY, AUGUST 5. 1. The Land’s End Peninsula: a Regional Survey. By A. W. ANDREWS... 574 2. The Hinterland of the Port of Manchester. By J. McFartant............ 575 3. The Geographical Evolution of Communications. By Professor V1DAL TSU MMIMEEMUN Ee enctaeetsssitns ccd. terenad ud eonertenedaese ca ecetee ced roneteccees 575 4, *Explorers and Colonists. By J. D. ROGERS.............ccs.secsceesescceensens 576 5, A Narrative of the Jamaica Earthquake. By VaveHan Cornisu, D.Sc., MEGA ayes ese Sieretek vedon ates co ve itcbts suc tesencconadtars< ste careers 576 TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. 1, An Expedition to Ruwenzori. By R. B. WooOSNAM..........cc:ssseeeeeeeeees 576 2. The Newly Discovered Cave of Atoyac (Mexico): a Contribution to the Study of Cave-development. By M. M. Attores, L.ésSce., F.G.S....... 577 3. Second Report on Investigations in the Indian Ocean (p. 351)............008 578 4. Interim Report on Rainfall and Lake and River Discharge (p. 858) ...... 578 1907. a XV CONTENTS. 5. 6. ‘f Interim Report on the Oscillations of the Level of the Land in the Mediterranean, Basin (p, 850). .......00.-00s0so0-asseansne dcnecesices aise ssinadsat ets 578 A Traverse of Two Unexplored Rivers of Labrador. By Mrs, Leonrpas ETUBBA RDG JUDs S525 cavtauelnces.cuseasasesecsnsndaeceapssanetoseagscatuenameenaneand 578 *Notes on British New Guinea. By Dr. W. M. Srrone...........008 sien OF Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1, Address by Professor W. J. Asutpy, M.A., M.Com., President of the Section 579 1, A Suggestion for a new Hconomic Arithmetic. By Professor T. N. CARVER, Ph DIS jeselewdnpesudettin. ietelesen ss Cita db3 cngis fe Sek cave eebieabeeneee 592 2. The Laws of Increasing and Decreasing Returns in Production and Consumption. By Professor 8. J. Coapman, M.A., M.Com.............. .. 593 FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. 1, The Rise and Tendencies of German Transatlantic Enterprise. By Professor. Wanst: Von SiAmmny PUD Wieticesecsesvckaatunceveveidcawarcnsacelinane 594 2. The Labour Legislation of the Australasian States. By J. Ramsay MISCDONATD yy MP oostc casas cee deve cues caine roses ne eaeuledaasgoavesaadkermies aaa 596 3. Sweating and Legislation. By L. G. Catozza Money, M.P. .............4. 597 MONDAY, AUGUST 5. 1, Small Occupying Ownerships. By the Right Hon. Jussn Cottines, M.P. 597 The Importance of the Distinction between (1) Subsistence Farming and (2) Producing for a Market, in connection with Small Holdings. By W. CunnineHaM, D.D., F. BAS. GeO UNL: on a 599 3. Some Notes on the Small Holdings of Worcestershire. By Professor Kre®anpy, M.Com: «.. avecddtves. : A A ' : . ORRxiv VIII. THE ANNUAL MEETINGS: Local Officers and Committees . ‘ : : ° : yp KERV Functions . : : : F F : : ; PRESEN. IX. THE WoRK OF THE SECTIONS: The Sections F j 5 ‘ ; ’ ; 5 “yp Bs 8-4f1 Sectional Officers + : - * - c 2 0 = , SEEXVI Rooms ; { ' c “| : j ; ° XV Sectional Committees. ‘i ; - 5) EEXvE Executive Functions of Sectional Committees: (i) Organising Committee . : ; : . : ‘. . XXXVii (ii) Sectional Committee . : : ; : : - . Xxxvii (iii) Papers and Reports . : > : : : 7 . . ¥xxvii (iv) Recommendations . - ; - : é : : » XXXVili Copyright . d i F . : . XXXVili X. ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES : Applications 2 5 z - - - . : ° «RC Conditions and Privileges c : . : . : : . =) Serax Corresponding Members . ; : ; : - : : - xl Annual Subscriptions . A - ‘ : . . . : . xl The Annual Report . ; : i : . : : xl XI, CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES: Affiliated and Associated Societies . Fi A A A : xl Applications : ; 5 - : : . xli Corresponding Societies Committee Z < . . : ° xli Conference of Delegates . : 5 5 "i : : : xli XII. AMENDMENTS AND NEW RULES . - F 5 : < i : xiii BU BESO) rat BRITISH esse GLA T LON. [ Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907. | 4 Cuapter I, Objects and Constitution. 1, The objects of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire with one another and with foreign philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground occupied by other Institutions. 2. The Association shail consist of Members, Associates, and Honorary Corresponding Members. The governing body of the Association shall be a General Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and _ its affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by General Officers appointed by that Committee. 3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or longer, and at such other times as the General Committee may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be determined by the General Committee not less than two years in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. Cuaprer II. The General Committee. 1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the following persons : (i) Permanent Members— (a5 Past and present Members of the Council, and past and present Presidents of the Sections. Objects. Constitution, Annual Meetings. Constitution. XXVIli RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (b) Members who, by the publication of works or papers, have furthered the advancement of know- ledge in any of those departments which are assigned to the Sections of the Association. (ii) Temporary Members— (a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections, (6) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre- sentatives, and other persons specially invited or nominated by the Council or General Officers. (c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies. (@) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in number—from Scientific Institutions established at the place of meeting. Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the General Committee shall be final. (i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Annual Meeting. (ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or during the Annual Meeting. Meetings. 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during every Annual Mecting. In the interval between two Annual Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time to summon a meeting of the General Committee Functions. 4, The General Committee shall (i) Receive and consider the report of the Council. (ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations. (iii) Receive and consider the report of the Committee of Recommendations. (iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less than two years in advance. (v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting. (vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea- surer and Local Secretaries for the next Annual Meeting. (vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council. (viii) Appoint General Officers. (ix) Appoint Auditors. (x) Elect the officers of the Conference of Delegates. (xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual] Meeting. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS, Xxix CuaprTer III. Committee of Recommendations. 1. The ex officio Members of the Committee of Recom- mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the Association and the President of each Section at the Annual Meeting, the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of the Association in former years. An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section. If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com- mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary. 2. Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub- mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con- sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted. Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report to the General Committee not later than the next Annual Meeting. Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub- Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom- mendations for their consideration and report. 3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble, for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the last day of the Annual Meeting. Constitution. Functions. Procedure, Procedure. Constitution. Proposals by Sectional Committees. Tenure. Reports. xxx RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CuapTer IV. Research Committees. 1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of money in aid of special research, which is made in any Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ; and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations. In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com- mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research, and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the Committee of Recommendations may include such recom- mendation in their report to the General Committee. 2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary, Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to add to their numbers. 3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen- dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount required. All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. 4, Research Committees are appointed for one year only, - If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed in that year, application may be made through a Sectional Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment, with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money. 5, Every Research Committee shall present a Report, whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub- mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXx1 appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of the Annual Meeting. 6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted as from time to time may be required. Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants. The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer a statement of the sums that have been received and ex- pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then either return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains unexpended, or, if further expenditure be contemplated, apply for leave to retain the balance. When application is made for a Committee to be re- appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount desired. In making grants of money to Research Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices of the Association, without special permission from the General Committee. 7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct. Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap- paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or for other specific purposes. All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall be deposited at the Office of the Association. GRANTS. (a) Drawn by Chairman. (0) Expire on June 30. (c) Accounts, and balance in hand. (a) Addi- tional Grants. (e) Caveat. Disposal of specimens, apparatus, &e. XXxil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CHAPTER V. The Council. Constitution, 1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and of Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com- mittee. (i) The ex officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi- dents of the Association, the President and Vice- Presidents for the year, the President and Vice- Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting. (ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the previous year. Functions, 2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con- flict with the functions of the General Committee. In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next Annual Meeting. The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report, and to consider other matters to be brought before the General Committee. The Council shall nominate for election by the General Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General Officers of the Association. Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in March, when the nomination shall be made from the names on the list. The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to time determine. THE COUNCIL, XXXill 3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same Elections. time as that of the Officers of the Association. (i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re- election in the ensuing year : (a) Three of the Members who have served for the longest consecutive period, and (6) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near London, have attended the least number of meet- ings during the past year. Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the order of retirement above set forth. (ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee, in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three Members of the Association whom they recommend for election as Members of Council. (iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com- mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the election of the other Members of the Council takes place. Any member of the General Committee may propose another member thereof for election as one of these two members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed, they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands, unless five members at least require it to be by ballot. Cuapter VI. The President, General Officers, and Staff. 1. The President assumes office on the first day of the The Presi- Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address, 4t- He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he inducts his successor into the Chair. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa- tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented by a Vice-President or past President of the Association. 2. The General Officers of the Association are the General General Treasurer and the General Secretaries. Pena 1907, b XXXIV RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ; and they shall report such action to the Council at the next meeting. The General 3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the Treasurer. General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs of the Association. The General 4, The General Secretaries shall control the general Secretaries. organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to the General Committee and the Council for conducting the correspondence and for the general routine of the work of the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance. The Assistant 5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the Secretary. pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre- sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his duties which relates to the finances of the Association. The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore- said : (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with the control and direction of the Office and of all persons therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com- mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations, and of the General Committee. Assistant 6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as Treasurer. Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the routine work of the duties of his office. The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other work as may be delegated to him, Cuaprer VII. Finance. Financial 1. The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall Statements. receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after FINANCE. xXXXV June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the General Committee a balance sheet of the Funds of the Association. 2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited, annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee, 3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay- ments authorised by the General Committee or by the Council. , 4, The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf, part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit of the Association in the books of the Bank of England, either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest- ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such temporary investment as may seem to him desirable. 5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable, from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of his office, the President of the Association for the time being and one of the General Secretaries shal] be jointly empowered to sign cheques on behalf of the Association. Cuapter VIII. The Annual Meetings. 1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and shall have power to add to their number. 2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom- mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers shall be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to receive subscriptions. 3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under- take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of the Sections. Audit, Expenditure. Investments. Cheques. Local Offi- cers and Committees, Functions, THE SECTIONS. Sectional Officers. Rooms, SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Constitution. Privilege of Old Members. Daily Co-optation. XXXVI RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CuapTtEeR IX. The Work of the Sections. 1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans- acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time to time by the General Committee. It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica- tions addressed to that Section. 2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet- ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section from the date of their appointment until the appoint- ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual Meeting. Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section, and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual Meeting is held. 3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. 4. The work of each Section shall be conducted by a Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :— (i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office. (ii) All past Presidents of that Section. (iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee, thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the meeting : Provided always that— (a) Any Member of the Association who has served on the Committee of any Section in any previous year, and who has intimated his intention of being present at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of that Committee at their first meeting. (6) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting, and shall publish daily a revised list of the members. THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. XXXVli (c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the Section, in addition to those previously appointed by the Council. 5, The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com- mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional Committee at its next meeting. The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi- dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points of order that may arise. The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans- mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the Sectional Committee. 6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own members to be members of an Organising Committee, with the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of the ensuing Annual Meeting. Each Organising Committee shall hold such Meetings as are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro- visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the Sectional Committee. Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other- wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance- ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may arise out of the proceedings of the Section. No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted on its Minutes. Additional Vice-Presi- dents. EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS Of President, and of Recorder, Organising Committee. Sectional Committee. Papers and Reports. Recom- mendations, Publication, Copyright. XXXVI1I RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read also in any other Section. No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close of the Annual Meeting. It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com- mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the Association, and the communications made to the Section at its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge on the state and progress of which reports are required: to make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether, and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa- tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu- tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government. The appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in ‘accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV. No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com- mittee. 7. Papers ordered to be printed in extenso shall not be included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of the Council. 8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com- mittee to be printed im extenso in the Annual Report shall be vested in the authors; and the copyright of the reports of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee shall be vested in the Association, ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. XXX1X CHAPTER X. Admission of Members and Associates. 1. No technical qualification shall be required on the part of an applicant for admission as a Member or as an Associate of the British Association; but the Council is empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect. Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association, any infringement of which on his part may render him liable to exclusion. 2. All Members are eligible to any office in the Association. (i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual Reports of the Association. (ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year the sum of One Pound. Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay, without intermission, their annual subscription. An Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any particular year shall lose for that and all future years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports of the Association gratis. He, however, may resume his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent Annual Meeting by paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. (iii) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission, (iv) the sum of One Pound. Associates shall not receive the Annual Report gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in the Association. Ladies may become Members or Associates on the same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady’s Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment of One Pound. Applications. Obligations. Conditions and Privileges of Member- ship. Correspond- ing Members. Annual Sub- scriptions. The Annual Report. AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES. xl RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the General Committee, on the nomination of the Council, They shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership. 4. Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may make payment at any time before the close of the financial year on June 30 of the following year. 5. The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded gratis to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it. Annual Members whose subscriptions have been inter- mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report at two-thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a year shall be entitled to purchase, at the same price, the volume for that year. Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can only be issued by direction of the Council. CHAPTER XI. Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates. Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows : 1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves- tigation and publishes the results may become a Society affiliated to the British Association. Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate, who must be or become a Member of the Associa- tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference of Delegates. He shall be ex oficio a Member of the General Committee. (ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging the study of Science, which has existed for three years and numbers not fewer than fifty members, may become a Society associated with the British Association. Each Associated Society shall have the right to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con- ference. Such Delegates must be or become either Members or Associates of the British Association, and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed by the Affiliated Societies, except that of member- ship of the General Committee. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES: CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. Xxli 2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society. 3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an- nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie- ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com- mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre- sponding Societies as they may consider desirable. (i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or before June 1, such particulars in regard to the Society as may be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee. (ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association a list of the papers published by the Corresponding Societies during the preceding twelve months which contain the results of local scientific work conducted by them—those papers only being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of one or other of the several Sections of the Association. 4. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti- tute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be ex officio members of the Conference. (i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Association, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take part in the discussions. (ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to submit Resolutions to the Committee of Recom- mendations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee. Applications. CORRE- SPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE, Procedure. CONFERENCE OF DELE- GATES. Procedure and Functions. Alterations. xlii RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda- tions to be made to the General Committee bearing on matters in which the co-operation of Corre- sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com- petent for thé Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates to invite the authors of such recom- mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference in order to give verbal explanations of their objects and of the precise way in which they desire these to be carried into effect. (iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Conference, in order that they may be able to bring such recom- mendations adequately before their respective Societies. (v) The Conference may also discuss propositions regarding the promotion of more systematic ob- servation and plans of operation, and of greater uniformity in the method of publishing results. : CHapTer XII. Amendments and New Rules. Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com- mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at the last meeting of the General Committee. eee xliii PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES. “bsg ‘19180 9991107 eiainie) Selene!) 6'e]sipisia(si0)s'9\0. 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TRUSTEES. 1832-70 wee R. I. MURCHISON (Bart.), B.S. 1832-62 cae TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S. 1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S. 1839-44 F. BAtzy, Esq., E.R.S. 1844-58 Rev. G. PEAcocK, F.R.S. 1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. 1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S. 1872 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart. (now Lord AVEBURY), F.R.S. 1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres. RS 1883 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S. 1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards PLAYFAIR, F.R.S. Prof, (Sir) A. W. RUCKER, F.R.S. Lord) | 1898 GENERAL TREASURERS. 1831 1832-62 1862-74 1874-91 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq. JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S. W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S. Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S, | 1891-98 ea soe A. W. Rucker, | 1898-1904 Hes ee C. Fostmr, F.B.S. | 1904 Prof. JOHN PERRY, F.R.S, GENERAL SECRETARIES. 1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, F.RB.S. 1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, F.R.S., and F, BAtty, Esq., F.R.S. 1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, F.R.S., and R. I. MurcuHIson,- Ksq., F.R.S. R. I. Murcuison, Esq., F.R.S., and Rev. G. PEAcocK, F.R.S. Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.R.S., and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S. Lieut.-Colonel E SABINE, F.R.S. General E. SABIN®, F-.R.S., and J. F. RoYLE, Esq., F.R.S. J. F. ROYLE, Esq., F.R.S. General E. SABINE, F.R.S. Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S. W. Hopkxins, Esq., F.R.S. W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S. W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and F, GALTON, Esq., F.B.S, F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S. F, GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S8. 1837-39 1839-45 1845-50 1850-52 1852-53 1853-59 1859-61 1861-62 1862-63 1863-65 1865-66 1866-68 1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.B.S., and Dr, T. THOMSON, F.R.S. 1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,ancd Capt. DovuGuLas GALTON, F.R.5. 1872-76 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and Dr. MICHAEL Fostmr, F.R.S. 1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.8., and Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.B.S8. 1881-82 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and Prof. F. M. BALFouR, F.R.S. 1882-83 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S. 1883-95 Sir DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S., and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Esq., F.R.S. 1895-97 A. G. analy HARCOURT, Esq., F.R.S., and Prof. E. A. Sonirur, E.RS. 1897- f Prof. ScHirer, F.R.S., and Sir oN W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S, 1900-02 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. 1902-03 Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S., and MajorP. A.MAcMAHON, F.R.S. Major P. A. MACMAHON, F.B.5., and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN, F.B.S. 1903 ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES. 1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Seeretary. 1832 Prof. J. D. Forbes, Acting Secretary. 1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S. 1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. 1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A., Assistant Secretary. G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting Secretary. 1881 | 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., . Secretary. 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A., Secretary. 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting Secretary. | 1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. 1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Esq., M.D. 1904 A. SILVA WHITE, Esq., Assistant Secretary. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lix Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries | MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS. 1832. Oxford 1833. 1834, 1835. Dublin 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839, Birmingham | 1840, Glasgow 1841, 1842. 1843. 1844, 1845. Cambri 1846, ton. 1847. Oxford 1848. Swanse Liverpool.. Cambridge Edinburgh seeeee Newcastle Plymouth Manchester seeeee dge Southamp- aepeee A one 1849, Birmingham 1850, Edinburgh 1851. Ipswich ... 1852. Belfast 1853. Hull 1854, Liverpool... 1855, Glasgow ... 1856, Cheltenham 1857. Dublin 1858. Leeds seeeee Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. . Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. Rev. H, Coddington. . | Prof, Forbes. Prof. Forbes, Prof, Lloyd. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Rev. Dr, Robinson Bristolvnsees | Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S. . Sir D, Brewster, F.R.S. ...... Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S... ...| Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.........+06. |Rev. Prof, Lloyd, F.R.S. . | Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S. Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.1.A. ...| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely. Sir ina F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. Prof, Powell, F.R.S. Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ..... William Hopkins, F.R.S....... M.A, Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E. Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., E.RBS. Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., E.B.S., F.R.S.E. The Very Rev. the Dean of Ely, F.B.S. | Prof. G. G, Stokes, M.A., Sec, B.S. Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., E.R.S., F.R.S.E. Rey. R, Walker, M.A., F.R.S, Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.RB.S., M.R.LA. Rev. W. Whewell, V.P.RB.S, D.D., Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof, Wheatstone. Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W. Jerrard. W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine, Prof. Stevelly. .|J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch. Smith. . Prof. Stevelly. "| Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. W. Scoresby. .|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly. |Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof, Stevelly, | G. G. Stokes. John Drew, Dr. | Stokes. Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G. | Stokes. Stevelly, G. G. ., Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. |Prof. Stevelly, G, G. Stokes, W. Ridout Wills. W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. Prof, Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran- kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall. B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt, Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh. J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh. Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof. Tyndall. C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull. Prof, Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof. Tyndall, lx PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents 1859, icone 1860. Oxford...... 1861. Manchester 1862. Cambridge 1863. Newcastle 1864. Bath 1865. Birmingham 1866. Nottingham 1867. Dundee 1868. Norwich ... 1869. Exeter 1870. Liverpool...) 1871. Edinburgh | 1872. Brighton... 1873. Bradford ...| 1874. Belfast... 1875. Bristol 1876. Glasgow 1877. Plymouth... 1878. Dublin.. .. 1879, Sheffield ... 1880. Swansea ... US8i- Yorkict.. aes 1882. Southamp- ton. 1883. Southport 1884. Montreal ... 1885. Aberdeen... Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,| F.R.S. .| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., F.RB.S. Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,| F.R.S. Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,| ja Tee J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. |Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A., ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A., 1886. Birmingham The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P., F.R.S. Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.RB.S.... Goby Ary M.A... D_Cri,. F.R.S. Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,| F.RB.S. Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.R.S. Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. . Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A., M.R.LA. LL.D., F.R.S. D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof, G.C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S., | Pres. Physical Soe. Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.C.L., F.B.S. George Johnstone Stoney, M.A., F.B.S. Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.B.S. D.D., Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,| LI..D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. G. Chrystal, F.R.S.E. M.A., J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H. Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Secretaries J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. G, C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rev.N.Ferrers, Prof.Fuller, F.Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T, Whitley. Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith, J. M. Wilson. Fleeming Jenkin, Prof.H.J.S. Smith, Rey. 8. N. Swann. Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley, R. B. Hayward. Prof. G, C. Foster, R. B. Hayward, W. K. Clifford. Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford, Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen Whitworth. ... Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley, Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D. Everett, Rev. R. Harley. Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher, Prof, A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell. Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J. W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel. J.W.L.Gilaisher, Prof.Herschel, Ran- dal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F. Rodwell. Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher, C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell. Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley, Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher, T. Muir. Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley, J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon. Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. 0. J. Lodge. A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh. W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson. W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe. C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John- son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram. R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lxi Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1887. Manchester |Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. LL.D., F.R.S. H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw. #888. Bath...:..... Prof. G. F, Fitzgerald, M.A.,|R, E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A. F.RB.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw. 1889. Newcastle- |Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,/R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A. upon-Tyne|_ R.E., F.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud. 1890. Leeds ...... J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,/R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge, F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S. W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud. 1891. Cardiff...... Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,|R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof, A. LL.D., F.B.8. Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby. 1892. Edinburgh |Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,)R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A. F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie. 1893. Nottingham|R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.8.| W. T, A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof. A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie. 1894. Oxford...... Prof.A.W.Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.| Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge, J. Walker. 1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Hicks, M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge, F.R.S. G. T. Walker, W. Watson. 1896. Liverpool...|Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,|Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard, D.S8e., F.R.S. Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W. Watson. 1897. Toronto ...|Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, J.C.Glashan, J. F.RB.S. L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan. 1898. Bristol...... Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.B.S..../A. P. Chattock, J. L. Howard, C. H. Lees, W. Watson, EK. T. Whittaker. 1899. Dover ...... Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.|J. L. Howard, 0. H. Lees, W. Wat- son, E. T. Whittaker. 1900. Bradford ...|Dr. J. Larmor, F.R.S.—Dep.|P. H. Cowell, A. Fowler, C. H. Lees, of Astronomy, Dr. A. A.| C. J. L. Wagstaffe, W. Watson, Common, F.R.S. Mids Whittaker. 1901. Glasgow ...|Major P.A. MacMahon, F.R.8.|H.S.Carslaw, C.H. Lees, W. Stewart, —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.| Prof, L. R. Wilberforce. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. 1902, Belfast...... Prof. J. Purser,LL.D.,M.R.I.A.|H. 8. Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A. —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.| Larmor, C. H. Lees, Prof, W. B. A. Schuster, F.R.S. Morton, A. W. Porter. 1903. Southport |C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.—Dep.|D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W. of Astronomy and Meteor-| H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees, J. ology,Dr.W.N. Shaw,F.R.S.| Loton, A. W. Porter. 1904. Cambridge | Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Sub- A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson, Section of stp onanie y and| Dr. C. H. Lees, Dr. W. J.S. Lock- Cosmical Physics, Sir J.| yer, A. W. Porter, iW. ©; °D; Eliot, K.C.1.E., F.R.S. Whetham., 1905. SouthAfrica|Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,|A. R. Hinks, 8. S. Hough, R. T. A. F.R.S. Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H. Lees. 1906. York......... Principal E. H.Griffiths,F.R.S.| Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks, Prof, A. W. Porter, H. Dennis Taylor. 1907. Leicester... Prof. A. E. H, Love, M.A.,|E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. N. G. Filon, F.R.S. Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter. CHEMICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.— CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, 1832, Oxford......|John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | James F. W. Johnston. 1833. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Prof. Miller. 1834, Edinburgh | Dr, Hope,......ee..ssssseseaeeeeeee| Mr, Johnston, Dr, Christison, lxii PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1835. Dublin 1836. Bristol seeene 1837. Liverpool... 1838 Newcastle 1839. Birmingham | 1840. Glasgow ... 1841. 1842, 1843. 1844. Plymouth... Manchester 1845, Cambridge 1846, Southamp- 1847, 1848. Swansea ... 1849, Birmingham | 1850. Edinburgh 1851. Ipswich ... 1852. Belfast...... 1853. Hull......... 1854, Liverpool 1855. Glasgow ... 1856. Cheltenham 1857. Dublin...... 1858. Leeds ...... 1859. Aberdeen... 1860. Oxford 1861. Manchester 1862. Cambridge 1863. Newcastle 1864. Bath......... 1865. Birmingham | 1866. Nottingham | 1867. Dundee 1868. Norwich ... .. | Prof. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. oricL. Thomson, HOR, S.%..066 Rev. Prof, Cumming ..... fs |Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... | | AOR AN ane Whewell,F.R.S, ‘Prof, T. Graham, F.R.S. Dr. Thomas Thomson, F, 2. s. Dr -Daubsny, FR.S. - cscs. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof, Apjohn, M.R.I.A...... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S....... Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... Michael Faraday, F.R.S. Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S. Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ...... John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... | Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ... Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.8. Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S. D.C.L., Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A., E.R.S. Prof: W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S. Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ... Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S8., M.R.1LA. Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., D.C.L. Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.8. Prof. B, C. Brodie, F.R.S...... Prof, W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. Prof, W.H. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S. Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, F.B.S. W. Odling, M.B., F.RB.S....... Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., | VEPIRSe H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. | T. Anderson, M.D. F.R.S.E. Prof. H. Frankland, F.R.S. | Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston, Dr. Apjohn, Dr, C. Henry, W. Hera- path. Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr, Reynolds. Prof. Miller, H. L, Pattinson, Thomas Richardson. Dr. Golding Bird, Dr, J. B. Melson. Dr. RD; Thomson, Dr. T. Clark, Dr. L. Playfair. J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy. Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J, Graham, ...| R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker. _ R. Hunt, J. P, Joule, Prof, Miller, i. Solly. Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall. |B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly. T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams, R. Hunt, G. Shaw. Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson. T. J. Pearsall, W. 8S. Ward. Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof. Ronalds. H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T, J. Pearsall. Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Price. Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof. Voelcker. | Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- livan. Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- nolds. J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. Liveing, Dr. Odling. A, Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, A. B. Northcote. A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing. H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof. Roscoe. Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. Stevenson. A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R. Biggs. A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof, Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. Russell, J. White. » A, Crum Brown, Prof, G. D. Liveing, W. J. Russell. Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W, J. Rus- sell, F, Sutton. ‘ PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lxili Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1869, Exeter ...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S. .........| Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson. 1870, Liverpool...|Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,|Prof.A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher, F.R.S. Dr. W. J. Russell. 1871. Edinburgh | Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.|J. as eae, W. N. Hartley, T, . Thorpe. 1872, Brighton ...| Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....| Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr. W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood. 1873. Bradford ...| Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....| Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand- ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe. 1874. Belfast...... Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,| Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand- F.R.S,E. ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe. 1875. Bristol......|A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,]Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler F.R.S. Roberts, W. A. Tilden. 1876. Glasgow ...|W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. .........|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden. 1877. Plymouth...) F. A. Abel, F.R.S......cccsceeeee Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thomson. 1878, Dublin...... Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,|W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom- F.R.S son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T, Wills. 1879. Sheffield ...| Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. ...|H._S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thomson. 1880. Swansea ...| Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,|P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. E. F.RB.S. Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson. RAGE. York.c....053 Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.|P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough. 1882. Southamp- |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,|P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, ton. F.B.S. J. L. Notter. 1883. Southport |Dr. J. H, Gladstone, F.R.S...| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley. 1884. Montreal ...| Prof, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, LL.D., F.R.S. T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike. 1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, F.RB.S., Sec. C.S. H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson. 1886. Birmingham |W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. |P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. F. Mor- ley, W.W. J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward. 1887. Manchester |Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S. ...... Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster Morley, W. Thomson. UBS. DARD cece. cuss Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc.,|Prof.H.B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. Rh. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol. 1889. Newcastle- |Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,|H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W. upon-Tyne| D.C.L., F.R.S. W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun. 1890. Leeds ...... Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,|C, H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley, Ph.D., F.B.S., Treas. C.S. D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol. 1891. Cardiff...... Prof, W. C. Roberts-Austen, |C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley, C.B., F.R.S. W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin. 1892. Edinburgh |Prof, H. McLeod, F-.R.S....... J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol. 1893. Nottingham|Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, |J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan, M.D., D.8c., F.R.S. D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol. 1894. Oxford...... Prof. H. B, Dixon, M.A.,F.R.S.|A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur Harden, H. Forster Morley. SECTION B (continwed),—CHEMISTRY. Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......|E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A. | Kohn,J. W. Rodger. 1896. Liverpool...!Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S. ... Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn. 1895. Ipswich ... 1897 Toronto ...| Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S....... Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A. | Kohn, Prof. R. F. Ruttan. 1898. Bristol...... |Prof. F. R. Japp, F.R.S, ......,C. A. Kohn, F. W. Stoddart, 'T. K. Rose, lxiv PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1899. Dover ......|Horace T. Brown, F.R.S....... | A. D. Hall, C. A. Kohn, T. K. Rose, Prof. W. P. Wynne. 1900. Bradford ,..| Prof. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S.... W. M. Gardner, F. §. Kipping, W. | J. Pope, T. K. Rose. 1901. Glasgow ...|Prof. Percy F. Frankland, W. C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson, E.B.S. W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose. 1902. Belfast...... Prof, E. Divers, F.R.S.......006 IR. BF. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof, G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope. 1903. Southport op W. N. Hartley, D.Sc., Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen- F.R.S. | derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope. 1904. Cambridge | Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S8.... Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen- | derson, Dr. H. 0. Jones, Prof. W. J. Pope. 1905. SouthAfrica, George T. Beilby ........-...06 W. A. Caldecott, Dr. M. O. Forster, | Prof. G.G. Henderson, C.F. Juritz. 1906. York......... Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan, Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W. E.R.S. Crossley, 8. H. Davies, Prof. W. J. | Po ope. 1907, Leicester ...| Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. ...| Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W. | Crossley, J. H. Hawthorn, Dr. | KF, M. Perkin. GEOLOGICAL (ann, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, ITI.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 1832. Oxford...... |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|John Taylor. 1833. Cambridge.|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......| W. Lonsdale, John Phillips. 1834. Edinburgh . ‘Prof. Jameson. Stacaesaesanees Sea a Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rey. J. Yates. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 1835. Dublin...... Rie Js GLUULGI GS deans stancensvesner |Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. 1836. Bristol...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—|William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, Geog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S.| TT. J. Torrie. 1837. Liverpool...) Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—| Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo- Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.| graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N. 1838. Newcastle..,C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—| W. C. Trevelyan, Capt, Portlock.— Geography, Lord Prudhoe.| Geography, Capt. Washington. 1839. Birmingham] Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—|George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick- Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.| land, Charles Darwin. 1840, Glasgow ...| Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geog.,| W. J. Hamilton,D, Milne, H. Murray, G. B. Greenough, F.R.5. H. E. Strickland, J. Scoular. 1841, Plymouth...|H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...| W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D., R. Hutton. 1842, Manchester |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8. ......|E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. Lloyd, H. E. Strickland. 1843. Cork......00. Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S....|F. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland. 1844. York.....2:.< ‘Henry Warburton, Pres. G. S. Prof, Ansted, E, H. Bunbury. 1845. Cambridge. Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A. |Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. Rey. W. Thorp. 1846. Southamp- | Leonard Horner, F.R.S8. ......|Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton, ton. Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke. 1847. Oxford...... Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.| Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C, Ramsay, J. Ruskin. 1848. Swansea .../Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.|$.Benson, Prof.Oldham, Prof.Ramsay 1849.Birmingham | Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S....... J. B. Jukes, Prof. Oldham, A. C. Ramsay. 1850. Edinburgh! |Sir Roderick I. Murchison,|A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, E.R.S. Prof. Nicol. 1 Geography was constituted a separate Section, see page Ixxii. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents 1851. Ipswich ... - 1852. Belfast...... 1853. Hull 1854, Liverpool .. 1855. Glasgow ... 1856. Cheltenham 1857. 1858. Leeds 1859. Aberdeen... aeenee 1860. Oxford 1861. Manchester . 1862. Cambridge 1863. Newcastle 1864. Bath......... 1865. Birmingham 1866. Nottingham 1867. Duudee 1868. Norwich ... 1869. Exeter ...... 1870. Liverpool... 1871. Edinburgh 1872. Brighton... 1873. Bradford ... 1874. Belfast...... 1875. Bristol...... 1876. Glasgow .. 1877. Plymouth... 1878. Dublin 1879. Sheffield ... 1880. Swansea 1881. 1882. Southamp- ton. 1907. SECTION C (continued). William Hopkins, M.A.,F.R.S. Lieut.-Col. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S......... Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S8. Portlock, R.E., Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.... Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.5.... The Lord Talbot de Malahide William Hopkins,M.A., F.R.S. Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. Warington W. Smyth, F.RB.S., F.G.8. Prof. J. Phillips, F.R.S., F.G.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., F.RB.S. Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. LL.D., ...| Archibald Geikie, F.B.S....... R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., F.G.8. Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S. Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Prof, A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., F.G.S8. Prof. J. Phillips, F.R.S. ...... Erot sia MTA, HRS: F.G.S. Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Prof. John Young, M.D. ...... W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S. John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. Prof, P. M. Duncan, F.R.S. ...{H. C. Sorby, F.B.S., F.G.S.... A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S. Ixv Secretaries — GEOLOGY. C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod, Searles Wood. James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall. J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol. Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep- worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T. Wright. Prof. Harkness, G. Sanders, R. H. Scott. Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. Shaw. Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, H. C. Sorby. Prof. Harkness, E. Hull, J. W. Woodall. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, H. C. Sorby. E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sorby, Thomas Sopwith. W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C, Sorby, W. Pengelly. Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E. Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- son, G. H. Wright. E. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward. Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood. W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev. H. H. Winwood. W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood, W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton. R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny Hughes, L. C. Miall. L. C. Miall, George Scott, William Topley, Henry Woodward. L.C. Miall,R.H.Tiddeman, W.Topley. F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes, R. H. Tiddeman. L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley. J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W. Topley. Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde- man, W. Topley. E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly, R. H. Tiddeman. W. Topley, G. Blake Walker. W. Topley, W. Whitaker. J. H. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley, W. Whitaker. T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West- lake, W. Whitaker. d lxvi PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1883. Southport |Prof. W. CC. Williamson, R. Betley, C. E. ‘De Rance, W. Top- LL.D., F.R.S. ley, W. Whitaker. 1884, Montreal ...|W. T. Blanford, F.RS, Sec. F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W. G.S. Topley, W. Whitaker. 1885. Aberdeen ...| Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec..C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H. G.S. Teall, W. Topley. ; 1886. Birmingham} Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W. LL.D., F.B.S., F.G.S. Topley, W. W. Watts. 1887. Manchester |Henry Woodward, LL.D., J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top- E.RB.S., F.G.S. | ley, W. W. Watts. 1888. Bath......... Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., Prof G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W. | ERS. EGS: W. Watts, H. B. Woodward. 1889. Newcastle- | Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,| Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W. upon-Tyne F.R.S., F.G.S. | W. Watts, H. B. Woodward. 1890. Leeds ...... Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,'J. HE. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J. F.R.S., F.G.S. | EK. Marr, W. W. Watts. VSS Candith cscs. Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,, W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement F.G.8. Reid, W. W. Watts. 1892. Edinburgh |Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,|H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement F.R.S., F.G.S. | Reid, W. W. Watts. 1893. Nottingham|J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S.,\J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement F.G.S. | Reid, W. W. Watts. 1894. Oxford...... L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.5. al. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement Reid, W. W. Watts. 1895. Ipswich ...|W. Whitaker, B.A., F.B.S. .../F. A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H | A. Miers, Clement Reid. 1896. Liverpool... J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S.......|J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, C. Reid. 1897. Toronto ... Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,' Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp: F.R.S. lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers. 1898. Bristol...... |W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S.......|G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers, H. Pentecost. 1899. Dover ...... Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S. J. W. Gregory, G. W. Lamplugh, Capt. McDakin, Prof. H. A. Miers. 1900. Bradford ...| Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...|H: L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter, G. W. Lamplugh, H. W. Monckton. 1901. Glasgow . ‘John Horne, F.R.S. . H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton. 1902. Belfast...... Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon, H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton, F.R.S. J. St. J. Phillips, H. J. Seymour. 1903. Southport |Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A.,|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter, M.Sc. J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton. 1904. Cambridge | Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. ...... H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas, H. Woods. 1905. SouthAfrica Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc. , H. L. Bowman, J. Lomas, Dr. Molen- | ERS. graaff, Prof. A. Young, Prof. R. B. Young. L906SVork-ceecuse |G. W. Lamplugb, F.B.S.......|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter, Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas. 1907. Leicester ...| Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....|Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rey. W. L. Carter, BIOLOGICAL SC Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas, IENCKES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY. 1832. Oxtordiergses Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. .| Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow. 1833. Cambridge!) Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L. 8.1. C. Babington, D. Don, 1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham.............s0s0+00 |W. eee Prof, Burnett. 1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lxx. EE PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lxvii Date and Place Presidents 1835. Dublin...... 1836. Bristol...... 1837. Liverpool... 1838. Newcastle 1839. Birmingham 1840. Glasgow ... 1841. Plymouth... 1842. Manchester 1843, Cork......... 1844, York......... 1845, Cambridge 1846. Southamp- ton. 1847. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Henslow se eeeeeeeees DrvAllmanigccccsdescees ceca ve | | W. S. MacLeay......s0s..cccseee Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... | Prof. Owen, F.B.S. .......c00. | Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D....... John Richardson, M.D.,F.R.S. Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her- bert, LL.D., F.L.S. William Thompson, F.L.S.... Very Rev. the Dean of Man- chester. | Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...., \Sir J. Richardson, M.D., E.R.S. | H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S. | Secretaries SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8. Rootsey. C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W. Swainson. J. EK. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr. Richardson. KE. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- terson, J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson. Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. Turner. : G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson. Prof, Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, Dr. Lankester. Dr, Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. ‘Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. Wooldridge. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V. Wollaston, SECTION D (continwed).—zZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub- sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. lxx.] 1848. Swansea .. 1849, Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh 1851. Ipswich ... 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 13 fe oper Liverpool... Glasgow 1856. Cheltenham 1857. Dublin...... 1858. Leeds ...... 1859. Aberdeen... 1860. Oxford...... 1861. Manchester 1862. Cambridge 1863. Newcastle Ae Wise Dull wiynt Hs Ssrecsscaa. ...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. | William Spence, F.R.S. ....... Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,| F.R.S. Seb e wesw eee erteeeeseeans C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.... Thomas Bell, F'.R.S., Pres.L.S. Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.S. C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S. Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S.... | | Prof. C. C. Babington, BRS. Profs Pomley, WR Ss cassecnes Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.... | Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A, Hen- frey, Dr. Lankester. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell. Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan- kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. Prof, Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E. Lankester. Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. Edwin Lankester. Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester. Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester. William Keddie, Dr. E. Lankester. Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman, Dr. E. Lankester. Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester, Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele, Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. Ogilvy. W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. L. Sclater, Dr. E, Perceval Wright. Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H. B, Tristram, Dr. E. P, Wright. ° d 2 Ixvill PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries ; 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875, 1876. IBSGM eer eene © Bir ming- ham ! Nottingham Dundee Norwich ... Exeter seneee Liverpool... Edinburgh . Brighton ... Bradford ...| Belfast ...... Bristol seeeee Glasgow ...| ies Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ... .| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S. |A, Russel Wallace, F.L.S.— Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. ... | H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T. | Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Dr. EK. P. Wright. SECTION D (continued) .—BIOLOGY. Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.| Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H. of Physiol., Prof. Humphry, 8B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,, Tylor, Dr. K. P. Wright. A. R. Wallace. C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr. —Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.| HH. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S. Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr. —Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T. H. Flower, F.R.S. | Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram | Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. T. 8S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris- tram. | Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans, Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan- kester. Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, EK. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake, Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne King, Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton, Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H. Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith. George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S. —Dep. of Bot. and Zool., C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—| Dep. of Ethno., EB. B. Tylor. Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.8.—Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M. Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.| of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof. W. Turner, M.D. Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol., Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.8. Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru- Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson. R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E. therford,M.D.—Dep.of An-| Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J. thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.| H. Lamprey. Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of W.T.Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning- Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,| ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H. C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep.ofAn-| Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W. throp., Sir W. R. Wilde,| Rudler. M.D. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of) Anat. and Physiol., Prof. | Cleland, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anth.,Prof.Rolleston,F.R.S. E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W. Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr. W. Spencer. E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr. Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,, Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—| Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat- Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., | son. : Dr. J. G. McKendrick. 1 The title of Section D was changed to Biology. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF, THE SECTIONS. ]xix Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1877. Plymouth... i Gwyn joenvan PRS — B. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J. 1878. 1879, 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., | Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston, Prof. Macalister—Dep. of| Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe, Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.| F. W. Rudler. Dublin ...... Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.— | Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden, Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.| Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M. Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.| Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler. of Anat. and Physiol., BR McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S. Sheffield ...;Prof. St. George Mivart, Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,, J.B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof. E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Schafer. —Dep. of Anat. and Phy- siol., Dr. Pye-Smith. | Swansea ...|A.C. L. Giinther, F.R.S.—Dep.|G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley, of Anat. § Physiol. F. M.| Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg- Balfour, FRS.—Dep. of) wick. Anthropol., ¥. W. Rudler. York.........|R. Owen, F.R.S.— Dep. of An-|G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev. thropol., Prof. W.H.Flower,| W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and} W. North, John Priestley, Howard Physiol., Prof. J.8. Burdon} Saunders, H. HE. Spencer. Sanderson, F.R.S. Southamp- | Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.|G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B. ton. — Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,,| Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg- Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.8.| wick, T. W. Shore, jun. —Dep.of Anthropol., Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. Southport! | Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam, F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M. W. Pengelly, F.R.S. Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr. G. A. Woods. Montreal ...|Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,|Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, F.R.S. A. Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright. Aberdeen ...| Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,|W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. J. Duncan Matthews, Howard Saunders, H. Marshall Ward. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,| Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof. F.R.S., F.G.S. W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof. H. Marshall Ward. Manchester | Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har- F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater, Prof. H. Marshall Ward. Baths sce: W. T. Thiselton- tia C.M.G., |F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof. F.RB.S., F.L.58 H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner, Prof. W. D. Halliburton. Newcastle -| Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson, C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8S. F. Har- upon Tyne| M.A., M.D., F.R.S. - mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar- | shall Ward. Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,'S8. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. | 8. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H. | Wager, H. Marshall Ward. Cardiff ...... Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B., F. E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman, E.R.S., F.L.S. Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof. | W.N. Parker, H. Wager. Edinburgh | ‘Prof, W. Rutherford, M.D.,,G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G. E.R.S., F.R.S.E. Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager. ' Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixxviii. lxx PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1893. Nottingham!|Rev. Canon H. B. Ty ceeehe ee C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1833. 1834, 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. | W. A. Herdman, 8S. J. Hickson, | W.B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater. Oxford? ...| Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A., W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. | Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. S. a | Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater. SECTION D (continwed).—zooLoecy. Ipswich . . Prof, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.|G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E. | Hoyle, W. L. Sclater. Liverpool.,, | Prof, E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...|H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E. | Hoyle. Toronto jo L. C. Miall, F.B.S. . W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof. | E. E. Prince. Bristol .:.... Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S. Prof. R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr. A. J. Harrison, W. E. Hoyle. DOVET! sends Pore Sedgwick, F.R.S. ....... W. Garstang, J. Graham Kerr, Bradford .. aha R. H. Traquair, F.R.S. ...|W. Garstang, J. G. Kerr, T. H. Taylor, Swale Vincent. Glasgow .. _| Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S. J. G. Kerr, J. Rankin, J. Y. Simpson. Belfast...... 'Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ...| Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y. i Simpson. Southport Prof. 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S....!Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft, A aa Dr. J. Y. Simpson, Dr. | H. W. M. Tims. Cambridge | William Bateson, F.R.S......./ Dr. Sake Ashworth, L. Doncaster, | Prof. J. Y. Simpson, Dr. H. W. M. | ‘Tims. SouthAfrica G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S. ....... Dr. Pakes, Dr. Purcell, Dr. H, W. M. | Tims, Prof. J. Y. Simpson. Work isis seee J Sten: a Ri, tected ss Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster, | Oxley Grabham, Dr. H. W. M. | ‘ims. Leicester... Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A........... Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster, | E. E. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims. ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCKS. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. Cambridge |Dr.J. Haviland.................. Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget. Edinburgh |Dr. Abercrombie .....--.ss0008 Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE. Dublinysee. Dr Je Cert chandacesesee sie. Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart. Bristol ...... Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Symonds. Liverpool,..|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. Birmingham |John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S8....| Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr.J. Brown, Prof, Couper, Prof. Reid. 1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixxix, * The title of Section D was changed to Zoology. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1850. 1855. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY. Plymouth... P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |J. Butter, J. Fuge, R. 8. Sargent. Manchester Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. MCOB ee snete* 62 Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...| Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. MOT: oc ..03. J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ........./I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. Cambridge Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... | Dr. R. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster. Southamp- Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. .../C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar- ton. | ent. Oxford... ' Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 'T, K. Chambers, W. P. Ormerod. PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. | Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers, Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... | Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. Leeds ...... Sir B. Brodie, Bart., F.R.S. |C. G. Wheelhouse. Aberdeen... | Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.| Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S..........| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. Cambridge |G. HE. Paget, M.D................| G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. Newcastle /Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.| Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. (Bava esces ses Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S. /J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. Birming- Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,/Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, ham ? F.RB.S. Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. [For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. Ixiv.] 1846.Southampton 1847. Oxford 1848. Swansea eeeeee 1849. Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh 1856. 1856. . Ipswich . Belfast...... . Liverpool... Glasgow ... Cheltenham ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D. oem meee weer eee tere eeeensseeeeeetasanes POreee eee eereee ree ererrrreeereerere errr Dr. King. ...| Prof. Buckley. G. Grant Francis. Dr. R. G. Latham. Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. .| Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8., Pres. R.G.S. Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. ir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., F.R.S. r J. Richardson, E.R.S. Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B. M.D., |R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, E. MacAdam, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Norton Shaw. Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr. Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr, Norton Shaw. R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw. ' Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology’ (see p. Ixvii), Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to Geography. 2 Vide note on page Ixvi. Ixxii PRESIDENTS Date and Place | AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Presidents Secretaries 1887. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863, 1864, 1865. 1866. 1867, 1868. 9. Exeter . Bristol . Glasgow ... . Plymouth... . Dublin seeeee Manchester Cambridge Newcastle Nottingham Dundee Norwich ...| seeeee . Liverpool... . Edinburgh . Brighton .. 3. Bradford .. . Belfast...... seeeee . Sheffield ... . Swansea ... . Southamp- | ton. - Southport | . Montreal ... | ...|Rear - Admiral | Sir Lieut. - General | Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L., | | Rev. Dryas Hentnonn Todd, Pres.R.LA. Sir R. 1. Murchison, G.C.St.S., F.R.S. Sir James Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.. F.R.S. John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., E.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,' F.R.S. Major-General Sir H. Raw- linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart., LL.D. .|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., F.R.S. IR. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O’Callaghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, C. R. Markham, R. §. Watson. H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright. H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet, C, R. Markham, Thomas Wright. H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R. H. Major, Clements R. Markham, D. W. Nash, T. Wright. H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R. | Markham, S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock. T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, T. Wright. SECTION E (continwed).—GHOGRAPHY. Bartle Frere, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. puslonel Yule, CrB. ks R. G.S. K.C.B., . Francis Galton, "HR:Sicccstsecs .|Sir Rutherford Aleock, K.C.B. Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Strachey, R.E., C.8.1L, F.B.S.,F.R.G.S. ‘Capt. Evans, ©. B., F. RB.S.. Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C. B. son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R S8.E. | Clements R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S. Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S. | Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L., C.B., F.B.S. F.R.G.S. Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin- Austen, F.R.S. Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B., K.C.M.G.,F.B.S,,V.P.B.G.S. H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, J. H. Thomas. H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J. Mott, Clements R. Markham. A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle- ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas. H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas. ‘H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Clements R. Markham. EB. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H. Thomas. H W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. Tackett. . H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. O. Wood. ‘H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, H. C. Rye. i ‘Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom- John Coles, E. C. Rye. \H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C. Rye. |H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye. J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates. ‘E, G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye. John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye. ' Rev. ABbeTatiaaiie J.8.0° Halloran, EK. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Ixxl Date and Place 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890, 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896, 1897. 1898, 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1833. 1834, 1835. 1836. | Aberdeen... Birming- ham. Manchester Newcastle- upon-Tyne Leeds seeeee seneee Edinburgh Nottingham Ipswich Liverpool... Toronto Bristol Bradford ... Glasgow ... Belfast Southport Cambridge SouthAfrica | by [te radar «1d, scott Keltie, LL,D.°......... | -|Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. ... | Douglas W. Freshfield Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie, Leicester ... | Dublin Bristol teeeee Presidents | Gen. J.T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,| LL.D., F.R.S. Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid, K.C.8.1., C.B., F.R.G.S. Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,| G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.RB.G.S. | Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E,) K.C.B., F.B.S., F.R.G.S. | Col. Sir F. de Winton,}! K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. | Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S__ E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,) F.S.8. Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.R.S.,| V.P.R.Scot.G.S. H. Seebohm, Sec. BR S., F.L.S., E.Z.8. Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, R.N., E.RB.S. Mackinder, F.R.G.S. Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S. M.A., Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.S. Sir John Murray, F.RB.S. ...... Sir George §. Robertson,) K.C.8.1. Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.G:.S. ...... Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C B., F.R.S. Adm. Sir W. J. L. Wharton, R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S. K.C.M.G., F.R.S. George G. Chisholm, M.A. ... Secretaries J.S. Keltie, J S. O'Halloran, E. Ravenstein, Kev. G. A. Smith. F. T. §. Houghton, J. S. Keltie, E. G. Ravenstein. Rey. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein. J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R. Sulivan, A. Silva White. A. Barker, John Coles, J. S. Keltie, A. Silva White. John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac- kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats. J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, A. Silva White. Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O. Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill. John Coles, W. 8. Dalgleish, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill. John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mili, W. A. Taylor. Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips. Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr. H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell. H.N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, H. C. Trapnell. H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill. H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, E. R. Wethey. H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, G. Sandeman, A. C. Turner. G. G. Chisholm, E. Heawood, Dr. A.J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A. Lindsay. EK. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, E. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C. Under- wood. E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, H. Y. Oldham, E. A. Reeves. A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, H. Y. Old- ham. E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, H. A. Reeves, G. Yeld. E. Heawood, O. J. R. Howarth, EK. A. Reeves, T. Walker. J. STATISTICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........;J. E. Drinkwater. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... | Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean. SECTION F.—STATISTICS. Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.. Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield. Rey. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, James Heywood, ]xxi Vv Date and Place 1837. 1838 1839 1840, 1841. 1842 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853, 1854. 1855. 1856, 1857. 1858. 1859, 1860. 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 Liverpool... . Newcastle . Birming- ham. . Glasgow ... Plymouth... . Manchester seeeeenee Cambridge Southamp- ton. Oxtordiincs.. Swansea ... Birming- ham, Edinburgh Ipswich ... Belfast Le twill LS cana Liverpool... Glasgow ... Presidents Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ......... Henry Hallam, F.R.S.......... Lord Sandon, M.P., F.R.S. Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ... Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S. Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam (Coplaiquetardieyes IF] Sitls Ses eeme ae neor Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ... Rt. Hon, Lord Lyttelton Very Rev. Dr. V.P.R.S.E. Sir John P, Boileau, Bart. ... His Grace the Archbishop of Dublin, James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S. Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ......... John Lee, R. Monckton Milnes, M.P.... PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Secretaries W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C. Tayler. W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood. F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C. Tayler. C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W. Rawson. Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R. W. Rawson. Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr. W. C. Tayler. Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay- cock, J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr, W. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott. Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F, G. P. Neison, J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede. Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. P. G. Neison. Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J. Stark. J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James MacAdam, jun, Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch. E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W.H. Duncan, W. Newmarch. J, A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New- march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. Cheltenham feceeee Aberdeen... Oxford . Manchester . Cambridge . Newcastle . i Balblie wan ceney . Birming- ham. . Nottingham . Dundee ..... . Norwich.... Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. His Grace the Archbishop of Dublin, M.R.LA. Edward Baines......... raccenees Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ...... William Newmarch, F.R.S.... William Tite, M.P., F.R.S.... W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D., M.P. Prof, J. E. T. Rogers eee eeceenaee M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. ....... Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........ Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr. W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W. M. Tartt. Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W. Newmarch. T. B. Baines, Prof, Cairns, 8. Brown, Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang. Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M. Smith, Dr. John Strang, Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie, | E. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory. |T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory, | Frederick Purdy, James Potts. KE. Macrory, HE. T. Payne, F. Purdy. G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston, E. Macrory. |R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory. Prof, Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J. Samuel Brown eee eeeeeeeneeerens Warden. Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi. Date and Place | 1869. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Ixxv Exeter aeneee Presidents Secretaries | Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North- cote, Bart., C.B., M.P. 1870. Liverpool...| Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A. 1871, Edinburgh Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves see eweeee 1872 Brighton... Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P.... 1873. Bradford ...| Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P. 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877. 1878, 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884, 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893, 1894, 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. feeeee Sheffield ... Swansea ... Southamp- ton. Southport Montreal ... Aberdeen... Birming- ham. Manchester Newcastle- upon-Tyne Leeds seeeee Edinburgh Nottingham Ipswich ... Liverpool... Toronto Bristol...... ‘Lord O’Hagan eee eee eeseeneane ‘James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S., | Pres. 8.8. ... Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L, M.P. .| Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D. ... G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres. 8.8. G. W. Hastings, M.P........... Rt. Hon. M. EH. Grant-Duff, M.A., F.R.S. Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth, M.P., F.B.S. R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S. Sir Richard Temple, Bart., G.C.8.1., C.L.E., F.R.G.S. Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D., Litt.D. ' J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S. ... Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S. | Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell, LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,) F.5.8, Prof, A. Marshall, M.A.,F.S.S. Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D., D.S8c., FS.8. Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle K.C.B. Prof. J. §. Nicholson, D.Sc., F.S8.8. Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A., E.S.S. Liesl PRVCG HVAT. On. vase. duce Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P.... .| Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. H. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D. Acland. Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory, J. Miles Moss. J. G. Fitch, James Meikle. J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips. J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith. Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans MacMordie. F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E. Macrory. A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr. W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack. W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim. W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim. Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C. Molloy. N. A. Humphreys, C, Molloy. C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F. Moss. G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. S. Fox- well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy. Rey. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy. Prof, H. S. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan, Prof. J. Watson. Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. §S. Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss. F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss. Rey. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge- worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes, J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant. Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott, H. §. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price. Rey. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott, I. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price. W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro, L. L. F. R. Price. Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith, Prof. W. R. Sorley. Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof. K. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs, i, LE. Re Price: Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B. Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs, L. L. F. R. Price. EK. Cannan, Prof. HE, C. K. Gonner, W. A. 5S. Hewins, H. Higgs. EH. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs. EH. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, W.A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs. E. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt. KH. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H. J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D.......... Higgs, W. E. Tanner. Ixxvi PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and,Place Presidents 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1908. 1904, 1905. 1906, 1907, 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842, 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. L848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854, 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862, 1863. seeeee Bradford .. Glasgow ... Belfast Southport Cambridge SouthAfrica Leicester ... SECTION G.—MECHANI Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S. Bristol Liverpool... Newcastle Birming- ham. Glasgow .. Plymouth... Manchester Cambridge ; Southamp- ton Birmingham Edinburgh Ipswich ... Belfast...... Hirao ans Liverpool... Glasgow .. Cheltenham Leeds Manchester Cambridge. Newcastle . ..|&, Cannan, M.A., LL.D. «| Sir John Robinson | Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A. -| Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R. eee e ewes 'H. Higgs, LL.B. -|Major P. G. Craigie, V.P.S.8. |Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., ¥.R.8. H? WBrabrook.!@;bs ecsessss Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D. ...... Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D., D.Sc. An. Bowley, M.A. ccc s.ccosns Rev. Dr. Robinson ............ Charles Babbage, F.R.S....... Stephenson. Penn eewewenee John Taylor, F.R.S. ......s0000 Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ...... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A.. Johnelaylor, HORS: crscsecssers George Rennie, F.R.S..,....... Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., Robt. Stephenson, M.P., Rev. Hh. HObINSON $.-.20.s00-0002 William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... Jobn Walker, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S. William Fairbairn, F.R.S. . John Scott Russell, F.R.S. . ...|W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S. . George Rennie, F.R.S. .... F.R.S. William Fairbairn, F.R.S.... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S. J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ... Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S. Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A....... Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt. F.R.S | Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.S. sF.R.S F.R.S Secretaries A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, Rev. G. Sarson. A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan, §. Chapman, F’. Hooper. W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E Cannan, 8. J. Chapman. A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J Chapman, Dr. A. Dutfin A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G. Lloyd. J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg. R. 4 Ababrelton, A. L. Bowley, Prof. H. E. §. Fremantle, H. O. Mere- dith. Prof. §. J. Chapman, D. H. Mac- gregor, H. O. Meredith, B. S. Rowntree. Prof. 8.J. Chapman, D. H. Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, T. 8. Taylor. CAL SCIENCE. T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West. Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster. W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T. Webster. J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod, C. Vignoles. Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster. J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, Charles Vignoles. = J. e Hees Thomson, Robert Mallet. Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. Rev. W. T. Kingsley. . William Betts, jun., Charles Manby. J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier. .|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé. .|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall. Dr. Lees, David Stephenson, John Head, Charles Manby. John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock, ae Charles Manby, James Thomson. J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward. Ape Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson. .|L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson. C. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery. Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse, Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate, James Thomson, Henry Wright. J. GO. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright. S./R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H. Wright. P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison, Henry Wright. P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H. Wright. W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster. P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott. J. F. Spencer. Date and Place | PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Presidents 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894, 1895. Bath Birming- ham. ane eenene J. Hawkshaw, F.RB.S. .. Ixxvil Secretaries P. Le Neve Trane, Ropatt: Pitt. Sir W. G. Armstrong, iL; D;. P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea F.R.S. | W. P. Marshall, Walter May. Nottingham | Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst. P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.E., F.G.S. M. O. Tarbotton. Dundee...... Prof, W. J.Macquorn Rankine, P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith, Norwich ... Exeter Liverpool... eeeeee Edinburgh Brighton .. Bradford ... Glasgow ... Sheffield ... Swansea ... Southamp- ton. Southport . Montreal .. Aberdeen... Birming- ham. Manchester teen enee Newcastle- upon-Tyne. Leeds Cardiff ..... Edinburgh Nottingham Oxford .., Edward Woods, C.E. ..| Prof. L. F. LL.D., F.R.S. G. Ps Bidder, C.H., F.R.G.S. |. W. Siemens, F.R.S......... W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ‘Prof. James Thomson, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S.E. |W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S. C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. .... seen e eens J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech. Eng. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ... J. Brunlees, Pres.Inst.C.E. ... ./Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., V.P.Inst.C.E. B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. ......... Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst. C.E. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S. H. Preece, M.Inst.C.K. |W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ... |W. F.RBS., \Capt. A. Noble, ©.B., F.B.S., F.R.A.S. iT. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E. Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.RS., M.Inst.C.E. \Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E., ¥.C.8. Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy, ¥.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Vernon-Harcourt, ‘Edward Easton, C.E. Pep J. Abernethy, F.R.S.E..........) |A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson, W. W. Urquhart. |P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, ©, Manby, W. Smith. P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman. Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, | TT. King, J. N. Shoolbred. Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S. H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith. .|F. J. Bramwell, C.E. ...|H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster, J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. AG | C. Barlow, H. Bauerman. E.H.Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred. A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John Smyth, jun. W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. ..| W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar, | J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith. | A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrificld, J. N. Shoolbred. A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T. Wood. A. T, Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood. H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, F Churton, H. T. Wood. A. T, Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J. Kennedy, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred. C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B, Marshall, E. Rigg. C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg. C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg, P. K. Stothert. C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon. C. A. Parsons, EH. Rigg. EK. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg. C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg. |C, W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C. Popplewell, E. Rigg. iC. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, | Rigg, H. Talbot. Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith. | Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke, W.'B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney. EH. E. Ixxviil PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place Presidents 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899, 1900. . Glasgow .. . Belfast . Southport . Leeds . Cardiff . Oxford . Ipswich . Toronto . Bristol . Dover Liverpool... Toronto Bristol Bradford } . Cambridge . SouthAfrica see eeenee . Leicester... . Montreal... . Aberdeen... . Birming- ham. . Manchester seeeseees . Newcastle- upon-Tyne wees . Edinburgh . Nottingham . Liverpool... Ae G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E. . ‘Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E. | Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir W. White, K.C.B., F.R.S. | | Sir Alex. R. Binnie, M.Inst. C.E. Secretaries Prof. T. Hudson Beare, 0. W. Cooke, 8S. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall. Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof, Callen- | dar, W. A. Price. Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro, H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price. Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A. Price, H. E. Stilgoe. Prof. T. H. Beare, C. F. Charnock, Prof. §. Dunkerley, W. A. Price. SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S. |C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.H. |Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S. ... \Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff, | | G.C.S.1., K.0.M.G., R.E. | yA EWwinp, HS: ecsccssss | Wek ee we | £20 0 0 1834 — = — _— — — — 167 0 0 | 1835 _ — _ —_ — 1350 | _— 435 0 0; 18386 | a | = = = — 1840 | — 922 12 6 1837 | _ | _ _ 1100* —_— 2400 | —_— 932 2 2 1838 = = = = 34 1438 — | 1595 11 0, 1839 = = | — = 40 1353 _ 1546 16 4! 1840 46 317 = 60* — 891 — 1235 1011 |) 1841 75 376 | 33f 331* 28 1315 _— | 144917 8 1842 71 185 | a 160 — — | — 1565 10 2/| 1843 45 190 9t 260 — — —_ 98112 8 1844 94 22 407 172 35 1079 —_ 831 9 9 | 1845 65 39 270 196 36 | 857 — | 68516 0, 1846 | 197 40 495 203 53 | ~ 1320 = |; 208 5 4 1847. | 54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0} 275.1 8} 1848 93 33 447 237 ~~ 22 1071 963 0 0} 15919 6 1849 128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0) 34518 0 1850 61 wel 244 141 37 _ 710 620 0 | 239%: 9«7%, |.) 1851 63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0; 304 6 7 1852 56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853 121 121 765 624 | 10- | 1802 1882 0 0 | 38019 7 1854 142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0} 48016 4 1855 104 48 412 346 9 ee 2 8G) 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856 156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857 wid) 91 710 509 13 | 1698 1931 0 07}; 61818 2 1858 125 179 1206 821 | 22 2564 2782 0 0, 68411 1 18F9 177 59 636 463 47 | 1689 1604 0 0) 76619 6 1860 184 125 1589 791 15 | 3138 3944 0 0); 1111 5 10 1861 150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0} 129316 6 1862 154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 1863 182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0/| 128915 8 1864 215 149 766 508 23 | 1997 2227 0 O-| 1591 710 1865 218 105 960 771 Ey | 2303 2469 0 0)} 175013 4 1866 193 118 1163 771 7 | 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0 1867 226 | 117 720 682 45} 2004 2042 0 0 | 1940 0 0 1868 229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0} 1622 0 0 1869 303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0) 1572 0 0 1870 311 127 976 754 21 | 2463 2575 0 O| 1472 2 6 1871 280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0/1285 0 0 1872 237 99 796 601 11 | 1983 2120 0 0 1685 0 0 1873 232 85 817 630 12 | 1951 1979 0) 0) | 1lbL 16. 0 1874 307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0 960 0 0 1875 331 185 1265 712 25 | 2774 3023 0 0; 1092 4 2 1876 238 59 446 283 11 | 1229 1268 0 0} 1128 9 7 1877 290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0; 72516 6 1878 239 74 629 349 13 1404 1425 0 0, 1080 11 11 1879 U7 41 389 147 12 915 g99 0 0| 731 7 7 1880 313 | 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0| 476 8 1 1881 253 | 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 OQ} 1126 1 11 1882 Bg0) | | 328 952 841 5 | 2714 | 3369 0 0| 1088 3 3] 1883 317 | 219 826 74 26&60H.§ 1777 1855 0 0 1173 4 0 1884 332 122 1053 447 6 | 2208 2256 0 0 | 138850 0 1885 428 179 1067 | 429 11 | 2453 2532 0 0; 995 0 6 1886 510 244 1985 | 493 92 | 3838 4336 0 O 118618 0 1887 399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 O 1511 0 5 1888 412 113 1024 | 579 21 2437 2441 0 0 1417 O11 1889 368 92 680 | 334 12 1775 =| 1776 0 O| 78916 8 1890 341 152 672 107 35 1497 | 1664 0 0) 102910 0 1891 | 413 141 733 439 50 -2070 . | 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892 328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0, 90715 6 1893 435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0 | 583 15 6 1894 290 31 493 261 22 1824 | 1286 0 0 977 15 5 1895 383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0| 1194 6 1 1896 | 286 125 682 100 41 1362 | 1398 0 0/| 105910 8] 1897 | 327 96 1051 639 33 2446 © 2399 0 0) 1212 0 0 1898 | 324 68 548 120 27 1403 |: 1328 0 0 | 143014 2 1899 | ‘ 297 45 801 482 9 1915. | 1801 0 0) 107210 0 1900 374 131 794 246 20 1912 | 2046 0 0 945 0 0 1901 314 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0) 947 0 0 1902 319 90 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 0! 84513 2 1903 | 449 113 1338 317 121 2789 «=| 2650 0 0O| 887 18 11 1904 9377 411 430 181 16 2130 2422 0 0!} 928 2 4; 1905 356 93 817 352 22 1972 | 1811 0 0) 882 0 9) 1906 339 61 659 251 42 1647 | 1561 0 0O| 767 12 10 1907 { Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting {{ Including 848 Members of the South African Association. lxxxvili ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES AT THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1906. [The total attendances for the years 1832, 1835, 1843, and 1844 are wnknown. | Average attendance at 72 Meetings : 1855. Average Attendance Average attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during June, between 1833 and 1860 . 1260 Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during July, between 1841 and 1851 . ; 947 Average attendance at 28 Meetings beginning during ‘August, between 1836 and 1906 . . 1978* Average attendance at 34 Meetings ‘beginning during ‘Se ptember, between 1831 and 1903 5 1933 Attendance at 1 Meeting held in October, Cambridge, 1862 - GE Seer Mectings beginning during August and September. Average attendance at— : Meetings beginning during the 1st week in Awgust ( Ist- 7th) . 1905 a 5 5 tel en heer » ( 8th-14th) . 2130 8 ” ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” (15th— —21sn) i! 1761 11 a a a ay Ab seo » (22nd-3lst) . 2094 Average attendance at— 11 Meetings beginning during the Ist weekin September( Ist— 7th). 2082 16 ” 3 5 fe PANE ora » ( 8th-14th). 1860 5 ” ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” (15th -21st). 2206 2 ” ” ” ” 4th ” ” ” (22nd—30th) ‘ 1025 Meetings beginning during June, July, and October. Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd week in June (15th-21st) . ; 1079 Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week in June (22nd-30th) 1306 Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning during the Ist week in July ([st-7th) . 710 Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in July (15th-21st) c 1066 Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October re beginning during the Ist week in October (1st-7th) . : - 1161 * Average attendance at 29 Meetings, including South Africa, 1905 (August 15- September 1): 1983. + Average attendance at 9 Meetings, including South Africa, 1905 (August 15— September 1): 1802. GRANTS OF MONEY, Ixxxix General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for Scientific Purposes. 1834. £ 8.5 tl Tide Discussions .....s+eesesees 20 0 0 1835. Tide Discussions ..........se00+ 62 0 0 British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 £167 O O 1836. Tide Discussions .........s0000+ 163 0 0 British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 Thermometric Observations, WE CRN eerie ay hive va scaeiesssa'scisusnie 50 0 0 Experiments on Long-con- tinued Heat ......... Sreeeene at 0) Rain-Gauges ...sccccecseseeeeeees 913 0 Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0 Lunar Nutation..............000. 60 0 0 PENETMOMECLETS: <...0005-000050000 15-6 0 £435 O 0 1837. Tide Discussions ..... cet sawed 284 1 0 Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6 Lunar Nutation................. 70 0 O Observations on Waves ..... 100 12 0 Tides at Bristol ................., 150 0 0 Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature............ 93 3 0 Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0 Heart Experiments ........... re eo eG Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0 BATOMECtETS.........020000005 ssieas, LS. 6 £922 12 6 : 1838. Tide Discussions ............... 29 9 0 _ British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0 Meteorological Observations and Anemometer (construc- RUBE Me novenetn st ycat wscas ones 100 0 0 Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0 Animal and Vegetable Sub- stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10 Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10 BMISLOL TICES’... .s.ceccosceseenses 580 0 O Growth of Plants ............... 750 0 Mud in Rivers ............. Sexcsy uals) 0-10 Education Committee ......... 50 0 O Heart Experiments ....... Arve Visits aM 0: Land and Sea Level...... egos CO Oks Steam-vessels...... aapensheanoais« 100 0 0 Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5 £932 2 2 1839. £ 8. a. Fossil Ichthyology .........+6. 1100 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth, &¢. ..........0: 63 10 0 Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0 Bristol IGeS <2... cocescccosssoese 35 18 6 Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature........,... 2111 0 | Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 UO | Cast-iron Experiments......... 103.7 OF 7 Railway Constants ..........6. DAY (et | Land and Sea Level............ oie) Te 2, Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4 Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 0 Stars (Lacaille) ..............0006 Tie 0256 Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0 Animal Secretions.........++.... 10 10 6 Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0 Atmospheric Air ...........0006 146 1 O Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ...... ay aie AY Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0 Hourly Meteorological Ob- servations, Inverness and SGA OVISSIC eens Macca riienne saat ZS ee (pues) Fossil Reptiles .......s.seeeeeee 118 2° 9 Mining Statistics .............65 50 0 0 £1595 11 0 1840. Bristol Tides .......0.s.sseeseee =. LOD) 0% 0 Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6 Heart Experiments .........++ - 1819 0 Lungs Experiments ........... a, ROMEO Tide Discussions ..........0+0++ 50 0 O Land and Sea Level...... coe G1 od Stars (Histoire Célieste) ...... 242 10 0 Stars (Lacaille) .......... amamost 415 0 Stars (Catalogue) ....... Foc daotn 264 0 O Atmospheric Air .........02.06 1515 0 Water on Tron) ..21.cscsto+essnns 10»sOce 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ...... > O07, 0 Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6 Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6 Working Population ............ 100 0 0 School Statistics ....... Sadahiede 50 0 0 Forms of Vessels .........00+.+. 184 7 0 Chemical and Electrical Phe- FIOMMENA: cia sesnseesusiessetpeers 40 0 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth .......... a edapion 80 0 0 Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9 £1546 16 4 XC 1841. £ 8s. a. Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0 Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature .........+. 8 8 0 PAGHINOMELEIS veverssacscesne ss nae LO MOr eG) arthquake Shocks ............ 17 7 0 Cri! POISOUS ress sascsssiee ceceos 6 .0,.0 Veins and Absorbents ......... 310) 30 Ming B AW ELS essences enaresecs 5 ONO Marine Zoology .......++. Saeesio 1512 8 Skeleton Maps .........sssssevee 20 0 0 Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6 Stars (Histoire Céleste) ..... 185 0 0 Stars (Lacaille),.....s.0s.5.s». s6r fi ont Stars (Nomenclature of)...... 1719 6 Stars (Catalogue of) ............ 40 0 0 Waterion Tron” siic..cssaen-sseae 50 0 O Meteorological Observations Ab AIMVEINESS ye eeivess. sees F> 20 0 0 Meteorological Observations (@ecOMehiOnlOb) ee rer.scaceee 25 On 10 Fossil Reptiles .....:sc0sseseesee 50 0 O Foreign Memoirs ........<:se.s- 62 0 6 Railway Sections ..........0..++ seed beee() Forms of Vessels ........000..0+ 193 12 0 Meteorological Observations StPlyMOUEAS \.cacasaesdssecace bb 0) 0 Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8 Fishes of the Old Red Sand- SLONGS Rec cansawhesasescneoe nae 100 0 O MidestapeWerth sccscsssccnsness po’ 050 Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10 Tabulating Observations ...... 9. 1Giaa8 IRACESTOL IMen pectavatescacesssts 3 DOO, Radiate Animals ............ . ae (Oia) £1235 10 11 1842. Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2 Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0 ides atic Bristol yccsasee0eeeahee bo: 87 0 Gasesion Wight) ....casssensess sts 30 14 7 Chronometers....... Spe Ogee: Pee ore Wg to) Marine Zoology....s..cscossesess iy gay ete] British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0 Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0 Marine Steam-vessels’ En- SIMOSE ccs eceuanseeee seuss senor 28 0 O Stars (Histoire Céleste) ....... 59 0 0 Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0 Railway Sections .......0....008 161 10 O British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O Fossil Reptiles (publication Of Report) ieseseeeeeeeeee tees 210 0 0 Forms of Vessels ....... ea nnaes 180 0 0 Galvanic Experiments on ROCKS ...5...iceseoeaceedee eeees 5 8 6 Meteorological Experiments atsPlymouth ccc.c.cossescrenee ek De 10) Constant Indicator and Dyna- mometric Instrumentr ...... 90 0 0 GENERAL STATEMENT. £ Horee (OG Wands aodsenaceasuss sess nO. Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 Vital Statistics ............0.66 - 50 Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 Questions on Human Race ... 7 £1449 1843. Revision of the Nomenclature - OPS tATS ease secc scarce esses 2 Reduction of Stars, British Association Catalogue ...... 25 Anomalous Tides, Firth of J 00s ib rnoosghonepconcanrccondocs 120 Hourly Meteorological Obser- vations at Kingussie and INVErness" Masssceses ene “pone LiCl Meteorological Observations at Plymouth seiraisteceds:sree 55 Whewell’sMeteorological Ane- mometer at Plymouth noone 10 Meteorological Observations, Osler’s Anemometer at Ply- TOMUM sersencseane-scaesexvesee as Ha) Reduction of Meteorological Observations .......cessesses 2 40 Meteorological Instruments and Gratuities aeceod Hom ACRCIN 39 Construction of Anemometer AUN VELMESS! “sxasve testes cece 56 Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory ....... sveon DO) Action of Gases on Light...... 18 Establishment at Kew Ob- servatory, Wages, Repairs, Furniture, and Sundries... 133 Experiments by Captive Bal- IO DnSWateesscssecsdgenoeesseenens 81 Oxidation of the Rails of Ral Way Sececessonseemdesnesnves 20 Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles .........00:.+ 40 Coloured Drawings of Rail- way Sections ..........ccccsees 147 Registration of Earthquake SHOCKS aecesccesnspacamas teenie 30 Report on Zoological ‘Nomen- clature........ Awhoteaniennidenos 10 Uncovering Lower Red Sand- stone near Manchester...... 4 Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 Marine Zoology ..... .esseeesees Pe 110) Marine Zoology .........+ ease 6 271 Preparation of Report on Bri- tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 Physiological Operations of Medicinal Agents ........... . 20 Vital Statistics .............0..06 36 Sees 0 0 0 O 0 O Aoi 50 V8 05°0 0 0 OF? 12 8 Oyen), 0" 0 OO 0 0 6 O 12 2 8 10 0 0 ier 4 7 &: 0 0 0 0 0 Isis 3) 0 0 G0 4 6 By ete! 0 0 0 0 14 11 ORG 0 0 Fy is Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels Reduction of Experiments on the Forms of Vessels Morin’s Instrument and Con- stant Indicator Experiments on the Strength of Materials weeeee Peete ee eee ee GRANTS OF MONEY. £ Bis 70 0 0 100 0 0) 100 0 O | | 69 14 10, 60 0 0 £1565 10 2 1844. Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inverness Completing Observations at Plymouth Magnetic and Meteorological Co-operation Publication of the British Association Catalogue of Stars Observations on Tides on the East Coast of Scotland Revision of the Nomenclature of Stars Maintaining the Establish- ee re aoe e eee enews enees ee Peer eer reer rere ere ment at Kew Observa- RLV aeiateiis niet Wreieine e nweaie oja's salene Instruments for Kew Obser- WOOGIE 6 Stedogoanncsoaeaneidacone Influence of Light on Plants Subterraneous Temperature in Ireland Coloured Drawings of Rail- way Sections Investigation of Fossil Fishes of the Lower Tertiary Strata Registering the Shocks of Earthquakes ............ 1842 Structure of Fossil Shells...... Radiata and Mollusca of the figean and Red Seas 1842 Geographical Distributions of Marine Zoology ......... 1842 Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall Marine Zoology of Corfu Experiments on the Vitality REISSCOOS) coecrestsss, cowensneces Experiments on the Vitality Oh SEGO SS igresaoennoesooras: 1842 ixotic AnOplora “.,.....s0.00rs. Strength of Materials ......... Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships ......... Inquiries into Asphyxia Investigations on the Internal Constitution of Metals ...... Constant Indicator and Mo- rin’s Instrument......... 1842 enema eee eee eweee Ween e eee eweresees eee e een meee eeeseeeene see ewan ZOO 35 0 O 25 8 4 35 0 0 100 0 O 259126 117 17: 3 56 7 LOG BG 15 17 100 0 23 11 20 0 100 0 0 10 10 0 KORG 9 0 § 7 15 0 100 0 100 0 10 0 50 0 10 0 | 20 oS o oo oow So oo o Oo ace o ler) Oo ow | X¢ci 1845. Ey RE, Ws Publication of the British As- sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6 Meteorological Observations BUSUAVELN CSS” |.eeaccncosceaees s 30 18 11 Magnetic and Meteorological Co-operation ..........0cescees 1616 8 Meteorological Instruments at Edinburgh............ ...0 LSs ines Reduction of Anemometrical Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0 | Electrical Experiments at Kew Observatory ........... 43.17 8 Maintaining the WUstablish- ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 0 For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0 | Gases from Iron Furnaces ... 50 0 O The Actinograph ............... dior O! 0 Microscopic Structure of SHOU Ah scsccsacons suceseccyoeees 20 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 O Vitality of Seeds ...... 1848 2 0 7 Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall... 10 0 0 Physiological Action of Medi- GINES. ics asec uteocs erento 20 0 0 Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in York ............ 20 0 0 Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8 £831 9 9 1846. British Association Catalogue OL SUGRSE a oecnrosasendes 1844 211 15 0 Fossil Fishes of the London (BIER ekogtnocddcunecer.“ocee nee OS 100 0 O Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 0 Maintaining the LHstablish- ment at Kew Observatory... 146 16 7 Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0 Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2 Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10 Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 712 3 Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Britain ... 10 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0 Expenses attending Anemo- MNGUETSY se. cseystsrsissdusenscsece TICee6 Anemometers’ Repairs ......... 2 ©3rK6 Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 ~=3 Captive Balloons. ......... 1844 819 8 Varieties of the Human Race 1844 7 6 38 Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in York ............ 12 0 0 £685 16 0 xcll 1847. &. Computation of the Gaussian .Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 Habits of Marine Animals ... 10 0 Physiological Action of Medi- CINCSiMisse meds basecseeertests =p 20 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 Atmospheric Waves ..........+. (ie) Vitality of Seeds ...........0... AST Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 £208 5 Poise 1848. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11 Atmospheric Waves ........+... 310 9 Vitality of Seeds ............... Si lbe 0 Completion of Catalogue of ISITE Osh hioanterBee Neo CADCCCEREEEE ir 0'~ 0 On Colouring Matters ......... Be 10) 0 On Growth of Plants ......... Td: (OF 0 £275 1 8 1849. Electrical Observations at Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 O Maintaining the Establish- MENG ab UGLO «nse ere sesene (oa 2e-o Vitality of Seeds ............... Be (Bec! On Growth of Plants ...... .. 30) 10 Registration of Periodical IPREDOMEDA weds scvncvsesesssss T02305 0 Bill on Account of Anemo- metrical Observations ...... 13 9 0 £159 19 6 1850. Maintaining the KEstablish- ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0O Transit of Harthquake Waves 50 0 0 Periodical Phenomena ......... 15 0 0 Meteorological Instruments, AZORES Frans cancstanisconcnaner cess 25 0-0 £345 18 0 1851. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory (includes part of grant in IESE AED Saaecedadtaccann deockcrece 309 2 2 theory, of Heati-scseeenasetens 20th ol Periodical Phenomena of Ani- mals and Plants..........0..0. 5 0 0 Witality of Seeds @.csi-ses-s2e: 5 6 4 Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0 Ethnological Inquiries ......... 12 0 0 Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 O £391 9 7 Bl O® wWw6OSo oo & GENERAL STATEMENT, 1852. £384 Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory (including balance of grant TOL 1850) Pecks cccsameakeaeeteees 233 17 8 | Experiments on the Conduc- tionsof Meaty... scsteesesenieess 5 2 9 | Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0 | Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0 Researches on the British An- MONA ait canes casmepmelicnvasaate 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds ............006 10) <6: 2 Strength of Boiler Plates...... LOPSO OG 1853. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0 Experiments on the Influence of Solar Radiation............ 15 0 0 Researches on the British ATMCMGAN. capes deersdes neers seers 10 0 0 Dredging on the East Coast Of /SCOPLANA A s.fy saasaveass concer 10 0 0 Ethnological Queries ......... 5». 0.0 £205 0 O 1854. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory (including balance of HOLMES TANG), iauicstas seme sees 330 15 4 Investigations on Flax......... NORIO Effects of Temperature on Wrought leon. ss. .picerntassiae 10 0 0 | Registration of Periodical it) Phenomena semusseneeeseoetes 105, 0:0 British Annelida ...........0+6 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds .........600000 Berens Conduction of Heat..............+ 42 0 £380 19 1855. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0 Harthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0 Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8 5 Vitality of Seeds ............... 10 711 Map of the World............... 15 0 0 Ethnological Queries ......... Dy LObEO Dredging near Belfast ......... 45.0730 £480 16 4 1856. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observa- tory :— i 54: econo 2 Tb 0 On PSaRRee ss. £500 0 e i — "a GRANTS OF MONEY. £ 3. a. Strickland’s Ornithological SVBORVIMS) ocecesssnconcteiveess 100 0 O Dredging and Dredging ESTED oilcice on ciosiviesoces sraeentcs 913 0 Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0 Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0 Registration of Periodical ISMENOMENG tees .aaiaer 25 DredgingAberdeenshireCoast 25 Dredging Hebrides Coast 50 Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 Resistance of Floating Bodies MEIC Licey asicossaiacasnahvicncs 50 Polycyanides of Organic Radi- GEIS! Coppoeceguee COO SOC EERE aCOee 29 IBIZOCRMOTLIS ...,.spusees ducsacens 10 Prish Annelida ..,..:.....s000res 15 Catalogue of Crania ............ 50 Didine Birds of Mascarene ESIAMOSier nee yoesupsbaccascessee Typical Crania Researches . Palestine Exploration F und.. “£1750 1867. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 600 Meteorological Instruments, PME SLU Chicane ste teseaneasedenas 50 Lunar Committee ............... 120 Metrical Committee............ 30 Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 Palestine Explorations......... 50 Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 emitishvRainfalbiicvcccicesssee. 50 Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 Luminous Meteors ............ Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 Dredging Shetland ............ Steamship. Reports Condensa- tion eee eee ee eee eee rey seen e enone Ethyl and Methyl Series Fossil Crustacea..............0008 Sound under Water ............ North Greenland Fauna ween 75 Do. Plant Beds 100 ‘Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25 PEALETIG LRWS, ..ccesciesssessanesre 30 £1739 4 0 reed w coe oooo So oooo oococco ooooo d'o | { ) oooococococeo oooococooooocse i) XCV 1868. fs. di. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory... 609 0 0 Lunar Committee ............... 120 0 0 Metrical Committee ............ 50 0 0 Zoological Revord............... 100 0 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150) "0! 0 Steamship Performances ...... 100 0 0 Britiwskr Matatalt...catsscecseccves 560 U0 O Luminous Meteors’ ............ 50 0 0 Oreane ACIOS: .goasccree ses dae 60 0 0 Fossil Crustacea .......s000+.+6+ 25 0 0 Meth yliSeries:n,.cnenste cosas « 25 0 0 Mercury and Bile ......... ..... 25 0 0 Organic Remains in Lime- SUOMCYROCKS: sre-weerncse-ciesens 25 0 0 Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20 0 0 Fauna, Devon and Cornwall... 30 0 9 British Fossil Carols............ 50 ¢ O Bagshot Leaf-beds ..........4. 50 0 0 Greenland Explorations ...... 100 0 0 HOssUPMOray sarc sess eeseeteee 25), 10.10 Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 0 Underground Temperature... 50 0 0 Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ...... p00 Secondary Reptiles, &c. ...... 30 0 O British Marine Invertebrate ann ar etvcacesspdoadecstcecsee tae 100 0 0 £1940 0 O 1869, Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 Lunar Committee ............055 50 0 O Metrical Commiittee............ 25 0 0 Zoological Record...........0..+ 100 0 O | Committee on Gases in Deep- Well Wialerentnpe a veseact capes 25 0 0 British’ Rainfall. ........2sesss0as 50 0 O Thermal Conductivity of Iron, fA CU PETIT PRCCOLCO TCTs LEE 30 0 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 0 0 Steamship Performances...... 30 0 O Chemical Constitution of (Cast; Eromteenserensceecndeathoas 80 0 0 Tron and Steel Manufacture... 100 0 0 Methyl Series: ........:....000c00s 30 0 0 Organic Remains in Lime- Bion ROCKS iy .cccesattece cnet 10 0 0 Earthquakes in Scotland...... 1D) British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 0 Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 30 0 0 IN OSSUIRILOT AME eee en eacene rae one 25° 0 0 Tidal Observations ............ 170 0 0 Underground Temperature... 30 0 O Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ...... or O° <0 Orbanie ACIGS ric. cncessesese sens 2 O20 Kiltorcan Fossils ............... A Ohea ues oooqcooqoceoco ocooco ocoooco ooo f=) GENERAL STATEMENT. ££ s. id: | Fossil Coral Sections, for Photographing .........-.+++ 20 0 0 Bagshot Leaf-beds .......+.... 20 0 0 Moab Explorations ........-- 100 0 O | Gaussian Constants .......... ser Oe) £1472 2 6 1872. Maintainiog the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0 Metrical Committee ............ 15-0 0 Zoological Record .....+....+-0e+ 100 0 O Tidal Committee ...........+- -. 200'*0 10 Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0° "0 Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0 Exploration of Moab ........- 100 0 O Terato-embryological Inqui- TELS sepa ppeacenacticcccogda mode 10 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 Luminous Meteors ........seee 20 0 0 Heat in the Blood............. SS OSD Fossil Crustacea ........ceeeeee 25 0 0 ¥ossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 0 Lunar Objects ........ Sacusceci 20 0 0 Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20 0 0 British Rainfall................+- 100 0 0 Poisonous Substances Anta- BONIS ..ceeeeseneecenceeereens 10 0 O Essential Oils, Chemical Con- stitution; &9%...ceres Weecttaee 40 0 0 Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 O Thermal Conductivity of Me- GALS reset cen ve tavesgessiinws ass 25" 10° 20 £1285 0 0 1873 Zoological Record.........++++ 100 0 0 Chemistry Record.............+5 200 0 0 Tidal Commitite.............s0+0» 400 0 0 Sewage Committee... ......... 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0 Carboniferous Corals ........ 25 0 9 Fossil Hlephants .........005+ 3250 K0 Wave-lengths.......... indete- cess SLO ORO British Raintall rey: .esscssces. 100 0 0 Hissential Oils si .macsscestdescsene 30,40550 Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0 Gaussian Constants...........++ oe LOR OO) Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0 Underground Temperature... 150 0 0 Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0 Fossil Flora, Ireland......... .. 20) «0010 Timber Denudation and Rain- Pals. we SAQA or Oc SeROC DEEL OD 234205 (020 Luminous Meteors...........+++- 30 0 0 £1685 0 0 xevl £ sd. | Chemical Constitution and Physiological Action Rela- TONS Sereccercewensenarsosteescee Tt nO Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 Products of Digestion .. ...... 10 0 £1622 0 O 1870. Maintaining the Establish- ment at “Kew Observatory 600 0 Metrical Committee... ......... 25° 0 Zoological Record... ........+++ 100 0 Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 Bars im Wishes’) Giecces.conssecmcecues 50 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 Fossil Crustacea — ....sscccsereee zo; 10 Methyl Compounds ............ 25 0 TWBAMODISCUS Sows se.--esk erp snis 20 0 oooocoeoacqocoesdcoo GRANTS OF MONEY. XCV1li 1874. £ s. a. £ 3. da. | Tsomeric Cresols ......sseereees LOFOMeO Zoological Record........ wee. 100 0 O Action of Ethyl Bromobuty- Chemistry Record............++ 100 0 0, rate on Ethyl Sodaceto- Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0 | acetate.........ceererceerereeeees 5 0 0 Elliptic Functions.............0+ 100 0 O| Estimation of Potash and Lightning Conduciors ......... 10 0 0 Phosphoric Acid.........-++++ 130, On 0 Thermal Conductivity of Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0 EPDM ew sabiwaaccdentsevesrs esas 10 0 0 | Geological Record............+++ 100 0 0 Anthropological Instructions 50 0 0 | Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0 | Thermal Conductivities of Luminous Meteors .........+4 30 0 O Rocka tiere-secree-sonessencaraes 10 0 0 Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0O | Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0 British Rainfall..............0.4+ 100 0 O | Earthquakes in Scotland...... LO) Essential Oils............scsseeeee 10 0 O | Zoological Record..........++.++ 100 0 O Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0 | Close Time...........ecseeeeeerees 5 0 O Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0O| Physiological Action of Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100 0 O OWN sec owosceeaeeseersl ancien 25 0 0 Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0O | Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0 Marine Organisms..........+.++. 30 0 O | Intestinal Secretions ......... 1a OG Fossils, North-West of Scot- Physical Characters of Inha- IETS Srmgoade en oat aoe nebanc er oone 210 0 | _ bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0 Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0 | Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0 Prades UNIONS ..2...c.cccscesess 25 0 0 | Effect of Propeller on turning Mountain Limestone Corals 25 0 O of Steam-vessels ............ be 0) 20 Hirratic Blocks ......cc.cseseoeee 10 0 0 £1092 4 2 Dredging, Durham and York- BME COASUS! , 0 Miocene Flora of the Basalt of the North of Ireland 20 0 Illustrations for a Monograph on the Mammoth ............ ERY Record of Zoological Litera- DUTE RS eseceeesaseresscesceste rare 100 0 Composition and Structure of less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 Exploration of Caves in IBOPREO Rte ssestaseatarentesors 50 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 Record of the Progress of Geology manson. cskorei scent 100 0 Fermanagh Caves Exploration 5 0 Electrolysis of Metallic Solu- tions and Solutions of Compound Salts.............. 25 0 Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 Calculation of Factor Tables for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 Underground Waters............ 10 0 Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 Improvements in Astrono- iCal | CLOCKS va. scveeetenee ones 30 0 Marine Zoology of South HEV OM sa statnonstroses qattorstants 20 0 Determination of Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ......... 12 15 d. 0 0 Qo a0 aloon oO ooo oo o oo oo (=) o Oo o o for) o o ooo ooo GENERAL STATEMENT. £ 3s. -d. Specific Inductive Capacity of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0 Tables of Sun-heat Co- CfiCIents ......-..0.seaveeas eee 30 0 0 Datum Level of the Ordnance DULVEOY vacveasvuteccesre ei te neee LO: 0.40 Tables of Fundamental In- variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9 Atmospheric Electricity Ob- servations in Madeira ...... Loa Onn0 Instrument for Detecting Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22,0 0 Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships ......... Midland Tidal Observations in the English Channel ............ LOPS OnA0 21080 JAS DE ee 1880. New Form of High Insulation IGG Y/onenccuesascueseerestewnccees LOSSOmO Underground Temperature... 10 0 0 Determination of the Me- chanical Equivalent of ELC Alin x deeseeteasscben- ten eters Be2H.7/0 Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 O Luminous Meteors .......60066 30 0 0 Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0 Fundamental Invariants ...... 8 5 0 Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0 Specific Inductive Capacity of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0 Completion of Tables of Sun- heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0 ‘Instrument for Detection of Fire-damp in Mines......... LO 0240 Inductive Capacity of Crystals and Paraffines: ......ssvess00s ALT th Report on Carboniferous oly Z0a) ns cssisseecseaeereness LOY O7N0 Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0 Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo- SAUTUS cs 2s0- cnn cebuddaaten stare 10 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0 Geological Record............... 100 0 O Miocene Flora of the Basalt of North Ireland ............ Ub). 0) 6 Underground Waters of Per- mian Formations .........04. 5 0 0 Record of Zoological Litera- - LUTES 825 sate sot dacn) condoocice once 100 0 0 Table at Zoological Station BCUNADIOS cacceemeeWe Racer areas on 0) 0 Investigation of the Geology and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0 Anthropometry .........sescesse. 50 0 0 Patent LAWS «css.ocsccccsersssses 5 0 0 STs eee GRANTS OF MONEY. 188). Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 Underground Temperature... 20 Hlectrical Standards........ ... 25 High Insulation Key........+.. 5 Tidal Observations ............ 10 Specific Refractions ............ 7 Fossil Polyz0a .....sseseeesseees 10 Underground Waters ......... 10 Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 Tertiary Flora .............-++++ 20 Scottish Zoological Station ... 50 Naples Zoological Station ... 75 Natural History of Socotra... 50 Anthropological Notes and MHERICS ceccccscsuscescsse7rc 20 British, POLYZOS ....-.ssces.cocaes 10 Exploration of Caves of South BEITCIANG oven seeceasancnciase 10 Explorationof Raygill Fissure 20 Naples Zoological Station ... 80 Albuminoid Substances of PERE icc catehn ch asverceas asians 10 Elimination of Nitrogen by Bodily Exercise...........0... 50 Migration of Birds ............ 15 Natural History of Socotra... 100 Natural History of Timor-laut 100 Record of Zoological Litera- MREORaccerdvanianteecassnetaceass 100 Anthropometric Committee... 50 £1126 wlo CoO SOOO OOOMWSOOCOSOS Y r1o CO SoCo OoOoOHCOCOS & o (Wes at (=) o o oo 2 6 o rloo cose Oo Siaios "Oo'O! 1S) Foros ere SO OO) ooo Ser. ooo = am 1883. £ Meteorological Observations on. Ben Nevis ...........s-000.. 50 Isomeric Naphthalene Deri- PALLLVESS wean tecdcsusses iactaestss 15 Earthquake Phenomena of UE Te ETSY Srtreccuntauccaece cine Pace 50 Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10 Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo- VOICTROCKS cence ssssnecsuesach « 25 Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng- land and Wales .......+e..+0+ 10 Circulation of Underground WGTCES: ceaesr an ceeen cree saneaues 15 Geological Record............... 50 Exploration of Caves in South GEnImeland i iepassscenductesecoss 10 Zoological Literature Record 100 | Migration of Birds ............ 20 | Zoological Station at Naples 80 Scottish Zoological Station... 25 Elimination of Nitrogen by xcix bg wo oooco oo o o ooo o oO On|limararey) ere KenSieiers SS) 6S) er even Se wl/ooo Oo Bodily Hxercise.........:.sesee 50 0 O Reduction of Tidal Observa- CLOVIS aavinxpaetelccelee se actestelsclesisic'sler LOTSO' 20 Calculating Tables in Theory (OL NUMDECLS\. .ceepenass oes 1000 30 Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ......seseseeeee so DO OawO Meteoric Dust ......s.sceecseees 70 0 O Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt Solutions..... Re ep Bcroonincticntacp 25 0 0 Physical Constants of Solu- A OUS capaci sen osclasie einai anieel ts 20 0 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- WLS" cides chucsaess erent meeneire 25 0 0 Raygill Fissure ..............2+e: be ONaO: Earthquake Phenomena of CER OF 18 Ranbodrrinadesndnvodaocascian 10°00 Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic ROCKS easepeneseccenescnsmeaaceces be OO Fossil Plants of British Ter- tiary and Secondary Beds... 50 0 0 Geological Record ............+4+ 50 0 O Circulation of Underground Wether ees. trancesrinastvacctes cence 100) 0 Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 O Migration Of BiCdsy eeesseer sre 30 0 0 Exploration of Mount Kilima- LANE N#0). 1 osha apeHnoroapreeueneeod 25 0. 0 Recent Polyzoa ..........s0s00008 105205 0 Granton Biological Station... 100 0 0 Biological Stations on Coasts of United Kingdom ......... 150 0 O Exploration of New Guinea... 200 0 0 Exploration of Mount Roraima 100 0 0 £1385 0 0 1886. flectrical Standards........... » 40 0 Solar Radiation ...............00 9 10 fidal Observations ............ 50 0 Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 Physical and Chemical Bear- ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 Chemical Nomenclature ...... 50 Fossil Plants of British Ter- tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- WiUS <5. caeseenoneneeene Oogstadnn 30 0 Geological Record............... 100 0 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 1550 Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 Granton Biological Station... 75 0 Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 Researches in Food-Fishes and Invertebrata at St, Andrews 75 0 > oooococo oo oo ooonao STATEMENT. £ 8. dl. Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0 Secretion of Urine,...........00+ 10 0 0 Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0 Regulation of Wages under - Sliding Scales ............... 10 0 0 Prehistoric Race in Greek Tslands\. he-eecnceneratenneceeneen 20). ,0),50 North-Western Tribes of Ca- MEIOE oneeoriey Aocuc oN. corti covey 50 0 0 £995 0 6 1887 Solar Radiation .......-..... Sexo LO LOO Electrolysis........+++ sieceeeeseein 30 0 50 Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75-00 Standards of Light (1886 STAN) .icscereccevresreronesemnne 20 0 0 Standards of Light (1887 PTANL) Voecccccscecsancsoncsereees LO! 00 Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations ...........0.0.00 15 0 0 Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 O Electrical Standards .. Agree a) A) Silent Discharge of Electricity 20m pe Absorption Spectra ............ 40 0 0 Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0 Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- Wil Saasseesaccuascaestecssseeeeeer 20% 050 Volcanic Phenomena of J one (1886 grant) ...........cc0sn. 5OF Uet0 Volcanic Phenomena of J apan CUSSTPTAIit) wseestsensssecnee 50 0 0 Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20 0 0 ICPATLESDVOCKA caoner at edtecwerne 10-<0)70 Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20 0 0 Coal Plants of Halifax...,.... 20, 0-10 Microscopic Structure of the Rocks of Anglesey............ LOL OO Exploration of the Eocene Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0 Underground Waters ......... o (0510 ‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0 Provincial Museums Reports 5 O 0 Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0 Naples Biological Station ... 100 0 0 Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0 Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0 Zoological Record ..... BOSD CEE 100 0 0 Higa; of Chins snevesasccasvesepe 75 0 0 Flora and Fauna of the CAMELOONS escperssssscernsrasies 75 0 0 Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0 Bathy-hypsographical Map of IBmifiShpislesaseesersnsseenes f. 16-10 Regulation of Wages ......... 10 0 0 Prehistoric Race of Greek Islands....... SocdecaggeccAnra sce 20 0 0 Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 @ £1186 18 0 GRANTS 1888. £ 8. Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 O BHlectrical Standards............ 2 6 Magnetic Observations......... Mayet) Standards of Light ............ 79 2 BOHLOLYSIS isc. .cesscevsescewace 30 0 Uniform Nomenclature in MECHANICS... 23. iccocecses sence 10 0 Silent Discharge of Elec- GUUOUU Voice vas vesesdsvseseisess At Properties of Solutions ...... 25 Influence of Silicon on Steel Methods of Teaching Chemis- try Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva- Pree eer errr reer rrrr rere rr rr) Action of Light on Hydracids = Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20 Geological Record ...........+.5. 50 Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10 Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10 Underground Waters ......... 5 Palzontographical Society ... 50 Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.,. 50 Carboniferous Flora of Lan- cashire and West Yorkshire 25 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- Biel Slee cian aceiccavesiie seesccen 20 Zoology and Botany of West MICS artonethelrsacasesoseccchare 100 Flora of Bahamas .............+. 100 Development of Fishes—St. PATTON Syncs rac ctansidtschmeceiese 50 Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 Migration of Birds ............ 30 Hora Of China. ... 0.050. ...e0000 75 Naples Zoological Station ... 100 Lymphatic System ............ 25 Biological Station at Granton 50 Peradeniya Botanical Station 50 Development of Teleostei 15 Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar PRO PIONS) teedercesscseaacedsceses 5 Precious Metals in Circulation 20 Value of Monetary Standard 10 Effect of Occupations on Phy- sical Development............ 25 North,;Western Tribes of SVAUAGD), © te susiswcscegersetceraas 100 Prehistoric Race in Greek ESPEN 5. bs Seuisleealisletvelclev ove ese's 20 £1511 1889, Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 Electrical Standards............ 75 HOLE CHTOLYSIS. ....5cescecccecsceesons 20 Surface Water Temperature... 30 Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen .........008 name tor 6 ~- Ooooo les) oooo OF MONEY. ie) ee ESE CH Methods of teaching Chemis- EDN en ste secsiscvaclaseeaendssses sss LOMO 0 Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0 Geological Record...........000+ 80 0 0 Voleanic Phenomena ofJapan 25 0 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- Wl 2 ASaccne rece be One ECEIRE eC 20 0 0 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 0 Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of (Witter ence saciesadince case els Lbs Onn0 West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0 WloranomOhinay, i 2.cesccs.che> sce 25 0 0 Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 Physiology of Lymphatic Systeme secs edersecsssedse sea 25 0 0 Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3 Natural History of Friendly TSANG Syee.cdacwocwexscasteeccsees 100 0 0 Geology and Geography of Atlas vRanGe we. c..secrvessdors 100 0 0 Action of Waves and Currents IDHSHUALIES, giccsdeccesteeoees= 100 0 O North-Western Tribes of Ganadan tasers sitctassececes cots 150 0 O Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30 0 0 Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0 Marine Biological Asscciation 200 0 0 ‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath.. ... 100 0 0 £1417 O11 1890. Electrical Standards............ 12 17 0 Ble ctrolysisis weuctssesvesunwiens ve 5 0 0 Electro-optics...........-..:e00008 50 0 0 Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0 Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena of Japan ...... Comore 0 Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0 Properties of Solutions ...... 10010 International Standard forthe Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0 Influence of the Silent Dis- charge of Electricity on ORY POD sete eet eeree 5 0 0 Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0 Recording Results of Water ANALYSIS\-22345 eb asocse ddeese os 4 1 0 Oxidation of Hydracids in Sunlighticivetsncs oscceees despa cOm0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- VIUS i oa od tase area od dowen cotoaiee 20 0 0 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0 O Circulation of Underground Wiaters...: cinctgccmsacsesseasscwe pe OFs0 Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 0 Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10 0 0 Geological Photographs ...... 7 1411 Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0 Botanical Station at Perade- WAI Einceven conotcaceecnastecensvess 25 0 0 cil GENERAL STATEMENT. £ 8. d. 1892. é i i Tow- s. d. BT eta bee 4 3 9 | Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 0 Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 | Photographs of Meteorological Zoology and Botany of the Phenomena... e+..eeseeeeeeeeees 15 0 0 West India Islands ......... 100 0 0 | Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0 0 Marine Biological Association 30 0 0 | Discharge of Electricity from Action of Waves and Currents | Points sseaneeneaeeeeeeeeeeeanvers 50 0 0 in Estuaries ..........2---+++ 150-0 0 | Seismological Phenomena of Graphic Methods in Mechani- | Sapa .eeeeeeeeeee steeeeeeeseees 10 0 0 Cal SCIENCE ..........0ceceeeeree 11 0 0 | Formation of Haloids acs vaes 12 0 0 Anthropometric Calculations 5 0 0) Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0 Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0 0 ae of Bot on Dyed eects Sieaes 20 “0:0 OLOULS! aeviseudetecaues teenie a paglaseg Ae See ee Hr Tatl CLOCK Sumepracneessep ane eee 15 0 0 £799 16 8 Photographs of Geological MBENESH eels seeinctsesmeces eat 20). 0) 0 Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0 | Investigation of Hlbolton eS Gavat Di cin eu cvtaala Sica detente 25. .0' -0 Ben Nevis Observatory......+.. 50 0 0 | Hxcavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0 0 Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O | Cretaceous Polyz0a ....ssese00 10 0 0 WlEctrolysis......2-52--0sereeereens Sain. 0 | Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 Seismological Phenomena of Marine Biological Association 1710 0 JADA Mee teecay leceasvecsseeeseas 10 0 0 | Deep-sea Tow-net ..........006 40 0 0 Temperatures of Lakes.......... 20 0 0 | Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0 Photographs of Meteorological | Zoology and Botany of West PhenOMENAg...0e.00cereeeeerees 5 0 0] India Islands .........00000+ 100 0 0 Discharge of Electricity from Climatology and Hydrography POMC Serer eteitesoncie nese esmiseiants 10 0 0 of Tropical Africa .. ty et) Ultra Violet Rays of Solar Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 0 0 I PCCLNUIMM ews cesseseeceuenesaay 50 0 0 Anthropological Notes ain International Standard for Queries: .tenlsteea cee 20 0 0 Analysis of Ironand Steel... 10 0 O | Ppyehistoric Remains in Ma- Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva- Shonalandceaeeeeeessetors see 150 OO ULV GS a eth eisai ceeie datnmemtnersey vant 25 0 O| North-Western ‘Tribes of Formation of Haloids ......... By SOO, | + cei Gietanencdet 53. sus ven sae AORN 100 0 0 Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17 10 0 | Corresponding Societies ...... DoeOn.0 Geological Record..........6.++ 100 0 O ——____~— Voleanic Phenomena of Vesu- £864 10 0 VALIS oats coke eee ea eieleatea aan 10 0 0 > ane Fossil Phyllopoda...... ae : 10 105.0 Photographs of Geologica Thtarest Hes ese ada se Aiiuwers ve BP ay 1893. Lias of Northamptonshire ... 25 0 0 | Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0 Registration of ‘lype-Speci- Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 0 mens of British Fossils...... 5 5 0 | Mathematical Tables ......... 15 0 0 Investigation of ElboltonCave 25 0 O | Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6 Botanical Station at Pera- Magnetic Work at the Tal- Genilyay.avesetuens.cetsastaaetis 50 0 0 mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 0 Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0 0 | Isomeric Naphthalene Deri- Marine Biological Association 1210 0 VALLVORY oir hte oece 290 0 O Disappearance of Native + | Birratio Blocks" ..saivsecessrrsees 10° 6° @ Plants eccamsicanseeksaeee mentee 5 O O| Fossil Phyllopoda............... Sy W) Action of Waves and Currents Underground Waters ......... 5 0 0 IN HSLUALTICS eiseeiseevenenere ne 125 0 O/| Shell-bearing Deposits at Anthropometric Calculations 10 0 0 Clava, Chapelhall, &e. ...... 20 0 0 New Edition of ‘ Anthropo- Eurypterids of the Pentland logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0 0 | — Hillls.......ccccssssssessscessnees 10 0 0 North - Western Tribes of Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 Canada vis neecdnecusedeeetaate 200 0 0 | Marine Biological Association 30 0 0 Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 O | Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0 ‘1 ~ | Zoology and Botany of West #1028 10. | "a trtiatislandee atest 50 0 0 GRANTS OF MONEY. £ 8. a. Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 0 Physiological Action of Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 0 Index of Genera and Species MEAUIUIN AIS) 5. se sasisnesneniney oss 20 0 0 Exploration of Karakoram IMGUNTAING cipccrcssssecgwasress 50 0 0 Scottish Place-names ......... Tne Oy 305) Climatology and Hydro- graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0) Economic Training ............ Sain O Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0 0 | Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25 0 0 North-Western ‘Tribes of MUAEAIA) Bie aa's ces nvecsssases ss =e 100 0 O Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0 £907 15 6 1894. Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0 Photographs of Meteorological IPHENMOMENE, 50 0 0 Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0 Table at the Zoological Sta- LION, Naplesitewssas-eectecrats 100 0 0 Table at the Biological La- boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0 Index Generum et Specierum DNase Wb ivhwale pee. omer on oo oe 75,0. 0 Migration of Birds ............ 102.9)" 0 Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 5 O O Changes of Land-level in the | Phlegreean Fields............ 50 0 O | Legislation regulating Wo- men’s Labour... ,.<.s0sdveseee 15 0 0 | Small Screw Gauge............ 45 0 0 | Resistance of Road Vehicles GO) LPACHION ast. cpecsesecses: were a0! 0 Silchester Excavation ......... 10.20)"0 Ethnological Survey of OBNAAAAG sa sacsondenacsucareeewe 30 0 0 Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0 O Exploration in Crete ......... 145 0 0 | Physiological Effects of Pep- HODGrsten cee csseedernasteratie tees 30 0 0 | Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 15 11 Suprarenal Capsules in the RADDIG. swectssan seep aaneetess waite 5 0 0 | Fertilisation in Pheeophyceew 15 0 0 Morphology, Ecology, and Taxonomy of Podoste- THACED febecsdestessecegsaneceeceee 20 0 0 Corresponding Societies Com- JT ULI Po sotnnissansoniondee o0acee 15 0 0 £920 9 11 1902. Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0 Seismological Observations... 35 0 0 Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites, .iivssteccetecessscetesede 75 0 0 Magnetic Observations at Fal- WUOULN Gc cceascasseecseNeswssteses 80 0 0 Relation between Absorption Spectra and Organic Sub- SUATICES! Maeeeccamendanarsaenttctes 20°"0" “0 Wave-length Tables............ nO Life-zones in British Car- boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 0 Exploration of Irish Caves... 45 0 O Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ............... 100 0 0 Index Generum et Specierum AM UinaliaMpesaseeetes. secereces 100 0 0 Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 O Structure of Coral Reefs of IndianvOceamise: 2tte-.sereess 50 0 0 GRANTS OF MONEY. evil £8. dad Lie Sue Compound Ascidians of the Anthropometric Investigation 5 0 0 IGGGIB TCA 5.5. ceeds rece vents 0 0 | Anthropometry of the Todas Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 0 0 and other Tribes of Southern Legislation regulating Wo- INTUTE igen qausceneccs -serioo coeds 0 0 men’s Labour...........ssese«s 0 0 | The State of Solution of Pro- Small Screw Gauge ............ 0 O COLO sss ccmectRosassies stedteonss 0 0 Resistance of Road Vehicles Investigation of the Cyano- ROME A CL OD: 6%: 50.0.0 Gold Coinage in ‘Circulation i in the United Kingdom |. 819 7 Anthropometric Investigations in the British Isles...... 10 0 0 Metabolism of Individual Tissues .............04. 45 0 0 Mhe Muctless Glands see ve csive ne chicas te 25 0 0 Effect of Olimate upon Health and Disease eae 55 0 0 Physiology of Heredity, .gs-< sccesieescevees ass etivise.ne 30 0 0 Research of South African Cycads 35 0 0 Botanical Photographs... .....sseccsesccees so eiaasion ecg 0) 10040 Structure of Fossil Plants ............ 5 0 0 Wars VePetation) .oicseneisiccese sie accaceccs can neuter Loe JUPSO Corresponding Societies Committee. ninivin eps sis[tcteqrsit'stareeoy LG) 14eel. 757 12 10 £2841 5 O Balance at York Bank.............ccssssscscecosscecscess aomacaacatetens 510 0 Balance at Bank of England (Western IBLANnGh)) ees sasepaepadsesbie b> ainc a tisa ese ee sO SC ml Less Cheques not presented...........scesesseesers 41 11 8 2346 10 3 Casi nN MAN Gis vesbFecsseeactovatedeeaPeetee «acats set anish antes s aeNee 10 18 3 £5204 3 6 ee - Ihave examined the above Account with the Books and Vouchers of the Associa- tion, and certify the same to be correct, I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names of the Trustees, Approved— W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant, HERBERT McLEopD, Shaldiiow 3 Church Court, Old Jewry, E.C. EDWARD BRABROOK, sik July 24, 1907. g2 eXvi GENERAL MEETINGS. General Meetings at Leicester. On Wednesday, July 31, at 8.30 p.m., in the Opera House, Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., resigned the office of President to Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., who took the Chair and delivered an Address, for which see p. 3. On Thursday, August 1, at 8 p.m.,a Fete was given in the Abbey Park by the Mayor of Leicester. On Friday, August 2, at 8.30 p.m., in the Opera House, Mr. W. Duddell, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘The Are and the Spark in Radio-telegraphy.’ On Monday, August 5, at 8.30 p.m., in the Temperance Hall, Dr. F. A. Dixey delivered a Discourse on ‘Recent Developments in the Theory of Mimicry.’ On Tuesday, August 6, at 8 p.m., a Conversazione was held in the Museum Buildings. On Wednesday, August 7, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General Meeting was held in the Municipal Buildings, when the following Reso- lutions were adopted :— 1. That a cordial vote of thanks be given to the Mayor and Corpora- tion of Leicester for the reception which they have accorded to the British Association, and for the facilities placed at the disposal of the Officers of the Association. 2. That a cordial vote of thanks be given (i) to the Local Executive Officers and Committees for the admirable arrangements made for the meetings ; (ii) to the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society ; (iii) to the public institutions which have granted the use of their buildings for sectional proceedings ; and (iv) to the schools aud works thrown open to the inspection of the members. 3. That the grateful thanks of the Association be given to the citizens of Leicester for the generous hospitality shown to its members on the occasion of this meeting. 4, Vote of thanks to the President for his conduct in the Chair. The meeting was then adjourned to Dublin, September 2, 1908. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE LEICESTER MEETING. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. President.—Prof. A. E. H. Love, F.R.S. Vice-Prestdents.—Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S.; the Earl of Berkeley, F.G.S. Secretaries.—Prof. A. W. Porter, B.Se. (Recorder); Dr. L. N. G. Filon; Dr. J. A. Harker; A. R. Hinks, M.A.; E. E. Brooks, B.Sc. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. President.—Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prof. Wyndham Dunstan, F.R.S.; Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S.; Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.; Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S. Secreturies—Prof. A. W. Crossley, F.R.S. ( Recorder’) ; Dr. E. F. Armstrong; Dr. F. M. Perkin; J. H. Hawthorn, M.A. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. President—Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. Frech ; Prof. J. P. Iddings ; G. W. Lamplugh, F.R.S. ; Prof. C. Lapworth, F.R.S. ; C. Fox Strangways; Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S. Secretaries.—J. Lomas, F.G.S. (Recorder) ; Rey. W. Lower Carter, M.A.; Prof. Theodore Groom, D.Se.; F. W. Bennett, M.D. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL GOMMITTEES. CXVil SECTION D,—ZOOLOGY. President.—William E, Hoyle, M.A., D.Se. Vice-Presidents.—J. J. Lister, F.R.S.; Prof. G. C. Bourne, D.Sc.; Prof. Marcus M. Hartog, D.Sc.; Prof. M. Simroth. Secretaries.—H. W. Marett Tims, M.D. (Recorder); J. H. Ashworth, D.Sc. ; L. Doncaster, M.A.; E. E. Lowe. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. President.—George G, Chisholm, M.A., B.Sc... Vice-Presidents—J. Bolton ; Major C. F. Close, R.E., O.M.G.; Col. Sir D. A. Johnston, K.C.M.G.; H. R. Mill, LL.D. Secretaries —Ki, Heawood, M.A. (Recorder); E. A. Reeves; O. J. R. Howarth, M.A.; Theodore Walker. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, President.—Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. Y. Edg- worth, D.C.L.; Prof. A. W. Flux; Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. Secretaries,— Prof. 8. J, Chapman, M.A. (Recorder) ; H. O. Meredith, M.A.; D. H. Macgregor, M.A.; Thomas Smithies Taylor. SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. President.—Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, I’.R.S. Vice- Presidents.— Dugald Clerk ; Alfred Colson; Prof. Hele-Shaw, F.R.S ; Col. H. C. L. Holden, R.A., F.R.S. Secretaries W. A. Price, M.A. (Recorder); H. E. Wimperis, B.A. ; Prof. E. G. Coker, D.Sce.; Alex. C. Harris, M A. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. President —D. G. Hogarth, M.A. Vice-Presidents—E. Sidney Hartland ; Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A.; Prof. E. Naville. Secretaries. N. Fallaize, B.A. (Recorder); H. S. Kingsford, M.A.; F. C. Shrubsall, M.A., M.D.; Charles J. Billson, M.A. SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Dr. A. D, Waller, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prof. Francis Gotch, F.R.S.; Dr. C. J. Bond; Prof. Schafer, F.R.S.; Dr. Gaskell, F.R.S. ; Prof. Sher- rington, F.R.S. Secretaries.—J. Barcroft, M.A (Recorder); Dr. N. H. Alcock ; Prof. J. S. Macdonald, B.A.; Allan Warner, M.D. SECTION K,—BOTANY. President.—Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. P. Lotsy ; Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S.; Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. Secretaries—Prof. A. G. Tansley, M.A. (Recorder); R. P. Gregory, M.A.; Prof. R. H. Yapp, M.A.; William Bell. SECTION L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. President.—Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. Vice-Presidents— W. M. Heller ; Dr. G. Kerschensteiner; Baron Kikuchi; Prof. M. Sadler, LL.D. Secretaries —Prof. R. A. Gregory (Recorder); W. D. Eggar; Hugh Richardson ; J. Saville Laver. CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Chairman.—H. J. Mackinder, M.A. Vice- Chairman.—Rey.J. O. Bevan, M.A. Secretary.F. W. Rudler, 1.8 O. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. The President and Vice-Presidents of the Association; the General Secretaries ; the General Treasurer; the Trustees; the Presidents of the Association in former years; Prof. Love; Principal Griffiths; Prof. Smithells; Prof. Crossley ; Prof. J. W. Gregory; J. Lomas; Dr. W E. Hoyle; Dr. Marett Tims; George G. Chisholm ; E. Heawood; Prof. Ashley; Prof. Chapman; Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson; W. A. Price; D. G. Hogarth; Sir Edward Brabrook; Dr. Waller; Prof. Schiifer; Prof. Farmer; Prof. Tansley; Sir Philip Magnus; Prof. R. A. Gregory; Rev. J. O. Bevan; and F. W. Rudler. XVI RESEARCH COMMITTEES. RESEARCH COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE LEICESTER MeetTING: AvuGust 1907. 1. Receiving Grants of Money. | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Section A—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Seismological Observations. The further Tabulation of Bessel Functions. To co-operate with the Royal Meteorological Society in the Investigation of the Upper At- mosphere by means of Kites. - To co-operate with the Scottish Meteorological Society in mak- ing Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. To carry out a further portion of the Geodetic Arc of Meridian North of Lake Tanganyika. Members of Committee Chairman.—Professor H.H.Turner. Secretary.—Dr. J. Milne. Lord Kelvin, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Sir George Darwin, Mr. Major L. Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewing, Mr. M. H. Gray, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professors J. W. Judd, C. G. Knott, and | R. Meldola, Mr. R. D. Old- ham, Professor J. Perry, Mr. | W. E. Plummer, Professor J. H. Poynting, Mr. Clement Reid, | and Mr. Nelson Richardson. Chairman.—FProfessor M. J. M. Hill. Secretary.—Dr. L. N. G. Filon. Professor Alfred Lodge. Chairman.—Dr. W. N. Shaw. Secretary.—Mr. W. H. Dines. Mr. D. Archibald, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. H. R. Mill, Dr. A. Schuster, and Dr. W. Watson, Chairman.—Lord McLaren. Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown. Sir John Murray, Professor F. W. Dyson, and Mr. Omond. Chairman.—Sir George Darwin. Secretary.—Sir David Gill. Major Close and Sir George Goldie. Section B.—CHEMISTRY. Preparing a new Series of Wave- length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements. Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe. Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts. Sir Norman Lockyer, Professors Sir J. Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A. Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott Gibbs, Sir W. de W. Abney, and Dr, W. E. Adeney. Horace Darwin, | 15 25 25 200 10 00} 00. 00 00 00 EE — RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee The Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub- stances. Dynamic Isomerism. The Transformation of Aromatic Nitramines and allied sub- stances, and its relation to Sub- stitution in Benzene Deriva- tives. SECTION To investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles, and to take measures for their preservation. To report upon the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles. To investigate the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, and at various localities in the East Riding of Yorkshire. To enable Mr. HE. Greenly to com- plete his Researches on the Composition and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey. To enable Dr. A. Vaughan to continue his Researches on the Faunal Succession in the Car- boniferous Limestone in the British Isles. | Chairman.—Professor E. Divers. Secretary.—Professor A. W. Cross- ley. Professor W. H. Perkin, Dr. M. O. Forster, and Dr. Le Sueur. Chairman.—Professor H, E. Arm- strong. Secretary.—Dr. T. M. Lowry. Professor Sydney Young, Dr. Desch, Dr. J. J. Dobbie, Dr. A. Lap- worth, and Dr. M. O. Forster. Chairman.—Professor F. §. Kip- ping. Secretary.—Professor K.J.P.Orton. Dr.§. Ruhemann, Dr. A. Lapworth, | and Dr. J. T. Hewitt. C.—GEOLOGY. Chairman.—Professor P. F. Ken- dall. Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse. Dr. T.G. Bonney, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Rev. S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. J. Lomas, Professor W. J. Sollas, and Messrs. J. W. Stather, R. H. Tiddeman, and W, T. Tucker. Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd- man, Secretary.—Mr. J. Lomas. Mr. H. C. Beasley, Professor P. F. Kendall, Mr. E. T. Newton, Pro- fessor A.C.Seward, Mr. W. A. EB. Ussher, Professor W. W. Watts, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward. Chairman.— Mr. G. W. Lamplugh. Secretary.—Mr. J. W. Stather. Dr. Tempest Anderson, Professor J. W. Carr, Rev. W. Lower Carter, Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Mr, F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H. Howarth, Rev. W. Johnson, Pro- fessor P. F. Kendall, and Messrs. G. W. B. Macturk, E. T. New- ton, H. M. Platnauer, Clement Reid, and T. Sheppard. Chairman.—Mr. A. Harker. Secretary.—My. KE. Greenly. Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. C. A. Matley, and Professor K. J. P. Orton. Chairman.— Professor J. W. Gre- gory. Secretary.—Dr. A. Vaughan. Dr. Wheelton Hind and Professor W. W. Watts. 40) O40 30 00 17 16 6 10 00 Tp l2' 9 217 2 10 00 CXxX 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee | Grants | = — — ———— — ne es pene a To investigate the pre-Devonian | Chairman.—Mr.H.B. Woodward. | 10 0 0 Rocks of the Mendips and the | Secretary.—Professor 8. H. Rey- Bristol Area. nolds. Dr. C. Lloyd Morgan and Rey. H. H. Winwood. To record and determine the | Chairman.— Mr. Douglas W.| 10 0 0 Exact Significance of Local Terms applied in the British Isles to Topographical and Geo- logical Objects. To excavate Critical Sections in the Palzeozoic Rocks of Wales and the West of England. To investigate the Microscopical | and Chemical Composition of | Charnwood Rocks. SECTION To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples. Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animalium. To enable Mr. Laurie to conduct Experiments in Inheritance. To assist Mr. G. W. Smith to pro- ceed to Tasmania to study the Anatomy and Development of -lnaspides, and to investigate the Fauna of the Lakes of Central Tasmania, Freshfield. Secretary.—Mr. W. G. Fearnsides. Lord Avebury, Mr. C. T. Clough, Professor EK. J. Garwood, Mr. E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Col. D. A. Johnston, Mr. O. T. Jones, Dr. J. 8S. Keltie, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Mr. H. J. Mackinder, Dr. J. E. Marr, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr. H. Yule Oldham, Dr. B. N. Peach, Professor W. W. Watts, and Mr. H. B. Woodward. Chairman.—Professor C. Lap- worth. Secretary.—Mr. W. G. Fearnsides. Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. J. E. Marr, Pro- fessor W. W. Watts, and Mr. G. W. Williams. Chairman. — Professor Watts. Seerctary.—Dr. T. T. Groom. Dr. F: P. Bennett, Mr. C. Fox- Strangways, and Dr. Stracey. MH Alc D.—ZOOLOGY. Chairman.—Professor 8. J. Hick- son. Secretary.—Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing. Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor A. Sedgwick, Professor W. C. McIntosh, and Mr. G. P. Bidder. Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward. Secretary.—Dr. F, A. Bather. Dr. P. L. Sclater, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Dr. W. E. Hoyle, the Hon. Walter Rothschild, and Lord Walsingham. Chairman. — Professor W. A. Herdman. Secretary.—Mr. Douglas Laurie. Mr. R. C. Punnett and Dr. H. W. Marett Tims. Chairman. — Professor G. OC. Bourne. Secretary.—Mr. J. J. Lister. Sir E. Ray Lankester. 10 100 75 10 40 Q 0 00 00 00 30 RESEARCH COMMITTEES. CXX1 1, Hteceiving Grants of Money—continued. i 7 ie oy" | < i . Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Grants } | | es a , Sxction E.—GEOGRAPHY. en Sat, | To carry on an Expedition to Chairman.—Sir John Murray. 50 00 | investigate the Indian Ocean in view of a possible land con- nection, to examine the deep submerged banks, the Nazareth and Saya de Malha, and also the distribution of Marine Animals. The Quantity and Composition of Rainfall, and of Lake and River Discharge. The Exploration of Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen. SECTION _ The Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United King- dom. SECTION Making Experiments for improv- ing the Construction of Practical | Standards for use in Electrical | Measurements. between India and South Africa | Seeretary.—Mr. J. Stanley Gar- diner. | Captain E. W. Creak, Professors W. A. Herdman, S. J. Hickson, and J. W. Judd, Mr. J. J. Lister, Dr. H. R. Mill, and Dr. David | Sharp. Chairman.—Sir John Murray. Secretaries.—Professor A. B. Mac- allum and Dr. A. J. Herbertson. Professor W. M. Davis, Professor P. F. Frankland, Mr. A. D. Hall,) Mr. N. F. Mackenzie, Mr. E. H. V. Melville, Dr. H. BR. Mill, Pro- fessor A. Penck, Mr. A. Strahan, and Mr. W. Whitaker, Chairman.—Mzy. G. G. Chisholm. Secretary.—Mr. W.S. Bruce. Major W. L. Forbes. F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. Chairman.—My. R. H. Inglis Pal- grave. | Seeretary.—Mr. H. Stanley Jevons. | Messrs. A. L. Bowley and D. H. Macgregor. G.—ENGINEERING. | Chairman.—-Lord Rayleigh. Secretary.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook. Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams, | and G. Carey Foster, Sir Oliver | Lodge, Dr. A. Muirhead, Sir W. H. Preece, Professor A. Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming, | | Professor J. J. Thomson, Dr. | We N. Shaw, Dr. J. TL: Bot- tomley, Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick, Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Pro- | fessor 8. P. Thompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Principal E. H. Griffiths, | Sir A. W. Riicker, Professor H. L. Callendar, and Messrs. G. Matthey, A. P. Trotter, T. Mather, and F. E. Smith. Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To investigate the Lake Village | at Glastonbury, and to report on the best method of publish- ing the result. Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro. Seeretary.—Professor W. Boyd Dawkins. ‘Sir John Evans and Messrs. | Arthur J. Evans, C. H. Read, | H. Balfour, and A. Bulleid, Cxxll RESEARCH COMMITTEES, 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Grants | & 38. a. | To co-operate with Local Com- ; Chairman.—Professor J.L.Myres.| 15 00 mittees in Excavations on Secretary.—Professor R. C. Bosan- Roman Sites in Britain. | quet. Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, and Professor W. Ridgeway. To organise Anthropometric In- | Chairman.—Professor D. J. Cun- | 13 8 8 | vestigation in the British Isles. ningham. Secretary.—My. J. Gray. Dr. A. C. Haddon, Dr. C. 8. Myers, Professors J. L. Myres and A. F. Dixon, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Sir Edward Brabrook, Mr. G. L. Gomme, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, Professor G. D. Thane, Dr. W. McDougall, and Professor M. E. Sadler. | | To conduct Explorations with the | Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read. | 53 00; | object of ascertaining the Age | Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour. of Stone Circles. Lord Avebury, Sir John Evans, | | Dr.J.G. Garson, Dr. A.J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. A. L. Lewis. | The Collection, Preservation, and | Uhairman.—Mr. C. H. Read. 3 36 | Systematic Registration of | Seeretary.—Mr. H. S. Kingsford. Photographs of Anthropological | Dr. T. Ashby, Dr. G. A. Auden, | Interest. Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. EH. N. | Fallaize, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. E. §. Hartland, Mr. E. Heawood, Professor J. L. Myres, and Pro- fessor Flinders Petrie. _ To prepare a New Editionof Notes | Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read. 40 00 | and Queries in Anthropology. Secretary.—Professor J, L. Myres. | Professor D. J. Cunningham, Mr. E.N. Fallaize, Dr. A. C. Haddon, | Mri oT. A. Joyce, Dri 9C: 8: Myers, and Dr, W. H.R. Rivers. | | Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY. _ To enable Professor Starling, Pro- | Chairman.—Professor Gotch. 40 00 fessor Brodie, Dr. Hopkins, Mr. | Secretary.—Mr. J. Barcroft. | Fletcher, Mr. Barcroft, and | Professor T. G. Brodie and Pro- | | others to determine the ‘Meta- |__ fessor Starling. | bolic Balance-shect’ of the | : Individual Tissues. | Chairman.—Professor Schafer. 30 00 The Ductless Glands. | Secretary.—Professor Swale Vin- cent. Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. E. Shore, and Mrs. W. H. Thompson. RESEARCH COMMITTEES, 1. Receiving Grants of Money— continued. CXXiil | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee The Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease. Body Metabolism in Cancer. The Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism of Arum Spadices, | The Structure of Fossil Plants. Studies on Marsh Vegetation. | The Succession of Plant Remains in the Peat Deposits of Teesdale and Stainmoor (Cumberland and Westmorland) and the Western portion of Iceland. To report upon the Course of Ex- perimental, Observational, and Practical Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools. | Secretaries —Mr. J. Barcroft and Lieut.-Col. Simpson. | Colonel D. Bruce, Dr. F. Camp- Dr. Porter, Dr. Professor Sims Woodhead, Dr. burgh. _ Chairman.—Professor ©. 8. Sher- | rington. _ Seeretary.—Dr. 8. M. Copeman. Chairman.—ProfessorA. D.Waller. Seeretary.—Miss Sandars. Professor Gotch and Professor Farmer. Section K.—BOTANY. | Chairman.—Dr. D. H. Scott. A. C. Seward and F. E. Weiss. Chairman.—Dr. F. F. Blackman. Secretary. — Professor A. C. Seward. Messrs. A. W. Hill and A. G. Tansley. Gibson. Dr. J. Horne and Dr. J. E. Marr. Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. Chairman.—Sir Philip Magnus. Secretary.—Mr. W. M. Heller. Sir W. de W. Abney, Mr. R. H. Adie, Professor H. E. Arm- strong, Miss L. J. Clarke, Miss A.J. Cooper, Mr. George Flet- cher, Professor R. A. Gregory, Principal Griffiths, Mr. A. D. | Hall, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr. | C. W. Kimmins, Professor L. C. | Miall, Professor J. Perry, Mrs. W.N. Shaw, Professor A. Smith- ells, Dr. Lloyd Snape, Sir H. R. Reichel, Mr. H. Richardson, and Professor W. W. Watts. | Chairman.—SirT. Lauder Brunton. Secretary.—Professor F.W. Oliver. | Mr. E. Newell Arber and Professors | Chairman.— Professor J.B.Farmer. | Secretary.— Professor R. J. Harvey | | bell, Sir Kendal Franks, Pro- | fessor J. G. McKendrick, Sir A. | Mitchell, Dr. W. C. F. Mwray, | J. L. Todd, | A. J. Wright, and the Heads | of the Tropical Schools of | Liverpool, London, and Edin- | Grants Eas Oth 385 00 30 09 10 00 15 00 15, 0.0 45 00 10, 01,0 CXX1V RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Corresponding Societies Com- mittee for the preparation of their Report. | 1 | 2. Not receiving Secretary.—Mr. F. W. Rudler. Rev. J. O. Bevan, Brabrook, Dr. H. T. Brown, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal EH, H. Griffiths, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Mel- dola, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr. C. H. Read, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Professor W. W. Watts, and the President and General Officers of the Association. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Members of Committee | Grants. eer sens Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker. 23 00 Sir Edward Grants of Money. ie Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | | Members of Committee Section AA-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. | To co-operate with the Committee of the Falmouth Observatory in their Magnetic Observations. The Consideration of the Teaching of Elementary Mechanics, and the Im- provement which might be effected in such Teaching. | To continue the Magnetic Survey of | South Africa commenced by Pro- | fessors Beattie and Morrison. | Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece. Secretary.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook. Professor W. G. Adams, Captain Creak, Mr. W. L. Fox, Professor A. Schuster, Sir A. W. Riicker, and Dr. Charles Chree. | | Chairman.—FProfessor Horace Lamb. Secretary.—Professor J. Perry. Mr. U. Vernon Boys, Professors Chrystal, Ewing, G. A. Gibson, and Greenhill, Principal Gritliths, Professor Henrici, Dr. E. W. Hobson, Mr. C. 8. Jackson, Sir Oliver Lodge, Professors Love, Minchin, Schuster, and A. M. Worth- ington, and Mr. A. W. Siddons. Chairman. —Sir David Gill. Secretary.—Professor J.C. Beattie. | Mr. 8. 8. Hough, Professor Morrison, ard Professor A. Schuster. Section B.—CHEMISTRY. _ The Study of Isomorphous Sulphonic | Derivatives of Benzene. | Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers. | Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong. | Professors W. P. Wynne and W. J. Pope. | | RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Section C.—GEOLOGY. The Collection, Preservation, and Sys- tematic Registration of Photographs of Geological Interest. To investigate and report on the Corre- | lation and Age of South African _ Strata and on the question of a Uni- | form Stratigraphical Nomenclature. ) To determine the precise significance of Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South Africa. Section D. To continue the Investigation of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, with power to co-operate with the Committee appointed for the purpose by the Royal Society, and to avail themselves of such assistance in their investigations as may be offered by the Hawaiian Government or the Trustees of the Museum at Honolulu. The Committee to have power to dis- pose of specimens where advisable. To summon meetings in London or else- where for the consideration of mat- ters affecting the interests of Zoology | or Zoologists, and to obtain by cor- respondence the opinion of Zoologists on matters of a similar kind, with power to raise by subscription from each Zoologist a sum of money for defraying current expenses of the Organisation. To nominate competent naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth. Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie. Seerctary.—Professor W. W. Watts. Dr. T. Anderson, Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. Crook, Professor E. J. Garwood, Messrs. W. Gray, W. J. Harrison, R. Kidston, A. 8. Reid, Professor §. H. Reynolds, and Messrs. J. J. H. Teall, R. Welch, and H. B. Woodward. Chairman.—Professor J. W. Gregory. | Secretary.—Professor A. Young. | Mr. W. Anderson, Professor R. Broom, | Dr. G. 8. Corstorphine, Mr. Walcot Gibson, Dr. F. H. Hatch, Mr. T. H. Holland, Mr. H. Kynaston, Mr. F. P. Mennell, Dr. Molengraaff, Mr. A. J. C. Molyneux, Mr. A. W. Rogers, Mr. KH. H. L. Schwarz, and Professor R. B. Young. | Chairman.—Mr. G. W. Lamplugh. | Secretary.— Dr. F. H. Hatch. Dr. G. Corstorphine and Messrs. A. Du Toit, A. P. Hall, G. Kynaston, F. P. Mennell, and A. W. Rogers. —ZOOLOGY. Chairman.—Mr. F. Du Cane Godman. Seeretary.—Dr. David Sharp. and Mr. Edgar A. Smith. | Chairman.—Sir EK. Ray Lankester. | Secretary.—Professor 8S. J, Hickson. Professors G. C. Bourne, T. W. Bridge, Herdman, and J. Graham Kerr, Mr. P. C. Mitchell, Professors C. Lloyd Morgan, E. B. Poulton, and A. Sedg- wick, Mr. A. E. Shipley, and Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing. Chairman and Secretanry.—Professor A. Dendy. Sir E. Ray Lankester, Mr. A. Sedgwick, and Professor Sydney H. Vines. T. G. Bonney, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V. | Professor 8, J. Hickson, Dr, P. L. Sclater, | J. Cossar Ewart, M. Hartog, W. A. | CXXV O. H. Latter, Professor Minchin, Dr. | CXxvi 2. Not receiving Grants RESEARCH COMMITTEES. of Money—continued, | | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee To enable Dr. J. W. Jenkinson to con- tinue his Researches on the Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the | Development of the Frog. Chairman.—Professor G. C. Bourne. Secretary.—Dr. J. W. Jenkinson. Professor 8S. J. Hickson. Section E.—GHOGRAPHY. The continued Invegtigation of the Oscillations of the Level of the Land in the Mediterranean Basin. Chairman.—Mr. D. G. Hogarth. Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Giinther. Drs. T. G. Bonney, F. H. Guillemard, J. 8. Keltie, and H. R. Mill. Section G.—ENGINEERING. The Investigation of Gaseous Ex- plosions, with special reference to Temperature, Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece. Secretaries.—Myr. Dugald Clerk and Pro- fessor B. Hopkinson. Professors F. Birstall, E. G. Coker, and H. B. Dixon, Dr. J. A. Harker, Pro- fessor H. S Hele-Shaw, Colonel H. C. L. Holden, and Professor A. Smithells. Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To conduct Archeological and Ethno- | logical Researches in Crete. To report on the best means of Register- ing and Classifying systematically Megalithic Remains in the British Isles. To conduct Archzeological and Ethno- logical Investigations in Sardinia. Chairman.—Sir John Evans. Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres. Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, Professor A. Macalister, and Professor W. Ridgeway. Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway. Secretary.—Dyr. G. A. Auden. Dr. H. A. Auden, Mr. G. L. Gomme, Professor J. L. Myres, and Mr. F. W. Rudler. Chairman.—Mr. D. G. Hogarth, Secretary.—Professor R. C. Bosanquet. Dr. T. Ashby, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Professor J. L. Myres, and Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Section K.—BOTANY. To carry out the scheme for the Regis- tration of Negatives of Botanical Photographs. Chairman.—Professor F. W. Oliver. Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss. Dr. W. G. Smith, Mr. A. G. Tansley, Dr. T. W. Woodhead, and Professor R. H. Yapp. Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. To consider and to advise as to the Curricula of Secondary Schools; in the first instance, the Curricula of Boys’ Schools; and to consider, through a Sub Committee, the ques- tion of the Sequence of Studies in the Science Section of the Cur- riculum. Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge. Secretary.—Mr. C. M. Stuart. Professor H. E. Armstrong, Mr. G. F. Daniell, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Professor J. J. Findlay, Dr. Gray, Professor R. A. Gregory, Principal Griffiths, Sir W. Huggins, Mr. O. H. Latter, Sir Philip Magnus, Professor H. A. Miers, Mr. T. E. Page, Professor J. Perry, Mr. Hugh Richardson, Professor M. E. Sadler, and Mr. A. E. Shipley. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. CxxVll 2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee To take notice of, and report upon changes in, Regulations—whether Legislative, Administrative, or made by Local Authorities — affecting Secondary Education. F = rie : | Chairman.—BSir Philip Magnus. Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong. | Sir William Bousfield, Mr. 8. H. Butcher, | | Sir Henry Craik, Principal Griffiths, | Sir Horace Plunkett, and Professor M. KH, Sadler. | | Communications ordered to be printed in extenso. The Applications of Grignard’s Reaction. By Dr. A. McKenzie. Iron-ore Supplies. By Professor Sjégren. Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action, if desirable. From Section H, supported by Section L. That, in view of the national importance of obtaining data on the question of physical deterioration, this Association urges upon the Government the pressing necessity of instituting, in connection with the medical inspection of school children, a system of periodic measurement which shall provide definite information on their physical condition and development. From the Conference of Delegates. That it is desirable (1) to obtain information as to the present state of things in Britain in connection with Photo-survey work; (2) to publish instructions or give advice for the execution of a Scientific Photographie Survey ; (3) to endeavour to found or promote a Photo-record of the town and district in which the British Association holds its Annual Meeting. CXXvlll SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated for Scientific Purposes by the General Committee at the Leicester Meeting, August 1907. The Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the Grants are prefixed to the respective Research Committees. Mathematical and Physical Science. £ 8: 2d: *Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Observations ......... 40 0 0 *Hill, Professor M. J. M.—Further Tabulation of Bessel RGN CHLONSI Be, soak ese ec ee ees a ee ee: cee eee ee oy O00 *Shaw, Dr. W. N.—Investigation of the plas ae by Means of Kites ......... tcupzon 20,0 *McLaren, Lord— Meteorological (Ohseevaiengs on “Ben Nevis Zap nO 'O Darwin, Sir George — Geodetic Are in Africa Lav aavigueidat Sea ae oO Oke) Chemistry. *Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables of Spectra............ 10 0 0 *Divers, Professor E.—-Study ‘of Hydro-aromatic Substances 30 0 0 * Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ............ 40 0 0 *Kipping, Professor F. S.—Transformation of Aromatic Nitra- paris WH aes Se nhs gdied Paliond a Sa 2a oak ae eae Geology. *Kendall, Professor P. F.—Erratic Blocks . 17 16— 6 *Herdman, Professor W. A.—Fauna and Flora of ‘Br itish Trias 10 0 O *Lamplugh, G. W.—Fossiliferous Drift Deposits ............... et i *Harker, A.—The Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey .. Deliv *Gregory, Professor J. W.—Faunal Succession in “the Car- boniferous Limestone in the British Isles .................. LOP "0; 10 *W oodward, H. B.—Pre-Devonian Rocks ....................0008 1002710 *Freshfield, D. W.—Exact Significance of Local Terms ...... 1p 09 Lapworth, Professor C.-—Palzozoic Rocks of Wales and the West of England.. 15,0 0 Watts, Professor W. W. _—Composition of Charnwood Rocks 10 0 0 Zoology. *Hickson, Professor 8. J.—Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ...... viens hk dtebscle anaes Sek eme ee ee *Woodward, Dr. ieee — Index Animalium . Si Ta teas oes bee nace fb) 0.0 Herdman, Professor W. A.—Heredity Experiments ......... tO” 10270 Bourne, Professor G. C.—Fauna of Lakes of Central Tas- WMAMIA” Yeas Fi cade Bees Meno see lcceameeeeaham.; comm heckmeneeideaes 40 0 O Geography. *Murray, Sir John—Investigations in the Indian Ocean ...... 50 0 O *Murray, Sir John—Rainfall and Lake and River Discharge 5 0 0 Chisholm, G. G.—Exploration in Spitsbergen .................. 30 0 0 Carried forward. ©....:s.ssese asus ale wen seemeseeeteaennss) = ee * Reappointed. SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. CXX1X Ee SES Prcupot TOVWALG. .. saci cetetteMen te sa-cssessecriveenses O2a 6 5 Heonomie Science and Statistics. *Palgrave, R. H. ec Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom.. ens Oo: OO Engineering. *Rayleigh, Lord—Electrical Standards ............sssescsseecneees 5010 8 Anthropology. *Munro, Dr. R.—Glastonbury Lake Village ..................... 30 0 0 *Myres, Professor J. L.—Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain .. ; The O80 = Cunningham, Professor D. J. ~Anthropometric Investigation 1 to) *Read, C. H.—Age of Stone Circles.............sccceesssecceseeeces 53 0 0 *Read, C. H.—Anthropological Photographs — ..............6068 o 2 6 Read, C. H.—Anthropological Notes and Queries ... ........ 40 0 0 Physiology. *Gotch, Professor F.— Metabolism of Individual Tissues ...... 40 0 0 *Schafer, Professor E. A.—The Ductless Glands ........... ... 308.020 *Brunton, Sir T. Lauder—Effect of Climate upon Health and RE ey ene acer tee Ss On sin eae Ginn pen ania mem auntee cen ars atte ap 0 0 Sherrington, Professor C. S.—Body Metabolism in Cancer... 30 0 0 Waller, Dr. A. D.—Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism be EUIE SACICES 13. 5.25 psineyraiarhude' de tualdewinsacsisstagalventeaens 10-0" 0 Botany. *Scott, Dr. D. H.—Structure of Fossil Plants .................. 15.0’ 0 *Blackman, Dr. F. F.—Marsh Vegetation ......... cope. 0 0 Farmer, Professor J. B.—Succession of Plant Remains ...... 45 0 0 Educational Science. *Magnus, Sir P.—Studies suitable for Elementary Schools ... 10 0 06 Corresponding Societies Committee. *Whitaker, W.—For Preparation of Report ................0006 2p 00 £1,288 9 3 —e ee * Reappointed. Annual Meetings, 1908 and 1909. The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1908 will be held at Dublin, commencing September 2 ; in 1909, at Winnipeg, Canada. 1907. - - ri “ rd - ; F - _ PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. = a . = ~ . ‘ ’ —— 2 — ce “wt iu * * ite. =) pf o as s . . P. ve Coe 7 Ss r . > ease P's Oe ee ADDRESS BY Sir DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. Hon. F.R.S.E., PRESIDENT. To-niaut, for the first time in its history, the British Association meets in the ancient city of Leicester ; and it now becomes my privilege to convey to you, Mr. Mayor, and to the citizens generally, an expression of our thanks for your kind invitation and for the hospitable reception which you have accorded to us. Here in Leicester and last year in York the Association has followed its usual custom of holding its annual meeting somewhere in the United Kingdom ; but in 1905 the meeting was, as you know, held in South Africa. Now, having myself only recently come from the Cape, I wish to take this opportunity of saying that this southern visit of the Association has, in my opinion, been productive of much good: wider interest in science has been created amongst colonists, juster estimates of the country and its problems have been formed on the part of the visitors, and personal friendships and interchange of ideas between thinking men in South Africa and at home have arisen which cannot fail to have a beneficial influence on the social, political, and scientific rela- tions between these colonies and the mother country. We may confidently look for like results from the proposed visit of the Association to Canada in 1909. One is tempted to take advantage of the wide publicity given to words from this Chair to speak at large in the cause of science, to insist upon the necessity for its wider inclusion in the education of our youth and the devotion of a larger measure of the public funds in aid of scientific research ; to point to the supreme value of science as a means for the culture of those faculties which in man promote that knowledge which is power = and to show how dependent is the progress of a nation upon its scientific attainment. But in recent years these truths have been prominently brought B2 4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. before the Association from this Chair; they have been exhaustively demonstrated by Sir William Huggins from the Chair of the Royal Society, and now a special guild! exists for their enforcement upon the mind of the nation. These considerations appear to warrant me in following the healthy custom: of so many previous Presidents —viz., of confining their remarks mainly to those departments of science with which the labours of their lives have been chiefly associated. The Science of Measurement. Lord Kelvin in 1871 made a statement from the Presidential Chair of the Association at Edinburgh as follows: ‘Accurate and minute measurement seems to the non-scientific imagination a less lofty and dignified work than the looking for something new. But nearly all the grandest discoveries of science have been the reward of accurate measure- ment and patient, long-continued labour in the minute sifting of numerical results.’ Besides the instances quoted by Lord Kelvin in support of that statement, we have perhaps as remarkable and typical an exemplification as any in Lord Rayleigh’s long-continued work on the density of nitrogen which led him to the discovery of argon. We shall see presently that, true as Lord Kelvin’s words are in regard to most fields of science, they are specially applicable as a guide in astronomy. One of Clerk Maxwell’s lectures in the Natural Philosophy Class at Marischall College, Aberdeen, when I was a student under him there, in the year 1859, ran somewhat as follows :— A standard, as it is at present understood in England, is not a real standard at all; it is a rod of metal with lines ruled upon it to mark the yard, and it is kept somewhere in the House of Commons. If the House of Commons catches fire there may be an end of your standard. A copy of a standard can never be a real standard, because all the work of human hands is liable to error. Besides, will your so-called standard remain of a constant length? It certainly will change by temperature, it probably will change by age (that is, by the rearrangement or settling down of its component molecules), and I am not sure if it does not change according to the azimuth in which it is used. At all events, you must see that it is a very impractical standard—impractical because, if, for example, any one of you went to Mars or Jupiter, and the people there asked you what was your standard of measure, you could not tell them, you could not reproduce it, and you would feel very foolish. Whereas, if you told any capable physicist in Mars or Jupiter that you used some natural invariable standard, such as the wave-length of the D line of sodium vapour, he would be able to reproduce your yard or your inch, provided that you could tell him how many of such wave-lengths there were in your yard or your inch, and your standard would be available anywhere in the universe where sodium is found, That was the whimsical way in which Clerk Maxwell used to impress 1 The British Science Guild. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 5 great principles upon us. We all laughed before we understood ; then some of us understood and remembered. Now the scientific world has practically adopted Maxwell’s form of natural standard. It is true that it names that standard the metre ; but that standard is not one ten-millionth of the Earth’s quadrant in length, as it was intended to be ; it is merely a certain piece of metal approxi- mately of that length. It is true that the length of that piece of metal has been reproduced with more precision, and is known with higher accuracy in terms of many secondary standards, than is the length of any other standard in the world ; but it is, after all, liable to destruction and to possible secular change of length. For these reasons it cannot be scientifically described otherwise than as a piece of metal whose length at 0° C. at the epoch A.D. 1906 is =1,553,164 times the wave-length of the red line of the spectrum of cadmium when the latter is observed in dry air at the temperature of 15° C. of the normal hydrogen-scale at a pressure of 760 mm. of mercury at 0° C, This determination, recently made by methods based on the interfer- ence of light-waves and carried out by MM. Benoit, Perot, and Fabry at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, constitutes a real advance in scientific metrology. The result appears to be reliablewithin one ten-millionth part of the metre. The length of the metre, in terms of the wave-length of the red line in the spectrum of cadmium, had been determined in 1892 by Michelson’s method, with a mean result in almost exact accordance with that just quoted for the comparisons of 1906 ; but this agreement (within one part in ten millions) is due in some degree to chance, as the uncertainty of the earlier determination was probably five times greater than the difference between the two independent results of 1892 and 1906. We owe to M. Guillaume, of the same International Bureau, the dis- covery of the remarkable properties of the alloys of nickel and steel, and from the point of view of exact measurement the specially valuable discovery of the properties of that alloy which we now call ‘invar.’ He has developed methods for treatment of wires made from this alloy which render more permanent the arrangement of their constituent molecules. Thus these wires, with their attached scales, may, for considerable periods of time and under circumstances of careful treatment, be regarded as nearly invariable standards. With proper precautions, we have found at the Cape of Good Hope that these wires can be used for the measurement of base lines of the highest geodetic precision with all the accuracy attain- able by the older aed most costly forms of apparatus ; whilst with the new apparatus a base of 20 kilometres can be measured in less time and for less cost than one of a single kilometre with the older forms of measurement. 6 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. The Great African Arce of Meridian. In connection with the progress of geodesy, time only permits me to say a few words about the great African arc on the 30th meridian, which it is a dream of my life to see completed. The gap in the arc between the Limpopo and the previously executed triangulation in Rhodesia, which I reported to the Association at the Johannesburg meeting in 1905, has now been filled up. My own efforts, at 6,000 miles distance, had failed to obtain the necessary funds, but at Sir George Darwin’s instance contributions were obtained from this Association, from the Royal Society and others, to the extent of half the estimated cost ; the remaining half was met by the British South Africa Company. But for Darw‘t.’s happy intervention, which enabled me to secure the services of Captain Gordon and his party before the Transvaal Survey Organisation was entirely broken up, this serious gap in the great work would probably have long remained ; for it is one thing to add to an existing undertaking of the kind, it is quite another to create a new organisation for a limited piece of work. Since then Colonel (now Sir William) Morris has brought to a conclusion the reductions of the geodetic survey of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, and his report is now in my hands for publication. Dr. Rubin, under my direction, at the cost of the British South Africa Company, has carried the arc of meridian northwards to S$. lati- tude 9° 42’, so that we have now continuous triangulation from Cape L’Agulhas to within fifty miles of the southern end of Lake Tanganyika ; that is to say, a continuous geodetic survey extending over twenty-five degrees of latitude. It happens that, for the adjustment of the international boundary between the British Protectorate and the Congo Free State, a topographic survey is at the present moment being executed northward along the 30th meridian from the northern border of German East Africa, A proposal on the part of the Royal Society, the Royal Geographical Society, the British Association, and the Royal Astronomical Society has been made to strengthen this work by carrying a geodetic triangulation through it along the 30th meridian, and thus adding 2}° to the African arc. These Societies together guarantee 1,000/. towards the cost of the work, and ask for a like sum from Government to complete the estimated cost. The topographic survey will serve as the necessary reconnaissance. The topographic work will be completed by the end of January next, and the four following months offer the best season of the year for geodetic operations in these regions. There is a staff of skilled officers and men on the spot sufficient to complete the work within the period mentioned, and the Intercolonial Council of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony most generously offers to lend the necessary geodetic instruments. The work will have to be done sooner or later, but if another expedition has to be organised for the PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 7 purpose the work will then cost from twice to three times the present amount. One cannot therefore doubt that his Majesty’s Government will take advantage of the present offer and opportunity to vote the small sum required. This done, we cannot doubt that the German Government will complete the chain along the eastern side of Lake Tanganyika, which lies entirely within their territory. Indeed, it is no secret that the Berlin Academy of Sciences has already prepared the necessary estimates with a view to recommending action on the part of its Government. Captain Lyons, who is at the head of the survey of Egypt, assures me that preliminary operations towards carrying the arc southwards from Alexandria have been begun, and we have perfect confidence that in his energetic hands the work will be prosecuted with vigour. In any case the completion of the African arc will rest largely in his hands. That are, if ever my dream is realised, will extend from Cape L’Agulhas to Cairo, thence round the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the islands of Greece, and there meet the triangulation of Greece itself, the latter being already connected with Struve’s great arc, which terminates at the North Cape in lat. 70° N. This will constitute an are of 105° in length—the longest are of meridian that is measurable on the earth’s surface. The Solar Parallax. Much progress has been made in the exact measurement of the great fundamental unit of astronomy—the solar parallax. Early in 1877 I ventured to predict! that we should not arrive at any certainty as to the true value of the solar parallax from observations of transits of Venus, but that the modern heliometer applied to the measure- ment of angular distances between stars and the star-like images of minor planets would yield results of far higher precision. The results of the observations of the minor planets Iris, Victoria, and Sappho at their favourable oppositions in the years 1888 and 1889, which were made with the co-operation of the chief heliometer and meridian observatories, fully justified this prediction.” The Sun’s distance is now almost certainly known within one-thousandth part of its amount. The same series of observations also yielded a very reliable determination of the mass of the Moon. The more recently discovered planet Eros, which in 1900 approached the Earth within one-third of the mean distance of the Sun, afforded a most unexpected and welcome opportunity for redetermining the solar parallax—an opportunity which was largely taken advantage of by the principal observatories of the northern hemisphere. Unfortunately the high northern declination of the planet prevented its observation at the Cape and other southern observatories. So far as the results have been ‘ «The Determination of the Solar Parallax,’ The Observatory, vol. i. p. 280. * Annals of the Cape Observatory, vol. vi., part 6, p. 29. 8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. reduced and published! they give an almost exact accordance with the value of the solar parallax derived from the heliometer observations of the minor planets, Iris, Victoria, and Sappho in 1888 and 1889. But in 1931 Eros will approach the Earth within one-sixth part of the Sun’s mean distance, and the fau]t will rest with astronomers of that day if they do not succeed in determining the solar parallax within one ten-thousandth part of its amount. To some of us who struggled so hard to arrive at a tenth part of this accuracy under the less favourable geometrical conditions that were available before the discovery of Eros, how enviable seems the oppor- tunity ! And yet, if we come to think of it rightly, the true opportunity and the chief responsibility is ours, for now and not twenty years hence is the time to begin our preparation ; now is the time to study the origin of those systematic errors which undoubtedly attach to some of our photo- graphic processes ; and then we ought to construct telescopes specially designed for the work. These telescopes should be applied to the charting of the stars near the path which Eros will describe at its opposition in 1931, and the resulting star-co-ordinates derived from the plates photographed by the different telescopes should be rigorously inter- compared. Then, if all the telescopes give identical results for the star-places, we can be certain that they will record without systematic error the position of Eros. If they do not give identical results, the source of the errors must be traced. The planet will describe such a long path in the sky during the opposition of 1931 that it is already time to begin the meridian observa- tions which are necessary to determine the places of the stars that are to be used for determining the constants of the plates. It is desirable, therefore, that some agreement should be come to with respect to selection of these reference-stars, in order that all the principal meridian observa- tories in the world may take part in observing them. I venture to suggest that a Congress of Astronomers should assemble in 1908 to consider what steps should be taken with reference to the important opposition of Eros in 1931. The Stellar Universe. And now to pass from consideration of the dimensions of our solar system to the study of the stars, or other suns, that surround us. To the lay mind it is difficult to convey a due appreciation of the value and importance of star-catalogues of precision. As a rule such catalogues have nothing whatever to do with discovery in the ordinary sense of the word, for the existence of the stars which they contain is generally well known beforehand ; and yet such catalogues are, in reality, by far the most valuable assets of astronomical research. ‘ Monthly Notices R.A.S., Hinks, vol. lxiv. p. 725; Christie, vol. Ixvii. p. 382. PRESIDEN'T’S ADDRESS. 9 If it be desired to demarcate a boundary on the Earth’s surface by astro- nomical methods, or to fix the position of any object in the heavens, it is to the accurate star-catalogue that we must refer for the necessary data. In that case the stars may be said to resemble the trigonometrical points of a survey, and we are only concerned to know from accurate catalogues their positions in the heavens at the epoch of observation. But in another and grander sense the stars are not mere landmarks, for each has its own apparent motion in the heavens which may be due in part to the absolute motion of the star itself in space, or in part to the motion of the solar system by which our point of view of surrounding stars is changed. If we desire to determine these motions and to ascertain something of the general conditions which produce them, if we would learn something of the dynamical conditions of the universe and something of the velocity and direction of our own solar system through space, it is to the accurate star-catalogues of widely separated epochs that we must turn for a chief part of the requisite data. The value of a star-catalogue of precision for present purposes. of cosmic research varies as the square of its age and the square of its accuracy. We cannot alter the epoch of our observations, but we can increase their value fourfold by doubling their accuracy. Hence it is that many of our greater astronomers have devoted their lives chiefly to the accumulation of meridian observations of high precision, holding the view that to advance such precision is the most valuable service to science they could undertake, and comforted in their unselfish and laborious work only by the consciousness that they are preparing a solid foundation on which future astronomers may safely raise the superstructure of sound knowledge. But since the extension of our knowledge of the system of the universe depends quite as much on past as on future research, it may be well, before determining upon a programme for the future, to consider briefly the record of meridian observation in the past for both hemispheres. The Comparative State of Astronomy in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It seems probable that the first express reference to southern con- stellations in known literature occurs in the Book of Job (ix. 9): ‘Which maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south.’ Schiaparelli’s strongly supported conjecture is that the expression ‘chambers of the south,’ taken with its context, signifies the brilliant stellar region from Canopus to a Centauri, which includes the Southern Cross and coincides with the most brilliant portion of the Milky Way. About the year 750 B.c. (the probable date of the Book of Job) all these stars culminated at altitudes between 5° and 16° when viewed from 10 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. the latitude of Judea ; but now, owing to precessional change, they can only be seen in a like striking manner from a latitude about 12° further south. The words of Dante have unquestionably originated the wonderful net of poetic fancy that has been woven about the asterism, which we now call Crux. To the right hand I turned, and fixed my mind On the other pole attentive, where I saw Four stars ne’er seen before save by the ken Of our first parents—Heaven of their rays Seemed joyous. O thou northern site! bereft Indeed, and widowed, since of these deprived. All the commentators agree that Dante here referred to the stars of the Southern Cross. Had Dante any imperfect knowledge of the existence of these stars, any tradition of their visibility from European latitudes in remote centuries, so that he might poetically term them the stars of our first parents ? Ptolemy catalogues them as 31, 32, 33, and 34 Centauri, and they are clearly marked on the Borgian globe described by Assemanus in 1790. This globe was constructed by an Arabian in Egypt: it bears the date 622 Hegira, corresponding with A.p. 1225, and it is possible that Dante may have seen it. Amerigo Vespucci, as he sailed in tropical seas, apparently recognised in what we now call Crux the four luminous stars of Dante ; for in 1501 he claimed to be the first European to have looked upon the stars of our first parents. His fellow-voyager, Andrea Corsali, wrote about the same time to Giuliano di Medici describing ‘the marvellous cross, the most glorious of all the celestial signs.’ Thus much mysticism and romance have been woven about this constellation, with the result that exaggerated notions of its brilliancy have been formed, and to most persons its first appearance, when viewed in southern latitudes, is disappointing. To those, however, who view it at upper culmination for the first time from a latitude a little south of the Canary Islands, and who at the same time make unconsciously a mental allowance for the absorption of light to which one is accustomed in the less clear skies of Northern Europe, the sight of the upright cross, standing as if fixed to the horizon, is a most impressive one. I at least found it so on my first voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. But how much more strongly must it have appealed to the mystic and superstitious minds of the early navigators as they entered the unexplored seas of the northern tropic! To them it must have appeared the revered image of the Cross pointing the way on their southward course—a symbol and sign of Hope and Faith on their entry to the unknown. The first general knowledge of the brighter stars of the southern PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. i hemisphere we owe to Frederick de Hautman, who commanded a fleet sent by the Dutch Government in 1595 to the Far East for the purpose of exploring Japan. Hautman was wrecked and taken prisoner at Sumatra, and whilst there he studied the language of the natives and made observations of the positions and magnitudes of the fixed stars of the southern hemisphere.! Our distinguished countryman Halley visited St. Helena in 1677 for the purpose of cataloguing the stars of the southern hemisphere. He selected a station now marked Halley’s Mount on the Admiralty chart of the island. I have visited the site, and the foundations of the observatory still remain. WHalley’s observations were much hindered by cloud. On his return to England, Halley in 1679 published his ‘ Catalogus Stellarum Australium,’ containing the magnitudes, latitudes, and longi- tudes of 341 stars, which, with the exception of seven, all belonged to the southern hemisphere. But the first permanently valuable astronomical work in the southern hemisphere was done in 1751-52 by the Abbé de Lacaille. He selected the Cape of Good Hope as the scene of his labours, because it was then perhaps the only spot in the world situated in a considerable southern latitude which an unprotected astronomer could visit in safety, and where the necessary aid of trained artisans to erect his observatory could be obtained. Lacaille received a cordial welcome at the hands of the Dutch governor Tulbagh : he erected his observatory in Cape Town, made a catalogue of nearly 10,000 stars, observed the opposition of Mars, and measured a short arc of meridian all in the course of a single year. Through his labours the Cape of Gcod Hope became the birthplace of astronomy and geodesy in the southern hemisphere. Bradley was laying the foundations of exact astronomy in the northern hemisphere at the time when Lacaille laboured at the Cape. But Bradley had superior instruments to those of Lacaille and much longer time at his disposal. Bradley’s work is now the basis on which the fair superstructure of modern astronomy of precision rests. His labours were continued by his successors at Greenwich and by a long series of illustrious men like Piazzi, Groombridge, Bessel, Struve, and Argelander. But in the southern hemisphere the history of astronomy is a blank for seventy years from the days of Lacaille. We owe to the establishment of the Royal Observatory at the Cape by an Order in Council of 1820 the first successful step towards the foundation of astronomy of high precision in the southern hemisphere. Time does not permit me to trace in detail the labours of astronomers in the southern hemisphere down to the present day ; and this is the less necessary because in a recent Presidential Address to the South African Philosophical Society? I have given in great part that history in ' The resulting catalogue of 304 stars is printed as an appendix to Hautman’s Vocabulary of the Malay Language, published at Amsterdam in 1603. 2 Trans. South African Phil. Soc., vol. xiv. part 2. 12 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. considerable detail. But I have not there made adequate reference to the labours of Dr. Gould and Dr. Thome at Cordoba. To their labours, combined with the work done under Stone at the Cape, we owe the fact that for the epoch 1875 the meridian sidereal astronomy of the southern hemisphere is nearly as well provided for as that of the northern. The point I wish to make is that the facts of exact sidereal astronomy in the southern hemisphere may be regarded as dating nearly a hundred years behind those of the northern hemisphere. The Constitution of the Universe. It was not until 1718, when Edmund Halley, afterwards Astronomer Royal of England, read a paper before the Royal Society,! entitled ‘ Considerations on the Change of the Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixt Stars,’ that any definite facts were known about the constitution of the universe. In that paper Halley, who had been investigating the precession of the equinoxes, says: ‘ But while I was upon this enquiry I was surprized to find the Latitudes of three of the principal Stars in heaven directly to contradict the supposed greater obliquity of the Keliptick, which seems confirmed by the Latitudes of most of the rest.’ This is the first mention in history of an observed change in the relative position of the so-called fixed stars—the first recognition of what we now call ‘ proper motion.’ Tobias Mayer, in 1760, seems to have been the first to recognise that if our Sun, like other stars, has motion in space, that motion must produce apparent motion amongst the surrounding stars ; for in a paper to the Gottingen Academy of Sciences he writes : ‘Tf the Sun, and with it the planets and the Earth which we inhabit, tended to move directly towards some point in the heavens, all the stars scattered in that region would seem to gradually move apart from each other, whilst those in the opposite quarter would mutually approach each other. In the same manner one who walks in the forest sees the trees which are before him separate, and those that he leaves behind approach each other.’ No statement of the matter could be more clear ; but Mayer, with the meagre data at his disposal, came to the conclusion that ‘the motions of the stars are not governed by the above or any other common law, but belong to the stars themselves.’ Sir William Herschel, in 1783, made the first attempt to apply, with any measure of success, Mayer’s principle to a determination of the direction and amount of the solar motion in space. He derived, as well as he could from existing data, the proper motions of fourteen stars, and arrived by estimation at the conclusion that the Sun’s motion in space is nearly in the direction of the star \ Herculis, and that 80 per cent. of the apparent motions of the fourteen stars in question could be assigned to this common origin. 1 Phil. Trans., 1718, p. 788. ? Lbid., 1783, p. 247. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13 This conclusion rests in reality upon a very slight basis, but the researches of subsequent astronomers show that it was an amazing acci- dental approach to truth—indeed, a closer approximation than Herschel’s subsequent determinations of 1805 and 1806, which rested on wider and better data.' Consider for a moment the conditions of the problem. If all the stars except our Sun were at rest in space, then, in accordance with Mayer’s statement, just quoted, all the stars would have apparent motions on great circles of the sphere away from the apex and towards the antapex of the solar motion. That is to say, if the position of each star of which the apparent motion is known was plotted on the surface of a sphere and a line with an arrow-head drawn through each star showing the direc- tion of its motion on the sphere, then it should be possible to find a point on the sphere such that a great circle drawn from this point through any star would coincide with the line of direction of that star’s proper motion. The arrow-heads would all point to that intersection of the great circles which is the antapex of the solar motion, and the other point of inter- section of the great circles would be the apex, that is to say, the direction of the Sun’s motion in space. But as the apparent stellar motions are small and only determinable with a considerable percentage of error, it would be impossible to find any point on the sphere such that every great circle passing through it and any particular star, would in every case be coincident with the observed direction of motion of that star. Such discordances would, on our original assumption, be due to errors of observation, but in reality much larger discordances will occur, which are due to the fact that the other stars (or suns) have independent motions of their own in space. This at once creates a new difficulty, viz., that of defining an absolute locus in space. The human mind may exhaust itself in the effort, but it can never solve the problem. We can imagine, for example, the position of the Sun at any moment to be defined with reference to any number of surrounding stars, but by no effort of imagination can we devise means of defining the absolute position of a body in space without reference to surrounding material objects. If, therefore, the referring objects have unknown motions of their own, the rigour of the definition is lost. What we call the observed proper motion of a star has three possible sources of origin :— 1. The parallactic motion, or the effect of our Sun’s motion through space, whereby our point of view of surrounding celestial objects is changed. 2. The peculiar or particular motion of the star, 7.¢., its own absolute motion in space. 3. That part of the observed or tabular motion which is due to inevi- table error of observation. Phil. Trans., 1805, p. 233 ; 1806, p. 205, 14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Tn all discussions of the solar motion in space, from that of Herschel down till a recent date, it has been assumed that the peculiar motions of the stars are arranged at random, and may therefore be considered zero in the mean of a considerable number of them. It is then possible to find such a value for the Precession, and such a common apex for the solar motion as shall leave the residual peculiar motions of the stars under discussion to be in the mean = zero. That is to say, we refer the motion of the Sun in space to the centre of gravity of all the stars con- sidered in the discussion, and regard that centre of gravity as immovable in space. In order to proceed rigorously, and especially to determine the amount as well as the direction of the Sun’s motion in space, we ought to know the parallax of every star employed in the discussion, as well as its proper motion. In the absence of such data it has been usual to start from some such assumption as the following: the stars of a particular magnitude are roughly at the same distance ; those of different classes of magnitude may be derived from the hypothesis that on the average they have all equal absolute luminosity. The assumption is not a legitimate one — 1. Because of the extreme difference in the absolute luminosity of stars. 2, Because it implies that the average absolute luminosity of stars is the same in all regions of space. The investigation has been carried out by many successive astronomers on these lines with fairly accordant results as to the position of the solar apex, but with very unsatisfactory results as to the distances of the fixed stars.! In order to judge how far the magnitude (or brightness) of a star is an index of its probable distance, we must have evidence from direct determinations of stellar parallax. 1 Argelander, Mém. présentés a l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences St. Pétersbourg, tome iii. Lundahl, Astron. Nachrichten, 398, 209. Argelander, Astron. Nachrichten, 898, 210. Otto Struve, Mém. Acad. des Sciences St. Pétersbowrg, vi° série, Math. et Phys., tome iii. p. 17. Galloway, Phil. Trans., 1847, p. 79. Madler, Dorpat Observations, vol. xiv., and Ast. Nach., 566, 213. Airy, Mem. R.A.S., vol. xxviii. p. 143. Dunkin, Mem. R.A.S., vol. xxxii. p. 19. Stone, Monthly Notices R.A.S., vol. xxiv. p. 36. De Ball, Inaugural Dissertation, Bonn, 1877. Rancken, Astron. Nachrichten, 2482, 149. Bischoff, Inaugural Dissertation, Bonn, 1884. Ludwig Struve, Mém. Acad. St. Pétersbourg, viit série, tome xxxv. No. 3. PRESIDEN'’S ADDRESS. 15 Stellar Parallax. To extend exact measurement from our own solar system to that of other suns and other systems may be regarded as the supreme achieve- ment of practical astronomy. So great are the difficulties of the pro- blem, so minute the angles involved, that it is but in comparatively recent years that any approximate estimate could be formed of the true parallax of any fixed star. Bradley felt sure that if the star y Draconis had a parallax of 1” he would have detected it. Henderson by ‘the minute sifting of the numerical results’ of his own meridian observa- tions of a Centauri, made at the Cape of Good Hope in 1832-33, first obtained certain evidence of the measurable parallax of any fixed star. He was favoured in this discovery by the fact that the object he selected happened to be, so far as we yet know, the nearest sun to our own. Shortly afterwards Struve obtained evidence of a measurable parallax for a Lyre and Bessel for 61 Cygni. Astronomers hailed with delight this bursting of the constraints which our imperfect means im- posed on research. But for the great purposes of cosmical astronomy what we are chiefly concerned to know is not what is the parallax of this or that particular star, but rather what is the average parallax of a star having a particular magnitude and proper motion. The prospect of even an ultimate approximate attainment of this knowledge seemed remote. The star a Lyre is one of the brightest in the heavens ; the star 61 Cygni one that had the largest proper motion known at the time ; whilst a, Centauri is not only a very bright star, but it has also a large proper motion. The parallaxes of these stars must therefore in all probability be large compared with the parallax of the average star ; but yet to determine them with approximate accuracy long series of observations by the greatest astronomers and with the finest instruments of the day seemed necessary. Subsequently various astronomers investigated the parallaxes of other stars having large proper motions, but it was only in 1881, at the Cape of Good Hope, that general research on stellar parallax was instituted.! Subsequently at Yale and at the Cape of Good Hope the work was continued on cosmical lines with larger and improved heliometers.? By the introduction of the reversing prism and by other practical refinements the possibilities of systematic error were eliminated, and the accidental errors of observation reduced within very small limits. These researches brought to light the immense diversity in the absolute luminosity and velocity of motion of different stars. Take the following by way of example :— Our nearest neighbour amongst the stars, a, Centauri, has a parallax ' Mem. R.A.S., vol. xviii, * Annals of the Cape Observatory, vol. viii. part 2, and Trans. Astron. Observatory of Yale University Yy, Vol. i. 16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. of 0-76, or is distant about 44 light-years. Its mass is independently known to be almost exactly equal to that of our Sun; and its spectrum being also identical with that of our Sun, we may reasonably assume that it appears to us of the same magnitude as would our Sun if removed to the distance of a, Centauri. But the average star of the same apparent magnitude as a, Centauri was found to have a parallax of only 0'10, so that either a, Centauri or our Sun, if removed to a distance equal to that of the average fixed star of the first magnitude would appear to us but little brighter than a star of the fifth magnitude. Again, there is a star of only 8} magnitude! which has the remarkable annual proper motion of nearly 83 seconds of arc—one of those so-called runaway stars—which moves witha velocity of 80 miles per second at right angles to the line of sight (we do not know with what velocity in the line of sight). It is at about the same distance from us as Sirius, but it emits but one ten-thousandth part of the light energy of that brilliant star. Sirius itself emits about thirty times the light-energy of our Sun, but it in turn sinks into insignificance when compared with the giant Canopus, which emits at least 10,000 times the light-energy of our Sun. Truly ‘one star differs from another star in glory.’ Proper motion rather than apparent brightness is the truer indication of a star’s probable proximity to the Sun. Every star of considerable proper motion yet examined has proved to have a measurable parallax. This fact at once suggests the idea, Why should not the apparent parallactic motions of the stars, as produced by the Sun’s motion in space, be utilised as a means of determining stellar parallax ? Secular Parallactic Motion of Stars. The strength of such determinations, unlike those made by the method of annual parallax, would grow with time. It is true that the process cannot be applied to the determination of the parallax of individual stars, because the peculiar motion of a particular star cannot be separated from that part of its apparent motion which is due to parallactic displace- ment. But what we specially want is not to ascertain the parallax of the individual star, but the mean parallax of a particular group or class of stars, and for this research the method is specially applicable, provided we may assume that the peculiar motions are distributed at random, so that they have no systematic tendency in any direction ; in other words, that the centre of gravity of any extensive group of stars will remain fixed in space. This assumption is, of course, but a working hypothesis, and one which from the paper on star-streaming communicated by Professor Kapteyn of Groningen to the Johannesburg meeting of the Association two years ago we already know to be inexact.? Kapteyn’s results were quite recently ! Gould’s Zones, V" 243. 2 Rep. Brit. Assoe., 1905, p. 257. ' PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 17 confirmed in a remarkable way by Eddington,' using independent material discussed by a new and elegant method. Both results showed that, at least for extensive parts of space, there are a nearly equal number of stars moving in exactly opposite directions. The assumption, then, that the mean of the peculiar motions is zero may, at least for these parts of space, be still regarded as a good working hypothesis. Adopting an approximate position of the apex of the solar motion, Kapteyn resolved the observed proper motions of the Bradley stars into two components, viz., one in the plane of the great circle passing through the star and the apex, the other at right angles to that plane.? The former component obviously includes the whole of the parallactic motion ; the latter is independent of it, and is due entirely to the real motions of the stars themselves. From the former the mean parallactic motion of the group is derived, and from the combination of the two components, the relation of velocity of the Sun’s motion to that of the mean velocity of the stars of the group. As the distance of any group of stars found by the parallactic motion is expressed as a unit in terms of the Sun’s yearly motion through space, the velocity of this motion is one of the fundamental quantities to be determined. If the mean parallax of any sufficiently extensive group or class of stars was known we should have at once means for a direct determination of the velocity of the Sun’s motion in space ; or if, on the other hand, we can by independent methods determine the Sun’s velocity, then the mean parallax of any group of stars can be determined. Determination of Stellar Motion in the Line of Sight. Science owes to Sir William Huggins the application of Doppler’s principle to the determination of the velocity of star-motion in the line of sight. The method is now so well known, and such an admirable account of its theory and practical development was given by its distinguished inventor from this Chair at the Cardiff meeting in 1891, that further mention of that part of the matter seems unnecessary. The Velocity of the Sun’s Motion in Space. If by this method the velocities in the line of sight of a sufficient number of stars situated near the apex and antapex of the solar motion could be determined, so that in the mean it could be assumed that their peculiar motions would disappear, we have at once a direct determination of the required velocity of the Sun’s motion. The material for this determination is gradually accumulating, and indeed much of it, already accumulated, is not yet published. But even with 1 Monthly Notices R.A.S., vol. \xvii. p. 34. 2 Publications Astron. Laboratory Groningen, Nos. 7 and 9, 1907. Fi 18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. the comparatively scant material available, it now seems almost certain that the true value of the Sun’s velocity lies between 18 and 20 kilometres per second ;! or, if we adopt the mean value, 19 kilometres per second, this would correspond almost exactly with a yearly motion of the Sun through space equal to four times the distance of the Sun from the Earth. Thus the Sun’s yearly motion being four times the Sun’s distance, the parallactic motion of stars in which this motion is unforeshortened must be four times their parallax. How this number varies with the amount of foreshortening is of course readily calculated. The point is that from the mean parallactic motion of a group of stars we are now enabled to derive at once its mean parallax. This research has been carried out by Kapteyn for stars of different magnitudes. It leads to the result that the parallax of stars differing five magnitudes does not differ in the proportion of one to ten, as would follow from the supposition of equal luminosity of stars throughout the universe, but only in the proportion of about one to five.” The same method cannot be applied to groups of stars of different proper motions, and it is only by a somewhat indirect proof, and by calling in the aid of such reliable results of direct parallax determination as we possess, that the variation of parallax with proper motion could be satis- factorily dealt with. The Mean Parallaxes of Stars of Different Magnitude and Proper Motion As a final result Kapteyn derived an empirical formula giving the average parallax for stars of different spectral types, and of any given magnitude and proper motion. This formula was published at Groningen in 1901.3 Within the past few months the results of researches on stellar parallax, made under the direction of Dr. Elkin, at the Astronomical Ob- servatory of Yale University, during the past thirteen years,‘ have been published, and they afford a most crucial and entirely independent check on the soundness of Kapteyn’s conclusions. In considering the comparison between the more or less theoretical results of Kapteyn and the practical determinations of Yale, we have to remember that Kapteyn’s tables refer only to the means of groups of a large number of stars having on the average a specified magnitude and proper motion, whilst the latter are direct determinations affected by the accidental errors of the separate determinations and by such uncertainty as attaches to the unknown parallaxes of the comparison stars—parallaxes which we have supplied from Kapteyn’s general tables. The Yale results consist of the determination of the parallax of 175 stars, of which only ten had been previously known to Kapteyn and had 1 Kapteyn Ast. Nach., No. 3487, p. 108; and Campbell, Astrophys. Journ., xiii. p. 80. 2 Astron. Nachrichten, No. 3487, Table Lil. ; and Ast. Jowrn., p. 566. 3 Publications Astron. Laboratory Groningen, No. 8, p. 24. 4 Trans. Astron. Observatory of Yale Univ., vol. ii., part 1. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19 been utilised by him. Dividing these results into groups we get the following comparison :— Comparison Groups arranged in order of Proper Motion. | Parallax ne of Proper Motion | Magnitude Yale—Kapteyn | ay Yale Kapteyn | : al i : 4 - Md | 21 0-14 3°8 0:028 0 026 + 0°002 39 0:49 6:3 "042 “055 — ‘013 45 0:59 67 068 | 060 + ‘008 46 0-77 65 “047 ‘O74 — ‘027 22 1:50 6:2 118 124 — °006 Groups arranged in order of Magnitude. Parallax | ae of | Proper Motion | Magnitude || —— | Yale—Kapteyn ai Yale Kapteyn | é ee Oa eS eee 10 | 0-61 08 0-103 0°110 | —0:007 29 53 3° 076 075 ||, +. 001 33 63 56 064 ‘070 — ‘006 34 ‘73 6-7 055 00) OTT 31 68 76 025 061 || = -086 36 80 83 056 062 | — ‘006 | / Parall No. of Proper | Magni- aed e Yale— —— Stars | Motion | tude | Yale Teantend Kapteyn — | or al = = a= Spectral Type I. iat haa. |s 40 Lit ogra, | Pure 0'000 | ss SSL, 81 | 0°67 | 53 0:067 0-074 —0:007 These results agree in a surprisingly satisfactory way, having regard to the comparatively small number of stars in each group and the great range of parallax which we know to exist amongst individual stars having the same magnitude and proper motion. In the mean perhaps the tabu- lar parallaxes are in a minute degree too large, but we have unquestion- able proof from this comparison that our knowledge of stellar distances now rests on a solid foundation. The Distribution of Varieties of Luminosity of Stars. But, besides the mean parallax of stars of a particular magnitude and proper motion, it is essential that we should know approximately what percentage of the stars of such a group have twice, three times, é&c., the mean parallax of the group, and what percentage only one-half, one- third of that parallax, and soon. In principle, at least, this frequency- law may be obtained by means of the directly determined parallaxes. For the stars of which we have reliable determinations we can compare ; c2 20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. these true parallaxes with the mean parallax of stars having correspond- ing magnitude and proper motion, and this comparison will lead to a knowledge of the frequency-law required. It is true that, owing to the scarcity of material at present available, the determination of the frequency-law is not so strong as may be desirable, but further improve- ment is simply a question of time and the augmentation of parallax- determination. Adopting provisionally the frequency-law found in this way by Kapteyn,' we can localise all the stars in space down to about the ninth magnitude. Take, for example, the stars of magnitude 5:5 to 6:5. There are about 4,800 of these stars in the whole sky. According to Auwers- Bradley, about 9} per cent. of these stars, or some 460 in all, have proper motions between 0-04 and 005. Now, according to Kapteyn’s empiric formula, whose satisfactory agreement with the Yale results has just been shown, the mean parallax of such stars is almost exactly 0-01. Further, according to his frequency-law, 29 per cent. of the stars have parallaxes between the mean value and double the mean value; 6 per cent. have parallaxes between twice and three times the mean value ; 14 per cent. between three and four times the mean value. Therefore of our 460 stars 133 will have parallaxes between 0’-01 and 0’-02, twenty- eight between 0-02 and 0/03, seven between 0-03 and 0/04, and so on. Localising in the same way the stars of the sixth magnitude having other proper motions, and then treating the stars of the first magnitude, second magnitude, third magnitude, and so on to the ninth magnitude in the same way, we finally locate all these stars in space.” It is true we have not localised the individual stars, but we know approximately and within certain limits of magnitude the number of stars at each distance from the Sun. Thus the apparent brightness and the distance being known we have the means of determining the light-energy or absolute /wminosity of the stars, provided it can be assumed that light does not suffer any extinction in its passage through interstellar space. On this assumption Kapteyn was led to the following results, viz., that within a sphere the radius of which is 560 light-years (a distance which corresponds with that of the average star of the ninth magnitude) there will be found :— 1 star giving frora 100,000 to 10,000 times the light of our Sun. 26 stars 4 10,000 ,, 1,000 a a a 130005 + L000) 155 -beelOO™ iia, ” ” 22,000 ,, + 100 —,, 10 » ” 59 140,000 ” ” 10 ” 1 ” ” ” 430,000 ” ” 1 ” 01 ” ” ” 650,000 ” ” 01 ” 0-01 ” ” ” 1 Publications Astron. Lab. Groningen, No. 8, p. 23. 2 Tbid., No. 11, Table II. PRESIDEN'T’S ADDRESS. 21 The Density of Stellar Distribution at Different Distances from our Sun. Consider, lastly, the distribution of stellar density, that is, the number of stars contained in the unit of volume. We cannot determine absolute star-density, because, for example, some of the stars which we know from their measured parallaxes to be com- paratively near to us are in themselves so little luminous that if removed to even a few light-years greater distance they would appear fainter than the ninth magnitude, and so fall below the magnitude at which our data at present stop. But if we assume that intrinsically faint and bright stars are dis- tributed in the same proportion in space, it will be evident that the comparative richness of stars in any part of the system will be the same as the comparative richness of the same part of the system in stars of a particular luminosity. Therefore, as we have already found the arrange- ment in space of the stars of different degrees of luminosity, and con- sequently their number at different distances from the Sun, we must also be able to determine their relative density for these different distances. Kapteyn finds in this way that, starting from the Sun, the star-density (i.e., the number of stars per unit volume of space) is pretty constant till we reach a distance of some 200 light-years. Thence the density gradually diminishes till, at about 2,500 light-years, it is only about one-fifth of the density in the neighbourhood of the Sun.!_ This conclusion must, however, be regarded as uncertain until we have by independent means been enabled to estimate the absorption of light in its course through inter- stellar space, and obtained proof that the ratio of intrinsically faint to bright stars is constant throughout the universe. Thus far Kapteyn’s researches deal with the stellar universe as a whole ; the results, therefore, represent only the mean conditions of the system. The further development of our knowledge demands a like study applied to the several portions of the universe separately. This will require much more extensive material than we at present possess. As a first further approximation the investigation will have to be applied separately to the Milky Way and the parts of the sky of higher galactic latitude. The velocity and direction of the Sun’s motion in space may certainly be treated as constants for many centuries to come, and these constants may be separately determined from groups of stars of various regions, various magnitudes, various proper motions, and various spectral types. If these constants as thus separately determined are different, the differences which are not attributable to errors of observa- tion must be due to a common velocity or direction of motion of the group or class of star to which the Sun’s velocity or direction is referred. Thus, for example, the Sun’s velocity as determined by spectroscopic observations Publications Astron. Lab. Groningen, No. 11. 22 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. of motion in the line of sight, appears to be sensibly smaller than that derived from fainter stars. The explanation appears to be that certain of the brighter stars form part of a cluster or group of which the Sun is a member, and these stars tend to some extent to travel together. For these researches the existing material, especially that of the determination of velocities in the line of sight, is far too scanty. Kapteyn has found that stars whose proper motions exceed 0’-05 are not more numerous in the Milky Way than in other parts of the sky ;! in other words, if only the stars having proper motions of 0-05 or upwards were mapped there would be no aggregation of stars showing the existence of a Milky Way. The proper motions of stars of the second spectral type are, as a rule, considerably larger than those of the first type ; but Kapteyn comes to the conclusion that this difference does not mean a real difference of velocity, but only that the second-type stars have a smaller luminosity, the mean difference between the two types amounting to 2} magnitudes.” The Future Course of Research. In the last Address delivered from this Chair on an astronomical sub- ject, Sir William Huggins, in 1891, dealt*so fully with the chemistry of the stars that it seemed fitting on the present occasion to consider more especially the problem of their motion and distribution in space, as it is in this direction that the most striking advances in our knowledge have recently been made. It is true that since 1891 great advances have also been made in our detailed knowledge of the chemistry of the Sun and stars. The methods of astro-spectrography have been greatly improved, the precision of the determination of motion in the line of sight greatly enhanced, and many discoveries made of those close double stars, ordinarily termed spectroscopic doubles, the study of which seems destined to throw illustrative light upon the probable history of the development of systems from the original nebular condition to that of more permanent systems. But the limitations of available time prevent me from entering more fully into this tempting field, more especially as it seems desirable, in the light of what has been said, to indicate the directions in which some of the astronomical work of the future may be most properly systematised. There are two aspects from which this question may be viewed. The first is the more or less immediate extension of knowledge or discovery ; the second the fulfilment of our duty, as astronomers, to future generations. These two aspects should never be entirely separated. The first, as it opens out new vistas of research and improved methods of work, must often serve asa guide to the objects of the second. But the second is to the astronomer the supreme duty, viz., to secure for future generations those data the value of which grows by time. ) Verl. Kn. Ahad. Amsterdam, January 1893. * Ibid., April 1892. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 23 As the result of the Congress of Astronomers held at Paris in 1887 some sixteen of the principal observatories in the world are engaged, as is well known, in the laborious task, not only of photographing the heavens, but of measuring these photographs and publishing the relative positions of the stars on the plates down to the eleventh magnitude. A century hence this great work will have to be repeated, and then, if we of the present day have done our duty thoroughly, our successors will have the data for an infinitely more complete and thorough discussion of the motions of the sidereal system than any that can be attempted to-day. But there is still needed the accurate meridian observation of some eight or ten stars on each photographic plate, so as to permit the conversion of the relative star-places on the plate into absolute star-places in the heavens. It is true that some of the astronomers have already made these observa- tions for the reference stars of the zones which they have undertaken. But this seems to be hardly enough. In order to co-ordinate these zones, as well as to give an accuracy to the absolute positions of the reference stars corresponding with that of the relative positions, it is desirable that this should be done for all the reference stars in the sky by several observa- tories. The observations of well-distributed stars by Kustner at Bonn present an admirable instance of the manner in which the work should be done. Several observatories in each hemisphere should devote them- selves to this work, employing the same or other equally efficient means for the elimination of sources of systematic error depending on magnitude, &e., and it is of far more importance that we should have, say, two or three observations of each star at three different observatories than two or three times as many observations of each star made at a single observatory. The southern cannot boast of a richness of instrumental and personal equipment comparable with that of the northern hemisphere, and con- sequently one welcomes with enthusiasm the proposal on the part of the Carnegie Institute to establish a meridian observatory in a suitable situa- tion in the southern hemisphere. Such an observatory, energetically worked, with due attention to all necessary precautions for the exclusion of systematic errors, would conduce more than anything else to remedy in some degree that want of balance of astronomical effort in the two hemispheres to which allusion has already been made. But in designing the programme of the work it should be borne in mind that the proper duty of the meridian instrument in the present day is no longer to determine the positions of all stars down to a given order of magnitude, but to determine the positions of stars which are geometrically best situated and of the most suitable magnitude for measurement on photo- graphic plates, and to connect these with the fundamental stars. For this purpose the working list of such an observatory should include only the fundamental stars and the stars which have been used as reference stars for the photographic plates. Such a task undertaken by the Carnegie Observatory, by the Cape, 24 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. and if possible by another observatory in the southern hemisphere, and by three observatories in the northern, would be regarded by astronomers of the future as the most valuable contribution that could be made to astronomy of the present day. Taken in conjunction with the astro- graphic survey of the heavens now so far advanced, it is an opportunity that if lost can never be made good ; a work that would grow in value year by year as time rolls on, and one that would ever be remembered with gratitude by the astronomers of the future. But for the solution of the riddle of the universe much more is required. Besides the proper motions, which would be derived from the data just described, we need for an ideal solution to know the velocity in the line of sight, the parallax, the magnitude, and the spectrum-type of every star. The broad distinction between these latter data and the determination of proper motion is this, that whereas the observations for proper motion increase in value as the square of their age, those for velocity in the line of sight, parallax, magnitude, and type of spectrum may, for the broader purposes of cosmical research, be made at any time without loss of value. We should therefore be most careful not to sacrifice the interests of the future by immediate neglect of the former for the latter lines of research. The point is that those observatories which undertake this meridian work should set about it with the least possible delay, and prosecute the pro- gramme to the end with all possible zeal. Three observatories in each hemisphere should be sufficient ; the quality of the work should be of the best, and quality should not be sacrificed for speed of work. But the sole prosecution of routine labour, however high the ultimate object, would hardly be a healthy condition for the astronomy of the immediate future. The sense of progress is essential to healthy growth, the desire to know must in some measure be gratified. We have to test the work that we have done in order to be sure that we are working on the right lines, and new facts, new discoveries, are the best incentives to work. For these reasons Kapteyn, in consultation with his colleagues in different parts of the world, has proposed a scheme of research which is designed to afford within a comparatively limited time a great augmenta- tion of our knowledge. The principle on which his programme is based is that adequate data as to the proper motions, parallaxes, magnitudes, and the type of spectrum of stars situated in limited but symmetrically dis- tributed areas of the sky, will suffice to determine many of the broader facts of the constitution of the universe. His proposals and methods are known to astronomers and need not therefore be here repeated. In all respects save one these proposals are practical and adequate, and the required co-operation may be said to be already secured—the exception is that of the determination of motion in the line of sight. All present experience goes to show that there is no known satisfactory method of determining radial velocity of stars by wholesale methods, but PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 25 that such velocities must be determined star by star. For the fainter stars huge telescopes and spectroscopes of comparatively low dispersion must be employed. On this account there is great need in both hemi- spheres of a huge reflecting telescope—six to eight feet in aperture— devoted almost exclusively to this research. Such a telescope is already in preparation at Mount Wilson, in America, for use in the northern hemisphere. Let us hope that Professor Pickering’s appeal for a large reflector to be mounted in the southern hemisphere will meet with an adequate response, and that it will be devoted there to this all-important work. Conclusion. The ancient philosophers were confident in the adequacy of their intellectual powers alone to determine the laws of human thought and regulate the actions of their fellow men, and they did not hesitate to employ the same unsupported means for the solution of the riddle of the universe. Every school of philosophy was agreed that some object which they could see was a fixed centre of the universe, and the battle was fought as to what that centre was. The absence of facts, their entire ignorance of methods of exact measurement, did not daunt them, and the question furnished them a subject of dispute and fruitless occupation for twenty-five centuries. But astronomers now recognise that Bradiey’s meridian observations at Greenwich, made only 150 years ago, have contributed more to the advancement of sidereal astronomy than all the speculations of preceding centuries. They have learned the lesson that human knowledge in the slowly developing phenomena of sidereal astronomy must be content to progress by the accumulating labours of successive generations of men ; that progress will be measured for generations yet to come more by the amount of honest, well-directed, and systematically discussed observation than by the most brilliant speculation ; and that, in observation, concen- trated systematic effort on a special thoughtfully selected problem will be of more avail than the most brilliant but disconnected work. By these means we shall learn more and more of the wonders that surround us, and recognise our limitations when measurement and facts fail us. Huggins’s spectroscope has shown that many nebule are not stars at all ; that many well-condensed nebule, as wellas vast patches of nebulous light in the sky, are but inchoate masses of luminous gas. Evidence upon evidence has accumulated to show that such nebule consist of the matter out of which stars (i.e., suns) have been and are being evolved. The different types of star spectra form such a complete and gradual sequence (from simple spectra resembling those of nebule onwards through types of gradually increasing complexity) as to suggest that we have before us, written in the cryptograms of these spectra, the complete story of the evolution of suns from the inchoate nebula onwards to the most active 26 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. sun (like our own), and then downward to the almost heatless and invisible ball. The period during which human life has existed on our globe is probably too short—even if our first parents had begun the work—to afford observational proof of such a cycle of change in any particular star ; but the fact of such evolution, with the evidence before us, can hardly be doubted. I most fully believe that, when the modifications of terrestrial spectra under sufficiently varied conditions of temperature, pressure, and environment have been further studied, this conclusion will be greatly strengthened. But in this study we must have regard also to the spectra of the stars themselves. The stars are the crucibles of the Creator. There we see matter under conditions of temperature and pressure and environ- ment, the variety of which we cannot hope to emulate in our labora- tories, and on a scale of magnitude beside which the proportion of our greatest experiment is less than that of the drop to the ocean. The spectroscopic astronomer has to thank the physicist and the chemist for the foundation of his science, but the time is coming—we almost see it now—when the astronomer will repay the debt by wide-reaching contri- butions to the very fundamenta of chemical science. By patient, long-continued labour in the minute sifting of numerical results, the grand discovery has been made that a great part of space, so far as we have visible knowledge of it, is occupied by two majestic streams of stars travelling in opposite directions, Accurate and minute measure- ment has given us some certain knowledge as to the distances of the stars within a certain limited portion of space, and in the cryptograms of their spectra has been deciphered the amazing truth that the stars of both streams are alike in design, alike in chemical constitution, and alike in process of development. But whence have come the two vast streams of matter out of which have been evolved these stars that now move through space in such majestic procession ? The hundreds of millions of stars that comprise these streams, are they the sole ponderable occupants of space? However vast may be the system to which they belong, that system itself is but a speck in illimitable space ; may it not be but one of millions of such systems that pervade the infinite ? We do not know. ‘Canst thou by searching find out God? canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection ?’ cS ~ REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. { i fe REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Vorresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consist- ing of Mr. W. Watraker (Charman), Mr. F. W. Rupier (Secretary), Rev. J.O. Bevan, Sir Epwarp Brasrook, Dr. Horace T. Brown, Dr. VauaHan CornisH, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal K. H. Grirritas, Mr. T. V. Houmes, Mr. J. HopKinson, Professor R. Meupoia, Dr. H, R. Mitt, Mr. C. H. Reap, Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING, Professor W. W. Warts, and the GENERAL OFFICERS. (Drawn up by the Secr-tary.) Applications have been received during the past year from six local Societies desirous of being brought into correspondence with the British Association. The Committee recommends that the following Societies, which issue publications containing the results of original scientific inves- tigations, should be placed on the list of Affiliated Societies, namely :— The Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire. The Worcestershire Naturalists’ Club. It is also recommended that the following bodies be placed on the list of Associated Societies, namely :— The Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society. The Scarborough Philosophical and Archeological Society. The Bournemouth and District Society of Natural Science, The School Nature-Study Union. With regard to the Inverness Scientific Society, the Haslemere Microscope and Natural History Society, and the Ieeds Naturalists’ Club, which have hitherto been on the affiliated list, the Committee has to report that as these Societies have not published for some time past the results of any original work, they should be removed from the rank of Affiliated to that of Associated Societies. The latter are not necessarily publishing bodies, and do not receive the Annual Report of the Association. Your Committee has had under consideration a suggestion, made by the Delegates at last year’s Conference, with reference to the advisability of making application to the British Association for the appointment of a 30 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Committee to promote and supervise County Photographic Surveys. The suggestion arose in the course of a discussion on a paper read at the Con- ference by Mr. W. Jerome Harrison. ‘The Committee has been led to the conclusion that the proposal, as originally made, was too wide in scope and too vague in its objects.to admit of action being profitably taken by the Association ; but it believes that, while the scheme in its entirety seems impracticable, a Committee might advantageously deal with some specific branch of the suggested work. It has been thought that Archeology, in so far as it comes within the scope of the British Association, would be a subject that might appropriately be thus dealt with ; and it has con- sequently been arranged that the matter shall be brought for discussion before the Conference at Leicester by the Rev. R. Ashington Bullen, who will introduce it by a paper ‘On the Advisability of Appointing a Com- mittee for the Photographic Survey of Ancient Remains in the British Tslands.’ It has been suggested by the British Mycological Society, which has recently been brought into relation with the British Association, that the investigation of Fungi shouid receive more attention from local Societies. This suggestion having been favourably received, the Committee has decided that the subject be submitted to the Delegates at Leicester, when a paper intended to encourage the study of the group of fungi will be read by Mr. Carleton Rea, of Worcester. Mr. H. J. Mackinder, who will preside at the Conference at Leicester, has promised to deliver an introductory address to the Delegates on ‘ The Advancement of Geographical Science by Local Scientific Societies.’ The Cardiff Naturalists’ Society reports that, as a consequence of Dr. H. R. Mill’s suggestions in the paper which he read before the Delegates last year, the Society has presented to the Cardiff City Council three meteorological instruments to complete the equipment of the local station. Your Committee regards this as a very satisfactory result of the last Conference. More than thirty volumes of the Proceedings of the local Corresponding Societies have recently been bound and added to the collection which is preserved for consultation in the office of the British Association. Your Committee asks for reappointment with a grant of 25/, Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Socteties held at Leicester, August 1 and 6, 1907. Chairman . , F : . H.J. Mackinder, M.A. Vice-Chairman . ; : . Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A. Secretary . : : : . EF, W. Rudler, 18.0. The following Corresponding Societies nominated Delegates to repre- sent them at the Conference. The attendance of Delegates is indi- cated in the list by the figures 1 and 2 placed in the margin opposite to the name of the Society, and referring respectively to the first and second meetings. Where no figure is shown it will be understood that the Delegate did not attend. The attendances are taken from the Attendance-Book, which each Delegate is expected to sign on entering the Meeting-Room. — at a bo bt to bo bo bo bo CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 31 List of Affiliated Societies appointing Delegates. Andersonian Naturalists’ Society Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire rian Field Club Belfast Natural History and Philo- sophical Society Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club . Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club . Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society Brighton and Hove Natural History ) and Philosophical Society Bristol Naturalists’ Society British Mycological Society Buchan Field Club ‘ ; Burton-on-Trent Natural History and Archeological Society M. B. Gilmour, F.Z.8. | F. A. Bellamy, M.A. Bath Natural History and Antiqua- | Rev. C. W. Shickle, M.A. \ John Smyth, M.A. . Mrs. Mary Hobson. G. P. Hughes, F.R.G.S. } C. J. Watson. C. J. Watson. Alfred W. Oke, LL.M. J. H. Priestley. V. H. Blackman, F.L.S. J. F. Tocher, F.I.C. B. L. Oswell. Canada: Royal Astronomical Society Prof. A. T. de Lury, M.A. Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club Cardiff Naturalists’ Society : : Chester Society of Natural Science, Literature, and Art Cornwall Royal Polytechnic Society Croydon Natural History and Scien- tific Society Dorset Natural History and Anti- quarian Field Club Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club . Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society East Kent Scientific and Natural History Society Eastbourne Natural History Society . Edinburgh Field Naturalists’ and Microscopical Society Edinburgh Geological Society Essex Field Club 7 Glasgow Natural History Society Glasgow Royal Philosophical Society Halifax Scientific Society . Hampshire Field Club and Archzo- } logical Society Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club Hull Geological Society Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’ Club Institution of Mining Engineers Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society Leeds Geological Association Leeds Naturalists’ Club : Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society Liverpool Biological Society Liverpool Geographical Society . Liverpool Geological Society London: Quekett Microscopical Club Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S. Prof. W. 8. Boulton, B.Se. F, W. Longbottom, F.R.A.S8. E. Kitto, F.R.M.S. } W. Whitaker, F.R.S. Alfred Pope. G. H. Carpenter, B.Sc. } Prof. G. F. Scott-Elliott, M.A. A.S. Reid, M.A. H. Dent Gardner, F.R.G.S. | W. C. Crawford, F.R.S.E. R. C. Millar. F. W. Rudler, 1.8.0. Peter Ewing, F.L.S. David Ellis, D.Se. Wm. Simpson, F.G.S8. W. Dale, F.S.A. Henry Kidner, F.G.S. G. W. Macturk. a T. Sheppard, F.G.S. J. A. Longden, M.Inst.C.E. | G. W. Lamplugh, F.RB.S. Prof. P. F. Kendall, M.Se. H, C. Marsh. | Theodore Walker, F.R.G.S, Hue: Beasley. Capt. 4. C. Dubois Phillivs, 1: On Bearley, Joseph Wilson, 32 io to bo to to to REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Manchester Geographical Society . J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. Manchester Geological and Mining Society William Watts. Manchester Microscopical Society . F.W. Hembry, F.R.M.S. Manchester Statistical Society . . Prof. §. J. Chapman, M.A. Midland Counties Institution of En- | zi gineers J. A. Longden, M.Inst.C.E. Norfclk and Norwich Naturalists’ ° Society Frederick Long, L.R.C.P. North of England Institute of Mining : and Mechanical Engineers } Sa ebelco North Staffordshire Field Club . J. R. B. Masefield, M.A. Northamptonshire Natural History : = Society and Field Club } H: N. Dizon, EUs. Northumberland, Durham, and New- castle-upon-Tyne Natural History} Society Nottingham Naturalists’ Society . Prof. J. W. Carr, M.A Paisley Philosophical Institution . John Woodrow. Perthshire Society of Natural Science Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.S.H. Rochdale Literary and Scientific ee | J. BR. Ashworth, D.Sc. Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society . \ F. J. Clark, F.L.S. South-Eastern Union of eae ev. R. Ashington Bullen; B.A. G. P. Hughes, F.R.G.S. Societies Tyneside Geographical Society . Herbert Shaw, B.A. Vale of Derwent Naturalists’ Field H. F. Bul Club ulman, Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archex- ologists’ Field Club W. Andrews, F-G.S. Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club . Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A. Worcestershire Naturalists’ Club . Carleton Rea, B.C.L. Yorkshire Geological Society . . Wm. Simpson, F.G.8. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union . . T. Sheppard, F.G.S. Yorkshire Philosophical Society . Richard Thompson. List of Associated Societies appointing Delegates. Bakewell Naturalists’ Club : . E. M. Wrench, M.V.O. Balham and District Antiquarian and } Natural History Society } Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. Bournemouth and District Society of Natural Science J. E. Liddiard, F.R.G.S. Bradford Natural History and Mazo} nah scopical Society j W. West, F.L.S. Catford and District Natural History } ae Society A. B. Harding. Dover Sciences Society . . Percy Moring. Dunfermline Naturalists’ Society . Henry Beveridge. Ealing Scientific and Microscopical : Society } Dr. W. Deane Butcher, Grimsby and District Antiquarian and : Naturalists’ Society } O. T. Olsen, F.L.S. Hampstead Scientific Society C. O. Bartrum, B.Sc. Hasti d §t. Leonards Natural ‘ astings an nards Natura }r. Parkin, M.A. History Society Ipswich and District Field Club P. G. H. Boswell. A. E. Salter, D.Sc. Lewisham Antiquarian Society . Newcastle-upon-Tyne Literary and | ,, hog i Philosophical Society Prof. M. C. Potter, F.L.S. Preston Scientific Society . i . Edmund Dickson, F.G.S. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 30 1 Scarborough Philosophical and) : g Archeological Society Herbert King, M.Sc. 2 School Nature Study Union s . Mrs. White, D.Sc. 1 2 Southport Society of Natural Science D. E. Benson. Teign Naturalists’ Field Club . 2) bal, Ss Amery. Torquay Natural History Society . A. Somervail. a) bo Tunbridge Wells Natural History and | Lint shht IRS Philosophiwal Society } Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S. Watford Camera Club : ‘ . John Hopkinson, F.L.S. First Meeting, August 1. The Meeting was presided over by Mr. H. J. Mackinder, M.A., Chairman of the Conference. The Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by the Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. H R. Mill, Mr. Rudler, the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S., and Mr. Whitaker, F.R.S. The Chairman delivered an address on ‘The Advancement of Geo- graphical Science by Local Scientific Societies.’ Chairman’s Address. The honour of presiding over your Conference has been conferred on me in order, as I understand, that I may have the opportunity of bringing before you the desirability of local geographical research in this country. From the fact that I live in London, I cannot pretend to offer any experience or useful advice either in the matter of the opportunities open to the Societies which you represent, or in regard to the difficulties which may beset them. How far what I am going to say may be practicable under your conditions it is for you to decide. My function, it appears to me, is to place before you an ideal, and to speak to you simply as a geographer. This much, however, I am entitled to say—that the work which I wish to commend to your attention has been accomplished in neighbouring countries, in some degree at any rate, by the co-operation of local agencies. In France there are some twenty local Geographical Societies, there being one, with very few exceptions, in each of the old provincial centres. These Societies hold an annual conference, which resembles this Conference except that it is for geography only. Not a few geographical studies relating to different parts of France have emanated from these Societies, and have been published in the ‘Annales de Géographie’ and other journals. It is in part from these fragments that Vidal de la Blache has built up his admirable description of France in the introductory volume of the great history which is now being issued by Lavisse. In Germany the same end is attained, although with slightly different machinery. There, as you know, university education is more markedly decentralised than in France, or even in Britain, with the result that scattered over the whole country there are geographical institutes of university rank whose professors and students have put together a rich geographical literature descriptive of every part of the land. My suggestion is that in this country a similar work might be achieved by the co-operation of your Societies. It is true that we have a certain number of provincial Geographical Societies, but, with the excep- “gen “a the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in Edinburgh, they are r¢ D 34 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. situated in the great commercial centres, and devote themselves rather to the spreading of a knowledge of the lands beyond the seas than to the study of local British geography. Here again I must make a partial exception in the case of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society at Edinburgh ; but J think that I have not misrepresented the very valuable aims and work of the Societies at Southampton, Manchester, Liverpool, and Neweastle, or of the branches of the Scottish Society at Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Dundee. In course of time the geographical teachers in our old and new universities may no doubt come to our aid, but there are wide areas of our country which have no university, or none sufliciently developed as at present to afford a Chair in Geography. For some time to come I see no agencies which can cover the United Kingdom con- sistently with centres of geographical study, unless they are to be found in the Societies which you represent. Let me now give a first indication of the nature of the work which I am proposing. Many of your societies have members interested in botany, and in your publications there are not a few valuable memoirs dealing with the distribution of plant species. That of course was a very neces- sary study, but we are now developing a different study, whose object is to ascertain the distribution of what are known as plant associations. For instance, in the twenty-first and twenty-second volumes of the ‘Geographical Journal’ you will find maps showing the distribution of the plant associations of Yorkshire, which have been compiled from the researches of Mr. William G. Smith and others who have assisted him. Here you will see carefully mapped by Bartholomew the distribution of the various moorland , woodland, and farmland associations. For instance, under the head of moorlands you will find distinguished upon the map the bilberry summits, the cotton-grass bogs, the heather moors, the grass heaths, the natural pastures, and the lowland swamps. In each of these associations there are several characteristic plants, which occur together and very rarely apart—a fact which is obvious to anyone who con- trasts the trees and undergrowth which constitute an oak wood with those which constitute a beech wood. Primarily, of course, the distribution of these associations is due to differences of climate and soil, but also it must be remembered that the dominant plants themselves form the required environment of the minor species associated with them. I com- mend to you the study of these maps themselves, for they will give you a far better idea of the nature and value of this kind of botanical geography than any mere description of mine. Admirable examples of the same kind of work are the memoirs and maps of the late Mr. Robert Smith, published in the sixteenth volume of the ‘ Scottish Geographical Magazine’ under the title of ‘A Botanical Survey of Scotland.’ Results of this nature, I may point out, are however comparatively useless unless the different parts of the country are mapped according to a more or less uniform scheme ; hence the value of the lead which such a conference as this may give to local societies. The distribution, however, of plant associations is of comparatively little value when studied alone. We require for its interpretation a knowledge of the local land forms and drainage systems, of local drift geology, of local climate, and many other local data which can be ex- pressed upon maps. The geographical method of research is to construct with scrupulous care separate maps of each of these orders of phenomena, and then to compare them, when correlations of distribution will leap to CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 35 notice and will suggest fresh inquiries. It is obvious that for the study of the causes of local distribution we must often go to historical records, whether embodied in documents, in place-names, or in archeological relics. My suggestion is that the distribution of all these things should be systematically studied upon the map. It is true, no doubt, that maps are attached to many special studies, botanical, geological, or archzological ; but the research which I am suggesting treats the comparison of a large number of such maps as its main material, and is not satisfied with having them as incidental illustrations in books of non-geographical aim, and with having them prepared according to different methods, and therefore without facilities for comparison. In other words, the object is to have a complete analysis of each district from a geographical standpoint. We already have examples of the kind of work which I am indicating, although, as being the product in each case of one man’s research only, they have not and cannot have the thoroughness and richness which would ensue from the combined and prolonged endeavour of one of your societies. Dr. H. R. Mill has described a small part of Sussex in his ‘ Frag- ment of the Geography of England’ which you will find in the fifteenth ~ volume of the ‘Geographical Journal. Dr. Herbertson, again, has a description of the Oxford Sheet of the One-inch Ordnance Survey Map in the first volume of the ‘ Geographical Teacher,’ and Professor Geddes has given us descriptions of the neighbourhood of Edinburgh in connection with his Outlook Tower. But these essays, though excellent so far as they go, are hardly comparable with the elaborate Continental descriptions to which | have referred. No really adequate geographical account of the British Isles will be possible until we have a much richer local literature from whichan author may mine. Yet suchan account is essential to any scientific basis for British national history. What is wanted is that in connection with each Society it should be the duty of some member to correlate the results obtained by the different specialist sections. This member would extract from the work of the bota- nists, the archeologists, the geologists, and others the data for the con- struction of his scheme of maps, and it would fall naturally to him to suggest the formation of new sections, and to enlist the enthusiasm of fresh students for the purpose of filling lacunz in the local researches. In other words, it would be his special function to correlate from a geo- graphical point of view the work of the various specialists, and to draw deductions from his correlations for the guidance of the specialists in their further work. Local investigation, instead of being haphazard and iso- lated, would thus become co-operative, and the results would be synthetic. Side-lights would be thrown on all manner of special studies, and the students of other sciences would thus get back with interest the contri- _ butions which they made to geography. All this is easily said, but our experience shows that only a geographer of adequate training and insight could perform the function which we here demand. Such persons are no doubt increasing in number. The University Schools of Geography at Oxford and elsewhere are gradualiy supplying them, and before long it should be possible for each of your societies to find someone, say a master in some neighbouring public school, who is capable for the purpose. In some cases you may even have a member who would be willing to undergo the necessary training specially for your service. I am aware, of course, that your Societies are perhaps more often than D2 36 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, not on a county basis, and many of our counties do not coincide with natural geographical units or groups of units. You have the same thing in France, where the natural ‘pays,’ such as Caux, Bray, Bresse, Bauce, Sologne, and so forth, bear distinctive names more frequently perhaps than in this country. Economy of effort should, in the case of certain counties at any rate, prompt an exchange of territory with adjoining counties. In Hampshire, for instance, the little strip of the Weald along the eastern border of the county could not be understood apart from the much larger Wealden areas of Surrey and Sussex, and the study of it might therefore very reasonably be separated from that of the great chalk plateau of Hampshire and Wiltshire. In other words, your societies might divide the land into countries analogous to the ‘countries’ hunted by the various packs of hounds, the Quorn, the Craven, and the rest of them. Finally, I would suggest that any local Society which saw its way to organising and carrying through such a thorough and comprehensive survey as to lead to a geographical synthesis of all the aspects, physical and humane, of local knowledge would blend itself with the local life and establish itself securely among the local institutions. On all hands it is now agreed that education in such subjects as geography and history should be based on the study of the home district. What finer work for the efforts of a local Society than to produce a text-book for the local schools which shall rouse and satisfy interest in the surrounding country- side and in the local monuments, generate local patriotism, and establish an outlook into the larger world on a concrete foundation rather than on the sands of mere book learning? Such a text-book might also be correlated with the local museum arranged for visual instruction, and so classified as to prompt systematic thought. Of course I am not here advocating the incorporation into such an educational system of the occasional special collections, which have more than a local value and are visited by scholars from a distance. The outcome of it all seems to me to be this: that while we can advance knowledge only by being specialists, yet we do require that in each important Society there should be one or more whose specialty con- sists in the correlation for the locality of all the other specialties ; and, in my opinion, this correlation can best be accomplished on a geographica basis and by geographical methods ; Captain Dubois Phillips (Liverpool Geographical Society), in proposing a vote of thanks to the Chairman, expressed his satisfaction that a geographical subject had at length been brought before the Delegates. He remarked that Geography as outlined by Mr. Mackinder was some- thing vastly different from the general conception of that science. He hoped that the address would be printed, and copies forwarded to every Geographical Society in the country, as well as to the Scientific Societies in correspondence with the Association. Dr. H. R. Mill (Perthshire Society of Natural Science), in seconding the vote of thanks, referred to the inspiriting character of the Chairman’s discourse and the stimulus it would no doubt give to some individuals and Societies. He feared, however, that the complete realisation of Mr. Mackinder’s scheme would not be effected in the lifetime of anyone present ; still, one of the reasons for the existence of a Society was to carry out work that was too hard or too long for an individual. 9 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. BY 4 The Rev. R. Ashington Bullen (South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies) introduced the following subject :— The Advisability of Appointing a Committee for the Photographic Survey of Ancient Remains in the British Islands. Last year, at York, the Delegates had the advantage of listening to a clear, concise, and comprehensive paper by Mr. W. Jerome Harrison on the ‘ Desirability of Promoting County Photographic Surveys.’ Nothing but good can come out of such a discussion as that paper initiated, and in one sense I am, so to speak, continuing that discussion, so that some- thing of a practical character may result. I have lately sought for some of the earliest references to the practical application of photography to scientific purposes, and the earliest which I could find dates back to the forties of the last century. In a book of J. L. Stephens’s on ‘ Incidents of Travel in Yucatan’ (in the year 1841) it is stated that ‘the descriptions are accompanied by full-page illustrations from daguerreotype views and drawings taken on the spot by Mr. Cather- wood, and the engravings were executed under his personal superin- tendence.’ The object of that expedition was to visit the almost forgotten cities of Yucatan, and the work of faithfully reproducing the hiero- glyphics and carved images must have been considerably aided even by the somewhat clumsy and uncleanly process of daguerreotyping. Again, in 1859, when the too tempting rewards offered by Boucher de Perthes had caused many spurious flint implements to be included among the genuine work of paleolithic man, Prestwich called in the aid of photography, and by employing a photographer from Amiens he was able to exhibit photographs of palzolithic implements still a stu at St. Acheul, in the very pit from which remains of Hlephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, &c., had been obtained. Again, on the one hand how valuable would have been photographs of the seventeen inverted urns unearthed in cutting Fordingbridge Rail- way, of which Dr. Blackmore tells me no account has been published, nor illustrations given ; and, on the other hand, how useful the photographs of the cists in the late Keltic cemetery at Harlyn Bay have proved, seeing that the human bones sent to Truro were so damp that most of them fell to pieces on the way thither. I have always regretted that the prehistoric slate-built hut at Con- stantine Island, Cornwall, was never photographed before it was reduced to ruins by some unknown searcher for buried treasure. The treasure was there, but it was not of gold—only the cunningly placed hut of neolithic man upon an old raised beach. One could easily multiply instances of the utility of photography in furnishing valuable corro- borative evidence ; but let the above instances sufiice. There can only be one opinion as to the value of Mr. Jerome Harrison’s suggestive paper, already referred to ; but the work to which he invites the British Association is so vast that it would need a separate organisation in order to attain an adequate measure of success. Such a work seems rather to be suitable for a Society like the ‘National Photographic Record Association.’ Since the British Associa- tion has members in every county of the British Isles it is believable that the inclusion of the subject of County Photographic Surveys for discussion at this meeting may help to advertise the desirability of such 38 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. comprehensive surveys, the work of which, if fully carried out, will necessarily include a great deal that is not to be ranged under the banner of Science, although quite worthy of being photographed and recorded for other reasons. But although it may not be advisable for the British Association to undertake such a wide field of work it may be able to address itself to a more limited one by confining itself to the photographing of ancient remains in the British Islands. If we refer to the British Association Reports for the last four years we shall find that Section H has not only dealt with such subjects as the stone circles and other prehistoric antiquities of the British Isles, but also with excavations on Roman sites and investigations of Anglo-Saxon remains in various places. Here, then, we have a precedent in the work undertaken by an important section, and we might define the ancient remains which would come within the scope of any photographic enterprise as consisting of such remains as precede and include the Anglo-Saxon period. These might be justly comprised under the term ‘archeology’ as distinct from what is merely ‘antiquarian.’ So much remains still to be discovered about the peopling of these islands after the Roman domination ceased that the Anglo-Saxon period would form a fitting terminus for the photo- graphic archeologist. Several photographic committees have already been appointed by the British Association. One deals with geological photographs, another with those of anthropological interest, and a third with botanical photographs. The excellent work of these may well be supplemented by that of another committee appointed to deal with objects of the paleolithic, neolithic, bronze, late Keltic, Roman, and Anglo-Saxon epochs, apart from photographs relating to anthropometry and ethnography, if these are already included in the work of the Committee on anthropological photo- graphs. There would thus be a permanent record of all photographs of the character indicated, and an annual exhibition of such photographs at the British Association meeting might well become a permanent feature of that annual gathering. So that, although it may not be possible, on account of the extensive organisation required and of the great expense involved, for the Association to co-ordinate all the county surveys by means of a central committee for photographic work, still it may be possible, if the delegates so determine, to form a photographic committee to deal with ancient British remains, requiring only a modest grant for expenses from the Association funds, and covering the ground not already preoccupied by the special committees, such as deal photographically with stone circles, geology, and anthropometry. The work of any such photo- graphic committee would be considerably aided by the invaluable sugges- tions in the appendix to Mr. Jerome Harrison’s thoughtful paper. Mr. H. 8. Kingsford (Section of Anthropology), speaking as Secretary of the Committee appointed by Section H to register anthropological photographs, drew the attention of the Conference to the work of this Committee, which included such work as that now proposed. He urged upon the delegates the advisability of their co-operating with this Committee rather than founding a new one, and particularly pointed out the disadvantage of two committees working for the same object, with inevitable ov erlap and loss of efficiency. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 39 Mr. William Dale (Hants Field Club and Archzxological Society) said that his Society had taken up the work of photographing objects of interest in his county, and an album of such photographs was in the possession of Mr. Nisbett of Winchester, It was of importance that local societies should undertake the work, inasmuch as they would have the best information about objects which were in danger of disappearing, a contingency which was continually occurring. The photographs should be readily accessible and placed where they could be seen by all. As an instance of a photographic surprise he mentioned the wonderful photo- graphs of Stonehenge taken last year by Lieut. Capper from a war balloon. Mr. Alfred Pope (Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club) said that with regard to the county which he represented, the advantages of a photographic survey had not been lost sight of. The Rev. Wm. Miles Barnes had, in connection with the Dorset Field Club, already procured some three thousand photographs, of a uniform size so far as possible, of subjects of antiquarian and historical interest in the county, which are preserved in four royal folio albums deposited in the county museum, where they are available for reference. It was his intention to obtain at once photographs of some well-formed ‘ linchets’ in a common field now being enclosed, which would shortly disappear under the plough. All the old stone crosses in the county had also been photographed. Mr. Thomas Parkin (Hastings and St. Leonards Natural History Society) drew attention to the fact that a photographic soviety had been for some years established in Sussex for the purpose of taking views of ancient buildings and interesting spots, some of which were fast vanishing. The Society places these photographs on view on all possible occasions. Mrs. Mary Hobson (Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club) said that in the Society which she represented there were many members who had taken much pains to photograph and make plans of prehistoric remains. It was most important that records should be prepared without delay, for the monuments were fast disappearing. Mr. Edward Kitto (Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society) thought the subject under discussion one which would commend itself to the Society which he represented, especially as Cornwall is peculiarly rich in ancient stone memorials. It was painfully true that such monuments were rapidly disappearing, and he would suggest that those who were keen on securing . photographs of these memorials might go further and assist in the preservation of these invaluable relics of the past. Mr. Sheppard (Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union) referred to a recent report that a well-known stone memorial in Cornwall had been broken up for road-metal. He pointed out that the work of the suggested Committee need not interfere with that of any existing Commitiee, but would rather supplement their work. Mr. J. F. Tocher (Buchan Field Club) remarked that the part of the country he came from was rich in ancient monuments, and several excellent photographs had been taken of them under the auspices of the Buchan Field Club. He suggested that a Committee should be appointed by the delegates to act in conjunction with the Anthropological Section for photographing the ancient monuments of the Kingdom. It would be a pity if two separate committees acting under the wing of the British Association should be formed throughout the country. After some further discussion it was resolved that the following resolution, proposed by Mr. Jerome Harrison, should be sent to the 10 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Committee of Recommendations for transmission to the Council of the Association :— That it is advisable : 1. To obtain information as to the present state of things in Britain in connection with Photo-Survey Work. 2. To publish instructions or give advice for the execution of a Scientific Photographic Survey. 3. To endeavour to found, or promote, a Photo Record of the town and district in which the British Association holds its Annual Meeting. The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee was read by the Secretary, and it was resolved to apply for a grant of 25/. Second Meeting, August 6. The Meeting was presided over by the Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A., Vice- Chairman. The Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by Mr. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Mr. Rudler, the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and Mr. W. Whitaker. The Vice-Chairman apologised for the absence of Mr. Mackinder (who had been called away on important business), and, in his name, welcomed the delegates to the second session. He lamented the facts that the delegates had but little time to make each other’s acquaintance ; that they were unable to meet but for two short sessions, at the period of the annual gathering ; and that the personnel of the Conference materially changed from year to year, so that the interest excited had a tendency to die down and become extinguished. He asserted that the Corresponding Societies Committee were very sensible of these disadvan- tages, and were willing to adopt any suggestion whereby they might be counteracted. In face of the disabilities above mentioned, he ventured to impress upon the delegates the responsibility which rested upon them to take an active part in the proceedings of the Conference ; to make known to its members any branch of scientific work carried out by the bodies they respectively represented ; and, in turn, to report to their societies the main results arrived at in the various sectional meetings (or such portion as might particularly affect their locality), especially the suggestions for local work made at this conference by the Recorders of the various sections. He concluded by saying that in this way the British Associa- tion would fulfil its functions—of stimulating workers in the various departments of research, of popularising science and scientific method, and of exercising a co-ordinating influence over the various Societies whose representatives he had the honour of addressing. Mr. Carleton Rea, B.C.L., M.A. (Worcestershire Naturalists’ Club), then introduced the following subject : A Plea that Local Societies should give greater attention to the investiga- tion of the Fungi occurring in their Districts, with Suggestions for the Encouragement of the Study of this Group. As the suggestion of the subject for discussion to-day originated with myself on behalf of the British Mycological Society, I felt, as their honorary Secretary, bound to accept the invitation of the Corresponding CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, AA Societies Committee to attend and expound our views with regard to it. The fact that the Committee has selected this topic for debate evidently indicates that it considers that most of our Local Societies neglect the investigation of the Fungi occurring in their districts. But what is the cause of this neglect? Thousands of species are at hand, and abound in every district, but our British botanists generally omit them from their enumeration of the plants occurring in the various county floras, and if they are in a few instances included, the task has been delegated to some outsider who cannot possibly have that intimate local knowledge which is necessary for the production of a complete and exhaustive list. Why the study of our fungi has been so sadly neglected it is very hard to explain, because, unlike that of mosses and lichens, it is of immense importance to every individual. All our farmers and gardeners suffer immense losses annually, and I may mention incidentally that the Inter- national Phytological Commission in 1893 reported that the cereal rusts alone cost Prussia for that year 20,900,000/. A knowledge of this inter- esting group of plants also would place at the disposal of our people a great quantity of valuable nitrogenous food, which is at the present time allowed to fall into decay uncared for. It is only necessary to draw attention to these points to convince Local Societies that they should encourage the study of the fungi in their districts. In 1868 the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club inaugurated a series of autumnal forays, which were continued with some measure of success down to the year 1902, and these were copied by many of our leading Naturalists’ Clubs. But the devotion of a day or even of a week in the autumn will not elucidate the fungi occurring in a given area. To do so satisfactorily it is necessary to investigate them year in and year out, and to place them on exhibition from day to day. This exhibition should either be maintained in the Club Room or, better still, at the Local Museum, if the place possesses one, and should be open to the inspection of the general public. Of course members of the Local Societies would willingly aid in bringing in specimens for the exhibition, but in order to stimulate the general public, and possibly the members also, it might be advisable to otler prizes for the most varied or most correctly named specimens sent in during the course of the year. The Local Society should also annually prepare a list of the fungi, with the name of the finder, the exact habitat and locality, and encourage the general public to make accurate paintings, accompanied by accurate sections and microscopic details, if possible to one scale. The most con- venient way of exhibiting the larger fleshy fungi and plant diseases is to display specimens on large plates, whilst the smaller ones should be in- serted in tubes before being put on the plates. The label would give its correct scientific name, but the popular name, if it possessed one, should also be given, and an instructive note added. Thus : — Amanita mappa (Batsch.). Fr. Very poisonous. Hygrophorus psittacinus (Schaeff.). Parrakeet Mushroom. Edible. Delicious. Ezxoascus pruni (Fckl.). Pocket-plums. Prune back behind the point of infection. Two copies of the British Museum ‘Guide to Sowerby’s Models of 42 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, British Fungi’ should be cut up and pasted on cards ; these make instruc- tive labels for those species to which they apply, and should be pinned out on the table in front of the plate containing the specimens. During the winter the exhibition would consist principally of wood-destroying fungi and moulds, and as many of the former are of a hard woody texture they can easily be displayed for some time, and sections of various trees showing their destructive influence on the wood can be exhibited along- side. In the spring and early summer the Fungi inducing various plant- diseases can be exhibited, accompanied by a note as to their treatment, and then in the autumn we have the abundant harvest of the year. To further popularise the study, short papers should be given to the members and the general public, and the arrangement of the groups into which this vast family of plants is divided should be explained, so that all may be easily conversant with the terms employed in describing these plants For many of the systematic works and text-books plunge at once im medias res without explaining the nature of the classification adopted or the meaning of the technical terms used. Up to this point we have presumed that the Local Society possessed a member or members capable of determining the different species of fungi sent in from time to time, or that the Local Curator was competent to discharge that function. But if the Local Society have no members who are interested in this branch of botany, then we consider that the Local Society should persuade some member or members to take up the study of this neglected group. A botanist would find no difficulty in the study, as the orders and genera are very clearly defined, and are almost more easily determined than in the case of our flowering plants. And to ensure rapid progress in the study it would be well for those members to join and attend the annual meetings of the British Mycological Society. This Society holds a week’s fungus foray every year in different parts of Britain, generally on the invitation of some Local Society. The speci- mens collected from day to day are named and placed out on exhibition, and ample time is allowed to the members to study them and to compare them with the descriptions in books. Such exhibitions as we have advocated have been held for portions of the year both at Haslemere and Worcester with great success. The exhi- bitions have been very popular, and have diffused a pretty general know- ledge of the subject. This I have proved in the case of the Worcestershire Naturalists’ Club, where attention is paid to the study of fungi at all their meetings during the year, for the members easily follow a paper on the subject which other Local Societies that I have ventured to address have acknowledged to be beyond their comprehension. Mr. H. N. Dixon (Northamptonshire Natural History Society and Field Club) explained that the collection of hand-coloured photographs exhibited in the ante-room was made by Mr. Albert Wallis, of Kettering, during the autumn of 1906 and the foliowing months. It was shown at a meeting of the Northants Natural History Society, and he (the speaker), on hearing that the subject of the systematic study of Fungi would be introduced at this Conference, asked Mr. Wallis to allow the collection to be exhibited. He would be glad of suggestions by which such a collection might be made more complete and accurate for such a purpose as Mr. Carleton Rea had in view. He suggested the sending of CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 43 a leaflet to the Societies, giving suggestions and instructions as to the observations and data necessary for the identification of fungi, and also mentioning the names of gentlemen willing to act as referees. If the photographing of a specimen and the taking of such observations were made a preliminary condition of obtaining the help of the referee, it would prevent improper advantage being taken of such assistance. A photo- graphic reproduction (coloured) answered the purpose of either a model or a painting of a fungus, with even less labour and greater accuracy in detail. Mr. J. E. Liddiard (Bournemouth and District Society of Natural Science) remarked that the Society which he represented had done some- thing to promote the study of Fungi, and he handed in a publication showing what his Society, in conjunction with the New Forest Society, had done in their district. Mr. J. R. B. Masefield (North Staffordshire Field Club) called attention to the importance of the study of fungi to the farmer and gardener. Expert help, however, was required by Field Clubs. Photo- graphs would be useful in assisting in the identification of species. It was important that there should be an interchange of views between the various Societies and mutual help given by arranging joint meetings. Mr. P. Ewing (Glasgow Natural History Society) said that in his opinion the practice which obtained in the Society which he represented was a very satisfactory one—that of forming sectional committees. Only a few members in most Societies take a working interest in the different branches of science, and consequently those who take the most active part are made conveners of the various sections, to whom ail specimens can be referred for identification. Such members can, as a rule, name correctly 98 per cent. of the specimens submitted, and for the sake of local records are quite willing to do so. More critical species, or those in which identification was doubtful, are referred to some authority. This authority, in the case of fungi, should be one recom- mended by the British Mycological Society. Mr. G. P. Hughes (Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon- Tyne Natural History Society) pointed out the desirability of including the study of Fungi in the list of scientific subjects to be introduced for the occasional instruction of children, especially in country schools, the importance of elementary scientific knowledge being very properly advocated by most of the sections of the British Association. Mr. A. W. Oke (Brighton and Hove Natural History Society) referred to the educational value of the exhibition of living specimens of Fungi by Natural History Societies and Museums. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing (Tunbridge Wells Natural History Society) observed that the annual exhibition of wild flowers, which excited much admiration at Tunbridge Wells, and which had been imitated in some other localities, was, in fact, only indirectly due to the Natural History Society. It had been initiated and carried on year by year by the personal efforts of Mr. Fred Roberts, an honoured assistant of that Society. This rather pointed to the desirability of securing the services of some enthusiastic member when any special work was to be done, in preference to asking vaguely for the efforts of a whole Society. Most likely Mr. Roberts, if requested to do so, would add the Fungi of the district to his much appreciated botanical exhibition. 44, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, The Rev. C. W. Shickle (Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club) instanced the assistance given to the study of local Fungi by the valet of the late Mr. Skrine, of Warley. Mr. W. Bell (Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society and delegate from Section K) spoke of the general ignorance in regard to the poisonous and edible forms of Fungi, and thought a closer study of the family would do much to remove the present prejudice. It was a most desirable thing to have a complete series of all plants, including Fungi, in County Herbaria. Hitherto the collection of Leicestershire plants, which contained from twenty thousand to twenty-five thousand sheets, had not more than a dozen forms of Fungi. This was due to the fact that great difficulty obtained in regard to the preservation of the specimens. He strongly recommended that, where it was impossible to preserve actual specimens, coloured photographs, such as those exhibited, should be file1. Mr. J. A. Longden (Institution of Mining Engineers) said that he had never been able to eat mushrooms, for they were absolutely poisonous to him. It was important that the school children should be taught which mushrooms are edible for the ordinary mortal. The Rev. R. Ashington Bullen (South-Eastern Union of Scientitic Societies) said that there was no doubt a large quantity of nourishing material neglected in England. In Italian markets, he believed, there was an inspector of Fungi, who decided whether the species exposed for sale were edible ; quite a large number are available for human food, although a fungus diet does not suit every person. Following the old proverb fiat eaperimentum, &e., his corpus vile had enjoyed, when he lived in Kent, C/avaria of various species, and the ‘ fairy-ring ’ fungus, Marasmius (superior in flavour to the ordinary mushroom); and in Hunts he had eaten Agaricus (Psalliota) arvensis and slices of young giant puff-balls, which in point of tastiness he considered equal to beef- steak. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing called attention to a recent article in the ‘Museum Gazette,’ under the editorship of Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson, F.R.S. This article not only strongly insisted on the dangers involved in eating Fungi, but also maintained that, however agreeable they might be to the palate, they were almost entirely devoid of nutritious quality. Mr. F. W. Rudler (Essex Field Club) remarked that the Society which he represented had always taken much interest in the study of Fungi. Ever since its foundation it had held annually a fungus foray, and in this way had registered pretty completely the fungus flora of Epping Forest. The next foray would probably take place in the woods around Chelmsford. Moreover, the Museums under the Essex Field Club exhibited models and coloured illustrations of Fungi, seeking by such means to explain to the public the differences between edible and poisonous species. Professor J. W. Carr (Nottingham Naturalists’ Society) pointed out the practical difficulties in working out the fungus flora of any district by the Local Society, owing to the general lack of expert knowledge of the plants of this group by the members of such Societies. He suggested that much good might be done if an expert mycologist, such as the opener of the discussion, would undertake to give an address on the best methods as CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, AD of investigation of the Fungi before some of the principal local Natural History Societies in the country. Mr. Carleton Rea, in reply, said that photographs per se were not good enough to identify the larger Fungi. The excellent coloured photo- graphs exhibited by Mr. Wallis were much better, but their value from a scientific standpoint would be much enhanced by having a section cut longitudinally represented with each specimen, and the colour of the spores and their shape should also be set out, magnified to a constant increment of, say, 1000. He admitted that there were some persons who were unable to digest even the common mushroom, as was the case with certain people who were unable to assimilate pork or fish. But if people became mycophagists before they were competent mycologists, then they must be very careful to gather their specimens with the base of the stem intact, because, if they observed any trace of a universal wrapper, known as a volva, at the base of the stem they should reject it, as it was the dangerous Amanite and Volvarie that possess this poison cup. Professor Carr had said that it involved great research and high micro- scopic investigation to determine the species, but he reminded him that Parliament had just passed an Act which empowered the police to deal with plant diseases in the same way as they did with anthrax and swine fever, and therefore the police would have to determine whether the goose- berries were attacked by Spherotheca Mors-uve. The continuous ex- hibition which he had advocated for popularising the knowledge of our Fungi could be carried on in conjunction with the exhibition of their wild flowers. At the present time at Worcester he had out on exhibition a far more virulent disease of the gooseberry than that caused by Sphero- theca Mors-uve, namely, Leptosphwria vagabwnda (Sacc.), the conidial con- dition being a Coniothyriwm. In conclusion he urged that it was the duty of all Local Societies to determine the Fungi of their own districts, and only when their mycologists were puzzled should they submit the specimens to a referee. Reports from the Sections. The Chairman then invited any Delegates from the Sections to explain how the Corresponding Societies could assist in aiding the work of the Committees of the several Sections. Dr. W. N. Shaw, representing Section A (Mathematics and Physics), explained that he had only recently been informed of his appointment as the representative of that Section. There are many ways in which the Corresponding Societies could be helpful in the meteorological work in which he was specially interested. Mr. C. O. Bartrum (Hampstead Scientitic Society) reported that, as a result of Dr. Mill’s suggestion at the last year’s Conference, his Society had asked the London County Council for a site on the summit of Hampstead Hill for the establishment of a Meteorological Station ; that the Council had granted the use of a site, and that by next year it was likely that the station would be in working order. Dr. Theodore Groom (Section C, Geology) wrote that the Committee of the Section had decided to recommend to the Corresponding Societies 46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. that the local work connected with the Section should embrace the following :— i. Further investigations on Drift. ii. The watching of new’sinkings and borings, and the examination of cores. iii. The collecting of local terms applicable to geology and geography. Mr. W. Whitaker supported this recommendation, and especially solicited the aid of Provincial Societies in recording the meaning of local terms applied to geological objects. Mr. Wilfred Mark Webb (Section D, Zoology) asked the representa- tives of the Corresponding Societies for help in connection with the dis- tribution of Centipedes and Millepedes. He offered to send a booklet and collecting-tubes to anyone who would send him specimens, on appli- cation to him at Odstock, Hanwell, London, W _ The results will be published by the Ray Society in a monograph. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing expressed a hope that Mr. Webb’s request for centipedes would meet with a better response than his own often- repeated petition for well-shrimps had received. Of these the Delegates had never sent him any, although it is certain they are to be found in many parts of the kingdom. He further pointed out that in Section D, judging by the size of the audiences, far greater interest had this year been shown in Mendelian experiments than in any other subject. Mr. E. Heawood (Section E, Geography) wrote that his Committee could add nothing to the suggestions made by Mr. Mackinder in his address in connection with the work of Local Societies. Mr. H. E. Wimperis (Section G, Mechanical Science) said that he had been instructed by his Committee to attend the meeting as a mark of their general sympathy. Owing, however, to the nature of their work they did not feel empowered to offer the Conference any suggestions. Mr. G. L. Gomme (Section H, Anthropology) urged the local societies to organise a scheme for the photographing of ascertained types of local population. It was not too late to do this, for there were still people who had never left their villages, who had married inside their villages, and who were descendants of many generations of villagers. It was essential to select those persons whose names were to be found in the parish registers of as early a date as possible, and to take the photographs on a plan which should be common to all the counties. A collection of such photographs, possible now, would be impossible a few years hence, and one of the most fruitful means of identifying local ethnological types will have become destroyed without a record. The interest of sucha collection would be enormous. The comparison of the various types would provide important ethnological data. Mr. Gomme mentioned the case of a village in Bucks where he had a cottage, and where two or three family names appeared over and over again, dating from the earliest times of the parish registers. The type of face was most dis- tinctive for the men, and was of almost classical perfection ; not so distinctive for the women, and not so perfect in form. He was certain that this meant something in the history of the Buckinghamshire village. The same kind of evidence repeated in the villages of every county where distinction and the necessary amount of evidence were forthcoming would be of the utmost value. On behalf of Section H he urged this im- CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 47 portant piece of work for early attention by the Local Societies, and he could assure the Conference of the gratitude of the Section on whose behalf he spoke. Sir Edward Brabrook supported Mr. Gomme’s appeal. Miss Kate Stevens (Teachers’ Guild) remarked that though she had no authority or instructions to speak on behalf of Section L (#ducation) she would urge all the members of the Conference to watch carefully the proceedings of the present Educational legislation, as radical changes nad lately been made, without, in her opinion, sufficient notice or discussion. Mr. F, A. Bellamy (Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. of Oxfordshire) sug- gested that means should be taken to secure a better exchange of publica- tions between scientific societies. After brief remarks by several dele- gates the further discussion of the subject was adjourned. A vote of thanks was then passed to the Rev. J. O. Bevan as vice- chairman. 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Notes on the Breeding Habits of Bats. ‘The Naturalist for 1907, 74-83. 1907. Warrraknr, Oscar. > C eX > Nou, . CHY Hi alg) Port CMe, *\cH, . CO,H. 3-Keto-1 : 1-dimethylhexahydrobenzene (VI.) may be produced from chloroketodimethyltetrahydrobenzene by heating it with zinc-dust in glacial or dilute acetic acid solution. It is a colourless liquid, boiling about 10° lower (75:5° at 25 mm.) than the corresponding unsaturated ketone. It forms an oxime and a semicarbazone, and when oxidised with _ potassium permanganate gives only /38-dimethyladipic acid (VII.), a fact CH,—CO CH, .CO,H OMe Sco, > OMe, alae: ; *\CH, . CH, . CO,H (VIL) which proves its constitution beyond doubt. Other reducing agents investigated were zinc-dust in strongly alkaline solution, also zinc-dust and hydrogen chloride in alcoholic solution. In the former case the hydrolytic action of the potassium hydroxide over- shadows the reducing action of the zinc, with the result that the only product isolated was dimethyldihydroresorcin (VIII.). In the latter case a mixture of ketodimethyltetrahydrobenzene and ketodimethylhexahydro- benzene was obtained, together with dimethyldihydroresorcin and its ethyl ether? (IX.). Here, again, hydrolysis must first take place, giving rise CH, co CH,—__co CMe : cu OMe Son CH, . C(OH)F \cu, . c(OEt)Y (VIIL.) (IX.) to dimethyldihydroresorcin, which is then esterified by the alcoholic hydrogen chloride. Dicyclic Compounds.—The compounds of this nature met with are all derivatives of a substance formed theoretically by the removal of one hydrogen atom from each of two hexahydrobenzene rings, with 1 J.C.8., 1905, 87, 1497 ; 1906, 89, 43. 2 Thid., 1899, 75, 775. 106 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. consequent production of dicyclic derivatives. It has been decided to refer to this substange as dicyclohexane, and to indicate the positions of the various substituting groups by adopting the following scheme otf numbering : ». CH, CH, .CH, cH: 4 1 OH. CHC 2 ae «cH, f CH, . CH, When zinc-dust acts on chloroketodimethyltetrahydrobenzene in aqueous solution, there is obtained a mixture of ketodimethyltetrahydro- benzene and ketodimethylhexahydrobenzene (V. and VI.), in which the former largely predominates. If this mixture of ketones is again treated several times with zinc-dust it is possible to isolate pure ketodimethyl- hexahydrobenzene and a semi-solid mass from which a crystalline product has been separated, melting at 148°. It has the composition C,,H.,O., is believed to be 1 : 1'-dihydroxy-5 : 5: 5’ : 5/-tetramethyl-A?*”'-dicyclo- hexene (X.), and owes its orgin to Ene formation. Moreover its CMe. Qe aS Jee BAS ape eon: COE tea (X.) behaviour is quite in accord with that of a substance having formula X., for it does not give a colour reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid, nor can it be acetylated or benzoylated under the conditions employed. Further, its unsaturated nature is proved by the facts that it readily absorbs bromine, and when treated with sodium in moist ethereal solution it absorbs four atoms of hydrogen to give 1 : 1’-dihydrowy-5 : 5: 5! : 5’- tetramethyldicyclohexane eo ). Here again this saturated pinacone does CMe ease Ae CHC Onn C(OH). com oe Sou . CMe, Ne (XL) not give a colour reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid, but it is surprising to find that it is acetylated or benzoylated very readily, though no explanation of this fact can be offered on the present occasion. In the preparation of hydroxydimethylhexahydrobenzene consider- able difficulty was experienced at one time in obtaining the product free from halogen, and on examining the resinous by-product formed under these conditions two solid substances were separated from it, melting respectively at 178° and 173°-174°. The former of these has the composition C,,H,,O, and is apparently 3 : 3’-diketo-5 : 5:5’: 5’- tetramethyl-A-1*"-dicyclohexene (XII.), formed by the direct coupiing OMe A. teicic coca ot AH,. OMe, x OG Na, Clog Seu, CO __ cH re! \cou —_co- CMe,. a CH, .CMe, = cH C.c CH Neg on7 ../ Som=007. ..- Jado! of 2 molecules of chloroketodimethyltetrahydrobenzene by the sodium. It is highly coloured (yellow), gives a brick-red disemicarbazone, thus proving its diketonic nature, and is unsaturated as shown by its ready ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES, 107 absorption of bromine. It could not be detected in the resin formed when alcohol was added to the ether used in the reduction of chloro- ketodimethyltetrahydrobenzene, but much larger quantities of the second substance melting at 173°-174° and also another compound melting sharply at 212° were isolated. The latter proved to be identical with 1 ; 1’-dihydroxy-5 ; 5; 5’ : 5’-tetramethyldicyclohexane (X1I.). For a long time the substance melting at 173°-174° was thought to be homogeneous, as it gave on analysis numbers agreeing with the formula C,,H,.0,, nor was its melting-point altered by many recrystallisa- tions, and, moreover, it sublimed in needles which melted at 171°-172°. Nevertheless it was found to be a mixture, for on acetylation it gave two diacetyl derivatives melting at 130° and 68°, and on benzoylation two dibenzoyl derivatives melting at 199° and 134°. The former of the diacetyl and dibenzoyl compounds (m.-p. 130° and 199°) proved to be diacetyl- and dibenzoyl-1 : 1’-dihydroxy-5 : 5 : 5’ : 5’-tetramethyldicyclo- hexane, which substance they yielded on hydrolysis. The above-mentioned derivatives melting at 68° and 134° were separately hydrolysed with alcoholic potassium hydroxide, when they each gave a substance, C,,H,,0,, melting at 183°, which is believed to he 3: 3'-dihydroxy-5 : 5 : 5’ : 5'-tetramethyldicyclohexane (XIII). It is CMe,—___ CH, CH,—- CMe. CH, es ~~ CH, CH.CH *\CH(OH). CH,” Nae CH(OH)” (XIT.) readily acetylated and benzoylated, and, unlike the unsaturated or satu- rated pinacones, gives a decided colour reaction with sulphuric acid. Its formation would be due to the further reduction of diketotetramethy]l- dicyclohexene (XII.), although, unfortunately, sufficient of the latter material could not be isolated to try the action of reducing agents upon it. The substance melting at 173°-174° is therefore a mixture of 1; 1’-dihydroxy-5 : 5 : 5’ ; 5’-tetramethyldicyclohexane (XI.) and 3 : 3’- dihydroxy-5 : 5 : 5! : 5’-tetramethyldicyclohexane (XIII.), and it would appear, therefore, that in the reduction of chloroketodimethyltetrahydro- benzene with sodium in moist ethereal solution dicyclic compounds are formed both by the process of pinacone formation and by the coupling reaction of the sodium. 2. Action of Alcoholic Potassium Hydroxide on 3-Bromo-1 : 1-Di- methylheaahydrobenzene.'\—The preparation of 3-bromo-1 : 1-dimethyi- hexahydrobenzene (XIV.) has been previously described,? and also the ~*~ action of alcoholic potassium hydroxide on this substance,? which was stated to give rise to 1 ; 1-dimethyl-A*-tetrahydrobenzene (XV.) only, - and not to the isomeric tetrahydrobenzene with the double bond in the CH,. CHBr CH,—CH cme Sou, CMe,Z Se CH,— CB, \CH,. CH, (XIV.) (XV.) 4?-position. This conclusion, which was based on the result of oxidation experiments, was so unexpected that it appeared desirable further to investigate the supposed 1 : 1-dimethyl-A*-tetrahydrobenzene, especially as there appeared to be a fairly easy means of deciding the point at issue. 1 Crossley and Renouf, J.C.S., 1906. 89, 1556. 2 Thid., 1905,-87, 1497, 3 Tbid., p. 1499. 108 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. If this hydrocarbon has the constitution represented by formula XV., then on treatment with bromine it would give rise to 3: 4-dibromo-l : 1-di- methylhexahydrobenzene (XVI.), which, on treatment with a reagent CH,.CH =CH Joe a CH—C ~y CMe; CHBr > CMe, CH *\cH, — CH,/ \cu, . cHY (XVL) (XVIL.) capable of removing the elements of hydrogen bromide, should yield 1 ; 1-dimethyl-***-dihydrobenzene (XVII.).! But though the hydrocarbon obtained by the action of quinoline on the dibromodimethylhexahydro- benzene had the odour and gave the colour reaction characteristic of 1 ; 1-dimethyl-A’**-dihydrobenzene, it has been proved by analysis and a study of its oxidation products to be an undoubted mixture of dimethy]l- dihydro- and dimethyltetrahydro-benzenes. Being under the misapprehension that the dibromodimethylhexahydro- benzene, from which the mixture of hydrocarbons had been prepared, was a homogeneous substance, the oxidation products expected were as-dimethylsuccinic acid, resulting from the oxidation of the dimethyldi- hydrobenzene, and /3)3-dimethyladipic acid, from the oxidation of the dimethyltetrahydrobenzene. CH,—CH CMe,< Ncupr > OMe Ncu > on cr.” \cH,. CH,” OH,. CO,H CMe CH,. CH, . CO,H. Instead there were actually obtained ua-dimethyladipic and as- dimethylsuccinic acids. This at once proved that the tetrahydrobenzene contained in the mixture of hydrocarbons must have been 1 : 1-dimethyl- A’-tetrahydrobenzene, and therefore that the supposed 1 : 1-dimethy]l- A*-tetrahydrobenzene, which formed the starting point of this investiga- tion, was not a homogeneous substance, but consisted of a mixture of 1 : 1-dimethyl-A?-tetrahydrobenzene and 1 : 1-dimethyl-A?-tetrahydro- benzene. If this were so, then on oxidation a mixture of aa- and PB-dimethyladipic acids would be obtained, and, as it had been found CH, . CO,H : +> OMe \GH,. CH,% “\cH,. CH, . CO,H CO,H CMe SoH, Z CMe CH,. CH, OH,. CH. CH,. CO,H. Q° possible, contrary to the statement of Blanc,” to separate these two acids,® a further quantity of 20 grams of dimethyltetrahydrobenzene‘ was pre- pared and oxidised with potassium permanganate.? There was uo diffi- culty in proving that the solid product obtained consisted of a mixture of aa- and /33-dimethyladipic acids, in which the latter largely predominated, thus proving definitely the correctness of the above inference regarding the composition of the substance previously described as 1 : ]-dimethyl- A3-tetrahydrobenzene. 1 J.C.S., 1902, 81, 832. * Bull. Soe. chim., 1905 [iii], 33, 889. % Crossley and Renouf, J.C.S., 1906, 89, 1552. 4 Tbid., 1905, 87, 1499. 5 Thid., p, 1502. ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 109 It follows from the above evidence that the supposed 3 : 4-dibromo- 1 : 1-dimethyl-hexahydrobenzene ! is a mixture of this substance with the corresponding 2 : 3-dibromo-derivative. When treated with quinoline the former (X VIII.) loses the elements of hydrogen bromide to give 1 : 1-dimethyl-A?*!-dihydrobenzene, which forms the main portion of the resulting mixture of hydrocarbons. But in the case of 2 : 3-dibromo- CH,. CHBr OH : CH oMexe “OHBr -¥ CMe, cu. CH,—CH, ” cH, .cH7 XVII, hte 1-dimethyl-hexahydrobenzene (XIX.) the removal of the hydrogen bro- mide cannot take place in an exactly similar manner, because the carbon CHBr.CHBr Crate cme SCH.» 2... OMe CH Oe ee i SN On CRO.” atom to which the gem-dimethy] group is attached has no hydrogen atoms in connection with it. The reaction might take place, giving rise to a sub- stance of formula XX. containing a treble bond, or the two bromine atoms might be alone removed, possibly as a quinoline bromide. The former sug- gestion does not seem probable, because, although the hydrocarbon would give aa-dimethyladipic acid on oxidation, it would he isomeric with di- methyldihydrobenzene, but analysis showed the substance to be a mixture of dimethyldihydro- and dimethyltetrahydro-benzenes. In the latter case 1 : 1-dimethyl-A?-tetrahydrobenzene would result, which would also give aa-dimethyladipic acid on oxidation, and, furthermore, its presence would be in agreement with the analytical data. Recent Work on Hydro-aromatic Substances. By Professor A. W. Crosstey. Hydrocarbons.—The ozonides of hydro-aromatic hydrocarbons ? pro- duced by the direct addition of ozone to a double bond in a six carbon ring, differ markedly from analogous derivatives obtained from open chain hydrocarbons, or from members of the aromatic series, in being very stable towards water. Thus the ozonide of 1 : 1 : 3-trimethyl-A?-tetra- hydrobenzene (cyclogeraniolene) is with difficulty acted on by water ; the ozonide of tetrahydrobenzene is slowly changed by boiling with water, yielding principally adipic acid and small quantities of adipic aldehyde, whereas the ozonide of dihydroxylene does not give any definite products. Furthermore, the ozonides of hydro-aromatic hydrocarbons show irregulari- ties in their composition, for though tetrahydrobenzene ozonide has the normal composition O,H,,)Q3, the derivative obtained from 1 : 1 : 3-tri- methyl-A?-tetrahydrobenzene appears to contain four atoms of oxygen _and to possess a double molecular weight. This alone would not preclude the use of such substances for the determination of the constitution of ’! Crossley and Renouf, J.C.S., 1905, 87, 1501. 2 Harries and Neresheimer, Ber., 1906, 39, 2846, 110 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. hydro-aromatic hydrocarbons if they were not so difficult to decompose with water. It has, however, now been ascertained that reduction of the ozonides leads to the production of the same aldehydes or ketones as would be formed by the action of water ; or, if very energetic reducing agents are employed, to the corresponding alcohols. But the method possesses the disadvantage that it is not so easy to make a quantitative estimation of the products as when the decomposition is brought about by water. Alcohols.— Scyllite, discovered in 1856, by Staedeler in certain cartila- ginous fishes, has been further examined by Miiller.'' It has the formula C,H,.0,, forms monoclinic crystals melting in the neighbourhood of 360°, is but slightly soluble in water, is optically inactive, and gives a hex- acetyl derivative. It is concluded from this evidence that scyllite is a hexahydroxyhexahydrobenzene, and is one of the inactive forms of inosite. CHOH—CHOH hy mx CHOH CHOH oN va CHOH—CHOH Ketones,—Ketohexahydrobenzene, like phloroglucinol and dihydro- resorcin, is capable of existing in two tautomeric forms, either as the ketone or as hydroxy-A!-tetrahydrobenzene, for when heated with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate? it yields the acetyl derivative of hydroxytetrahydrobenzene. The latter is a colourless oi! boiling at 180°-182° and possessing a pleasant fruity odour. It is readily oxidised by potassium permanganate, giving adipic acid, and is hydrolysed by alcoholic potassium hydroxide with regeneration of ketohexahydro- benzene. , Condensation products of a varied nature have been obtained from ketohexahydrobenzene ; thus when hydrogen chloride is passed into the pure ketone * a solid product results, having the formula C,,H,,OCI, and the probable constitution CH, \ CO—CH, CH, cH—cIc€ > H, l CH,—CH, CH, CH, ~ CH, This substance loses hydrogen chloride to form cyclohexene- cyclohexanone (X XI.), which on reduction gives the corresponding satu- rated alcohol (X XIT.). O OH Ws Aa, (XX1.) (XXII) From this latter body, by treatment with hydrogen iodide, the fully hydrogenised dicyclohexane or dicyclohexyl C,H,, .C.H,, is formed. 1 Ber., 1907, 40, 1821. 2 Mannich, Ber., 1906, 39, 1594. 3 Wallach, Ber., 1907, 40, 70. ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 111 If alcoholic sulphuric acid be used as condensing agent, then Mannich ! finds that ketohexahydrobenzene behaves similarly to acetone, yielding bodies analogous, as regards method of formation, to mesityl oxide, phorone, and mesitylene, and having the respective formule C,,.H,,0, C,,H,,0, and C,gH,,. The latter would obviously be produced from three molecules of ketohexahydrobenzene, according to the following scheme : H, H, H, He H, H, : O H, O : + 3H,0 H =r H; whee H, H, H, H, H, which shows it to contain a benzene ring and three hydrogenised benzene rings, and it would therefore be dodecahydrotriphenylene. It crystallises in compact prisms melting at 232°-233°, when oxidised with fuming nitric acid yields mellitic acid, and on distillation with zinc-dust in an atmo- sphere of hydrogen ? is converted into triphenylene, identical with the sub- stance previously described by Schmidt and Schultz? The ketones C,H,,0 and C,,H,,O0 have probably the following constitutions : Homologues of ketohexahydrobenzene can be produced by the slow distillation of the anhydrides of substituted pimelic acids, when they lose carbon dioxide. Blanc‘ has by this means prepared from /33-dimethy]- pimelic anhydride 3-keto-1 ; 1-dimethylhexahydrobenzene,* which when reduced with sodium and absolute alcohol gives 3-hydroxy-1 : 1-dimethy]- hexahydrobenzene, identical in every respect with the product obtained by Crossley and Renouf® by the reduction of chloroketodimethyltetra- hydrobenzene. 3-Keto-1 : 1 : 4-trimethylhexahydrobenzene has been pre- pared by a similar reaction. 1; 2-, 1: 3-, and 1 : 4-ketomethylhexahydrobenzenes.? 2-Chloro-1-ketohexahydrobenzene is obtained by treating ketohexa- 1 Ber., 1907, 40, 153. , * Tbid., p. 159. 3 Annalen, 1880, 208, 135. 4 Compt. rend., 1307, 144, 143. 5 Compare p. 105 of this report. ° Compare p. 104 of this report. 7 Wallach, Annalen, 1906, 346, 249. 112 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. hydrobenzene suspended in water with chlorine in presence of calcium carbonate.! When boiled with a strong solution of potassium carbonate it is converted into 2-hydroxy-1-ketohexahydrobenzene, and when treated by Grignard’s reaction yields ketomethyl-(ethyl, &c.)-hexahydrobenzene. A compound isomeric with Pinner’s xylitone is formed by the action of sodium ethoxide on a mixture of ethyl acetoacetate and phorone,? and is supposed to be 1-keto-3-isobutenyl-5 : 5-dimethyl- A *-tetrahydrobenzene, Cos cH CHL So—cu =0(CH,),. Nc(CH,),—CH/ It yields a tetrabromide, and when reduced with sodium and alcohol gives 1-hydroxy-3-isobutyl-5 : 5-dimethylhexahydrobenzene, which under the influence of phosphorus pentoxide loses water to form 3-isobuteny]- 5 : 5-dimethyl- A !-tetrahydrobenzene. Acids.—Marckwald and Meth? have further investigated 1-methyl- cyclohexylideneacetic acid, to which allusion was made in the last report.* pe eee CH,. CH C=CH.COOH. hee This acid shows the general property of an a/3-unsaturated acid, in that, when heated, it readily loses the elements of carbon dioxide to give a hydrocarbor, CyH,4, which is optically inactive and has already been proved by Wallach to be 1-methy1l-4-ethylenehexahydrobenzene. CH,—CH, CH,. cH De= CH, OH,—CH, Further, as is well known, the bromo-additive compounds of a/3-un- saturated acids readily lose carbon dioxide and hydrogen bromide to give brominated hydrocarbons :— R.CHBr.CHBr.COOH ~> R.CH:CHBr. Methyleyclohexylideneacetic acid behaves in a similar way,’ for when treated with bromine in aqueous sodium carbonate solution it is converted into 1-methyl-4-bromomethylenehexahydrobenzene, which on heating with CH,—CH, CH,.oHe «=. SO=0HBr \cu,—CH,/ water forms hexahydro-p-tolualdehyde. Perkin and Pope °® prepared their methylcyclohexylideneacetic acid by eliminating the elements of hydrogen bromide from a-bromohexahydro-p-tolylacetic acid, and, asshown by Ruppe, CH,—CH, CH,. cag cH ~CHBr—COOH CH,—CH;, Roners, and Lotz,? both a/3 and /y-unsaturated acids are formed by loss of hydrogen bromide from a-bromo acids. Marckwald and Meth suggest that 1 Bouveault und Chereau, Compt. rend., 1906, 142, 1086. 2 Knoevenagel and Schwartz, Ber., 1906, $9, 3441. 3 Ber., 1906, 39, 2035. * Reports 1906, p. 264. > Marekwald and Meth, Be7., 1906, 39, 2404. 8 Proc. C. S., 22, 107. 7 Ber., 1902, 35, 4265. ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 113 Perkin and Pope’s acid is 1-methyl A*-tetrahydrobenzeneacetic acid, and CH,—CH OH, . cue So . cH, . COOH CH,—CH,/ that the methyleyclohexylideneacetic acid, which would be produced at the same time, was overlooked on account of its extreme solubility in all organic solvents. m-Hydroxybenzoic acid can be readily reduced by sodium and alcohol ' to form cyclohexanol-3-carboxylic acid, which exists in well-defined cvs and / SHOH—CH, CH, CH . COOH New. Cn: trans modifications. When oxidised with chromic acid it is converted into cyclohexanone-3-carboxylic acid, the ethyl salt of which has been used as the starting point in the synthetical preparation of carvestrene. The method of preparing 6-ketohexahydrobenzoic acid from pentane-aye- tricarboxylic acid is very laborious, and a decided improvement has now been introduced 2 by heating the ethyl ester of the above acid with sodium, when ethyl cyclohexanone-2 : 4-dicarboxylate is formed, which, when CH, . CH, . COOC,H, C,H,COO . CHS Nou, . CH, . C0OC,H, CH,—CH, C,H, . 000. cag co CH,—CH,Z. C000,H, Q- digested with dilute sulphuric acid, is readily decomposed with formation of 6-ketohexahydrobenzoic acid, carbon dioxide, and ethyl alcohol. Confirmation of the formule assigned by Baeyer* to the different forms of dihydrophthalic acids has been furnished through the resolution of trans-A*°-dihydrophthalic acid + into two active isomerides by erys- tallising the strychnine hydrogen salt, the isomerides having [a], 126°. Baeyer stated that when treated with caustic soda the trans A*? acid was converted into the A**-variety ; and with acetic anhydride it passed the cis A*° modification. As neither of these forms contains an asymmetric carbon atom, the optical activity ought to be destroyed by treatment with these reagents. This takes place in both cases, the change from one modification to the other proving to be a unimolecular reaction under the conditions of experiment. A comparison of the electrical conductivities of a- and B-naphthoic, _ benzoic, and phthalic acids with their hydrogenised derivatives leads Abati® to the conclusion that, apart from the strongly negative character of the aromatic nucleus, the presence and position of double bonds in these acids has an undoubted influence on their conductivities, which is ‘increased by a double bond in the aa or By positions, whereas if in the aB or yd positions practically the same value is obtained as for the corresponding saturated acids. The author considers this to be contrary to the declarations of Fichter and Pfister,® and does not consider that 1 Perkin and Tattersall, J.C.S., 1907, 91, 480. 2 Kay and Perkin, ibid., 1906, 89, 1640. § Annalen, 1892, 269, 145. 4 Neville, J.C.S., 1905, 89, 1744. 5 Cent. Biatt., 1907, 1, 886. ® Annalen, 1904, 334, 201. 1907. I 114 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. constitutional formule should be assigned from the results of single rea¢- tions, as has been done by Perkin and Pickles ' in the case of the tetra- hydroisophthalic acids. Abati and Minerva” have isolated hydrophthalic acids by the reduction of phthalic acid with sodium amalgam, and give the principal properties of these acids and their anhydrides. Steric Hindrance in the Formation of Rings.—The interaction of the 1 : 4-dibromides and primary aromatic amines has been previously shown by Scholtz * to take place in one or two ways, according as to whether the primary amine contains a substituting group in the ortho position or not. Thus with o-xylylene dibromide and aniline or m- and p toluidine a five- ring compound, is formed :— OH,Br FN C,H, +H.N.CH, = CHX ">N.OH, + 2HBr, Ncu,Br CH,“ whereas when o-toluidine is used an open chain substance results :— CH,.NH.C,H,.CH, 2 OHS + 9H,N.C,H,.CH,. = C,H \cuH,Br K + 2HBr. CH,.NH.C,H,.CH, The reaction has now been extended to the formation of six-ring systems, where the condensation of numerous substances has shown that exactly similar conditions hold good: for o-toluidine condenses with pentamethylene dibromide to give pentamethylene-di-o-toluidine, (CH,);.(NH.C,H,.CH;)., whereas with m- or p-toluidine there is formed m- or p-tolylpiperidine. Optical Influence of Conjugated Unsaturated Groups.—Kay and Perkin ® have shown that the magnetic rotation of d-limonene differs from that of A®*-p-menthadiene, of which the value is abnormally high, and they expressed the belief that this was due to the presence of two conjugated double bonds. Bruhl® points out that this is correct, and that the high value could have been predicted with certainty, for Bruhl’s previous work has proved that the numbers for the magnetic rotations and refractive values of substances are always largely increased by the presence of conjugated double linkings, not only C: C.C: C but also C:C.C:0O. Only benzene derivatives, which contain monovalent atoms or groups substituting hydrogen atoms of the ring, give normal values, and here it is presumed that the three double bonds mutually neutralise one another. As soon as the symmetry of the six carbon atoms is disturbed by the introduction of CH, between the members of the ring, or by coupling the ring with other unsaturated groups, such as C : C, C: 0, NO,, &c., then the characteristic increase in value due to the con- jugated bonds is shown. Velocity of Chemical Change in the Polymethylene Series.—The follow- ing may be quoted as some of the more important general results of the 1 J.0.8,, 1905, 87, 293. 2 Cent. Blatt., 1907, 1, 887. 8 Ber., 1898, 81, 414, 627, 1154, 1707; and 1899, 32, 848. 4 Scholtz, Ber., 1907, 40, 852. 5 J.C.8., 1906, 89, 839. 8 J.C.S., 1907, 91, 115. See also Ber., 1907, 40, 878. ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES, Hel bes: study of polymethylene derivatives in respect to the velocity of chemical change.! The formation of the closed polymethylene ring from an open chain of normal structure proceeds with increase of velocity, the maximum occur- ring in the formation of the pentamethylene ring, decreasing through the hexamethylene, to the minimum increase in the case of the hepta- methylene ring. The increase of velocity at the closing of the open chain is not a specific property of the polymethylene ring, but is observed in the formation of all rings, alicyclic and heterocyclic. The secondary polymethylene alcohols, in which the hydroxyl group is attached to the carbon atom of the ring, are typical secondary alcohols. Their esterifica- tion constants are higher than those of the normal saturated secondary alcohols ; derivatives of cyclopentanol giving the highest, cyclohexanol much lower, and cycloheptanol the lowest values. The esterification con- stants of polymethylene tertiary alcohols are very low, but esterification proceeds regularly. This is characteristic of phenols, and does not occur with saturated tertiary alcohols. When side chains are present in the ortho or diortho positions a great decrease in the esterification constants is observed, an effect commonly ascribed to the benzene ring alone, but in reality a general property of all chains. Side chains in positions 3 or 4 of the polymethylene series produce an increase of the constants ; and as open chain compounds show no such increase of velocity, this provides an important characteristic of closed chains. When a hexamethylene ring is introduced into the open chain of an alcohol, the decrease of the esterification constants is much larger than is effected by the benzene ring. ' Menschutkin, J.C.S., 1906, 89, 1532. 12 116 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor (Chair- man), Dr. MarsHaLL Watts (Secretary), Sir NorMAN LocKYER, Professor Sir James Dewar, Professor G. D. Livetna, Professor A. ScHusTER, Professor W. N. Hartiey, Professor WoLcotr Gisps, Sir W. DE W. Apney, and Dr. W. E. ADENEY. STANDARD LINES. Buisson and Fabry, ‘ C.R.,’ cxliii. p. 165 (1906) ; cxliv. p. 1155 (1907). Perot and Fabry, ‘ C.R.,’ exxxiii. p. 153 (1901). Kayser, ‘ Ann. d. Physik ’ (4), iti. p. 195 (1900). Eversheim, ‘ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Photographie,’ v. 152 (1907). Wave-lengths in dry air at 15° C. and 760 mm. | : Ease Perot and Fabry Kayser Mae erisere. TeontAre Solar Spectrum Iron Are | Rowland 6494-994 6495-209 | 6471-666 Ca 71-885 30°859 31-063 08-027 Fe 08-231 6393-612 | 6393°818 35°342 | 6335°346 | 35-550 22°706 Fe 22-912 18-029 18-242 6265-147 6265-347 30°732 6230-746 30°946 6191-569 6191-770 6151°639 | 51:834 37°700 | 6065-493 6065°506 6065-708 27-059 27-265 | 16:650 Mn 16-856 03-039 | 03-245 5987-081 Fe | 5987-286 5952-739 | 34-683 34:666 | 34-883 5892°882 Ni | | 5893-098 | 5862-368 Fe | | 62-580 57:760 Ni | 05-211 Ni 05-448 5763-013 5763-004 5763-215 60°843 Ni 15-095 | 15-309 09-396 09-616 5658-835 | 15-658 5615-879 Note.-—The wave-lengths now given by Buisson and Fabry rest on the value 6438-4696, determined by Benoit, Fabry, and Perot for the red line of Cadmium, and those of Perot and Fabry on Michelson’s value 5085°8240 for the Cadmium green line. ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES O¥ THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 117 STANDARD LINES—continucd. ms Perot and Fabry Kayser Fpaveus aera sa | linyaulle Solar Spectrum Tron Arc oe aia 5586-770 5586°778 5586-991 69-632 69-848 35-418 06-783 06-794 07:000 5497-521 5497-536 5497-731 55-621 55°826 34°530 34-544 34°742 09-800 Cr | nee 05-780 | 05-98 5371-498 5371-686 5367°485 Fe gob 45°820 45:99 24-196 24°373 02-316 5266-568 5266°729 §247.587 47°737 47063 47:°259 32°958* ) 33°124 5192-362 | 5171-622 Fe 5171-783 67°492 67-686 27°364 27:530 23°739 | 23°889 10-415 10-570 5090-787 Fe | 5090-959 5083-343 . . 49:827 50-008 12-072 01-880 01°881 02°044 4966-104 4923-943 Fe | 4924-109 19-006 | 19-183 03-324 . | 03-488 4878:°226 59°756F 4859-758 | 4859-934 23°521 Mn 23-697 4789°657 4783°449 | 4783-601 54-046 Mn 54-226 36-785 36°800 | | 36-963 07°287 | 04:960 05°131 4678°855 | 4679-028 74:437 4643-483 43-645 02°944 4592-658 47°854 317155 4494-572t 4494-755 4494-735 (-756 in are) | 89-929 84-420 76°207 } | 69-566 66°554 66°737 | * Eversheim, 5232-9630. { Idem, 4859-7613. ft Jdem, 4494-5812. 11 8 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. STANDARD LINES— continued. ce and Perot and Fabry | Kayser pag Solar Spectrum Iron Are Tron Arce Previous Measurements (Solar Spectrum) Rowland 4461-838 54-572 47-907 42-522 30-801 4427-314 | 27-490 15°301 04-929 4391-137 83-724 4375-935* 76-104 69-954 67-759 58-689 52-741 52-910 46-739 37-219 25-941 15-089 15-255 09:542 4299-420 94-290 91-631 85-614 4282-407} 82-567 71-933 71-333 60-656 | 50-948 50-299 47604 45-423 38-980 36-118 33-615 33-771 27-606 22-387 19-523 10°521 02-195 4199-256 4191-441 91-611 87-221 81-918 75-799 71-069 54-662 47°677 44-033 37:156 34-685 18-552 18-709 14-608 07-646 4098-346 967135 * Eversheim, 4375:9435. 4447-899 (-912 in are) _ 15-299 (-298 in arc) 04-927 (-928 in arc) 4391-149 83-721 76-103 (-108 in arc) 69-948 (in arc) 52-908 25°932 4271-920 60°647 50-949 50°300 22°396 02-187 4199-257 14-600 (in sun) + Idem, 4282°4125. — | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 119 STANDARD LINES—continued. Buisson and Fabry Tron Are Perot and Fabry Solar Spectrum Kayser Tron Are Previous Measurements (Solar Spectrum) Rowland 4076°641 21°872 3977°745 35-818 06-481 3865°526 43-261 4084-166 79-999 71-901 68-138 63°755 62-605 55-706 45-978 44-776 32°796 30°670 22-029 17°303 07-429 3998-211 96-148 86-330 84°112 77892 69-411 66-219 56823 56-610 48-927 45-269 41-032 35-966 28-073 23-059 20-404 18-467 16-880 13-784 09-980 06-624 03-097 3899°853 95-801 93-538 87:193 86-426 78°722 78°166 72-640 65°670 60-054 56°515 50-114 41:194 40-586 34:370 33-463 27:967 26-028 24:591 20°573 4071-903 63°755 62-602 (in sun) 55-701 .; ) 45-975 3977-891 (in sun) 41-034 28-060 16-886 3886-421 60-050 56°517 (in sun) 40-589 27:973 26-024 20:566 120 REPORTS ON THE “STATE OF SCIENCE. STANDARD LINES—continued. Buisson and Previous Measurements Fabry Perot and Fabry Kayser eanee | Solar Spectrum Teanused (Seer ae | 3815:987 3815-984. 13°202 06°847 3805°346 05-487 01°822 3799-694 3799-698 98-656 98-662 95:149 95-150 90-242 88-031 88-032 78°670 76°606 70°452 67°339 67-344 63°940 63°942 58-381 58-379 3753615 49-634 49-633 45-710 45-701 43°510 43-502 37278 37-282 35-016 35-075 33°470 33°467 32°541 39-542 31:102 27°769 27-763 24°346 24-527 22-710 22-691 20-083 20-086 09-395 09-397 07:199 07°186 05-714 05-711 02:180 | | 3695-202 9696-194 87:609 87-607 | 83-205 83-202 80°062 80-064 3677°628 76461 69-674 59-673 55°625 51-615 50°429 47°997 47:995 ee ic 40-541 40-536 32°195 31:617 31-619 30°506 22°158 22-147 18-918 18-924. 17:944 17-920 17:474 12°242 12-217 09-011 09-015 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 121 | oe me Perot and Fabry Tron Are Solar Spectrum 3606-681 3556°879 13-820 3485°344 45°155 3399°337 70°789 Kayser Tron Are 3606-836 05-619 3599-781 94:767 87°137 85-478 81:348 70:257 65°535 58672 53°898 45°793 40:287 36694 29-960 26°822 26196 21°415 13°974 08-663 08-627 06-650 00-716 3497-989 90-721 85-496 83-159 76-850 75600 71:497 71:413 66-006 60-067 58:454 50-484 45-301 44-025 41138 40-762 27°263 24-430 18-649 13-275 06-938 06-578 3399-468 977117 94-721 89-882 84-113 80-242 78814 67-675 66-993 66-917 55-355 STANDARD LINES—continued. Previous Measurements (Solar Spectrum) Rowland 3606°831 05-635 3581°344 70:225 65:528 58-670 40-266 44-032 41-135 40-759 06-955 06-581 3389°887 27-282 (3427-279 in arc) | | | 122 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, STANDARD LINES—continued. Buisson and Fabry Tron Are | Perot and Fabry | Solar Spectrum Kayser Tron Are Previous Measnremenits (Solar Spectrum) Rewland 3323°739 3271-003 25-790 3175-447 25-661 3351-882 48-056 42-340 42-034 37-793 28-992 25-589 17-251 14-868 06-479 06-106 3298-263 92-721 86:884 84-720 80-386 71°129 65-746 57°724 53043 48-332 46-617 44-308 39°564 31-091 28-379 25-905 22°187 16-057 14-158 12-112 10-953 05-513 00-595 3199-638 93-423 92-921 91-778 88-947 85-015 78°122 75556 71°743 66°551 65-129 62-064 60-764 57°157 51:460 44-096 42:565 40-503 32°627 25°770 19-609 16-747 12-183 3351°877 48-011 06-471 06-117 3225-923 22-203 14:152 (in ar2> — soo oe ON WAVE-LENGTH ‘TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. Buisson and Fabry Tron Are 3030152 2987°293 41:347 12°157 ' Perot and Fabry Kayser Z Solar Spectrum | eon Are Goat Freon 3100-778 3100-779 (in arc) 00-418 00-415 —,, 00-057 00:064 =, 3095-013 3095003 91°687 83°853 83°849 (in arc) 75°830 75'849 68-286 67-363 67:363 (in arc) 64-042 59-202 59-200 (in arc) 57-562 57°557 sy, 51:179 47-719 47-720 (in arc) 41-860 41°753 37°505 37:492 31°753 25°960 25958 (in arc) 24°153 24154, 21°194 21°191_~—s«s 20°764 20°759 si, 20°619 20-611 _—,, 19-105 19: 17°747 17-747 (in arc) 16°305 16:296_,, 09-690 09°696 sy, 08°254 08:255 iy, 07:409 07-408 sy, 07-262 07:260 ss, 01-068 O1:070 9755 2999-630 2999:632_—si,, 94-554 94:547 —,, 90°51] 87°410 87-410 (in arc) 83:690 83:689 __,, 81565 81:570 sy, 76°253 73°366 73°358 (in arc) 73-254 73-254, 70-227 70-233 67-019 67-0167 |; 65:379 65:381 57-484 57-485, 54-061 54:058 48:557 47-996 47-993 (in arc) 41°462 37:030 37:020 (in arc) 29°119 291205 55 26-699 23-409 18-144 12-273 12-275 (in arc) | 07-630 01-496 2899-531 Pp STANDARD LINES—continued. 123 Sass Previous Measurements 124 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. STANDARD LINES—continued. Buisson and Previous Measurements Perot and Fabry Kayser : iets | Solar Spectrum Tron Arc Coe 2894-617 90-000 87:920 80°867 77°414 2874176 74:284 69-418 63-973 59-007 51-800 51:910 2851-904 48°828 44-083 44-085 (in arc) 43-742 43-144 ,, 38°231 38-226, 35562 32°543 32-545 (in are) 25-803 25-660 25-667 (in arc) 23°382 23°389 ss, 17°612 13-290 13°391 13-388 (in are) 07-088 04:622 2797-877 91-989 88-207 2788-201 (in are) 81°936 81-945, 2778225 78°327 78-340 _,, 72°205 72206 ,, 68-621 68:°630 __,, 62°125 G2°T10y > 61-883 61876 |, 57-413 . 56-412 56-427 (in are) 55°834 55°837 2 50-238 50:237 ss 47-080 46-580 45°177 44-624 44-163 | 42-506 42-485 ,, 42-349 39-550 39°639 37-407 37:405 (in arc) | 35°566 | 88-978 33-973, 30°832 28°914 25°024 | 23°671 23-668 (in are) | 20°997 20:989 | 19-121 19-179 | 5 18-530 14-419 | 14-503 | 08-663 06°672 06°684 (in arc) 2699-193 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 125 STANDARD LINES—continued. — i eon ae Perot and Fabry | Kayser Tron Are Solar Spectrum Tron Are Previous Measurements (Solar Spectrum) Rowland 2690-153 | 89-302 80°544 2679-065 79°148 2679-148 (in arc) 73°315 69-581 66°897 56-232 51-800 47-649 44-085 35°899 31°139 31-125 (in arc) 28-296 28-383 25-754 23°627 20-499 18:108 17°706 | 13°914 | 11-963 11-965 (in are) | 07°155 | 06-920 2599-663 99-483 2599-494 (in arc) 98-456 98-460 ,, | 2588-016 88-102 85-964 | 84-623 84-629 (in arc) | 82-408 | 78-012 | 75°845 | | | | 74-462 67-001 62°541 62619 ' 56:963 51-192 49-708 49-704 (in arc) 46-072 46-068 _,, 44-016 42-192 | 41-064 41-058 (in arc) 37°263 35°699 35-648 33-911 29-928 29-223 28516 Si 28-599 Si 27°525 27-530 ,, 24-393 23°754 22-950 22-948 (in arc) 18-198 18-188 17-754 11:857 10-927 10-934 (in arc) {07-991 06-904 Si 06-944 Si 3° 126 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. STANDARD LINES—continued. Buisson and Fabry Tron Are | Perot and Fabry Solar Spectrum | 2435:159 Si 13:310 2373-737 | Kayser Tron Are Previous Measurements (Solar Spectrum) Rowland 2501-228 2496-625 93°331 91-249 90°737 89-844 88-232 87:155 84-280 83°618 83°361 79-872 74:906 72:976 72°436 68-974 65°244 62-740 62-279 57-686 53-568 47-808 42-658 40-201 39834 38°274 31-126 24:231 13393 11°152 10-601 06-742 04-969 04519 2399-322 95-709 90-058 88-711 84:473 83-324 82114 80-840 79°355 75:273 73°813 68-670 64-904 59:187 54-969 48-380 48-196 43-567 32°869 31-384 27-468 2501-223 (in arc) 2491-244 (in arc) 90°723 5, 89-838, 88-238 _—s, 84-283 (in arc) 83:359 sy, 19:371 > ss 72-974 (in arc) 62-743 (in arc) 57-680 (in arc) 47-785 (in arc) 10-604 (in are) 06-743, 04:971 ,, 2399-328 (in arc) 95°715 sy, 88-710 (in arc) 82-122 (in arc)} 73-771 (in are) 64-897 48-385 (in arc) 43-571 (in arc) ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMEN'Is. 127 Tripium. Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitz. kais, Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ civ. 909, 1895; cv. 503, 1896. Kayser, ‘ Abhandl. k6nigl. Wissensch. Berlin,’ 1897. Exner and Haschek, ‘ Wellenlingen-Tabellen der Bogenspektren der Elemente,’ Leipzig und Wien, 1904. Lohse, ‘ Astrophys. Obs. Potsdam,’ xii. (1902). Adeney, ‘ Photogsaphs of Ultra-violet Spark-spectra,’ ‘Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc.’ (2), vii. 331. | aS Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Reduction : Sat i --.7.|, = wacnum eee Wave-length | | wrasvex length il Oscillation Intensity | | Intensity —__________| Frequency Exner and | ee Exner and eee | 1 a ee Kayser Waschek Character Tabhok (Character A+ a | = = — = = 125 re =he 5894-324 | 2 | 1:61 | 4:6 | 16960- 9 5625°772 3 | 153 | 48 | 17770°5 20-266 | 1 Wace seit 88-0 5469°648 1 | 1-49 | 5:0 18277°7 54-724 | 2 | Pa 33 18324°4 { 49-716 | 4 SS - 44-6 | 5364-507 2 | 1-47 | 5:1 | 18656-0 } 57-081 0 1:46 eg 61:8 H 40-932 1 3 3 18718-2 5239-091 1 1-43 | 5:2 19082-1 5178°128 1 1-42 | 5:3 19306°7 5050-001 | 0 1:38 | 5-4 19796°6 46-227 0 | = re 19811-4 09°323 0 | 1:37 | 5°5 19957°3 02°874 1 | tert te: 83:0 4999-898 2 | 99 94-9 70°629 0 1:36 93 20112°7 39°311 | 0 1:35 | 56 20240°1 38-225. | 1 93 » 446 4845°539 0 1:33 | 5-7 | 20631°8 40934 | 2 1:32 3 51°5 09-636 2 ease rs 20785:9 07:302 | 0 3 96:0 4795827 | 3 ESS taal ne 20845-8 78°330 | 4 58 20922°0 58°107 | 2 1:30 AS 21011:0 56-613 4 »» » 17°6 327014 1 55 21126°8 29-005 4 1:29 + 40°3 09-034 2 a se 21230-0 02-751 0 ees 59 58-2 4696-0 1 eae FE 21289: 94:0 1 oS 98- 92°7 1 1:28 =) 21304: 83°8 1 os - 44: | 83-0 1 2 ” 48: 81:5 1 a es 55> | 78°6 1 es 35 68- | 74:2 In sy 3 89- | 73-4 In Es * 92: | 72-0 In 45 Bs 98- | 714 | In Ws » | 21401: | OSrg sl sila) ees eee 09: | | 69-4 lu 3 . 10: 128 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IrIDIUM—continued. Arc Boga Spark eas Rediictioawe (ies = . Vacuum Wave- ieee Wave- length | ah ie ay Bid. 23 an | an Kayser | 2e00r ond [Gharnoter Benen and Character A+ 4 | | | 4665-0 In | 1:28! 59 | 56°5 1 ” ” 4656°329 4 | 3 a | 559 =| In s . | | 55°4 In | ” ” 54:9 In ) ee | + | 54:4 In ” | ”? | 50°7 1 FF sh 40-231 ere 40°3 In Wyola, Name 27°5 In gute 6:0 | 16°549 4616°55 4 16°6 2 De260)|| Wiss | 14342 0 iT 2 | 04-7 1 ” ” | | 4586°5 In z me | 85-7 In ” ” | 84:5 In 33 + ) | 82-0 1 ” ” | / 79:5 In DBs ss 705 | In oe Nae 4570183 2 7071 1 om wees 68°246 4568°30 3n 68:2 2 “F “5 65:0 In ‘9 61 64:2 1 ” » 61-0 1 ” ” 58°7 1 9 3 | 58-0 1 Ce | 54°72 1 54:7 1 ss; alles: | 54:2 1 a3) sheets | 525 In ik ass | 50°941 2 50°9 1 re re 48-645 48-64 3n 48°7 2 35 a | 45°837 45-84 3 45°8 2 Bs a 43°0 1 12a eas 42:4 1 ” | ” / | 39°3 1 » » 38819 | eae et | 38-7 1 a | * | 34:5 1b ” ” 33:003 2 33°0 1 E | 55 | 15:3 Tn | Gee sPe ees / 14°4 Ite es = | 12:0 1 ” ” | 11:0 1b ot a 09:0 | In = 3 05-7 In 1:23 - 05:1 In 5 ay Ol he ln B a ! O10 In $3 . 4496-200 1 449671 1 5 6:2 95°525 4495°52 2 95-4 2 a a 92-333 1 92°3 1 » » | 91523 | 2 91-4 2 a > | 54:0 ln ” ” | 82:1 i ond ie 78649 | 78°65 3 78-4 4 heen i 70-5 in 4 Oscillation __| Frequency in Vacuo | 21544°8 21604 21655°2 22208: 11: 348 38:2 53°9 58°U 95° 22305: 22:0 63°} ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. IRIDIUM —continued, Wave-length Kayser 4452-987 50°346 49-540 26-459 25°936 227121 11°344 06-926 03°952 4399-645 92-758 80°930 77-175 76°575 62-289 52°720 51:462 32-490 30-060 1907. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Medudtion to aaa) sot kan os Sey | Vacuum _ | Wave-length ; <—s Tntensrty| ee See cuteness = : and an Bos oe Character Haney ate Character) A+ 3 = 4467-4 Ib | 1:22 | 6-2 66'8 1 a3 2 60:0 1 by) ” 58-2 1 fe 99 iI 52°9 1 on FP 52°7 In a Be 51:4 1 + Pe 50-9 1 > 9 4450°41 In = me 2 50°2 1 5 “ 0 99 9? 44-0 In ”? 9 43:1 1 es 35 26°45 5 26°5 4 1:21 | 63 0 29 ” 1 22:0 1 55 Be 21-3" In = a 2 11:2 1 - nt 10°5 il * s 0 06:9 1 - 3 03°98 3 04:0 2; s a 01-4 1 ze s 4399°68 4 399-7 6 F AS 92°80 2 92°8 1 1:20 Fy 90:4 In 3 re 88°5 1 oS Pp 88:1 1 - Ps 81-2 In * fr 80°4 1 FF A 80:0 1 rf Fr 3 17:2 1 Ae aa 0 76°6 1 - Fr 74:9 1 * = 73°8 In 2 se 73:0 In 5 = 72°3 1 Ae i 72:0 In a i 69:2 In E aS 1 As 6-4 61°3 1 * 3 60°9 1 : 33 60°2 i! ae 35 59-6 il 7 a 58-4.’ In 5 5 55°8 In 1:19 > 54°3 In 3 eS 53°5 1 43 Fr 2 52°7 1 - 3 1 ”? ” 48:1 In = AA 43°7 1b soit eee 42°2 In PF A 39°6 lb a ma 0 »” ”? 0 30:0 1 = a 129 | Oscillation | Frequency in Vacuo 130 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IRIDIUM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length Kayser 4316-456 11669 10-750 05°359 01-776 00802 4286°776 69-101 68:251 66:532 65°450 62:051 61-408 59-280 57°528 43-944 41:198 40°644 30°486 23°327 20:950 18-428 18-243 17-908 12°383 Exner and Haschek Intensity and Character Wave-length Exner and | Intensity an ‘Hadehek Character 431168 10°76 06-10 01-79 4286°79 68°25 65°47 59:26 21-25 BSworm oooo 4328°8 24:7 a Sioa eae PB fm ee et ee et et oa tl ell coll ell So Melee el | Reduction to Vacuum Ld A+ 7 1:19 | 6°4 ” 7 1:18 5 ” 29 ” 99 ” > 99 9 99 ” ; 6°5 ” 9 ” ” ” ” 29 > be ” 39 99 ” ” 39 | 99 3 | 39 EN y/ 9 99 99 29 > > ”? 2? 99 9 9 99 9 99 | 99 99 99 29 29 ” > ? j 7 ” | 2° Prk keke ”? > ” | 2 1:16 cf Oscillation Frequency | in Vacuo ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. TRI DIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Wav Kayser 4212-197 00:031 4182°626 72°736 66-224 15-957 4092°767 82°542 peleneth Haschek 4200-07 4182-62 72°81 66°22 55:90 15°95 04°35 4092-79 | _ Intensity! and imate and (Char acter | Wave- feneth Exner and Haschek 0 In In gia Spectrum _| Intensity’ and Character; ebb ee ee (=m =] a ee bo bo feet fae fe ed fe fed td feet et et et ND =] foe fad feed et ed et ed Vacuum aa ee A 116 | 66 ” ” 3° ” 99 ” ” ” Loi tis 5 oA ” 6-7 9 99 ” 3° ” 9 ” +) ) 99 °° 39 3° ” ” 1:14 PP. 99 ”? ” ” 99 3”? 99 ”? 3 ” ” 9 ” ” 39 99 99 ” 99> ” oS 6:8 9 ” 9 39 9 9 ers 53 ” ” 3° ” 99 ” ” ” 33 ” 99 ” 29 39 ” > 99 3? ” ” 99 ” ” 9 39 °° > ” 9 3” > 3° 9 99 99 9 TE DF 6:9 ” ”? ” 9° ” 99 > 99 ” ”> Reduction to | 131 | Oscillation | Frequency | in Vacuo 23734: 0 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IRIDIUM—continued. Wave-length Are Spectrum Kayser Exner and Haschek Spark Spectrum Intensity and Character Wave-length Exner and Haschek 4081-564 80°737 75°7174 72°532 70°822 70-067 59°377 56-620 55-833 51°538 51-071 48-782 40°578 40-224 33°923 20°194 4080-75 75°76 70°88 70°10 59°43 56°65 50°81 40°24 33°91 20°20 Oo bo bo bo io) In wwe 4081-5 80°6 78°2 75°7 72°4 70°7 70:0 68°5 68-2 66°8 65:0 64:4 62°5 62:1 59:3 59-2 56-9 56:5 55°7 55-4 54:1 53°8 53°2 51:9 51:5 51:0 47°6 47-1 46°6 45:2 44-0 43-2 41-4 40°3 33'8 32:2 316 31:0 30°5 29°4 25°5 22°1 21:6 20:0 16:6 15:7 15°3 13:8 11°6 11:3 09-0 Intensity an Character Riedl at > ee GDS LD | ee lll el Bp 5 ee ee ODD Sor) Reduction to Vacuum 1 A+ Xr 12 | 6:9 ” ” ” ” 2” ” ” ” ” ” 2? 2” 22 ”? ” 3 2”? ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” | ” 111 “ ” ” 2 » ” ” ” ” » 7-0 ”? ” ” ” ” ” ” 3 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 2” ”? ” ” ” ” 9 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 2 2 ” ”? ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:10 a ” ” ” ” 2” ” ” ” Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 24493-5 98-5 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 133 IRIDIUM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Heanor te aa 5 SSeS V ane Wave-length 2 _ | Wave-length : ie late a aS ; __ | Intensity! fii) intensity) =o — ‘requency : Exner and = Exner and ee 1 neh grees Kayser Fnackok \Character) “Ty, schek Character} A+ we 4008°5 1 110 | 70 | 24940- | 07:9 1 43 + 44: 07°5 1 a ¥ 46° 06-7 - 1 ” ” 51 06°3 1 = Be 54: 4005°717 1 05-6 1 » | oo 57°3 05-164 4005-19 In 05:0 1 er _ 60°7 02-0 1 - ell 81- 01's - In 3 ay 82 00-6 1b 2” ” 89 3999-0 In SS Pe 99- 3996-602 0 96-6 1 a 7 25014-2 95:9 1 FS a5 19- 92-277 3992-30 5 92-2 6 me 33 41:2 90°5 1 33 i 53° In1pIuM—continued. | Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Hidndkion ta Wave-length Wave- Wave- tT? Oscillati amet [Tatee-| lngib [Tate tones | Take | ————— regency sity ea Or sity | teats) ee ‘ E and | » and and 1 in Vacuo Kayser on! a ee Cha) Tanse pa a is 4 | Haschek racter Hacchere racter racter | 3989:575 2 1:10 | 7-1 | 25058: 3989-2 1 ” | ” \ 61: 87-963 2 88:0 | I mt B 68-4 | 87:5 ) 1 ” ” 7A 865 1 a eines 78° 85-003 2 850, 1 5 = 87:0 84:1 | 1 | 3 a 93- 83:7; I pe ye clatl 95- 81:2} in a 5 25111- 800 1 Ne 19° 796, 1 53. LA es 21° 79°3 1 3 cA 23° 789 | 1 99 9 26° 78°6 1 x + 27° 78°240 0 783 | 1 sg a 29°6 TIO A 9 i eeH SEE 76-466 3976-49 | 5 765 | 6 see Hs | 40:8 75°8 1 1-09 ” 45 75°5 1 9 ” 47 73:3 | 2 Lig se 6L- 703 | 1 a Bs 80: | | 3969°35 | 0:3 ss Tl Mites 859 | . 676 1 | » 97° : 66-5 | 1 66-52 ‘ | 26203-9 | 66-2 1 ” ” 06° L 65:0 1 a i 14: 134 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Irtp1IuM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wavye-length Inten- ee | Inten- bias 27 oh sity Bity os | ees pan ont ae one. ae ayser | an an | Lohse 4 Haschek | aoe Haschek raptor 39645 1 3963°78 3962-926 2 63-0 1 63-00 61:66 61°24 60°6 1 60-63 59°03 | 56°8 1 56°262 | 0 56°09 54-60 0 52°7 1 52°85 52°099 | 3952-15 1 52:0 | 4 52°12 52:1 1 50°259 0 50°34 48-459 48°47 In 49°42 48°45 46-420 46-40 | 4 464) 4 46°44 45°7 1 45°74 45°22 44:534 44:52 In 44:5 1 44-50 44°534 44:52 In 44:5 1 44:50 43-4 1 42°83 42°15 41-242 0 41:2 1 38°5 In 38°70 Soa) LE 36°6 In 35-005 34:99 3 35:0 | 4 35°00 34-063 2u 34:0 2 32°3 1 31:903 0 32:0 1 31:93 31°34 29-0 i 28°6 1 28°55 27-28 26:05 In 2671 1 26:07 25°5 1 25°35 24:573 24°55 In 24°6 1 24-66 24:1 1 23-634 23°63 1 23°7 1 23°63 23°10 2171 1 21:02 19°25 18°3 th 168 1 15°538 15°53 3 15°6 6 15°53 15°055 15:06 1 15-1 1 15:08 | 14:5 1 14°46 14:0 1 13°4 1 Inten- | sity ss and | Cha- racter Faeroe. ww Owan Peouss =] i=] wWwnwarwry oS 90 S999H999 ee ne) 229 29 999 9 a one _ _ ry orwe oon me n> Reduction to Vacuum 1 — A+ A 109 | 71 ” ” 3” 9° > ” 39 ” 29 99 ”° ”° ” | 39 99 7:2 > 99 9° ” 2° ”° ” ” ” ” 9° > 93 93 9 9 9 ” > ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”° ” ” \ 99 > 9 ”> 99 9 ” 39 ” 1:08 | ,, | Oscillation Frequency ~, in Vacuo 25307-4 13-0 19-2 — == -”- * vr ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 135 TriplIuM—continued. Are Spectrum / Spark Spectrum Wave-length Inten- babes | Inten- oe _Inten- ans ALiy: seebeicel ee) wR BIG, cates eaity: and and | and E Exner | Cha- ) Exner | (ho- | Cha Kayser Hawhek racter Hadchok | racter Lohse | racter | 39126 | In 3912-23 | 0-6b Wes 1 11-2 1 10°6 1 09-7 1 3909-219 0 09:25 | 0°5 07:6 In 07°85 | 0:2b 06:9 In 06°5 06-0 1 05°64 | 0:2 04:3 In 04:48 | O-In 02-807 | 3902-78 2 02:97 02-632 | 02°65 4 02-7 8 02:68 | 2:0 01°5 In 01°82 | O1 01:40 | O-1 01:0 1 00-95} 0-2 00:0 In 3899°37 | 0:3 99-06 | O-In 3898°5 In 98°57 | O-In 97:99 | O-In 97-40 | O-In 96°61 | O-In 95°6 6 95-73 | 3 95:07 | O-3n 94:0 In 94-0 In 94-00 | O-In 93°49 | O-ln 93-0 In | 92-2 In 92°32 | 0-4 92°14 | 0-4 91°56 | O71 90°3 1 90°39 | O-ln 3889-715 | 0 89-6 i 89:72 | 0-2 89-1 1 87:5 1 87°88 , O-In | 86-0 1 85:5 1 85°58 | O-1 84:7 1 84°86 | O-In 84:3 In 84:29 | O-In 83°3 In 82-5 In 82:44 | 0-6b 81:0 In 80°89 | O-In 79°6 1 79:19 | O-In 78:0 1 77:46 | O-In alae 76:93 | 0-4 75:5 In 75:93 | O-lb 75:0 | 1 137 | 4 73°74 | O-5b Vacuum te At+ x 1:08 | 7:2 ” ” ”? 2” 9 ” 2? ” 9 3 ” WEB: Reduction to | Oscillation | Frequency in Vacuo 25553°7 57° 99- 25807°5 Are Spectrum REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Kayser Wave-length Haschek | ! 3873-28 | Inten- sity and Cha- racter 2Co? TRIDIUM—continued. | Wave- length Exner Spark Spectrum Inten- sity and Cha- racter | Reduction to Wayve- Vacuum Py length Inten- Oscillation See |. sity 26 ____| Frequency and | in Vacuo Cha- 1 Lohse | racter | A+ alee 3873-31 | 0:5 | 107 | 73 | 258105 71:94 | O-In ea 2 19°5 ” ” 20- ” ” 26: 70-22 | 0-2n en es 31-0 69°66 03 9 ” 34:8 | ” ” 39° ” ” 41- 68-00 0-4 ” ” 46-1 65-78 1-0 ” 3 60°8 64-73 | 0-3n i Me 67-7 63°68 | O-In a y 74:8 ” ” 79° 62°85 | 0-4 ns eo 80-3 62°16 | 0°5b - a 85-0 ” ” 85- 61-44 0-2n ” ” 89°8 60°84 | OIn| ,, “ 93-8 57-71 1-2 ” ” 25914°8 56°62 | O-5n | 1-06 = 99-1 56°25 | 0:2 a Be 24-6 54°87 O-In ” ” 33°9 54-12 | O-In As e 39-0 ” ” 49- ” ” 61- 50°58 | 0-3n - ¥ 628 7 ory 66- 49:00 | O-4A ae os 73-5 48°31 0-In ” ” 78:1 47-41 0-2n ” ” 84:2 46°82 O-In ” 2” 88-2 46-07 0-2n ” ” 93°3 45°16 O-In ” ” 99-4 ” ” 26003- 43:05 | 0-2n 2 * 13°7 ” 23 15- ” ” 19- ” ” 22: ’ ” ile 39°15 0-5b ” ” 40°1 37°86 0-1 ” ” 48-9 36°21 O-ln | ” ” 60°1 ” ” 63- aDe0. he Oren e| eee. Fe 66°5 34:06 | O1 i i 74-7 S27 | One| es.) aes 855 BNE f tl a0 a cd a ie 90°5 ” ” 91° 30°48 0-4n ” ” 99:1 ” o 26104- 28°61 0-2n ” ” 11°8 27:05 | 0-2n © i 92-5 30 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 157 TrRIDIUM—continued, Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum = ee i : a Reduetion to hae ae acuum ssaats Waye-length Inten- let Inten- bart Inten- Oscillation sity iz sity: -\/2 eee Bity jan ___| Frequency 2S io | and aa in Vacuo Exner | Gha- | Exner | Cha- Lol Cha- | ,4 1 3825-2 2b 3825°2 In | 3825-13 | 0:2n | 1:06 | 7:3 26135°3 | 24°62 | 0-4 a os 39-1 23°5 1 23°50 | 0-3n oe fp 46:7 22°32, 0-4 ” ” 54-9 21:58 | O-In ae =r 59-9 20:99 | O-In om > 63:9 20-0 In 19:95 | O-In PP ” 71:0 19-52 In a of 74:0 19:2 In 19:19 | 0:3 5 39 76°3 18°82 | 0:2 = -5 78:8 18°6 1 18°33 | O71 * a 82-2 3817°385 17:40 3 173 | 4 17:42 | 1:0 a 74 88-4 16°59 | O-In | 1:0 ss 94:0 15°7 1 15-70 0-2 ” ” 26200°1 15:10 | O-In - oS 04-2 14-7 | 1 ” » 07 14:5 1 ” ” 08- 13°8 1 13°91 | 0:2n oS = "12-4 13:0 1 a “; 19- 12:8 1 12°89 | 0°5 cf aH 19-4 12°40 | O-In oo ce 22°8 118 1 os 29 27° 10°5 1 10:57 | 0-2b “ 35°4 10:4 1 as cs 37° 09°7 1 09°81 | O-ln =r oc 40:6 08:3 In 08°83 | 0-2 a Fc 47°4 07-1 1 06°86 | O-In of x 61:0 ° 04:6 1 06:09 | O-In Ass A 66:3 05:44 | 2n oe so 70:8 04:1 1 04:77 | O-In os ef 75°4 04:26 | O-1 sr 99 78-9 03°80 | 0-4 of ~ 82-1 03:00 | 0-2 a fe 87-6 02°53 | 0-2 ff A 90:9 00°243 00°25 | 10 00-2 8 00°29 | 2:0 “1 “ 26306-6 3799°65 2n 3799°51 | 1:3 “p “5 11:3 3799-047 99-05 3 3799-1 + 99:07 | 1:1 35 25 15:0 98-2 1 98:18 | 0-4 * a 20:0 98-1 i 96-77 | 03 1 > 30:8 96°3 In “A = 34:0 95:97 | 0-2 oA or 36°3 95°56 | 0-1 : oe 39-2 94-211 94-20 1 94-1 4 94°18 | 03 S of 48-4 93°95 2 93-9 4 93°95 nf on 50°3 93°40 a3 cH 54-2 91:6 2 ¥ vs 67: 90:67 | 1-0 ae + 73°2 90:29 | 0:3 o op 75°8 89-6 1 89°67 | 0-2 on = 80-1 88°67 | O-In ss - 87°3 87:4 1 cP Cn 96° 87-1 1 87:18 | O-ln Ar 5 97:5 i 86-2 1 86°22 | 1-0s He > 26404°2 | 138 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TrRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum : —————— Beane to 7e- = | acuum 3 ; Wave-length ane Maks ae bing at ena si { gi | ssi : eeor eed i a ane 4 | =a : _ in Vacuo i Cha- Cha- Cha- Kayser te racter Te aaah racter| Lohse | racter| At y 3784°85 | O-3n | 1:05 | 774 26413°7 84°35 | O-In * “5 17:0 82°37 | 0-9 “5 3 31:0 3781°5 1 81°33 | 0-3n a5 a 38'3 79°8 1 ” ” 49- 79-2 In ” ” 53° 78°85 | O-1 * a 55:7 vTErs 1 ticie 0:5 ” ” 63°5 77-14 | 0:2 a5 3 67:7 75°3 1 75°32 | O-1 1:04 35 80:4 74:5 1 74:59 | O-2n Sp " 85:5 740) 1 4 op 90: 71:8 1 71-76 | 0:2 ° Td 26505°3 3770°89 1 oe i 70°86 | 0:2 ” > a t 1 ” = i 3768°817 68°83 | 1 68°8 68°84 | 0:4 ” re 25°9 66°6 J 67:48 | 0-4 » ” 35-4 66°59 | O-1b a “p 41-7 66°3 1 ” ” 54: 62:40 | 0°3n = on 71:3 62-1 1 62°11 0:6 ” ” 73:3 61:8 1 61:68 | 0°5 a 33 76:4 59-64 ] 60°90 | O-In Br _ 81:9 57:2 1 60°16 0:8 ” ” 87-1 57°31 | O-ln an 5 26607°3 56°69 | O-ln os es 11:7 56:0 1 56°11 0-4 ” ” 15°8 55°7 1 Peis “ 19° 55:29 | O-ln 99 + 21°6 54:8 1 54°68 | 0:3 ” 33 25°9 53°4 1 53°60 0:4b 7 ” 33°6 53°08 | O-ln a aA 37:3 52°70 | 0-6 oD, 5 40:0 52°5 1 ” sn 41: 50°8 1 50°89 | O-In a . 52°8 50°539 50°55 1 fae 2 50°53 0:28 ” ” ae 1 ” ” é 47°352 47°36 , 5 473 | 6 47:39 | 1:0 ” 3 717-9 46:4. 1 46°50 | 0:2 ” ” 84:1 46:0 i ” ” 88: 45:77 | 0:9 ° &g 89°3 45°6 2 ”? ” 90: 45°2 In ” - 93° 44:6 1 44:52 | 0-5b » ” 98°3 43°99 | O-In a A 26702°1 43°6 1 ” a 05- 43°4 1 ” A 06- 43-02 | 0-8b OY el arcs 08°9 42-948 1 42:8 2 ” ” 09- 42°44 2 42°4 1 42:47 | 1:0 an * 12°9 41°8 1 - 41:92 | 0-2n aoe lt ee 16°7 40:73 0:2b 25 ES 25°2 39°63 0:3 3 ” on Soul ——— Src lh ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 139 IrR1IDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum 2 = - — Reduction to Wave-length Inten- | ene Inten- bib ates Inten- | Mages’? Oscillation ee a sity sity sity |___————_—| Frequency and and and | in Vacuo Exner | cha. | Exner-| Gha- Cha- | 1 pees Cae | racter | Haschek | pene a racter | a 373969 | O-In | 1:04 | 7°5 26737:0 3738°682 | 3738-66 2 3738'6 | 4 38°67 | 0°3 ” ” 40:0 36°19 | O-1 1:03 PP 57°7 35°60 | Ov1 ot, “6 62:0 34:900 34:90 3 34:8 6 6 as 67:0 34:54 | O-1 or a 69°6 344) 1 » ” que 34:0 1 34:05 | 0:2 ” ” 73°1 33°4 1 ” ” 78° 33°3 1 33:25 | 0-1 » ” 79°8 32°7 1 32°76 | O-1 = oh 82°3 32°1 1 ao b 87° 31:504 31°51 2 31:3 6 31°51 | 0°8 ” » 91:3 30°58 3 30°6 30°60 | 1 ” ” 97:9 29°75 | 0-:2n Fy = 26804:0 29°40 | 0-1 re on 06°5 28°16 5 28:1 2 28°19 | 1:2 “ 76 15-2 27°4 1 27°57 | O-3n ” » 19°5 27:05 4 27:0 2 27°10 | 1s - cf 23°1 26:25 | 0:3 “0 = 29:0 25°536 25°55 2 25:6 4 25°57 | 0:7 ” ” 34:0 24°75 | O1 6 x 39°8 23°61 | 0-3n ry as 48:1 22:904 3 22°9 2 5 Es 53° 2276 | 2 22:57 | 0°6 Hf 3 55-6 22:2 1 22°12 | O-1 ” ” 78°8 21:628 1 21:7 Ut 21°65 | 0-2 F = 62°3 21:2 1 ne = 65° 20°93 | O-In a o 67:4 19°51 | O-In 35 a aided 17°6 1 Rs 5 91- 17:14 | O1 5 ae 94:8 16:34 | O-1b 3 A 26900-6 158 1 AS a 05- 14°5 1 14:48 | O-In rf rf 14:1 13°85 | O-1 cfs “r 18:6 12°86 | 0°5 =p 5 25°8 12°630 12°66 2 12°7 4 re hy 273 11-5 1 ” ” 36° 11:27 | O-In H be 373 10°53 | O-1ln rs - 42°7 08°8 1 08°83 | O-ln oD ap 55:1 08-3 Jn 08°18 | 0:2n Ff ch 59°8 07:147 OF-L7 07-1 1 07:14 | 03 fe “A 67°4 06°7 1 06-70 | 0-2 os “3 70°6 06:20 | O-In cc op 74:2 05°8 1 of 33 77° 05°5 1 05°43 | O-1 cc “ 79°8 04°57 | O:In sp “ 86-1 03°7 1 Be ch) 92- 03°5 1 03°40 | O-In a 5 94°6 01:107 ea. 01:2 4 01:08 | 0°8 ce + 27011°4 3698-261 | 3698-25 2 | 3698-1 3698°27 | 0-5 op oF 32°1 140 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum BS |) — ——_________— Redne to 7e- : acuum Wave-length Inten- eat | Inten- hah Inten- 2 MAAWG thy 4) (02 bal Aity);|emeee | - Sity | and and and Hemmer | Chia | A 2be™ | cha: imepas | Chan Jag i) a Kayser | Haschek racter Haschek racter ohse | yacter res | | | 3696°6 1 3696-71 | 0-2 1:02 | 7°6 3696°308 | 3696°27 In 96°3 In 96°23 | O-3n oo o 96:0 1 95°74 | 0-2n “5 aS 92°851 92°85 2 92-7 2 92-84 | 0:8 > 92°3 6 92-44 | 1:0b a eS 90°86 | O-In o 35 90°17 0:3 ” ” 89°476 0 89°4 6 89:45 | 1:0 of “ 88°321 1 88-2 ii 88°26 | 0°2n 5 = 87-24 2 87:1 1 87°24 | 0°2 ” ” 86:09 | O-In 5 Ms 84:4 4 84:51 | 0-5 a 35 83:6 1 83°71 | O-In a Fs 83-0 1 83:09 | O-In ” 77 82°4 1 82°52 | O-ln * of 81:9 1 ”» ” 81°75 O-In ” ” 81°6 i 81:10 | O-In 3 = 79°5 1 79°58 | 0-2n AS Re 78°3 1 78°51 | 0-2n “ oe 77-1 1 ” ” 76°7 1 76°83 0-2 ” ” 75°160 75°15 5 75:0 8 75:16 | 1:0 ” 9 74:0 1 74:26 | O-In on 3D 73°2 1 73°30 | O-In 5 BS 72:0 1 72°15 | 03 A “6 71:75 0-1 ” ” 71-03 0-2 ” ” 69-70 0-5 ” 2” 68-2 1 68°36 | O-In 5 E 67°8 if 67-92 | 0°2n oe rs 66°35 | O-ln + “fH 65'1 1 65°12 | 0-2b + o 64:780 64:77 5 64:7 4 64:78 | 0-8 % on 64:3 1 ” ” 63°5 1 63°54 | 03 a ae 63°3 | 1 » ” 61-867 61°86 | 5 61-7 4 61°88 | 0-9 = “e 61-527 (Epp p 61-4 2 61°52 | 1:0 “f = 6067) OL ” ” 60-18 | O-In “3 op 59:2 | 1 ” ” 58-7 1 ” ” 5815 | 0:7 “p oF 57°774 0 57°6 1 57-72 | 0:3 1-01 i ‘ 57:06 | O-In as oe | 55°05 | O-In 3 55 54:5 In 54:55 | 0-2 aS + 54:0 In + Es 53°358 1 53°2 | 10 53°34 | 2°3 = 4 51°5 In a + 50°3 1 50°47 | O-1 oF 5 47°857 47°85 2n 478 2 a9 “5 Oscillation | Frequency in Vacuo 27043°5 46:7 85:0 27405°7 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 141 Irn1IpDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum a = ——___———— — | Reduction to é cd Vacuum Lb Wave-length Inten- ieee Inten- bahar Inten- Oscillation i , Siiy) teehee sity Pee Se een ihyy Hes FE requency | and and and in Vacuo \ Exner | cy,- | Exmer | cho- Cha- 1 Kayser ee | racter ade racter | Lohse |racter| A+ | \ | | es eee | | | 3647°0 1 3647:02 | O-In | 1°01 | 7°7 | 27411°9 | | 46:21 | O-In Reh toe | 18:0 3645°468 | 3645-47 1 45°4 | In | 2? | Cy | 23°6 | 45:34 | O-ln Pe Aller 24°6 | | 44:0 In ” | ” 35° 43°29 | O-In yee eee 40:0 | | eras -Oule tl -p 3 42-2 41:037 | 41:03 3 | ” | ” 57:0 40°9 1 40°91 | O:3b ib. etre 58:0 40°7 1 ast. a eas 60- 39°72 | O-In ot ates 66°9 38'8 1 38°95 | O-1 Fiala oral) 72°6 38°3 1 Laer) teats 78° 38°1 In os 5 79° 37°58 | O1 oh | of 83-1 37:19 | O-In a 7 86-0 36°370 36°36 8 36°2 4 36°35 | 1:0 ” ” 92°2 | 36°5 2 “5 ts 91:2 35°64 | 03 2 9 97°8 | 35:0 1 35:08 | 1:0 ce a 27501°9 | 34:08 | O-1 BS TLiIlahs ‘ag 09°5 33°7 ii BS Ar 12: 31°7 |1 Fe? a Ss 28° 31:5 | 1 Fe? a x 29: 30°8 ln ” ” 34: 29°911 29-91 3 29-9 1 FA - 41:1 29°8 1 29°80 | 0-3b 3 af 41°9 29-317 | 29°31 2 29°3 1 3 a 45°6 28°843 28°84 | 10 28°8 4 28°82 | 1:2 99 ” 49-3 28°3 1 A Ar 53° 27°95 1 27:9 1 a a 56:0 26:7 1 26°88 | 0-2n ° ” 64:1 26°460 26°44 5 26°4 4 26°44 | 06 ” » 67°4 25°872 25:87 se ti 25°8 2 25°89 | 0:3 Fy ” 71:7 254) 1 99 ” 75° 24-7 1 “ps 5 80: 24:3 1 ce # 84: 23°976 23°95 3 23°8 1 23:97 | 0:2n PP ” 86:3 | 22:0 1 Fr, Ae 27601: 21:7 1 oe oa 04: 20°54 | O-ln a BS 12: 19°9 1 19°94 ee Pc 17: 19-236 | 19°30 2 19°3 2 ” ” 22°] 179 1 1:00 9 33° 17378 | 17:37) 8 173 | 4 PRAM: ae i 36-5 16-4 | 1 16°62 | 0-2n | ,, i 42-2 15°6 1 15°68 | O-ln os os 49°5 14°5 14°59 | O-ln =p aa 57°8 13°95 | O-In af, a 68-7 13°28 | O-In aa re 67°9 12°59 | 0:2n as Pry 713°2 09-933 09-91 8 09:94 | 0-5 ” ” 93°6 09 0 i 1 ” ” 27701: 142 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IripiumM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum : =s Reine to s : acuum Wavye-length Inten- ae Inten- | ie Inten- | sity = sity | sity and and and Kayser es es ce * | Cha- Lohse | CB | a+ - Hasehok racter Padahelr racter racter nt 3607:3") 1 1:00 | 7°8 3605°958 | 3605:99 | 3 05:9 10 | 3605-99 | 2:5 9 3 04:9 1 ” ” 04:5 1 04:67 | 0:8 aS e 03:8 1 03:96 | 0-2 a 55 02:2 I ” ” 01:568 0156 | 4 01-5 1 01:59 | 0:3 a “4 00°5 | 2 00°54 | O-1 “5 35 3599°8 1 |3599-94 | 0°5 on “3 98-936 98:91 3 98:92 | 3° a *F 1 98:29 | O-In PD a 97°9 O-ln fr 5 97-30 | 0:2 5 PF 96-356 0 96-45), oI G3 /al pte ” % 95°6 ” ” 25:04 ” 7:9 94:557 94:56 | 5 94:5 | 4 94:60 | 0°8 ” > 94°308 94:30 | 3 94:3 1 ” % 93°16 |3 Ru? 93:1 2 93°21 | 1:1 on e 92-2] 1 ” » 91:9 1 ’ ” 91°55 | O-ln “5 S 91:3 1 ” ” 89:90 | 1:In 33 A 89°34 | 3 Pt? 89:3 | 2 89°43 | 1-1 7A oc 88-9 In + “3 88:3") In oF 25 87°3 1 87°41 | 0-3b + . 87-1 1 ” ” 86:3 1 86°39 | O-In *e ‘f 85:8 1 ” ” 85°3 In 85:50 | O-In 5 5 84:6 1 84:72 | 0-2n a a 83°5 | 2 83:62 | 0:2n A “ 83:24 |10 Rhi\? 83:2] 2 83°30 | O-1 5 ¢ 81:0} 1 80:97 | O-In 35 = 78:2 1 93 He 1 0-99 a 77:3 1 77:24 | 0-2n ty , 76:9 1 ” ” 76:3 1 ” ” 759 1 ” ” 75°6 1 ” ” 75°2 1 ” ” 74:9 In > 74:6 1 74:75 | O-ln a 7 3573'888 73°89 10 73°8 | 8 73°87 | 1:45 * ” 73°1 1 ” ” 72:9 1 ” ” 72°5 ] > ” 72/1 u ” ” 71:9 1 ” ” d0'7 | 70°74 | 0-4 5 . Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. Wave-length Kayser 3568°156 59-160 57:325 52-223 Are Spectrum | | Inten- cg Ch. ‘i | Haschek Eepuer 3559°15 | 8 57°35 | 5 53°26 | 2 Pd? S222 46°60 In | Wave- Exner and 3570°0 69°5 68-1 64:8 63:0 61°5 60:5” 60:0 59°8 57°3 56°6 55:9 55°8 54:7 53:9 53°7 52:7 52:2 514 50:7 50°3 48-7 47-2 46°5 46-2 45:8 45:2 44-7 44:2 42:7 42:1 416 40°8 39°5 38°7 37°6 37°2 36:9 36°7 36:4 359 34:5 length Haschek 58-2” IrIDtUM—continued. Spark Spectrum Inten- sity and Cha- | racter et ee _ ft fe el el ed fet pe ee eb ee i=} ee) el a ee 145 —j} Reduction to 2 Vacuum | 1 athe ee Tater: Oscillation (Sik yon be eaecee _ Frequency Seep sleean dl | in Vacuo Lohse at, A+ | <- | 0:99 | 7:9 28003° 3569-95 | Ol 3 ee 03-7 ” ” 07: 68-17 | 2° roe IN eee 17°7 67°40 O-ln ” ” 23°7 66°59 | 0:5 53 5 30°1 64:96 | 0°2n aH “1 42°9 63:02 | O-ln Pe 5 58-2 62°78 | Ol se oe 60°1 61:03 | 0°5 - fr 73°9 ” ” 78° ” ” 82- 59-95 | 0-2 ss 82-4 9 9 84: 59°17 Ie ” ” 88°6 99 > 96° 57°36 | 1: a 3 28102°9 , % 09- 55°90 | O-ln % AS 14°4 2”? ” 15- ” 99 24: 54:05 | O-1 AS 5 29- > 9 32: + » 35°3 5 of 40: 52°31 | O-1 ES 2 43:1 51°54 | O-1 5G 8-0 48-0 » 39 56° ” 3 59° 49°74 | O-ln 3 é 63-1 48°77 | O-ln B38 ole Fry . 70°38 ” 2” 83° ” ” 88: ” 3° 91: > ” 94- 99 » 99° 55 at 28203: 44-15 | Oln | _,, a 07°5 43-46 | O-ln| ,, » 13° 42°88 | 0-1 ” ” 17°6 ” 3° 24: 41°81 | O-In ‘ a 26°1 99 ” 28- 9 s 34: 39°47 | 0-2 os ss 44:8 = 99 51° 38:10 | O-ln ¥ 55'8 0-9 <3 60° > ” 63° ” ” 65: ”° ” 67° “ * 69° 35:99 | 0-4 3 Pp 72°6 » 9 85° 144 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF Arc Spectrum IRIDIUM—continued. SCIENCE, Spark Spectrum Wave-length Kayser | Haschek Inten- sity and Cha- racter length Wave- Haschek 3522-191 16°110 13-807 12°356 12-054 10°793 08°731 03-088 3499-271 96-580 94-787 92°217 | 3022°21 16-11 13°82 12°36 12-04 08°71 03-09 3496-59 94:79 92-21 10°80 —_ wWwweo or) 35343 32-4 31-7 Inten- sity and Cha- racter ee Wave- length Lohse | 3532-99 32°41 | 31:47 30°88 28°75 28-15 26°87 22°17 | 20°19 18°85 17-03 16-07 14-60 13°80 12°35 12-04 10°79 09°37 07:64 06°13 04:78 4a 02:69 00°85 3499-08 97°14 95:93 94:81 2 290H999 9S OO or BS ree aera 5 O-ln Reduction to Vacuum A+ 1 a Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 145 IRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | » ete ee | Reduction to E “9. Vacuum ; Waye-length Inten- titel Inten- ee. Inten- Oscillation . EE Ci ol SIL? ||yabaeieenas Si tive pee es Lene Oe Brequency > ae Ceol and ae and and in Vacuo Kayser ey Cha- aaa Cha- Lohse Cha- Kip te eee y Haschek | 22¢ter Haschek | 72cter eee | mR | Ea : ee IE = aes 3 ; 3490°5 1 O975 e851 28652- | | 3488-727 3488-73 3 88-7 1 » ” 55:7 | | 88-2 ln Fae Bs 60: | 87-6 1 + A 65° 86-2 1 55% Nie os lide 85-660 85-68 3 85°6 1 2 ” 80°8 | 84-649 84:66 a 84°6 1 348465 | O-1 PP a 89-2 84-256 84-26 3 84:3 1 84:21 | O-1 a5 1) [hens 92°5 83°63 i ees oe 97-6 83-2 1 A = 28701°1 82-760 82-78 4 | 82°73 | O-1 5 04:7 82°5 1 | Bs 3 O7- | 81:5 1 He tee 3 iss 81:35 | Oln | ,, “¢ 16: 81:254 81-26 3 Las - 17-2 80°7 In of Ba 22: 79:9 1 2 2? 28° | 79:4. 1 79°50 | Ol os Be 31-7 77:930 1 78:0 2 | 77:90 | O-In 3 3 44:8 76-611 76°60 3 76°7 2 76°62 | O-ln is a 55-6 76:3 1 2? 2 58: 76-182 76°17 1 ” » 59-1 | 75°8 1 Ps sae 62- 74:96 | O-In a 3 69-2 74:5 1 3 rc Tis 74:36 | O-ln Ps = 74-2 73°6 1 o 5 80- 73:3 1 33 5 83- 72-98 1 aes, 1 i is 85-6 72-0 1 - - 94- 70°85 | 0-1 ” 8-2 28803-2 70-2 1 ” ” 09- 69°79 2 3 33 11-9 68-749 68°75 2 33 sf 21:5 68-02 1 68-1 1 ‘s an 26:7 67-1 1 Rs of 34: 66-2 1 ” ” 42: 65-390 65°39 3 65:5 2 65°38 | 0-1 > 2 48°6 62°23 | 0-1 53 7 74:9 61:8 1 $5 74 79: 61:3 1 “ on 83- 60-0 In 3 as 94- 58°8 2 58°85 | O-1 0-96 A 28903°1 58°10 2 A; aj 09-4 57-4 In FS 5 15: 57°25 1 “5 ‘3 16°5 55-949 55°95 1 56:0 1 » . 27°4 55:1 1 7 3 35° 52:1 1 33 “ 60- 4 51:7 1 “i 5 63- 50°916 50-93 1 51:0 Us Fr ay 69°6 50°3 1 ” ” 75° 49-133 49°13 10 49-2 4 49°10 | 0:3 ” ” 84:7 48-621 48°61 1 48°8 1 ee as 88-9 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TrIpIuUM—continued. Spark Spectrum ——) Reduction to | | Wave- : Vacuum Wave-length Inten- ae Inten- iean | Inten- Oscillation FA Sd he pal iad eno ETR 7A flue cab te Bitys || eee | sity. || S _ Frequency and |} and | and | | in Vacuo Exner | Cha. | Bxner Gha- Cha- | 1 Kayser ae | racter Haschek racter | Lohse | racter| At | a. 3447:90 1 3448-0 1 0:96 | 82 28995- 3446°793 46°79 2 46°8 1 “n op 29004°3 46°476 46°49 2 46-4 1 3446-48 | O-1 oS ee 06-9 45°682 0 45°5 In “A a 13°6 44-2 1 ay or 26° 40°71 | O-ln ; 6 55°6 39:0 In As 3 70: 38°244 38°21 | 2 38:2 In s 5 76:6 37°670 37:65 | 4 376 | 4 37:69 | 0:3 ss 3 81:3 37°189 37:20 | 10 37:2 6 37:19 | 03 5 oe 85°3 36°88 | O-1 oS 3 88: 35°554 0 A ep 99-2 35 ‘200 0 6 7 29102-2 34915 2 35:07 | 0:2n 4 SS 04:6 33°475 33:46 | 2 33°4 1 sn 33 169 32-930 $2°92 | 1 8:3 21°4 32°20 1 32°3 1 a = 27°5 31°6 1 ‘ a 33° 31:476 31°45 1 is 2 33°8 30°941 30°94 1 31-1 1 Ae ty 38:2 30°197 30°20 1 30:0 1 3 2» 44-5 29-748 0 - 53 48-4 29-026 29°01 2 29-1 1 5 a5 54°6 28°6 1 a x 58° 28°47 3 28°47 | 0-1 S me 59-2 28°3 1 a = 61: 27°7 1 “5 x, 66° 27°3 1 A a 69: | 26°38 | In . 3 74: ) 26:0 In F A 80: 25°526 25°50 1 25:5 1 2 a 84-4 24°854 24°85 3 24-9 1 4 53 90-0 23°9 1 A 4 98- 21:923 21:93 2 22:0 1 = 5 29215:0 21:5 1 s 35 LO: 20-895 0 “A 35 23°8 20-646 20°64 | 3 20°8 1 os a 26:0 20-111 0 20-2 1 a Bg 30°5 19-592 19°57 3 19-6 | 2 ” PP) 35°0 18°533 18°54 1 a = 44:0 17°5 1 17:46 | O-In | 0°95 “1 53:2 16:3 1 op 53 63° 15°906 15:87 2 158 1 9 » 66°7 15-408 15°39 3 15:4 In ck 35 70:8 14:9 1 of “A 715° 13°4 1 4 93 88- 12-762 12-75 2 12°6 1 5 35 93°5 11-730 11-72 |.-2 11:7 1 » ” 29302°3 10°3 1 or 3 15° 10:180 10°19 1 10-2 1 “5 “5 15°6 09-931 09°91 U 10: 1 is FP 17-9 09°40 In 09°5 1 2 +, 22°4 08-2 1 08:32 | O-ln ne 3 SET 05:5 1 oa 5 56° ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 14:7 IRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | | ee ee eee é jefe SE ~' Reduction to | | Ve iee” Siianres Vacuum are Wave-length Inten- ] enath Inten-| ] oni ‘Inten- Oscillation | sity sity | sity | Frequency Higbee (| BMS menar | and Bist El 'ee sc ae | in Vacuo | Cha- Cha- Cha- | Kayser and : S and .| Lohse A+ ae ay | Haschek | racter | Haschek racter racter | nN be 3403-6 | In 0-95 | 8:3 | 29372- 3402°962 | 3402-95 2 03-0 1 ”» ” 778 02-182 02°17 | 2 33 a 84:6 01-927 01°92 | 3 01:9 1 ‘sa Gees 96°8 3398°3 In * a 29418: 97°5 1 . SS 25° 97-1 1 rf a 29° 96°3 1 “6 & 36° 96-0 1 . 8-4 38° 3395°129 | 3395:14 | 3 95:2 | 2 + 45°5 93-6 1 . “ 59: O27 || 2 FF; a3 67° 91°5 | che pei or dike 91-032 91:05 | 1 91-1 1 Sa | vabes 81-0 | 89-473 1 | ” | ” 94:7 88-9 1 6 eA 29500: 88-158 88°15 1 88:1 1 ” ” 06:2 88-023 88-05 1 fA aS 07°1 87:8 1 cen came oe 09: 86-678 0 en ae 19:0 86-330 86°34 | 3 86:4 1 Ee eee ne 22°1 85-91 1 A al ih 25-7 85-752 85°76 | 2 85-7 1 A le ony 27-1 85:272 85:27 | 2 85:3 1 ” ” 31:3 85:0 1 ” 2 34: 83:917 83-91 1 83°9 In “A “ 43:2 83°474 0 ” 2 47°0 82:2] 1 Aiins 58° 81-6 1 eb” MACs 63- 7 81:3 1 Game atte 66° 81-151 81:18 | 3 Be a 67:2 79-993 80-01 1 80-0 1 soe as 77-4 79:5 1 rea eeeee, 82: 78°550 On 78°5 1 |e oge “e 90:1 8-219 On 78°1 1 934 |? ibe 93°9 Us 288 On 0:94 | ,, 296012 76°146 76°15 1 thie 1 aS ct) 11:2 5:5 In A oh 168 74942 0 op 3 21°7 74:597 74:61 1 cae qf 9 ” 24-7 74:16 1 C1 el ag | A a 28°6 72°958 72°96 1 72°7 2 ” ” 39-2 71594 7160 | 4 71:5 2 ” ” 51:1 70°785 70:78 | 3 70°7 1 ” ” 58°3 69°14 1 es ee 72:8 68-640 68°64 | 8 68-0 1 3468-57 | O-In ” . 17:2 67 210 67:21 2 ” | ” 89°8 67-063 67:09 | 2 67:0 1 ” ” 91:0 66°6 1 o =p 96- 66:3 1 : > 98° fons 65°69 Le a 65:6 1 ” | ” 29703-2 65:273 0 aa ” ”? 2 9 > 2”? ” 9 29 2? 29 9? ” 9 °° >? ” 2? ” ”? 9 37 22 ? ” 2? ty ” 99 ed 2° ” ” thd 9 39 ” 9° ” 9 3 ” ”? 9? PE ” 2° ” 3 ” ” 092 | ,, 99 ” ”? ”? ” th) 2”? ” 3? 3 ” ” ”» ” 2? ” ”? ” Oscillation _| Frequency in Vacuo 150 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IRIDIUM—continued. i Spectrum ‘8 Spark Spectrum Boineunnin Wave-length _ | Wave-length Bal Vacuue Oscillation pe : Intensity) uae Intensity) _________| Frequency feaeeer tte Exner and hagepae er) Hxnerand | Gunranue Ne ass apetiae Haschek | Haschek | A 3292°6 1 0°92 | 86 30363° 92-2 1 Fy B 66° 91°6 i 33 a5 72: 3291°187 0 91-4 1 " 9 75°6 91-010 0 3 yi, Witie4 90-640 0 90-2 1 ” ry 80:6 89°2 1 Ac 8°7 94: 88:7 1 > + 99- 88°4 il 55 3 30401- 87°726 3287-72 5 87-7 1 ” ” 07°5 87-198 87°20 4 87:2 it » ” 12:3 85:721 0 85:7 In = a 26:0 84-695 84:69 2 84:6 2 F 5 35°5 84-456 1 of 25 377 84:0 1 FY a 42- 82°458 82°46 2 82°5 il os 33 56°3 82:3 1 3 . 58: 82:024 0 33 a 61:3 81°85 1 81°8 1 FF PP 67°9 81:2 In i a 68: 80-705 iL 80°6 1 ” ” 72:5 80-011 0 3 - 79:0 796 1 5 o 83° 791 1 3 > 87: 78°41 1 78:2 1 5 + 93°9 77:9 ] ; - 99- 77-422 77-41 5 17-4 1 * 5 30603°1 76:291 76°28 1 76:3 1 PP Py 13°7 73'135 75°74 2 3 = 18°8 75452 75°45 1 75°6 1 FA a 21°4 75°167 75°15 1 75:0 1 3 os 24:0 74-686 74:68 2 3 5 28°6 74:2 1 . oe Bhd 72°772 0 72°7 1 is 5 46°4 W225 1 > = 49: 71:936 71:94 3 71°8 1 » ” 54-2 aeode 71:38 4 71-4 1 55 Ps 59°5 69-835 i 70 i A 73°9 69°5 In oe a ids 68°663 0 68:7 1 es x 84:9 68°5 1 an a 86- 67:236 67°22 1 67:2 In , or 98°3 66°580 66°59 8 66°5 2 % ” 30604°3 65°399 0 is 5 15:4 64:6 1 = 3 23° 64:3 1 5 5 26° 63°436 63°44 In ” ” 33°8 63-062 63-09 1 63-1 1 rs a 37-2 62°852 62°85 1 3 ” 39'3 62°6 1 a sa 42: 62°147 62°15 I5) 62:1 2 as =r 45°9 61°4 1 os 3 54: 61:0 In suleaeiess 57° 59:7 In O:91lul %; 69- ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 151 TRIDIUM—continued, ee Are Spectrum | "Spark cit Sim Reduetlon to os) lla | Waye- length | Resear | Oscillation ~ 2 CS a [Intensity = | Frequency K paige and Cha igaae and i etihs ayser Haschek a inches IGharmater At r 3259-0" 1 091 | 87 | 30676: 3257-916 oe 85°8 3256-92 2 56:9 In s e 95:1 56:346 ns 03 30700°6 56°194 2 | | ” ” 02:0 55°9 1 > ” 05: 55:20 | 2 55:1 1 3 _ 11-4 54-542 54:54 | 4 54-4 4 +3 ze 17:6 53-497 1 53-4 2 " a: 27-4 52-0" In ma 8:8 42: 49-866 49:87 3 49:8 1 -, +r 61-7 49-638 49-63 2 49:6 1 - : 63-9 47-417 1 5 = 84:9 46-951 0 46:9 1 x Fe 89:3 46°431 2 463 1 Bs + 94-2 45510 0 45-4 In 3 3 30803-0 45-022 45-02 1 45-0 1 - : 07°6 44-887 0 % 5 08-9 43568 0 43'8 1 5 + 21-4 42°734 42-78 1 = © 29-1 42-462 42°47 1 42-4, 1 2 = 32:9 42-132 1 3 3 35:1 41-640 41-65 6 41:6 4 95 3 39°7 41:395 0 | 3 “ 42-1 40-688 40-69 1 40-7 1 i - 48°8 40:351 40-35 3 40-4 1 By y 52:2 39°5 1b 53 ts 60: 38-675 0 38:5 1 58 * 67-1 88-414 1 a HM 70:5 38-003 0 37-9 1 + re 74:4 37°4 In ” ” 80: 37-115 0 37-0 i! ., 5 82-9 36-1 1 ay mA 93° 35:7 1 af s 96- 35-537 0 as vi 98:0 35:370 0 35:3 1 a 99-6 34-5 1 eee alee 30908- 33-0 1 a Ft 22: 32-618 0 32:8 ae FI rr x 25-9 32-342 1 | 6 sp 28°5 32-145 32°14 4n 320 | 4 » » 30°4 31-7 | In és is 35° SUF | + 4 ey i 39: 30-903 30-90 4 ae 42:3 a087/ 2 ” ” 44- 29412 29-40 5 29-3 4 3 £ 56:6 28-672 0 28-6 2 55 + 63:7 27-675 0 27-8 1 +5 oy 73°2 27-0 1 B 3 ‘i 80: 26-840 2683 | 2 26-7 1 6 3 81:3 25:8 1 _ a 91- 25°5 1 ” ” 94° 24-637 0 245 | 1 na a 31002°4 24016 | 24-06" In |! x - 08-2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IrRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length Kayser 223°645 23°138 22°854 22-600 21°415 20-924 18°593 17-700 17°301 16-905 16-431 13°681 12°629 12-350 12-240 10-131 09-050 08-287 05:837 05:227 04-587 04:230 02-250 02-023 01-027 00-166 3199-058 98-226 95-882 93°345 93°240 89-486 88-702 88-487 87:267 Exner and Haschek 21:40 20°91 19-66 18-60 17-70 13°68 12°37 12-22 08:27 07:22 05°22 01:02 00:16 | 3199-06 98°23 89:47 3223-65 Intensity d an Character ROOK —_ Crm OrFrR OOF RRO 0 Hewc = Oe bo oo onweo ey oO OOF Wave-length : nigh Intensity ia and Exner and Haschelk 3223°6 23:0 — { 22°5 22-4 21:3 20°7 19-6 18°6 | FNonbhy > ~ i=) V3) 2) al 16°5 15:2 ee ee Pe Se See eb Character’ Reduction to Vacuum 1 A+ X 091 | 88 ” ” ” 9 39 bed 3° ” ” > OOF tse 99 ” ” 3° ” 3” ” ” 9 9 ae 8-9 Oscillation Frequency , in Vacuo 31012: 16°9 RED ese ~ — =" ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 1553 IrtpIUM—continied. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wayve-length Kayser 3186-667 86°184 86:030 82-924 82°514 80-487 79°328 79811 77-712 77°325 76°106 73°466 73°222 72-915 71-812 69-010 68-673 68-404 68-297 67-792 67°328 66-886 65-833 65°323 64-376 63-972 62-953 | 62871 | 62-445 61-948 61-477 59-992 59-644 59-280 57-836 57-614 56-274 Exner and Haschek | | Intensity) and | Character Wave-length Exner and Haschek and 3180:48 79°32 78°80 77°70 72°91 71-80 69°01 68-30 67°30 66°85 61-95 61°49 59°64 59°29 57°60 56°28 OOH | o OF wwow HSWwWOoORrOD No PNR NNOOCOFOFS- bo 85:7 85-4 84:8 83°7 82:8 82:0 81:4 80-4 79-2 78°7 78°4 7176 172 76°7 76-0 75°3 74:8 73°3 72°9 Yer 715 71:3 70:0 69-2 68-4 67:3 66°8 66-3 65°3 64:1 63-0 62°5 61:9 61-4 60-1 59:6 59-2 58:6 57°6 57°1 56:3 Ne oa a ay bo Di ell alll aol oe — ee ——— Intensity! —— Character Reduction to Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo Vacuum if A+ =r r 0:90 | 8:9 | ” | ” 3 | 9 ” ” 9 9 ” ” 99 9 ’ ” > ” 3° ” ”> 0°89 eo 3 ’ ” 9° 99 ” > ar ss 39 ” 99 > be > 99 99 39 ” ” 9 7 ” 29 9 2” ” ” > ” 9 ” 9 ”? ” 39 ” ” 9 ” ” 9 99 ted ” 9 39 9 99 ”? ” ” ” 99 99 ” ” ” | ”° ” Hl ” 9 >” ”° ” ” ” ”? ”? ” 3”? ”? ” 39 > ? ” 9 39 ” 2° 31371°8 76°6 154 REPORTS ON THE Are Spectrum IRIDIUM—continued. STATE OF SCIENCE. Spark Spectrum Wave-length Intensity K | Exner and Pee BBE) Haschek AT ACHEE 3154:874 3154°85 3 54:679 54°66 3 51°748 bI7b In 50°'727 50°76 4 50°128 0 48-346 0 47-860 47°85 1 45°17 3 43-668 0 42-994 0 42°371 1 41-946 1 40°52 3 39°704 39°70 1 36°418 36°56 In 35°358 0 33°89 ] 33°432 33°45 8 nr 33°210 33°23 3 28-510 28°51 3 24-203 24:20 1 24-024 0 23°334 2 22°82 i 22-509 22°50 3 21-894 21:91 4 20°885 20:90 5 19°422 0 | | Reduction to Wavye-length Vacuum Oscillation Intensity __________| Frequency Fienoe eed and | 1 in Vacuo acnkeie i Character A+ x 3155-2 In 0°89 | 9:0 31685: 54:8 2 ” ” 88:1 54:7 1 ” ” 90:0 52°7 1 ” ” 31710: ply In as 3 19°4 50°7 1 ” “ 29-6 ”» ’ 35:7 49°6 1 FA = 41: 49:0 1 PP A 47: ” ” 53°7 48°1 1 Pe a 56: 47°9 1 c as 58:7 46°9 1 os 9-1 68- 46°6 1 35 be 71: 45°7 In + 7 80- 45°2 2 ” > 85-7 44°5 1 a A 93° 44°4 1 a 94- 44-0 1 oo “A 98: ” ” 31800°9 9 29> 07:7 99 99 14-0 ” ” 18°3 41°2 2 0:88 “1 26- 40°4 1 a =) 32°8 ” ” 41-1 38°6 In S Fr 52: 378 6 ; hnee 60- ” ” ton 30°D In Pe “ 84: ” ” 85:2 35:0 In A re 89- 34:2 1 sat | nae 97° a Ps 31900°1 33°4 6 He eee: oa °° | 99 0 0 32°7 1 aS & 12- 32°3 1 = a 16: 29°9 1 9 99 41: 29-7 1 55 5 43° 29°3 ] Po 5 AT: 28°6 2 a a 55-0 26°9 1 5 s 72° 25:0 1 PA a 91: 24°3 1 3 a4 99-1 ; Nhe 32000°9 LED | 9 08-0 22°62 3 - 4a ” ” 1 i 22-1 4 3 9 22-7 20°9 2 : ie 33-0 20°5 | i oe ab 37° 198 | 1 - 2 44: | 48°1 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 155 Ik1DIUM—continued. | Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wedotion to | | Wave-length | Wave-length , Vacuum | Oscillation ys : Intensity) _ "_|Tntensity|___________ | Frequency Exner and |, a Exner and nek 1 yen eeeno | Kayser Haathek |Character) Haschek Character) A+ a 3118-967 1 3118-9 2 0°88 | 91 | 32052:8 17-968 0 a are | 63°1 17°645 3117-64 1 a sy 66-4 17-4 2 A: a 69° 16°3 1 3 5 80° 14:669 14°69 3 14:6 1 3 5 96:9 14:170 14:16 | 3Pd? 14:2 1 op 9-2 32101°1 13-908 1 i 3 04:9 13-229 1 = a 12-1 12-475 12°48 2 12°5 1 3 e 19°5 12-2 1 - x 23° 10°4 1 $3 re 41° 10:0 1 os 34 45: 09-49 1 09°5 1 i 3 50-4 08-670 08-67 1 08-7 i! ; 3 58°9 08-2 1 » ” 64: 07:7 1 33 Pe 69° f 07°3 i is 55 73° 06:8 1 5 78° 06:072 0 06-2 1 3 5 85°8 05:3 1 3 % 94° 04:301 0 04°3 1 5 Fr 32204:2 03°875 03°88 1 03°9 1 % # 08-6 02°8 In ; = 20: 01-288 01:29 2 01°3 1 0°87 a3 35°5 00-586 00°50 8 00:5 6 FD sy 43°2 3099-9 1 a 5 50: 99-6 i _ 5 53° 99:2 1 " S6 57: 3099-055 3099°05 In 5 * 58-7 98°7 1 i FP 62: 98555 0 = % 63°9 98-4 1 A : 66° 97:931 97°94 2 97-9 1 s 3 70°4 95:4 1 3 ra 97° 94°49 1 94-6 1 = a 32306°3 94-326 1 94:3 1 “ e 08:0 94:144 94°14 2 94-1 In D % 09-9 93°5 1 3 #3 17: ° 93°1 1 H ne 21: 92:8 1 FF 3 24: 92°5 1 3 is 27° 91:6 In vs 5 37° 91:254 0 3 - 4071 90:871 0 Ps 55 44°] 90-277 90°29 2 90-1 1 9 oS 50°3 89-660 0 Pe yy 568 88-103 88°15 5 88-2 6 35 mr 52°6 87:7 1 = A ie 87:3 1 % % 82: 86°564 86°58 4 86:5 2 ! ” 89-2 86-0 In A on 95- ‘ 85°3 1 “3 a 32403- 85-088 1 ba + 04:8 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length ., | Wave-length s| Tnteneity| ies Sete | and Kaysor | eme= 204 character! Heer and 3083°343 3083°37 4 3083°3 83-085 1 83-0 82-323 0 0 82-2 81-709 1 81°6 81:0 80°2 79°892 0 79°9 78°793 2 78°70 1 77/996 78:00 1 77°75 2 eed 76°800 76:80 3 768 75:577 0 75°6 75-0 74°864 74:87 2 74:5 73°800 0 73°390 73°42 2 yes: 72-904. 1) 72°7 72-2 72-078 0 a7 71-4 70°5 69°825 69°82 3 69-9 69-220 69-18 4 69-2 69-005 69-00 5 69-0 68-507 1 68°6 67°7 67°3 66-760 0 66°5 66-167 0 65-944 0 65:7 65-292 65°27 1 64-904 3 64-9 64-622 64°65 2 64-216 0 64:3 61-6 61515 | 61:53 3 61-5 61:1 60-950 60:96 2 60°460 0 60-1 60°114 1 59°858 1 59°9 58°8 58°438 0 58:5 58-087 0 See 57-590 2 57°398 57°40 4 : 57°3 56°770 0 55:4 Intensity and Character mee bo Lal me bobo Re eH DOH ee EY — In Reduction to Vacuum 1 At Te A 0°87 | 9:3 39 99 ” 9 °° ” 29 ” 9 ” 39 > 99 ” 3” 99 Led ” » ” 33 te) a> } 23 9? 9 29 ed ” ” ” ” 9 99 ” 9? 39 9 ” ” 9 9 ” ” ” 99 ” °? 399 > ” ” >”? 99 > bh) > ” ” > ” > 99 LEI ” > > ” ” ” ” 9 9 ” 0°86 7 9 99 ” bed 39 39 ” 99 33 3 9 ” 9 9 > 39 ” 39 ”> > 3° »” ” 9 33 > ” ” Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, Are Spectrum TRIDIUM—continued. 157 Spark Spectrum Wave-length Kayser 3054-570 54:351 53-709 52-288 51-243 50°134 49-559 48-783 47-904 47-277 45-768 44-255 43671 42-760 42-429 41:979 41:056 40-580 39°378 37°861 36361 34:675 33-744 32-528 30:568 30°365 29-487 26°489 24-410 22-807 22-536 20-125 19-350 oe __| Intensity Exner an and Haschek Character, 1 0 3053-70 9 52-30 9 51:25 1 1 49-52 5 1 ] 47-27 5 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 40-58 3 39°38 5 37°86 3 0 34:66 2 33°75 ) 32°55 2 0 1 29-50 5 1 25:99 3 2 22°81 2 22°54 2 20:12 3 19°35 3 Wave-length Exner and | Haschek 3054:2 53°7 53:2 52°3 19-2 Intensity and Character Pret feet Feet tet et feet eB et et ~ Se loomn] _ i=} _ Pe et et et et a ) Hm bo Nore Reduction to Vacuum At | 3- 0°86 | 9°3 ” 9-4. ” ” ” ’ ” 2” ”? ” > ” 29 > ” ” > ” 29 2” ” ” 2° ” ” ” ” ” 9 ” ” ” 9? ”? ” ” ” ” ” ” 7 «© ” > ” ”? 9 ” ” ” ” 99 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 2? > ”? ”? ”? > ” ” ” ” 3? ” ” 7”? ” ” ”> 9-5 ” ”» ” ” ”? ” > ” 085) ,, ” ” > ” ” ” ”» ” _| Frequency | Oscillation in Vacuo 32728°5 30°8 158 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark gaa R eduction to ! jena acuum | Oscillation Rare tret mantel tenet \initbensitiy) Frequency Exner and yo Exner and | and 1; | ees Kayser igs aidnale Character Hanahok ‘Character| A+ | at 3 Ye as eg ae eee ees 30187151 2 3018-1 In 0°85 | 95 33123°5 17:450 3017:43 L 17-4 1 so itueeeen 31:2 16°8 1 Pa ees 36° 16°550 16:55 3 4 3 40°9 16°4 2 ag a 43° 15°8 1 oe 49- 15:1 1 os 33 57: 14°854 1 14:9 i A a 59°6 14°585 1 146 I ” ” 62°5 14:3 1 33 5 66: 13:2 1 A a 78° 12-984 1 13-0 1 oy x 80:2 12°695 12:71 2 aa a 83:3 12:4 1 .s 5 87: 11-812 11°84 3 11:7 1 _ . 92°9 10-020 10:03 2 ” » | 882128 08-753 1 08°8 1 aa) |e ersp 26°8 08-5 1 39 a 30: 07°838 |. 0 As 37:0 07°745 0 | 07:7 2 ” ” 38:0 } 06°5 1 5 i 52: 06°3 1 ‘ 4 54: 05:7 1 a I ose 61: 05:338 05:33 2 ” ” 64°7 05:1 1 ry 67° 04°7 1 A aA 72° 04:429 0 sa weil” Wee 74:7 03-761 03°78 4 03:7 1 = 82:0 03°2 In 5 *» 88- 02°375 1 3 a 97°5 02-0 2 ig Bn ae 33302- 01°6 1 ae | Rises 06: 01-383 0 ae ieee 08-5 | 01:2 1 3 AS 10: 01:0 1 5 5 12° 00-149 OO35>, | 2 | 00°2 1 5 3 23°7 2999: 1 3 5 27° 2999-155 0 99-2 In “3 56 33°2 98°7 1 Py PA 38" 97°8 1 9 Me 48: 2997°54 3 97°6 2 4s 9-6 51:1 97-314 97:31 2 97°4 1 13 Bs 53°6 | 96-785 0 tah owe 59°5 | 96-202 96:20 | 4 “3 B 66:0 95°5 In See oe 74: | 94°8 1 a5. Hea Se 82° | 94-7 1 lhe 83° 93°751 | 0 93-8 1 ee 93:3 93°5 1 wee 5 96- 93°184 ees 93°2 In roa ere: 99-6 91:9 In Saar el ass 33414: 91-520 1 91°7 In 53 Ps 18-2 90:746 90°77 3 90°7 1 pe P 26-7 90-1 1 ee al 34: os ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 159 Irn1p1uM—continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Reduction to Wave-length : | Wave-length | ven Oscillation Cts 2 Ee ee intensity) os __| Intensity! ___________| Frequency | Exner and / Bae. | Exner and os 1 ve Kayser | “‘Haschek Character) Hastliek eee A+ 2989°6 1 0°85 | 9°6 33440: 2988°335 0 A 5 53°8 87:6 1 ac a 62- 86-7 1 ate 72: 85:921 2985-94 3) 85:9 1 » | 99 80°8 83°8 l “ és) 33505: 837 |1Fe? Bc ly te 06: 82-962 0 82:9 1 0°84 oc 14:1 82-7 1 » 99 17: 82°55 1. 82°5 1 oY Ac 18°8 2 81:8 1 oC ee 27° 81-042 2 ” ” 35-7 80°776 80:80 4 ” ” 38°6 80-578 0 ” oP 40:9 80°375 0 ” ” 43:2 80:0 1 oa on 47- 79'8 1 oo “ 50: 79:2 1 as =: 56: 78°5 2 ” 2” 64: 78°2 1 =4 Ap 68- 78-056 2 78:0 1 ” ” 69°3 77°80 1 717-6 1 ” ” 72:2 103 1 ? ” 78- 76°857 0 » 2s) 82-9 76°4 1 ” ” 88 75°6 In ” ” 97° 75-062 4 ” ”? 33603-1 75:07 3 75-1 2 3 55 03:0 74:659 74°66 Vt 74:6 1 oe ma 07°7 74°220 74°24 2 74:3 1 re a 12°5 74:2 1 ” ” 13: 73°7 1 on 33 19- 72-646 0 72:5 In is x 30-4 71°205 71-20 2 71:6 2 ~ re 46:8 69:7 1 RS 9°7 64: 69:07 ] 69-2 q _ pA 71:6 68-60 1 68-7 In PA Fs 76:2 68°334 68°32 2 68°4 1 “a x 79:3 67°8 In As 85: 67-360 0 67°4 1 3 i 90:3 67-1 1 ” ” 93° 66°245 66°24 2 66:3 1 35 Pr 33703-0 65°7 1 2 = 09: 65°329 65°34 3 65°4 1 ae 7 13°3 65:095 0 An Bs 16:0 64:3 2 ” ” 25° _ 63-111 63°11 3 63°2 2 3 a 88°6 63-1 1 ais 39° 62°7 1 $5 5 43° 62-580 1 5 re 44-7 61-8 1 ” ” 54- 61°595 61:59 2 61°7 1 “5 ee 55°9 61-009 61:03 1 61-2 1 3 “ 62°4 60°3 2 70: 160 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TRIDIUM—continued. Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length . | Wave-length ; . | Intensity, Intensity an and Kayser ae Character Penet ae peer: 2959°573 0 2959-2 1 59-049 0 56°699 0 15157 (i lee 56-0 1 555 In 54-909 1 54:9 4 53-205 0 54°6 1 Fe? 52-686 0 52°7 In 51°363 2951:35 8 51:3 4 51-266 2 50°883 50°89 2 50-606 50°61 | 1 DO Gi she ol 50°4 1 49-882 49-89 3 49°8 1 48°5 In 47°48 1 47:093 47°10 3 47:1 2 45°7 1 44-0 1 43°287 43°30 8 43°3 eS 42-7 1 41-197 41-20 2 41-2 1 40-669 40-66 3 40°7 2 40°548 0 39°390 39°40 3 39°4 4 39:2 1 38°877 38°87 1 38-606 38°60 3 38-097 0 37°656 0 37°371 0 37:3 1 36°814 36°85 8 36°7 4 36°20 In 36:2 1 35°427 0 35°305 35°30 1 35:3 1 34°748 34°76 6 34-7 + 33°252 33°25 1 32°7 1 32°7 1 0 322 1 31°821 0 30°743 30°75 2 30°7 1 30°298 30°30 1 30°3 1 29°8 4 27°833 0 27:7 1 .27:129 27:14 1 2771 1 26°7 1 26°212 0 26°2 1 25:2 4 24:912 24:94 10 24:9 4 24:0 1 21:237 0 21:3 2 20°9 1 Reduction to Vacuum 1 7 ea ros A ai aa 0°84 | 97 ”> 99 ”? ”? ” > 99 99 ” ” ” th} 99 ” 29 3 29 99 > 9 te) 9 ” 9° »” be} ” ’ 9 39 ted ” ? > ” 99 be 9°8 9° 99 0°83 x 39 ”° 33 3° 3 ” 9 > 9° 99 > 99 bed ” ”? > 39 ” ” 29 3° 39 9° ” 2 99 39 999 3? 9 3° 99 9 Le] 9 ” 99 ”> 39 ” 9 29 33 9 99 99 39 3° 3? ” 9 Led 39 ” 92 ? ” 2° 9° aa 99 Oscillation | Frequency in Vacuo 33778°9 83° ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 161 TRIpIUM—continued. ites Are Spectrum a Sail Spectrum Prduciion te Wave-length jae: length | VANE. | Oscillation NI: 3 Vietensity| | ey pe een Frequency | Exner and ict =A cies and | h r | z! Nu Kayser aecner naracter Haschek leWsrdeter tl aT | | 2919°9 ] | 0°83 | 9:9 34238- | 2919-299 0 19-3 4 yeokeD 3 44°9 18-683 2918-69 3 18-7 Me tes 23 521 18-1 al . 93 59° 17°885 17°86 1 17:9 1 A as 61:6 | 16°8 | 1 ” ” 74: 16-479 16°49 / 4 16°4 of PP %» 78-0 15-793 0 157 ] . 3 86-1 15°625 0 5 a 88:1 4TH) 2 33 a 34306- 139 i 5 ne] 08: 13-7 1 ” S| Unie 13°592 0 ” ” 12:0 12°36 1 Pt? 12-4 1 3s A 26°5 11:4 1 - 3 38° 10°7 In a 35 46° 09-912 0 re “ 55-4 09-669 09-66 2 09°6 1 35 oy 58°3 | 08-8 1 ” ” 68- 08-4 ] > “P 73° 07:7 In - i 81- 07°353 07°36 3 07°3 1 53 i? 85:6 06°5 In 35 55 96° 06:0 1 a P 34402: 05-774 05°75 2, Wate al Pea | 3 35 04:5 04-913 04:93 4 04°9 ut 3 - 14:5 03°995 0 i 55 25°4 03-852 0 03°7 In 0°82 “5 27°71 03-4 In s 7 32° 02-430 0 ee re 44°] 02°09 3 01:9 1 35 3 48:0 01-2 1] HK - 59: ) 00-492 00-50 1 00:4 1 Fe 3 68-0 00°165 0 a $3 70:9 2899-733 2899-74 2 2899-6 1 35 3g 76:0 99-055 0 ” ” 84:1 98-455 2 98°5 In i 3 91-2 98:0 1 a 3 97° 97-783 0 + Fe 99-2 97-260 97:27 5 97:1 2 is 35 34505°4 97:07 1 of 10:0 07:6 95-705 0 95 7 1 ” ” 23:9 94-388 0 - . 39°6 94:0 1 oA os 44-2 93-785 0 pA ar 468 92°371 1 92-3 1 a cat | 63-7 91-7 1 as os a2 90-634 0 > 4 ws 84:5 89-688 1 89°7 1 a ee ea 95°8 88:3 1 ig on 34612: 87:240 2 5s 7 25-1 86:9 1 55 = 29° 85°615 0 on 5 44-7 85-4 1b 35 * 47° 162 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IRTDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length Kayser 2883°549 82-970 82-742 81-270 80°324 80°174- 79°878 79°515 78°632 77°781 77-108 76:096 75°721 73°929 72°227 70-698 70-304 69°815 66-798 63°955 62:°455 60°767 60-126 59-138 57-058 56-048 55-931 54°722 53°416 52°605 Haschek 2883°55 82:77 81-30 80°29 79°51 77°79 76°10 75°72 75°10 73°46 69°80 68-70 66°76 63°95 62°60 62°49 60:77 57:05 56-03 55-96 53:43 Exner and | Intensity | and \Character Wave-length Exner and Haschek and Character Intensity} Reduction to Vacuum acre CNOFRRORNWOOFD Noo ed oro 2884:7 84-2 83°5 82°6 82:2 81:7 81-1 80:2 80-1 79°5 78°7 77-7 77:1 76:1 75°7 73°8 73°4 71:9 ae, 71:2 711 70-2 69°6 67°8 66°7 65-6 62:8 62°6 61:0 60°7 60-4 60:0 59:4 58-9 58°5 57:0 56:1" 55:7 55:5 53°5 52°6 ee 6 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 163 TRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum RAANOHSD to Wave-length . | Wave-length ; AaSaBe? | Oscillation Intensity -—=————_| Intensity|_________!| Frequency K Exner and ghee . Exner and Cl and Ae sad BYSCE Haschek | patie Haschek Papeete ae A | 29523 -| 1 O81 | 10-1 | 35049- 2851-648 2851-65 In 51°6 iL oe ker 57°3 51°518 51:56 In sae itso 58-7 51-161 0 50°8 1 ro a 63°3 50-906 0 ” ” 66°5 50°5 In ase aI 3s 81: 49-848 49-86 8 49-7 6 oa |\Ptes 79°4 49-557 0 ” | ” 83:1 48°557 0 48-4 ] ze PS 95:4 46-753 0 46°8 1 BS 10-2 35117°5 46°5 ul SR hs mills 46°3 al 3 = 23° 45°245 1 Py ee 36:0 45-009 0 44°6 1 Bet || 5 39°2 42-390 42-40 2 ” ” 71:4 42°1 1 a a eee ae ios 41-798 41°80 1 et alates 78°8 41°6 1 is 4 81- 40-332 40°35 4 ” ” 96°8 40-2 4 - re 99- 39-287 39°32 6 ” ” 35209-7 , 39°2 4 ss a Le 38°3 In 9 09 21: 37-421 37°42 3 2 ” 33:1 37-2 2 =e 35 36° 36°506 36°51 4 ” ” 44-4 36°197 36°21 1 A Be 48-2 35°762 35°75 3 B15 | 1 i bs 53°8 35°408 a as 58:1 0 34:2 1 2A 5 73:1 33°777 0 a a 78°4 33°337 33°35 3 33°2 8 39 FF 83°8 32°874 2 32°6 1 a = 89-6 31:912 31:93 1 31:8 1 ” ” 35301°5 31°455 31:46 1 ” ” 07°3 30°964 5 3 13°4 30°601 30°57 2 30°4 In 55 << 18-2 30°264 3 ” ” 21-2 29-720 29-73 1 29°8 i ” ” 28°9 27:259 27:27 1 27-2 1 Ba ne 59-7 26°316 0 26°3 In a o 71-6 25:7 1 5 a 79- 25°5 1 5 Pe 82- 24-546 24°59 6 24°4 2 0°80 a 93-4 24-228 1 ” ” 97-7 23-831 0 23°7 it “3 a 35402-7 23°280 23°34 4 23°3 1 a 10:3 09-1 20:738 2 20°6 1 z FP 41-4 20-614 0 ” ” 43°0 * 19-848 0 19°8 In A an 52°4 19°3 1 ” ” 60: 17°6 1 a a 81: 17-284 0 95 | 84-9 17:039 17:04 1] 17:0 1 ” ” 88-4 164 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length | Intensity Wave-length : cathe _| Intensity) Tek | and Exner and | Exner and Kayser Haschek areal § Haschek 2816-409 0 2816-5 15°744 ea 159 | 15°5 14-966 2815-00 1 15:0 14-532 14°52 1 14:5 | 14-1 | 13°6 ies? 12°896 12:91 2 12-7 12-0 11-4 | is} 10°657 | 10°65 | 1 10°5 | 08:7 08-249 | 0 08:1 07-754 07°75 1 07-6 06°772 0 06-479 06°50 1 06:3 05°8 04-300 0 04:6 03:2 02:7 01:9 01°5 011 00-923 00-91 3 00°755 1 00-6 2799°835 2799°84 2 2799°6 99-522 0 99-3 | 98-7 98-283 | 98:29 4 98°1 97-82 5 97°6 97-456 97-45 4 97:3 96°558 96°55 2 96:3 95°7 95-4. 94-189 94°20 1 93:907 | 0 93-6 | 92-2 91°4 90-795 | 0 90-6 90-2 89:7 89-4 89-066 0 89°1 88:5 87-687 0 87°8 87°4 87:099 1 86:3 85:9 85:6 85:319 85°33 3 Character and =] Be ree Seas eae ead | Reduction to Vacuum Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 354959 355043 07: ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 165 IRIDIUM—continued. Sess ace Buea Pyectem | Reduction to | | ees : ie a fi Wel = Be | Wave-length i ) Wave-length x2) Vastom Oscillation | == _. = || Ditensity| eee ol Tatensity| == | Hrequency pieauisidaid and Ex a and 1 in Vacuo Koysor | messed Jonarnter, Hunerand lonaracten) ax | 2 2785°2 1 0:80 | 10°4 | 35894: 2783-797 0 | | 0-79 » | 309118 83-492 0 83°5 1 all eae, 15°7 83:1 1 Fa ee 21° 82-885 0 Fe ieee 23°5 82°5 In oe s 27°5 82-342 0 aoe eee 30°5 81-7 1 See nd 39° 81-401 2781:42 4 81:3 2 as 3 42°6 81-047 81:07 1 81-0 1 oan eee 47-1 80°507 80°55 1 = Ae 54:0 79°752 1 79°3 1 es oe 69-9 | 78°6 1 99 59 79° | 76:0 1 PP AS 87° 77°645 oa 3 91-3 77:536 77°55 2 | 17-4 1 hates = 92-6 77:149 j Pe 5 97°7 763 1 roe lee 36009: 75646 75°65 3 75°5 2 io iy 17:2 75073 75:09 1 74:9 6 ‘5 10°5 24:5 74685 74:73 il 3 5s 29°3 74:05 1 ioe. ll ce aoe 37°9 (BG) =) al yaaa Ns 45: 73°0 1 emt eer 52° 72547 72°58 3 72°5 1 ps a 57-2 71711 71:76 es x 3 67:0 69°6 1 o 5 96- 69:3 1 ati a 36100- 68°8 1 os ne 06: 68°5 1] “ os 10: 67°764 67°76 1 67°6 i) a <6 19°8 67-423 67:47 2 | | 23°9 66:9 1 eee patiat me 66°3 1 a3 Hp 39° 65:9 a AS re 44- 65-4 ] oo FS 51 65-2 1 5 aear || 53° 64:8 1 Be i 58° 64-1 1 Fe a: 68- | 63-9 | 1 ” ” 70: / Gare yr. I) | < 76° 63°287 0 63°3 2 ” ” 78'S 62°7 2 ar elt 86° 62-1 In BS ES 94- 61°700 0 FS a 99-1 61:227 0 61:3 In o 6 36205°3 60-474 0 | oP “6 15:2 60-207 0 606 | 1 A ry 18-7 60-009 60:00 2 ” ” 21-4 59°8 1 a + 24- 59-405 59°42 2 59°4 1 ” ” 29°1 59-100 59-11 In 9 ” 33°5 58°8 In os e 37° 58°4 1 oes a 42: 166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redon te Wave-length .. | Wave-length 4 vorre Oscillation ras 2 eee Intensity _~__| Intensity | Frequency Exner and | and Exner and | pa ee SE Kayser findahee. Character WTasehink Character) A+ , 2758°325 2758°33 2 0°79 | 10°5 | 36243:-4 2758°2 il 5 AS 45° 57°6 1 Ss La eeres 53° 56°6 1 > ee 66° 56°206 56°20 1 PR eo 71:3 56:0 1 ase Elbe ss 74: 55:8 1 cs Hae 17 55:2 1 ys x 85- 54:6 1 45 3 92- 53-954 0 53°8 2 a3 as 36300-9 53:2 1 3 a 11: 52:8 2 3 a 16: 52°3 1 a eb 23° 51:8 1 saa taaee 29- BOS 3} al: Fy 106 43° 50:0 In rf os 53° 49°3 1 a ri 62- 49-075 0 oE = 65°3 48°8 1 a es 69: 48-395 0 48°3 1 iy 35 74:3 48-0 1] 35 7 80- 47:602 47°62 1 » ” 94°7 47-383 0 “f =o 87-7 46-1 1 ay As 36405- | 45°5 1 sf “A 13- / 45:2 1 #c a 17- 445 | |] a “4 26- 44:091 44:09 3 44:] 2 Bs “a 31:3 43-769 0 43°9 1 “4 oi 35°6 43-477 0 43°5 2 Re “J 39°5 40-432 1 | 0°78 “i 80-0 40°267 40:22 1 | a = 82°5 40°166 40°16 1 | ” ” 83°6 40-085 40:08 1 | ” » 84:7 39°413 39°39 1 39-4 2 =p 3 93°7 39°3 1 6 ie 95- 38°875 0 38-7 it * 36500-7 38°4 1

2698°688 | 2 2698-7 il O77 | 5 | 98-1 1 » | 97°5 1 ” | ” 97-2 1 sive lates 96°9 1 Berle 96:010 96-04 1 55 3 95-550 95°57 ln 95:6 il > ce | 95°1 1 2” ” 94-320 94°33 5 | 94:3 2 ee Wes | 93:571 93°60 1 93°5 1 ee i eee | 93°4. 1 ” ” 92-964 | 92-99 1 9 | A 92°8 In fleas 92-429 92-45 3b" 92°4 ] i, |) oe 92-267 0 92-2 1 a os 91-998 0 ys oa 91°5 1 ” ” 91-154 91:19 1 Pr a 90-7 2 ” ” 89-769 0 | ” ” 88°381 | 0 88:2 ] 35 = | 87-6 1 x % | 87-1 1 ” ” | | 86:8 1 Ge es | 86:3 1 ain 85-7 1 ” ” | 85:1 1 Pa 29 | ior Soy’) Pees | pele cakes | 84:15 2 84:0 | 2 3 x 83°387 0 Sore ek | coll 55 35 82°8 1 ” ” 82-536 82°55 1 82:6 1 55 Ps 82-2 1 99 29 81°184 81:22 1 S13) ye el A 3 SOD a ae al » | os ) Ee Viepaatibesa Rabat as 79506 79-51 1 | 79°3 1 fran” shes 79:17 2 | ” ” | 78:7 1 A 10°9 | TB3Se Ne od age | ass 77°899 (alee 7 Hi eon | + e 36951°7 Oscillation Frequency in Yacuo 53°8 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 169 Are c Spectn um TRIDIUM—continued. ise, BEPSar um Wave-length \ anv: length | ol _|Intensity| Intensity and and Kayser ee aa aids! “Hasehek Character 2676-911 2676-93 2 2676: 3 eee | UG Na pe 75°376 | 0 Uae eS | | 75:2 1 74:3 1 73694 | 73°70 3 73°8 1 73°5 2 72888 0 73:0 1 71-930 71:93 4 71:9 1 70-006 70-01 4 1OOG SS ak 69-56 1 69:5 1 69-070 69-09 2 69-0 1 68°5 1 68-362 0 68:2 1 67:9 1 67:540 67:54 1 67°5 1 66-6 1 66-50 1 66-4 1 65:7 1 65-144 0 64°871 64:87 5 64:9 2 64:6 2 63-400 63°42 2 63°5 1 62-706 62-71 3 62-7 1 62-080 62:10 5 62-2 1 61-7 ] 61:3 2 60-163 0 60-040 0 59-7 In 58°3 In 57-993 0 57-799 57:82 1 57°7 1 57°6 1 56°898 56:91 2 56°8 1 * 56:2 1 56-1 ie 55°7 In 54670 0 54°7 In 54:033 54:05 2 53°9 1 53853. 53°86 2 53°9 1 53°7 1 552 || 1 53°124 53°13 1 50" Pal 52°76 In | 52°60 In | 52°71 l | 51:8 | 1 | 51°4 } DY Pas | | Reduction to ) Vacuum 1 Reto lie aa seks, Pi O77t 1 10:9 > ”° > ” ” ”? ”? ” ”? ” ” | 3 ” | ” 99 9 99 39 9 ” 39 > 9 9 39 3° 39 > ” | ” ” | ” ” | ” ” | ” 29 | 9 ” ” 99 ”? 9 ” ” 99 99 > 99 ” 3” ”? 39 99 39 99 99 ” ” ” | 3 99 | 39 ” bed 9 ” 9 3° ”> 2” ”> 99 | 99 > | 99 9 ” 0-76 11-0 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 97345" 5 5b: or) a = ite 170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. In1pIuM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length _, | Wave-length : _ a a Intensity, Intensity | an | an Kayser poate ‘Character erend Character 2650-584 0 2650°5 1 50:2 1 49-7 In 48°7 1 48:4 1 47°3 In 46:8 1 46-334 264635 1 4671 1 45°8 1 | 45°7 1 45:3 1 | 44:5 1 44-279 44-28 2 44:1 1 43°5 In 43°3 In 41°5 1 41:0 1 40-462 40°45 1 40-4 i 39°80 + 39°8 4 39-510 39°51 2 394 1 39-073 39-06 1 38°7 1 38°'3 1 37°8 1 37°5 1 37°407 0 37°3 1 36°967 0 36°7 1 36-4 1 35°7 if 35°353 35°35 2 35:1 1 34:513 0 34°340 34°33 3 34:2 2 33°1 1 30°5 1 30:0 1 29°498 29°49 1 29°4 1 | 29°1 1 28°7 1 28°271 0 | | 28:0 1 | 2771 1 26-844 26°85 2 25°6 1 25°396 25°43 2 24°6 1 : 24:1 1 23-736 23°75 In 23°5 1 23°0 1 Reduction to Vacuum 1 ale A 2 0°76 | 11°0 ” 9 ” ” 29 ” ” 9 9 ” ” ” ” 99 39 ” 39 9 39 29 32 99. 39 3” 3 > be 99 99 ” 3° ” ” 3? > ” ” ” 39 ” 9 39 ” 9 9? ” 29 ”? ” ” 2” 3 ” ” 99 ” 9 ” 9 ” 9 99 ” ” ” 99 ed ” ” 99 ” 9 ” ” - a | ”? ”> ” ” ” 99 ” ” bed ” ” ” ” 9? 9° ”» > ” ” 99 0 > 9 ” ° > ” ” 1 Oscillation Frequency _ in Vacuo “ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF ‘THE ELEMENTS. Are Spectrum IRIDIUM—continued. Spark Spectrum Kayser 2622-203 21-610 20°102 19-967 18-352 17-872 17-514 17-177 16-090 15-064 14-287 12-344 127136 11:384 10-198 09-996 08-314 07-608 06-668 06-081 04-645 02-122 2599°224 99-129 95°914 95-188 Wav e-length Exner and Haschek Intensity) an Character; Wavye-length Exner and Haschek | ot Intensity and | Character 2620-00 17:86 16-08 16:00 15-06 14:27 12°35 12°13 11-40 08-30 07:60 04-64 02°15 2599°15 95°93 0 0 ocoowno wp In 2621°6 211 20°6 19°9 18°7 17:8 17:1 16:3 16:2 158 15°5 1571 14-9 14:1 13°7 12:2 12°2 118 11-4 10°5 10-0 09:8 08:1 07:3 07:0 06:4 04:5 04:1 03°8 02:8 02:0 00:9 00-7 2599-4. 99:0 98°3 97°5 95°7 95-2 94-6 — me bo a no = a Se hm bo bo NRE Reduction to Vacuum 171 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo | 38124-8 172 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Wave-length . | Wave-length sre od Intensity, an * Kayser Sei Character Peers 2593-224 1 2593-0 92°7 92-146 2592-15 3 92-0 §$1-927 1 | 91°5 91-129 1 : 91:0 90°5 90-296 0 90°1 89°6 89°470 0 89-231 0 89-057 0 89-1 88-5 87:5 87-1 86-146 86°14 1 86-0 84-867 0 84:8 83°6 83-261 83°26 1 83-0 81:8 81-523 0 81-019 0 81-2 79-860 0 79°573 2 79-6 79°4 79-008 79:00 2 78°794 78:78 2 73:8 78°6 78:2 77-622 0 77:8 17°35 3 | | 75:2 74:5 74:2 73°338 0 73-5 72°784 72°79 2 72-7 | 72-459 72°47 1 72-5 727156 72°16 1 72"2, 71:9 70°70 1 : 70°5 69-962 69:97 2 68-407 0 68°6 68-1 67°6 67:0 66-7 66°442 0 | 66:2 65°3 64-922 0 Spark Spectrum |Character Intensity and oa = eo ee i Ree NH eee Reduction to Vacuum ] NG Ta ou a x 2 / 3 0575.) Wire ”? | ” 99 | ” ” 1 ” 9 ” ” 9 2” ” 2 ” > > 9 9 ” 29 ” 99 ” | ” > ” ” ”? as 11:3 ” ” ” ” 9 ” ” ” > ” 99 ” ” ” 9 EE ” 9 ” 99 ” 9 ”° 9? 9 ” ”? 9 39 ” 99 ”° ”? 9 3° ” ” ” 9 > ted .”° > ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 99 ” ” ” Pe) °° 9 9 ” ”° ” ”? ” ”° 99 99 99 > 2° ” 99 29 ” | ” 0°74 m4 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 38550°8 54° ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 173 IrRtIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum eductinn to = ; : ‘ i Vacuum Oscillation ee Mive tenet | tntensity| "8 |totensity|_____| Frequeney K Exner and Ch mee 1 Exner and Ch wae 1 saWacno ayser Minch aracter Eineehele vharacter A+ r | 2564-4 1 | 0°74 | 11°3 | 38984-7 2564-253 2564:27 2 leewer tt, Marr 86°5 64-0 2 eee MY Be: 63°365 63°36 1 63°3 In Fr af 99-9 62-999 a0) | 99 » | -89005°3 62°8 2 terre |f ees 08: 62°5 1 ” ” 13: 61°8 1 aa ne 24: 61:7 1 ” ” 25° 61-1 2 ” ” 34: 60:1 hci Ali ay of 50: 59-643 0 | > ” 56°5 59:2 1 oe a 63° 58°821 0 | ” ” 69:1 j 58:3 4 | 99 ” (We 57:7 1 | ” ” 86: 57-285 0 57:2 1 ” ” 92°6 56-860 1 % » 9971 56 5 1 ” ” 39104°6 55°955 55:95 1 ” ” 13°C 55°6 1 a Gis 18° 55-425 2 9 Py 21:0 55:1 1 sa eas 26° 54:480 54:47 2 ” ” 35°6 54-1 4 sey ” 41: 53°6 1 Teele ee 49: 51°475 51:50 2 merle ee 81-4 51:2 1 ” ” 86: 50:987 0 ” ” 89°) 49-4. 1 ” ” 39214- 49°3 1 2» «| ” 15° 49-0 l fe 11°5 20: 48-0 1 ” ” 35° 47°76 1 47°6 i ” ” 38°7 47-5 1 ” | ” 41° 47-278 47:26 1 47°2 In a 8 46-2 45°868 0 45-9 1 ” ” 67:8 45-620 45°62 1 ” ” ie) 44-4 1 ” ” 91: 44-059 44:08 4 9 ” 95°6 43-9 2 ” ” 98- . 43°5 1 | ” ” 39304- 43°2 1 oo “ 09: 42-7 1 ” ” i 42-097 42°11 2 ” ” 26:0 41°7 1 ” ” 32° 41°556 41°56 1 ” ” 34:6 41:3 1 ” ” 38° 408 1 ” ” 46° 40-483 40-49 1 40°5 1 auger 33 51-1 40°3 1 | ” ” 54° 39°6 1 | ” ” 65: 38°949 0 2 ” 74-9 38°7 i 1 | 2° ? i a2: 174 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wayve-length Kayser 2538°548 37°770 37:309 36-760 34103 32°290 30°786 30°498 30°200 29°870 29°559 28011 27°868 26856 24:953 23290 21°175 15-448 13-799 12°665 12-191 Exner and Haschek | Intensity and ‘Character 2537°78 37°30 33°24 32:63 32°29 29°56 25°16 24-99 15°45 13°80 12°66 0 1 2 Noocoo — Noe | Reduction to Vacuum Wavye-length | Oscillation Vo 2 | Intensity) {= ee Frequency Exner and |_, and 1 in Vacuo Hinechek Character) A+ “ 0-74 | 11°5 | 39381: 2538°2 1 Ke es 86° ” ” 93°1 37°6 1 A = 96° ” 99) 39400-4 371 1 ” ” 04- 36°7 1 : > 08-9 36-2 1 ” ” 18: 36:0 i zs o 91: 35°3 In ee - 39- 34:2 2 ” ” 50-2 33°7 1 ” ” 56: 33°4 1 ” ” 61: ” 9 63°6 33:0 2 a et 67° ” ” 731 32°3 1 ” ” 718-4 32:0 1 + e 83° 31°7 1 34 A 88° 31-1 1 ” ” 97° 30°8 1 = - 39502°1 30°4 2 a a 06°4 ” 11°6 11:0 + Ae 16-1 29°6 1 . ia 21°0 29°4 1 je bel cies 23° 28-4 2 ial 39 A = 45°] 27:7 1 ” ” 47:4 27°4 1 es & 55: 26°7 1 99 » 63:1 26°5 1 99 ” 69- 25:7 4 + 55 81: 25°3 1 ” ” 88- 25:1 1 fs s 89°8 24°9 1 ” ” 93-1 23°9 1 = » | 39610- 23°7 1 iy 5 13° ” ” 19-1 22°8 1 ” ” 27° 21:7 1 * id 44- 21:2 2 99 7 ” 52-4 19-9 1 ” 99 43: 19°5 1 fe Pe 79: 19-1 1 ” ” 85- 18°6 1 oe J 93° 18-1 2 3 a 39701- 178 2 0:73 a 06- 15-4 1 Es 4 42-7 ” ” 69'8 13°6 1 ae a 72: 13:2 1 ” ” 78: 12°5 8 > 9 86'8 94:3 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 175 IRIDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum | iia pad Reduction to | Wave-length ‘ | weve: tength | Vacutim | Oscillation - sd st wai aed ei gr ST | Intensity| eee PH Fequency. 'k a Es a an | 1 in Vacuo Kayser Haschek Character Hascheke Character rece oe ee —-|— Se Re ear eed = 3] = 2s. 2512-096 2512-02 1 2512°0 4 0-73 | 11°6 | 39797-0 09-798 09-80 1 09:7 1 » | 11-7 | 39832-1 08°434 08°42 1 08°3 1 ” ” 53°9 07°712 07-70 1 07-6 1 ” ’ 65-4 07:0 1 a =f 76° 06°70 1 a a 81-4 06°5 1 a 3 85- 06-2 1 ss 5 89- 05°814 05°82 1 fe = 95-4 05-308 0 | + re 39903°5 04-446 04°44 1 | os 55 17:3 03-063 03-08 3 “6 7 39-2 02°710 ~ 02°72 2 02°7 ] ” ” 44-9 01-0 1 oo 5 72 00°357 00-36 1 00:2 1 ’ 2” 82-6 2499-5 In o 3 96° 2499°36 H ff .. 98°5 98-4 1 a . 40014- 97°9 2 -F ei 22: 97-0 In 5 es 36° 2496-360 2 96:3 1 » > 46°6 95-951 0. oc a 53-2 94-9 1 ” ” 70- 94°4 1 ca 55 78° 94-2 1 os 82: 93°6 it ” 11°8 91- 93-163 93°16 2 93-2 1 ” ” 97-9 92-406 0 92°3 1 ” ” 4011071 91-778 0 ”? ” 20-2 89-6 1 = ae 55: 89-4 J ap se 58: 89-293, 0 89°2 1 ” ” 60-2 88-325 On 88:4 4 ne 3 75°8 87:6 1 43 3 88- 87:1” 1 i ie 96° 86°826 0 ” ” | 40200-1 86-463 0 86°3 1 ” ” 06-0 85-9 1 ae i 15: 85°46 1 ” > 22-2 85°3 1 Aa 5 25° 84:7 1 ce 55 35° 84:5 ] a rie 37° 84:3 1 a BS 41: 83:0 1 Sy 3 62° 82-383 0 eters ff 72-1 81-262 81:27 3 81:2 2 ” ” 90:2 80-685 0 ” ” 99-6 79°8 1 ie » | 40314 79°255 0 | 79°4 1 ” ” 23:1 | 78:9 1 aS 9 28° 78°6 1 as a 34: 78:190 78°20 1 | 78:2 1 ee re 40°1 177 1 33 “rc 48 77:3 1 3 + 55° 176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, IrIDItUM—continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | Roden a “Wav e-length | : | Wave- leggte | | Weenie _ Oscillation sats _ Intensity, _ | intensity, === ss Frequency Kayser | xner and Character = and cuted Saat A+ = ae aii ayees Hasclhiek | Haschek 7 | r | 2476-0 | 1 | 0°78:|-119 |) 40876: 2475-209 | 2475-19 3 Or Sieee Ssgoial Peas 89:0 74170 | ae! 74:3 1 » | os» |y40405°7 73°3 1 Y Cee i, op 20° 72-709 rr TEGO oF - 29-6 71:6 1 > Pre Fl 48: 70°607 0 70:7 1 ees te 64:0 707143 0 O3720)| aes 71-6 69-848 0 ” ”? 76-4 69-594 0 69:5 2 ” » 80-6 69-0 1 3 FP 90- 68°705 1 . ” 95-2 68:263 | 0 68-4 1 a ” 405024 67°45 1Pt? 67:5 1 a > 158 67382 67°37 2 67°3 1 | ” ” 17:0 66:7 1 ” ” 28° 66-1 1 tf 3 38° | 65:5 1 ” ” 48- | 65°16 1 65-0 1 bP Se Aes ae 53-4 64:96 1 | ee sant 56-7 64-462 so |. aa, a Napennee 63-118 63:10 1 63-2 1 55) | ase 87:2 62:8 1 “ S 92° 62°454 62°47 1 62°3 1 = a 97°9 618 1 “6 23 40609 58°0 1 a en 71 57°312 | 57°31 1 |: «Aes or 82-9 57°123 67°12 1 56:5 2 | 9 ” 86°6 56°882 | Mecte il 28: 30°5 1 reel 32° 30-0 1 i rf 40: 29-830 0 29-7 In ie 43-0 29-0 1 iM é 57 27-878 2 27-8 2 5 12-2 76-0 27-694 27-71 2 se alae 79-0 27-189 0 ES a 87:7 26-875 0 2 <4 93-0 26-622 26-61 1 26-5 1 a 23 97-4 26-2 1 . * 41205- 25-744 25°75 1 25:8 1 a + 12-2 25-069 25-07 1 ne 53 23°7 24-971 25-01 i 24-9 2 : fy 25-1 24°741 24-74 1 24-7 2 5 33 29°3 24-406 24-40 1 24°3 1 aaiallie 35°1 22-286 | 0 ” | ” 71:2 21-306 0 O71) 87:8 19-2 1 ws eke 41324: 18-657 0 18°5 1 3 x 33:0 18-190 18-18 2 18-1 1 rF + 41-1 18-0 1 = | 44: 17:3 1 af 4 56 16-672 0 16-8 1 + is 67-0 16-334 0 s os 72°8 15-950 15:95 1 16-0 2Rh? 3 4s 79-4 14-473 | 0 is S 41405-7 13:3 1 - ie 24-8 13-2 1 2 z 27: 12°8 2 a See 33° 12°5 In _ pare 38° Eo fol in 55 eae! 49- L907. N 178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, IRIDIUM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | eieateiaentes Wave-length ‘ | Wave-length : Yaouum Oscillation 3 Intensity, Intensity) _______| Frequency Exner and aad Exner and and 1 eee Kayser Hasche Character Tee Character) A+ ea 2411°0 1 0-71 | 12°3 | 41464: 2410°818 2410°82 1 ” ” 67-4 10-264 10°26 2 ” ” 77:0 10-1 2 ” ” 80: 09°465 09°46 1 09°5 1 ” ” 90°7 09-1 1 ” » 97° 08:5 2 33 AS 41507- 08-0 1 on ra 16: 07:66 1 55 ” 21°8 07°1 1 S » 31: 06°115 : 0 x) > 48°5 05:°955 0 05:8" In “ = 51:2 05-0 1 te FA 68° 03-6 1 aS FE 92- 03°113 0 03°1 1 ” ” 41600°4 02°8 1 ” ” 06- 02°379 1 ” ” 13:1 01:866 01°86 2 01:7 1 ” 22-0 01-2 1 is * 34: 00-4 1 ” ” 47: 2399-2 1 y) D 68° 2398°824 0 98°7 6 » ” 74:8 97:2 1 55 12°4 | 41703: 96-1 1 % 9 22° 95-974 0 Ae ” 24°3 95°4 l 9 ” 384: 94-404 2394°41 In ” ” 51:6 94-1 1 5 A 57° 93-1 1 “3 PS 74: 92-9 1 ” ” 78° 91-282 91°29 3 91:2 2 ” ” 41806°1 90-706 90°71 2 90°5 2 ” ” 16:2 89°7 1 = a 34: 89-4 1 ” ” 39° 89:0 1 + AS 46: 88-6 1 yy as 53° 87°8 1 a 67° 86°981 86°98 2 ” ” 81:5 86°665 86°67 1 86°7 2 2 ” 86:9 : 86:4 2 3 Ae 92- 1 84:8 6 co “© 41920: 83°840 0 35 of 36°7 83°1 in fe 12°5 50: 82°270 1 os 64°3 81:86 1 81:8 6 + & 715 81-714 81°72 1 ” ” 74:0 80:9 1 5 Is 88- 80°3 1 3 ss 99- 79°45 1 79°5 1 oy aa 14:0 78-0 2 oe a 40° 17-2 i +6 “ 54: 76°5 In e i 66° 758 i 5) An a9: 75:6 1 a “f 82° ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, IRIDIUM—continued. Arc Spectrum Wave-length K : Exner and se Haschek 23757195 2375-21 73°23 72°856 72°86 70°462 68-486 68:120 68-11 67-469 67°12 65°849 63-134 63°14 60-790 60°80 59-668 58°25 57623 56-674 56-68 56:388 56°122 55-082 55°11 52-705 51-492 60-136 49-790 47°329 43684 43°68 43-255 43°25 43-062 42-763 42573 Spark Spectrum 179 Intensity and Character 1 ONS bo Oe 5 5 wo — oronwn Wave-length Exner and Haschek Intensity) and Character 2375°2 74:8 73°8 73°3 72°8 69-2 68-2 68-1 66:1 64:0 63-2 62-7 61-7 60°6 59-4 58°8 58:0 57:3 56:7 55°9 55:5 53-1 50:5 52:0 51:4 50°5 48:2 47-9 47-4 46°8 46°5 46:2 45°3 43:6 43°3 42°5 41-6 40°3 bo wb — Dee eee eee Bebe Reduction to Vacuum u A+ = vr O:71 | 25 9° ” 0-70 ” ”° Le] ”° ”° 9 9? ” 3° a 12°6 9 9 ” ” 9 ’ 9 ” ”? ” ” 9 9 thd ” ” > ” ” 39 ” ” 9 ” > ”° 99 ” ” ” 99 ” ” ” 99 ” 9 ” 99 ” 99 9 9 ” 99 ” 99 3° ss 12-7 ” 99 ” ”? 99 ” 99 9° ” 9 ” 99 ” ” ” 99 ” 3° , ” ” 99 ”° 2? 29 3° ”> ” 3° > { 99 > ” | ” 9 . 9 ” %9 o3 | 99 eo) ress Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 41989: 96: 180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. IrR1ipDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Radanmee de Waye-length | _ | Wave-length : ie Oscillation | Des. Vee ae Raiinteneitya le Intensity; —— = Frequency Exner and Cl ate Exner and ies Nee glee aR ENe Kayser Flaschel haracter Eiaadhale Character | | | 2340-0 2 0°70 | 12:8 | 42722: | 39:2 1 ED as Spee) 2337:°628 | 0 oe cf 65:6 elope S| aed Fe 3 81- 34°575 2334°57 1 | Seo We il + or 42821°6 34406 0 | Ba ot Nike wL nes ‘5 24°6 33°917 33°95 1 33°8 1 , ” 333. | 33°372 33°37 1 oy “ 43-7 | , 32°7 1 “5 = 56> 32°3 1 £ - 63° | | 31:8 1 a astm hoe | 30°5 1 os a a 96° 29-469 0 | 29°5 2 5 5 42915-4 | 29-0 1 a e 24: 28°790 0 a sta 27:9 28-598 0 beats ss. ame 31:5 28°324 0 ss “A 36°5 28:1 In “ = 41- 28:046 0 rs si 41-7 27:2 2 “0 12°9 57: 26-0 1 “- sn 79° 25°8 1 ss i 83- 25°5 1 os ~ 89: 25°029 1 ° ~ 97°3 24°754 0 BS a 43002°4 24-006 0 24°1 1 . ea 16:2 23°7 2 + Pa 22° 22°7 1 oo * 40: 22°3 1 0-69 5 48: 21°622 21°61 1 21°5 1 * 35 60°5 21-481 21°49 1 s oy 63:0 20:0 1 e 5 UNI 18°3 1 an 8 43122: 17°4 2 a > 39° 16°8 1 + op 50° 15-46 — 5 ep 75°1 14:9 4 55 = 86: 141 1 $5 13-0 | 43200: 12°5 1 of a 30° 12:0 1 - 53 40: 11°6 1 bs a 47° 10°9 1 3 » 60: 10-4 1 9 ” 70: 10-1 1 *p “e 75° 09°6 1 4 = 84- 09°4 1 . PH 88- 09-00 1 55 e 95°8 08:8 1 rae a ee 43300: 06°7 1 ” % 39- 05:54 1 05°5 In ss 95 60:8 04:6 Tr J 34 » 78: 04:30 2 | f |, Sas hip IRs 84-1 | 04-0) | 1 erst Ne ee 90- 01:5 he lee » | 43437: ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, Kayser Wave-length Are Spectrum Exner and Haschek 2300°11 2295-19 64-73 59-00 55:22 53°60 IntprumM—continued. Intensity | | and | |Character | Spark Spectrum Wave-length Exner and Haschek 2300°8 00°5 2299°8 97°3 96°3 95-2 94:5 93°7 92°5 91°8 91-0 89°5 88°3 87:0 85-7 84:6 81-7 81-2 80-6 78°5 et 17:3 77-1 76:3 75°6 72:5 71-4 68-9 68°5 68-1 67°8 65°3 64:7 63-0 62°4 62:2 59:3 58°8 58:4 57:5 57:1 56:5 56-0 55:5 55°3 53°3 52:0 51°5 50°7 49-4 48°8 Intensity and Character — DRM RK DDD RRB RR RK RE EP NNN ERE NNN RR RR Ree be eee bbb i) Reduction to Vacuum 1 Hap a 0°69 | 13:1 ” 9) ” ” 9 ” ” ” ” 92 ” aa 2? 39 ” 9 > 99 9 9 9 ” > 99 oF 13:2 ” 9 ” ” ” tb) ” > ” 2? ” 99 ” 99 0:68 ss 99 2° 99 > be) 9 oe 13°3 ” ” 9 ” 39 ’ 39 ” ”> 9 > ” ” 39 33 39 is 13°4 ” ” 39 99 9 ” 9 9 9 9 3 9 9 79 > 99 99 39> bE ” 9 ” 3 9? 9 29 ” ”? Leo bed 9 ” ties 13°5 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 181 182 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Ir1pIuM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length _ Intensity Kayser Exner and Haschek | and Character Exner and Haschek 2242-80 2247-7 46:7 45:5 438 42°6 40°5 38°7 38°3 38°1 37°1 36°3 34:3 34:0 33°2 32:0 24-2 20:6 19°3 18°9 12°4 11:2 10-2 08-7 05:0 2197°5 96-1 92-2 90°3 87:0 78°5 69°3 52°6 51:7 Wave-length | and | Character A+ Intensity. ——— | Reduction to | | Vacuum Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 0°68 =] a i il ie ee re ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 185 p. 53 (1897 ). OsMIUM. Kayser, ‘ Abhandl. kénigl. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin,’ 1897. Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitz. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cv. p. 727 (1896), evi. Rowland and Tatnall, ‘ Astroph. J.’ ii. 186 (1895). Exner and Haschek, ‘ Wellenlingen-Tabellen der Bogenspektren der Elemente,’ Leipzig und Wien, 1904. Adeney, Photographs of Ultra-violet Spark Spectra, ‘Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc,’ (2), vii p. 331. Are Spectrum Wave-length Kayser 5728-735 5523°786 02-789 5149-895 03°670 5031-988 4937°522 12-771 4899-386 65-759 16°105 4794:177 63-263 55:332 44-050 38:508 38-215 4692-220 63-977 42-010 34-930 32-000 16:948 4597-321 95:206 51°461 50°584 48-836 40:093 29-848 25-035 Rowland and Tatnall 4616:944 4551-463 50°571 48-827 40-087 29°842 25:035 | and Haschek 4692:20 63°99 34°94 32°01 16°94 4597°35 95-22 51:50 50°59 48°85 40:10 29°88 25:03 racter PNNrFOUNNOFOCrFNNWNh bo me bw Re © 0 wop, Spark Spectrum _| Wave- ears length | sity S|) pha - Exner and, Cha- Haschek | racter 55 5 or lor) co Be a ae ee Fa a ne Ne et et a a ee | Reduction to Vacuum | Oscillation | Frequency in Vacuo 17451:2 180986 67:6 19412-7 19588°3 19867°5 20248-1 20349°5 20405°1 205462 20758°0 20852°9 20983°8 21023°2 184 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, __ OsMi uM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spactrum me Raduuisenae ines > folic? Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Se eee sity length sity | Rowland | Exner and ——| and || 1 Kayser and and Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | A+ == Tatnall | Haschek | vacter | Haschek | racter x | 4523-5 1b 1:24 61 20:06 | 10 33 55 20°5 1 ” ” | BO-2 ho! ko We tena 4519-050 0 Os ol ei ot A 14:445 0 os ~ | 11:0 | Ib BS fe 07:590 | O | 5S a 03°474 or 1:23 =n 3 Peeetice le eleenen born. 4490°3. In op) Gre 4488-771 | 4488-766 | 4488°75 1 88-7 1 a ~ 84:935 84-930 84:94 | 3 84:9 2 % is | | 84:3 | 1 ” ” 79°974 | 79-976 | 79°98 | 2 800 | 1 3 * 667134 66-121 | ee 66-2 cae ES i ae 62-473 62-470 | ae ee ee 2 59-790 59°781 | 59:80] 1 hee iS 59646 | 59°658 = 559-68 eu! ae fan a a5 > | | 58°5 1 ” ” 47-535 47:520 4752 4 47°5 2 a 3s 45°854 45-850 1 458 1 i BS 45:°582 1 . >, 39-808 39-810 39°80 | 2 39°8 1 re 5 37°258 37°257 37°26 1 37:3 1 3 - 36°490 36-488 36°48 | 5 36°5 2 > -s 36:0 1 rp is 32°584 32°582 | 32°59 | 3 32°6 2 a 5 28-059 1 + 63 | 24°7 1b 1:21 - 23°7 1 5 is 20°639 20:633 20°64 | 12 20°66 10 a 5 11-298 EUBOs eT a is 10°899 1 05:0 1 eS es 04:375 04°378 04:40 | 2 04:3 l = ea 02-901 02-904 02°92 | 3 6 93 00°751 00-747 00°75 | 2 00-7 In * A; 4397-424 | 4397-427 | 4897-45 | 4 4397°5 2 * * 95-040 95-042 95:05 | 8 95:08 | 8 . ss 91:251 91-242 91°30 | 2 91:3 2 1:20 > 90-406 0 “6 3 90-0 In ss 5 86-485 1 86:5 1 = 6-4 85-068 z 0 85:1 In a 5 77:070 77-068 77:05 In 77:0 1 55 = 70°826 | 70°824 70°84 | 3 70°8 2. meres AF 65:835 65°837 65°85 | 5 65°83 | 4 | ,, ms 61:126 0 61:2 In as % 58°318 | 58-304 58°31 1 58:3" | 2n hs > 58°157 58-153 58°16 | 1 | ye, ee 56°6 1 1:19 3 54631 54-626 54°64 1 54:6 1 a 35 53°7 ee |i 3 51-695 51°691 51:72 | 3 |). Os ss Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo | f | ON WAVE-LENGTH TAGLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 185 Osmi1uM—continued. | Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Baduetion to ea eh |i STS Pe Vacuum Wave-length ‘Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation) = : | sity | length sity |~ Frequency| Rowland Exner snd” \\qy eet ae \ensand. 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and and Cha- |Exner and) Cha- | A+ =: Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter a | 4345-75 | 1 | 1:19 | 64 | 23000- 44:83 1 N39 a 09: 4342-681 | 4342678 | 42°70 | 2 ” ” 20:8 38-913 38919 | 38°91 | 3 4338-9 2 ” ” 40:8 33°11 1 | ” ” 71:7 28-838 28:840 | 2885 | 5 | 2883! 6 ; ” 94:5 26-413 | 26-416 26-41 4 | 26:4 2 » ” 23107-4 | 22:9 1 ” ” 26° 19513 | 19502) 1950] 2 | | Pt 44-4 | 18-15 | In | | US oes. 51°7 17°754 17°743 ETT ” ” 53°8 | 12-4 a “ 83° 11-561 11-560 Pel het TVDOu SS | 55 x) 87:0 | 09-041 09:041 | 09°05 | 3 09-1 es Wess » | 238200°6 07:9 1a er 65 Oye 05-440 05-45) 1 05:5 |.1 »» » 19°9 00:0" | 1 ” ” 49: 4299-870 | 4299-856 | 4299°87 | 1 | 9 > 50:1 | 4298-6 a ek 57: 97-556 97:538 | 97:56 | 1 97.6 2 ein: sh tt G39 62°6 | 96-381 96-383 96°40 | 3 O6:Ar eds | hae ngs 68-9 | 94°105 94°113 94-14 | 10 94:05} 10 | ,, » 81:2 $3:10) jeer KB ae Lis egy | Se ” 86-7 92°70 | In: |. cp 93- 88:13 | 1 ~ 3) 23313°7 86-056 86-056 86:05 | 3 86:1 2 » ” 25:0 84:44 | 1 84-6 Pr v5 | 33°8 | 81°535 81-529 81:54 | 1 81:5 1 9 » 49-6 77°315 77°302 77°30 | 2 77°4 ey al lea ly) ” 72-7 75-074 75064 75°10 | 2n 5:2 oi % ” 84-9 73°984 sy lass 90-9 72:0 1 ; oS 23402 70°952 70°945 70°95 | 2 71:0 1 oe A 07°5 69-9 1 =: ”» 13: 69-767 69°767 69°78 | 3 69-7 1 » ” 13-9 69-526 69-521 69°53 | 2 “5 9 15°3 64°893 64°903 64:91 | 3 65:0 2 = 5 40°7 646 | 1 = 3 42- 61-011 60-993 61:01 | 15 60-98 | 10 ” ’ 62-1 52-718 52-690 52°73 | 2 52°7 ae 35 66 23507°8 51°321 51°331 51:40 | 2 51-4 In % ” 15°3 47°69 | In ” » 35:6 43°32 | In LAlGat 235 59:9 41-682 41°679 41°70 | 2 Hime” «eects 68:9 37°31 1 33°6 2 ne ae ot 93°3 33-630 33°613 33°65 | 4 Saran yi 55 23613°8 32°20 | 1 seals. as 218 29°531 29°51 1 eS as 36°7 26°675 | 26°72 | 2 Bi, . eaeeceet | 52°5 | 19°84 | 1 19:9 In s ea 91-0 19-005 18-991 19°02) 1 19-0 In ” ” 95°7 15°33 | 3 15-4 1 sah leeiaraeralt ce loce 14:06 | 4 140 | 2 ” is eal 23°5 12-028 12-007 12:06 | 15 12:02 | 10 ” ” 34:9 186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | A f pans 2's Besar to | | acuum Wave-length Inten- | Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation eT SS ee = | sity length | sity ;— | | Frequency Rowland | Exner | and |—— and | 1 in Vacuo Kayser and and | Cha- |Exnerand| Cha- | a+ | —— | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter A 4208°1 In 116 | 6°6 23757° 4205:40 | 2 05:4 In a is ~ 72:3 04:76 2 04:8 In % ” 76:0 02°25 5 5 55 90-2 4201°541 | 4201-528 01°59 4 01:5 2 ” ” 94:1 4195°31 2 4195°4 1 3 6°7 23829-4 94°37 1 94:5 1 5} 5 34°8 93-06 1 93-0 In op na 42-2 92-80 24 ” 2” 43°7 92°35 2 92°5 1 is = 46°3 4190-059 | 4190-052 90:07 7 90-1 2 ” ” 59°3 86°50 1) ” ” 79°6 85°18 | 1 ag > 87-1 84:30 | 3 84-4 2 fs - 92°2 82°64 2 82-6 In PA ” 23901°6 80-4 In s A 14: 75°783 75°781 | 75°78 6 75°78 8 - a5 40°9 74:77 1 75:0 1 i3 5; 46°7 73°391 73°386 73°40 8 73°35 8 %9 ” 54°6 72°708 72°710 72°71 8 72:7 2 ” ” 58°6 70:97 1 % 55 68°5 66°5 1 1:14 is 94° 66-0 1 ” ” 97: : 65:0 1 35 * 24003: 61:09 1 61:1 1 - a 25:5 60°45 2n 60°5 1 is a 29:2 60°15 2 60:2 1 5 a 30°9 58°948 58°98 3 59-0 2 ” ” 37°7 53°80 1 i ¥ 67:6 53°53 2 53 oe 69-2 52°79 1 = a Wad §2°448 52-455 5 a - 75°5 50:90 2 51-0 1 5 sé 84:5 48°4 1 m Pe 99-0 47:50 | 2 47°5 1 bb 6:8 24104:1 44°74 1 Pi 55 20:2 43°33 1 38:9 1 53 55 28°4 38021 38°013 38:00 | 4 38:0 2 9 ” 59°4 35°955 35°945 35:96 | 16 85°93 10 i i 71:4 » 35°20 | 2 35:0 1 . 5 75'8 32°3 lb iy ny 93° 31:20 | 2 31:2 1b PA 35 99-2 29-114 29:°124. 29°12 shit 29°2 2 1:13 a 24211°4 | Boe eR hi Tih Bee 7 12: 27°45 1 27:5 1 a 5 21-2 26°26 1 26-2 1 i - 28°2 25-44 1 25°5 1 x Ap 33°0 24-760 24-762 24:76 |.3 24:8 2 55 a 37:0 16°71 In + ms 84:4 16°40 In 15:0 lb *; s 86°3 12°177 12°185 12°19 12 12°12 8 5 a 24311-2 11:19 2 | - 5 17:1 09°22 1 09°3 In re Ff 28°7 08°14 2 08-0 In 55 Ps 35:1 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 187 OsMIUM —continued. | Arc Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Braniion to ee eiietens ak reer a Se ee Vacuum Wave-length Inten- Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation = : --—— —j| sity | length sity |———j | Frequency Rowland Exner and | and | 1 in Vacuo Kayser an and | Cha- Exnerand, Cha- | a+ nae Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | x | | | 41063 | 1 113 | 68 | 24346: 4105:60 | 2 aia 50:2 03°80 | 3 | 00° 2 5 35 60°9 4100°436 | 4100-446 00°46 | 3 a me 80°8 4098°233 | 4098-264 | 4098-29 | 3 4098°3 aegis 6-9 93°7 97:087 97-090 2 aero al] es 24400- 97-004 2 Ihe aetna ae ss 00°8 96:26 | 1 Posen lane 05°6 91-980 91:977 91:99 | 6 91:98 | 4 UGH IPA bao 31-1 91-18) | Ia cen os 35°9 90-922 90°99 In 91:0 1 ” ” 37:3 88°598 88-593 88°58 83 88-6 1 i mae) 51°4 | 84:8 UR eres all eee t 84- 76°85 | 1 Fe oe 24521°8 75°02 | 1 = fet Iai 32°9 74:829 74°834 74:83 | 4 74:9 Des ees IDEs 34:0 73°768 73°763 73°78 | 4 73°8 1 Fo +6 40°4 ‘71°716 imei | 3 (ie 1 % ” 52°8 71°169 71-162 71:15 | 2n 71:2 2h OW ” 56:1 71-020 71-008 71:01 | 4 a leMecate | 57:0 66-862 66°848 66°85 | 10 | 66-82 LQ iss ” 82:1 66-460 66-464 66°47 | 2 eae ” 84:5 1 62°8 ines eos » | 24607: 61:78 lear eee 12°8 60°85 ] 60:9 1 AS 18°5 56°49 In Pitas PARR 44°9 55859 0 op 48°8 55-646 55:641 55°65 | 2 55°6 1 A x 50-1 53°96 | In 53°9 1 itl 4 60:3 53°417 53°407 53-40 1 ee Sve RS RA ia Me 63-7 51-584 51:580 | 51:59 | 2 51°6 1 4 3 84°8 ) 50°72 1 50°7 1 a 7:0 80:0 50°3 1 Fe be 83° 48:216 48:197 | 48:20) 3 48:3 dea fh 5s » 95°3 42°95 1 a 5 24727°4 42:081 42-073 42:09 | 4 42:1 2 ” » 33:2 39°6 1 PA a 48: 38°813 0 ” | ” 52:7 38°809 38°80 | 1 38°8 1 Ereaa ber: 52°8 38°782 2 : es 52:9 38°017 38:00 | 2 379 1 ” » 57:7 36°640 36°634 36°61 1 36°6 1 aoe alms. 6671 35-249 35°250 35°26 1 35°3 1 ” ” 74:6 | 33°095 33°12 |1Ga? 33:0 1 ” ” 87:8 30°8 In Bs is 24802- 29°7 Er Gs Ss Af 09: 24:0 In ot 3 44: 22°9 In o 7 51: 20°56 | 1 20°6 In a a6 65:2 18°425 18430 18°38 | 4 18-4 ME aes aa al 78:5 15°203 15°211 15:18 | 2 15:2 Lp Vi TOR esa 98-4 15:1 1 a satel 99° 12°60 |1Ti? 12°6 1b A » | 24914: 1114) 1 11:0 1 Pf | 23:6 | REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, OSMIUM— continued. | a | Kayser | 4004184 | 03-652 | 3999-110 96-979 95°103 88-785 88-340 79°524 77°389 75°596 69°832 65°106 63°74 61°159 60°656 527904 49-925 39°704 38°739 31-660 30°148 28-691 28°557 26°923 25°253 15-543 Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Slate | Reduction to | Be F. Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- —________—_| sity length | sity | Rowland | Exner and |—— ; and il and and Cha- Hxner and| Cha- | a+ Nara Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | Nei 4005°327 | 4005-29 5 LTO) 7:0 04-193 04:18 | 3 4004-2 2 PN ee 03-652 03-64 4 | 03-6 | 2 Sal pel 01:50 1 01-4 | Ib ‘3 9 39997103 | 3999-10 2 3999°2 | 1 ” ”» 98-2 In ” 29 96:972 96:99 2 ” » 95-096 95:10 2 ” | 2 91-640 91-66 2 | ” | ”? 88°783 88-76} 1 | | cael Re 88-343 SSro 20a | 88°3 1 ” ” | 85°6 1 ” ” 79-521 79°53 if | 79:5 In é a 77°391 77:39 Los 77-33 | 4 ” ” 75598 Topo | <3) OND laud 1:09 | 74:00 | a3 ” | ilep 1 ” ” | EG 1 ” "s9 69°835 69°82 |} 4 | 69°8 1 » Py | 66°6 1 ” ” 65°112 65°08 oe | 65°1 1 aoa (Bikes 63°777 63°80 10 | 63°80 6 asehalleei>s 63°48 1 ” ” 61°163 61:2 2 ” ” 60°653 60°65 | 3 60°6 1 ” » 58:0 1 ” ” 57:80 In ” 2” 55°53 | 2 ny: 7-2 54°72 In ” ” baoe 1 ” ” 52°91] 52°91 2 53-0 d ” ” 49-921 49-93 3 49°99 | 1 2 ” Bl 49°3 In 9° 9 40°20 1 ” ” 39°708 39°71 3 39°7 1 ” ” 38°739 38°74 1 38°7 2 ” ” 36°6 1 1-08 % 35°67 1 | 35-7 1b ” | ” | 31-660 31:70 20 | 31:7 1 Tet ie ic 30°138 30°14 4 30°1 1 sare Wieden 28-681 28°68 | 3 28°6 | In Prd fait neh 28°554 28°57 2 I PEN Aas 28°31 it ” | ” 27°40 1 | ” | ” 26°916 26°93 2 26-9 1 | she Wid tas 25°244 25°25 2 25-2 1 on SS 22°15 | 2 22°2 1 > ” 21-00 2 | 21:0 1 ” ” 19°107 19-09 1 | | ” 29 18°888 18°85 2 | ” ” 0 | ” ” 11°95 2 | ” ” 10°7 1 ” ” 07°78 | 1 73 | | Oscillation "| Frequency in Vacuo 24959-9 66-9 | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 189 OsmMiuM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Rolston to i Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation ae a —— sity length sity |__| _|Frequency Rowland Exner and —--—- and | 4 | in Vacuo | Kayser and and Cha- Exner and| Cha- IN lel me Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | a 3906-28 1 3906-2 1b 1:08 | 73 | 25592°5 | 05°65 | 1S8i? | pk allen terrae | 96°6 | 05:2 11] chet he Sa aaa ee 25600° | | | 03:2 | lb } ” } 29 13° | | | 02:0 WS enliats ts. els 21: Peeeul-S51 | 3901843.) OFe7 | 5S | Ore |P2 |, | 21:5 OUIEr eZ | O11 1 Pane las Bs a 26-1 00°541 | 00°527 00°54 4 00:5 | 1 or lie EAST ae 30°2 | | 389918 | 1 | } a 5 39°1 | | | 97°30; 1 | | ” ” | 515 — 3895-331 | 3895°305 95°34 | 2 3895°3 1 fe ded ae 64:5 95:023 | 95°05 1 95:0 | 2 satel meatoste ae 66:4 94°83 | 1 | a9 ae bl 67°8 | 93°40 In 9271. | Tb ns Pra | eat | 92:99 Ht ry ta 79:9 | 91°75 1 “fs 88:1 | 88:97 1 ae Blt es 25706°5 | 86°91 2 86:9 1 AS | ewe 20-1 | | 85:90 | 2 859 | 1 3 i |) BS | | 84°75 1 ” ” 34°4 | 83°5 In es oa 43° | 82:02 4 82°0 2 ” ” 52°5 | 80°93 2 80°9 1 ch = 59-7 78°65 3 an “ 74:9 78:05 3 > 2 78°9 | 77°45 2 i (ae eal eh aes ” 82°8 76971 | 7691] 8 MGS ede 2) » 86-2 75°82 In I PSs = 93-7 | 75°26 1 + a 97°4 | 74:2 In an 5 25804: 73°86 2 73°8 In = 33 06-7 73°17 1 “ 93 US Tl 1 ne oS 25° 69°15 1 aa - 38°2 68°83 2 68°8 1 55 os 40°3 66°65 2 ot 5 54:9 | 66°19 1 op oe 58-0 65°59 6 “8 an 62-0 65°19 2 ¥ oat | 64:7 62:7 1b a of 81: 60°95 i aS ne 93:1 59°8 1 o “ 25901: 57:24 10 57:2 2 ; 5 18:0 54°86 2 54°8 1 1:06 “p 34:0 53°75 2n 9 55 41-4 53°60 3 53°6 1 rs es 42°5 | 50°11 10 s aS 66:0 | 48:94 1 49:0 1S eat ieeray Boer 73°9 | 47°71 1 9 eds 82:2 | 47-4 1 +6 Pod ¢| 84- 47°01 1 pene aise 86:9 46°55 2 466 In Peres hse had 90-0 45°81 1 | ” ” 95-0 44:95 1 ees » | 26000°8 190 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continued, Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum oe ae A ee eg to | acuum Wavye-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation = —| sity | length | sity |--—~7———|Frequency Rowland Exner and | — -| and | 1 in Vacuo Kayser and | and Cha- |Exner and! Cha- | a+ | —— Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | Lae 3843-°77 | 3 | 3843-7 1 1:06 | 7°3 26008°8 42-40 | 1 - 3 18:1 41:80) 1 fs ‘a 22-2 41-41 | 5 41-4 2 as 4 24:8 40-44 | 10 40-4 2 * " 31:4 36°18 10 36-2 2 ” ” 60°3 32°5 1 of 3 85: 32°33 | 2 oo) Ba?) 3 * 86°5 31°55 | 1 6 x 91°8 30°26 | 1 5 = 26100°6 29:20 | 1 5 :. 07:8 27:30 | 3 27:2 1 > = 20°8 26°78 | 2 26°7 1 3 ip 24°3 26°5 1 5 4 26-2 23°47 | 1 a5 i 47-0 22:06 | 2 22:1 In 5 i 56:6 21°80 | 2 21°8 In ss in » 58-4 18:80 |2 Pt? | Ps i 78:9 esau bo S| 1 9 an 80: 18°21 2 ” af 4 82 9 18-0 lb i a 84: 17°78 2 ”? 2” 85:8 14:42 | 2 14-4 1 1:05 3 26208-9 14:20 | 1 | . - 10-4 12-45 | 2 | 124 1 - - 22°5 | Ta ed i * 32: 10°59 | 1 10°6 1 if As 35:3 09:80)) 1 | O9-7 1 5 a 40°7 | [) 0:8: feel Delle 54: 04:27 | 1 A s 78:9 02°77 | 2 02°7 1 3 = 89-2 O1'75 | 2 01:7 1 = xs 96°3 01-40% In BA oA 98-7 01:23 1 ” ” 99-9 00:90 | 1 5 a 26302°2 | 00°58] 3 00:6 1 i 5 04:4 | 00:06) 1 6 a 08-0 379786 | 1 3 SS 23°2 95°83 | 3 3795°8 1 “a a 37°3 95-2 1 es _ 42° 94°84 | 3 94-9 1 5 5 44:2 3794-054 94:08 | 10 94:1 4 a 5 49-5 94:02 | 4 ¥s ba 49-9 92°18 | 1 an “ 62:7 91:23 | 1 4 a 69:3 90:90 | 4 90:9 2 FA 5: 716 90:244 90:29 | 6 90°26 | 4 ” ” 76:0 89°25 | 3 | 89:2 1 n 5 83-0 89:04 | 1 ea ie 84:5 86:14 |1Ti? 86:1 1 + Sg 264C4-7 85°88 | 1 858 In + = 06°5 85°82 | 1 3 a 07:0 84:6 1 rp a 15: 84:3 1 % . 18: ON WAVE-LENGTH 'TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 191 OsMIuM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Pitiction to | vos SLi) = aeeci= ar | «vacuum | Wave-length TInten- | Wave- — Inten- Oscillation —- - - ——— —- sity length sity ~ Frequency Rowland Exner and |—— and | | ia in Vacuo | Kayser an and Cha- Exnerand Cha- | A+ | —— | | | Tatnall | Haschek racter Haschek racter : 3783°82 | 2 3783'8" |) 1 LObM 74: 26420°9 82-90 1 3 23 27°4 82°34 | 20 82°34 | 8 wp se 31°3 81:99 In = 3 33°7 80°74 1 80:7 1 > » 42-5 80°37 2 80°3 1 5 - 45:0 79°6 1 5 % 50- 17-13 | 6 Rite: 1 = 5 67°7 76°40 | 3 76-4 1 1:04 55 72°8 76°16 1 76-2 1 ss ~ 74:5 76:10 1 PP ” 75:0 74:77 | 3 74:7 1 > ”» 84:3 74:55 | 3 74:5 1 ss 3 85°8 74:30 1 a 35 87:6 13°95 | 2 » ” 90-0 72°09 | 2 72-0 1 » 75 26503° W178, | 2 71:7 1 es > 05-2 3771-040 71:00 | 2 jad 1b » 9 10-7 70°48 1 ” ” 14:3 69-44 1 : ” ” 21-6 68:27 | 4 68°3 1 » 2 29°9 66°43 4 66°4. i > ” 42°8 64°83 1 64°8 In ; 2 54:1 64-1 1 5 e 59 60:9 1 5 5 ye 60°40 | 2 60°4 1 5 es 85-4 58°25 1 L 5 26600°6 57-21 3 S12 1 % 3 08-0 56°91 1 5 ee 10-1 56°8 1 ” ” 1l- 56°70 1 ” oe 11°6 54°65 In 54:6 2 9 5 26°1 53°99 1 ys PA. 30°8 52°69’) 20 52°68) 10- | ,, _ 40-1 52:06 | 2 52-1 1 oe ss 44°5 51:9 1 3 xs 46: 51-45 | 2 51°4 1 oe Ps 48°8 50°95 | 2 Ap os 52:4 60°72 | 2 Fe in 54:0 49:99-| 1 Bs 33 59-2 49-18 | 2 % 2 65:0 48-4 1 p 2» 71: 47°18 1 53 3 79-2 3746-612 46°60 | 4 46°5 2 a A 83°3 44-52 1 s ; 98-2 44:00 1 5 3 26701°9 43°80 1 Ff a 03°3 41:66 | 2 41:7 In 3 35 18-6 41:22 | 2 41-2 1 3 ; 21:7 40°39 1 Fs a 27°7 40:20 | 1 Bs 5 29-0 37:1 1 1-0, os 51- 35°66 | 2 35°6" 1 ay FP 61:5 35°36 | 1 re rf 63°7 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsmituM—continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- / Tnten- | - ——_—_—_—— | sity | length | sity Rowland | Exner | and |————| and | | Kayser and and | Cha- |Bxner and! Cha- | | Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter | | = |S = + | 373470 | 1 oo 00 32°99 1 3732-9 In 31:95 | 2 31:9 1 30°88 | 3 30°90 29°37 | 3 | 28°85 | 1 28°52 | 2 28°5 1 26°13 1 | 25°45 | 2 25-4 1 22°11 2 22:1 1 | 20°27 10 20°3 2 | 20-1 2 | 19°64 10 15:6 2 | 18°87 | 1 18°49 | 3 | 18:51 (Oa. | | 18:06] 2 18:1) 5 ty sy: a ate | | 17:00 1 | 16°48 | 2 | 16°38 | 3 16-4 | In 15-2 lb 14:13 | 2n 13°88 | 4 13:9 2 12°99 | 2 | 12°60 | 2 | 11°9 | 1 09°30 | 5 | “06:72; |, 4 06:6 2 | 04:2 1 3703°391 | . 03:40 | 4 03-4 2 02°95 | 2 01:75 | 2 01:6 di 01°45 1 01-4 1 00-688 | 1 00-45 | 2 00-4 1 3698°98 | 2 3698°9 1 95:9 In 95°80 1 95°35 1 95:4 In 94-53 | 1 94-4 In | 93:8 | In 93°15 1 92°80 | 1 92°75 | 4 al ot | 3691-750 | Oe 4 | 90°88 | 2 89°5 1 | 89°191 | 89-21 5 89-1 2 | 88:05 1 87°40 1 | 87:19 | 1 87-1 pod Reduction to Vacuum 1 At — a A | | ape 1:03) eae5 ” / ” ”? ” ”? re) ” ” ieee Plats ” | > ”? ” An 76 ” | 299 ” ” ” ” ” | ” ” ” ” | 9 ” || eas ” ” 9° 99 ” 1 ao ” ” 29 °° oe ” ”» ” »? | ” ” | 99 ”? } 39 ” ” ” 2? ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”? ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:02 “p ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 3 99 > cF) ae Sb ” | ” ” ” ” ” ” | ” ” 1 iss ” 2? ” ” ” o | 26768-4 | 26900°2 | Oscillation | Frequency, in Vacuo 77:0 80:7 | 88-1 95°8 | 99-6 09- 16-6 18-4 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 193 OSMLUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | | Reduction to | ae Vacuum | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation - - ' sity length sity ~~ | Frequency) Rowland | Exner and |—————/ and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and and Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | A+ =— | | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | A | | | | | | | 3686-2 1 1:02 | 7°6 27121: | 368555 | 1 » » 25-4 } | 84-70 2 | ” ” | 316 | 84:5 1 3 : BBe | | 84:00] 1 84:2 1 i 5 36'8 3681-705 | 81:74 | 3 81:7 WR ass. ihadee 53°5 | 78:40) 1 a OR oe 78:0 7815 | 2 78°2 1 ret 79°9 75-599 | 7560 | 4 | 75:5 1 » 23 | 98-7 | 74:67 1 ae tas 27205°6 73°3 STD elm 55 as al 16- | 73:01 1 abl mene 17:9 | 72:1 1 eee sah ot 25° | | m60} 1 | | oes 28-4 71-040 | 3671-040 71:05 | 6 win | 2 eth een 32°5 | 69°85 1] Fr ES 41-4 69°63 | 1 se as 43-0 69:25 | 1 | ess 5 45'8 | | 68:34} 1 684 | 2 Ly alee 52°6 | | 66°48 | 4 66°4 ye Ue. at * 66:4. 65:1 2 5S 35 17° 61:40 | 2 61:4 1 , ” 273043 60°92 1 | 1:01 Bs 07°8 59°8 In a5 16: 57:57 | 1 Pr 3 32°9 57:048 57-053 57:05 | 6 57:1 2 Pr) » 36°7 56°55 | 1 a a 40°5 . | 5495 | 1 5 bs 52:5 54631 54:639 | 54:64) 5 54°6 2 5 EF 54:8 53°873 53°86 | 3 53°9 1 5 2 60°6 | 53°35 | 2 a i 64-4 | 5052 | 2 oe Ga 85-7 | 50-4 | 1 Pods TS 87: 48-962 | | 48-94) 3 48-9 1 se 3 97-4 | 48°45 2 48-4 1 Ap a 27401-2 45°28 | 1 a a 25-0 | 42°65 | 2 9 és 44:8 | ; 42-6 1 Pet amlzerrs: Gh 42°3 1 he 59 47- 41-40 2 41-4 1 + : 54:3 40°8 2 - i 59: 40-487 40°484 40:50 | 8 40-48 | 4 ne is 61:1 39:73 | 8 ou ee 66:9 39°44 | 1 om Same 74-4 38°72 | 1 sa Tey | 78°3 38:20 | 1 38-1 lb 93 “3 79: 35°40 | In Fe 3 99°5 32:2 In 55 a 27524- 31:95 | 1 - sé 25-6 30°95 | 1 ago gmee 33-2 30°56 | 1 Pt fer 36:2 30-099 30712 | 3 30°] 1 ”» smn 39:6 27°39 | 1 a Erie 60-2 | (2606 BR [cy “ ES ap ae 2°! 1907. ies rt) 194 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Rodnuiante é Vacuum Wave-length |Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation = sity | length’ | sity |———7____| Frequency Rowland Exner and ————_| and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser an and Cha- |Exner and) Cha- | A+ | =— | | Tatnall Haschek | racter | Haschek paaceat A | 3625-53 | i 1:01 | 78 | 27574°4 | | 3621-7 1 a a. al DOH | oT RS Ra WR i: SE Ua 6 ; 06:9 | 20°40 | 2 | 20°4 1 cs = 13°5 19°59 | 3 19°5 ie ee. + 19-6 17:1 1 1:00 ree il a 39- | 3616:726 | 16°73 8 16°7 2 ” ” 41°5 15°77 1 | , ” ” 48°8 13°50 | 3 | 134 | 1 “5 =f 66°2 | 129 1 te m1: | 12°4 ie Uilss a Ufa 10°5 ine |" es “ 89- 09°83 1 | ” ” 94°3 | | 09-30 3 09°3 1 ” ” 98-4 09-0 1 ” ” 27701: | 07°54) 1 - if 11-9 | 05:97 | 1 4 ¥3 24-0 04:624 © 04:65 | 2 O62 e422 |. ” 34:2 04°50 In | Fass dcnass 35°3 | 04:02 1 Nehch Gi Ss 39:0 03°9 1 PAN hee 40- 03°2 1 ye atye 45: 02:99 | 1 “3 54 46-9 0264 2 025 | 1 » ” 49°6 01:984 | 02:00 | 4 | 02:0 1 9 ” 54°5 3598-266 | 3598°264 | 3598-25 10 3598-2 2 » ” 83:4 97°66 | 2 | 97°6 1 Pe btc3 88:1 95°96 1 6 or 27801°2 93°8 In a 79 18- | 93:0 In apie er 24- 92-49 aio] 92°4 1 ate het 27:9 91°77 1 | ” | ” 335 91-6 1 *- ep 35° 91:3 i gle he Ay 37° | 90°28 or 90-2 ee ae a 45:1 89-48 | 1 | Haee 55 51:3 | Sel | 14 [Pe ee tl ee 61:9 87:48 | 4 87-4 2 ps all ante 66°8 | 86°65 3 War Well oe 73°3 | Swot Uh ah. | Gy as 74: 84:56 Daa 84:5 Dy Nattes a 89°5 G g355| 2 | 884 | 1 | ” 97-4 83°21 Z| 83:2 1 Dae Are 27900-0 82°95 1 82:9 1 5 3 02-1 | 82:3 1 $5 A O7- | a | 82-2 1 i 08: 80°68 | 1 | ae 25-0 80-01 1 178 ee ee = 42- 77:65 1 / 0-99 ne 43°4 74:9 1 | si AS 65: 74-25 3 74:2 1 Pe 70:0 72°93 1 : ay os 80°3 72°6 In 95 ns 83: 71:70 1 ee { ” PF ait 90-0 a ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF-THE ELEMENTS. 195 OsMIUM— continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | Baviction to ; ii Vacuum Wave-length Inten- Wave- Inten- | Oscillation —— ; - — sity | length | sity Ait. le ee Frequency Rowland / Exner and |— — an | 4 | in Vacuo Kayser and | and Cha- Exner and| Cha- | 7A ce (cia Tatnall | Haschek racter | Haschek | racter | b-ti7 3569-94 4 35699 | 2 | 0:99 7°9 28003°8 | eo17 fee | eho Plt bio | oe | | 088) | 68°75 ae | | 93 ‘a 6 '8 be) | 67-23 | 1 9 9 25:1 | 65°3 1 ”? ”? 40: 64:25 2 64:2 In 7 ” 48:5 | 63°4 | In ” ” 55° 63°71 | In 3 is 58- | 62°51 Se. | 62.4 | 1 ” ’ 62-2 | 61:55 1 | | ” ” | 69°8 | 61:03 10 61:08 | 8 “c Ses 73°9 | | 60°61 1 | iy ae ager ioe 8 772 60°02 6 5 cf 81:8 | 59°97 10 | 59°83 | 6 ” ” 82-2 | 58°96 | 1 | a see 90°2 | 58-10 | | AS “ 97:0 | | 57°4 In os Fe 28103 | 56-11 2 | ” ” 12:7 | 55°85 2 ec o 14:8 | 64°70) 1 _ s 23:9 | 54:20 1 54:1 1 ” ” 27°8 | | 51:09 1 51:0 1 Five ieee 52-4 | | 50°86 | 1 50°8 1 x. | SO 54:2 | 49°81 1 P, ne 62°5 49-65 2 oe a 63°8 49°17 | 1 3 ”» 67:6 49:0 | In 7 3 69- 48°87 1 | o: 39 70:0 48:03 1 a5 op 76°6 47°7 1 re = 79: 46°25 1 46°71 | In + | a8 90°8 | 45°6 In ooh ele ies 96° 44-70 2 44-6 1 a deen 28203°1 | 43°85 | 2 43-7 | 1 Nal 09-9 | | 43°43 1 43°3 1 a pee 13:2 } | 42°85 5 42°6 2 ce s 17:9 | | } 42:03 2 42:0 1 5 “) 24°4 | | 41-68 1 ” ” 27:2 40°35 1 99 35 37°8 S| | 40°01 1 ” ” 40°5 | | j 38°4 1 a + 53> 38°13 1 AC A 55:5 | 37-8) pete” | 0-08 | 5 58: | | 37°64 1 cs oP 59-4 | } 37°20 1 37:2 1 we eS se 62-9 | t 33°55 4 33°4 1 ” ” 92:1 | % 32°98 8 ” ” 96-7 32°38 | 2 == out. 98- 31:26 2 SE? 1 ” ” 28310°5 30°20 | 3 | > ” 19-0 | j 30°71 2 7 ES 20° | 3528-743 | 28°75 10 28°80 6 Fy ee ee 30°7 28°6 6 Ps Fa | 32° 26-16 | 3 261 | 2 5g ek ec eae 196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, — OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Wave-length Inten- a = sity | Rowland Exner and | Kayser and and Cha- Tatnall | Haschek | racter - — — at Se era | 3525-45 | 1 | 23°78 5 | | 23:34 1 | 22-12 2 | 20:15 | 3 | | 19°32) 2 | | 19°08 | 1 | 18°87 | 3 | 17-41 | 2 17:30 | 2 | 16-75 | 3 | | | 3513-791 | 13-91 | 2 13-145 | 1315 | 5 | | 438} 2 09:00 | 1 07-21 | 1 | 05:14 1 Ti? O4811 | 3504:815 04:81 | 6 03-61 1 01:85 | 1 01-314 | 01:33 | 4 ! 3499-70 | 1 / 99:43 | 1 3498-686 | 98:69 | 3 | 98:24] 1 | 95:99 1 95°77 | 2 91:65 | 2 | | 91-24) 1 | 90-464. | 90:46 2 | 89-01 | 1 88-915 88-91 | 2 87-610 | 87°62 | 3 87-387 87:40 | 3 82-380 82:38 3 82-269 82:28 | 3 | 78-670 | 78:67 | 3 | 77-798 77°76 | 1 | 76-98 | 1 Wave- | Inten- length sity and Exner and| Cha- | Haschek | racter | | 3523-87 | 4 236 | 4 Opie) al Die? |S eeilon 201 | 1 18:7 | 2 17°9 1 WRB | 166 | 1 15:4 |. 1b 1399 | 1Fe 13-1 2 5 | 1 11-2 1 10°5 l 06°9 In 05-0 In 04:85 | 4 03°5 In 01-6 In 01:2 2Ba 3499-6 1 99-4 1 98:6 2 98:3 1 98:0 1 97-2 2 95:7 1b 91:6 1 90-4 2 88:9 2 87:6 2 87:4 1 84:1 In 82:3 2 79-5 2 78:6 2. 778 | 16Rh 76-7" | Ib Reduction to Vacuum at | a- 0-98 | 8:0 99 9 ” ” ”° | ” ” | ” o>. ine 50) Nee as 99 33 39 ” . ” 99 99 39 9 ” ” 99 3° 9° 3 ss 99 9° 9 39 9° 3 ” > o° a 81 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 99 9 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 9 ” ” ” ” a9 dent? o ” 0:97 op ” ” 3° ” ” | ” 99 99 ” tess ” ” Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo | | | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum 197 Reduction to a a Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation re = sity | length | sity \Frequency. | Rowland | Exner and |— ——| and 1 | in Vacuo Kayser and and Cha- |Exner and} Cha- | A+ —— | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter x | =} | ee ee oe — i = / | 3475-5 | 1 | 097) 8-1 | 28765- 3474:25 | 1 aes css 7571 | | 73°2 1 ” ” 84: | | 72°9 1 Bs Fp 86- 70°8 2 = 8:2 28804 | | 69-7 In ot or 13: 3469°517 69°51 1 as 23 14:3 | 68-8 | In a 3 20° | | 6671 1 oc 35 43° 65°585 65°59 | Se, -_| 65°6 2 5 5 46:9 65:03 | 1 64:9 In Pe aes 51°6 | ” ” 53° 62°335 | 62°35 | 1 62°3 2 nc “r 74:0 | 61:7 In “4 79: 59-163 59°15 | 2 59-2 2 on 9 28900-6 58°54 4 58°5 2 0-96 05:7 57:5 1b ¥ “ 14: 56°27 | 1 56-2 1b 3 55 24:7 65-172 55:16 | 2 55:2 2 ”» 2 34:0 | S817 | 24 53-1 In 3 e 50°7 | | 52-5 1 ‘ + 56° | 51:5 | In 2 fs 65° | | 5054] 2 50° | In iS “a 728 49°352 | 3449-346 49°36 | 5 ye % 3 82-7 | 48:2 1 % 5 92- | 46-1 1 A s 29010: 45-695 45-699 | 45°69 3 45°6 2 Bs s 13-6 44-616 44:60 3 44-6 1 55 . 22-7 441 | I] = F wie | 41:2 /1Pd?! ,, a 51: 40°6 1 Es a 56 | 40-4 In on ma 58° | 39°97 | 1 ” i EE 61:8 39°639 | 39°63 2 39°5 In Site Fs 64°5 38°792 | 38°76 1 *h oe 71:9 37-642 | 0 Fe i 81:5 37-150 | 2 | s 2: 85°7 | | 3540 > 1 | 355 In 5 33 29100°5 . 35:04; 1 | a a 03°5 34-023 | + 34:0 In ss He 1271 32-2 In Be a kB 28° 30:20 1 - 45 44°5 30:10 1 30:0 In 55 - 45-4 | | 28°7 ‘J Be ef, 57° 27-816 | 27°79 | 3 278 1 = a 64:9 27:590 | 27°56 | 1 2G er! i ; 66°8 | | 26°6 I: - Bien 75: 25-1 1 <4 Ri yet 88: | 24:8 1 $5 : SOE) 23°5 2 is 29202- 22-800 H 1 ’ ” 07°5 | 22-43 | 1 22-4 1 Ss Pe 10°7 | 21-837 | 21:85 2 218 1 + ia, 15:7 | 21-558 | | pp eset 18:2 198 OsMIUM—continued. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. | i | Are Spectrum / Spark Spectrum Wavye-length | | Rowland Exner Kayser | and and Tatnall Haschek | 3421-34 15:36 | 3414-390 14:38 12:946 12908 | 12-91 08-906 | 08-90 _ 06-816 | 06°83 | | 06-423 | 06-45 02-855 | 02-643 3402-654 02-66 02001 02-01 01-315 01-31 00-264 00-26 3398-713 | | 3398-71 97°910 97-90 96-973 95-862 95°85 94-72 91-401 | 91-41 89°64 88-794 88°79 88-46 87-970 88-00 86°76 86-277 86-27 86-077 86-06 84-732 84-74 84-16 83-042 81-814 | 81-81 80-674 | 78-80 | | 17°76 77-088 | 77:10 76:80 75°268 75°28 | racter 1 —_ Nhe ont bo bo bo ie aod NOHO bo SS cube meee bo oO bo bo Wave- length | Haschek 3420°4 20:3 18°8 17°5 14-9 14-4 12°8 08-8 06:7 Inten- | | and - |Exner and | | racter sity Cha- | Reduction to Vacuum Oscillation — 7 | Frequency 1 in Vacuo A+ D ue 0-96 8:3 292200 ” ” 28 ” ” 29: eel ie lc 42- 0:95 1 eas 53° ” ” 71:2 ” ” 75 795 ”? H ” | 91:9 Be i 92-2 | es 3 29326:2 | ” | | 44-5 ” ” 46- | ”? ” 47:9 ” ” 49: ” ” 78°8 | ” ” 80°5 | 9 ” 86-1 ” ” 92:1 2? ” | 98- As is 29401-2 ” ” | 14:6 ” 1 21°6 ”? ” 24- 9 a 28°4 | ” ” 29-7 Pr 8-4 39°3 ” ” | 45- - i fee aed ” ” | 64: 9 68° 0 99 77°9 a8 » 1 S88 zs »» | 29500°7 ” ” 03°5 | 9 9 07-7 9 ” 16- ” ” 18:3 29 9 22°6 ” ” 244 | ” 3° 2b- | 9 39:0 2 oe 41:0 | ” ” 44- ” ” | 50°8 ” ” 61-6 ” ” 66- ” °°” 71:5 | ” ”? 82- x a 87:9 | 0:94 ¥ 97-1 a as 29602°8 ” ” 05-4 ” a } 18°8 ere ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF .OSMIUM— continued. Are Spectrum THE ELEMENTS. 199 Spark Spectrum Wave-length | tnten- Wave- | Inten — sity length sity Rowland Exner | and |————~| an Kayser and | and | Cha- |Exnerand| Cha Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter | 337435 | 1 | | | 33740 1 3373°337 73:35 | 1 73°21 1 72°929 | 72°70 | 1 72°21 3 72-2 2 71-602 71°69 1 70-725 | 3370°730 70°74 | 8 70°70 | 6 70-340 70°37 | 3 70-3 1 69-7 1 68-617 | 2 66:3 In | 66°04 | 2 64486 | 64:50 | 1 64°5 1 64.250 | 64:29 | 3 64°3 1 63°09 1 62-716 62°72 1 61-905 0 61-280 61°31 3 61°2 2 59°876 59-90 1 58-095 58-11 3 58°1 2 57°69 | 1 54-042 54:05 | 3 51853 51:90 | 3 48-791 48°79 1 42-018 42-05 1 40°851 40°85 1 39-601 0 37:28 1 36°282 36°301 36°30 | 8 36°3 2 35°62 1 34-295 34:30 | 1 33°986 34:00 | 1 29°35 | 1 | 29-252 29:26) 1 27-562 27°59 | 4 27°6 2 26°65 1 26°6 1b 26°55 | 1 25-644 0 25°6 Ib 25518 2 24-876 24:89 1 24-486 24°51 3 24°5 2 23°30 | In 23°5 2 22-734 | 1 22°175 22:20; 1 22°28 In 20°58 | In 20°8 1b | 20:05 | In 18-724 | 18°74 | In 18°8 Ib 18-284 | 18°31 In 17°998 18°01 | In 17°420 | 17-40) In | 16-822 © 16°81 2 168 1 15°816 | 16°83 | 2 15-9 l 15°655 } 1666; 2 | POF le Reduction to | Oscillation | Frequency | in Vacuo 29626" 30° » rs Vacuum la Aes a | 094 84 ” ” ” ” 2 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”? | ” ” | ? ” | ” ” ” ” | ” ” | ’ ” } ” ” | ” ” | ” ” | ” ” ” ” | ” ” | ” » | 85 ” | ” ” | ’ ” ” ” ” ” | ” ” ” ” ” ” | ” 0:93) nas ” ” ” } ” ” ” ” ” ” ”? ” | ” ” ” ” | ” 2? ” ” ” ” ” oA 8-6 200 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOIENCE, OSMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | poauction to 7 ree SMT oe Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation — sity | length sity |__| | Frequency | Rowland Exner and |——————_| and | 1 in Vacuo Kayser and / and Cha- | Exner and) Cha- | A+ | —— | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter A | | | | | 3314°88 NE p > {| 093 86 | 30158-4 | | 1360 1 } ciel Mii ape Meh | 3312-178 | 12°18 | 1 A +8 83-0 11-035 | | 11:05 | 4 cS Hee 9 oo | 93-4 | 09:83 | 1 iP aes >» | 30204-4 | 06-352 | 0634) 3 | » Salts = Soe | 05:501 05:51 1 | 99 ot 44:0 | 04-980 0 oF ras 48°8 | 01-990 | 1 x + 76:2 | 01°692 | 3301-708 01:70 | 10 O77 Vi TR ert «| 78°8 3298°374 | 0 3297°3 | 2 0:92 | ;, 30309°4 | 3293-29 1 0 = 56:2 91:259 91°25 1 ” | ” | 74:9 | 90°40 | 4 905 | 2 ” ” 82°8 89°387 4 | ” ” 92-2 88-960 | 88:96 | 2 | ) > 8-7 96-0 88°616 | 88:57.) 1 99° es 99-4 | | 86°81 1 | ” ” 30415°9 84-680 | 84°68 1 9 ” 35°7 81:028 81:06 | 2 a “ec 69-4 79°590 79°55 | 1 2 |< it 83-1 78:086 78:09 | 4 93. || Pesce 96°9 76°533 76°54 1 75°5 | 1 ” | ” | 30511°3 75°320 7531 | 4 753 | 2 ” . | 22:7 | | | 3? | ” 73°513 | 73°54 | 1 TASS ORD 1s » | 39-4 72°607 72°63 1 “A 0 47°9 72-301 | W230 %) 2 | 2S | Fl ” ” 50°8 | 72°118 | 72:12) 1 | ” a al 52°5 | 72:0 |e ” ” | 54: | 71-320 | as ae ssiaed 60-0 71-002 | SEO ae: \ | i 25a 62-9 70°025 | 70°05 1 | 5 oe 72-0 69°340 | 69°36 | 5 69°38 | 4 ~ eh 78-4 68-080 | 3268-078 68:10 | 10 68:10 | 8 ’ ” 90-2 | 67°338 | | 67°34 ih 4} 6740 8 9 > 97-2 | 66-890 | | 66°89 1 ” ” 30601°4 66°565 | 2 i oh 04:5 | 64-820 | 6485] 1 64:8 | In $5 a el 20°7 62-880 62°89 | 4 63°00 | 4 ” ” 39°0 62-428 62-44 | 8 62-48 | 8 5 » bye 1438 | | 61:2 1 ; AA) | 54:9 60°683 | 60°70 | 1 60:7 Sie ” 75 ual 59°6 60°420 60°43 | 3 60°5 2 os | 3s 6271 59°530 | 59°56 | In | 0:91 (| “ssa 70-4 57:051 57:05 | 3 571 2 % | 93°9 55°414 | 55°41 1 h » | 807094 | 55°139 | 0 ’ » 7 11:9 | 55-038 | | 55:04] 3 55-1 |} 2 9 » | 129 | | | | 64-4 Jean | ,, | -5, ) Aan BST | | | 53-4) in | yy |e. (0p ess | | 82:14) 2 | 2 8-8 | 40:2 | 51:03 l | ” ” 50°7 50°97¢ | | ne | | ay ay a 512 ———— aE | | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF OSMIUM— continued. Are Spectrum THE ELEMENTS, 20] Spark Spectrum Kayser | 3250-695 48:106 43-700 42-108 © 41°933 41-642 | 41°159 39°398 38-751 34°858 | 34°651 34318 32-672 | 327196 32:072 31:543 31-410 30°525 29°336 27°409 | 26-579 | 23-987 | 21-444 | 20°895 20-408 20°318 19-260 | 18°153 17-177 16-340 [ Reduction to Vacuum | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation _—— — sity length sity |__| Frequency | Rowland Exner and |——————} and | 1 in Vacuo and and Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | A+ | —-— | Tatnall Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | ~ | 3250°50 | 1 | 3250:7 / 2 | 0:91 88 30754°7 | 48-14 | 2n | 48:1 1 oO e 781 | 47°80 4 . % 82-2 | 45:79 | In 5 bs 30800°3 | | 45:3 3 5 05-0 0 ie ~e 20:2 42°11 eae I) ee a 35°3 imeem 7 Ws a | a . 36-4 41-94 ] 41:2 2 37:0 41°56 1 acs A 40-1 41:18 | 3 55 ; 44-2 0 ” | ” 61-1 38°75 3 el a oe 67:3 38°30 1 38°3 In » 3 71:6 | | 37:0 | 1 ” ” 84:0 | | 366 5 1 cf AD 87'8 | | 362 | In Ss : 91:6 34:86) 1 | 34:8 | 1 or of 30904-4 3481) 1 | >» s 05-7 34°34 1 | 34-3 1 55 = 09°5 | 32-67 1 SPAT tie | all Py) > 25:4 3232°195 © 32°19 8 32-20 10 Py) 29°9 | 27 | aul) okay 31-1 31:56 1 31:5 1 * a 36°71 | 31°45 1 ss a 37-2 | 30°53 tt) 30-6 In 3 is 45°9 | 30-0 In ” ” 51° 29:35 | 1 ll ™o3 ss 57:2 | 29-1 In 5 ; 60- | 28°8 1 5 5 62° 27-41 | 2 27-4 1 “2 Faaaal 758 27-0 | 1 | ” ” | 81: 0 26°5 1 |» ee 83°8 23°99 1 24-0 1 |» 3 31008°7 | 22-5 Te ll say ol ieee 23° 21°53 In 21°5 In ees 32°3 4 | ” 2? 33:1 0 | O:90n es; 38°5 | 1 20-4 Hoo 5 43-2 20°36'| 2 ; ; a 43°8 19°26 1 19:3 1 Rs ys 54-2 | 18°15 1] |e 33 64:9 17-4 aces as 2. | 17:17 1 ea a 17:2 1 | 35 a 74-4 16°8 1 nae Aare 78: 16°6 1 Age (eee 80- aD 4 Weer Vic 82:3 | 15:8 ‘tn a Sneath 88- 13°8 2n ae aa) eelLO 7s 13°59 1 13°50 HOSP at Stes 08:9 | 13°44 1 | Nie tas 10°5 | 12:85) | 1 (vs ee a i ordeals 16:2 . 126 | 1 2 | 19: 2 | BN ng hos. SB 202 REPORTS ON-THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continued. Arc Spectr um Kayser 3205-909 04-646 04:155 02-956 3197-310 96°152 96-082 95-494 94°350 93-986 89°566 87°443 87-096 86-643 86:516 85-439 85°304 84-458 83-661 83°341 81-907 78°357 77:522 74-037 73-609 73-306 94-805 | 83-905 | 80-237 | 78°184 — 75-781 | 74:284. | | Rowland an Tatnall Haschek 3205-90 | 3198-26 04:64 03°44 02°95 00°89 | 97°30 96-11" 95°50 94:80 94°37 93°99 91:31 89-56 87°45 87-08 | 86°65" 85-42 84:46 82°92 82°68 82°35 81-99 80:23 79°37 78°36 78°18 77°51 75°77 74:05 73°31 72°96 71°75 | be bo Lael ° Se Oe ee We De O mOrFOWNNrF Ww bo wo hm bo GO bo Ww Oe ee eNO —_ Wave- length Exner and Haschek 3209-4 08-1 05:9 05:3 04:6 04:3 03:5 03-0 01°3 01-0 3198°3 97°3 96-2 95°5 94:8 94°4 94-0 90-9 89-6 87°5 87:2 86:50 85°4" 83°5 82-7 82:0 80:3 79°6 78°3 75:7 750 74:03 73°4 72°6 Spark Spectru 83-0" Inten- sity and Cha-- racter a Reduction to Vacuum il 0°90 | 8°9 | | Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 31150- ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 203 OsMIUM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redaction to / Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Mitt pate med == sity length sity aaa Frequency Rowland Exner and | -— and thecal | in Vacuo Kayser an and Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | a+ | —— Tatnall Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | a 3171-249 | . tO} | | 089 90 | 31624:3 | | 3170°6 1 ria oe a 31. | | | 68-9 Aries |i sg s 48° | | | | 68°5 | 2 | 99 ” 52: | | 68-390 | 316839 | 2 | | a i 52°8 | 68-2 | In OS a 55: 66-611 66:62 | 3 66°65 | 4 3% > 70:5 65-772 | 2 65°82 | 8 . , 78:9 | 64:8 1 xi i 89: 64-718 64:75 | 2 64-7 | 1 , a3 89-2 | 64-550 0 | 3 “ 91-1 | | 61-837 | 61:86 | 2 61:8 1 ¥5 7 31618-1 | 61547 61:55 | 2 61:6 1 $5 + 21-1 60°540 | 60°57 | 2 is er 311 —— 60°397 | 60°44 | 1 60-4 1 or 32-4 | 59-477 | 59-48 | 1 Beas |h yes 41:8 : 58°6 1 e 3 51: | 58-2 1 ” 23 55: 57-342 57°35 | 2 57°3 1 5 7 63-2 57°102 57-11 | 1 67:1 1 3 ~ 65°6 | 56878 56°89 | 3 56:9 2 i Ap 67:8 56365 | 3156:384 56:38 [ 8 56°35 | 10 yess eae 72-9 55-450 55°45 | 1 gana ces 82-2 54666 0 54:5 1b eel bailes 90-1 53-727 53-72 | 3 53:7 2 i> cE 99-6 52:806 | 52:80 | 3 52:38 | 2 - 31708°8 52-181 | 52:19 | 2 52-1 2 % 5 15:0 51-005 0 is & 26:9 / 60°730 On 50°7 1 In - 29:7 50-260 0 ss i 34-4 49-927 49:93 | In 49:9 1 a x 37°8 | | 49-365 0 . a 43-4 47-601 ie re 61:2 | 46°843 0 ae eek Oni _ 68°8 | | 4 F<), 55 99 72° | 46-074 | 4608 | 1 46-1 Be | is ” 76:5 | |. 46s ida [hs c 83° | 44-471 | 4450] 2 | 4465 2 % : 92-6 | 43-169 | | 43:19] 1 43-2 hey [he 5s » | 81805-8 41-056 | | 40-06") Ts |. Aled New O88) 5 | 27°3 | © 40-431 | | 40-44] 1 40°5 1 A ean! 33°6 39°745 | 0 i Bi 40:6 38-157 | | 1 38-2 1 Fs x 56:7 37-636 | 37:65 | 1 37-7 1 io M3 62:0 37-421 | 0 if s 64-2 36°785 | 0 a ae 70:7 —- 86-334 0 S | eer Ee | 35-126 0 * Fo 87°5 34°805 | 0 zs a 90:8 | 33-953 | 0 34-0 ie oe ate 99:1 31-995 0 mes Pore yan act ” ” 31:62 | In % 7h 23°3 | 31-027 | \C 9:30p93) Sahn). Sie8 2 = “ 27-2 204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length Inten- —-,- =. - sity Rowland | Exner | and Kayser and | and Cha- Tatnall | Haschek | racter 3131-021 | 0 30-125 | | 3130-14) 1 29-348 | 29°35; 1 28-677 | | 9855 In 27-620 | 0 | 25-643 | | 0 25-05 | In 24-142 | 94-14 | In 21-592 | i 0 21-307 | oO 20:777 20-77 | 1 20-016 20:00 1 19-196 | 0 18-450 | 1844 | 2 18-242 | % 18:24 | 1 18-014 18:00 | 1 17-215 | 0 16°593 1659 1 15-838 | | | 0 15°150 15:13 | 1 14-932 14:92) 1 13-405 | | 0 12-630 | | 0 11-196 11:20) 2 10-743 | , 1675>| a 10-538 | 1 09-800 | 09:79) 1 09-504 09:50 | 3 09-102 09:09 3 08-846 0 08-098 | 08-08 | 1 | 07-989 08:00 1 | 07-495 | 07:49} 1 | 07-119 | 0 | 06-762 | 0 | 06-114 | 06:10 3 | | — 05-098 | 05-09 2 03-412 | 03°53 | In 02°835 | | 2 02:503 | 02°50} 1 . 01°64 | 3 | 3099°38 | 1 Wave- Tnten- length sity ——| and Exner and| Cha- Haschek | racter 3130°5 | 30:2 | 29:3 | 29:0 28-6 — ee et 270 | 1 25-6 1 24-4 | In 23-5 | In 223 In me bo bo rd Ce rw Se _— _ w ' ne =] et — aoc = lor) — a ee _ 5 Reb NNR bo oS sa or _ 5 S Se Se on Reduction to / Vacuum | | Oscillation | | Frequency 1 | in Vacuo A+ Xx ¢ . | 08s | 91 31929°4 | sy cites 35 | ” ” 38-4 | ” , 46°4 | ” ” 50- | ” ” 53°9 ” 9 64:1 ” ” 70: . | Peli 84:3 | ” | ” | 90-4 | ” | ” 97° | % | 99-7 % 9 | 32006- ” | 13° | ” ” | 25°8 | ” ” 28°8 Pete Wore 34:2 ”» ” 42-0 » hr ee re ee otc || 58-2 ” ” 60-3 ” ” 62-7 3” ” 70°8 2 ” 77-6 ” ” 85-0 9 ” 87-4 } » 9 92-2 | am ase 94-4 | a 9-2 32110-0 | op e 18:0 | os “5 32°8 ” . ” 37°4 | : "3 39°6 | ” ” 47-2 | ” ” 50°3 | ” ” 54:5 | ” °° 57:1 | ” ” 64-9 ”? ” 65°9 | ” ” 71-1 | 9 ” 75-0 ” ” 78-7 ” ” 85-4 ” ” 90- ” CP) 92: | = ; 95-9 | %9 » | 82207: | 5 oR 12°8 > ya 19-4 ” ” 22:7 { 0-87 | 5, 31:8 ” | 29 35° | - 553 | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. OsMIuM—continued. 205 Ave Spectrum Wave-length i | sity Rowland Exner and | Kayser and and Cha- Tatnall | Haschek | tacter | | | 3094-192 | | 3094-20 1 93°704 | | 93-70 | 2 92-613 | | 0 91-368 | 91-38). 1 90-613 | 90°62 | 1 90-416 90-42 | 1 90°205 90:21 | 2 88:545 0 88°385 88°37 1 87-868 | 2 87-125 | | 0 86°394 86-40 1 I 85:982 | 0 85-004 2 84-715 84-72 | 1 83-565 | 0 | 81:313 | 0 80-907 | 0 80-614 e 0 | 79°67 | 1 78-496 | 78-48 | 2 78°227 } 78°20 3 77-834 | 3077-841 | 77°82 4 77557 |, || FPS5'le2 77:167 77:16 2 | 76°845 | 76°86 In 75:074 75:06 2 74771 0 74192 74:21 3 72°681 0 71-974 1 70°374 | 70°38 1 ; 70-049 70:05 | 2 69°25 1 66°945 66°97 1 66-715 66°71 1 66°225 66°25 2 63-783 | ; | 0 * 3076°0 (10) Zn Spark Spectrum | Inten- Exner and) Cha- Haschek racter 3098-7 | 1 Wave- | Inten- length sity and 95-2 93-8 92°8 91°5 90-7 90°5 90:3 | 89:5 | 885 88:0 | 162) elie 865 | 1 85:2 | 85:0 840 | 1 83-7 1 82:9 1 82:6 1 80°7 79°7 79-4 78°6 783 77°82 77:6 77:2 768 76:5 75°2* tl i=) 74:3 73°3 bo bo NF WN RIOR Ree 705 70°1 67-1 1 666 | 1 66:3 1 | Reduction to | Vacuum Oscillation ra | Frequency 1 in Vacuo A+ | 0 | | 9:2 | 32962: “ . wy vs ? possibly belongs to Osmium. 206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Osm1uM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | p auction to | ; Vacuum | | | Wavye-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation: | sity | length Silty. | 72 \Frequency! | | Rowland | Exner and |—— and | 1 | in Vacuo Kayser and and Cha- |Bxner and| Cha- | A+ =) | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | ‘i 3065-391 | | 0 | 0°87 | 93 32613-0 63-480 | er bo = 33°3 62-803 3062'30 | 1 | | O86 | ,, 40°5 62:584 | 6259} 1 = a 42:8 62-297 | | G31 173" | soeRes |) 4 1 a, > 45:8 | 62-039 Comes a a 48-7 | 61:814 ) 1 * ; 51-1 60-412 | 60-44} 2 605 | 2 “ is 65:9 60-248 | | 0 | free’ A 67°38 | 58°782 | 3058-766 | 58:80| 8 56:76 ETO") | ae 83°4 | | | BA PD iis 2 dooce 88- | a 8; _ 90- 57°014 | 57-03] 1 570 | 1 : » | B2702°3-| | 56315 ) | < 3 8 | | 55-726 | 0 B.S < 162 | 55326 | 55°33 | 1 5b4 | 2 as 20-4 | 552 | 1 2 _ 22- 55-086 | | 45508.) 4 3 es 23-0 54:780 | / 0 - 5 263 54620 | | a7 = ee 28-0 | 54-091 | 2 » | 94 33°6 53-743 | 0 Per ce 37:3 ein ie eee IE We 53-004 | | 0 630 | 2 | lv 4|0 ee 52:540 | . 52:65 | 1 peo) Ble » lo eee 51-4 | 1 me : 62: 51-280 | 61:29] 1 | a ae 63:7 50°517 50°53 | 2 506 | 2 5h rh hen 71:9 49-580 | 4958 | 2 496 1 sf sale 82-0 49:172 | | 4917] 1 49-2 | 2 at | eae 86-4 | 47574 | 1 476 | InFel ,, » | 328036 | 46-200 | 0 463 | 5 z 17° 99 99 18-4 | 45-898 | 45:90 | 1 AGD |: Lb Mame 21-6 | 45-430 | [) apa RS | ae Pee 5 fs 26-7 45-031 | | 45°04) 1 45:1 | 1 a “ 31:0 | 44-525 | | 4454] 1 cL En a ee i 36-4 | 44-191 | | Aeon | MY | | eS ey alee 40-0 44-040 | | 6 ae 41-7 43°793 | 43°78 | 2 438 | 1 bop eemeated 43-622 | | 4362 | 2 Ee pas eee We eat 42-860 | | 4965./“1 42°83 | STi?) ,, s 54:5 41-021 41-023 | 41:03 | 4 41:00 | 8 os ie 74:2 40-184 1 so) | ns) ee 36-668 2 ‘i » | 32921-4 353 | 1 = Ms tlh: 33-843 0 3 oes 33-331 2 33-4 | 2 i > tapers 32-924 | 3294 | 1 BO ES | tas hd ie 62-0 | 31-828 | be es 74-0 | 31-418 | 31-41 | 1 By ee | i 39 185 | 31-122 | Bis |r". ee? ee x = 81:6 | 30:817 | 30:83 | 4 | 93032 |98" |. i | 84-9 | 29-496 | | 2 ” ” 99-4 | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 20 ~I OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Bedeeiien to ir Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Qzcillation = — sity length RIGV seer ay Frequency Rowland Exner and |—————| and 14 in Vacuo Kayser an and Cha- |Exner and} Cha- | A+ = | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter r | 302903 | 1 3029-1 back 0°86 94 | 330045 | | 28°8 1 ” | ” | 07: | 3028-032 2 3 ee 15:3 27-790 | 0 a ps 181 | 27°659 1 27:6 2 > aS 19-4 25°5 1 a 3 43: 24°434 | 0 a 9°5 54-5 23°7 lb A 5 63- | 22:9 In 0°85 Fr uples | | 22-382 | 0 ca es 77-0 21°226 | 0 eal. EA 89-6 | 211 1 aber: 91: 20°9 1 rr ar 93:2 20-782 3 3 3 94°5 20°63 2 53 D 96°2 19-498 19-50 3 19°6 2 as “ 33108-6 18°744 0 a5 3 16:9 18-440 0 % cs 20-2 18-169 | 3018-155 18:16 | 4 ” ” 23°3 | 18°13 8 = ae 24- 17-380 | 17:38 | 3 ire |S = a 31:8 15°772 | 15:77 1 15°8 1 » ” 49°5 | 15°4 In <5 re 54> 15°158 0 no np 56°3 | 14-4 1 SSE Meise 65- 14-068 | 2 14:00 | 4 BS wih aoe 68:2 13°194. | 13°22 3 13:3 2 35.0 wees 177 12-902 | 1 - . 81:1 12°52 1 ar ee 85:3 10°05 1 10°1 lb “a is 33212°5 08:7 1 yy » | 27° 08-022 08:05 1 08:0 1 AS eeu 34°8 | | 07:00 1 ” ” 46-2 05°878 | 0 5 5 58°6 05:064 0 a * 67:7 04:872 | 0 a Aline 69°8 03°605 | 03°62 1 03-6 ye Se Landes 83:7 02°8 1 sy AA 93° | | | 02-0 1 ~ x 33302: | | 01-1 1 Pe ee 12: 00-234 1 00:2 1 ale! Uhh wide 21:2 | 2999-2 1 . tr 33° 2997°777 | | 2997-75 2 97°8 2 ” ” 48-7 96-385 | 0 es rs) 63-9 95-762 | 2 95:7 1 sa ely ss 70°9 95-298 | 0 ee ae 153 94-908 0 94-9 1 ee lar 80°4 93-698 93°70 1 93°7 1 Gell | Paneer: 93-9 92°5 1 seeet lh itss 33407- 92-240 92°24 1 92°3 1 Pie ae 10°2 90-763 1 ” ” 26°7 89-963 0 ne, + 35°6 { 89°8 In ee nA by 89-655 \ 89-65 ) es { oe ies 39°1 | REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continucd. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Reduction to * — Vacuum Wave-length Inten Wave- | Inten Oscillation - - sity | length | sity |— _ | Frequency Rowland Exner and |—————_| and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser an | and Cha- |Exner and; Cha- | )+ —— Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter r | 2989-253 | 2989-25 1 2989-2 1 0°85 | 9°6 33443°6 88:°396 | 88°37 1 88:5 1 Pell meee 53°3 | 87°76 1 ” ” 60°3 | 86-2 | 1 or it wen 78: | 85:752 | 8b°75 | 1 85:7 1 a ee 82°8 | 85-084 | 0 85:0 1 ee 90°3 84°751 | O Pl eer 93°8 84-419 84-43 In 5 2 97-7 | 83-6 2 Es 7 33507 83-2 i “A ‘ ll: 83-032 83-05 2. A ee 4h 13-2 82-680 82:70, 1 0°84 ee | 17:2 82°252 | 82°25 | 1 e a 22-1 j 81:7 1b rr, 5 28- 80-453 0 80°5 1 3 * 42:3 79-802 | 0 5 Fe 49°7 79-555 | 79-54 | 1 79:5 1 S Pa d2°D 78°645 78°63 1 78°7 1 5 iia 62:7 78°338 | 78°31 1 78-4 1 ~ open 66°3 77°157 | Tia cde 2 - os 72°8 | 175 1 3 ae 76° 76-470 | 0 e Ree OM 75'461 75°45 1 75:5 1] $5 3 98-7 75°3 1 a “ 33600- 72°36 1 123 In 3 3 33°7 71:098 71:10 3 71:10 4 PP - 48-0 70°825 70°80 1 eee ai 51-1 69-938 0 fy ee 61:0 68°55 1 68°5 lb ” ” 768 67°860 0 _ a 84°6 67:0 1 a : 94- 66°685 0 ” 97-9 66°428 0 6674 1 x F 33700°9 66°217 | 0 ye (ao 03°3 | 65-6 1 ” | ” | 10- 65°215 | 1 65°3 1 Pan | ees | 14-7 64:890 0 BA PP 18-4 ie: (Se a 64:7 1 me | Lc 20-0 64-190 64:21 3 64-2 2 oy | Noten 26:2 63°178 0 63-1 1 a | Sa 37°8 63-005 1 7 ota 39°8 62-819 0 a 3 41°9 62-465 62°45 2 PP oe || 46:1 62:272 62°29 | 2 62:3 2 3 aa 48-1 61°526 | 0 - S 56°7 61-140 61:15 2 61'1 2,02! es Pe 61-1 58°467 58:48 1 ” 25d 91°5 57°774 0 Bt ae 99°5 57-214 | 57:20 | 1 572 | 1 m » | 33806-0 56-629 | 56-62 1 56:6 1 % ed 12°6 56:3 1 5 sf 16: 55°128 55°13 1 55-1 1 a = 29°8 54°7 1 a - 35: 53°7 1 3 _ 46: a ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE. ELEMENTS. 209 OsMIUM—continued. | Are Spectrum / Spark Spectrum Hadeckion to | Bei ae. a a ie Peace Nae Ts Vacuum | | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten-| Oscillation —— sity length sity |__| Frequency | Rowland Exner and |————_| and | 1 | in Vacuo | | Kayser and and Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | a+ are | : _ Tatnall | Haschek | racter) Haschek | racter | | | 2952-412 - 2952-45 | 1 | 2952-4 1 0°84 | 9°7 33860°7 | | | Weems. |s- i ibs eae 69- | 51:357 1 | 513 1 cui Pahay 73°0 50°986 | 1 50°9 1 a cs 77°3 | | 60°00] 1 ; 33 oa 88°6 , 49:930 | | 49°93 Ey) meyer 89-4 | 49°8 1 | ” ” 91- 49-635 | =) Babess | oan 92°8 49°635 | | 4963 | 3 ADG2 AGW Diss, \eerssaete| 92°8 | 48°328 | | 48°33 | 4 AS SON AS 55 als 33907-8 47:277 | | | a3 AE 19-9 | 46-705 | 0 is es 26°5 - | 45-487 | 0 |) 465 Boe, Sa eee 41-0 | 44-2 A ee ys e 55° | | 43-756 1 aoe aaa 60-4 Hl 43-291 | 2 | ” | ” 65°8 | 42-981 | | 42:96 | 2 43°03 | 4 | 083) ,, 69:5 42-692 | | 0 NOTES tree || 0 Sek 72°7 42-348 | 42°32 | In re oe 76:8 42-267 1 ee Pe 77:6 41-989 0 >See lee 80°8 |; 41:0 | Ib a ap 92- 40-873 G, | s 5 93-7 | 40-694 0 | 3 + 95°8 40-208 0 35 aS 34001°4 39°519 | hee? Ss op 09-4. | 38°590 | | | 0 | ms - 20-1 | 38-491 | | O 38:4 In e 3 21:3 | 87-111 | O 37:0 2n - op 37°3 36°817 | 2 5 5s 40-7 35°6 |jlbZn?, ,, | 355 55: 35-083 | 0 / et ae 60-8 34:779 34:75 | 2 34:7 1 33 FP 64:5 34-420 | O By tll oe 68-5 34111 3 34°1 1 Pie ae) hod: | 32-585 2 326 | 1 5 A 89:8 | 32-4 | 1 3 > 92° | 31°879 | | | O 3 “i 98-0 31-416 31:42 | 2 313 | 2 ~ » | 341034 30-704 30°69 | 1 | 306 | 1 oa ee 11°8 30°334 | | 3032] 1 30°3 1 BS: 5 161 29-646 fi 29:62) 2 |, 29k, | 2 5 3 24-2 | 27:370 0 | 3 33 50°5 | | 26:0 1 SLE | ee el ft 67° | 25-708 by 25:69) | #2 25°6 Py |) As ” 70-1 | 25°414 | 25:41) 1 > = 73°4 | 24-617 | 2464] 1 24:6 1 » ” 82°6 23-298 2 : | 3 98-1 23-109 0 ops fal oes ha 9 342004 22-818 0 i oem 03:8 21°193 21:20 | 1 21:3 1 AN See aight, 22°6 20:974 0 ha ain tess 25-2 20-204 1 tas | i 34-3 19-935 | 19°94 | 4 19°85 | 8 or =C 37°4 1907, P REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continued. Ayre Spectrum Spark Spectrum | p eduction to acuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation — sity length sity |__|, | Hrequency | Rowland | Exner | 8000 | ea | * and | 1 | in Vacuo Kayser | and and Cha- [Exner and| Cha-| a+ + >- | | Tatnall | Haschek | racter) Haschek | xacter | Ae | | 2919°380 | | 0 | 0°83 | 9:9 | 34243-9 | 19:053 10 | < ns 47°8 | 17°946 | 2917°94| 2 | 2917-8 2 es Ab 60°8 | 17°383 | Ee (SH 48 sa 17:3 2 ” ” 67°5 | 16°193 |. 0 55 a5 81-4 15°586 | 0 15:7 1 lass 5 88°5 15-382 | ear.” yes is 90:9 14°841 14:84, 1 | 14:7 1 +6 on 97°3 | | 14°341 | it | Reiners 34303-2 13969 | 13:96 | 1 13°8 1 are ieee 07°6 12°470 | ee 12247 0 3.5 |) 24051 88 Rae hi 252 | | 11-939 On) | : 3 31:5 | 11-695 | Oo | f 53 34-4 | 11°466 11:47 | 1 ” ” 372) | | 11-269 | Paw 11:2 1b a3 a 39°4 10°801 | ea | megs a 44-9 / / | 106 | 2 ‘s @ 47° 09:797 | 2909:79 | 1 > +43 56°8 | | OD) sedi «es Pal Aay 59° 09°185 | | 09:20 | 8 09:05 = 10 | 77°464 | 7746 | 2 | 77:4 1 Pa | Se 42°8 76-602 0 of = 53°2 75-930 © oe | 99 " 61-4 : | 75:4 2 Fe] rp 68 75°083 | 75:07 | 3 75:0 2 33> iy 9 717 74-700 | | 74:73 | 1 74:7 1 re eS ch 75:4 | | [2 Waa’. of ‘5 3 82- | 73-534 | 3 luis 90-4 | 73°126 0 a: We ooh 95°3 72°529 | 72°52 | 2 FA 10°1 34802°5 | 72-4 1 ” ” 04: 71:3 2 cf a 17° | 69:0 | In ” | ” 45: | he 260i =i 1b a hers 64: | 67-216 | 1 2 oF 66:9 65:892 | 0 | a ete Pl 83-0 65-802 65°80 | 1 65:7 1 ” 2 84:3 65131 0 Kees I 92°3 64:366 2 64:3 In | 0°81 » | 384901°6 | 63:4 2 op + 13° 62:0 1 “ + 30° 61-895 0 of ch 31-8 61-075 61:09 | 3 61:00 | 4 2 » 41:7 60:184 60°17 1 60-1 1 ” ” 52°8 58°733 0 op as 70-4 58-210 0 ry fr 76°8 57-659 57°65 1 | Pies a: 83°6 | 57°117 0 oss oA 90-2 57-0 1 ce, in 92: 56°8 1 ” ” 94: 55-455 55°45 1 | 99 2 35010°6 | 55:3 1 KS 9 13° | 53-971 0 a rr 26:0 | | | 54:2 In 2 RY 29° 53°44] | | | O 53°5 In Ss ss 35°3 | | | | 52:1 In is “A 52° | | 51:2 1 ” ” 63°: | , 50°877 | 50°89 | 3 50°82 | 4 oooh oe 66°7 | 49-427 49:40 | In Gab malt toss 84:8 | | : 49°3 1 5 A 86: | 49-175 49°15 | 1 49-1 1 i 87:9 | : 48-360 48°35 | 2 48°3 2 “a 10-2 97°8 | 47-408 0 3 35109°5 46-707 46°65 1 ” ” 18°5 46°507 46:50 | 2 ” “ 20°7 i 46-4 2 $9 > 22: | 45°5 In 7 ‘ 33° P2 212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OSMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length Tatene aoa =) Sista sity | Rowland Exner and Kayser and and Cha- Tatnall Haschek | racter 2845-067 | | hgetatl 44-802 284480, 1 | 44-501 CESS Ee Aaa | | 41-711 | 41-70) 2 40°557 / 2 39-792 | 0 38°751 38°74 4 | 38-283 | 38-28 | 2 | 37-542 | | 37:53 | 2 | | | 32°345 32°35 | 1 31-693 | 9 29-468 | 29-40 | 2 29-390 | 2 29-138 | 0 27-670 | 0 27-038 | 0 25-437 | | O 25013 | | 24-918 a | 24-283 | o497 1-1 24-051 | 0 23-687 | 0 21-367 Paty ae 20-682 20°66) 1 20-298 | 20:30 | 1 | 19-601 | | OE | 19-349 | | 1 18-897 0 | bok | [15-895 | 15:90 | 2 15-380 15°40 | In j14-962 19-98 In 114-602 Oo. | [14-318 14:34 | 2 Wave- length Exner and Haschek Inten- sity and Cha- racter le ee to Reduction to Vacuum Re 22 ; A O81 1072 | ” os. 3° 9° XY) :” 39 ” 3° 39 ” 9 9 3° ” 39 Le) 39 9 93 9 3 39 AB) 3” :° 99 9 9 3° 3° 99 33 ” ” 59 99 ”° °° 99 rt) 39 9 9° ” ”° 9 ” ” 9 s> 33 9° 99 ° 9° 9 39 3° 3° 0°80 es 3° 9° ”° be ” s° Re 10°3 9 99 9 99 .° a2 ” te 9 3 ” 39 te | 9 ”° 3”? 9 9 9 ” °° Bt 99 y ” 9 3° 39 2° ” 39 ” o° ” 353043 | | | | \Oscillation in Vacuo 35138-4 41°7 45°3 | 46°4 | 64: 82: 35201- 03°7 16°6 22°4 31:6 33° 48: 72: 93° 96-2 O7- 09- 27- 32°5 33:1 36:2 45: 54°6 62°5 82:5 84: 87°9 89:0 | 91- 97-0 99-9 | 354044 | 33°5 36° 42°3 | 44: 47:3 55°7 58:9 64°6 75° 86° 92° 97° 35502°4 08:8 14:0 18-7 22-1 Frequency 79:9 | 94-2 | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. Osmi1um—continued. - 215 Are Spectrum Wave-length | Spark Spectrum | | Inten-, Wave- | Inten- sity length | sity Rowland | Exner Kayser and | and / Tatnall | Haschek 9813-904 2813-94 13°130 11-683 10-680 10-468 | 09°815 09-045 08°357 07°910 | 07:025 05:576 04:185 | 04-055 | | 02-039 | | 799-692 | |. 96-833 | 96-221 | 2796-84 95-275 94-309 | 94-091 | 92-844 94:30 94°10 91-007 89-620 87:153 86-904 | 86-90 86-414 | 86-061 | 85:147 | 82-658 82-69 81-972 | | 80-970 | 80-269 | 79-584 | | 79-197 ~ 77-011 | 75°004. 74488 74-257 | 74-125 | 73592 | 73176 71-869 71-150 70-825 70-213 77°01 75°01 74°25 74:13 73°18 70°22 86-41 74:50 | | and |— —| and | Cha- Exner and Cha- | racter | Haschek | racter a bo f SNe ral 3B 10-7 1b 08-8 06:9 bo 02-0 ONFF ONS FOG wooconwsd Rew Re ON~»p CORFE noe bo mR ORM OR RE Ree COO | 0°80 | 10°3 | 35527°3 | Reduction to | Vacuum | | At | Oscillation ~ | Frequency J x | in Vacuo . 29 214. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsmM1UM— continued. Arc Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Wave-length Kayser 2769:975 69°385 | 68-369 67°236 | 66-650 65°541 65:143 | 64-637 64-032 63°371 62°745 61-530 61:184 | 60:168 58-923 58°775 57°902 56:095 | 55°680 54-780 53°792 51:875 51:246 50°970 | Rowland | -and | Exner and | Inten- ‘sity | Wave- length | Reduction to | Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter | 2770-00 67:25 65°55 64:15 64-05 63°39 61°54 | 61:21 | 58°95 57°91 53°83 51:25 49°30 48:97 48-01 41:50 40°84 40°70 | 40°42 | 32:90 Core SCrOrFCOCOFOFOCFNONENNON RBH OWH CNR Ree wor 51:3 50-6 50°4 49-4 49-1 48°] 44:6 44:2 42°6 42°3 41°5 40-7 40°4 38°6 378 375 37:1 36-7 32-9 oe bo —“ nee Vacuum | | 0°79 | {rk | | | | Oscillation Frequency _in Vacuo | 36090°7 98°6 | 80:2 | 36503°9 © ) | ON WAVE-LENGTH: TABLES: OF. THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 215 | OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | | Reduction to = ee a i. ee cae ie Vacuum | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- : | Oscillation! —— —_—_— sity | length sity eee ~ | Frequency! | Rowland Exner and |———-— and es | | in Vacuo | Kayser | and | and Cha- |Exner and) Cha- | A+ i= | | Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter lie | 2731-467 eel 0°78 106 36599-S | | | | 2731°38 | 4 ” ” 36600°9 30°782 | 4 30°8 2 ted a) ee a 08:9 | 29-093 0 of 31:6 2728°63 | 1 hk oe 3 37°8 | 28-364 | 2 M55 i 41-4 | 28:2) |i Snel" 53 44: 27°357 0 | “an a: 54:9 23°8 1 os 10:7 | 36703- 22°867 0 22°9 Ty lat sse Wel das 15°3 22-700 | iheO) BS be 175 21°959 21:97 | 3 2270 | 2 mm i dp 27°5 | | AL Beall 3 * 39° | 20°578 | i} Ge Dak sla all 46:2 20-130 | 20°15 |. 3 202 | 2 _ B 52-2 19-2 PGE? 4; 53 65: 19-0 1 ay ih ae 68> | 18°796 1 ” | ” 70°3 | | 18-6 US) tgs = 73° | 17°839 | | 0 | CHa eee Pa, 83-2 17°488 | 0 i a Ny 88:0 | 17°162 0 | ee s 92:4 | 16:0 1 Ss 55 36808: 15°9 1 sate aihesaie i} 10: 15°726 | 15°72 1 a1 loa | 11°9 15°471 | 15°46 2n | 15°5 1 nn A 15-4 14-997 | 0 i ope all eek 21:8 14:744 | 1. (7 Ce 147) 2 a) fe a8 25:2 13°300 0 I Vis “1 44:8 12°848 0 | 3 23h 50:9 111 In ” ” | 75° | | 10°5 1 i 99 83° - 09-953 | 09:96 | 1 10-0 1 a AS Sh » 90°3 | | 09:2 In 33 Pe 36901- 08:276 | 08°27 | 1 08°25 4 % » 13:2 07°519 | 07°51 |; 1 07°6 1 ss He 23°5 ; | 07:2 1 a An 28: 06°804. 06°80 | 2 06:8 2 So ligt 33°3 | | 06:04; 1 | | if ay (te 4 05-547 G | 056 | In A sam fs | 49°7 04-695 — aga" m aS te 62-0 04°551 | 04°55 | 1 | op “A 64:0 | 04:2 1 ” ” 69: 03-203 [0 03°2 In nS 10'8 82°3 / 03-0 1 ” ” 85- | 02°92 1 nr a 86°2 02:7 1 “p A th 89° | 026 |1Pt? ,, 95 91: | 02°50 1 np fp 92-0 | ‘ | 01°4 1 “e Ae 37007° ~ . 00-840 | 00°82 1 00°9 1 ” ” 14:9 | b 006 | 1 A A 18: 2699-688 2699°68 | 2 | 26997 | 2 23 » [ess 806 ¥ H 98-5 In {| 9» ” -. 7° REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length Kayser Rowland an Tatnall | 2698-321 97:338 96-709 94°854 94°615 92-790 | 92-021 91-483 89-904. 89-447 88-174 87°277 | 86°777 86-624 85-973 84:497 83-974 82279 80-806 79°825 | 79°457 78°870 77-473 74:969 | 74°793 74°654 72°145 70°640 62-606 6$°158 67:593 66°295 66-079 65°370 64:879 64:390 63°950 Exner and 2697°34 94:86 Haschek 94°61 | 92°77 89°89 89°44 88°18 82-30 79°83 | 75-00 | 74°68 70°66 69°61 66°31 66-08 — owoooor KFrwoor i=] wNronwnoocorcre - |Exner and | 2698-0 | Wave- length Haschek 97:6 97-4 97:0 96-4 95:0 | 94:7 92°9 92-1 91-5 89-85 | 89-4 89°2 na wc 69- Dd wd BAI On Inten- sity and Cha- racter |1Cu? . i : In — ee re bb In In Reduction to acuum | Atal ees A 0-77 10°8 ”> 9 9 9 3 ” 99 ” 9° ” 3 3° 3 Lhd ” > 39 ” 99 99 3° :” 9° 3° 9° °° 39 9° 39 ” ” 9° 3 39 3 99 3 9 3° ” 99 9° 39 0 :° °° 3:3 ” 99 | °° °° | 9 > | 9 > ” tae Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 37049- 3. 54: | 37100°3 02 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 217 OsmiuM— continued. ae —, Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Bodiadson to | ; l = “| T=) ae Vacuum aren Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- |Oscillation| | sity | length | sity Frequency, Rowland Exner | and | —| and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser an and Cha- [Exner and Cha- | A+ | —— | Tatnall | Haschek | racter Haschek , racter | ee 2663°314 | eee, 2663°3. | 6 Pb | 0°77 | 10°9 | 37536-4 62°653 | 2662°63 | 1 | 62°6 ee |. +35 Poy eh 45°8 | 62-069 | | ee 62-0 1) Sees ae 53°9 . ame Sk) a ” 58° 61:29 | 2 | 613 | 2 eee 55 64:9 61-011 61:05 \ ave GE ale lie 55 | 68°5 59-924 59°91 2) 60:0 2 A seu et 84:3 59°55 |2Pt?) 596 | 1°] ~C, | 89-4 58°682 58°69 | 3 | 58°68 |6Pd?' ,, 3 | 3601-7 57:203 O--] | 22° 56-774 | 66°76) 2 56-7 2 a 8 28°8 | | 563 | In in Rt ahi 4495- 55-879 55°89 | In 559 1 %: a ATS | 55°297 55°29 In | 55°6 1 eS ae 49:7 1 GDS 1 Pe Fae 50° 547°) 1 | O76| 110] 58° | 53-860 | 5386} 1 i en set et eg » 70-0 53°388 | eval SES a hp la = 76°7 | 53-068 | 53-06} 1 53-1 | 1 * eee | 525 1 ” ” | 89- 52-369 0 x edie: ete 51-562 0 ms » | 37702°6 | 51:2 | el | eee vie | 08- 51-1 1 | ° ” 09- 50°754 0 BOiee sein | 5 5 14:1 | 49-7 oan | 9 ” 29- 49-428 49°43 2 A9:4 Pibeg2 yl) 55 “f 33:0 | | AQ DobeE - | «4 fori her LOO" 47-817 | | 47°82 2 47°8 2 a =} 55:9 47:00 |2 Pt? 470 2Pt? nr ae 67°6 | | rs tea ia ae | 45-7 | In ea | 86- 45:207 0 45°33 | In - aaa 93-2 44-211 44:23 3 4413 | 4 | ,, » | 378072 43°727 COE a et ee ee a = * 14:3 | 43-132 ee fi | is sy) ale wee9 | | 4288 /-1 2 ele e 41°700 | 2 Ab:6 pS ooh ss sot Al 43°4 41-271 41°30 In Eg ee a ee ar) 49-4 40°625 0 40°6 2 Pry ” 58°8 40-079 0 aes a: ree 39533 0 jh ss f 74:5 39:2 | 2 ” oo | 79° 38-428 @ | @64 | 3 23 5 90-4 38°081 38°10 Bie 5 38:0 1 oF KS 95:2 37°223 37:25 | 3 | 37°12 6 Pe 0 37907°5 34'547 34°55 In 9 ” 46°2 34°375 34°38 | In | 344 | 1 93 03 48°6 | 33°2 1 ” ” j 66° 32-994 ago | 1 | 330 |.1 | . | » |- -686 2 320 | 1 ” ” 83° Se an Re Oe ea 91: j 31-2 | 1 | ” ” | 94: Seat. ag | 38019° | REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsmIuM—continugd. | Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | : Wave-length Inten- Wave- TInten- = sity length sity | Rowland Exner | and |— and | Kayser | | -and | Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter : | fig 2628°5 1 2628-377 | | 2628-56 2 24 | 1¥Fe | 27°8 1 O73 | a 26°5 1 25-436 | 0 24°677 | 0 24°7 In 24:3 1 23:711 | 0 | 23°6 In 23°3 1 21°912 21:95 | 2 | 21°9 1 21-473 21°50 | 1 21°5 1 | 20-723 20:75 1 20°7 1 20:035 | | 20°05 3 20:1 1 | TO ye ay ae 18°923 | 0 | | 18°435 | 0 | 17°895 0 17°38 2 | 17-062 | 0 | | 16:05 | In 15°122 | On) 14158 0 13°167 13°17 3 13:1 2 12-732 12°75 | 2 12°6 1 11-410 11°45 1 10°881 | 10°89 | 2 10'8 1 09°669 b O96 7.4" 22 09-303 | 09°30 ] 087342 | oO | | 05:2 lb 05-051 0 | | 04-701 04:70 x | 03°554 | O° *y 03°323 | | 0353075). a= | | | 3 | 0371 1 02-444 | 02:43) 1 | 00°855 | 00:86 1 | - 00°5 50 | | 00°56); 1 | ‘00-038 00:03 i et | | | | 2599-9 1 | | 2599-25 a * 2597°9.0 0 97-9 a 97-664 97°69 | -1 | 97°5 1 97°38 | 1 97°319 97°32 1 97-092 | 9 96°783 96°31 1 96-7 1 96°474 | ea) tae 96°3 1 96°101 96°11 |.-1 2 Hey | 3 aes {| 96:0 1 Reduction to Vacuum | : Oscillation! ——_,____|Frequency| : | 1 in Vacuo | Pee = | c | 0°76 | 1171 | 380382-5 so lew 35°2 | ” ! 9 44: °° ” 51: 33 » 62° | ” ” 7178 ” ” 88°8 ” ” 94: = 33 38102°8 ” ” 05: 99 ” 09° ” ”» 28°7 ” ” 35:2 ” > 46-1 ”» 2 56-2 > ” 64: | o9 ” 72:5 5 09 79°6 | - ” 87-5 | rie Neo 38200:0 vat... 145 | ” » 28-0 ” ” 42°] ” 0 56°6 ” ” 62°9 ” hI 65° | 82-1 BS 90°71 | 0-75 os 38307°9 | 5 11:2 13-2 ” | ” 27°3 ” } ”? 74: ” ” 75'8 ” ” 80:9 ” ” 97:8 a NS es .38401°2 ant) es 05- ” ” 14:3 9 ” / 377 so ae 42-1 | 3 % 50-1 ” ” 52: ” | ” 61:4 » ” 81-4 o | Ieee ” | ” 87° ” | ” 89:1 ” | ” 90-0 ” | ” 93-4. » ”» 97-8 + 4 38502°6 ” oy 05- ry ” 08-0 ” ” 10- f «.4a > 5 OsmMiuM—continued, | Are Spectrum Wave-length | | 1 } | | | Rowland | Exner Kayser | and | and | | Tatnall Haschek 2594-238 | 2594°25 $4°000 92-082 92-10 90°859 90°87 89°595 89-59 89-495 89:50 88°517 | . 87°575 | 87°56 | | 86°995 | | 82:027 82°06 81:°154 | 81:17 80°120 | 79°839 78°430 78°42 . '78°284 78°26 77141 74:852 | 73°601 | 73°198 72-572 72-60 | 71°878 | 71:90 71-611 71:244 | 71:25 70°855 | 68-937 68°95 67°335 66°595 66°62 65°816 | 65°261 | 65:28 64°469 | 64:50 - 64-287 | | ..63°257 | | -.,62°771 62-78 60°831 . 60°578 | 60-308 58-191 58°20 57°868 | 57°87 _ §6°179 | 56°17 55-902 | 55-90 -. 55°378 | 55:35 > 66-205 | 55:20 54-558 54-55 50°873 . 48-930 | _ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 219 : | | Spark Spectrum. | Raaetioh to ae. | Vacuum ~| Inten-; Wave- | Inten- |Oscillation “sity length | sity |—————— |Frequency ciel |) Ena | 4 | in Vacuo | Cha- |Exner and) Cha- | A+ —— | racter | Haschek | racter | | A | | | 25959 | 1 | 0°75 | 11-2 | 38511- | 1 94:2 1 rf . 35°7 | 0 ” ” 39°3 92-7 1 op op 59° 1 92:1 1 a Ss 67°7 | 2 ” 86:0 90-7 2 ‘9 a 88- 1 89-6 In oc | 38604:9 1 ? 9 06°3 0 39 11:3 | 20°9 88:4 1 “ sei || 23° | In 87:5 1 ee 35°0 0 869 | 1 sky |' oy, cites 86:1 1 “A me 57:0 S2-Gaaerdin’. a: oe 94° 2 FPO hes Wan le Masrural thames TPA ER Tir /S7/ | ee SESE iT | ees ah ba 30:9 2 80:08 4 6 a 46°6 0 aunt | 50°8 | 1 78:4 2 “e $5 72°1 1 | 99 9 T4:4 | 0 | ” 2” 91-4 765 1 |) ae a 38801: 1 ” 25°9 0 ” ” | 44°8 0 | | ” ” 60°8 In | . s 60°4 1 Prom ioy eZ IGS) hom | “ FA 70°6 0 | = £ 74:8 1 ” ” 80°3 0 | ay a 86°3 1 69:0 | 1 el tee) Soulo2 0 | » | Ll4 | 39°5 =) 67-0 Lad ” | » | 45° 2 | 666 1 a A 50°5 0 as 5 62°6 1 | $ Sol 708 le | 0°74 roar | 82°8 1 | 2) (Ree ee 2 633 | 2 a 4 3£000°8 | 1 | » 93 08:8 0 ” ” 38:4 0 a Ns 42°3 0 Pr a 46°4 1 93 9s 78°6 1 3 » 83°6 by | * 55 39109°6 1 | ” ” 13-7 1 ” 22°0 1 ” 33 24:4, 1 an a 34-4 0 “ 4 $0°9 1 48-9 2 ss et lleo 39220°6 fae ag eh 2 Oe Ms | Zoe? ‘ 220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OSMIUM --continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Reduction to ay mes Vacuum | Wave-length | taten- Wave- | Inten- \Oscillation = | sity length BIGY. alo an |Frequeney| Bevieue | BSE and |—————| and 1 | in Vacuo | Kayser | a | Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | A+ | —— eet | nee | racter | Haschek | racter | A 2548°195 2 25482 1 | 0-74) 11°5 | 39231:9 | 254780 1 | 47:7 en es Sa 38:0 | 47-289 0 Koa = 45:9 | 47-1 1 i. _ 49- 46-9 1 Rs | 52° | 46:261 4625 | 1 | 46:2 In i ; | 61:9 | : | 450 |1Cu? ,, % 81: 44-067 | | 4 44-1 ol pe a. 95-4 43:892 43:90 1 43:9 1 5 ee | 98:3 ) | | 43-0 1 * »» | 39312- | 42-592 | Ra se PF Nl -en W el 18-4 | | 422 1 ra s 25° | 41-747 | o 38 s4 31:5 | | | | 41:6 1 ie me 34 | 40835 | | 40:85 | 1 40°8 Ha. ie ess ae 45°5 | 40-4 Ded ae a 52: | 40-230 40-25 | 1 | 402 | 1 is » > eee Hawes oie )oy fa) | 0 Ay All Sgt 62:4 | | 39:0 Lf ok =e 74: | | . 38°8 a gy) ae 17° | 38500 | | oO | oss ag 81°8 | 38°174 | 38°17 | 1 | ” | ” 86:9 | 38-087 | 3810; 3 | 3810) 4 » >| gi eee | . 36:8 |InZn?) %, > | 39408: 36184 Oo | | < s 17°8 | 35°484 | O 35°5 1 « aul 28-7 | 34270 34:25 | 1 a ae 47-7 32°732 | | 0 = a 71°6 | 32:53 | 1 B85 Aah oes) Onaey | - $2-083 | | 1 cE ea lm ie le ie 82° | | 31°5 In | ” ” 91° | | 296 1Cu?) 4, | 11-6 | 39520: 29-047 | | o | - » | 29-0 27°832 | | 278 | 1 | | 48:0 27-335 | | | 0 . | ye is 55:8 | 27-174 | |} 2715! 1 | | cares 58-5 26-833 | | 0 | ee 63:6 | | 26°4 1 * 53 70° | 2610 1 Bel hI ». Shoes {75-1 | 25-4 1 4 x 86: 24:879 | a 1d 94:3 | | | 24:3 * » | 39603: | | 22-9 1 a x 25° | 20-156 | | O es e 68:5 19°886 | | 1986] 1 199 | 1 ” » ang ee | 191 | 2 4 3 85" 18-533 | 1852) 1 185 | 2 » ” 94-1 18-006 Vo gS-00 1 4. +e TD 1 ea Al 39702°4 15140 i aapas | a 15°1 1 0-73 | 45 47°7 13340 93-34 14 13°3 2 a . 76-1 12-970 12:98 | 1 13-0 ema eae 2 81-9 | fe otle-te3 In Zn ,, Ht 93- | | 10°8 to 4g |) tee {| 10-591 | 0 10°5 Terao te & 19:6 , ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 22] OsMIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- Lieaac 8 a ee ee | sity Rowland Exner and rt! Kayser an and Cha- (Exner and| Cha- Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter | 2510-024 | 2510-04 1 09-809 iGeey | : | 2509°7 | 2 | 08°707 | | Game lied | 07-282 | lade i 39 ” 9 ” ” ” 9 ” 9 99 ” ” > ” 0°72 “hy ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 9? ” 9 ” ” 9° ” ’ ” 5 12-0 99 ” ” ” ” ” 9? ” ” ” > ” > 99 ” > ” ” > ? ” ” ” ” 2? hI ” ”? ” ” ” ” 39 > ” > 9 ” 9 > ” 29 99 > bed > ” ” ” | 9 ” ” 2” | ”? 2” } °° ” | ” 2”? 9 3”? ” x 121 3”? 3? ” ”? 29 ” Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo | 40412°6 | 15: ww Jey ns | 40804°5 | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 225 OsM1UM—continued. Are Spectrum Reduction to | Spark Spectrum | j | Vacuum | Wave-length ‘Inten-, Wave- | Inten- Oscillation | sity length sity |—__, | Frequency] ee ~ | Rowland | Exner | and |—————| and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and | and | Cha- |Rxner and) Cha- | + on | Tatnall | Haschek aoe Haschek | racter | x 2440°8 2 0°72 | 1271 | 40958- 405 1 » 09 63: 2437°798 0 %» ” 41008°5 | 35°7 1 e 35 44- 34°731 | TO ey FF ss 60-2 34605 | | ae ” » 62°3 | / | sno | 2 ‘e - 91: / 31-699 | 2431-70 | 1 31:7 1 e : 41111-4 31-299 | 31:30 1 31:3 1 » ” 18-2 | 29°801 | 0 AC es 43°5 29°025 | | 0 | - o 56-7 28°4 1 is ” 67: 27-997 | 0 28:0: | 2 oir 15422 64-0 27°386 0 55 “rs 84-4 27-280 | 0 7 pi: 86-2 26°907 26:90 1 PP ” 92°6 26-297 0 38 cp 41202°9 25:06 1 25°1 2 as ED 23°9 | 24-820 24°82 1 % » 28-0 24°655 24:67 iL 24°7 1 % ” 30°7 | 24:2 2 bs op 39° 24-102 | 0 se 2 40:2 23°158 2 23°13 (ee ” ” 56°3 22-106 }. 0 ” ” 74:2 . 21-949 | O | 0-71 > 76-9 | i pA le In ” ” 81- 21-268 | | 0 a5 oP 88°5 | | 20-7 i ” > 98- 20°137 bani 20:2 1 ”» ” 41307°8 19°8 1 6 53 14: 18-618 18°61 1 18-6 1 % ” 33°8 18°457 iG HP os 36°5 18-081 18:07 1 18:1 1 ” ” 43-0 168 1 a a 65- 15°436 0 15:5 1 oA ” 88-2 14639 14°63 In 14:7 1 op BS 41401°9 14-198 0 14*1 1 2 ” 09-4 14-042 - 0 > > 12:1 11-992 0 12°3 47°2 11-536 | 1 re ; 55-0 10:282 | 0 A ” 766 09-6 2n a > 88: 09-476 | | 0 fi : 90:5 | 09-010 | 1 ” ” 98°5 08-764 08-76 1 ”9 ” 41502°8 06-053 06-06 in =} ” ” 49°5 05:531 05°55 1 | 99 aa) ef 58:2 05°176 | O Nie J Late 64.7 03-944 03°95 ] | . ” ” 86:0 02°620 0 See hi er 41608°9 02-328 O2SIS ele 4 + 9 14:1 01-219 Pl2eemek |) Ole | 2) | oo a | ae 2398-300 | | 0 i | ” } ” | 83°9 924, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OsM1UM—cuntinued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Reduction to | | | Vacuum | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- Inten- \Oscillation| sity | length | sity Frequency| Rowland Exner and and 1 in Vacuo Kayser an | and Cha- |Exner al Cha- | a+ | =- Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter | A = | t | 2397-730 0 O71 | 12-4 | 41693-7 96°855 2396°88 In 2 * 41708°7 95°969 95-99 1 2395-9 1 ” ” 24°2 94-379 | 94:40] 1 a4) Dees ie, ear ks 93-986 | | O | poles cs 58°9 92-6 Sees ac 83° 91:9 1 3 93 95- 91-248 0 33 41806°8 87°378 87°37 | 1 87:4 1 ” | 74°6 | 861 | 1 5 |e ani | 84°715 84:71 1 84:7 ni) Gs » | 41921-4 | 83:2 In 2 12°5 | 48- 82°595 | 0 39 > 58:5 | 79°931 79°90 In ” ” 42005°8 | 79°730 79°70 | In ae Apia 09:3 79°482 79:46 | 1 79°5 1 ” 992 a 13°6 78°842 0 78:9 1 9 Pe | 24°8 78°6 1 ” ” | 29° 77°704 71766 | 1 ulefey| 1 ” ” 45:3 | 77-128 Tiflis 1 77-2 2 ” ” 55:2 | 76:398 0 ” ” 68-0 | 76:2 1 ” ” 71: 715°2 2 =i om 89- 74:8 1 + e 96- 73°0 In 0-70 39 42128: 72:0 1 4 5 46° 71-270 | ae a Pet ae EN : 59-0 70°796 70°79 | 1 70°7 1 ” ” 67-4 69°346 | | 69°34] 1 ee Mae es » 93°3 67°434 67:46 | 1 7:40, G6 i s,, 12°6 | 42227-0 63-421 1 ices 33 98°9 63-128 0 + “ 42304°2 62°855 62°85 | 1 x Fe 09-1 62-498 | 62°50 | 1 a 5 15°5 | 58°7 2 | ” ” 84: 57°9 1 +s Ee 98- 57:°344 | 57°36 | In ee > | 42408°0 | 56-999 57:00 | In ere s 14:2 55:378 0 55-4 2 =H 3 43°4 53:10 | 1 lg 12-7 84-4 51-826 0 | inane » | 42507-4 51-678 0 | fees * 10:1 50°323 | O 711 aes > a eee Neh pies 7 47-480 47:50 | 1 [Pages 5 86-0 45°855 0 3 a 42615°7 43°831 eee 43-9 1 3 33 §2°5 42:043 0 - ara 85-1 40-732 0 5 12°8 | 42708°9 38°723 1 = a3 45°6 | 36°876 36:89 | In = 3 79:2 | 34-640 1 = vs | 42820-4 | 33:0 1 ” 2”? 50- 32°288 1 =f - 63°5 | 29-356 0 | | 429175 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 225 OsMIUM—continued. | Are Spectrum Spark Spectrurh | Getadton de | | a ae 5 ee ine as. | | (iy 7 | Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation | /—__ ~- -a sity | length | sity | ] Frequency) Rowland / Exner | and |- ——} and | ess in Vacuo | | Kayser and | and Cha- Exner and| Cha- | a+ | —— Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | pees 2327-081 | 0 | | 0-70 12:9 | 42959-4 | 25-636 | 0 0:69 | ,, 86-1 | 2324-37 | In ie: » — -43009°5 | 24:07 | In le as ‘ 15°1 | | 2320-4 | 1 is 83- | | eg 1 2 | ,, | 13-0 {49208 08-40 In | fie » | 438071 | Se a es | ae 48- | | 050 | 1 - $ 71: 93°7 1 3 13:1 | 43585: 88:2 1 Fe 13:2 | 43689: 86:6 In elena ean: 85:6 In # Ea 39- | | 85-0 Bais arg hes 50° | 2283°76 1). 7} ae | eer 74:2 83°3 2 aah altteags 83: 82°35 1 82°41 4 | 9 ne 43801: 79-2 1 $8 Pe 62° : 77:4 1 0:68 es 97° | 72°6 2 » | 13:3 43989 70°8 1 Fe » | 44024 58°5 1 A 13°4 | 44264 a a a ee » | 44388 / | 50:97] 1 | 4, | 135 | 44411-8 | | | 04:5 2 | 0-67 | 13:8 | 45348 RHODIUM. Kayser, ‘ Abhandl. K6nigl. Akad. Wissenscb. Berlin,’ 1897. Rowland and Tatnall, ‘ Astroph. Journ.,’ ili. p. 286 (1896). Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ civ. p. 960, cv. p. 561. Snyder, ‘ Astrophysical Journal,’ xiv. p. 179 (1901). Exner and Haschek, ‘ Wellenlingen-Tabellen der Bogenspektren der Elemente,’ Leipzig und Wien, 1904, p. 126. Adeney, Photographs Ultra-violet Spark Spectra, ‘Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc.’ (2), vii. p. 331, Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum li eduetiantte | Vacuum sh. / Wave-length |Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation sity length Sityaiion ame orcas Frequeucy, Rowland Exner | and ;————| and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and and Cha- Exnerand| Cha- | A+ aE | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter 5983-830 4 1:63 | 4:5 16707:2 52-791 OF x 162 4:6 94-2 41-743 1 ” | ” 16825°5 18-698 1 1:61 ° 91-0 | * 07-478 Pa ars 33 16923°1 5899-128 | | 1 ers Pr 47:1. , 71947 Lea P 1 | 160! 2 | 17025:5 | 1907, s Q 226 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RyuopIuM—conti2zued. Spark Spectrum | pre Spore Reduction to | | Vacuum Wave-length \Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation sity length SLY, clitan sel Frequency | Rowland | Exner and | and | in Vacuo Kayser | and | and | Cha- /Exnerand| Cha- age | ae Tatnall Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | | | | pris ge RA 3 | . 5833-808 | In 159 4:7 | 171368 31-730 4 # a ce : 21-991 2 stole | 07:058 4 1:58 53 17215°7 03-482 | 2 NY Gee ~ 26°3 5797°668 | 2 \o Ss ip umes 43°6 95-936 z e e ae 92-824 = 8 qd 55894 0 | 1:57 a 17368°8 42-985 0 Neo - 17407°9 30-600 2 | 1:56 35 45:5 27:466 3 “ > 55:0 26°875 In i$ a 56°8 18-038 | 0 E 48 83°'8 13°799 | In x 3 96°8 08:930 | On a 17511-7 00-628 _ 4n 1:55 a 371 5695°823 be al | san yas 51:9 86°543 | | ee ae ee 80:6 59-924 | | Qn | | 1:54 | 4, | 17663°3 59-791 | Ay | Rees = 63-7 51466 | In ite ‘3 89:7 34°847 | 2 | 9 ae 17741°9 26°254 | 3 33 dl 08°541 | 4 - 4:9 17825-0 07-898 | | 3 ie - 27-1 05°214 | 0 - ~ 35-6 5599-620 | / Gn x e a 95:043 n sf ‘ : 68-495 | 0 1:52 9 17953°3 57°364 | In i 3 89:2 56:968 | : 3 3 mite 55:288 ney f P 44-797 | 6b | 1:51 | 4, | 28030-0 42-260 20) ne 3 38°2 35°235 | | 5n 5 wf a 34:074 In a sf 35°0 | | 04-845 | 4n 150 | 5:0 | 181608 03°776 | 2n - Bs 64:3 5497-197 | 10) 3 a 86-2 92-048 |. 2n ‘ ss 18203°1 | 84:421 4n | et a ; | 81-602 | 2n | ie 53 | 80:997 0 ee es 75°318 | 2n 1:49 55 71-040 | 5n 2 ©, 68-921 | 2n Bs i 68-288 3n a 3 45°424. | 4n EP 44-508 2n tte 33 41:547 4n | bags uf | 39°783 4 | 1:48 - | 32°224 \ 1 gn iiss i i ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 227 RHODIUM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Haduetion ta | l 2 57°7 73°607 | 0 fe #3 19704:4 | | 64:475 4 iy a 36 40:0 | 57°576 2 1:38 ” . 66:9 46-583 2 ni 3 19810-0 | 28-492 2 e es || 81:3 | 25-692 | 1 1:37 | ob 92:2 12-538 oO. >] Pre tek. 19944°5 | 4997-919 is) rs F 20002°8 | | 96:012 0 | | are a 10°5 85-107 2 1:36 a 54:2 77°969 4 3 a a 83-0 66-511 2 4 - 20129°4 63°831 | 4 5 —e | 40:2 61°012 0 | | oo» x at 51:7 60-318 Lys erie tessa '| 54:5 44:975 ferent | | 1:35 » | 202171 22°633 yl | lias 5:6 | 20310°6 | 19-821 2 - ae | 20°3 | 18-953 | | 2 | | sas uf aieateent 23°9 | 13-649 | 2 | 14 45-9 08-744 2 | me os 66-2 4898-022 | 1 eee » | 20410°8 88-045 0 ‘are ze 52°5 65°922 | ea 1:33 “ 20545°5 61:808 | On | | 9 57 62:8 61:497 | 2n | es s 64:1 | 56°614 eo 3: ea 84:8 | 51-777 6 | | S50 al sn BOGOR 44°145 6 ies a 37°8 42-556 4 | ace aes 44:5 33°627 | O | (SAL S Zee ae 82-7 | 17-233 0 LL hse » | 20753°1 13°678 | io . a), 68-4 | 10°645 } ab | Meron, - 81:5 03-393 | O | 1:31) ,, |) 20812-9 01:517 | In | A des5 re |. 21-0 4798-829 4 | le or om 32°7 94°364 0 a ae 52°1 91-640 al ie te 64-0 91°164 wee = ae 66-0 77:304 | | 2 5 5°8 20926°5 71:687 | 2 ae | 51:1 70938 | 3 5 los |, se a 54-4 55°717 | | 4 | 1-30 | ,, | (2102-54 50-007 | | 0 dees 5 46°8 | 45-276 | 6 i a 67:3; | 31333 | | | 2tn Bs) Uass 21129°9 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 229 RHODIUM—continued. | | Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Baduction t0 cc | Vacuum Wavye-length Taten-| Wave- | Tnten- Oscillation a == sity length | sity |———,—— Frequency | Rowland | Exner and and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser | and and Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | A+ —— | | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | a | | 4724-483 | 2 | : | 109! 5:8 | 211606 21:148 | 6 ; : 15-5 19°545 | 2 a B 82-7 07-108 | In ; 59 .21238-6 04-230 ne | We 51:6 4696463 re | anes 86-7 89-610 Ll | 1-28] _ ,, 21317°8 is 4686-0 | In | , » 34: 83-093 468315 | In | 83-0 In ie “a 47-4 | jet eae ie hd ae 54 17-532 TPbpi) In | 77-6 ir i ees 72:9 75°187 | 75:20 | 10 152 | 2 hoe 83-6 66-261 | he | Peeks eo ie eos 43-337 43°35 | 3 | ("2-27 |. jr e ekeaOss 39-526 39°53 | 2n 405 | In s i. 48-0 34-017 | 34:05 | In a 6a 13°5 26-105 26:12 | In | se > | 21610°4 | | EE EP bs 5 Rial al 38° 20-059 | 20:07| 3 | Ms ato 38°7 08-294 08:30| 4 | 083 | 2n | 1:26] ,, | 94-0 01-792 01-82; 1 | | ft 5» | 217246 4599-553 45996 | In | aoe Ne abet | 35-1 72-794 reas) aA 4572-7) | 1 |) 726 3) /Potge2-4 72-5e"|> Leelee eS 64: | 71-466 M48) | oe |) e0-6. |) 1 i a 68:8 | 70-489 70°51 | In | | . - 13-4 69-181 | 4569-184 69:19 6 693 2 fe pi 79°7 68-538 68:55 1 | a set 82°8 65:373 | 65:37 | 3 65°3 1 3 s 98-0 63:0 1 » | 61 | 21909: 61-062 _| 61:08 | 3 61-0 1 ; 2 18°8 58-897 | 58:90 | 3 58-9 1 Bf : 29-0 57343 | 57°35 | Qn 573 In es | 36°5 51-828 | 5183 | 4 51:8 1 » ao) | 63:1 4839} 3 | 488 1 x , 77-3 | 44-447 | 4445| 3 | 446 1 ee) 98-8 30°763 30°77 | 1 | 309 1 1-24 , | 22065-2 28-904 28-901 28-91 9 29-0b 4 Pe watt 74:3 | | | | 25°5 1 4 } Ql: | Geo Pet [ps pp RPT | 06:815 | 06:83 | 1 068 In a 82°5 | 03-955 03-955 03:96 | 3 Ot 1-23) | 96-6 4492-644 | 4492-643 | 4492-65 | 4 4492-7 5 » | G2 | 299524 84-015 84:00 | 2 84:0 1 pA e 95°3 78-3 In 3 3) | o2aR4- 48°5 tb | 1:22) 4° |O2a7e | 435 1b = Me 99° 33-495 33-489 | 33:50| 3 33-6 1 . ». «225494. ) 26°6 1 121 63 84: | 26:3 1 3 gj 86° 24-215 24-217 2423 | 2 | 24:3 Tees (33 i 96-7 | 23°835 23-824 23°84 | 1 | te as 3 98°6 | 21-383 21°38 | In | | Sere ed | OGLE | 20-178 20°17 | In | | ee Ve 17-2 |; 230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. _ RHODIUM—continued, | Are Spectrum Spark ean - Headed to = ay : | Vacuum Wave- length |Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Losin ; * | sity length sity | Frequency | Rowland Exner and) | eee || 0d) 1 | in Vacuo | Kayser and | and Cha- |Exner and} Cha- | A+ —— | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter Leal | 4410-449 | 44i0-45 | an | | 1:21 | 63 | 22667-1 | | A4OG:S5 a sin Wie ee Salinas 91- | 02:725 | 4402-716 02:74 1 | ” 22706°9 | 4388°224 | 4388-215 | 4388-24 | 2 4388-2 1 1:20 ‘s 82:0 80-097 | 80:082 80-11 8 80°1 In |» “3 22824-2 | 792 | 1 i cae tere? 77:0 1 2S|) Seen alares 40: 76°350 | 76°347 76°35 1 Sai leeres ty 43°8 | WD Is Ieodl i | eo 74-976 | 74-981 75:00 | 10r TASS DP Sen) Ziv 4 || eee 50:9 73°212 | 73°212 73°22 6 li 3p ee | 60:2 | 72°5 2 SO 64: | 640 In 53 6:4 22908: 62°393 62°40 ln A 16°8 49-336 49333 49°32 2 | a 19 Sr at 85-6 45°629 45-626 | 45°62 3 | aos » | 23005-2 45:247 45°245 45:25 2 45:3 1 i a O7- ~| 42-608 42°604 | 42°60 | 4 a3 3 21:3; | 42:5 1 3 As 22: _ | | 39°5 | > in 55 as 38° | 36-181 | 36176 3619] 1 _ : 55-4 | | 28°8 lb Ee Ae 95: | 25°584 | 25-578 | eet! | os | 9» | adbll-3 23:2 Lb ah) Seecaless 25: 20:0 In . AQ- | | 173 In 1:18 oe 56 15:126 15°123 15°14 fe 15:2 1 sb ees 67°9 | 13°6 lb A eas 7 | 10°7 a es 3 2 08°982 08-988 | 08:99 | 2 09:0 1 Fe 65 23200°8 | | | 00°7 In |) 4s ai 45'5 | 4296:926 | 4296-931 | 4296:°93 | 5 ” ” 65°9 | 42968 | 4 55 “s 67° 88:°883 88°867 88°89 10r 88:8b 8 - | 23309°6 | 84:6 In 3 =. a 33° | 82:0 | lb 3 pee 47 | 79°3 In ei iy 5 62 78°744. | 78°755 | 78°74) 4 | 78:7 2 5 Py, 64:8 | | 78:2 1 x Bs 68: 76:962 76:974 | 76:97 | 2 77:0 1 ” ” 74:5 . 76°5 | in - ss ks 76:1 In 3 BA 79 74:38 | In # ‘5, 86 73578 73°581 73°59 | 4 73°5 Ze) Biss aI 93-1 | 4 | 1 is » | 23400 70°696 10°72 | 2 70:7 1S es)) Bees s 08:9 | 69-7 In 5 ” 14 69:2 1 i ef 17 65:3 In 55 Pes 39 64:5 In 55 35 43 63°8 In Py | - 47 62°3 in Ps os 5B: 60-706 607 |; le) ,, = 63'8 60°1 ln ” ” 67: Be Ody hye me. + ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, RHODIUM—continued. 231 Are Spectrum Wave-length Rowland Exner Kayser and and | Tatnall } =! | 4258°608 | 4258617 | 4258-62 | | | 44598 44599 | 44-60 30°354 - 30-358 30°36 | | 28-002 | 21-362. 18142 18153 18°15 11-306 11-304 11-26 06:770 06-777 06°75 | 4196°672 4196-661 4196-68 | 77780-77803, 77°80 | } 58-615 58-634 58-64 «84495 54521 54:52 | $7008 | 37°025 | 37-01 85448 85-445 85-45 | | 29:080 29°054 =. 2906 25-063 25-068 25-05 21-870 «21855 21-86 | 19355 | 19852 19°85 16496 16-496 16-49 | 07-665 07-65 _ 4097-690 4097-692 | 4097-69 88-646 88-651 88-64 87-950 87-948 87-94 : | 84-442, 84450 | 84-45 | Inten- sity | and Cha- | Haschek | racter | | In bobo Reduction to Spark Spectrum | we ay, ee | Vacuum og Wave- | Inten- Oscillation length sity | ~| Frequency —— EER 1 | in Vacuo Exner and) Cha- | A+ ; eal Haschek | racter | 4259-7 In| 27 | 6°5 23469: SPS me | os ga i es | | ” ” 75°3 58°4 | In cpl ieee 76° 56'6) in =F A 86: 56°3 1 or | 88: 52-7 In oF 6°6 23508: 49°1 1 - ie 28° 48:0 1b a HS 34: 45-4 In 0 es 48: 44-7 2 re oe 52: 06 ed a Oy 32°7 In 1:16 is | 23619- 32°3 In 3 5 21- 30°3 1 - = 32°1 2? ” 45:2 21°5 1 P BS 82: / ” ” 82-4 | 21:2 AUR be x 83: 20:0 Lees; 3 90- 1S2 5 i] 53 5 23700°5 11-4b 10 ition ee 39°1 06:7 2 a 5 64:6 | 04:1 In 1M Rae] Sah 80- 4196°6 6 Fc feel ek S07 23821-7 95-7 lb ms 93 27° 82:7 1 Foe 58 23901: 178 Eee sere lt iss 29°4 758 Py ee las 41: 715 Le ee sects ata 65° 66°9 In Wel a dee 92: 66-2 | 1Ir Fr 3 96° Pe 45 24039°7 57-4 1 Be ie 47° BLO) EG) 155 a 63°5 37:0 He igs 6-8 24165°2 35°4b| 6 | ,, 2 73-4 eros ere | + 83° 29°0b| 8 | 1-13 Ss 24211°8 25:0 | 1 Fr os 35°3 22 ee s Bs 49: 21°7 6 ss 3 54-1 19°8 4 x “ 65:9 16°4 2 Fr 5 85:7 13°6 In +3 Ey 24303- 07°5 2 7 bat Col 38:0 4097°7 6 A 6-9 971 93:0 | In | 112! ,, | 24495 Sroviir ts e44 2 37° |: iowa reels DEE 88:0 | 2 eT Lae 85:5 | 1 33 Ree 70° 85-4 | 1 ” ” (le 845 | 1 fF » 4A 76-2 232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM-- cont inued. | | Are Spectrum | Spark Seepieamn | Risdaction’ea | = ; | | Vacuum Waye-length ae en-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation) ——_—_—— | sity length | sity | iia Frequency | Rowland | Tiger [ed a en 1 in Vacuo | Kayser | and and | Cha- Exnerand|) Cha-| At = —— Tatnall Haschek Leet Haschek acter i | AN | | 4082-942 4082° 949 4082- 99 10 | 4083-0b 8 1-12 | 6:9 24485°1 81°961 81:975 | 81:98 | 2 | 82-0 / 1 ” 3 911 80°690 80:699 | 80:70 1 80-9 1 PP ” 98°8 77°739 77°748 | TPTED cs 778 2 2 » | 24516°5 za} 61:0 | 1b a si 24618: | | 595. | Ib | » » 27° 56-491 56503 | 5650} 2 56:5 a ee 44-9 53°602 53°603 | 53°60 | 2 ean’ De 1 iL eee ae 62°5 49-188 49-200 49°17 2 49:2 2 + 7:0 89°3 48°572 48571 48°56 3 48:6 2 * | 93:1 43-6 In gee erry te | Pe 43:0 In is ek 27° 403 lb An ad 44: 34:0 l “9 ee al 82: 28-6 | 1 5 *s 24816: 26:089 26:09 | 1 26:2 | In » ” 31°5 | 23°302 23°301 23°29 | 4 | 23°3 6 » 79 | 48-2 | | 20°3 1 Py) ” 67° | Ty CALS alt et eae 5 87 | 05-5 In. | 72:10 » | 24959 03:3 4 |eelin: 5 ft lis 72° 3996-313 3996:307 | 3996°31 | 6 $996:2.°| 48) | 3 a 25016-0 | 95-768 95-766 95:77 || 5 95:7 nS ee ; 19-4 | | 86 6 In ” ” 77: 84-555 84-556 84:56 | 5 | 84:5b (Petal er re | 89°'8 76-240 763 1 5 3 | 2b142-3 +) 7 Geil ae eee sen 43- 75472, 75465| 7648| 5 | 753b| 6 | 109| ,, 47-1 73°5 In “f a 60- | | | 69 3 In | 9 ” 86° 68°320 68:33 | 2 | x, x 92-4 | 64-688 64°688 64:68 | 3 | = » | 25215°6 | 59-006 59-009 59:00 | 20r 59:'0b | 10b’ ,, ” 57°8 58°313 58:31 | 4 58°3 4 A a 56°2 53°214 53°20 1 oc 7:2 88:7 | 50°6 lb ce * 25305: 44-10 2 5 a 47°1 42-862 | 42°88 5 42‘9b | 6 » * 55:0 42-059 | | 8 a es 60:2 40°6 ] ss Ba 70° | 39°8 2 33 ” 75° | 38°7 1 ” ” 82° | 38:05 | 1 38:0 1 ” 86-1 35:982 35983 35:99 | 6 35°9b | 4 1:08 - 99-4 | 35:123 35-120 35-11 | 4 Sb) 2 9 »» | 25405-0 | 34°384 | 34°368 34:39 1dr 34°3¢ 8 2 ” 09°8 | | 29°55 | In | 33 baa, 41: | | - 266 Lees 99 60- 26:2 1 | ” ? 63° | 25:1 | 1 : ” 70: | 24:7 1 a ee (eR 22-340 22337 | 22:34/ 5 | 224 | 4 # 3 87:3 | 16°55 1 f +p 25525°7 | | | 15'8 1 ” Te ee a \ ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 233 RuoDIUM— continued. 3913-657 12-971 05°423 04:362 | 3891-953 | 88°475 | 77-470 | 72-534 70°140 | Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | poauction to / [Ss : ee age Vacuum Wave-length | Inten Wave- | Inten Oscillation —__—_——— | sity | length sity | —, |Frequency| Rowland Exner and ||| and 1 in Vacuo | and and Cha- Exner and, Cha- | A+ —— Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | x. | | 39143" | 1 1:08 | 7:2 25540: | °913-648 | 3913-64) 4 | 13°7 In 99 2 44-4 12-964 12:98 | 2 a | pee es 1 | eipee 122 12-6 1 a 5 51:. | 11:7 1 ” ” 57° 11-2 1 = Fe 60: | 10°6 1 FP 53 / 64: | 10-0 1 ~ eee 68: || ORGS baby fon | 78 Tt | 08:3 La ee eee Pe 79° | 07:6 1 5 $3 84- 07:0 In PA < 88- | 06-2 Ve i en ss $5 93° | 05:5 MS Nate Es 98° 05-41 | 1 33 es 98:2 | | 05-1 1 3 33 25600- | 04:5 2 FA 3 04: 04°359 | 3404:35 2 3 Fe 05:2 ween | 03:0 1 = a3 14: | 02°66 | 1 3 ge 16:2 | b 02°3 i LS a 19: | 02°1 1 ap = 20: | 01:5 ] Fe %5 24- | | O11 1 % sn 26a 00-2 1 - - Cyl | 3899-0 ] ‘a 3 40° | | | age: | ot i (i cet lpan aan | $898:13 |. 2 98:1 1 3 an | 46:0 | | 978 | 1 » |» | 48: | 97°3 1 a nl 51: | 968 | 1 L-OUiivudenn \ 2BBe 96°1 Bi, 11°) sue sate | 59: : 94:8 In B $s 68° | / 93°8 | In P a fist | 0 92-0 In - sj 86°7 | 90°5 1 5 a4 96° 89°6 In 3 > 25702: 89:1 In s} 5s C6: 88:48 2 88:5 2 3 a 09-7 / / 87:5 1 3 5 16: 3886-470 | lve ae os be 23-0 | 86:0 In 2” 2 26° | 84:3 lb 3 e 37° | 83:2 1b 5 3 45° | 82:4 In 5 - 50° 81:0 1 55 ne 59- 80:2 1 % 6 65° / 779 1 ” 2 80: 77482 7747 «34 774b ) 4 3 2 82°7 76:6 1 fe Pe 88: 74:8 ] a » | 25800: 72-532 72:57 3 72:5, | 2 7 a 155 70'4b | 2 ae Panny 30° 70-151 | 7016| 5 702 | 6 alte oss. oleae 234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—continued. | Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Reduchonne | ie =P ati ‘ , Vacuum Wave-length | Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation | sity length sity |, | #requency | Rowland Exner / on =o ma i | in Vacuo Kayser | an and | Cha- | Hxner and oe laa 1 Tatnall Haschek racter | Haschek racter | / 38692 | 1 | 1:07] 7:3 3865-291 1 (mes ” ) 63-7 a! | | ” ” 56°663 | 3856°654 | 3856-62 | 20r 56-‘7b | 10 ' 1:06 ” 56°167 56°165 56°15 4 56:3 2 | Eiger hss 54°81 3 54°8 | 2 ” ” 53°5 In | ” ” 52°7 In ” ” 49°14 | 2 492 | 2 ” ” | 44-55 1 | ” ” | | 44:0 | lb ” ” | 41°3 1 ” ” 40°6 | af ” ” 40°3 1 ” | ” | 38°9 1b ” | ” 34°893 | 34°895 | 34°89 | 3 30°0 | 2 Pete baa Laie 34-016 34020-3403 | 1dr 34:1b | 6 9 a oo Al ew) ” | ” | | | PAN (A ” ” 28°623 28°615 | 28°61 | | 28-7b 6 ” ” 27-505 15r | ” ” 0 24°8 1 ” j ” | 22°397 22-399 22°43 _ br 22-5b | 6 ” ” 18:90 | 1 ” . ” 18-345 18-339 18°34 | 4 18-4b | 8 2» | 9 17-990 0 180 | In » ie | 17°524 a 0 ” ” 16°611 | 16-611 16°62 4 16°7b 6 1:05 1 iss 15°169 15°166 15°18 3 15:2b 4 » | 9 12-599 | 12-603 | 12°61 3 12:7 1 ” ” | / 11:9 1 ” ” 09°655 | 09-648 | 09°65 3 09:7 2 » ” 06-920 | 06-908 06°91 4 06°9¢ 4 ” » | | 06-071 06-070 | 06:08 4 06-1b +f ” ” 3799466 3799°461* 99°46 «Tr 37996 | 10 ” ” 98°3 1 ” / ” / 95:0 i ” ” 93366 93364 93-40) 4r 93:3b | 8 io hee 92°33 4 92°4 | + ” ” | 91-6 1 ” 2? 90°58 | 1 | ” ” | 89°8 1 ” ” 88-633 88-624 88-64 6 88°7b | 6 ” » 4 86:0 ) 2 ” ” 85-4 | In ” ” 81:0 | ln ” ” 80:0 ) In ” ” 78-279 78:279 78°28 4 78:3b | 4 93.) Wl ease 17:0 1 ” | ’ 75°864 75°85 2 76:0 2 1-04 | 2 72°8 Ht 5 75 71:779 71:77 2 71°8 2 ” ” 70-130 70125, 7013 5 701b , 2 * Distinct from Ru 3799°489. RBODIU M—continued. ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 235 Are Spectrum Wave- length . Bowie Kayser and | Tatnall . | 3765°232 3765-227 60°554 | 60-559 | 55-748 55-736 | 55-290 54-441 | 54-431 | 54-269 | 54-268 48-383 48-362 44325 44-325 37-448 37-421 36-295 35-429 35-429 25-091 | | 14-989 14-975 13593 | 13-575 13-156 | 13°172 09-773 ) 01-057 01-056 | 3699°461 3699-458 | 98-758 | 98°742 98-415 98-410 | 95-674 95-669 | 95-105 95-099 92506 92-502 91-481 91-477 90-872 | 90-853 | eee and 3765-24 60°55 55°73 54-44 54°26 48°37 | 44°32 37°43 36:00 | 35-44 | 34°34 25-10 | 20°91 14:99 13-98 13-60 13°18 01-07 | 3699- 46 Cha- Haschek )saetee Haschek Sr bo a Cri bo oF FR - Spark pies | Exner and 3768°8 67:2 | 65-2b | 60:9 Ll ioe) or) Dee De aD deeded i=] Lor} Bip rt 0 bb tS tN te C0 Nee oS Reduction to Vacuum Oscillation’ Frequency in Vacuo | ~ = bo REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Wave-length | Inten. | Wave- | Inten- = = sity | length sity | Rowland | Exner and |————) and Kayser | and. | and Cha- | Exner and Cha- Tatnall Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | 3688-7 In 88-0 1 3683°615 4 / 83°3 In 83-030 2 | | 3681-205 81-184 | 3681:19 | 6 81:2b 10 80°3 1 79°353 | 2 | 7990 | 1 77-5 | Ib | | TO) ia 74924 | 74-916 | 74°92 | 5 749 | 4 73°710 2 | | 3:5 || In | 70-7 | lb | 69-2 1 67-070 | 67-065 | 67:08 | 6 | 67:1 4 66°381 | 66°366 | 66:39} 0:70 4) 66:°3b 8 | 64:9 | 1 62:027 | 62-018 62:02 | 3 62:0b | 4 61-760 | 61°748 | Glen) 22 | 61°bb | 58-148 | 58°135 58°15 | 15r 58:2b | 10 56-994 | 2 55-044 55026 | 55°04] 8 550c | 4 54:569 1 | 53°64 ] / 51516-51505 | 5153 | 2 | 49°8 il 49:0 In 48°51 ] 44-363 | 0 | 43-3 lb 43°301 | 0 42°83 1 42°8 lb 42-2 | In | | 4173 | 2 dle 39-662 | 3969 | 6 30-7 | 4 | 371 | 1 / 35:9 In 33°8 1 33-0 1 32°3 1 | 305 | 1 29-7 | lb 27°958 27°957 27°95 4 28-0 2 27°342 | 27°334 | 27°30 4 27°73 1] 26°759 | 26°744 | 26°75 | 7 26'7b | 10 | | 25-0 1 24°5 1 23-2 1 23-0 1 22-2 1 20°621 | 20-605 20-61 D» | 206 ; 4 Reduction to | | Vacuum | | Oscillation | Frequency| | in Vacuo | 27301°6 | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 257 RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Wave-length | | rate Wave- | Inten- | Kayser | 3614-934 14°674 | 14-099 | 12-621 08-246 06-029 00-911 | 3598-057 96°343 96-183 94054 93-685 90-688 | and Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | 3614-931 | 12°618 08-243 | 06-019 | 02-182 | 3598-051 97:300 | 97°294 | 96-185 90-678 83-683 83-252 70°333 - sity | length sity | Rowland | Exner and |—————| and and Cha- | Exner and} Cha- 3619-1 | 1 | 166 In 15-2b) 1 3614-93 | 4 148 | 8 14:67 1 | 1 | | 13°9 | In 12°62 Gr 12-5 8 10:93. In | | |; 09-0: |) In 08-5 | (1 08:25 4 | 08-2 2 07-9 1 06:05 6 058c 6 03:0 | In | 2 00:90 | 4 | | | 00-6 In 3598-05 4 | 3598-0 2 97°31 | 12r | 97:3b| 8 96°32 4r 96°3b | 10 4 | | 95:5 | Ib 94:8 1 93:70 | 3 | 937 | 2 | 980 | 1 90°65| 1 | 906 2 | | 85:8 2 | | §50 | 1 83:67 | 4 83-6b | 4 83:24 20r | 83-1 6 80:8 1 80-41) 1 | 805 1 | 79°7 In 78°6 1 77-0 1 | 76-6 1 76-2" | 1 15°7 1 15-4 1 74:0 1 73-4 1 72-5 1 72-1 1 ) Lk a Re 71-0 2 10. || 70:3 8 | 69-2 1 | | 689 | 1 Reduction to | Vacuum 1 At | aoe | Us 1:00 ” ” ” 3 ” ” 2? bed te) °° ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 9° 3° ” ” ” ” cy) ” 9 ” ” ” 9 79 ” ” ” ” ”° ” ” 2? 9 ” rE) 9 ’ 7” ” ” 99 > ” > ” ” ” ” ” ” 0-99 : ” b) ” ’ 9 ? ” ’ ” ’ ” 2 ” ’ ”? > 27901 Oscillation | Frequency | in Vacuo | | | | } 238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, Are Spectrum RHODIUM—continued. | Spark Spectrum | | Reduction to | | | | | i | | Vacuum Wave-length ' Inten- : Waye- —Inten- | 'Oscillation aoe = ——| sity | length | sity |——— Frequency| | Rowland | Exner | and |—— | and | 1. in Vacuo Kayser and | and | Cha- Exnerand| Cha- | A+ eee | Tatnall Haschek acter) Haschek racter A 3568-6 1 0°99 7:9 28014 68°3 1 “A Bs is 67-1 In , 26° 66°3 1 E 8 32° 3564°290 | 3564:282 3564°31 3 64:2 2 9 » 48-2 62-2 2 ” ” 58: 63-0 In * ee 65- 61-8 In “5 aA 68: | 60°53 | 1 > ” 178 60°3 1 B ns 80-5 I 60°1 1 ae 55 81- | 59-2 De a ae 88° . 59-0 BF | ees 90- | Sae6. de dhe See 93° DSO. We ae # 98- Bre || | x | <28102- Dice | ll 3 ys 04: 568 In a = O7- 53°9 1 = a 30° 53°6 1 “ = 33° 53-1 1 oH = oa 52°8 ik % 2 39° 51:8 1 3 8-0 47° | 50:4 1b - a | 58° 507165 | 50°145 | 50°15 | 1 » ” 59'8 | 50:0 1 ” 2? 61: 49681 | 49-689 | 49°70 | 5 49-6c 10 A * 63°5 44-122 44-097 | 4413) 5 | “a A 28207°8 | 43:9 8 ” ” 09- 42-068 | 42°065 | 42:05 | 4 | = 24:2 . | 49 I y 5 25: 38409 38°391 | 38°41 4 | “ ef 53°3 38°269 38°293 | 35-20, eee |) os zpar S ”» ” 54°4 | ) SS Sa 0-9 P 62: 36°6 1 > > 68- 36°4 1 a e 69: 34:3 In na + 86° 323 1 a Ss 28302: 30°536 rad 30°6 1 PA ” 16:3 28°183 28°177 | 28°18 | 15r> | 28°1b 10 = os 35:2 25°805 | 25:°808 | 25°30 2 | a ~ 54:3 25°7 6 S5 = 55° 22°5 7 cs 81: | 20°9 1 a a 94- 19-690 19-692 | 19°67 2 19°6 2 J0 NS 28403°6 17°7 1 a is 20: | Len Saves. | a a 5 23: 16°8 1 a “5 27° 14°8 1 A “A 43° | ils3¢f 4 = 53 52: 13-258 © 13°258 | 13°25 | 4 13°2 4 “ ., 55°6 11°942 | 11-940 | 11:94 | 4 11:9 2 35 .. 66:3 11-696 | 11-691 11°69 | 3 11-6 2, tA aA 68°3 | 10°7 1 35 81 76° ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | THE ELEMENTS, © 239 A = Reduction to cae - ee eal — | Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation sity | length sity | — \Frequency Rowland Exner and |—————| and | 1 in Vacuo Kayser an and Cha- |Eixner and} Cha- | A+ | —— Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter ‘ | 3509-444 | 3 0°98 | 81 28486°4. 08-754 | 3508°65 | 1 | So “4 92°5 07-471 | 3507-466 07°48 |. 8r 3507-4b | 8 as F 28502°5 05-559 05°558 05:55 | 4 05:5 2 zs = 18-0 02-686 02-674 02°67 | 1dr | 02:62! 10 Fe " 415 | G70 pi -te | OOF | 1 y ie 57°6 | 3499°3 | 1 x By 69: 3498887 3498-878 | 3498-88 | 15 98°8b |; 8 | 0:97 ro 72:4 YG5Gr Biel 5. i 91- | (96:0 ted 4 i 96- - 94°585 | 94-591 94°58 | 5 | 94:5 2 pa Es 28607°6 91°365 91°353 IES a0 aS a 3 ria 34:1 91:216 | 91-218 7 I Ue? S| ee? (2 ha ae, ss = 35:2 90:65") 7 55 5 40: 90°33 | 1 gs a 43° | 89°81) 1 | | pa 46:8 87°621 87-609 87-61 | 3 | ae ¥ 64°8 | 87°5 1 is hal 66: 87:°366 =: 87363 87°36 | 3 | a3 a 66°9 | Seep |. 2 3 | 68° 85-031 | 2 | \, ah a 86-0 84186 | 84-184 84:19 | 4 93 oat] 93-0 84:0 | 4 * ¥ | 95° 83:20 | 0 a oe 28701-1 ; 81:33 | 2 ae ath, 16°5 80°658 0 5 aad 22:1 79°064 79:053 79:07 | 10r 79:0b | 2 A AS 35°3 78°646 78:°640 78°65 | 2 * A 38°7 CEE at 77-9b | 8 7" 3 44-4 77°354. 1 - p 49-4 74:939 74-920 74:95 | 10r 74:9a | 8 e 3 69-4 73°93 | 1 . 35 17-7 73°8 1 0 29 79° 72:994. 0 6 He 85°5 72-402 72°393 72°40 | 5 72°3 4 5 “i 90:4 71:46 | 2 e- > 98-2 70-817 70-805 70°82 | 10r S 8-2 28803°5 | 706b | 8 B ve 05: 70°515 1 93 a 06-0 69°774 69-770 69°80 | 6 69°7 5Ni!| ,, $y 12:0 69°355 0 es 7 15-6 64-9 1 % 49 53° 62-191 62-184 62:19 | 12r 62-2a | 8 ” 3 15:3 59°375 59:36 | 3 59°3 1 is ; 98-7 58°815 Oh.) 0-96 - 28903-4 58-070 58-072 58:07 | 3 58-1 4 iy 3 09°7 57°219 57-216 S721 lesb 57-2 4 > > 168 56°284 0 BS i 24-6 55595 55-571 55°57 | 4 55°5 1 % ” 30°5 55°369 55°365 55:36 | 4 55°4 4 = yeailel 32°3 54:617 0 yr . 38°6 52:7 2 ee - 55: 51-294 51-298 61:30 | 4 66°4 24.0 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—continued. | Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | Reduction to | Wave-length | Inten-| Wave- | Inten- vaqepe Oscillation | sity length sity | Frequency | Rowland | Meter and -| and | 1 in Vacuo Kayser Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | A+ = | ea | Haschek racter | Haschek | racter | | n | 3450-437 3450-435 3450-47 | 5 3450-4 | 1 | 0-96 g-2 | 289735 | 48°715 | 48-723 | 48°72} 56 | 48:7 Deal i aca a aR 88-1 47-897 47°883 47-39 | 6 47°8 Ue See 95-0 46-7 | 1 -! Sate, slooaanins 46-202 0 ” | ” 09-2 45-4 | 1 Pig ie 16- | 43-1 1 eR = 35° 43-001 | 2 | BN hr 36-2 | (epee: cc A hi | = sales 37:3 42-781 | 42775) 42-79 | 4 | ae8 | chs ae 38-0 42-243 | 0 | nly bee 42:6 40:675 40671 40:69 4 40-6b 6 - ; - BSS 35037 | 35:0389 | 35-03 Lr 35-:0b| 10 ,, » | 29103-6 | 20 i al et a 15° 32-034 | 32-238 | 32:24|; 2 | 323 | 1 os ae 27-2 | 31-0: 71271 oki aie 38° 28-559 | | ogs52) 2 | West » | 686 | | 282 | In leanne 62: 24-533 | 24-582 | 2449) 6 | 245 4 wy alice ie bra a 23°699 | | | 0 ” ” 99-9 22430 | 22-434 | 22-43 | 3 92-4 | 1 4 Tareas a pee | | 21:3 | 8 ie et 0: 20307 | 20°312| 2032| 4 203 | 2 oo es | | 181 1 ; 48- 16-901 | 0 | 10:95:15, 58-0 15-824 | | 0 .. ir ve | 152 2 ” 2 e 12-425 | 12417) 1243] 6 12-4b | 8 3 5 96-4 10-625 | 1 5 eles ane 10-074 | 0 coe VP sen : 08-990 | | 6 09:0 | 1 es ee 25-9 07°884 07°883 | 07:87 | 2 08-0 | + . if 35:5 07°387 | Piao ah ae’ 074 | 1Nil_ ,, is 39°7 06-690 06-694 06°70) 5 06-7 | 4 oS hats 45:7 04-021 | 04:03 | 2n 04:0 | “In : 5% 68-7 03-247 | thet * | as i 15-4 / 02-2 "| 1 . . 84- 01-109 | OTS! oo) SO. 4 x a eRe | 00:3 1 ” ” Is | 3399-823 | 3399°839 339982 7 3399-9b | 4 3 Me 05-0 96-956 | 96-960 96-95 | 15r 97-0b | 10 a * 29:8 | 95:6 | 2 fe 41: 95-014 95-040 95-01 3 2 ‘3 465 | 92:8 | 1 is re 66: 92-230 | 92-24 | 1 + . 70-7 91-935 | 91-927 91:92 2 92:0 | 1 4; Pe 727 91847 91:85 2 ees i 73-4 90-608 | In : xf 84:8 89-5” | 1 one ae 94° 89-340 89-361 89:34 | 3 Las» © 95'8 87-960 | | 0 » os eee 87°3 1 5) shame ; 87:174 i S716) 2 aes x 148 86:3. 1a? Fl ey, ¥ 22° | | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 94] RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Reduction to / 7 | Vacuum : Wave-length Inten-| Wave- waves |eaben: Peat Oscillation SS a a ae SLY length sity | —___ |Frequency | Rowland Exner / Fine (| i! 1 | in Vacuo Kayser and and | Cha- |Exnerand|Cha- 9 A+ ame || Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | 3385-919 3385°924 3385-92 6 3386-0 | 4 ) 0°95 84 | 29525°7 | | | | 82°6 1 re a bo} i SZ 2 » ES 63° | 81-578 81-589 8160 4 | les 0 63°5 81-208 | Oo | ) Ve Nee i 66°8 | ST | Ry . 69- 80°775 80°80 | 4 | ” ” 70°6 78°7 1 ee) | a 3 89° | 77-850 77856 | 77:81 e 4 178 2 | 0-94 a 96°3 | 17-742 ae 53 s 97:2 77-275 77°282 17:28 | 5 17:2 | 4 : » | 296012 | 76°5 1 ” ” 08- 76-017 | 0 | Ae 12:3 75°735 On | PP ae 14:8 73°879 | 0 | s of) eee 72-930 | 0 | te ss | 39-4 72°672 72-668 72:68 | 2 hi 33 41°7 72°379 7 72-4c 2 ” ”? 44-2 71:6 1 A a 51: 71:3 1 ae 35 54: 70:9 1 nc % 57° 70°6 Th tip! ss ott 60: 70°2 1 A sf 63° 69-824 69°82 5 69°8 P-cell, ae F 66:7 68-914 68-918 68-91 | 3 99 09 74°8 | 68°8 1 a Fe 76° 68-518 68°52 6 68°5 6 ” ” 78-2 66:9 In oc be 93° 65°650 0 3 P 29703°5 65°138 0 65°1 1 3 5 08:1 64°281 0 64:3 1 2 FB: 156 63-7 1 ¥ - 21° 63-382 0 . i EA 23°6 62°321 62°330 62°33 5 62°4 2 A an 32°9 60°952 60°947 60°95 8 61:0 6 sg 8:5 45:0 60-043 60-038 60:04 6 60:0 4 39 ” 53:0 58°962 0 ” ” 62°6 57-980 58:00 | 2 38 29 71-4 57-560 0 98 PA 75:0 56°670 1 56:7 1 Fi ns 82°9 56°3 2 - x 86- 56:0 1 Pr i 89: 55°5 1 c- _ 93° 54°853 54°85 4 Fc 3 99°1 54:7 1 3 » | 29800: 54:5 1 vy A Q2- BEE Oe he Aer ee ae 53°834 53°84 2 | ” ” 08-1 53°7 1 ae 3 09: 53°6 1 1 ee 3 10° 53-2 Pe 3s i 14: 52:8 1 | i i 17° 62-510 52-52 2 ” ”? 19°9 | :. Pe WP ef 22: 1907, R Reduction to Vacuum 242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, RuoDIUM—continued. Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten — —-- sity length sity | Rowland Exner a Ot ——— Kayser an | and Cha- | Exner and Cha- Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | 3352°0 1 | 516 1 51-2 1 Bt Ae | 50°7 | 1 50°5 | 1 | 501 1 498 | 1 ) 496 | 1 | 49-1 | l 49:0 1 48°4 1 48:1 1 47°8 1 3347°660 0 47-437 1 47:1 1 | 46°9 1 | 4677") Ul | 46-2 | In 3346-071 1 46:1 | 1 45-707 4 | 45°156 10 | 445 | 2 44°337 | 44-340 | 3344°34 5 ) 43°573 | 43°55 | 2 | 43-2 | 2 43-036 43°039 43°05 5 2D i | 420 | 1 41°2 1 40°987 0 40°8 In 38-672 38°687 38°69 i 38:7 | 4 36°842 36°85 0 36°9 4 35°328 0 32°648 | 32°66 | 1 31°393 | 31°381 31-42 4 31:4 2 31-233 31-230 31:26 4 26:0 1 23°232 23°228 23°24 6r 23°3b | 8 20:0 1 18°5 1 16°670 0 14-665 14:67 | 2 14:7 In 13-2 In 10°7 In 09°663 09°67 2 09:7 In d 08-2 1 08:067 08-06 3 07-474 07:47 0 07:5¢ 4 07:091 07:10 | -1 05°5 1 05-298 05°30 4 05:3 1 QO £258 04:25 2 04:2 1 0°94 | 85 Oscillation Frequency, in Vacuo —_—- - ON er | F | ce e- length | Rowland Kayser | 3303872 | 03°474 | * 01-820 00-604 9 3299° 086 | 97:667 | 97-409 96-847 94-843 94-400 93-533 | 93-012 92-531 89-739 89-274 88°159 | 86-520 85-964 84151 83°705 82-932 81°827 80°680 78°620 76°122 74-908 71°748 70°702 WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE RuopiuM—conti n ued. ELEMENTs. 243 Are Spectra and Tatnall 3303068 02-712 00°593 | 3296'842 | 94-404 89-750 | 89-266 83°695 82°455 81°822 80-664 71-736 | Spark Spectr um rare | ‘Inten- Wits. ; Inten- | ——=| -BIby, ength | sity Exner | and |————~/ and and Cha- | Exner and| Cha- Haschek | mace | | Haschek | racter | | o 3303-49 | O 4 3302-7 (lian 02-49 | a 01:80 | 0 01-5 1 01:40 00:56 4 00:5 1 | 4 | | O 3299:06 2 3298°5 1 98:3 1 0 97°41 2 97-5 1 96°86 | 4 96:8 2 | 95-7 1 pe | 94:42 | 5 94°5 At | | 93°38 ee gta | Ie Oe} 92:9 In 0 92°3' | In OF-6' ok 89:9 | 2 89°73 | 5 | | 894 | 4 89°26 | 5 | 88°16) 2 | | | 86-7 1 8654 4 | 85°99 | 2 | 0 83°71 | 4r 83°7b | 6 | 0 L 5 82:0 4 | 81:33 | 4 80'8a | 8 80°68 | 2r | 78:60 | 2 | | | RCO ae 7611, 4 15-1 1 74:90 4 | / | (43). 2- | 73°47 | 1 | | 73°2 1 71:9 | 4 pee 70°72 | 3 70°7b | 1 | 69°9 |; 1 | Badaotion to | | Oscillation ——_—— | F'requency / in Vacuo Vacuum A+ oil | A 0:93 | 86 | ensayo ssa ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” EON | pe fee ” ” a net 29 | > 0-92 | ” ” | ” ” 2” ” ” ” | ” a5, Salty 3s ” ” yop 38 ” Per ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”? ” ” ” Pa dere a 8°7 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” i ae ” » 990) as ” | ”? ” ? 990, Ta kisy ” ” » ” ” ” ” ” 39. Pet ss ” ” ” ” ” ” ”» : ” ” | ” 29 he ab 30258°9 62°5 244, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—continued. Arce Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redwetion to | Vacuum oe Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation sity length ate one Frequency Rowland | Exner | and |— and i in Vacuo Kayser an and Cha- (Exnerand| Cha- | A+ | \— Tatnall | Haschek | vacter Haschek | racter | | 3268-7 | 2 | 0°92) 87 | 30584: 3268-597 | | 3268°62 5 bes. ales) en 85-4 | | Gist. | Jo | Jas ) ” 94- 67:605 67:62 L ees| | A ecssemaliakces 94-7 66°7b j a eee ee 30603: 66°511 1 Bs A 05:0 65°5 2 55 3 14: | 64:6 2 2” ” 23: 64°313 | 0 - ee 25°6 63-924 63-95 2 | ane rs 291 63-4b | 6 | ” | ” 34: 63-280 3263-268 63:30 | 8 9 ” 35°3 | 62°3 ee sot ees 45: | 61:175 A GIP2 | ib By + os5 Ges oa 55-1 60-938 60-97 2n | [tase eines. 57:2 59-994 | | 0°91 o 66:2 58°352 | | ia) ls 81-7 | 57:2 In ” ” 93° | | | B®. | da Yb pc) 98° | 55:3 | 1 °° ” 30710- 55°104 | 55:10 | 4 re a 12°3 548 | 1 Ks D 15° | | a ae eee Pes, 21: | 53°7 | In ” ” 26- 53°457 53°47 2 ” 27°8 51:2 In x 8:8 49- 50°4 In uf iE 57° 50°151 50°16 | 2 5 an 58-9 49-6 In 95-7 139 64: 49°30 a as) Mess 67:1 47:2 1 oo ay 87: 45:1 lb P5 ce 30807: 44:0 1 | ” ” 17° 43°5 1 ” ” 22° 42°820 42°81 1 Sa le aa 28-6 42-111 | 0 ss “ 35°3 Al-8) ale aly | tm pss Hf 38° 41-602 | Oo | |) Seog 40-1 | 40998 | | hes 45:9 | 40°7 2 | gas | > 49: 40°644 0 ett |i oe 49°3 | te Me et ame ety | 62: | | ie ie | ae 5? 69 | | | 37°9 2 ” ” 75° | 37-781 | 37-777 | 37:80 | 4 : » | 165 37°5 In 3 a / 79° 363 1 + = 91- | 36:0 bs ae 94: 35°910 35°92 2 | ” ’ 94°3 34-656 0 eS » 30906-4 34:3 1 | ” ” 10° 33-440 | 33-45 | 0 S56 gi ee dee » denne | 82-627 | 32-65 | 4 a7 anal > lee 25°7 | | aes Vee, ee 29° ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 245 RHODIUM—continued. . Arc Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Raduationto | } (Sh) | Sa |e Seas -| vacuum rae’. | Wave-length / Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation 2s Se ee a sity | length | sity ~ ~~ Frequency | Bpwland | Exner | and |—————} and | 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and | and Cha- |Exnerand| Cha- | A+ | a : | Tatnall | Haschek racter | Haschek | racter | 3231-3 4 O91 88 30938 29°5 1 Sabie 155 56: 29-0 1 “5 =f 61: ies | | 254 1 “ = 95° | lin DST 2 mS a 31002: | 3221-589 O | 21:5 1 ” ” 31:8 | 21°422 | 1 5 as 33°4 21:193 | 0 = ~ 35-6 | 21:0 2 ef x 37° | 20-893 | 2 ” ” 38°5 18-655 | | 0 0902 yssam | 60:1 | | 18°5 2 ” ” | 62: | 3218-40 3 5 oa 62:5 18-009 18:00 | 4 18:1 2 on AS 66:3 | | | 17°5 1

31300-2 93-633 | 1 . - 03-4 | 92-336 0 9 saat st 16-1 92°112 | | O re eet 18°3 91-313 91:°305 91:33 6 of 7 26-1 | . | 91-2b | 4 oe SS 27- 90-466 90:49 | 3 90:5 1 Be or 34:4 90-1 1 fr > 38° 89-162 89-164 89:16 5 89-2 2 or 5 473 | 88-7 4 7 oe 52: | 88-408 | 88-41 1 rF ~ 54-7 87:998 | 8800) 1 88-0b | 6 * ff 58°7 87-740 0 aS rp 61:3 87-265 0 a5 A 66:0 85-702 85-710 85°72 | 5 856 82 ap os 81:3 | 84:7 | In ” ” 82° ' 84-485 0 ssi aki gi: | 83-558 0 Pee 31402°5 246 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redwckion to > epee, <= i. || ae ee Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten rae | sity length sity | Rowland | Exner and | and 1 | Kayser an and | Cha- |Hxner and Cha- | A+ =e | Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | 3183-012 0 | 0°90 | 8°9 82°519 0 | 0°89 yy) 81°330 | 3181:38 | 3 3181°3 LE eS 3 | 80°5 1 te 9°0 79°833 | 3179°843 | 79°84 5 80°0 2 A 3 78°517 78°51 | 4 TEE De! “ oF | | | EET hee ” ” | | 7) Se ee a en 77°201 77°20 | 4 Fie Rr lass 77-020 0 55 + 76°666 | 0 3 99 763 | 1 9 ” 74:6 4 9 ” | 73°7 2 » » 72°392 72-40 | 4 72-4 1 a es 71°625 71:65 | 2 71:5 In a a 70°379 | | 0 = 5 | | 69:0 1 ” 2” 67:072 67:07 | 0 67°71 2 + + | | 66:4 1 ” ” | | 64:3 2 ” ” 63°551 | 63°55 1 oF “3 | 62°84 0 op AG _62°608 | 0 + ay | | 62°5 | 2 | ¢ 93 2” 62388 62:40 | 1 Lares ‘ 59°354 | 59°35 | 2 59:3b | 8 ‘s . 59-001 | | | 2 | 9 os 58-063 | | 5806 2 5680 | In| ,» S 55-890 55°90 | 558 | 2 ay ae 55489 | 6 np A 54°453 | | 0 + “p | | 53°7_ | 2 ” os 52°724 52°719 52°73 | 6 “6 ss | | 58-6 jc Be |) ote hele | 51:50 | 4 51°5 2 A Ss | 50°7 1 ” 99 50°385 © . 5040 4 50°3 1 on Ag 49-978 | | | O 49°9 DN hess a 48°350 | me! aa os | 48-0" | In + a 47-736 | | 47°74) 4 if i 47-274. | | | 0 47-2 In eS os 46°327 | | 0 =F 91 45-734 | | Passat lata |e irda |) Wier 45°518 | eee | . x 41°314 | (40 41°3b | 4 0-88 + 40-963 | lin ¥ ee 40°549 |: Fy i a4 | 2 jos | 40°355 | | 0 45 +3 | | 38°7 In a 38:506 | | 38°50 | 1 as A i | Oscillation, Frequency | in Vacuo | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. © 247 RAODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Hadaokion 46 Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- ae | Oscillation| pei S| sity | tone sity | 7 | S'requency Rowland Exner and | — | and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and: and Cha- | Exner and| Cha- | A+ | [—* | Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter 3187°825 | 3137:824 | 3187°383 | 5 | a / 0°88 | 91 | 31860- | | 6 1 Cr a aay 62: 37°450 37:45 | 4 | ss i cap 63°9 35°590 35°59 | 2n stesso a 82°8 34-710 0 } > ” ” 918 34-047 hand cenit so | 98°5 30°918 30°91 | 4 31:0 2 om |, | 319380°5 . 30:0 In aL. ose 40: 29-2 In ashen ite 38 48: | 28°5 lb ef AS 5B: 26-990 | 27:00 yg) ” ” 70°5 | | | 26-2 1 aaa | es Sshy | 79° | 25-000 | ho) ” raat 90-9 / | 24°6 In | ” | ” | 95° 24-508 2450 2 teehee ce. oe 23°818 / 23-814 23°81 | 6 23°8 4 pet tics Sea RAL DEI | | 23°1 | 1 Se el 10° 21°879 | 21:873 21:89 6 ” sa) | 23°0 21-381 | | ae | a ou) 28-0 | | | 21-2 | 2 op rh 30° 20°714 | | 0 | ” | ” 34:8 200 | 1 = r) 42° | 19-846 | | | O | 99 ati! | 43°8 / 18°2 4 ty = 61: 17-7 Te tet Ss “ 66° 16-6 In | ” ” dan | | 15:2 Be Sear iis, ssytl| 92° | 15:027 15-026 | 16:02 | 5 ” 2 93-4 | ae fe » | 92 | 32120- | n ” ” | 39° 09-0 2 euler 55: 08-405 08-40 | 2 - 4 61-7 | et } 06:1 In | ” ” 86- 05-756 | | 4 fies Beret aoe 05-110 05°11 4 05-2 ieee iy 95°8 | | Ose PSP [Pe lass i sgaare | 02-634 0265 | 4 027 | 1 SU ge el es 00°556 | 006 | 1 OST is lesa | 00°407 2 So ak wares 43:1 | 2 ” ” 44:6 | 3099°567 | 0 of a 53°4 | 3097:06 | 2n 3097-0 4 Ps A 79°5 96-834 1 FP 99 81:8 96-722 0 ‘ ies. 83:0 | | 95 In of 9 95° | 94-691 } 94°69 2 3-7 6 ” ” 32304°2 | 93° | ” ” 15: | 93-592 > 93°58 | 0 . Ie") 9 < 15:7 | | 92°5 | 2 op rc 27° 91-840. | 0 % 2 34:0 | 90°8 | 4 ” | ” 45° 90-506 90°52 | 2 oF c 47:9 89-775 0 | yee ee 55-6 89-480 0 went ey sae 248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RAODIUM—continued. Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redaatioe to =... .. ae Vacuum z Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation z sity length tikes | ieee Frequency Rowland Exner and |—————| and 1 in Vacuo Kayser an and Cha- | Exner and| Cha- ie nee Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter | 3088°428 3088°42 2 0°87 | 9:2 32369°8 | 3087°7 Dh | See es Theta 87:°534 87°52 | 4 “9 x5 79:2 | 87:180 0 An 93 82°8 | | 86:0 Ins eas a 95: 85-790 85°78 Zi | > saad 97°5 84:078 | 3084-081 84:10 | 4 84:2 4 35 a5 32415°3 83°5 1 on) 9:3 21- 81-714 0 81:8 2 oy ap 40°2 80-449 0 os +3 53°5 78°905 | 0 95 53 69°8 78:5 In + se 74: 770 1 “r, - 90 76°736 | 76°75 | 2 ay ae 92°6 76-006 | | 6 + a 32500°4 | 75'8 1 ae 8 03° 74:806 74:82 | 2 shel b nt? 13-0 | pe eee 1 ” 99 17° 74:0 1 oe ae 22- 73°550 | 0 93 AD 26°4 | 72-4 In * =" 39° 71-716 US Aa | oe i eae 45:8 | 7S Te | en | Pal ae 50- 71°134 71:15 3 ”? ” 51:9 70°467 Tay: || 25 pS 59:0 69:9 1 cb) 3 65° 69-034 | | 2 ” 2» «| 74:2 | 67°395 | 67°42 6 67°5 2 ~ | 92° 66°475 0 ; Tear aes 32601°4 66°333 0 eae ar ii 02:9 65°800 0 % | 08°6 | 64°5 In= |< &; ot 22- | 63-9 In ey Pe | 29° 63°700 | 1 pase - ae BI 31:0 62:544 Or | S625: ged 086) ,, 43-3 61-782 BLUSOs) G2 ” ” 51:3 60°001 | | 0 ‘nn > 70°4 59°9 2 aS re a2 59°473 | 59°47 29 || si - 76-1 58:974 | | res Ry a 814 / 58°2 1 » ” 90° 57°996 58°01 4 5 a 91:8 57°5 1 > 33 97° 56°452 0 55 is 327084 55°755 | | 55°76 | O 553 | 6 os és 16: 54-980 0 B oy 24-1 54°2 In oa 9-4 a2. 53°988 54:01 2 | Pe 34:5 | 52°7' 1 > Bs 48- 51-780 51:83 | 2 | be 3 58:1 50°842 | 50°92 2n <5 ue 68:0 50:050 | Oo | a ah 76:9 49-919 Qo | oe || See 78:3 | 46 1 35 ” 82° an ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 249 RHODIUM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Bedavtiin to. | | z ; Vacuum } Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- \Oscillation) — sity length sity | Frequency, Rowland Exner S000) | ees 1 in Vacuo | Kayeer an an Cha- |Exner and) Cha- = A+ a, Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek / racter | | 3049°334 3049-35 Die | | 0°86 | 9°4 32784°6, 3049°1 6 7 oe 87: 49-003 49:00 | 0 | 99 3 88-2 48-095 | 4810 | 2 ; on (engages 47-440 47°45 0 ” ” 32805:0 | 47°26 1 47 3c 6 ” ” 07-0 46871 46°87 4 ’ Py yi 1 | 46-304 46:30 2 46:3 1 ” ” 17:3 46:0 1 cf: a 21s 45°887 45-90 3 ages Ih eee 21:7 43-586 0 Ss 3 46-6 H 42°9 2 PP) ” 54° 41:8 | In ee cas 66- wee tie |e ety 79° | 38-583 m | 396 11 |, | s |-82900-7 | | 37°6 2 soo. i AEE 11: 36°483 Oat os 4 23°4 35°15 1 35°2 4 as oF 37°9 34:474 ie ” rr 45:2 | 34:3 In a + 47: | 33 0 In ” | ” 61: 31:573 0 oe ” 76°8 29-6 1 re ob 98- 28°975 Oe | s 9-5 33005°1 28°8" 2 Fmu| Care 07: 28°545 28°57 a ” ” 09:5 27:817 27°82 | 1 | 39 ie al 17-6 C2 be 5, 5 25° | 27-053 27:05 2 | | Wee ss i 26:0 | | 26:0 1 ie $3 ” 37° | 25°517 25°54 | 2 | ht Ree 42-6 25:3 | 2 “5 “e 45° | 246 #801 6) a4 53° | 24018 | 3024-019 24:06 | 3 | ” ” 58°9 | 23-164 | 0 ” » 68-4 22°673 0 0°85 an 0 73°8 22-117 | 0 ” ” 79°9 21:2 1 reel | kes 90- | 20°8 1 a fe 94- 20-60 ” | ” 96°5 | 19°928 19°95 0 20:0 6 ’ % 33103°7 | 19-664 19°62") 2 = = 07-1 | 19-569 | 2 ” ” 07°8 18-194 | 0 ” ” 22°9 17°225 | 1 17 2 2 ” ” 33°5 16°930 | In ” ” 36°8 15°960 | | 0 ” ” 47-4 | 15:0 1 a ase | 58: 14-352 1437 Tez | » ee 65-0 | 11°8 1 9 93 11-021. 0 | os | 882018 | 10°5 In sre Ae ss 08: 10°369 | 0 | ” oie 09-0 250 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—continued. | Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Wave-length TInten Wave- peseeease a ae sity length | Rowland | Exner / and |— Kayser | and | and _ | Cha- |Exner and | Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | 3009-103 | 3009-10 1 3009-1c | | 0738 | 1 | | 06°6 ties | | 05°91; 2 | 06-0 04:565 | 3004°555 | 04°58 | 5 04:5 | | | 02-4 ) | | 02*2 01°582 | i Name | | 01-2 _ 2998-0 2997-45 In 97°4 | 97-3 968 96-1 2995°828 | 07 | | | | 95-7 91-881 | 61°37 | 2 | | 91:6” | 90°7 90°158 | a5 | 90-048 90:07 | 0 | 2 89°5 89-302 0 88-977 | 88:97 | 0 88-9b 88°487 | 88°47 | 0 88-4 87°568 | 87°56 | 3 ; 87-4 87-117 S711 | 5 | | 8720 | | | 867 | 86330 | 2986-321 8632) 7 | | | | 86-2 | 85:2 84-593 0 84-135 0 83°7 83-194 83°20 | 4 83-2 82-514 82°51 3 82°5 | 81:9 81-238 81:25 | 2 81:2 79°6 | 79°5 77-809 | 7781 | 5 | | 766 | 75°935 15°92) 2 | | | “bed 75:0 74-156 | Else oes: 74:2 73°28 | 713°2 | | 72°6 | T-74t | OF SI | | | 715 | 70-807 \ | | 708 Inten- | sity | and Cha- racter Reduction to | Vacuum Oscillation | Frequency | | 1 | in Vacuo | At | Xx | | 0°85 | 9° | 33223°0 ” | ”? 42:0 ” ” 51: ee te 58-2 i 73°6 ” | ” OTs ” | ” 99° “ane hasty 33306°3 | ” ” UWE ” ” 46: 3) one 52:1 | ” | ” ) 54: | ” | ” 59: / > | ” 67° ee ee 70-2 ” | ” 72: etl as 33414-2 | ” ” Lie ” ” 27° 9”? ” 33°4 ” ” 34:5 ” ” 41- ” aa 43-0 ” ” | 46-7 ” ” 52:2 | ie | 62°5 | ” | ” 64: ao. || pass 67°5 ” » 69° ” ” 72° ” ” 764 | ” ” 78° ” | ” 89: | ” | ” 95°8 = of 33500°9 ” ” 06° ” ” | 11°5 0°84 ee | 19:2 ” ” | 26- | ” ” 33°4 ” ” 52° ” ” 53° ” ” 72-1 ” ” 73° ” ” 87 ”? ” 93°4 ” ”? | 96° ”» ” 33604: ”? ” 13°4 ” ” 23°3 ” ” 31: ” ” 40-7 ” ” 43° by aoPTa 61-2 | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF RHODI uM—continued. THE ELEMENTS. | Reduction to | Vacuum Oscillation aoe Sic * Frequency 1 | in Vacuo | | ri pi A Selec | } Are Speer | Pies Spectrum | | . wee length Inten- Wave: | Tnten- | (oe = sity | length | sity | | Rowland Exner | and |- | and. | | Kayser and and | Cha- Exner and Cha- | Tatnall Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | | Z lS Se gia | 2968-790 | 2968-79 6 © 2968-7 4 68:2 | 1 | 67:1 1 65801 | 0 | | -€b:26: |e-2 65:2 | 1 65:018 ly O | | 64°8 1 | 63-664 | 63°64) 2 636b 10 . 62-2 4 | 61-805 | | GU-78).\5 2 he -60°773 | 0 60-686 | 0 | | | 60:0 | 1 | 89-769 | 59-76 | 4 | §9°478 | 65948] 1 | 58-899 | 68°89 | 4 58:7 1 58-504 fear!) | 58-4 1 | 576 | 1 | | B75 | | 57:0 1 . 56406 | 1 56°229 0 55°942 | 0 ! | ney |e 55°541 55:54 | 2 55:6 1 55-395 55°43 | 2 | 639 1 | 53°5 | 1 51:957 val | 50°6 1 50:023 50°02 | 2n | | 49°8 1 49°475 1 | 48:8 1 48°388 | 30 / | 48-1 | 4 47°6 L 46-7 | 4 46:042 © 46:03 | 2 46°1 1 44:9 } 4 42-116 | (0 | 41-246 | 41°25 | 3 43-3} Hod | 40°6 il 40°175 0 39°7 1 39°588 | 39°58 2 38:°403 38°39 | 2 | 38:2 | Ib |» 87-286 lei 36:0 | 1 soz) | | 34-988 | { Oo | | 084. 97 | 336741 ”? ”? 81: i: + 93° “ 2 33708:0 | %” ” 14:2 ”? ” 16°9 ” ” 19: ; 32°5 ” ” 49: ” ”? i] 53°7 ne 65:3 fi os 66:3 ” ” 74: or 76:8 ” ” 80-0 ” 9? 86°7 ” ” 89: ” ” 91:2 ” ” i} 92: A Zs 33801- ” ” 03: ” ” 08: lis es rae 15°1 | ” 2? . 17-2 ” ”> 20:5 %? ” 23° ” ” 25°1 . x 26°6 > ” 44- ” Ee I 48- ”> ” 66:1 ” ”? 82- ”? ” 88-4 a + 91- + : 94-6 Be Af 33902: ” ” 07:1 + 4 10- ” ” 16: »”> ”> 27° op ne 34:2 - 98 47° | 0°83 ‘f 79°3 | ” ” 89-4 ” | 2 o7- S, 5 34001°8 3° > 07: . - 08-6 7 25 22-4 ”? ” 25- roe listers 35-2 ” | ” 650° ” | ” 59° | ge eo” Ses REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RuHoDIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum % Vacuum | Wave-length Tnten- Wave- TInten- — sity length sity | Rowland | Exner and and 1 Kayser | and and Cha- |/Exner and) Cha- | A+ aT atnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter 29342 | 1 | 0-83 9:8 33°3 1 ) ” ” | 32°6 1 | eae a 2932-065 293207 4 32:1 2. VE tes a | 31-6 1 4 a 29-256 29°25 4-3) 29-2 2 of ns 28°559 ge) 28°6 2 be me 27-062 eee 27:0 | 6 “8 a 26°953 26°94 Ory | 55 al daes | 26-4b | 1 oe ON: ees 26°322 170 a5 | a5 26-160 a) el ees | 24-140 24-15 | 4 24-2b 8 de (lbver | = '28-289 | 23:23 | 4 23-2 1 ee Las 21:229 | | O Be el sose | 21-0 1 ” | ” 20°296 | oe b .; Ea | 19-7 | 2 = 0 17:028 | Noss 8) 17:0 In a +s 157534 | 15°52 | 3 15°5 2 ” ” | 15:0 2 <4 + 14°691 0 ” ” 14114 | 14:09 3 ” ” 13-715 13°70 2 ” ” | 13°5 53 PA 13°474 0 ” ” 13°185 | 0 ” ” 12-746 12-74 3 12-7 1 %» » 10°281 | 10°30 4 10°3b 10 Ke oF 09°837 0 ” ” 07°835 1 | AS “A 07°335 07°33 3 07°3 2 nA a / 07-1 2 ss on 05-106 05:07 2 ’ ” 05:0 1 ps es | 04-7 1 3 ” 04-440 | | 0 9 ” | | 04:3 1 oe) 29 | OFT Ged, nf a 03-960 | 0 0:82 3) 03-428 | 2 2 bs | 03:0 In ts Bs 02-975 | } 0 > ” 00-080 | C007 4 ” ” 00-0 1 ss “ 2899-800 | 9899-79) 2 eo \ene | 2899-0 1 = “9 97-806 Oe || Er 5 || Oued 4 Sse ect 97-171 0 | | ” | ” | O62 i) A lie 78 10:0 95-823 | 1 | | | ” ” | | 95°7 | 2 ” ” | | he RRS ae oie args | Reduction to | ‘Frequency ‘Oscillation in Vacuo | ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF RuODIUM— continued. THE ELEMENTS. 253 Arc Spectrum | Space Spectrum ‘Reduction to | nis oe Vacuum | Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten-| iOscillation | * = sity | length | sity = [Hzeuimenoy Rowland | Exner and) |>=——— || sand: ‘he in Vacuo Kayser an and Cha- |Exner and) Cha- | a+ | | Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter 2893-142 1 | 0°82) 10:0 345545 | 92:817 4 > 2 58-4 | 92°320 | | 2892°33 3 ” ” 64:3 | | 28920 | In | ,, é 68° | | 91-0 | In ” ” 80° | | 90:0 1 ” ”? 92° 89-962 | 89:96 | 3 / os 5 92°5 89-623 teak os a 96:6 89°3 2n * » 34600: 89°222 | 89°21 | 3 FP) os 01:5 88°986 | 0 / = y, 04:2 | | 87:8 1 ” ” 18° 87:082 | 0 ” ” 27:0 86°112 86:10 | 3 ” .” 38°8 | | 86:0" 1 % Py 40- | | 85:4 1 by 3 47° 85°364 | | 0 > . 47°7 | | 85:0 1 ji =. 52° 84°683 | 84°67 | 2 | ” ” 55°9 | 84:3 | 2n aa ss 60: | 827 es | ee ee 80- 82°497 82:50 | 4 | S255 4) il: » » 82:1 | 82:0 | 1 . ag 88: 81-400 £1:39 | NS 814 1 ” 99 95°4 80-912 | 80°91 | 2 81:0 4n 9 34701:2 80°775 £0801 FA a 02°8 79°628 | 0 | > Fc 16°7 | | 79:3 | 1 ” ” 21° 78°770 7876) 4 78°7 1 9 3 271 | 78°3 2n ” ” 33° 78°139 0 ” FD 34:7 78:0 I! ” ” 36° 76592 | 0 ” % 53-4 | 76:2 1 3 x 58° 75°764 | ieee} ” » 63°4 ) | | 75:5 1 35 ") 67: | 74:6 4 ” ” dae 74:507 | | 0 | ” ” 78:6 74115 | 74:10 2 | ” ” 83°4 73°742 73°75 | 4 | 738 1 2 ” 87:8 | 73°2 2 ” ” 94: 73°104 ieee) cree al | See 95-6 | | 720 In | » | 10-1 | 34809- 71-489 71:49 | 5r | oy “e 15-0 70°8 eS tle i 55 se 23: 70°551 | 70°54 2 70°5 1 ” ” 26°5 70°108 70:10 | 2 ” ” 31°8 69-746 | 0 oe all er 36:2 | 69-0 In Beek eee 45: 68-400 | 68°37 2 68°4 In » Pr 52:7 68°3 2 ” ” 54: | 67:973 | 1 | 99 =c 57°7 | 67°55 1 67:5 2 | » » 62°9 65°755 | 65°75 | 2 658 | 2 een ie peter c 254. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RuoprumM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redvotanten | | = TAS ea a 7 Vacuum | Wave-length \Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation: rae SS —| sity length sity || |Hrequency | | Rowland | Exner | and |— and | 1 ' in Vacuo | Kayser | and | and Cha- Exner and Cha- |) a+ (Pe | | Tatnall | Haschek | racter) Haschek | racter % | | | | | | | 2864:7 1 | 0-81 | 10:1 | 34898- 2864°517 | 286451 | 3 | B57 all caelas 99°8 63°8 4 es ny 34909- | 63°2 4 of “e 16° 63:057 63:06 6 . ” 59 17°6 62-572 | O 5 oe 23°5 | 61877 | 0 Bal Be 32-0 61°7 1 of r 34: | | | 61:0 1 - : 43° | 60:886 | Go-s4 4 ly ee | 60-774 Re a fe. 45-5 | 60°208 | | O ” 3 . 524 59-908 59°86 | 2 ” 7 56:4 59°735 59°73 | 2 59°7 1 =p F 58°2 58:2 In 4 a vind | BT a ea A ee Mee 92: 56:25 | 2 562 | 1 40 » | 35000°8 55-273 | 4 o> 54°848 | 54:84 | 2 aS PS 18-1 | 54-4 1 ” 2 a 24: 54-237 | 0 ” ” | 25°5 53°6 1 a 6 33° 53°5 1 a | 35° | | 530 | 1 +i ig 4l- 52°809 et) oH Ar a5 43°1 52-459 | 1 ” ” 47°4 . 52:33 | In 5 5; 49- | 51526 per ee 2 z 58-8 | | 51-2 | 1 2? ” 63- | 50-608 | 1 ” ‘ies | 70°2 50°5 2 ” ” 71: 49-461 49-43 | 2 | ” ” 84:5 439 | 1 kee 91: | 48°5 1 ” ” 96° A727 | A op 10-2 | 35106: 45°868 45°84 | 2 | 45'8b | 8 oP 43 28°6 44-917 o- | ” » 40:2 | | | 44-6 1b ” ” 44- 44-463 | 44°45 | 4n | ” ” 45:9 | ager A tin | 45) eS 63° 42°270 | 42°24 4n | 42°3 1 y 73°2 | 41-909 | 41°90 4n ” »” (it) 41-0 2 x. | ties 89- 39-666 | | 0 ” ” 35205°2 38°425 38°40 | 2 38°4 1 ” ” 20°8 | 37°3 In ” ” 35° 36-799 | | 86°78 | 4 368 | 1 oy * 40°9 | 365 | 1 : ‘5 45° 35671 | | 35°61 1 35°6 1 rp F 55:2 | | 35:52 | 1 4 ss 56-7 | 34:990 1 ” ” 63°3 | 34:3 2 55 - 72: 34-233 34°22 3 ” ” 72°8 33-981 1 ” 2”? 75°9 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 255 RHODIUM—continued. | Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | Beato to eos = ee ~~ | Vacuum | Wave-length Inten- Wave- | Inten- Oscillation i —— sity length sity ~ ~) _ Erequency | Rowland | Exner | and and Ls in Vacuo | Kayser an | and Cha- Hxner and) Cha-| a+ | —— | Tatnall | Haschek acter Haschek | racter | A 2833°4 2 | 082 | 102 35283- 2832°893 283287 | 2 ” ” 89°6 32°6 1 5 93° 31°398 0 ” ” 35308°0 | 29°664 29°65 | 2 ”» » 29°8 29°5 I $5 os 32> 29°421 29°39 | 2 » ” 33:0 28°5 lb ” | ” | 44: 28-259 0 ” | ” 47-2 : 27°5 | Saeed eee 57: | 27°433 | 27°41 4 % ” 57:7 | | . 27:0 4 ” ” 63° 26-798 | 26°78 | 4 26 | 2n roti f Mae 65°6 26°532 26°53 | 4 A a ae 68:9 23-988 | 0 080 | ,, 35400-7 23°756 0 | As 10°3 | 03°5 23°504 23°47 | 2 . es lee 06:9 22-979 22:97 | 2 ” ; 9 13°3 _ 22°850 | 0 | ” } ” 14-9 2256s Paes % : 18- 218 | 1 ~ ti} 28° 21-620 | 1 | a sae 30°3 . 2171 Lees csc eu reane | 37° 20-946 20°95 | .3 . ears Hah 38°8 | 208 | 1 saeelieoe 41- 19-742 | ) 19:72|..3 | We onuan te =. as 54-1 | | 1O5e4).8 | 5 eh | 57° 19°367 | 19°35 | 2 EPPS aT a 58°7 18°7 nye eS he, eee 67: | 16-979 | ee: / ssh [ease 88-7 | | ORSee tear Ne cos 33 91- 14°817 | 0 ass = 35516°0 | US ee Be eee eee Pare 28° SE ed |Cohe- ae Wge 34: 12°9 2 ” in<) ‘ss, 40- 123 | 1 Ra ae ta 48° | 116 | In Ss FA bis | 10-999 | © 11:00 |. 3 or te 64:2 108 | 1 » | os 67° _ 09°853 0 OBrien We sae She Gs 78°7 | | O76) || In Free Vitae 35607- 07-270 07:25 | 2 as | a 116 06-212 | 1 o = 24:9 05-908 05°89 | 2 a a 28:9 05-7 | 2 ere = os 31- 04-020 (> 04-03: |... 2 OA1e aide |S 5, ef 52-7 024b 4 | 9 . 73: 02-113 be. O } ” ” 77-1 Ole - tak 9 9 82: _ 01°674 01:68 3 01:6 1 3 3 82°6 | ag | 00°9 | In 7) “sent Ai ss 93- 00°021 }. Veber Sears 35703°7 | 99°536 | lo | | » | 104] 098 | bo 56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Redictionttia i= thes ae “| Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation -— -- sity | length | sity | ae Frequency, Rowland Exner OG <==) Gl | 1 in Vacuo Kayser an and Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | AS eee | Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter | A | 2798-3 1o ok "| S080 | 104 | 35726- O79 4° 1 Sa, | sees CP Ne be ee Ws 41: 2796°743 2796°75 | 3 | (Pie, | el Seem 45°4 96°4 | 1 eens eS 50° 95-824 2 | ss 57:2 | 95°6 In eed Mee oi .. . 60: 95-366 95°37 1 . ae 63-1 94°587 0 zs x 73-1 94-020 2 94:0 1 es rs 80°3 92-886 92:88 | 2 92:8 | 4 | 9» i 94-9 91-270 | 91°27 | 4 OUD sein aie ns, % 35815°6 90:872 | 90°88 | 2 90:9 | 4 5 3 20°6 90-493 | 90°50 | 2 $3 a5 25°5 89°1 In 35 5 43° 86-934 86:93 | 2 PP ” 70°6 85-920 0 a Rs 84:4 85:3 Sl ae 35 92° 84:8 ee | es 55 99- 84:3” 1 3s = 35905- 83°6 1 0-79 ” 14: 83-140 | “S14 ) 5 83-2 1 33 oo 20-2 82°8 1 = 3 25: 82:0b | 6 5 ra 35° 81-184 | 1 81-2 1 as 5 45°5 80°6 In 3 Ss 53° 80:439 | 80°45 | 3 _ 5 55:1 79°8 1 / 3 ‘9 63° 79-654 | 79:65 | 3 eke 2 . 65°3 78-967 | 78:96 | 3 ayy a 74:2 | ee! | AS | 9» 76° 78:4b | 6 25 s 82: 78-162 78:16 | 4 | ” ” 84-6 76:0 6 % . | 36013- 75869 75°86 | 2 - ei 14:3 HB'2b))\ 1) 10°5 23° 74-557 | 74°56 | 2 ls 55 31°3 | 744 | 4 3 a 33- 73°397 2 5 = 46-4 73°2 4 9 = 49- 72-5b 1 = $5 58: 71-615 | 71:63 | 4 legs 35 69-4 | 71:2 1 _ sy 715° 70:277 | 1 a 55 87:0 68-336 | 68°33 | 4 68:3 1 ey - 36112°3 67°832 67°83 | 4 67:8 1 i, i 18°9 66°64 | 1 66°6b | 4 5 5% 34:4 64-909 | 64:92 | 2 65:0 4 S " 57:0 64-2 1 - ee 66: | 64:0 1 By ll tes 69: 62-938 62°94 | 2- a By 82°8 62-311 0 62°3 1 5 a 91-2 61:3 z 55 2, 36204: 60°541 | 60°55 | 2 | |) ey 14-2 | ON WAVE-LENGIH TABLES OF THE SPEGrRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 257 RHODIUM—continued. Arc Spectrum Spark Pp Serre Reduction to | | Wave-length | Inten-| Wave- | Inten- pens Oscillation! _——§ } sity length | - sity ————|Frequency| Rowland Exner and |————— and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and and Cha- [Exner and) Cha- | ay | —— } Tatnall | Haschek ieee Haschek | racter | A { | H = | ass | a . ay) / d | 0°79 | 10:5 | 36225: | | 593) sdIn 3 rE 31° | . 576 | In | 5 | saree 53° | 2757-005 | j jeg! | | ” | ” 60-7 | 569 9 a uae (3) | 54-845 | 0 > | 89:2 | | 54:3 4 ?? ” | 96- 533 | 1 29 » | 36310- | | 532 | | Sublet A ec sig: | | | () Soeiet San ess 12: | 62-941 | 275295 2 hae 14-2 . . | | 523 | 2 ft Lsahe 1 55.5 ml 23° | : B16 et é 3 aes | | 51-450 | 51°47 | 2 ” ” 34:0 51-140 | | | 0 33th 10:8 38-0 49:38 1 € e 61-2 AGAN IES B21 IE 43 74: 47-7 | 4 ” ” 83: | | 45°8 1 ara tn ess 36409- : 44-8 | 1b aS hie 22- 43-568 | | 4355} 0 | ae aes 38-4 (rode Oe se ade i 0-78 | ,, 61-1 | rw ty ba | ie a 63° 40-647 | 40°63 | 2 Fa 1 Be 17-2 | 40-487 0 35 an | aes 40304 | 40:30; 2° | 1 eine 2 81:7 40-027 | 4000] 1 *| 400b/| 8 sree 85-6 | 39:845 } 3980] 1 | eligi | hae 53 38-359 fa see eo} | i » | 36507°7 37-717 3767 | 2 | eas 16°5 | 37:509 Sap | 37-5b | 8 <3 1 19-2 36860 36:84 3 368 1 ne, 27:9 | 36:74 1) 1 “ Bt e|'. @\ Age | 35:2 | 1 % rebel Meare 34-906 34:89 2 ob : a os 53-8 32-261 0 a ees a Sd | 31-874 | 0 73 94-3 | 317 | 1 sgt much ba ei ais | 303 | 4 x » | 36609- 29-611 | 0 pla | a0 teks "a 29-034 | 29:00 6 29-:lb |) 6 a fi: S556 26 934 | 2 or 1 | ” 3 | 50- : 0 sftlonie . 605 25-961 | 0 ‘Pau ; PE am oe meee || ion | 25:1 ee ge FD 85: | 24-1 1 A v 99: ae ; ” ! ” 36712: | - Re 22-389 (MES gl ah cada Me ie ON a7 22-243 22-23) 2 aces 23-8 2060; 2 | 206 | 1 ie e 45-9 20-235 { | 20:93 | 3 Oy Bee oie 1907, 8 258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, RHODLUM— continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redaciani to Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation sity length sity Frequency Rowland Exner STC 50) | acme BERG 1 in Vacuo Kayser ‘and an Cha- |Exner and| Cha- A+ => Tatnall | Haschek racter | Haschek | racter a | 27201 | 1 0°78 | 10°7 | 36753- 2718-640 | | 2718°63 | 2 ” ” 72°4 | 18:5 | i ” ” 74° / 18-111 | 0 18-1 | 4 ” | ” 79-6 17:606 | 1756 | 3 sree ome 86-7 17-4 1 = 0 89° 16°912 16°89 2 | ” ” 95°9 — - 16-645 | 0 ie a » » 99-4 | 15°399 15°40 iz L54bo| (Sh lense Hy 36816°3 15-149 15°14 | 2 bt Jetos ” 19°8 14881 10 CR hae co 23°3 14:-499 14:50 | a ” | ” 28°5 14:3 1 m4 ms ol: LIBS See) Re “5 a 45: 09-613 09-60 3 ” ” 95-0 | 07°896 | On +} is 36918°3 07°320 07°32 (es 07:3 1 | ” ” 26-2 OGs7) saz = a 35° 06°135 2 a oh 42°4 05°718 05°73 3 05:7b 10 ” ” 48:0 | 05-059 05:05 0 ays oH 57-1 04:9 zs + > 59: 03°820 03°84 6 ” ” 73°9 03:7 1 ” ” 76: Onze jal a hs 78° 03°3 1 an A. 81: 02-621 0 ” 10- 90°3 02°337 02°33 2 9 fos 94:3 02-158 | 02°17 2 ” ” 96:6 01:3 if 4 “fi 37008- 00-688 00-69 1 00°7 4 ” ” 16°8 00°384 00°39 2 9 ” 20°9 2699°9 2 a = 28° 99:0 In oO “8 40: 2697-955 2697:95 | 2 0-77 43 54:3 97-1 2 $3 3 66- 96:0 4 55 i 81: 94-405 94:40 + | of aS 37103°2 94-3 | 2 “a = 05: 93°726 | 93°73 2n os i 12°5 | | 93°5 2 a a 67°9 89-022 | 0 :, * 17-4 88°3 1 4 a 87° 88-173 88:18 | 2 55 ‘is 89-1 87°411 87:40 | 2 a a 99°8 | 87-015 87°01 | 3 aS 5 37205°2 | 86:7 1 a ae 10: 86-608 86°63 3 ie .; ae 10°7 ON WAVE-LENGTH. TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 259 _RuopiumM— continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Bpectruis Heduetion to = Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- § Inten- | sity length | sity ¥ Rowland Exner and | and 1 Kayser and and Cha- |Exner and) Cha- | a+ | 5— Tatnall | Haschek | racter| Haschek | racter sx = = == oe See 5 | | 2685-551 | 0 0°77 | 10°8 | | 2684-4 8 | ” ” 84-301 | | 268430 2 | aa eye, 83-660 | 83:66 0 83°7b | 8 99 ” 82-624 | | 82°64 | 2 | ” ” 81-873 | | 81:87 3 ” ” | 81-7 4 ” ” 80°717 80°72 4 ” ” | 80°379 80°37 2 ” ” | | 78°8 1 ” 10-9 76°573 | 76°55 2 ” ” | | 76-4 4 ” ” 76:200 7618 | 4 ” ” ‘T4525 | 74-52 | 2 74-5¢ 8 ” ” 74:287 74°29 2 ” ” 74:059 | 7405 | 2 74:0 ee eae ” | | 72°9 1 ” ” 12:2 1 ” ” | 72:0 1 | ” ” 71:529 1 | ” ” 71-:144 71:15 | 3 Wee 1 | ” ” 70°1 1 ” ” 69-419 0 ” ” 69°3 ft ” ” | 68-5 2 | ” ” 67°453 0 | ” ” 67°317 0 ” ” 67°2 2 | ” ” 66:498 | 66°51 | 2 |» » 65:3 1 ” ” 64:9 1 | oF) ” 64-6 2 ” ” 63-764 63°77 2 | 63-7b 6 ” ” 63-389 0 | ” ” 62:1 1 ” ” | 61-7 1 ” ” 59:937 1 | ” ” 59573 ae | melas 59-098 59:13 | 2 | 59°1b | 8 ” ” 58°515 | 0 | ” ” | 58-4 2 2”? 9 By a8" 4 ” ” ; 56°4 In = 33 56-000 56-00 | 2 ” ” 52-750 52°76 | 5 0-76 | 11:0 | 52°6 1 ” ” 51-973 | 0 ” ” | | BEBE IG? | age |e 50-985 | 0 | E 49-686 49-69 1 ” ” 49°5 1 ” ” 49-0 1 ” ” 48-681 48-67 2 | | ” ” 47°375 47°38 | 3 cc DS » Oscillation —— | Frequency in Vacuo | / 372955 41- 42: ed 260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 1S hee Spectrum | Spark Speckenma | Reduction to Sie ta = a eal ee | = Vacuum Wane: length | Inten- | Wave- taten-| ‘Oscillation —s : os | sity length sity | Frequency, | Hovland | wxner and | and | 1 in Vacuo | Kayser | and | and | Cha- Exner and) Cha- = a+ | ~— | Tatnall | Haschek | Facter | Haschek | racter | a 2647-07 1 0-76 11 ‘0 37767°5 2644-2 l i: » | 37808- 2643-691 43-68 2 RS be 15-0 43-077 43:10 | 3 a 3 23:5 42°857 0 42°8 4 ” ” 26°38 | 41-7 4 ” = 43° 40°6 2n As » 59- 39°'8 1 7 ” 71: 39°327 0 ” ” 17-4 39°2b | 4 , ae 79: 39-097 0 2 . 80°7 38839 38-84 | 2 38:8 4 i Pea 84-4 38-388 38:39 0 a mal 90-9 37-484 0 ; s 37903-9 | 37-0 In _ J 1i-~ | 36-744 l BS aloe 14-6 | 36°5 l 53 mi 18- 35:40 1 ; : 33-9 35°3b 6 oe x 35° 35-082 35:07 3 és Ss 38:6 34-605 | | oO 34-6 4 7 | 45-4 | 33-523 | 33°50 2 =: a eee: br | 33378 | 33-40 | 2 334 |1 % > | 0) pee | | 32-7 1 aia oh age | | 31:3 | 1 igs es 79° 30-509 | 30-49 2 - 1l-1 | 38004-4 | | Maysbel is | He eal ee o7- | | 80-003 | 30:00 2 11-7 | | 28-222 | |" 28-22?) 70 28-2b 8 af < 37-4 | | | . 27:9 | 2 ” ” 42- | 27-042 | 0 " : BAD 26-776 | |) Sera ee 26-7 4 . a) 58-4 | 25-973 | | 26:00) 3 260 | 1 Fe - 69-9 25-496 | | 2651] 1 25:5b 8 : és 76°8 25-309 25°33 | 2 33 ns 79°5 | 24-948 | | 2496 | 0 a “ 84:8 | 24-821 | | O 24-8 2 5 an 86°7 22:756 | 2-70 | 1 53 35 | SBI L | 22-661 | 4 22-6 2 - af 181 | | 21-2 I 2 ; 39° 21-099 | PVR | ts mn 40°7 | 200 | 1 = - br | 19-0 1 > ie | 71- | 18-596 18-61 3 Los: “s 77-2 | | 178 In . a | 89- | | 17-1 l ss a 99 | 16-178 | 1617. 2 yi | 288212-7 | 16-0 l e % 15° ID eon | 15°74 2 ” ” 19-0 | 15-4" 1 ” ” 24° 14-7 1 > i 34: 13°8 ioe bg AT | 13-689 13-70 4n 13-6 a i as 48-9 | | 13°145 | eisai 0. | | ex a oy ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF KuopluM—continued, Kayser | | | 2612-315 10-156 09-266 08-639 07831. 06:540 | 05-807 03-500 01-926 2599°352 98-166 97-774 97-484 97-014 | 96°134 92-247 A - Are Spectrum tious Spectrum Wave-length eevee] Wave- | Inten- -| sity length sity | Rowland Exner | and ; and | and =| and Cha- ie and Cha- | Tatnall Me Haschek | racter | Haschek | nacter | oO 2611°8 2 11-4 1 10°3 1 0 09°7 1 2609:26 0 09:0b «68 08-64 2 08°3 1 07:83 | 2 | 0655) 4 06:5 I ; 05°30! 2 | 04:3 2 | O3°51) 4 03°3 2 0 01:5 2 00°6 2 2599-7 1 0 99-4 1 98-3 1 | 2598-20 | 2 97:80 2 97:8 1 9716 0 | 97:06 3 97-0b 8 0 95°3 2 93°5 4 92°26 0 | 92-1b 6 90°91 | 1 , 90°8 1 88°55 | On | 0 87°3b 4 87°25 | 2 86:90 | 2 86-4 + 1 83:3. | 1 82-7 2 81:80 0 816b 4 81:14 2 80°5 2 0 | 79°7 2 79°64 0 79:49 | 2 | 79:2 1 | 179 | 1 | | 73 | In THE ELEMENTS. Reduction to Vacuum A+ | in \Oscillation ) |Frequency | Vacuo | 262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, RHODIUM—continued. | Arc Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Redaction to | | = | | Vacuum | | Wave-length | Tntene | ‘Waves | Inten- | Oscillation ——— -— | sity | length | sity | | Frequency, | Rowland Exner | and |————! and le in Vacuo Kayser | and and | Cha- |Exnerand Cha- | A+ | ie | / Tatnall | Haschek racter | Haschek | racter | : | Sean ia rey Sarat | | is | | | 2576-330 | 257632 | 3 | | 075 | 11-3 | 38803-7 | | 75°85 2 | ” ” 10-8 | 74-751 | | 7A¥6 |).2 2574-7. In 29 » 27-4 74-332 | 74:33 | 2n | [Same ey 33°8 73°577 | | 73°60 | 2n a9 LK tgs 44-9 | | 71 6 Ans) ” ” 75° | 70°4 1 ” ” | 93° | 70-206 | | 70:20) .2 x | 96-1 | 69-171 | | 69:16 | 0 » » | 389118 | COs) oe | eee “ 14° | | 68-Sb | 4 | 99 | 17- 67:374 67:37 | 4 | | ae 2 eee 38-9 | 66-960 | {GBB G6 Ota ay 9] % 45°3 | 66-137 | 66-13 | 2. | ” 39 if 2 es | | 66-0 1 2” ” 60° | 65-888 | 65°36 2 am as 61:7 | 65:1 2 ’ | ” | 73° | 64-900 0 0-74] ,, 76°5 64:3 1 ee 86 | | 63°7 1 ” ” 95 | 62-741 62°75 | On |» » | 39009°2 / | b G26 7 1 » | Il: | 62-0 } > ” ” 21: | 60-322 60°33 2 | ee i 46-1 | | 60:02 | 1 ” ” 50°8 : 598b 4 * Me 54: 58-714 Ber7G Mie 1 et" aloe Ot 3 70-4 57°8 | 2 ” ” 85- 57-lb 6 ” ” 95- 56-98 | 1 oS 97-2 56-172 hei! x + 39109°6 «55-449 5545 | 4 s * 20°6 Is | 55:3 2 ” ” 23° 55-010 5500 | 1 | = a 27°5 | | | 47 | 1 ter Ne 32: | 53-426 53-42 | On | Ps Z 51-7 | | 53:1 l ” ” 57° . | 52:3 1 a] pa 69: 51-289 | 6130.4. 2 ” » 84-4 | 50:6 1 x 95° 49-6 1 29 | ” 39210: 48-679 | 48-67 | 2 Bed ee 24-6 47-75 l ” ” 38°8 47-6 ] ” ” 4l- 47-366 | 0 og al Be 44-7 45-794 45°79 | 4 ) 9 a3 69:0 © 45-44.)-15 | 464d, 8 4 ,, | s 74-4 44-317 44-30 | 2 a - 91°9 | . | 44-0 4 ” 97° 43-648 % 43-63 0 ” ” | 39302°3 | 43-4 |. 4 + > |e ae 41-096 | | aIEDL | og 411 | 2 ” ” 41-5 39°860 | | 39°88 | 4n | ome a» 60-6 | | 307) | 1. "pw gel oem ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Beare perernn | Reduction to | 263 PTS l Vacuum Wave-length ‘Inten-| Wave- / Inten- |Oscillation | sity length | sity |, |Frequency Rowland | Exner and |—————| and | 4 in Vacuo | Kayser . an | “and | Cha- |Exner and Cha- | A+ - | ) Tatnall / Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | | 2539°2 1 0°74} 11°5 | 39371° | 38:6) 1 meh als 80° 2537-80 1 | ” ” 92-7 2537-721 37°72 | 2 37°7 4 “f 40 93-9 37-155 3716 | 3 37°71 1 ” ” 39402°7 36-803 36°30 | 3 | 36°8 1 ” % 08:2 | | 36-2 | 1 a a 18- | | | 35°7 1 ” ” 25° | | 35°3 2 ” ” 32° | 34-682 | 0 34°6 4 “3 on 41-2 | 34:170 | 34:18 | 2 oc 5 49-2 | 34:0 1 ” ” 52: 33°687 | 33°70 | ime 93 5s 56°6 | 33°5 2 = Ss 60- 32°743 | 32°79 | 2. | 5 rs 71:0 | | | 32°3 2 f a 78° 31:920 | 3185 | 2 | sf 53 84:8 31-369 | eft si 31:3 4 “3 = 92°8 31-053 | | O re EP 97°7 30°284 | 0 5 11-6 | 39509-7 29°3 2 a = 24° | | 27°3 1 = 43 56° | 27:14 | 1 re | 58:8 | 26-744 | 0 | 27 | i 2 HS SES Sierays| 26:244 | 26:25:94) 2 =| | . ae 72°8 | | 26-092 [2651001 1 . ; e 75°2 | | | 26-0" | 1 » | ais 25-221 25-21) © 3 at ie 89-0 / 24:36 | 1 ” ” | 39602°4 | 23°4 2 “A or Ug ) 22-988 22°98 | 2n scree 38 24-0 | 22-7 | 1 ” 9 28° Piles ai 5 Paes 49- 20-623 20°66 | 2 % Bett 60°8 | 205b 8 35 ys G3° | b a +e : GOP heel Soe | 18-561 | om) Sateen 93°6 | | 17-5b), 4 0°73 | 39110: 15-833 | 15°84) 2 | ” ” 36°6 | 16% 1 re some | 39° | | | 15°3 2 a et 45° | 14:82 | In = san | 52°7 | 14:7 1 cp he 55° 13-464 13°50; | (2) } ” ae} 74-1 I sie eect i: oe Boi Ve 12-180 12719)), 2 | ; ESR 94°4 | 11-133 1 EGS Se 11-2 2 x 11:7 | 39810°8 | 10°88 1 op 5 15:0 | 10-747 10°75 r4 ” | ” 17-1 | 10-6b | 8 HE - 19: 09-788 | 09°81 | 2 age 2 3271 | 09-6 1 A oo 35° 08-743 | 08-73] 0 99 ” 49°0 nr 2 08th 2 59- 264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—coxtinucd. l Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | Beductiants | | | Vacuums Wave-length | Inten- | Wave- | Inten- \Oscillation | | aa ——} sity | length ity. || 7 rn | Frequency | Rowland | Exne and = and 1 in Vacuo | Kayser and | and | Cha- Exner and| Cha- | A+ | —= Tatnall | Haschek acter | Haschek | racter Kea | | 2507:342 | | 2507-35 0 | | 073 ne 7 | 39870-9 | | 2506-1 1 ” 7 91: 05°758 05°76 2 ” ” 96-4 05-189 05:20 2 05-1b 4 ” ” 39905°4 04:°384 04°39 4n ” ” 18-2 / 03°939 1 ) ” ” 25-4 | 03°8b 2 a “s 28: | 03°458 | 0 ” ” 33°0 02°843 | 1 ” os 42°9 02°546 | 02°55 2 | 02°6 1 ” ” 47°5 | 024 , 1 ” ” 50: | } 01:3 2 9 ” 68° 01-115 01:10 1 | % ” 70°6 00-740 00°74 0 “: a5 76°5 00-668 00°67 2 ” % 776 | 2499-81 | ” ” 91:3 2499-2 2n 35 3 40001: 2499095 | 99-10 2n ” ” 02°7 | 98-1 2n “e a5 19- | | / 96°8 In ” ” 40: | 96-0 l ” ” | 52° | 94-604 | 94-61 | 4n | ” ” 74:8 | | | 94°3 1 a “4 80- 93-733 93°73 | 1 } ” 11:8 | 88:8 | | | OBES). get. || h esgeell sie 94: 92:395 92°39) 2: | 9 » | 40110°3 | 91:93 1 29 ss 9H 178 918b 4 55 re 18 | 90°860 90°85 3 ” ” 35:0 90°7b 10 “6 “6 38: 89-986 89-98 0 ” ” 49:1 89:8 1 ” ” 52- 89-2 1 “6 5 62: 88-547 88°54 | 1 ” ” i2°3 88°3 2 ” 2 76° 88:24 1 %» % 77°3 87-581 87°60 | 4 ” ” 87°7 | 86°7 1 33 ao 40202- 85-688 | 85:67 2 85°7 4 a oS 18:6 | 84°6 2n as a 36° | 83°423 83:41 2n 3 2 55:3 83°3 1 35 oF 57° 82:7 4 % 99 67° $2715 | 2 as “rp 759 81-686 | | 0 a 5 83°4 | 81-2 2 i a3 91: 80-921 | 80:94 0 | ” ” | 95°7 80:596 | | 80-60 0 ” 2 | 40301°1 | | | 80-4 4 =) Ae! 04: 79°85 | 2 | ” | ” 13-2 | | | 791 | ] ” | ” 25° | | | | 78°6 | 1 a Cee hae 34: 77-618 | 7761 | 1 du7G: Bin | eae ” 49°6 | | ss ea | Re ” 56° ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 6 w or RHODIUM—continued. ; | Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Beddotton to . |i Vacuum Wave-length Inten- | Wave- Inten- Oscillation 1 2 aS “2 | sity | length sity |) #7 |Hrequency Rowland | Exner | and ;—————} and 1 in Vacuo Kayser and and Cha- laine and) Cha- | A+ aly Tatnall | Haschek | racter Haschek | racter | 2475-978 | | | 0 0-73 | 11-9 | 40376-2 7T5'TA9 | | 2475°72 | O it oh 80:1 / | | 2475:6b | 8 Sp ec 82° 75-097 75:1 1 4 ; ” | ” 90-5 74:677 74°67 ' 1 ” ” 97°5 74116 74:12 | 0 4a iol ” ” 40406°5 | | | 73-4 1 ” ” 18- 73°199 73°20 | 2 | | ” ” 205 | 73°00 | 1 | ” ” 24°8 | | 71 7 2 ” ” 46: 71561 | ORS ea Hie “oahw We Se 48-4 70-860 | Oe | PL snl Ie vat) beaeene eS | 70°6 | 1 | ” | ” 64: 70-486 © 70°50 | 2 | | ashe alll a 65:9 | | | 696 1 | ov! 3 80: 69-203 69:20 | 1 | | 99 29 87:0 } | | 68°8 | 1 ” ” 94: 68°2 | 1 ” ” 40503- O72 1e lel re ned b 22° 661 | 1 Wee 38: | 65:2 | In ” ” | 53° 63:°670 | 63°70 | 4n | | ” ” | T77 | | 63°4 | 2 ” ” 82: 62°74 | 1 a say | 93°3 61-120 f 61-14), 2 | 99 » | 40619°8 610b 8 9 p 22° 59°237 | 1 % 12-0 | 51:0 59-004 | 59-00 2 59-0b 6 | 5 sans | 54°9 56:277 56°26 , 1 56:2be) 4" 15 ” 40700°2 55-788 55:79 | 2 55°7 8 \ ae ” 08:1 55°521 0 | 35 rr 12°5 53-898 | 0 eee Fe 39°5 52-1 1 co re 69: | Bat Waveite cate | tat twos 8B 50°660 50°67 3 | bee a 92:2 505 | 1 3 53 96° 495 In cr A 40813- 49-15 2 re 99 18°5 48-923 48-92 | 2 | 99 » 22°3 488 In ee ys 24° 48°378 48°36 | 0 | ” > 31:5 47:85) 4 9 ” 41: | | 47°4 | 1 ” ” 48- \ - 468 208 samentl teas 58- 45-714 45-70 2 BP We 76-0 re al ae | se 84: 44-843 | a) 44°8 1 » | 9 80-4 44°337 | 44:35 4n | 4 ai wal 98°8 . ie 442) 2 | 4, » 40901- 43-812 | | | 0 | Wh srg bord 07-6 43-221 | a «| wen wey, herr ee 42-830 j 0 | Pra eee 24:0 | | 413 | 4 Se ree 266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Radunonie SOR | AVaACHtna Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation — —_— | sity length sity |———,—___|F requency Rowland Exner and |—————| and | 1 in Vacuo Kayser and and | Cha- |Exner and Cha- | A+ = Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter | | A 2440°6 1 0°72 | 12°1 | 40961 2440-427 | 2440-45 | 2 ee ai eae 64-1 | 39°8 1 ” ” 75° 39-338 0 ; ” ” 82-6 38°7 4 9 a 93° 37°174 37°16 | 2 » 9s 41019°1 36-974 0 ” ” 22:4 36°8 4 ” ” 25° 35°2 2 ” oO 52: 35:0 1 ” ” 56: 33°6 In ” ” 79° 33°346 0 33°4 In ” aa 82-7 32°755 SPB a 32°7 LS aicorss 5 93°6 32°03 1 | ety ° 411058 31-936 31°94 2 ” ” 07-4 31:8 3 | ” ” 10: 31°5 2 ” + sp 30°8 2 ” ” 27° 29-8b 2 ” ” 44- 29-610 29°60 | 2 ” ”» 46:9 29°5 2 5 5 49- 29-268 0 ” ” 52°6 29:053 2 29-1 2 ” ” 56-2 27°7717 Qt |. + 12:2 7178 27°193 27:20 | 3 27:2 Nile ere NY | 87°5 27-1b 4 il =D 89- 26°5 2 ” 99- | 25-4 1 0 » | 41218: 24°521 24:51 | O 24-5 2 ” ” 33°2 24-1 2 Tee Woy 7 40-2 24-021 24-02 2 ” Py 41:9 23°8 1 ” ” | 45: 23°5 2 ” ” ) 50: 23°2 2 COMIN ervey) 56- 22°6 1 en Se oi} Mas 66: 22:237 0 22:2 2 > ” 71-9 21:9 1 Os71 uaa. 78° 21-060 21-05 2 21-0b 6 re fe 92-1 20-947 0 20°1 2 ” ” 93-9 20°271 20°26 2 ” ” 413056 19:79 2 ” 4 13°7 18-718 18°71 3 ” 99 32:1 17°523 0 17°5 4 ” ” 5§2°5 16°8 2 ” ” 65: 15°93 3\ 2 5 a 79°7 15-8b 6 os a 82- 14-927 3 ” 93 96:9 | 14-662 0 14:6 1 9 4 41401°5 14°433 0 ” ” 05-4 13°8 1 39 oF 16: | 12-613 12-61) | 99 12°3 36°6 | 11:9 1 os By 49° 10°6 4 on . (pg 10-348 10°35 0 ” ” 765°5 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OI? THE ELEMENTS. 267 RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Requction to ; Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation sity length city) || Frequency Rowland | Exner and and 1 in Vacuo Kayser and an Cha- |Exner and| Cha- | A+ rea Tatnall | Haschek | racter | Haschek | racter 2409-626 240962 | 0 0°71 | 12°3 | 41488-0 08°745 (PO ye Geen 415031 | | 24086 | 2 Fr 3 06: 08-275 08:26 | 1 ” ” 11:3 08-100 | 08:06 «(0 | ” ” 14-6 07-974 07:97 | 2 | ” | ” 16-4 07°8 | 1 ” | ” | 19: | | 06:9 | 1 ” | ” 35° 06:472 | | 0 ” ” | 42°3 | 05:3 4 ” ” 63° | 04:0 1 =r x 85: | One Ve am ac BT 00-6 2 fi a 41644- | | 2399°3 1 a A 67° 2399-044 | 2399:05 | 0 ” ” 70°9 | | 98-9 1 ” feocss (65 96-617 96°61 | 0 96-6b | 8 A 124 | 41713:1 | 95-7 1 ” ” 29- | 92-4b | 8 ghee 87° / 80-7 4 a sa LL PALSIG6: 89°9 1 . re 30° 89-2 1 oF 55 43° | 87-9 2 ” ” 65: 86°489 | / 0 Fc a 90-1 86°222 | | 86:23 | 4 86-2 2 es % 94°8 / 85:5 4 PH » | £1908: 84°751 | 84:76 | 2 rp a9 20°6 | | 83:6 | 4 cot Wes 41- 83°490 | 83-50 2 5 FP 42°8 82-969 | 83:00 | 2 | 82°8 2 oF 125 | 51:7 . 82:1 2 rh A 67° 81-0 1 7 Ss 87° 79°5 In A - 42013 79:02 L re | 21-6 78-0 4 3 an 40: 76°8 1 2 61: 76-4 i = i 68: 75:0 2 ee et’ 93- 13°7 In 0°70 | 5 42116: 72:9 1 Pa al nes . 30° Pade oh. boo. he ee 711 In = in, Nee ee 70°642 | 70°67 | 2 a » B. 69°9 70°3 1 ” } ” | a 76° | 69-654. | 69°66 | 2 69:7 | 2n Peau) aes # 87-7 | } 68-94 In 9» =| on 1 42200°5 | 68-380 | 68°38 | 3 30 12°6 10-4 | 66°97 | 67:0"b 4 pS i , 35°5 | | 66-4 In or op = 46° 65°3 In “a ok eee: 64°74 i x) 64°8 2 Se “ 2 \75°3 | 64:3 2 aa Pe * (83° 63°2 1 - en 42303: {| e2o1| » | 622 | 1 ay ve 24:2 | 268 REPORTS ON THE STATH OF SCIENCE, RuoviuM—continued. ~- SS | Arce Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | peta tanta | a ] = | Vacuum Bec til Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation, — ren meed 55 = 5: Sa ay length sity |) _____Frequency ' Rowland Exner | and };————| and | ' 1 | in Vacuo | | Kayser | and and | Cha- |Exner andj Cha- | A+ | =| Tatnal | Haschek | ee) Haschek Eanben | | | | 23616 | 1 | 0°70 12:6 | 42332: 2361-25 1 ” ” 37°8 60°9 (= ” ” 44: 60° |; 1 “6 A 51- | 597 2 ae 66- 59°26 1 bord) alee “9 33 73°6 58°55 1 as MN engy 863 58:0 1 93s ll ais 96° | 57°6 1 sy >» | 4£2408° | Sate Whee it ” ” 21° 558 | I 55 zs 36° 55:2 1 oo | ee 47: 542 | 1 ee 7 65: I SBETe 1 ” | ” 74 ASO Naas | 7, . 86° | Sebo 1d 525 | 1 ” ” 94-4 Pye ad BS 5 42510: | 513 | 1 ” ” 17 | 50°4 | 1 ” | ” 33° 4935 4) od a “3 46° | 480 | 2 tsa oi) ser 0) | 42" |) 1. |) a | a 0 | AG'BE | 2) i 5s;5 al 99- AG bh) ae Wiese »» | 22604. | 2345-597 | 1 | 9). {ao 2 Se | 4500/2 1), | Ss | | 44-4 | In 5 ie || 42: 43°6 1 iets coke! 57° | 43°3 1 * 35 62- 42°5 2 os ‘f 17° 418 1 osm lees 89- 40-1 1 » | 12:8 | 42720- 38°6 1 Pipe ines! 48: 36-9 | 2 <3) 3 ee 35°9 1 Aegina a | 97: 35:2 2 + » | 42810: | 34°85 | 2 34°8b | 6 Me cS 16:5 34°762 | | 1 aS a 181 | 33°37 vg | 33-4 4 es att 43°7 | 29°5" | In = » | 42915: (| 28°737 28-74 | 2 957 ill ose 28°9 | | 28°5 2 ee le ae 33° | | 27°8b | 4 re 46° | 26°56 1 265 | 1 or 12°9 69:0 25°5 1 0-69 | ,, 89° | 230 | 1 a ite, 43035: | 22-68 1% i 226 | 4 #5 s 40'8 21:82 | 1 21°9 1 53 = 56°8 19:95 | 1 ® 55 91:5 19-173 19-18 | 2 45 io 431059 | 17-4 1 - a 39° 166 | 1 e 54 \ | ie li si by ee fa 5 13:0 98 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE EL“MENTS. 269 RHODIUM—continued, ie : | Arg Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Reduction to | re as ia Daal (i | Vacuum | Wave-length ‘Inten- | Wave- | Inten- | Oscillation -. ee —| sity | length sity |~ | Frequency | Rowland | Exner | and |—————| and 1 | m Vacuo Kayser and and =| Cha- | Exner and) Cha- | A+ | .— Tatnall | Haschek acter) Haschek | Tacter | | | 2313°9 1 | 0-69 | 130 43204 13°5 1 eoaile oy 12- 126 2 ” | ” 28° | 116 1 | ” | 2 47° 231114 1 ieee Mae 55:7 | 09:89 1 Ned il erg 79-1 09-0 AL ade: > 4 ep 96° | 23)5°38 2 3 Pr 98-0 08-2 1 a os 43311- 05:9 2 he * 54: 05-0 1 3 - ae 01:9 1 ts a 43429 00°5 In aa: | 13:1 56° 2298°8 1 eave ME is 88 98°3 4 jo Be 97° 229454 1 94-6 2 A 53 43568-6 94:2 4 e .. 75° 93°35 1 - . 91-2 | $0:2 8 he 3 43651- ; 90:10 1 | AA 9 53-1 | | | 89-7 1 9 | ” 61- | 88:97 a hn ie 74:7 | 88°61 1 | ” ” 815 | | | 883 1 ss 13:2 87: (ree SOs we cL a oa 43728: | 851 1 rsd re 49- 84:2 4 3 if 66: 83-6 1 - eet 83-2 1 ” ” 85- | 83-0 1 AS Bs 89: | | 81-4 1 0 Fe 43820: | | 81-2 1 i pe oe | | | 80:9 I 55 5 29° bepec SOM. fi sD a ei 45° epee! 1 is ae 83° . Leics ale I +» ” 85° / 77:3 L O:G8> |a-55 98- 77:00 nl 77:0 2 taste wllseht a reg: 2 Great eee See ag 18: | 74:2 I rs 13°3 58: ee cae 1 5 Pr 68: er pacts 1 sso Pass 44010- |p 10:5 1 ver tense 30° | | 68:9 2 3 4 Ose | 68-0 1 3 ae 78: | | | | 65-7 In + 3 44123- | | 63°5 4 Hy -f 66: | 61:8 2 33 13-4 99- | 58°6 i 9 is 44262: | 58-4 1 Fa 3 &6- : Biss a vl a és 87- : : SS ei (PR IS | | 55°5 2 Sy ND Piss 23° | | SO » | 185 | 44413 | 270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. RHODIUM—continued. Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Redaction to Vacuum Wave-length Inten-| Wave- | Inten- Oscillation yee ees Dot | sity length sity |, |Frequency Rowland Exner | and |—————/ and 1 in Vacuo Kayser | an | and Cha- |Exner and} Cha- | a+ | ~— | Tatnall | Haschek racter | Haschek | racter r | 2250°1 1 0°68 | 13°5 | 44429 4 49-7 1 sol age 37° | | 48-7 In ” ” 57° 47°8 In son Sh. Say 74: 47:0 1 +S $5 90: 41:0 1 i * 44609- 40°8 1 9 “p 13: 40:2 1 OF a 25° 392 | 2 > ee 45: 384 | 1 os 13°6 61- 37°7 2 + 5 75° 37:2 1 a a 85: | 36°7 1 59 on 95> | 36°5 1 Spa eta 99- | 36:0 1 1 . 44709: | 35°3 1 + 5 23° 30°7 2 “r or 44815- 29°2 In 0°67 Ss 46: ojos Pee) ad +“ “6 64° 26-7 2 +s 13°7 96° 26:0 1 + “1 44910: 25°1 2 | 5 28° 22°0 b 99 5 91- 20:99 | 1 no $9 45013- 20°4 1 * 7 23° 19-4 1 re 44- | 06°5 1 “5 13°8 | 45307: 2199:0 1 i 13°9 | 45461- 96-2 1 oF By 45519: 94:2 1 p ss 61: 92°8 | 1 7 oF 90- O1-0.- 4) 1 » | 14:0 | 45627: | 86:0 1 5 z 45732>- | | S2ZOF iil) al) ale, eee at meas 45816 | | 67°3 2 0°66 | 14:2 | 46126: Nore.—Lines marked @ are resolved into fowr constituents in a very strong mag- netic field, those marked b into triplets, those marked ¢ into doublets (Purvis, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., xiii. p. 322). Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Comnvittee, consisting of Professor H. E. Armstrone (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry (Secretary), Pro- fessor SypNey Younc, Dr. J. J. Dospre, Dr. A. LaPwortu, Dr. M. O. Forster, and Dr. C. H. DescH. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ATTENTION has been directed during the past year mainly to a study of the influence of impurities on the velocity of mutarotation of nitro- camphor. In an earlier series of experiments on glucose! it was found that the mutarotation in aqueous solutions could not be retarded by the 1 Lowry, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 1903, 88, 1314-1323. DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 271 addition of either acids or alkalis; the isomeric change thus appeared to be due to a direct interaction between the sugar and the water of low conductivity which formed the solvent. In the case of nitrocamphor dissolved in chloroform it has been found possible to check the mutarota- tion by the addition of N/100 acetic acid, and to stop it altogether during a period of three weeks by the addition of N/1,000 trichloracetic acid. The experiments therefore afford valuable confirmation of the view already arrived at! that the isomeric change which usually takes place when nitrocamphor is dissolved in chloroform or benzene does not occur spontaneously, but is conditioned by the presence of minute traces of alkaline impurities. Experiments were made to determine quantitatively the effects pro- duced by these impurities. Sodium ethoxide, added to an alcoholic solution of nitrocamphor, was found to produce an acceleration very similar to that which results from the addition of caustic potash to an aqueous solution of glucose ; the mutarotation in presence of N/1,000 NaOHKt was complete in about a quarter of an hour, with N/10,000 NaOKt in about three hours, and a slight acceleration could be detected in presence of N/100,000 NaOEt. Thenormal period of the isomeric change in absolute alcohol at 20° C. is about six hours, but the change is greatly accelerated by the addition of a little water. The velocity of change in alcohol containing 1 per cent. of water was exactly equal to that in a sample of 99-8 per cent. alcohol to which sodium ethoxide had been added in a concentration of N /10,000. Extraordinary effects were produced by the addition of piperidine to solutions of nitrocamphor in benzene. In presence of N/1,000 piperidine the mutarotation was complete in two minutes, and even when working as rapidly as possible only two readings of the polarimeter could be obtained before the final value was reached. With N /10,000 piperidine the change was complete in about six minutes, with N / 100,000 in an hour, and with N/1,000,000 in about ten hours. With N/10,000,000 piperidine the acceleration of the isomeric change was comparable with that due to the trace of impurity normally present in the purified materials, and no definite observations could be made. In the case of the N/100,000 solution the molecules are present in the proportion— piperidine ; nitrocamphor : benzene=1 : 25,000 : 1,000,000— and about 2 per cent. of the nitrocamphor undergoes change in each minute. It therefore follows that if each molecule of piperidine is able to invert only one molecule of nitrocamphor at a time, it must accomplish 500 such inversions per minute, and unless selectively guided to the nitro- camphor must come in contact also with some 20,000 molecules of benzene. _ In view of the remarkable effects produced by the addition of piperidine, it is noteworthy that the addition of aniline is almost without effect. In presence of N/1,000 aniline the velocity of isomeric change in a solution of nitrocamphor in benzene was slower than in presence of N/10,000,000 piperidine—a result that was confirmed by a second series of observations ; the blank experiment, with benzene only, showed a still slower change, but this result was only achieved by very careful purification of the materials, The experiments now described are a importance as indicating the- conditions under which isomeric change may in general take place. Tt Trans., 1899, 75, 221; Report, 1904, p. 196. ore REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, may be concluded that in neutral solvents, such as benzene and chloro- form, no change can occur unless some third substance or impurity is present ; the influence of the impurity may be greatly increased by raising the temperature or illuminating with ultra-violet light ; but even under these conditions it is probable that isomeric change is not a spontaneous result of the interaction of solvent and solute. The experimental evidence thus gives no support, but on the contrary is entirely opposed to the existence of the condition of intermolecular ‘wobble’ postulated by Laar! in his theory of ‘tautomerism.’ It is, more- over, very doubtful whether even the special case of the process of ‘ bond- shifting,’ or ‘desmotropy,’? which does not involve the transference of a mobile hydrogen atom, and which Baly* has described as ‘ isorropesis,’ could occur in pure neutral solvents in the absence of a catalytic agent. In addition to the investigation described above, considerable attention has been paid during the past year to the study of the optical properties of dynamic isomerides, and preparations have been made for a detailed examination of the relationship between the absorption spectra of iso- dynamic compounds and the velocity with which they undergo isomeric change. The Study of Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene-Sulphonice Acid.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors H. A. MIErRs (Chairman), H. EK, Armstrona (Secretary), W. P. WYNNE, and W. J. Pore. Tue task undertaken is the preparation of all the possible isomeric sulphonic chlorides and sulphonic bromides of the isomeric dichloro., the isomeric dibromo-, and of the isomeric chlorobromo-benzenes and to subject them to crystallographic study with the object of determining the extent of variation in the series of closely related compounds. Apart from the labour entailed in measuring such a series, which is very great, much difficulty arises both in devising suitable methods of preparing the compounds and in obtaining properly developed crystals. It has not been found to be possible at present to prepare one of the three sets of 1: 3:5 derivatives and one of the two sets of 1:2:3 derivatives. In the case of the 1 : 4 : 2 derivatives, whereas six of the eight compounds crystallise with the greatest readiness, the seventh is obtained only with difficulty in measurable forms ; all attempts to grow measurable crystals of the eighth have been failures. It is possible that the new conceptions introduced by Barlow and Pope may afford a clue to such peculiar differences. The investigation has certainly acquired increased importance in view of their conclusions, and will therefore be pushed forward during the coming year. With the cbject of contrasting oxygen with sulphur, p-methoxy- and p-ethoxy-benzene-sulphonic chloride and bromide and the corresponding thio-compounds have been prepared and partially measured. The rela- tionship between the corresponding oxygen compounds and between the corresponding thio-compounds appears to be of a simple character, only one axis being affected in the passage from the methyl to the ethyl com- pare ; the effect of the displacement of oxygen by sulphur is less simple, owever. 1 Ber., 1885, 18, 648-657. 2 Jacobson, Ber., 1888, 21, 2628. * Stewart and Baly, Trans, Chem. Suc., 1906, 89, 498, ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. 278 Lhe Applications of Grignard’s Reaction. By ALEX. McKenzir, M.A., D.Se., Ph.D. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso. | Introductory. In 1900 Victor Grignard! found that a vigorous action ensues whér magnesium powder is added to a mixture of methyl iodide and anhydrous ether. The magnesium gradually dissolves with the formation of a clear solution from which, on evaporation of the ether, a crystalline grey hygroscopic solid is obtained. If an aldehyde (1 mol.) is added to the ethereal solution obtained from magnesium (1 mol.) and methyl iodide (1 mol.), a vigorous action again takes place with the formation of a mag- nesium organic compound, which, when decomposed by dilute acid, gives a good yield of the corresponding secondary alcohol. Grignard found it possible by this method to obtain from benzalde- hyde, for example, a satisfactory yield of phenylmethylcarbinol” and the action is represented in the following manner :— CH,I + Mg=CH,MgI CH,MgI+C,H, . CHO=0,H,. CH(OMgI) .CH, C,H, .CH(OMgl) . CH, + H,O =C,H,. CH(OH). CH, + MgIOH Ketones, in an analogous manner, are readily converted into tertiary alcohols ; thus Grignard obtained phenyldimethylearbinol from aceto- phenone :— CH,I + Mg=CH,Mgl CH,MgI+CH,. CO. C,H, =(CH,),C(OMgl) . C,H, (CH,),C(OMgl) . C,H; + H.O =(CH,),C(OH). C,H; + MgIOH In his first paper Grignard also points out that other alkyl halides may be substituted for methyl iodide with equally satisfactory results. The successful application of the new reagent for the synthesis of alcohols from esters of aliphatic monobasic acids was described in the fol- lowing year.’ Formic esters are converted into secondary alcohols ; for example, diethylearbinol is obtained in a 73 per cent. yield from mag- nesium ethyl bromide and ethyl formate :— C,H,Br + Mg=C,H,MgBr OMgBr C,H,MgBr+H,C00C.H,=H. oteat, ; 0C.H, OMgBr OMgBr 00,1, H.CCO,H, +0,H,MgBr=H.CCC.H, +Me® Nour OC, H, CH, OMgBr OH IL. of err, +H,0=H, otoar, + MgBroH C,H, OH, 1 Compt. rend., 1900, 180, 1522. 2 Annales de UV Université de Lyon, 1901, &, 1. 3 Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 336. 1907. is 274 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Acetic esters, on the other hand, yield tertiary alcohols ; for example, irimethylcarbinol is obtained in an 82 per cent. yield from methy] acetate : OMgI CH,MgI + CH, . COOCH, = CH,. C fou, OOH, OMg1 OMglI OCH, CH,. oer, + CH,Mg1=CH,. eter, + Me OOH, OH, OMet oH CH,. oor +H,0=CH,. oto + MglOH OH, OH, Tertiary alcohols may also be obtained from acid chlorides or acid anhydrides, the action of the magnesium allyl halide again being assumed to take place in two phases.!_ Acetyl chloride, for instance, is readily con- verted into trimethylcarbinol : OMglI CH,MgI + CH,.COC1=CH,. oer, Cl OMgl OMgI CHy. of cr, + CH,MgI=CH;. oem, + MgICl Cl CH, OMgl OH CH,.CZCH, +H,O=CH;. ctou, + MglOH CH, CH, It was subsequently shown that aromatic halogen compounds behave like alkyl halides in forming magnesium organic compounds.” Thus phenyl bromide forms the compound C;H;MgBr, which, by its inter- action with methyl benzoate, gives a theoretical yield of triphenylearbinol. When magnesium phenyl bromide, however, acts on acetyl chloride, diphenylethylene, (Cj;H;),C :CH., is obtained in place of the alcohol (C,H;).C(OH) . CH3. Tt was at once appreciated by students of organic chemistry that science was indebted to the French investigator for the discovery of a reagent of more than ordinary importance for synthetic purposes. As is well known, the classical work of E. Frankland and Duppa on zine alkyl compounds opened up a highly fruitful field of research, to which important contributions were made by Wagner, Butlerow, and Saytzew. Zine alkyl compounds are, however, difficult to manipulate on account of their spontaneous inflammability, and to this factor the comparatively limited 1 Wissier and Grignard, Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 683. 2 Thid., 1901, 1382, 1182. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD'S REACTION, 279 extent of their application may be ascribed. Many of the reactions in which they play a part require weeks, or even months, for their com- pletion, and the yields of the resulting compounds are often far from satisfactory. Magnesium organic compounds; on the other hand, are so much more easily prepared than zine alkyl compounds ; they are not inflammable on exposure to the atmosphere, and they can be manipulated with such facility that the older methods, depending on the use of zinc compounds, have been superseded. Not only is this the case, but Grignard’s reagent has been applied for the preparation of carbon compounds by methods which earlier investigators did not have at their disposal. Grignard was not the first to attempt the substitution of magnesium alkyl for zinc alkyl compounds for synthetic purposes. Fleck,' working in Lothar Meyer’s laboratory, showed in 1893 that magnesium methyl interacts with acetyl chloride to form trimethylcarbinol ; but, in spite of the reactivity of magnesium methyl, the method presented no advantages over the use of zinc alkyls ; in fact it was less convenient, since magnesium alkyls are neither volatile nor soluble in the ordinary organic solvents. In a paper which paved the way for the Grignard reaction, Barbiér 2 showed that the zinc in Saytzew’s reaction may be replaced by magnesium, and that it is not necessary actually to isolate magnesium methyl in order to use it subsequently for synthetic purposes. It was possible to obtain dimethylheptenol, (CH;),C : CH .CH,. CH, . C(OH)(CH;),, from methylheptenone, (CH;),C : CH . CH, . CH, . CO. CH;, by adding methyl iodide to an ethereal solution of the ketone in the presence of magnesium. Grignard * was led to study magnesium organic compounds in con- sequence of this work of Barbier, and of an observation of E. Frankland and Wanklyn that the zine compound Zn(CH3;).,(C,H;),;0 is formed when methyl iodide is heated with zinc and anhydrous ether in a sealed tube. In the present account of Grignard’s action the more important applications will be indicated, but no attempt will be made to give a complete réswmé of all the work carried out in this field. Section I. deals with the various types of synthesis accomplished by aid of Grignard’s reagent, Section IT. with some practical details, and Section IIT. with the * theoretical aspect of the subject. Section I. Alcohols and Phenols. (a) Secondary alcohols.—A large number of secondary alcohols have been obtained from aldehydes or from formic esters by the method already indicated in the Introductory Section. (b) Zertiary alcohols.—The mode of formation of tertiary alcohols from ketones, acid chlorides, acid anhydrides, and esters respectively has also been referred to. A large amount of work has been done in this particular branch, not only by Grignard himself, but, amongst others, by Acree, Béhal, Klages, W. H. Perkin, jun., Sachs, and Zelinsky. ' Annalen, 1893, 276, 134. Compare Lohr, ihid., 1890, 261, 72. 2 Compt. rend., 1899, 128, 110. % Revue générale des Sciences pures et appliquécs, 1903, 14, 1041. 276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Cyclic ketones behave normally towards Grignard’s reagent ; thus Zelinsky | converted cyclopentanone into methyl (1)-cyclopentanol (1) CH, . CH, oH, c \ pou CH,.CH,“ ‘CH, by means of magnesium methyl iodide. As an example of the application to a cyclic ester, Perkin’s synthesis of terpineol,? CH . CH, cH, .c& SoH . O(CH,), . OH \CH, . GHZ i from ethyl A®.tetrahydro-p-toluate CH . CH cH, .c% “cH , COOC,H \cuH, . CH, | may be quoted. Tertiary alcohols are also obtained by other methods of less importance for preparative purposes. Grignard*® showed that when an ethereal solution of a magnesium alkyl halide is saturated with carbon dioxide, and the product then boiled with an excess of the reagent, trialkylcarbinols are obtained :— RMgX +CO,=R . COOMgx R R. COOMgX + 2R/MgX = we . OMgX + MgO + MgX, h’ R R OH RY C.OMgX+H,0=R4C . OH + Mgt zZ \x B’ R As will be pointed out Jater, a general method for making carboxylic avids is to pass carbon dioxide through the Grignard reagent and then decompose the product by water ; thus Zelinsky * describes the elegant method of obtaining benzoic acid by the action of carbon dioxide on magnesium phenyl iodide :— C,H,l+ Mg=C,H,Mgl C,H,Mgl + CO,=C,H, . COOMgI C,H, . COOMg1+H,0=0,H, . COOH + MglOH But this type of action is not always so simple. Schroeter? sub- stituted phenyl bromide for the iodide in the making of the Grignard reagent, which with carbon dioxide gave triphenylcarbinol as the main 1 Ber., 1902, 35, 2683. 2 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 654. 5 Compt. rend., 1904, 138, 152; Bull. Soc. Chim., 1904 [3], 81, 751. * Ber., 1902, 35, 2692. s Jbid., 1903, 86, 3005. Compare Meyer and Togel, Annalen, 1906, 347, 55, ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. product, whilst benzoic acid and benzophenone were also obtained. In fact the experimental conditions may be so adjusted! that no benzoic acid is obtained at all. The formation of triphenylcarbinol is represented as follows :— ; C,H, MgBr + CO, = C,H, . COOMgBr Coo 7 oMake C,H,. COOMg Br+ C,H,MgBr= C 0,H,7 \NOMgBr C,H, C,H, ye Mgbr ae Ne + 0,H,MgBr = 0,H,YC. OMgBr + MgO + MgBr, C,H,7 NOMgBr C,H, CH, CH, cade . OMgBr + H,0 = cade OH + MgBromt C,H, C,H; Tertiary alcohols may also be obtained directly from carboxylic acids ? by the action of an excess of the Grignard reagent ; thus phenyldiethyl- carbinol, C;H,;(C,H;).C . OH, is formed from benzoic acid and magnesium ethyl bromide. Metallic salts of carboxylic acids may be applied in a similar manner,’ thus trimethylcarbinol is formed from potassium acetate and magnesium methy] iodide. The synthesis of tertiary amino-alcohols from esters of amino-acids has been studied more particularly by Paal.! For example, magnesium phenyl bromide and ethyl glycollate, NH,.CH,.COOC,H;, form diphenylhydroxyethylamine, NH, . CH, . C(COH)(C,H;).. After Houben® had shown that lactones when acted on by the Grignard reagent give tertiary alcohols, Paal and Hérnstein® prepared 1 : 1-diphenyl-d-sorbitol, CH,OH . (CHOH),.C(OH)(C,H;)2, by acting on the acetyl derivative of d-gluconic lactone with magnesium phenyl bromide. A very convenient method for preparing ditertiary glycols was employed by Valeur,’ who acted on esters of dicarboxylic acids with an excess of the Grignard reagent; in this manner methyl oxalate and magnesium phenyl bromide yield benzpinacone, (C,H;),C(OH) . C(OH)(C,H;),. Ditertiary glycols may also be ob- tained either from esters of ketonic acids or from diketones; thus Grignard § obtained the glycol CH, . C(OM)(C,H,,). CH, . OH, . C(OH)(C,H,,), from magnesium isoamylbromide and ethyl levulate, OH, .CO.CH,. CH, . COOC,H,; whilst Zelinsky ® obtained the pinacone, (CH;), .C(OH) . C(OH)(CH3)., from diacetyl, CH,.CO.CO.CH:;, and magnesium methy! iodide. ' Ber., 1907, 40, 1584. ? Farbenfabriken vorm. F. Bayer and Co., D.It.-P., 1906, 166898. % Thid., 1906, 166899. ‘ Ber., 1905, 38, 1686. Compare ibid., 1906, 39, 810, 2062, 4344. 5 Thid., 1904, 37, 489. ® Thid , 1906, 39, 1361, 2823, 2827. 7 Compt. rend., 1903, 136, 694; Bull. Soc. Chim. 1903, 29, 683. Compare Dilthey and Last, Bez., 1904, 37, 2639. 5 Compt. rend., 1902, 185, 627, ® Ber., 1902, 35, 2138. 278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Acree! shows that the action with a diketone may be regulated so that either one or both of the carbonyl groups react. It is possible, for example, to obtain from benzil, C;H,.CO.CO.C,H;, either the keto- alcohol, phenylbenzoin, (C,H;),C(OH).CO.C;H;, or benzpinacone, (C,H,),C(OH) . C(OH)(C,H,)» The optically active glycol, tetraphenylerythritol, (C,H,).C(OH) . CH(OH) . CH(OH) . C(OH)(C,H,), has been obtained by P. F. Frankland and Twiss? by the action of magnesium phenyl bromide on dimethyl d-tartrate. (c) Primary alcohols.--The Grignard reagent is not so useful for the preparation of primary alcohols as for the classes to which reference has been made. When a current of dry oxygen is passed into an ethereal solution of the Grignard reagent, oxidation takes place and a primary alcohol is formed when water is added,? e.9., C,H, .CH,MgCl + O = C,H,. CH,OMgCl C,H, .CH,OMgCl + H,O = C,H,.CH,OH + MgClOH the yield of benzyl] alcohol being 80 per cent. When the Grignard reagent is heated for several days with trioxy- methylene the primary alcohols are obtained, sometimes in good yield ; thus n-propyl alcohol is obtained from magnesium ethyl bromide.’ Ethylene oxide may also be converted into primary alcohols,’ for example, 2-butyl alcohol is obtained from magnesium ethyl bromide.° H, CyinrGH O,H Sokme< pe So iat \br CH \MgBr + C,H,.CH,.CH,.OMgBr + 0,H,.CH,.CH,OH The action of ethylene monochlorohydrin on a magnesium organic compound takes place in two phases. The hydroxy-group is first acted on in the cold :— RMgX + CH,Cl.CH,OH = RH + CH,Cl. CH,OMgX On the addition of a second molecular proportion, R’/MgX, which may be different from the first, a vigorous reaction again takes pluce when the ether is distilled off from the mixture and the temperature gradually raised :— R/MgX’ + CH,Cl. CH,OMgX = MgX'Cl + R’.CH,.CH,.OMgX Phenylethy] alcohol, C;H,;.CH, .CH,OH, is readily obtained in this manner from magnesium phenyl bromide.’ (d) Phenols.—Bodroux*® applied for the preparation of phenols the method which Bouveault used for primary alcohols (/oc. cit.), but the yields obtained were very small. ‘The method appears, however, to be a ' Ber., 1904, 37, 2753. 2 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 1666. * Bouveault, Bull. Soc. Chim., 1903 [31, 29, 1051. * Grignard and Tissier, Compt. rend., 1902, 184, 107. 5 Blaise, idid., 1902, 184, 551. ® Grignard, ibid., 1903, 1386, 1260; Budll. Soc. Chim., 1903 [3], 29, 944. 7 Grignard, Compt. rend., 1905, 141, 44; Bull. Soc. Chim., 1907 [8], 10, 23. 5 Compt. rend., 1903, 186, 158; Bull. Soc. Chim., 1904 [3], 81, 33. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. 279 general one. Thiophenols and selenophenols are formed in an analogous manner.! The action on p-quinones has been investigated by Bamberger and Blangey,? who obtain quinols, but in small yield. Werner and Grob* find that phenanthrene quinone and magnesium phenyl bromide give 9 : 10-dihydroxydiphenyldihydrophenanthrene :— OH C,H, CO CH. CC C,H, PTS C,H,.CO CH. CC C,H Hydrocarbons. (a) Unsaturated hydrocarbons.—When the Grignard reaction is applied to aldehydes, ketones, &c., sometimes an unsaturated hydrocarbon is obtained instead of an alcohol. It is in fact often possible to select the experimental conditions so that either an alcohol or the unsaturated hydrocarbon, obtained from it by the elimination of water, is the product of the action ; for example, Grignard! obtains phenyldimethylearbinol, C,H, .C(OH)(CH;),, from magnesium methyl iodide (1 mol.) and aceto- phenone (1 mol.). If, however, magnesium methyl iodide (2 mol.) is added to acetophenone (1 mol.) the ether expelled and the residue heated for six hours at 100°, the unsaturated hydrocarbon, metho-(1’)-vinylbenzene, C,H (SG OH, CH,” results.° Similarly, it is possible to prepare from mesityl oxide CH Ye CH.CO.CH, CH, either the hydrocarbon CH CH "Nc: of 8 CHA XS or the alcohol CHa De 1 CH. C(OH)(CHy),.’ CH, To quote a third example, Kay and Perkin,® starting with optically active ethyl A’-tetrahydro-p-toluate CH,.CH CH). cH ; Se .C00C,H, CH,. CH; 2° ' Wuyts and Cosyns, Bull. Soc. Chim., 1903 [8], 29, 689; Taboury, Buil. Soe, Chim., 1904 [3], 31, 1183. 2 Ber., 1903, 36, 1625. 3 Tbid., 1904, 37, 2892. * Compt. rend., 1900, 180, 1322. Compare W. H. Perkin, jun., and Pickles, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, 671. 5 Klages, Ber., 1902, 35, 2633. ® Grignard, Compt. rend., 1900, 180, 1324. 7 Fellenberg, Ber., 1904, 37, 3678. 8 Trans. Chem. Soe., 1906, 89, 839. Compare also ibid., 1905, 87, 1100. 280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. obtain, by the action of magnesium methyl iodide, optically active A?-p-menthenoal (8) CH,.CH CH, .CHY Se. ’H,), oR ine ye C(OH)(CH,), g° 2 When the latter compound, however, is simply left in contact with an ethereal solution of magnesium methyl iodide at the ordinary tempera- ture, it is converted into the corresponding optically active unsaturated hydrocarbon, A*-*°-y-menthadiene CI In many cases only unsaturated hydrocarbons can be obtained and not the corresponding tertiary alcohols, if it so happens that the latter are very unstable. Klages, in particular, prepared a large number of unsaturated 1’-alkylated styrenes, of which an example has already been quoted, namely, metho-(1’)-vinylbenzene. When this hydrocarbon is reduced it is converted into zsopropyl benzene, C;H,.CH(CH;),, with great ease. This method in the hands of Klages has proved highly useful for making a large number of saturated benzenoid hydrocarbons, which are difficult to prepare by other methods. Various stilbene derivatives have been studied by F. and L. Sachs,! thus : p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde, (CH;),N.C,H,.CHO, with mag- nesium benzyl chloride gives the alcohol (CH,).N . C,H, . CH(O1) . CH,C,H, and this, on distillation under diminished pressure, forms 4-dimethyl- aminostilbene, (CH;),N .C,;H,.CH : CHC,H;. The same authors? acted on p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde with mag- nesium methyl iodide and obtained methyl p-dimethylaminopheny]l- earbinol, (CH;),N.C,;H,.CH(OH).CH:;, from which, however, water was not eliminated in the manner expected. Klages’ method of heating the reaction product with an excess of magnesium alkyl halide at 100° did not lead to the formation of dimethylaminostyrene, as was anticipated, but N-dimethylcumidine was formed thus :— (CH,),N . C,H, . CH(OMgBr) . CH, + CH,MgBr = (CH,),N . C,H, . CH(CH,), + MgO + MgBr, The formation of hydrocarbons of the acetylene series by aid of the Grignard action has been imperfectly studied. According to Oddo ® mag- nesium bromoacetylene, CH : CMgBr, is produced when a current of dry acetylene is passed into magnesium phenyl bromide, and from this derivatives of the acetylene series are obtained. (b) Saturated hydrocarbons.—Magnesium organic compounds are vigorously acted on by water with the production of hydrocarbons. This was one of the first observations which Grignard made with his reagents.* 1 Ber., 1905, 38, 511. 2 Thid., 1905, 38, 517. Compare Sachs and Michaelis, ibid., 1906, 39, 2163. % Atti R. Accad. Lincei, 1904 [5], 18, 187. * Ann. Chim, Phys,, 1901, 24, 438; Tissier and Grignard, Compt. rend., 1901, 132, 835. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. 281 Methane, for example, is evolved by the addition of water to magnesium methyl iodide ; CH,Mgl + H,0 = CH, + MgIOH An alcohol has the same effect as water; for example :— CH,Mgl + C,H,OH = CH, + 00,4, . MgI Indeed, any compound containing a hydroxyl group behaves in this manner, this property of hydroxylic compounds having been recom- mended both as a means for their qualitative detection and for sepa- rating them from compounds which do not interact with the Grignard reagent.! A method for the estimation of hydroxyl groups in carbon compounds is based by Hibbert and Sudborough ? on this reaction, where, however, amyl ether is substituted for ethyl ether in the preparation of the reagent. Zerewitinoff* claims the method to be suitable for esti- mating the number of hydroxyl groups in a carbon compound. Allelotropic compounds generally act on the Grignard reagent in accordance with the hydroxylic structure, thus /-menthylacetoacetate reacts in accordance with the formula CH,.C(OH): CH.COOC,,H,, and not as CH,.CO.CH,. COOC,)H)j5.4 A regular current of methane is evolved by the addition of dry powdered ammonium chloride to magnesium methyl iodide :— ° 2CH,Mgl + NH,Cl = 2CH, + NH, . MgI + MgICl When a current of dry ammonia is passed into an ethereal solution of magnesium ethyl iodide, ethane is evolved ;-— C,H,Mgl + NH, = C,H,+NH,. MgI Primary or secondary amines exhibit a similar behaviour ; thus with aniline and methyl aniline :— C,H,MgI + C,H, . NH, =C,H,+C,H,.NH. Mgl C,H,Mgl + C,H, .NHCH, = C,H, + C,H,N(CH,) . Mgl ° The action of a primary amine is possibly, however, more complex than this representation of Meunier, since Houben’ concludes that the action 2CH,Mel + C,H,NH, = C,H,NH . MgI,CH,Mgl + CH, takes place in the cold if the proportions of magnesium methyl iodide and aniline, indicated by the equation given, are used. If, however, a second molecular proportion of aniline is added to the hot solution, methane jis again evolved, thus :—’ C,H, . NH. MgI,CH,MgI + C,H,NH,=2C,H, .NHMgI +CH, A method for making aromatic hydrocarbons has been devised by Werner and Zilkens,* who use methyl] sulphate ; thus p-xylene in a 75 per cent. yield is obtained from magnesium p-tolyl bromide :— CH, .C,H,. MgBr + (CH,),SO, = C,H,(CH,), + CH, .SO,. MgBr 1 I'schugaeff, Ber., 1902, 35, 3912. 2 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 933. 3 Ber., 1907, 40, 2023. 4 McKenzie, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1906, &9, 380. 5 Houben, Ber., 1905, 38, 3017. 6 Meunier, Compt. rend., 1903, 186, 758; Bull. Soc. Chim., 1903, 29, 314. 7 Houben, Ber., 1905, 38, 3017. Compare Sudborough and Hibbert, Proc. Chem, Soc., 1904, 20, 165. ® Ber., 1908, 36, 2116, 3618, Compare Houben, idid., 3083, 282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Toluene is obtained from magnesium phenyl bromide in a similar manner. In order to throw some light on the constitution of triphenylmethy], Gomberg and Cone! prepared tetraphenylmethane by the interaction of magnesium phenyl bromide and triphenylchloromethane :— C,H,;MgBr + (C,H,),CCl = (C,H,),C + Mg C1Br The method renders possible the introduction of various radicals in place of the methane hydrogen atom in triphenylmethane ; for example, the asymmetrical tetraphenylethane is readily formed by aid of mag- nesium benzyl chloride :— C,H, . CH, . MgCl + (C,H,),CCl = (C,H,),C . CH,C,H, + MgCl, Triphenylchloromethane forms two isomeric magnesium compounds ; the a-form possibly has the formula —— H a ee Etsy er and the /3-form (C,H,),C . MgCl each one of which appears to interact with triphenylchloromethane to give triphenylmethy]. The bearing of these isomeric compounds on the constitution of triphenylmethyl is at present under discussion.” Acids. (a) Carboxylic acids.—Grignard * was the first to study the action of carbon dioxide on magnesium alkyl halides ; he found, for example, that when a current of carbon dioxide is passed through an ethereal solution of magnesium methyl iodide, and the product then decomposed by dilute acid, acetic acid is formed :— CH,Mel + CO,=CH,. COOMgI CH, . COOMgI + H,O = CH,. COOH + MgIOH This action has been extensively applied amongst others by Zelinsky,‘ Bodroux,” and especially by Houben. It has already been pointed out, however, that, under certain conditions, a carboxylic acid may result from this action either in yery small yield or not at ail (see Section on tertiary alcohols). The method, however, in most cases is very successful. Houben gives it as a general one for making aromatic and hydroaromatic carboxylic acids ; terephthalic acid, for example, is readily obtained from p-dibromobenzene. The yields are often exceedingly good ; for example, Schmidlin® obtains an 83 per cent. yield of triphenylacetic acid from triphenylchloromethane. The action of the Grignard reagent on ethyl chlorocarbonate proceeds in two phases,’ e.g. :— (1) C,H;MgBr + Cl. COOC,H, = C,H,. COOC,H, + MgClBr (2) C,H,.COOC,H, — (C,H,),C.OH 1 Ber., 1906, 39, 1461, 2957. 2 Schmidlin, ibid., 1907, 40, 2316. of % Annales de VUniversité de Tyon, 1901, 6,1; Ann. Chim. Phys. 1901 [vii], , 435. * Ber., 1902, 35, 2687, 2692, 4415; 1903, 36, 208. 5 Bull. Soc. Chim., 1904 [3], 31, 30. 6 Ber., 1906, 39, 628. ™ Houben, 7bid., 1903, 36, 3087. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. 285 Under suitable conditions, 7.2, by avoiding an excess of the Grignard reagent, ethyl benzoate is formed ; so that we have here another method of converting bromobenzene into benzoic acid, in addition to the one which involves the use of carbon dioxide. The following method has been applied for obtaining hydroxy-acids. The action of the Grignard reagent on the ester of a ketonic acid may be so regulated that the carbony! group is attacked, whereas the —COOR group either survives the attack or is very slightly acted on ; thus menthyl benzoylformate, C,H;.CO.COOC,,)Hj5, was converted by McKenzie! into benzilic acid, (C,H,),C(OH).CO,H, by means of magnesium phenyl bromide. The ate synthesis of atrolactinic acid Hsy ve OH ee oes may be accomplished either from benzoylformic acid, C;H,.CO,COOH, or from pyruvic acid, CH; . CO. COOH, by aid of the same reaction. ? Another example of a compound presenting two points of attack is afforded by ethyl cyanoacetate. Here the —COOR group may survive the attack of the Grignard reagent, and by taking advantage of this Blaise was able to obtain esters of J-ketonic acids :— ZN Mal CO000,H,.CH,CN+C,H,MgI -» COOC,H,.CH,. 0€ C,H, + CQOC,H,.CH,.CO. C,H,‘ (b) Sulphur acids.—Sulphinie acids are formed by the action of sulphur dioxide,” e.g., benzenesulphinic acid is obtained from magnesium phenyl] bromide :— C,H,MgBr+S80,=C,H,.SO,MgBr C,H, . SO,MgBr + H,0 = C,H, . SO,H + MgBrOH Another method of obtaining sulphinic acids is described by Oddo,® who uses sulphuryl chloride. Benzenesulphinic acid is produced according to the scheme :— (1) ‘SO,Cl, + C,H,MgBr = C,H, . SO,Cl+ MgClBr (2) C,H, . 80,Cl + 0,H,MgBr = C,H, . SO,MgBr + C,H,Cl (3) O,H,.SO,MgBr -» C,H,.S0,H Weigert ‘ shows that thiolic acids are obtained from carbonyl] sulphide, which, e.g., with magnesium ethyl bromide, gives thiolpropionic acid : COS + C,H,MgBr = CS(C,H,).OMgBr > C,H,COSH Carbithionic acids are described by Houben and his pupils,S who substitute carbon disulphide for carbon dioxide, thus : CH,MgI+CS, —> Sei CESMgr > CH;. Sea ' Trans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 1261. 2 McKenzie, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 1259; 1906, 89, 365; McKenzie and Wren, ibid., 1906, 89, 688. 3 Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 38, 478, 978. * Compare Blaise’s method for the preparation of ketones (see later). 5 Rosenheim and Singer, Ber., 1904, 37, 2152. ® Atti R. Accad, Lincei, 1905 [v], 14, I. 169. 7 8 Ber., 1903, 36, 1007. Ibid., 1902, 35, 3696 ; 1906, 39, 3219; 1907, 40, 1303, 1725. 284. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Those interesting acids are yellow, red, or violet oils, rather unstable, strong acids, which are readily oxidised to the disulphides, R.CS.S.8.CS.R. Ketones. Nitriles were converted into ketones by Blaise,’ who obtains, e.g., an 80 per cent. yield of phenylethyl ketone from magnesium ethyl iodide and benzonitrile :— ols C,H, MgI + 0,H,ON = C,H, . C : NN . MgI As C,H, CH, CK Pai: ee »e : NH + MgIOH Nw. MgI CH, va C : NH+H,O=NH,+(,H,. CO. C,H, CHAZ The method, however, is not always so successful as in this particular case. Very varying yields were also obtained by Béis,? who investigated the action on acid amides, which were heated for several hours with an excess of the reagent. The action is represented as follows :— R . CONH, + 2Mgh’/X=R . C(OMgX)(NHMgX)R’ + R/H R . CCOMgX)(NHMgX)R’ + 2H,0 = R . C(OH)(NH,)R’ + MgX, + Mg(OB), R. C(OH)\(NH,)R'=R. CO. R’+ NH, I have been able to find in the literature very few cases where ketones have been obtained from acid chlorides ; the latter, of course, readily yield tertiary alcohols. It is difficult to arrest the action in the first phase, R‘COCI]+ RMgX=R’ . CO. R+MgXCl. Acree * obtains phenyl a-naphthyl ketone from benzoyl chloride and magnesium a-naphthyl bromide, but the yield is not stated. Gomberg and Cone ‘ obtain benzo- phenone in small yieid from benzoylchloride and magnesium phenyl bromide. Benzophenone may be obtained together with benzoic and triphenyl- carbinol by the action of carbon dioxide on magnesium phenyl bromide,° thus :— C.H,MgBr -> C,H, . COOMgBr > (C,H,).C(OMgBr), > (C,H,),CO But here, again, it has not been found possible to arrest the reaction so as to give a satisfactory yield of ketone. The method has also been applied by Bodroux® for obtaining dibromo- and dichloro-derivatives of benzophenone, but it cannot be quoted as a general method. Kohler’ finds on studying the action of unsaturated ketones that if a methyl group is attached to the carbonyl group of the ketone the reaction proceeds in the same manner as with a saturated ketone shat, ' Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 38; 188, 299, &e. Compare also Béhal, Bull. Soc. Chim., 1904 [3], 81, 461. 2 Compt. rend., 1902, 187, 575. 3 Ber., 1904, 87, 625. 4 Thid., 1906, 39, 2957. ° Schroeter, ibid., 1903, 86, 3005 ; 1907, 40, 1584. * Compt. rend., 1903, 137, 710. * Amer. Chem. Jowrn., 1904, 81, 642; 1905, 38, 21, 35, 153, kc.; Ber., 1905, 38, 1203. Compare Bauer and Breit, ibid., 1906, 39, 1916. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD S REACTION. 285 however, a phenyl group is attached to the carbonyl group, a ketone is produced. Thus cinnamylidene acetophenone C,H, .CH : CH. CH: CH.CO.C,H; does not form, with magnesium phenyl bromide, the tertiary alcohol C,H, . CH : CH . CH : CH . C(OH)(C,H;)., but gives /3-phenyl /3-styry] propiophenone, C,H, . CH : CH . CH(C,H;) . CH, . CO . C,H;. Bauer ! obtains dialkylphthalides from phthalic anhydride ; thus with magnesium methyl-iodide co C(CH,) C(CH,), Téa 1H % Hd eS C,H, aoa Sree) “co > CH co pe a-Methy] phthalide CH(CH, ouZ ( 0 ~ CO is obtained from phthaldehydic acid.” Aldehydes. Aldehydes are obtained, according to Bouveafilt,? from disubstituted formamides :— Ht. CONRR’ +R’ MgX = HCR(OMgX) . NRR’ HCR'(OMeX) . NRR’+H,O=R”. CHO +NHRR’+ MgXOH Benzaldehyde, for example, was formed from ethyl formanilide and magnesium phenyl bromide. Bodroux‘ prepared a number of aldehydes in satisfactory yields from ethyl orthoformate ; benzaldehyde, for example, was obtained in a 90 per cent. yield :— CH(OC,H,), + C,H,;MgBr = MgBr(0C,H,) + C,H, . CH(OC,H,), C,H; . CH(OC,H;), + H,O + HCl=20,H,OH + HCl+ C,H, . CHO After Grignard had shown that secondary alcohols are formed from magnesium organic compounds (2 mols.) and formic esters (1 mol.), Gattermann and Maffezzoli® obtained aldehydes from magnesium organic compounds (1 mol.) and formic esters (3 mols.) ; secondary alcohols are formed at the same time, and the yields of aldehydes are not particularly good. The formation of o-toluyl aldehyde from o-bromotoluene is represented as follows :— CH, . C,H, . MgBr + H . COOC,H, = BrMg . 00,H, + CH, . C,H, . CHO Gattermann ® shows that ethoxymethyleneaniline may be used in place of ethyl formate ; anils are then formed from which aldehydes are obtained by the action of mineral acids, thus :— C,H, .N : CH . 0C,H,+RMgBr=0,H, . N : CHR+0,0,0MgBr C,H, .N : CHR+H,O=R . CHO+(,H, . NH, 1 Ber., 1904, 87, 735 ; 1905, 38, 240. 2 Simonis, Marben and Mermod, idid., 1905, 38, 3981. 3 Compt. rend., 1903, 187, 987. 4 Thid., 1904, 188, 92,700. Compare Tschitschibabin, Ber., 190t, 37, 186, 850. 5 Ber., 1903, 36,4152. Compare Marbenfabriken vorm. F. Bayer and Co., D R.-P., 1904, 157573. ® Annalen, 1906, 847, 347. Compare Monier-Williams, 7rans, 1906, 89, 273. 286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Sachs and Loevy! find that additive compounds are formed from isonitriles, for which Nef’s formulation, R.N:C©, is taken. These additive compounds when treated with mineral acids probably give first aldehydeimide deriva- tives R.N:CH. Aryl, and then aldehydes, 0: CH. Aryl. The method, however, is not a very practical one. Ethers. Klages * has prepared a number of phenol ethers from aldehydes ; for example, o-propenyl phenetole, C,H, .O.C,H,.CH : CH. CH;, from ethyl salicylaldehyde and magnesium ethyl iodide. According to Hamonet,? halogen-substituted methyl ethers interact with magnesium organic compounds, thus: RMgX+XCH,OR=MgX, +R.CH,OR. Esters. According to Grignard,‘ monoethyl ethylacetoacetate interacts with magnesium methyl iodide, partly in accordance with its ketonic structure, CH; . CO. CH(C,H,;) . COOC,H,, to give the ester (CH,),C(OH) . CH(C,H,) . COOC,H, Ethy! chlorocarbonate can be converted into ethyl benzoate by means of magnesium phenyl bromide when care is taken to avoid an excess of the latter by dropping it into an excess of the chlorocarbonate,’ thus :— C,H,MgBr + Cl . CO,C,H, = C,H, . COOC,H, + MgC1Br The reaction appears to be a general one. Ethyl] benzoate may also be prepared from magnesium phenyl bromide by a method described by Tschitschibabin,® who uses normal carbonic esters :— RMgX + CO(OC,H,), = RC(OMgX)(OC,H,), RC(OMgX)(00,H,), + H,O =R . COO?“H, + C,H,OH + MgXOH If the reaction between magnesium organic compounds and ortho- carbonic esters is moderated and not too prolonged it proceeds thus :— C(00,H,), + RMgX =R.. C(OC,H,), + MgX(0C,H,) Houben’ describes a method for the preparation of esters from alcohols or phenols. The alcohol or phenol is converted by means of magnesium alkyl chloride into its magnesium chloro-compound, which is then caused to interact with an acid chloride or anhydride, e.g., with benzyl alcohol :— C,H, . CH,OH + 0,H,MgCl = C,H,CH,OMgCl + C,H, C,H,;CH,OMgCl + (CH,CO),0 = ©,H,CH,OCOCH, + CH, . COOMgCl The preparation of the acetates of terpineol, linalool, thymol, and cis-terpin » Ber., 1904, 37, 874. 2 Thid., 1904, 37, 3987. 5 Compt. rend., 1904, 188, 813, 975; 1904, 189, 59. 4 Thid., 1902, 134, 849. * Houben, Ber., 1903, 36, 3087. 6 LTbid., 1905, 38, 561, ™ DR -P., 1905, 162863 ; Ber., 1906, 39, 1736, ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION, 287 is described. The method gives excellent yields, and appears to be particularly suitable for the preparation of esters from unstable tertiary alcohols. Nitrogen Compounds. Tn continuation of his work on the formation of ketones from nitriles, Blaise! describes the preparation of anilides from phenyl isocyanate, thus :— C,H, .N:C:0+BMgI=C,H,.N:Cé pou => 0,H,.N:C -> O,H,NH . COR Nr Another method of obtaining anilides is given by Bodroux,’ who uses the magnesium organic compounds of primary aromatic amines. This type, RNHM¢gI, is obtained either by adding the amine to a cold ethereal solution of magnesium methyl iodide, or by the action of equimolecular amounts of methyl iodide and amine on magnesium in the presence of ether. When an ester of a monobasic acid is then added, and the product decomposed as usual by dilute acid, an almost theoretical yield of anilide -is obtained :— 2RNHMg1 +B! . COOR!'=MgIOR’ +R’. C(NHR), . OMgI R’. C(NHR), . OMgl+HC1=R. NA, + MgICl+ BV .CO.NHR The action of magnesium organic compounds on mustard oils is analogous to the action on isocyanates. Sachs and Loevy * obtained a number of thioanilides according to the scheme RN i628 -R/Mel=R.Ns CCB!) S: Mel R.N:C(R’).S. Mgl+HCl=R. NH. CSR’+ MgCll Nitrosohydroxylamines are formed by the action of nitric oxide on the Grignard reagent, nitrosophenylhydroxylamine being formed, for example, in good yield from magnesium phenyl bromide :— * OMgBr NO O:N.N:0>0:N.NC — O:N.NC \o,Hs No,H, Since carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide form carboxylic and sulphinic acids respectively with a Grignard reagent, Wieland ° tried the action of nitrogen peroxide in the expectation of obtaining acids of the type R.NOOH. Instead of this type, however, he obtained, in the aliphatic series, /3/3-dialkylated hydroxylamines, R,N . OH, the nitrogen peroxide undergoing reduction. The preparation of 33-diethylhydroxylamine is described. Negative results were obtained in the aromatic series.” The action of magnesium phenyl bromide on /:-phenylhydroxylamine has been investigated by Busch and Hobein,’ who obtain a 20 per cent. 1 Compt. rend., 1901, 132, 38, 478, 978. 2 Thid., 1904, 138, 1427. 3 Ber., 1903, 36,585; 1904, 37, 874. * Sand and Singer, ibid., 1902, 35, 3186; Annalen, 1903, 323, 190. 5 Ber., 1903, 36, 2315. ® Wieland and Gambarjan, idid., 1906, 39, 1499. ? Thid., 1907, 40, 2099, 288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. yield of triphenylhydrazine. Possibly azobenzene is formed as an intei’. mediate product, and then interacts thus :— C,H, C,H, C,H, N:N. Css Gat Mebee pan NC CH \MgBr An alternative explanation is suggested as more probable. Phenyl- hydroxylamine is partially converted into diphenylamine, which then condenses with phenylhydroxylamine : (C,H,),NH + OH . NHC,H, =(C,H,).N / NHC,H, + H,0 It might be noted here that magnesium organic compounds sometimes exhibit a reducing action, Franzen and Deibel,! for example, show that hydrazobenzene may ‘e obtained in good yield from azobenzene and mag- nesium ethyl bromide. C,H; .N Jods C,H; .N . MgBr | + aMeX. s +C,4,, 6H; .N Br C,H, .N . MgBr C,H, .N .MgBr C,H, .NH | +2H,0= x + 2MgBr(OH) C,H, .N.MgBr C,H, . NH The action of the Grignard reagent on nitro-compounds has not been very thoroughly investigated. Moureu? obtained diethylhydroxylamine by the action of magnesium ethyl iodide on nitroethane and amylnitrite respectively. One of the products resulting from the action of magne- sium ethyl iodide on nitrobenzene is ethyl aniline.* A method of obtaining secondary amines from alkylidene bases is de- scribed by Busch ;‘ thus C-methyl benzylaniline is obtained from magne- sium methyl iodide and benzylidene aniline : C,H;.N: CH, C,a,+ MgCH,1=C,H, . N——CH . C,H, as MglI CH, C,H, . N——CH . C,H, + H,0 =0,H,NH . CH(CH,) . C,H, + MglOH | MgI CH, The action on oximes has been studied by Buscli and Hobein,’ and takes place in accordance with the scheme R R oH R.CH:N.OH+2R/MgX= SCH.NC 4+Me% RY \Mex NX R RY R oH Seu NC. 48,0= SCH. NHR’ + Mef Rv \ Mex RY he According to F. and L. Sachs,° tertiary amines combine with mag- nesium organic compounds to form compounds which are insoluble in 1 Ber., 1905, 38, 2716. 2 Compt. rend., 1901, 132, 837. * Oddo, Atti R. Accad. Lineei, 1904 [v], 13, II. 220. * Ber., 1904, 87, 2691. Compare Busch and Rinck, idid., 1905, 38, 1761., 5 Tbid., 1907, 40, 2096. ; = Ibid., 1904, 87, 3088. Compare Oddo, Atti R, Accad. Lincei, 1904 [v], 18, . 100. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION, 989 ether ; the compound of quinoline and magnesium phenyl bromide is represented as C,H,N . (MgBr)C,H,. j Forster and Judd,' in studying the action of magnesium methy] iodide on a-cyanocamphor, found that about 80 per cent. of the latter compound escaped attack by the reagent, whilst the remainder was converted into the imine CH. C(CH,) : NH EV gti | Nco which on hydrolysis gave acetylcamphor, When normal ethyl carbonate is added to the magnesium compound of a primary aromatic amine, one obtains a monosubstituted urethane,” thus ;— 2C,H,NHMel + C0(00,H,), =(C,H, . NH),C(0C,H,) . OMgI + MgI(0C,H,) (C,H, . NH),C(OC,H,) . OMgI + H,O = C,H,NH, +C,H,NH . COOC,H, The application of the Grignard reagent for the preparation of diazoamino-compounds has been the subject of a series of papers by Dimroth.2 These compounds are obtained from diazobenzeneimide according to the scheme N C,H: Nn | + RMgX = 0,0,.N (MeX).N: NR N C,H, .N(MgX).N: NR + H,O = C,H,.NH.N:NR + MgXOH The method is particularly useful for the preparation of aliphatic or mixed aliphatic-aromatic diazoamino-compounds, for the preparation of which the older method of Griess is not available. Thus phenylmethyl- triazene, CH,.N,H. C,H, benzylmethyltriazene, CH, . N,;H.CH,C,H,, &e., have been prepared. Diazoaminomethane, CH;.N:N.NH.CHsz, was prepared from methyilazide, CH, NZ || , and magnesium methyl prep y Ne 8 y iodide, according to the scheme given above. The isolation of this in- teresting compound was accompanied with great difficulties, due, on the one hand, to its instability, and, on the other, to the ease with which it dissolves in all solvents tried. Alkyl and Aryl Metallic Compounds. Pfeiffer and Schnurmann‘ describe a method of preparing alkyl and aryl metallic compounds by interaction of metallic halides and the Grignard reagent either at the ordinary temperature or at 100°. Tin tetraethy], for example, is prepared from tin tetrabromide and magnesium ethyl bromide ;— SnBr, + 40,H,MgBr = Sn(C,H,), + 4MgBr, Other tin compounds, such as tin tetraphenyl, tin tribenzyl chloride, tin trimethyl iodide, &c., are also obtained by this method, which has also ! Trans. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, 368, * Bodroux, Compt. rend., 1905, 140, 1108. 8 Ber., 1903, 36, 909; 1905, 38, 670; 1906, 89, 3905, : 4 Thid., 1904, 87, 319, 1125, 4617, 4618, &c. 1907. u 290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. been applied for making lead compounds ; for example, lead tetraphenyl is obtained from lead chloride : 2PbCl, + 40,H,MgBr = Pb + Pb(C,H,), + 4MgC1Br The method has been very extensively applied, more particularly by Pfeiffer, for the preparation of derivatives of other elements such as mercury, thallium, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and platinum. Kipping! has made a special study of silicon compounds, and by aid of the Grignard reaction has prepared d/-sulphobenzylethylpropyl silicyl oxide 20°5 C,H, ©.H | | SO,H.C,H,.CH,.Si—O—Si. CH,.C,H,.SO,H | | C,H, ©,H, and obtained evidence of the resolution of this compound into optically active components. Incidental to this work a number of silicon compounds are described, such as phenylethylsilicon dichloride, C,H,(C;H,)SiClL,, phenylethylpropylsilicy] chloride, C,H,(C,;H,)(C,H;)SiCl, phenylbenzyl- ethylpropylsilicane, C,H;(C,H;)(C,;H;)(C,;H,)Si, — benzylethylsilicon di - chloride, C,H,;(C;H,)SiCl,, benzylethylpropylsilicyl — chloride, C,H,(C,H,)(C3H,)SiCl, &e. Secrion II, Preparation of the Grignard Reagent. It is of paramount importance that the materials used in the prepara- tion of the Grignard reagent should be as dry as possible. The following description of the preparation of magnesium methyl iodide is given by Grignard. The magnesium (24 grams, 1 atom) is placed in a round- bottomed flask to which are attached a dropping-funnel and a reflux condenser. Methyl iodide (1 mol.) is mixed with an equal volume of anhydrous ether and 25-30 c.c. of the mixture added to the magnesium. After a few minutes a vigorous action takes place, and at this stage 200-250 ¢.c. of anhydrous ether are added ; the rest of the mixture of methyl! iodide and ether is then gradually added by means of the dropping- funnel. Finally the mixture is warmed if necessary—that is, if the magnesium has not already been all dissolved. Under these conditions one obtains an almost colourless liquid, and there. is practically no sedi- ment. In preparing magnesium methyl iodide in much smaller quantity than indicated by Grignard in the preceding description, the magnesium may be placed in a round-bottomed flask, connected with a condenser, which is provided with a tube, containing calcium chloride and soda lime. The mixture of methyl iodide and about four times its volume of ether is then added in one lot to the magnesium. The action is moderated, if neces- ary, by immersing the flask in ice-cold water. The following points regarding the preparation of the reagent may be noted :— (1) Magnestum.—Powder, ribbon, or filings are employed by various 1 Trans, Chem. Soc., 1907, 91, 209, 717. * Revue générale des Sciences pures et appliquées, 1903, 14, 1041. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION, 291 investigators. The filings provided by the Aluminium- and Magnesium- Fabrik, Hemelingen, bei Bremen, are very suitable ; according to Klages they contain 99-7—99'8 per cent. of magnesium. Evidence is not wanting to show that impurities in the magnesium sometimes affect the reaction. Beckmann ! shows that calcium may be substituted in certain cases for magnesium, but the method does not appear to present any advantages over the usual one. (2) Ether.—The ether should be thoroughly dried by the following method, for example. Wash with water, dry with calcium chloride, filter, add sodium wire, distil over sodium wire and then over phosphorus pentoxide.? Ullmann and Miinzhuber ® prepare their anhydrous ether by shaking 300 c.c. of ordinary ether (sp. gr. 0°722) with a mixture of 25 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 25 c.c. of water and then allowing the product to remain for one to two hours over a little sodium wire. The presence of the merest trace of water is shown up, in the carrying out of a Grignard action, by the slight turbidity which appears when the action starts, and which thereafter disappears. That the method of drying the ether may have an important influence on the progress of the action is indicated by the experience of Ahrens and Stapler.‘ In their first communication on the use of dihalogenides those authors showed that ethylene dibromide readily interacts with magnesium and ether to form the compound MgBr. CH,.CH,Br,(C,H;),0. Since, however, on repetition of this experiment with the same samples of mag- nesium and ethylene dibromide the chief product was magnesium bromide, . it was obvious that the action depended on the state of the ether. Experi- ments showed how varying the results were, according to the manner in which the ether was dried. It should also be remembered that the ether may contain negative catalysers, which may either retard the action or prevent it. Bischoff? points out, for example, that magnesium is not dissolved by a mixture of ethylene dibromide and ether in the presence of a little acetone or aceto- phenone when the mixture is allowed to remain for a night at the ordi- nary temperature or when it is boiled. This action of a negative catalyser very likely accounts for the fact that occasionally one investigator finds the preparation of some particular Grignard reagent to proceed with ease, whilst another encounters difficulties. (3) Halogen compound.—This ought also to be as free from moisture as possible. It does no harm to distil before use. The ease with which the Grignard reagent is made depends on the par- ticular halide used. Sometimes the action begins of its own accord with readiness, as in the case of magnesium methyl iodide. Sometimes the mixture requires to be heated, but when once started the action proceeds to a completion after the source of heat has been withdrawn. In other cases the mixture must be continuously heated. Occasionally a catalyser is necessary to start the action vigorously. It frequently happens that, in addition to the formation of the Grignard reagent, a secondary reaction takes place,® namely, the formation of saturated hydrocarbons by the action of magnesium on the halide, ' Ber , 1905, 38, 904. * Compare Perkin and Pickles, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, 647. 8 Ber., 1903, 36, 406. ‘ Thid., 1905, 38, 1296, 3259. 5 Tbid., 1905, 38, 2078. ® Tissier and Grignard, Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 835; Tschelinzeff, J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc., 1904, 36, 549; Tiffeneau, Compt. vend., 1904, 189, 481. u2 292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. for instance, 2C,;H,Br+Mg=MgBr,+C,H,.C,H;. Diphenyl is always formed in this manner in the preparation of magnesium phenyl bromide. With alkyl halides with low molecular weight this secondary reaction is not pronounced, but with halides of higher molecular weight it is difficult to work with calculated amounts owing to this reaction taking place to a marked extent. According to Grignard,! magnesium, allyl iodide, and ether give the compound C,;H;MglI,C3H,I, that is, all the metal is not attacked in the action. (4) Importance of completing solution of the magnesium.—It is not desirable to use a Grignard reagent containing an excess of the halide ; calculated amounts of magnesium and halide should be used and the solution of the magnesium completed so far as possible. It should be noted that action between magnesium alkyl halide and excess of alkyl halide can take place with formation of hydrocarbon, RMgBr +RBr=MgBr,.+R. R.? (5) Substitution of other solvents for ether.—It may be at once stated that ether is by far the most convenient solvent. Brihl* shows that bromocamphor, for example, when mixed with benzene or xylene dissolves magnesium at elevated temperatures. Anisole,* amyl ether,’ and toluene® have also been substituted for ethyl ether in certain reactions. ‘'schelinzeff? shows that, in the formation of Gri- gnard’s reagent, ether may be replaced by dimethylaniline. The reaction between dimethylaniline (2 mol.), ethyl iodide (1 mol.), and magnesium (1 atom) is assisted by the addition of a trace of iodine, but the mag- nesium does not dissolve so quickly as when ether is used. The method was used for the preparation of phenyl ethyl carbinol from benzaldehyde and of phenyl methyl ethyl carbinol from acetophenone. ‘That tertiary amines do actually combine with magnesium organic compounds was subsequently shown by F. and L. Sachs,* who obtained, for example, the compound C,H,N,C;,H;MgBr by the action of an ethereal solu- tion of magnesium phenyl bromide on quinoline. Tschelinzeff,? arguing that tertiary amines form compounds of the type RRRN. RX, has accordingly devised the following modification in the preparation of the Grignard reagent, where a tertiary amine acts as a catalyser. Inert solvents, like benzene, toluene, xylene, hexane, light petroleum, and various terpene hydrocarbons may be used in place of ether if a few drops of a tertiary amine are added. In the case of benzene the follow- ing procedure is adopted : The mixture of anhydrous benzene, halogen compound magnesium, and a drop or two of dimethylaniline is heated to boiling until the beginning of the reaction is indicated by the appearance of white flakes ; the reaction then proceeds without the application of external heat, and is finally completed by heating. The addition of a little iodine facilitates the starting of the action. In spite of the insolu- bility of the product, which separates as the type R. MgX, it is claimed that the action is much more energetic and often proceeds more quickly 1 Ann. Chim. Phys., 1901, 24, 450; Houben, Ber., 1903, 36, 2897. 2 Houben, Ber., 1903, 86, 3084. 3 Tbhid., 1903, 86, 668, 4272; 1904, 37, 746; Malmeren, idid., 1903, 86, 2608. 4 Malmeren,*idid., 1908, 86, 2619; Houben, idid., 1905, 38, 3019. 5 Hibbert and Sudborough, Z7ans. Chem. Suc., 1904, 85, 933. ® Bodroux, Compt. rend., 1904, 188, 700. 7 Ber., 1904, 37, 2081. 8 Thid., 1904, 37, 3088. 9 Tbid., 1904, 87, 4584; Chem. Zit., 1906, 30, 378. ON Tus APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. 293 than when ether is used. Further, in those cases where the reagent is formed with difficulty by the ordinary method, the higher temperature at which the Tschelinzeff reagent is formed would appear to be an advantage. The author of this report has tried the Tschelinzeff method, with little success, however. In spite of what is claimed for it, the method, so far at least, has a theoretical interest only : it does not appear to have been applied at all, except in the very few cases mentioned by Tschelinzefl himself. (6) Acceleration of the formation of the reagent.—Tissier and Gri- gnard! found that, whilst alkyl bromides or iodides in ethereal solution as a rule readily interact with magnesium, the action with aryl halides is accelerated by heating or by the addition of a trace of iodine. A drop of methyl iodide? serves the same purpose ; this may be used, for example, in the preparation of magnesium a-naphthyl bromide. Iodine and methyl iodide are the catalysers generally used. Monochlorides may not interact with magnesium and ether alone, but do so when a trace of iodine is added.’ Aluminium chloride and hydriodic acid‘ may also be used as catalysers. An interpretation for the use of iodine in the formation of magnesium organic compounds from chlorides is advanced by Wohl,’ namely, 2RCl+ Mel, = 2RI + MgCl, 2KI + 2Me = 2RMgI 2RMelT + 2RCl=2RMgOCl1 + 2RI In cases where interaction with the halide could not be effected by the usual methods, special devices have been employed. Thus, Ehrlich and Sachs © found that an ethereal solution of p-bromodimethylaniline is not acted on by magnesium even when the mixture is heated for several days in the presence of a little iodine. The interaction, however, was brought about as follows : The magnesium is covered with absolute ether and ethyl bromide added ; the action soon becomes vigorous, as usual, and is then moderated by cooling the flask in ice-cold water ; the super- natant liquid is poured off quickly from the magnesium and an ethereal solution of »-bromodimethylaniline is then added. By this treatment the magnesium had been rendered more active, and the magnesium compound desired was readily obtained by gentle warming. The fact, however, that the yield was far from quantitative, and that the product was necessarily mixed with a little magnesium ethyl bromide, occasioned y. Baeyer’ to try other methods to make the magnesium active. This result is attained when the magnesium is coated with a thin layer of its iodide. Magnesium filings were heated in a round-bottomed flask over a free flame with constant shaking and half the weight of iodine gradually added. The temperature must not be so high as to cause the mass to melt. With 10 grams of magnesium this operation requires from 15 to 30 minutes. The product obtained must be protected carefully from moisture. This ‘ activirtes’ magnesium was used by Baeyer himself for the preparation of the magnesium compounds of the iodoanilines and iododimethylanilines, and good results were also obtained by Gomberg and Cone* with diphenylbromomethane when other methods failed. 1 Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 1182. 2 Klages, Ber., 1904, 37, 1449, 3 Compare Hesse, ibid., 1906, 39, 1146. 4 Zelinsky, J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc., 1908, 35, 399. 5 Ber,, 1906, 39, 1952. 6 Tbid., 1903, 86, 4296, 7 Tbid., 1905, 38, 2759. 8 Thid., 1906, 39, 1467. 294, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Kay and Perkin! find that commercial magnesium powder sometimes does not interact with isopropyl iodide in ethereal solution. When, how- ever, the magnesium is left in contact with an ethereal solution of methyl iodide until the action is vigorous, then washed thoroughly with ether, and at once mixed with the ethereal solution of isopropyl iodide, the action proceeds satisfactorily. (7) Importance of preventing oxidation of the reagent.—It should be noted that Bouveault and Bodroux have found that the Grignard reagent is acted on by oxygen to form primary alcohols or phenols, so that not only should the reagent be protected from moisture and carbon dioxide, but it should not be left unnecessarily long in contact with air before being applied. Sometimes, indeed, it is necessary to prepare the reagent in an atmosphere of hydrogen.” Methods of applying the Grignard Reagent. As a general rule the compound to be acted on is dissolved in anhydroas ether and the solution either added to the Grignard reagent or vice versd. It is convenient to perform this operation by means of a siphon and to take precautions that moisture and carbon dioxide are excluded. As a rule, the action requires to be regulated, otherwise it may become too violent. When the addition is complete, sometimes the mixture is heated. Powdered ice is then gradually added, then mineral acid. The product of the action is generally in the ethereal solution. The following description, taken at random, is typical. It is the method used by Ullmannand Miinzhuber ® for the preparation of tripheny]- carbinol from methyl benzoate. A mixture of magnesium (7°2 grams), freshly distilled bromobenzene (57°2 grams, 25 mol.), anhydrous ether (60-70 grams), and a trace of iodine is placed in a large round-bottomed flask provided with a reflux condenser and then gently warmed. As soon as the brownish liquid is decolorised and is boiling rapidly it is cooled by immersing the flask in ice-cold water ; the action is regulated so that the boiling continues to be vigorous. After twenty minutes the bulk of the magnesium is dis- solved ; it is practically all gone after the boiling has been continued for half an hour longer. The flask containing the reagent is then placed in ice-cold water, and by means of a dropping-funnel a solution of 20 grams of methyl benzoate (freshly distilled) in an equal volume of anhydrous ether gradually added. The action is vigorous. After the addition of the ester the mixture is heated to boiling for about an hour, ice-cold water gradually added, and then dilute sulphuric acid. The ether is expelled from the ethereal solution and the product distilled in steam to remove unchanged bromobenzene and a small amount of diphenyl ; the triphenylcarbinol remains in the flask. Yield of crude product, 33 grams (87 per cent.) ; when crystallised from alcohol 28 grams of pure product are obtained. Of course this method of working cannot always be adopted. Water in some cases must not be added to the product of the action (compare Kipping’s work on silicon compounds). Again, in the action of carbon dioxide and other gases on the Grignard reagent special methods have to 1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, 1081. 2 Tschitschibabin, Ber., 1905, 38, 561; Tschelinzeff, ibid., 1906, 89, 773. * Tbid., 1903, 38, 406. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. 295 be used. Occasionally the temperature at which the reaction is con- ducted is maintained below 0°.! Sometimes ammonium chloride solution is used in place of mineral acid after the addition of ice ;* thus in the preparation of phenylmethyltriazene by the action of magnesium methyl iodide the action of acid must be avoided, otherwise the very labile diazoamino-compound undergoes decomposition. A perusal of the literature shows that it is often by no means immaterial whether the Grignard reagent is added to the compound to be acted on, or vice versd. This is especially true when one deals with a compound presenting several points of attack for the Grignard reagent This aspect does not appear to have been fully recognised by a consider- able number of investigators in this field. Further, the heating of the product obtained after mixing the Grignard reagent and substance acted on often has an important bearing on the result. Srcrion ITI. Theoretical. The formation of Grignard’s reagent was first represented + by an equation such as CH,1 + Mg=CH.MglI, and it is convenient to interpret the various reactions as being due to the type R.MgX. The fact, however, that the reaction takes place with such ease in the presence of absolute ether suggested to Grignard himself ® and to Blaise ® that the ether is not simply a solvent in the ordinary sense, but is one of the necessary materials for the action. If the reaction product obtained from magnesium, ethyl iodide, and ether is heated under diminished pressure in a current of hydrogen, the residue contains the compound C,H;MglI,(C,H;),0, in which the ether is so firmly bound that it is only partially eliminated when the compound is heated under diminished pressure at 100°-125°. The compound C,H;MgBr,(C-H,),O exhibits a similar stability towards heat. Whereas Grignard and Blaise at the time regarded the ether in these compounds as playing the réle of ether of crystallisation, Baeyer and Villiger 7 formulate the compounds in question on the basis of the quadri- valency of oxygen, thus : CH | Mer OH \x where R represents the alkyl or aryl group, and X the halogen atom, The existence of oxonium compounds, such as CH | SnCl, Cue ol and OH 7 ot o)s (Gomberg) CH \O(CH,)s ' Kohler and Heritage, « AE Chem. J., 1905, 88, 21. nt * Tilden and Stokes, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, 837. * Dimroth, Ber., 1903, 36, 909; 1905, 88, 670. Compare also Klages, idid., 1905, 38, 2219. ‘ Grignard, Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 558. 5 Theses sur les combinaisons organomagnésiennes miates et leurs applications a des syntheses (Lyon, 1901). & Compt. rend., 1901, 182, 839. 7 Ber., 1902, 35, 1201. 296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. is adduced in support of this view. Again, Ahrens and Stapler | formulate the compound obtained from ethylene dibromide thus :— C,H Br 2 So C,H; Mg . CH, . CH,Br The theoretical aspect of the Grignard reaction has been specially studied by Tschelinzeff. In an early paper ” he concludes that the ether in the preparation of the Grignard reagent in the usual manner plays the part of a catalyser. He found that interaction between magnesium and alkyl halides took place in benzene solution only when the mixture was heated strongly. In the presence of a little ether (or of anisole), however, the reaction took place at a much lower temperature, at which no action occurred when the ether (or anisole) was absent ; the action was very slow, requiring from one to two days for its completion. The white mass, which separated contained no ether, exhibited all the ordinary reactions of magnesium organic compounds, and was formed in considerable yield. The point is that this effect was produced by means of a small amount of ether. Reference has already been made in Section II. to Tschelinzeff’s use of tertiary amines as catalytic agents. In a subsequent communication,* Tschelinzeft describes thermochemical experiments, in which the heat evolved by the action of ether on the ether-free compounds obtained by this catalytic method was measured ; C,H, C,H, Meh 2 "Noe 2 Ge 5 + ‘ + T One. Ce eT RMglI The formula of Baeyer and Villiger is preferred to C,H MgX Sod (Grignard) C,H, NR or to the representation from Werner's standpoint GH, Osi MgR)X' O,4,7 ; Although ether is not readily eliminated from the complex it is possible to study the heat etfect produced by the change C,H, MgR (C,H,),0+RMgX= So OH \x since it is possible to prepare the ‘individual ’ magnesium compounds free from ether. Tschelinzeff concludes that in the preparation of the Grignard reagent by the ordinary method there are two distinct reactions : 1 Ber., 1905, 38, 3259. 2 Ibid., 1904, 87, 4534. 2 Thid., 1905, 38, 3664. * Annalen, 1902, 8322, 261. The theory of the Grignard reagent is also discussed by Abegg, Ber., 1905, 38, 4112. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF GRIGNARD’S REACTION. 297 (1) the formation of the magnesium alkyl (or aryl) halide, and (2) the transformation of this into an ether complex. Tschelinzeff! next points out that, after all, those ether complexes were characterised by Grignard and Blaise subsequently to heating the Grignard reagent under diminished pressure. It is not justifiable to assume, as is generally done, that those same complexes actually exist under the conditions which obtain when the Grignard reagent is made in the usual manner. Tschelinzeff, in his previous paper (oc, cit.), although actually showing that at least one ether complex is formed, does not prove that the formation of additional complexes is impossible. Now Zelinsky ” has obtained the compound Mgl,,2(C,H,;),0, and Tschelinzeff the com- pound MeI,,4(C,H;),0. The analogy is accordingly drawn between the formule (C,H,),0I, Mg. 1(C,H,),0 and BR. Mg. 1(C,H,),0 Now, since the magnesium iodide complex [(C,H;),0], . Mg . I[(C,H;),0], is known, the question naturally suggested itself as to the possibility of analogous ether complexes of the type R.. Mg.I{(C,H;),O],. The com- pounds C,H,MgI,2(C,H,),0 and C,H,,MgI,2(C,H,),0 were accordingly isolated. These results, based on analytical and thermochemical experiments, prove conclusively, according to Tschelinzeff, that in the preparation of magnesium organic compounds by Grignard’s method one obtains ether complexes with two molecules of ether, for which the formulation C,H, MgR Poe Ds On,” “I:0 Nou, is suggested.’ Tschelinzeff‘ also shows that the ‘individual’ magnesium organic compounds are also capable of forming complexes with tertiary amines, thus :— MgR RRRNC Nr These aminates are analogous to monoetherates, No complexes have yet been described analogous to dietherates. The question of the constitution of the oxonium compounds formed in the preparation of the Grignard reagent by the ordinary method, is still however under discussion, ‘Tschelinzeff® points out that if Baeyer’s formulation aes Mek R“ \x 1 Ber., 1906, 39, 773. 2 J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc., 1903, 35, 399. % Compare also Tschelinzeff, Ber., 1906, 39, 1674, 1682, 1686. + Ihid., 1907, 40, 1487, ® Compt. rend., 1907, 144, 90, 298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. is accepted, two isomerides are possible, namely, R MgR’ R MeR Nae Nae Br NS and gi7 ee whereas if Grignard’s formulation R | Mex R” NR is correct, no isomerism is possible. Tschelinzeff claims to have established the existence of isomerides. Grignard,! however, maintains that his for- mula permits of the conception of isomerides, and regards it as more plausible than Baeyer’s. Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.— Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HErpMAN (Chairman), Mr. J. Lomas (Secretary), Professor W. W. Warts, Professor P. F. KENDALL, Professor A. C. Szwarp, and Messrs. H. ©. Beastey, E. T. Newron, W. A. E. UssHer, and Dr. A, Sutra Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) [PLATES II. AND III.] THE increased interest now being taken in the Trias rocks, largely a result of the Committee’s work, has led to some very interesting dis- coveries during the past year. A rich assemblage of fossils has been described from the Lower Keuper of Bromsgrove by Mr. L. J. Wills, a new Dinosaurian reptile has been described by Dr. A. Smith Woodward from Lossiemouth, Elgin, and in the present report Dr. Smith Woodward contributes a paper on a mandible of Labyrinthodon leptognathus. The great find of footprints at Storeton in 1906 is likely to be repeated in 1907, for in the autumn the footprint bed will be again worked and a larger surface will be exposed. There is a considerable amount of material in hand which requires to be reported on by specialists, and if the Committee is reappointed it hopes to accomplish this work in time for next year’s Report. / Ona Mandible of Labyrinthodon leptognathus, Oven. By A. Smita Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S. Mr. 8. S. Stanley, F.G.S., has recently obtained from the Lower Keuper sandstone of Cubbington Heath, near Leamington, the greater part of a mandible of Labyrinthodon leptognathus, which he has generously presented to the British Museum. The specimen is interesting, not only on account of the rarity of such fossils in the English Keuper, but also as showing more clearly than heretofore the characters of the lower jaw * Bull, Sov, Chim., 1907 [iv], 1, 255. ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 299 in the species to which it belongs. It is, moreover, valuable as exhibiting the anterior limits of the angular and splenial bones. Various drawings of the fossil, of one-half the natural size, are given in the accompanying Plate IT. The articular end of the mandible is lack- ing on both sides, but the right ramus is complete so far back as the position of the internal vacuity (fig. 3, v.). Each ramus is more or less laterally compressed, being twice as deep as broad near the hinder end of the tooth-bearing portion (fig. 4), and gradually tapering towards the short symphysis, which is comparatively weak and depressed (figs. 1, 5). It is hollow at least as far forwards as the fractured end of the fossil on the left side. The dentary bone (fig. 2, d.) forms the greater part of the outer face of the mandibular ramus so far as preserved, but its precise extent in the symphysial region is uncertain. Its outer surface is smooth and slightly convex, while its oral border bears a single close series of slender conical teeth, which are nearly uniform in size for the greater part of its length, but diminish both at the hinder end and at the side of the symphysis where they flank the enlarged inner teeth. The angular bone (ag.) is shown on the outer face to taper rapidly in front beneath the hinder part of the dentary, where it is ornamented with a few coarse ridges, which radiate forwards from a point situated postero- inferiorly to the piece of fossil preserved. The long and narrow bone (id.) which forms the lower portion of the outer face of the mandibular ramus in front of the angular just described, may be appropriately named infradentary. Its outer face bulges rather more than the dentary, and is only faintly marked with stout reticulating ridges until it approaches the symphysis, where it seems to spread over the flattened lower face of the jaw and its ornamentation becomes con- spicuous. This lower face (fig. 5) exhibits the jagged median suture in which the two rami of the mandible are firmly united, but it does not clearly show any other sutural lines. The upper part of the inner face of the mandibular ramus is formed by a long and narrow smooth splenial element (fig. 3, sp/.), which terminates in front just before reaching the symphysis. During the greater part of its length it rises into a low parapet on the inner edge of the rather wide alveolar groove in which the teeth are fixed at the outer edge. Below the narrow splenial there are two deeper lamin of bone (x, y), separated by a very oblique suture, which is inclined downwards and forwards. These bones are quite smooth where they form the inner face of the jaw, but exhibit. an ornament of stout reticulating ridges where they bend into the lower face, and may be continuous respectively with the angular and infra- dentary elements already described. When viewed from above (fig. 1) and behind (fig. 6) the symphysis distinctly exhibits the jagged median suture, but its precise constitution is not clear. It is impressed behind by a pair of slit-like hollows (h.), which may have formed the insertion for the genio-hyoid muscles. Its flattened upper or oral face is excavated on each side by a large shallow oval pit (/.), with the long axis transverse, just internal to the row of marginal teeth. In the front part of each pit are implanted two relatively large conical teeth which would probably be shed alternately. A second pair of diminutive oval pits occurs just behind, containing in the fossil two and three small conical teeth respectively, Nearly all the teeth are partially obscured by the sandy matrix which has necessarily been left to strengthen such fragile pro- minences ; but they are seen to be nearly round in section, with a very 800 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. small pulp-cavity, and their typically labyrinthic structure is shown, hot only in cross-sections, but also in the longitudinal striation of their exterior. A comparison of this new fossil with the fragmentary portions of mandible from Coton End, Warwick, originally described by Owen! under the name of Labyrinthodon leptognathus, can leave no doubt as to its specific identity. Its correct generic name, however, still remains to be determined, for Labyrinthodon is an undefined term without exact meaning. I am inclined to believe that the specimen will eventually prove to belong to Capitosawrus, which has already been discovered in the English Keuper,” and seems to have been widely distributed in the Trias ; but the piece of rostrum associated by Owen with the mandibular fragments is insufficient for generic determination, and the undoubted mandible of Capitosawrus is still too imperfectly known for comparison.’ The precise name of the fossil, however, is of secondary importance. Its chief value consists in the manner in which it confirms recent conclusions as to the complex structure of the mandibular ramus in the Labyrin- thodonts,! and helps to connect these early Amphibians with the Paleozoic Crossopterygian fishes. Explanation of Plate IT, Labyrinthodon leptognathus, Owen : incomplete mandiblé, one-half nat. size.— Lower Keuper; Cubbington Heath, Leamington. [British Museum, No. R. 3493.] Fig. 1. Upper view. Fig. 2: Outer view of right mandibular ramus, Fig. 3. Inner view of the same. Vig. 4, Transverse section of right mandibular ramus at hinder end of fossil, showing extent of internal cavity. Fig. 5. Lower view of symphysis. Tig. 6, Back or inner view of symphysis. agj., angular; d., dentary; ., hollow for insertion of muscle (genio-hyoid ?); id., infradentary; 1., shallow fossa for insertion of laniary teeth; sp/., splenial ; v., position of inner vacuity; 2’, supposed inner plate of angular; y, supposed inner plate of infradentary, Report on Footprints from the Trias. Part V. By H. C. Beastry. Since the York meeting an opportunity has been afforded of examining under very favourable conditions a quantity of material from the Storeton Quarries. Owing to the generous response of Mr. Wells, the quarry owner, to a suggestion of the Liverpool.Geological Society, the footprint- bearing blocks were raised with care and allowed to weather naturally, and so the adherent clay was removed without injury to the smaller markings. Fortunately the portion of the bed cut through had a very smooth surface and was free from desiccation cracks. ' R. Owen, Trans. Geol. Soc. [2], vol. vi. (1842), p. 516, pl. xliv., figs. 7-9. * A. 8. Woodward, Proc. Zoul. Soc., 1904, vol. ii. p. 170, pl. xi. (Capitosawrus stantonensis, from Lower Keuper, Stanton, North Staffordshire). ’ FP. A. Quenstedt, Die Mastodonsaurier (1850), p. 16, pl. ii. fig. 2; H. von Meyer, Paleontographica, vol. vi. (1858), p. 228, pl. xxviii, fig. 1; and K. A: von Zittel, Handb. Paleont., vol. iii, (1888), p. 404, fig. 396. * E. B. Branson, ‘Structure and Relationships of American Labyrinthodontide,’ Journ. Geology, vol. xiti. (1905), pp. 568-610, especially figs. 4, 10, and 13. B riish Association,77th R eport, Leicester, 1907.) J.Green del. LABYRINTHODON LEPTOGNATHUS, Owen. Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna ond Flora of the Trias of the British Isles. ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 301 The actual area exposed was about 40 feet by 50 feet, and from this between twenty and thirty footprint-bearing blocks were raised, many of them over 6 feet square. The examination of these has resulted in some addition to our previous knowledge, and the more important features may well be recorded. The prints are found at the extreme north end of the south quarry in three beds. The upper bed is much cut up by desiccation cracks, and the prints are not very well preserved ; only a few rather large Cheirotherium (A 1) prints with the digits widely ‘spread, and not at all clearly impressed, and a few Rhynchosauroid prints were found. It would seem that the conditions were unfavourable to the production of good prints ; however that may be, very few slabs seemed worth retaining by the quarrymen. The middle bed presented an extremely fine and smooth surface for a sandstone, was free from cracks and distortion of any kind ; and from this bed the greater number of prints were obtained. The lowest of the three yielded some small prints, mostly Rhyncho- sauroid, on an uneven and coarse surface. Cheirotheroid Lorms.—A 1 =Cheirotheriwm stortonense was well repre- sented, and the fact, hitherto rather uncertain, that the digits of the manus terminated in nails was distinctly proved by several examples. The small tubercles described by Professor Williamson as covering the sole of the foot in a specimen from Daresbury were very distinctly marked on most of the prints. Owing to the large size of the slabs it was possible to examine and compare a great number of continuous series of prints both of this and other forms. The linear arrangement of the prints of this form and the parallelism of the axis of the foot with the line of movement, as well as the nearness of the right and left prints to the median line previously observed, were very generally present. A 4, described in the report, Part IV., presented at the York meeting from some imperfect specimens, has been largely represented in the present find, and some moditications and additions to the description given will be necessary. Instead of the wy pes being like that of A 1 the LV. digit is found on all ct the prints to be much shorter in proportion to the other digits thanin Al. The V. digit, which is smaller than in Al, is about the same proportionate size as in A 2. No. [V., though short, is generally well developed and stout, and has a long and sharp nail; No. J, which is somewhat longer than IV., is slender and weakly im- pressed. The manus has five digits, but V. is not gene- rally so clearly shown as the others ; it is rather in the aN rear of the others in a corresponding position to the same digit of the pes. ‘The type is a series in the Zoolog gy Right Pes and Museum of the Liverpool University. They are also Manus, A 4, d. present on the British Museum Slab, R. 3483. As pointed out by Mr. Lomas in his description of the slab in the Museum of the Liverpool University, the axes of the hind feet instead of being parallel to the line of movement point outwards at a considerable angle. This is the case with all the prints that have been examined, and, taken.in connection with the small size of the manus and the fact that it (the manus) made no deeper impression than the much larger surface of 302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the pes, is suggestive of different functions for the pes and manus, or at any rate in the part taken by each in locomotion and support of the body. ‘A the prints are well covered with tubercles. On the pes they vary from 1:5 mm. to 2 mm. in diameter, and those on the manus something less than 1 mm. Where the feet have sunk deeply into the mud we have indications of the tubercles, not only on the soles, but on the sides of the toes. These prints are found on about half a dozen of the slabs raised, and in every case they correspond in form and size, which suggests the possi- bility of their having been made by one individual. There are also two pairs of prints on a slab in the Liverpool Museum obtained many years ago (locality uncertain), and in the Warrington Museum there is a similar slab (from Storeton), with again two pairs of prints. However, in this case the print of the pes is about an inch longer than those of the present find. The Warrington slab certainly cannot have been acquired since 1874, and probably dates back to before 1856. As at either of those dates the workings were carried on at a considerable distance from the present ones, this, together with the slight difference in size, will warrant our treating the difference from A 1 as specific, and not merely as the result of some individual deformity. No other Cheirotheroid forms have been observed, but a great variety of forms of prints that must be included under A 1 has been presented. A notable instance is shown on a large slab acquired by the Owens College Museum, Manchester, which has a series of four pairs of a large-sized print of A 1, the length of the pes being nearly 10 inches, and the digits remark- ably stout and fleshy. On the same slab are two prints of a pes of very slightly smaller size, but much more slender proportions. The information at present available is, however, insufficient to determine whether these differences are due to age or individual peculiarities, or specific difference in the animals. The differences are very striking, and cannot be ignored, whatever their cause may have been. Rhynchosauroid forms.— Although a number of these forms are present on these slabs, there is still a difficulty in differentiating the fore and bind feet, so few can be traced in regular series. In one large form of D 1, about 4 cm. long, it was possible to measure the length of stride. The distance between two prints on the same side was 26 cm., and between the lines of right and left tracks apparently 7 cm. On a slab, probably from the lowest of the three beds now in the Museum of the Liverpool University, there is a short series and a number of detached prints of a small Rhynchosauroid form, which we shall distinguish as D 7. It is only an inch in length : the V. digit is very much shorter than IT., III, and IV. and points somewhat backwards, 7.e., it makes an angle greater than 90° with the axis of the foot. The other digits are generally widely spread, but sometimes IT./IV. Left Pes or lie close together and quite parallel; IV. is the largest, Manus. D 7.3. J, is short and divergent, but not to the extentof V. Each seems to be terminated by a sharp nail ; the digits are usually straight, but are at other times decidedly curved. The length of stride between two prints on same side is 13 cm. ; distance between lines of right and left tracks 7 cm. The track was very ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 303 irregular, and the length of the stride varied a good deal, and the figures given are only an approximate average. These prints, although rather larger, agree fairly well in form with the pes of E,! except that in E there is no trace of a V. digit, whereas on these the V. is strongly marked. With E there is almost always a small manus present on the inner side of the pes; no trace of a manus has been seen with these. The form seems very generally distributed, but it has been very difficult to find a series at all complete. It has some affinity with O from Hollington,” but there are differences which show it to be an entirely distinct form. The prints even in the same series vary a good deal in form, and at first sight might not be regarded as connected ; but a little careful ex- amination shows them to be the same foot. The differences are very generally caused by the straight or curved positions of the digits when put down. A print was described in the 1904 Report as F 2 from one fairly perfect print from Storeton, but it had not been seen in series. On the slabs now described there are several series of prints that appear closely allied to this, which will be distinguished as F 3. This form differs in having the claws less curved, and the protuberance at the base of the claw is less pronounced. The pes is, if anything, rather smaller than the manus, and the claw not quite so strong, and in both the digits are longer than in F 2. The prints of the pes and manus were frequently superimposed, giving rise to a long, narrow print with short digits. In one series nine of these followed each other without any separation of the prints being visible, but in another series they were found, as the track was followed, to separate into two clearly defined footprints. Closely associated with these, prints were noticed in which the digits terminated by circular discs : these had been also noticed on some prints at Runcorn ; there is little doubt these are caused by a movement of the claw, and not to any abnormal termina - tion to the digit. This is probably also the case with some of the Rhynchosauroid prints that show a thicken- ing of the end of the digit, and no visible claw. As there are certainly very marked differences in this print from any previously referred to, it is described as F 3. A broad print with the digits about half the total length of the print, five digits, the middle being the longest, each terminated by a powerful claw, less curved than F 2, and generally distinctly marked. ae ‘ some Manus. Length of print : . ae ay » 3D em. Length of middle digit : 5 ; ae Breadth of print ; ‘ 4 d 1 eget Distance from one print to another of same foot 20. Distance from right and left tracks about a Gg ae * Brit. Assoc, Rep., Cambridge, 1904. 2 Tbid., Part 1V., 1906, York. 304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. _ The best series is on the squate slab now in the British Museuni (R. 3483), which we may take as the type (Plate IIT.) ; but they were also present on other slabs of the present find. The longer slab in the British Museum, R. 5484, has a number of prints of probably the same foot, but differing slightly to size, and occasionally in minor details, Traces of a footprint that seems to be of an entirely different type from any hitherto recorded from Storeton have been seen, but they are too ill-defined to warrant detailed description in the absence of more perfect examples. As far as can at present be made out, they are about 6 cm. broad by 4 cm. long, and consist of four slender digits. There are indications in every case of a high, roughly semicircular ridge of mud having been raised in the rear of the print such as it would seem hardly probable would be raised by the pressure of the slender toes alone unless the feet were webbed, of which so far we have no indication. Examples may be seen on the slab in the British Museum, R. 3483. Besides the vertebrate prints, several of the slabs show tracks of invertebrates, worms, and possibly gastropods, varying in width from 2mm. to 15 mm. The vast number and variety of markings preserved afford material for investigation, which, it is hoped, will be carried on by the paleonto- logists and others of the various towns and cities in whose institutions the specimens are now deposited. Among these are :— British Museum, Natural History. Hull Municipal Museum. Leeds Library and Philosophical Society, Leeds University, Bolton. Birkenhead Corporation. Manchester, Owens College. Liverpool University. Others have been deposited in private collections, No attempt has been made to attach generic or specific names to the various forms, as it seems advisable to await further investigation before taking this step. It is hoped that those interested in the fauna of the’ Trias will find the plan adopted sufficient for purposes of identification. On a Footprint Slabyin the Museum of Zoology, University of Liverpool. By J. Lomas, A.R.C.S., F.GS, A large slab of sandstone from Storeton, presented to the Liverpool University by Mr. C. Wells, J.P., has afforded exceptional opportunities for the examination of a group of footprints described by Mr. H. C. Beasley as A 4, The large size of the slab—over 11 feet—gives a track containing: fifteen impressions made by the same individual, four right pes, four left pes, four left manus, and three right manus. The prints are exceptionally perfect, in low relief, and details are shown which have not hitherto been seen. [Puate III. British Association, T7th Report, Leicester, 1907. | Portion of slab from Storeton, with footprints of tpye F 3. Photograph by Mr. C. B. Travis, Liverpool. Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles. ON THE FAUNA AND #LORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 305 The accompanying illustration drawn to scale shows a portion of the track. The line marking the centre of the track not only touches the bases of the V. digit of the pes—the swollen one—but runs almost along the axes of I., the smallest digit. 3) The axis of each foot measured along the middle digit is turned outwards from the central line at about 30°, Ny so the animal walked with its feet splayed outwards to Saye each other at an angle of 60°, =e It will be noticed, too, that the weight mainly rested on the outer toes, for the inner ones are lightly impressed, while the outer ones are swollen and fleshy, and make deeper impressions. This would no doubt give greater stability to the animal on walking over mud ¥ 2 or loose sand. The length of the stride is remarkably fi L uniform, only varying from 2 feet 74 inches to 2 feet 8 inches. Sam The manus, on the other hand, is not so regularly disposed. The right manus in each case is from 14 inch to 3 inches in advance of the pes, while the left is superimposed on the terminal phalange or nail ty of the pes. They all trend outwards, corresponding Se roughly with the direction of the pes. rm Wy Measurements of the pes show that the axes of the | : digits converge towards the base of the V. digit. NY Reckoning from this point, the length of the various digits are as follows: I., 5 inches ;-II., 6% inches ; III., 7 inches ; IV., 5,%; inches ; V., 33 inches. With the exception of V., which has two, the toes have three joints, with well-marked, fleshy pads, and at their bases other pads are seen which fuse together to form a continuous ridge. In these respects it is remarkably like the human hand, but there is no sign of the fleshy pad which joins the little finger with the wrist in the latter. Each toe is terminated by a claw, and this extends 1333 40 J1V9S oc S&S beyond the limits of the digits to distances varying oes from half an inch to an inch. It would seem that the \N\ animal had the power of extending and retracting its tgs claws, for sometimes they appear as round or triangular wD punctures made by a pointed object, and at other times as long oval markings, such as would be made if the claw were extended The tubercles described by Mr. Beasley as occurring on the under-surface of the foot extend, not only over the fleshy pads, but also in the hollow or palmar surfaces. Details of the manus are not easy to determine owing to the smaller size and the very faint impressions left for examination. The second, third, and fourth fingers are always close together, while the first and the fifth usually appear as small indistinct markings, sometimes quite isolated from the others. In most cases they are absent altogether, and until the present exceptional find it was regarded as a three-fingered hand. In some slabs showing typical pes of this kind the manus is entirely wanting. This and other considerations lead one to surmise that the manus played a very subordinate part in progression. It may be that 1907, Xx 306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the animal walked erect on the pes, and only used the manus to steady itself when bending down to drink or feed. The palmar surface of the hand is seldom seen, but when present it is, as well as the fingers, covered with scaly tubercles. The digits are terminated by small triangular claws. On the same slab there are the tracks of two other Cheirotheroid forms corresponding with the type of Al. The surface, too, is dotted with numerous Rhynchosauroid forms, and it is interesting to note that the slender digits of these animals show fine tubercular skin markings similar to, but smaller than, the Cheirotheroids. ft The surface of this slab is covered with a smooth ferruginous scale which has taken the cast of the moulds in the underlying clay in a most perfect form. An examination of the scale shows it to be composed of sand grains cemented by iron oxide. The iron has no doubt percolated in solution through the overlying sandstone as far as the impervious clay band on which the footprints were made. The beds below are even now much drier than those above. Specimens of the sandstones have been examined at intervals of 10 feet throughout the depth of the quarry (110 feet), and it is found that those above the footprint bed, 60 feet from the surface, contain, as a rule, less felspar and mica than those below this horizon. Secondary crystallisation on the quartz grains is also more common in the upper series than the lower. They all contain small quantities of other minerals such as zircon, tourmaline, anatase, rutile, kyanite, staurolite, chert, and numerous black grains of uncertain composition ; but in the scale overlying the clay there is a concentration of these minerals. Zircon especially is very abundant in very minute crystals. It is noteworthy that while numerous samples have been fractionated with heavy fluids, not a single grain of garnet has been obtained. The overlying boulder clay and the sands of the Mersey contain an abundance of this mineral. The same remark applies to all the Triassic rocks I haye examined in the Liverpool district, and in this respect they differ from the Trias in the South of England examined by Mr. H. H. Thomas.! Lhe Flora and Fauna of the Trias (Keuper only) in Leicestershire, with some Notes on that of the surrounding counties. By A. R. Horwoop, Sub-Curator, Leicester Corporation Museum. In Leicestershire the principal fossiliferous horizon of the Keuper is the Upper Keuper sandstone. From that horizon there have been collected or recorded plant- remains, Annelid and Crustacean tracks, &c., Estheria minuta (Alberti), spines and teeth of Acrodus kewperinus (M.and 8.), Acrodus (?) minimus, Ag., Acrodus spp. Gyrolepis quenstedti (Dames), Colobodus frequens (Dames), a footmark of (1) Labyrinthodon, bones of Amphibia, &c., bones . of Reptiles. The best exposure at the present time is at Shoulder-of- Mutton Hill, in the railway cutting (Leicester and Burton line). r The flora is suggestive of land conditions, but the plant-remains are imperfect, and may well be compared to those of the Upper Carboniferous or Permian formations. The fauna suggests an inland sea or possibly a salt lake. * Quarts Journ. Geol, Soc., November 1902, p. 620. ON TUE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 307 The overlying grey and red marls and the red marls below the sand- stones have furnished no traces of past life in the Trias of Leicestershire, except ‘casts of the spreading leaves’ of Voltzia sp., a Conifer, discovered by Mr. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S. At this horizon the deposits are highly saliferous, containing gypsum and pseudomorphs of salt crystals. The whole formation is also charged with sulphate of baryta and sulphate and carbonate of lime, the water-supply obtained from .this horizon possessing a high percentage of these substances. It is from the Lower Keuper (Waterstones) that water is principally obtained locally and utilised. In the Tea-green Marls the fauna—no plant-remains having been discovered so far—approaches that of the Sandstone beds at the base of the Upper Keuper. It was in these that Mr. Harrison was also fortunate enough to discover the wing of an insect ; but he informed the writer that it perished soon after exposure to the atmosphere. The fauna here appears to indicate more lacustrine conditions, as the only fish that is abundant belongs to a genus probably Semionotoid or perhaps Paleoniscoid. Selenite and salt crystals occur at this horizon, and ripple-marks and rain-pittings are also met with. The marls pass up insensibly into the Rhtic beds above, being at one time considered their lowest member. The best paleontological break, however, occurs above the Tea-green Marls, where physical conditions again change. The Flora and Fauna of the Keuper in Leicestershire. Upper Keuper Sandstone. * The numbers in parenthesis refer to the bibliography page. + Specimens marked thus are represented in the Leicester Corporation Museum (= L.M.) ~ This nomen nudum was invented in 1849 for specimens which are probably nothing more than inorganic casts of tracks and galleries, the work of Worms or Crustacea, § Recorded in 13th Report, Leicester Museum, as Vemacanthus, Genera and Species Locality Reference Remarks PLANTA. THALLOPHYTA, Alge . . . Leicester (well-bor- | * (1856)' pp. 371,373 | Fig. 1 (a section) includes a ing) thin ‘black carbonaceous PYERIDOPHYTA band, with supposed Algz.’ EQUISETALES. Equisetites sp. Shoulder- of- Mutton | Zbid., p. 373 * : — Hill railway cut- ting (?) SP 28 ” ” ” |T LM. . s "1 No: ee Several casts of the stem of an equisetaceous | plant, but exhibiting no } | distinct leaf-sheath. (?) ty hatin ie - | Westcotes . 7 LM. . | Xo. 1907 This specimen is probably equisetaceous, but LYCOPODIALES, the leaf-sheath is indistinet. (2) Lycopodiaceous Dane Hills. Si i EM as | No. Z5. A fragment bearing rootlet cf. Sigmarites sp. CONIFER, Volizta, sp. . . (?) ” po? , , | ‘ Shoulder- of - Mutton Hill railway cut- ting Leicester . = (1856)' p.873 . | (1904) p. 8 and (1905)" p. 14 (reprint) no rootlet scars, but dichoto- mising, asin Stigmarian root- lets or rhizomes. B.M. 24, 190, labelled Gor- gonia keupert, x2 308 REFORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The Flora and Fauna of the Keuper in Leicestershire—continued. Genera and Species PLANT.E—contl. INCERT.Z SEDIS. Plantremains . (Under Echinostachys oblongus, Brongn.) INCERT A) SEDIS. Cast of stem. . Stem-fragments . INVERTEBRATA. ANNELIDA OR CRUSTACEA ‘Cololitic remains of Annelida * ‘and casts of their tubes’ Worm-tracks, worm- tubes, and cololitic remains of marine worms, CRUSTACEA. Lstheria minuta (Alberti). VERTEBRATA. PIscKs. Acroidus heuperinus, (M. & 8.) Locality Reference Leicester Well-boring, Leices- ter, and Shoulder- of-Mutton Hill rail- way cutting Dane Hills . Belgrave . . . Leicester (we'l- shafts) Shoulder -of- Mutton Hill railway cut- ting Dane Hills f Aylestoue Road oo Shoulder- of - Mutton Hill ” ” 2 New Parks c | Dane Hills Ay'estone Road ABEEMR a es ued os + L.M. and (1856)? p. 3873 | + LM. 7 LM. 4 co ~1 ceo . Tbid., p. (1875) p.45 + LM. oe . (1856)' p. 369. . Ibid., p. 373; (1872) p. 33; (1862) p. 68 + L.M. (1875), p. 45 . (1893) pp. 99, 163 + LM. : ° FRIENT , PeLAMig cs ea (FEM 6, 7 LM. | (1893) pp. 99, 106 + LM, . (1856)! p. 369, + L. M. | Remarks See MS. ‘Donation Book,’ Leicester Museum, 1855 pp. 79, 138. The specimen No. A803 156 hibits no definite characters, and is associated with worm- tracks, ex- No. ie This specimen ex- hibits no characters, but it may ke equisetaceous, No. Pee labelled casts of Gor a or Fucoids, but cer- tainly neither, No. 1893 154 =~ (labelled Gorgonia keuneri.§ 1893 No. ae: (‘casts of Gorgonia | 56 or Lehinostachus oblongus’) No, 1898 a ‘61 worm-tracks or Fucoids,’ The second, in so far as Lchi- nostachys is coneerned, may be partly referable to some plant; but the Gorgonia is only, like the other speci- mens, the work of worms or crustacea. - 1893 No. supra, nay also be 155” up y in part referable to the same agency. See MS. ‘Donation Book’ of Leicester Museum, 1851, Fine dorsal fin-spine col- lected by Mr. W.J. Harrison. | Teeth, collected by W. J. Harrison. 1904 Portions of spines. 2 ‘easts of probabie | ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Genera and Species VERTEBRATA— cone. Pisces—cont. (?) Acrodus keuperinus (M. & 8.) (?) (?) (@) (2) Acrodus minimus, Ag. g. Acrodus sp. . . ” » ” re Vile . Gyrolepis quenstedti (Dames) Colobodus Srequens (Dames) INCERTE SEDIS. *Vish-teeth’, A : * Fish-spines” . * Pish-seales” . . . Fish-coprolites 5 AMPHIBIA, Sie sho ? LABYRINTHODONTIA, Tootstep . . . Footmark o , AMPHIBIA, INCERTZ SEDI. Small pieces of bone . | ? REPTILIA. INCERT.® SEDIS. Bones , Fy A a Fragments of bone . Fragment of tooth, . 209 Upper Keuper Sandstone, Leicestershire—continued. Locality Shoulder- of - Mutton Hill, Le‘cester Leicester, Shoulder- of-Mutton Hill rail- way cutting | Shoulder- of - Mutton Hill Dane Hills Aylestone Road Aylestcne Road 2” ” Leicester Dane Hills Aylestone Leicester Leicester Shoulder- of-Mutton Hill rail- way cutting Leicester strata tra- versed by well- shafts Aylestone Road Boring near Roman Wall Leicester (strata traversed by well-shafts) Shoulder -of - Mutton Hill railway cut- ting Bede House Meadows Referente Remarks | (1877) p. 33. ¢ L.M.. | | | (1856) p. 373 Ibid, ¢ LM. . ¢ L.M., *Report Leicester Museum,’ 1873, p. 15 | (1898) pp. 9 9, 107 Ibid. . . } LM. (1856)* . p. 18 (1875) p45 | (1893) p.98 (1856)! p. 373. | (1856)' p. 370. Ibid., p. 369 (1893) pp. 99, 108 (1856)' p, 369 Ibid., p. 373 PEM Ss ee | (1893) p. f9. « — -| Spine. (1889) p.199 — (1893) pp. 99, 100 _ eb Megane ma 9, 1890 * 315 | Recorded as ‘ Acrodus teath. | 1893 Tubodus 226 i teeth. | «Teeth of Placoid fishes.’ | recorded as aa * Ichthyodorulites.’ § €Spines, teeth, (and scales) of | | Acrodus’ collected by W. J. | Harrison and J. E. Elgood, Scales attributed to this fish. See ‘M3, Donation Book,’ 1855, p. 139 ; also p. 139, and ‘Rep. Leic. Lit. and Ph'l. | Soe.,’ 1856, p. 18, | Ibid. 4 inches in diameter in form similar to the well-known | Labyrinthodont footmarks of Storeton in Cheshire. | 2 inches thick, largest 5 incl.es in length; ‘another firmly cemented to an Ichthyo- dorulite.’ No. Upper Keuper Grey and Red Marls, Leicestershire. Genera and Species | Loeality PLANTA. CONIFERS, Voltziasp. . | . 5 | Leicestershire Reference Remarks | (1877) p. 73 . | ‘ Casts of the spreading leaves.’ / 310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Upper Keuper ‘ Tea-green Maris,’ Leicestershire. Genera and Species Locality Reference Remarks ARTHROPODA. ORUSTACEA. Estheria minuta (A\- | Leicester . « - | (1856)' p. 375). ot -— berti) 1907 5 . | Spinney Hills . Aig oe es 5 = oi Soa &e. INSECTA. Insect-wing . . 4 a * . | (1876) p. 214, . | Mr. Harrison, who discovered this, writes that it per- ished almost directly on ex- posure to the atmosphere. PISOES. | Colobodus frequens i 5 - | (1903) p.120 . A — (Dames) 1893 Teeth and scales of an ae 5 -|f LM. 5 : oy ie Actinopterygian fish. 1518 (? Paleoniscoid) Fish-seales . . . “4 . - | (1876) p.214 F — Teeth, scales, &c., of a hs : Bn es eles: a < : 1907 &e, Semionotoid fish 1.14 Upper Keuper Sandstone, Warwickshire. Genera and Species Locality Reference Remarks AMPHIBIA. LABYRINTHODONTIA. } : Footprints of Rhyn- | Rowington . iain . . | See ‘Fourth Report of the chosaurus ? articeps | Leicester Museum,’ 1875. 6, (Owen) | : p. 15. Lower Keuper Sandstone, Cheshire. . Genera and Species Locality Reference Remarks AMPHIBIA. | LABYRINTHODONTIA. Footprints of Rhyncho- | Runcorn. . PY el S82: ee - Bie saurus sp. | 246 ? 1893 Footstep of Cheirothe- ; . ; Stet Ne, | ee . » | No, p rium ‘ | u 247 =. 1893 2 * . co = L.M. . 5 " On, ” t | 248 . | 8 oS . - 4 ; OO bh me ee * 2 oO. ae is. ! Lower Keuper, Nottinghamshire. Genera and Species Locality Reference | ’ Remarks PISCES. Semionotus sp. + . | Waterstones, Col- | ¢ L.M. f . « | Collected by Wilson. wick Park AMPHIBIA. LABYRINTHODONTIA, Footprintsof . .{| Weston Oliff . .| (1860)'p.62 . . ‘ _ ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 311] Tower Keuper, South Derbyshire. Genera and Species Locality Reference Remarks PISCES. ORUSTACEA, | Estheria minuta (Al- | Burton Bridge . + | (1863)' p, 100, ° — berti) CHEIROTHERIUM. Footprints of . . | Ashby Road. . | (1869)? p. 100 — es f . | Brizlincote Hall . | (1869)? . — Burton Bridge . - | (1863)? pp. 2, 3. _ A Bibliography of Works referring to the Flora and Fauna of the Trias (Keuper) in Leicestershire, apd in some outlying localities. 1. (1850) Plant, John.—‘ Notice of the Discovery of Beds of Keuper Sandstone, containing Zoophytes in the vicinity of Leicester’ (‘ Rep. Brit. Assoc.,’1849, Trans, of Sect., p. 64). (Gorgonia Keuperi, Plant. This name must be regarded as a nomen nudum, the specimens so called being probably novus, more than worm-tracks or crustacean-tracks.) 2. (1856)' Plant, James.— ‘ On the Upper Keuper Sandstone included in the New Red Marls, and its Fossils at Leicester’ (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ pp. 369-373), with sections, one containing errors. (Mentions occurrence of Algx, Lquisete, Voltzia, Echinostachys oblongus, Annelid tracks, Crustacea, Estheria minuta, teeth of Fishes, Ichthyodorulites, according to Sir P. de M. Egerton of the genus Strophodus, foot- marks, various bones. This formed the basis of the flora and fauna down to 1893.) 3. (1856)? Anon.—‘ List of Donations to the Leicester Museum’ (‘ Rep. Leicester Lit. and Phil. Soc.,’ p. 18). 4, (1860)' Hull, Professor E.—‘ The Geology of the Leicestershire Coalfield and of the Country around Ashby-de-la-Zouch (‘ Mem. Geol. Surv.,’ pp. 60-64). (Notice of Estheria minuta and of Labyrinthodont footsteps at Weston Cliff in South Notts.) 5. (1860)? Jones, Professor T. Rupert and W. Kitchen Parker.—‘ On some Fossil Foraminifera from Chellaston, near Derby’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. 1860, pp- 452-7, pl. xix., xx.). (Some Foraminifera are here wrongly attributed to Triassic strata, and it has since been pointed out that they are more probably of Liassic age and glacially derived. See also ibid., vol. xl. p. 771; and W. D. Crick and C. D. Sherborn, ‘Journ. Northamp. Nat. Hist. Soce.,’ vol. vii. p.68; and T. R. Jones, ‘ Mon. Crag. Foram.,’ pt. 11, p. 161, footnote, Palzont. Soc.) 6. (1862) Jones, Professor T. Rupert.—‘A Monograph of the Fossil Estherie (‘ Palzont. Soc.,’ pp. 58, 63, 65). (The occurrence of Estheria minuta in Leicester- shire is noted, p. 58, and a recapitulation of Plant’s list at p. 63, in a different form, with section, p. 66. Hstheria recorded near Leicester.) 7. (1863)' Coleman, Rev. W. H.—‘ Geology of Leicestershire in White’s History, Gazetteer of the Counties of Leicester and Rutland,’ p. 100. (Mentionsoccurrence at Burton Bridge and Weston-on-Trent of tracks of Zabyrinthodon in ripple-marked sandstones and Hstheria minuta in waterstones or white beds, and alludes to Plant’s discoveries. ) 8. (1863)? Mosley, Sir Oswald, and E. Brown.—‘ The Natural History of Tutbury. (‘ Cheirotherium at Burton Bridge,’ pp. 2, 3.) 9. (1866) Ansted, Professor D. T.—‘ The Physical Geography and Geology of the County of Leicester, pp. 51-54. (Gives a general summary of organic remains, based on Plant's lists, and includes fossil Foraminifera from Chellaston.) 10. (1869)! Hull, Professor E.—‘ The Triassic and Permian Rocks of the Midland Counties of England’ (‘ Mem. Geol, Surv.’) (P. 5 alludes to fossils recorded by Plant in ‘Q.J.G.S.,’ xii. p, 371; also Foraminifera from Chellaston.) 11. (1869)? Molyneux, W.— Burton-on-Trent: its History, its Waters, and its Breweries, p. 165 (Footprints of Cheirotherium, Ashby Road). 12. (1874) Anon. (J. Plant).—‘ Report of the Leicester Lit. and Phil. Soc.,’ p. 40. (Tanystropheus, according to Professor Seeley, half a caudal vertebra, and not 312 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. referable to that genus; but in ‘ Q.J.G.S.’, 1876, p. 218, he states that it should have been recorded as coming from the Rheetic.) 13. (1875) Plant, J.—‘ Report of the Leicester Lit. and Phil. Soc.,’ p, 45. (Records from the Upper Keuper sandstone of Dane Hills and elsewhere, fish-remains [spines, teeth, and scales] Estheria minuta, worm-tracks, worm-holes, and ‘cololitic’ remains of marine worms.) 14. (1876) Harrison, W. J.—‘ On the Occurrence of the Rhzetic Beds in Leicester- shire, ‘Q.J.G.S.’, pp. 212-218. (Fish-scales and an insect-wing recorded from the ‘ Tea-Green’ marls, then classed with the Rhetics.) 15. (1877) Harrison, W. J.—‘ Sketch of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland, pp. 33-35. (A summary of previous records is given, and some fresh material is included.) 16. (1882) Harrison, W. J.—‘ Geology of the Counties of England and North and South Wales,’ p. 155. (This contains a general summary of Triassic palwontology in the county.) 17. (1889) Browne, M.—‘The Vertebrate Avimals of Leicestershire and Rutland,’ pp. 174, 199, 200. (Records Acrodus heuperinus and Hybedus sp.) 18. (1891) Browne, M.—‘ Notes upon Cvlobvdus, a genus of Mesozoic Fishes, ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1891, pp. 664-5. 19. (1893) Browne, M.—‘ A Contribution to the History of the Geology of the Borough of Leicester, ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. and Phil. Soc.’, pp. 123-240. (Gives a complete summary of all previous records within the area of the borough, and map and sections.) 20. (1900) Fox-Strangways, C., and Professor W. W. Watts.—‘ The Geology of the Country between Atherstone and Charnwood Forest,’ ‘Mem. Geol. Survey,’ sheet 155, p. 33. (Labyrinthodon, Castle Donington.) 21. (1903) Fox-Strangways, C.—‘ The Geology of the Country near’ Leicester,’ Appendix III., Palzontological Tables, sheet 156, pp. 104-123. (This complete analysis gives in the tables all the organic remains recorded from Leicestershire.) 22. (1904) Seward, Professor A. C.—‘ Catalogue of the Mesozoic Plants in the British Museum.’ II, Liassicand Oolitic Floras of England, p, 8. (Refers to specimen named Gorgonia heuperi, but exhibited in the Fossil Plant Gallery, and compared, with others, to probably remains of Voltzia.) 23. (1905)! Fox-Strangways, C., and Professor W. W. Watts.—‘ The Geology of the Country between Derby, Burton-on-Trent, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and Loughborough,’ ‘Mem. Geol. Survey,’ sheet 141, p. 31. (Labyrinthodon footsteps recorded from Weston Cliff, Donington Park.) 24. (1905)? Lomas, J.—‘ Report of the British Association’ for 1904, p, 14 of reprint. Investigation of the Faunaand Flora of the Trias of the British Isles, Second Report of the Committee. (Record of Coniferous remains from Leicester in report by Dr, A,S. Woodward of Triassic fossils in the British Museum.) Note on the Fossils from the Lower Keuper of Bromsgrove. By L. J. Wits, B.A., P.G.S., King’s College, Cambridge. At the request of the Secretary of the Trias Committee I have put together the following notes on the fossils which I have found at Bromsgrove, in Worcestershire, as recorded in the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ January 1907, p. 28. The horizon at which they occur is towards the top of the Lower Keuper of the older writers ; that is to say, completely below the Keuper Marl. The majority are found in lenticular beds of marl and shale, while some appear in the sandstone. These lenticular patches are made of various types of rock, some being true marls, others sandy shales, green, brown, or red in colour. These last have so far proved barren. Some are very carbonaceous, and then appear to contain abundance of arachnid remains in a very fragmentary state. Just as the red marl, so the red sandstone is barren, the plants occurring in the grey, which they often stain red-brown. Most of the bones come from a marl conglomerate, Indications of similar plants have heen traced at various ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. places all round the Droitwich basin at the same horizon. 313 The fossils may be divided into those found in :— (1) The Sandstone. PLANTS. Equisetites arenaceus (Jaeger): Pith- casts and leaves. Zamites grandis (Arber): Leaves. Voltzia, sp.: External surface of stem, male cone, and pith-casts of stems. Coniferous wood. PISCEs. Spine of Acrodus. Coprolite. AMPHIBIA. Teeth and cranial bones of a Labyrin- thodon (Mastodonsaurus) 2 (2) The Shales, PLANT, Eyuisetites arenaceus (Jaeger): Pith- casts. Equisetites sp. ? Chiropteris digitata (Brongn.). ? Pterophyllum sp. (Schimper and Mougeot): Leaves. Voltzia sp.: Pith-casts of stem and male cones, Conites sp. ? Schizoneura sp. ARTHROPODA. Estheria minuta. Arachnid remains, probably of a scor- C~ Repriuia. piee: Hyperodapedon: Teeth, cranial and Ppysces. other bones, Dipteronotus cyphus. Scales, The specimens are now in the Sedgwick Museum at Cambridge. The Faunal Suceession in the Carboniferous Limestone of the South- west of England.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro- fessor J. W. GREGORY (Chairman), Dr. A. VAUGHAN (Secretary), Dr. WHEELTON H1nD, and Professor W. W. Warts, appointed ta enable Dr. A, Vaughan to continue his Researches thereon, (Drawn up by the Secretary.) TuE work has progressed steadily, but Jess rapidly than was anticipated owing to the necessity which has arisen of investigating the validity of certain genera and the correct application of specific names, I.—The Aronian Sequence in the Gower. The zoning of the Avonian sequence of the Gower Peninsula, under- taken in conjunction with Mr. E. E, L. Dixon in the summer of 1905, is now completed, and the results will be presented to the Geological Society early next session. In this investigation the chief. interest, from a zonal standpoint, centres in the occurrence of a higher faunal level than is known from any other point of the South-western Province. The level here referred to is that of the Oystermouth beds, of which the well-known Bishopston rotten-stones are the degraded representatives. The list of genera from these beds is practically identical with that from the Upper Tournaisian—a fact which may be taken to imply equivalence of environ- ment. Important conclusions as to variation in time during the Viséan period have therefore been reached by comparing the several species of each genus at the Oystermouth level (uppermost Viséan) and those of the same genus in the Upper Zaphrentis-Zone (Upper Tournaisian), The 814 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. comparison of these two levels determines those characters of each gens which are indicative of old age ; whereas the comparison of the brachiopods (or of the corals) at one and the same level determines those characters which are affected by convergence. Mr. Dixon’s careful study of the conditions of deposition which are implied by the several lithic types, increases very greatly the value of the zonal investigation by preventing the error of mistaking a change of fauna with change of conditions for a true zonal sequence dependent upon evolution. IIl.—The Carboniferous Sequence from Rush to Skerries, Co. Dublin. (In conjunction with Dr. C. A. Marury.) The stratigraphical relations have been admirably worked out by Dr. Matley, in spite of a quite remarkable intricacy of tectonic detail. From a zonal point of view the main subject of inquiry is the true relative position of four distinct series whose sequence with one another is broken either by faults or gaps. The problem has been solved by a broad comparison of the coral faunas and their sequence in the several portions of the Trish section with the known coral sequence in the South-western Province. The relative position of the several portions has thus been established, and it has consequently become possible to draw up a detailed faunal sequence for the whole section. This sequence starts in the upper Tournaisian, and extends beyond the uppermost Avonian, being, however, notably incomplete in its middle portion. The highest beds, which still exhibit an abundant Avonian fauna, (the Upper Cyathawonia beds) include a maximum of Posidonomya Becheri, and at the same time contain several strikingly specialised forms of corals and brachiopods which also occur inthe Lower Limestones of Scotland and in the uppermost Limestones of the western Midlands and Settle. Much light has thus been thrown upon the true correlation of the upper- most Avonian rocks in widely distant areas. These results will be published at an early date. ITI.—Paleontological Work. The paleontological work arising out of these two papers has been very considerable, and is as yet incomplete. Minute study of the material collected, and comparison with that already gathered from the South-western Province and other British localities, has shown the necessity of a reinvestigation of the value of the characters upon which certain genera have been founded—e.g., the presence of a septum in Orthotetids, the existence of original fringes in Athyrids, the septation of Zaphrentids, «ec. T am also engaged upon the study of the types of Carboniferous Brachiopods preserved in the British Museum, and in this task Mr, 8S. S. Buckman has very kindly placed his long experience at my service. T have also to acknowledge the great help which I have received from Mr. R. G. Carruthers in studying the Zaphrentids, and from many fellow- geologists who have sent me material for examination, and thus allowed me to keep in touch with the progress of research outside the areas in which I have myself worked. So much remains to be done that I feel justified in asking for the continuance of this Committee for yet another year, INVESTIGATION OF PRE-DEVONIAN BEDS OF THE MENDIPS. 315 Investigation of the pre-Devonian Beds of the Mendips.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. B. Woopwarb (Chairman), Pro- fessor 8. H. Reynoups (Secretary), Professor C. Luoyp Morcan, and Rev. H. H. Winwoop. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tue principal objects which the Committee had in view were two in number :— (1) To obtain a further series of fossils from the newly discovered Silurian beds of the area. (2) To investigate the distribution in the field of a peculiar coarse ashy conglomerate, and to ascertain its relations to the other deposits of the neighbourhood. With these ends in view a series of seven trenches was dug, and the information obtained from them was incorporated in a paper by the Secretary.! The most easterly of these trenches was dug in a field about 300 yards 8.8.W. of Tadhill Farm. It was carried to a depth of about 6 feet, and after passing through some 18 inches of surface-material, entered a deposit consisting mainly of very fine yellow and brown ash, with subordinate bands of coarse ash. Many of the bands were crowded with fossils, which were identified by Mr. F. R. C. Reed.? The series ot fossils, though undoubtedly Silurian, and, in Mr. Reed’s opinion, probably of Upper Llandovery age, was insufficient to determine the point with certainty. A second trench dug at a point about 100 yards to the north of that in the fossiliferous tuff proved to be in trap (pyroxene andesite). The remaining five trenches were all dug in the neighbourhood of the rifle butts on Beacon Hill (about a quarter of a mile to the north of Beacon Farm), where the coarse ashy conglomerate was originally exposed in a target pit. Four trenches dug at different points in the neighbour- hood of the rifle-butts showed that the coarse ashy conglomerate here probably occupies the whole area between the northern and southern out- crops of the Old Red Sandstone. A fifth trench was opened on the slope of the hill to the north of the rifle-butts in hope of ascertaining the relation of the Old Red Sandstone to the igneous series, but after passing through 9 fect of Old Red Sandstone this trench was abandoned. The thanks of the Committee are due to the Marquess of Bath and Sir Richard Paget, the owners of the land on which the excavations took place, to Mr. Ashman of the Beacon Farm and Mr. Huntly of Tadhill Farm (tenants), and to Mr. E. C. Treplin and Messrs. Wainwright aid Hurd (agents). The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 25/., for the purpose of investigating the pre-Devonian rocks of the Bristol district. ' Published in the Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. 1xiii. (1907), pp. 217-238, * See list op. cit., pp. 226 and 227. 316 REPORTS ON 'THE STATE OF SCIENCE, Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Mr. J .K. Marr (Chairman), Dr. WHEELTON Hinp (Secretary), Dr. F. A. Baraer, Mr. G. C. Crick, Dr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G. J. HinbDE, Professor P. F. Kenpatt, Mr. R. Kipston, Mr. G. W. LampLuGu, Professor G. A. Lepour, Mr. B. N. Peacu, Mr. A. Strawan, Dr. A. VauGHAN, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. THE part of the Report for 1906 which deals with the carboniferous zones in Flintshire was founded on work done by Dr. Hind and Mr. Stobbs. Their conclusions were presented in a paper read before the Geological Society of London on April 4, 1906. The Committee are not unanimously in agreement with some of the conclusions. On reference to the ‘ Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc.,’ No. 827 (1906), pp. 88-92, it will be seen that differences of opinion exist both as to the sequence and classification of the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire. In 1895, at the meeting of the Association at Ipswich, a paper was read before Section C by Messrs. Garwood and Marr in which they suggested ‘that a Committee be appointed to inquire into the possibility of dividing the carboniferous rocks into zones, to call the attention of local observers to the desirability of collecting fossils with this view, and, if possible, to retain the services of eminent specialists to whom these fossils may be submitted.’ + As the result of that paper the present Committee was appointed at the same meeting. Much has since been done, largely owing to the work of the Com- mittee, and especially by the researches of Dr. A. Vaughan, whose well- known paper on the ‘ Paleontological Sequence in the Carboniferous Limestone of the British Area’ has in an eminently successful manner shown the possibility of the task for the consideration of which the Committee was initially appointed. In these circumstances the Committee feel that the purpose for which they were appointed has been accomplished. Furthermore, another Com- mittee has recently been appointed to enable Dr. Vaughan to continue his researches on the Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone of the British Isles with a grant. It seems undesirable to ask the Committee of Recommendations to make grants to two Committees for work of the same character. The Committee do not seek therefore reappointment. The Committee in submitting this final report desire to place on record their appreciation of the energy and enthusiasm of their secretary, Dr. Wheelton Hind. Report on the work done by means of the Grant and otherwise. Drawn up by the Secretary. Mr. H. Bolton, in an admirable paper, brought before the Geological Society the work he had done on the fauna of a marine horizon at the base of the Bristol coalfield, a work towards which a portion of the grant was applied some two years ago. His paper will doubtless appear in the Society’s Quarterly Journal, and it is unnecessary to say more here. ' Report Brit. Assoc,, 1895 [Ipswich], p. 696. ON LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONLFEROUS ROCKS. 317 Mr. Tait, collector of the Geological Survey of Scotland, has been examining the Millstone grit succession east of Lancaster this summer, and Mr. Watson, of Owens College, has been working in the upper part of the Valley of the Nidd. It has not been possible to examine their collec- tions in time for this report. The Secretary was fortunate enough to secure a fine collection of plants obtained in an abortive attempt to find coal at Thirshfield, near Grassington, in the Valley of the Wharf. The exact place of the sinking is lat. 54° 3’, long. 2° 2’, and the shales are stated to be those which occur below a bed of Millstone grit. Mr. Kidston has kindly examined the specimens for him, and the following list is the result :— Sphenopteris elegans Bet. Sphenophyllum tenerrimun Ett. sp. Calymmatotheca Stangeri Stur. Lepidodendron sp. Rhodia Moravica Ett. sp. Lepidostrobus sp. Sphenopteris sp. Small Lycopodiaceous bract. Calamites Ostraviensis Stuy. Rihabdocarpus? sp. Calamites sp. Mr. Kidston states, with regard to the horizon: ‘I have not the slightest doubt that the bed these specimens come from is on the horizon of the Upper Limestone group of the Carboniferous Limestone series of Scotland.’ At any rate we know that the Lower Limestone group of Scotland has a fauna which indicates the Upper Dibunophyllum zone, Composition and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. HARKER (Chairman), Mr. E. GREENLY (Secretary), Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. C. A. Mat.ey, and Professor K. J. P. ORTON. APPENDIX.— Methods of Rock Analysis. By JOHN OWEN HuGHES. + page 323 As stated in the Interim Report for last year, the problem first selected for a work has been that of the origin of the hornfels and other meta- morphic rocks of the heart of the island. These rocks have been variously described as ‘halleflinta,’ pelite, and altered felsite. As their field- relation and microscopic characters will probably be discussed before long in another place, and as the analytical work is still incomplete, sufficient only will be said here to give an idea of the present nature of the rocks and the objects of the analysis. The numbers attached are those of the slides in the Secretary’s cabinet, and the localities are referred to sheets of the Six-inch Ordnance maps. The analyses given have been drawn up by Mr. John Owen Hughes, B.Sc., giving full details concerning the work, nearly all of which has been executed by himself. Unless otherwise stated the analysis is by Mr. Hughes. No. 2154, 100a, 4004. These are all from the typical hornfels, and selected as varieties of it. They are fine-grained, dull, greenish rocks, with sometimes a slight schistosity, and are composed of quartz, with chlorite, fine mica, some iron ore, and accessory minerals, They do not differ much in microscopic structure. No. 1004 contains dark spots, which are aggregates of chlorite full of inclusions of iron-ores and other minerals. 318 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. No. 4004 was selected because it was collected from a point only a few yards from where a specimen, collected by Mr. Barrow when visiting the district with the Secretary in 1899, showed klastic structure. This rock is banded. It is possible that in 2154 and 1004 the alkalies are too high, and we hope to revise those figures. No, 215a. 7TS.W.* Old Quarry’ Ynys Fawr. : I II. SiO, : : é . 60°36 59 79 SLO SRN Seeie rt 18°16 KeEole se: : ; =) G768 6 23 FeO : ; 1:88 CaO 389 MgO 2:27 K,0 | ~.9x : Na,O J 29 718 H, 0-17 100-21 99°57 No. 100. 17 S.1W. 530 feet B.N.E. Llanfaelog Church. 1 INE Si eustwteged Buns tee 58°76 RL OSs i bat) Sedeotad & OP 18:63 NC Se ea a Sar 65) FeO : : é - os 3°39 CaO “ : 1 23 MgO : ; 2 K,O “9. / or (At SR aeeae 9-01 co, : 2 i . 043 0-42 H,0 ; : C31 100°79 100-41 No. 400a. 17 S.W. Coast, at Bone y Bedd. I. Il. SiO, ; : ; . 74:02 73°82 Mss be! at ating reas Pao ¢ wis witelieot en gOey FeO ; - ; eee iy CaO , : . pemree Wi(0) MgO . : , Abie a Bee) K,O ; : ; (a) 2°44 (b) 2°42 (c) 1:26 (d) 1:44 Na,0°* 3 : 2» B28 3°22 3:24 3:12 H,O0 : ; P op ood! In above rock SiO, (determination II.) is by Miss C. Pearson, B.Sc., and alkalies (c) and (d) by Dr. Orton. ‘ No. 112a is from the flaggy mica schists into which the hornfels passes on its south-east side—that is, the side away from the granite. The rocks into which these schists pass in their turn, still further away, have yet to he analysed. ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 319 No. 1124. 17 S.W. Porth Nobla. SS. Side. I, I. Til. IV. Si, : - : . 70°37 70°33 Al,O, : 5 Fate 14:95 HeOy. . 2 : . 0:34 0-71 FeO d : ¢ . 424 4°32 412 4°58 CaO ‘ - - ae elS 1:26 MgO A : ge a1s93 _ 1:84: K,O : ‘ ; ee a20 2°34 2-01 Na,O eo 2°96 2:53 H,O (Hygroscopic) 5 US 0:13 H,O (combined) . . 1:03 1:08 99°84 99-92 Nos. 18a and 2144 are banded, highly crystalline rocks, which occur ' within the zone of hornfels, but are much coarser and more saccharoid, and this parallel structure a banding rather than a foliation. perhaps be called phenero-crystalline hornfels. In 18a the dominant mineral is muscovite ; in 2144 a pale hornblende. In 18a tourmaline is an abundant accessory. No, 18a. 12.8.2. South of Holyhead Road near BM, 96:5. They may L. IL. it. SiO, : ¢ S . 62°91 63°49 63°53 TiO, ; s . : 053 Ep ed OS eee 25-97 25°57 ee. 5 | ee eae ee FeO ‘ ; ' . 447 Al,O; + Fe,Q,, including FeO CaO : F A sh Le4T 1:80 1:31 Wee os seg ad 2:32 248 fete st. ae Oe NazO. : : . 299 co, . O19 : H.0 (hygroscopic) . » Oral d 0:28 H,O (combined) . i 83 : : 1-78 100°53 Analyses IT. and III. above, of SiO,, Al,O,+Fe,0,, CaO and MgO, are by Miss C. Pearson, B.Sc., and the second determination of H,O (hygroscopic and combined) by Mr. R. W. Everett. : No. 214a, 13 NW. 600 feet N.W. ‘MW? of Maengryn. It, Il. i kh a ak oe GEBY FTA 60°33 Al,O, ; : - 5 lireika) 16°51 HesOn « : e Sus é : 1:20 FeO . Z ci tae eatets) ; 5 4°81 MnO : : 5 . traces CaO - F 5 oor Orel 5:25 MgO 3 - a 5. 288 2°65 K,0 6 : 3 » 3°59 3°80 Na,O E xe 3 OF 3°85 HO (at1l0°). . . 0-13 0-17 H,O (above 110°) . . 0-95 1-03 99-64 99°60 520 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. No. 151A is a Sillimanite Gneiss, from the heart of the central Its peculiarity of composition will be at complex, and highly crystalline. once obvious. No. 151a, 12 V.B. Big boss N. Tyddyngyrfa. 8i0, Al,O, Fe,0, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O CO, . - . H,0 (at 110°) 5 H,O (above 110°) . Site 9 : : Lic 54:01 99-04 N.E. corner. Il. 53°99 2105 1:23 10°35 2°79 The percentage MgO in above analysis is probably too low. The second determination of alkalies is by Dr. Orton. Nos. 269 and 292-3 are two highly crystalline marbles from the mica schist zone, that of 1124. 269a is the beautiful Bodwrog Limestone. The other is a rock not before described. The insoluble residues consist of micas, calc, silicates, titaniferous minerals, and zircon, besides quartz. No. 269, 13. 8.W. Bodwrog, B. of Church St. Trerog. Residues insoluble in HCl. Fe,0,+Al,0, . F MnO. x 5 ° CaO . 5 5 MgO . ° . . ° CO, . . . . 99°82 .”. percentage CaCO, = 89°48 Nos, 292 and 293s, 13. N.B. Ddraenog. 8. of wood, about 4 mile to N.N.E. Residues insoluble in HCl ¥e,0, + Al,0, MnO. CaO . t MgO. : , : COP. - : : i: 23% 6 > 98°11 .”. percentage CaCO, = 66°57 2nd Limestone from W. rE; 4:93 2°02 50°17 0:12 42-01 99°25 89°59 Il. 23°22 6°94 37:36 0:72 30°42 98°66 66°71 Slightly different specimens from adjacent parts of a slightly variable rock were mixed and analysed as one. Besides these rocks from the hornfels and adjacent Zones, certain others have been analysed for various reasons, ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 321 Of these No. 224 is one of the jaspers described in a paper by the Secretary. It will be seen that this is wholly unlike any igneous rock, being essentially composed of silica, with a little impurity, chiefly iron oxide. The analysis of a fine red phyllite associated with this rock is nearly completed. No, 224a, 18 V.W. In Limestone 900 feet S.W. of Hendrebach. iT; II. SiO Rumreese ics 97/30 97-02 ANG as Lente aay 0:30 FesOgahtens eo ee. G4 1:78 99:28 99°10 Alkalies were estimated but not separated :— K,0 + Na,O between 0:56 and 0°46 No. 3124 is one of the pink limestones associated with the jaspers. It is a true dolomite, but interesting from an unusual quantity of manganese, of which we hope to give a definite estimate next year. This, and not iron, is evidently the colouring matter, giving the peculiar delicate tint of rose. It occurs in the carbonates, which must therefore approach a little to Rhodocrosite. No, 3124. By Mr. Wm. Roszrrs, B.S¢. Lianddnyn Island, Breakwater Cove. IL. Il. Residues insoluble in 20 per cent. HCl. 5°80 5:87 Fe,0, + Al,O, . : i : : =) 92300 2°75 CaO : : . ; : i . 29°89 29°97 MgO : : : : . . 18-63 18-89 Co, : : 5 c 4 : . 42°80 42°88 .. percentage CaCO, = 53°37 53°51 - MgCO, = 38:92 39°46 The proportion in true dolomite would be :— CaCO, : MgCO,=64:35 : 45-65, No. 242a is a dark schist which gives a black streak. It occurs in the mica schist zone of the central district. Rutile is abundant. The presence of graphite has been determined qualitatively, and two estimates also made ; but as Mr. Hughes wishes to revise these, the final result is held over until next year. No. 2704, also from the mica schist zone, has been examined on account of the abundance of Rutile. No. 270a. 13.S.W. Bwloh y Fen. 500 fect S.W. MP. Holyhead 14. SiO, = 42-94 TiO, = 2°54 ' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1902, p. 425. 1907. Y 322 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TiO, was determined by the gravimetric method, being precipitated as metatitanic acid, ignited and weighed as TiOy. No. 3874 is a Mica Zoisite Diorite which occurs in the mica schists. Of this a silica percentage only was taken, and following upon it are several other rocks of which partial analyses or only silica percentage estimates were made. No. 3874. 21 V.W. Coast North of Aberffraw. 600 feet L.0 Ynysoedd duon. I II. SiO, : ; é ped 02 47°10 No. 377A is an epidotie schist occurring in the mica schists of the Holyhead region, and of importance as an horizon. It is evidently a basic rock. No, 377A. 16 N.E. 300 feet North of Cilbach, Borthwen Rhoscolyn. I. 10E SiO, : : = . 42°23 42°30 Nos. 3334, 335A, 336A are from the late dykes of the island, some of which, at any rate—possibly all—belong to the latest of all its rocks except the pleistocene. No. 333a is the prevalent type, an andesitic or sub-basic dolerite. The other two are much coarser, 336A containing some hornblende, and 3354 being a true olivine dolerite. Many rocks of the group were described in papers by the Chairman, and their age discussed in a paper by the Secretary. | No. 333A. Llanddnyn Island. Coast North of Ffynnon Sais. SiO, = 50-92 FeO, = 14:74 C105 y= 8:51 The above analysis is by Miss E. Reyner. No. 335a. 11 MW. Holyhead. Wall's End. Penlas Cove. sid, . By te . : . 42°34 Fe,0O,+Al,0, . : 5 . 27°88 CaO . ; : 3 : . 874 MgO . - : : Ame RD The above analysis is by Mr. Wm. Roberts, B.Sc. No. 3364. 11 M.W. Holyhead. Llaingoch. SHOE os ; é ; ; . 48:03 Fe,0, . ; ; ; ; peeei((roul RE peed ccf 0.) ee CaO . K : é 6 tsa MgO . : j ; ed ene The above analysis is by Mr. W. C. Evans. ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 320 A number of qualitative determinations have been made also. Most interesting among these are three of barytes from veins in Bodafon mountain and in the carboniferous limestone; one of graphite in a peculiar rock from Llanwenilwyfo ; and one of malachite in a mica schist near Valley. Copper pyrites were also determined in a vein-stone in Ordovician shales near Rhosgoch. Mr. Hughes contributes a report on the methods used, particularly on the precautions that have been taken to exclude error, and adds comments on a number of the analyses. The Committee ask to be reappointed, and to retain the small balance left from the grant. APPENDIX. Methods of Rock Analysis. By Joun Owen Hucuss, B.Sc. The weight of rock required for a complete analysis, adequately repre: senting the average of the rock-mass, varies with the texture and homo- geneity of the particular rock. For the first four or five analyses samples weighing only about five or six grams were available ; these, however, were very homogeneous in character, and the accuracy of the analyses would not suffer greatly from this cause. In the remaining rocks it was thought advisable to use larger quantities, thirty to fifty grams being the usual ‘grind’ prepared. In this way, after thorough mixing, it is possible to obtain a sample which better represents the whole rock-mass than if a smaller weight had been taken. specially is this the case where there is banding or veining. In all cases the outside or weathered surface of the rock was rejected, the fresh cores being alone used. Preparation of the Sample.—The time and the labour involved in the process of grinding the rock are great, and it is desirable that these should be reduced as much as possible. The following different methods have been employed :— (1) The rock was ground up in a ‘diamond’ steel mortar in small quantities at a time, and the resultant mixture sifted through a ninety- mesh wire sieve. The part which did not pass through was once more crushed in the mortar, and again sifted, the process being repeated until all the rock had been in this way reduced to powder. (2) The rock was broken into small pieces by means of a hardened steel hammer on a hardened stee] plate. These were then crushed in the steel mortar and reduced to powder as in (1). (3)! In this method the rock was broken up ina special steel revolving crusher (sold by Becker & Co.), and reduced directly to a state of fine powder, most of which passed directly through the ninety-mesh sieve. The part remaining when passed again through the crusher once or twice was pulverised completely, any hard particles being finally ground up by hand in an agate mortar. This last method might be open to one objection—viz., contamination of the rock powder by metallic iron from the crusher ; but this being of ‘ This method could only be employed for two rocks, as the crusher was not bought until March. Y2 3824 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. specially hardened material and the sample of rock so big, the chance of contamination is very slight, whereas the saving of time is enormous. The powder thus obtained is sufficiently fine for the main fusion, but for the determination of ferrous oxide and alkalies the rock must be in a much finer state of division. For this purpose some of the main stock of powder was taken and ground by hand in an agate mortar until it was sufficiently fine to pass through a 120-mesh sieve. Apparatus and Chemicals.—All fusions were carried out in platinum crucibles, platium dishes being also employed for all evaporations ; a large silver basin was used in the estimation of alkalies. The glass beakers and flasks were all of a special make (R glass), very resistant to the action of solvents. The pipettes, burette and other measuring instruments were all standardised. The reagents used were Merck’s (specially pure); these were first carefully tested for impurities, and corrections applied for them where necessary. One sample of hydrofluoric acid contained an appreciable amount of iron, which had to be corrected for, and the calcium carbonate contained alkalies. The amount of alkalies present was determined in 20 grams of the carbonate, and the values obtained were used to appl corrections in the determination of alkalies in the rocks. Freshly distilled water was used throughout. Methods.— Estimation of SiO,, Al,O3, Fe,O;, MnO, CaO, MgO. For the determination of these about a gram of rock-powder was fused with about six times its weight of fusion mixture until decomposition was complete. From this fused mass the silica was separated and esti- mated. The metals were converted into chlorides and precipitated from solution in their proper order, iron and aluminium as hydroxides, the Fe,0, estimated by standard permanganate after reduction with H,S, and the Al,O, determined by difference ; manganese was precipitated as sulphide, calcium as oxalate, with subsequent conversion into oxide, magnesium as phosphate, the precipitates in all cases being dissolved and reprecipitated to ensure their purity. Ferrous oxide was determined in about half a gram of the specially ground powder by solution in a mixture of sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids at a boiling temperature and immediate titration with standard permanganate solution. Alkalies—For the determination of alkalies the Lawrence Smith method was adopted. The method was first tested by making a determination with a weighed quantity of pure potassium and sodium chlorides, and it was found to be quite reliable. About half a gram of the specially ground powder was intimately mixed with ammonium chloride and calcium carbonate, and fused. The alkalies are thus converted into chlorides. The mass was thoroughly leached with water, and, after separating all traces of ammonium chloride and calcium carbonate, the mixed alkali chlorides were weighed. The potassium was separated as platinichloride and weighed, and the sodium determined by difference. A correction had to be applied for the alkalies present in the weighed quantity of calcium carbonate taken. For the determination of CO, a weighed quantity of rock-powder was treated with hydrochloric acid, and the CO,, after thorough drying and purifying, absorbed in a Yj tube containing soda lime, precautions being taken to keep the whole apparatus full of a current of air free from CO,. ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 325 Hygroscopic water was determined by heating about a gram of powder in an air oven to a temperature of about 105° to 110° for an hour, and the loss in weight found. The total water (hygroscopic and combined) was estimated by igniting about a gram of powder, contained in a porcelain boat, in a current of dry pure air, and absorbing the water in a weighed calcium chloride tube. For the analysis of the limestones 269 A, 292, and 293 A, the method of procedure was as follows :— About a gram of rock-powder was treated with excess of concentrated hydrochloric acid in a platinum dish at the temperature of the water-bath and evaporated to complete dryness. The residue was treated with dilute HCl and the insoluble part filtered off and weighed. The metals present in solution as chlorides were then estimated in the usual manner. Investigation of the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- shire, and at various localities in the Hast Riding of Yorkshire.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LamPLuan (Chairman), Mr. J. W. STatHER (Secretary), Dr. TEMPEST ANDER- Son, Professor J. W. Carr, Rev. W. LowEr Carter, Dr. A. R, DwerryHouse, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H. Howarru, Rev W. Jounson, Professor P. F. KENDALL, and Messrs. G. W. B. Macturk, EK. T. Newron, H. M. PLatnauverR, CLEMENT REID, and THOMAS SHEPPARD. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) As was intimated in our report for 1905, the work during the past year has been directed to the investigation of the deposit at Bielsbeck, or Bealsbeck, in the Vale of York, which was examined between seventy and eighty years ago by the Rey. W. V. Harcourt, and yielded the remains of numerous extinct mammals. The object of our investigation was mainly to ascertain if any further evidence could be obtained to show the relation of this fossiliferous deposit to the glacial drifts. The work, which was carried out under the superintendence of Professor P. F. Kendall, Messrs. G. W. B. Macturk and Thomas Sheppard, and the Secretary, confirmed the statements of the previous observers : (1) that the deposits yielding the bones rested immediately on the Keuper Marl ; (2) that they have been accumulated in a boggy hollow on an old land surface ; and (3) that at this particular locality there is no material that can be assigned to the direct agency of ice. It therefore still remains a debatable question whether the bone-bearing material was accumulated before, during, or since the Glacial period ; and it would appear that the elucidation of this matter will depend upon the investiga- tion of a wide area to determine what was the condition of the Vale of York during that period. The absence of glacial deposits in this part of the country may, on the one hand, imply that the area was never glaciated ; or, on the other hand, it may mean that glacial deposits once existing have been entirely removed, If the former be the case, the bone-bearing deposits might belong to the pre-Glacial or to any younger stage ; while if the latter 326 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. supposition should find confirmation, the deposit must be later than the glaciation. The site of the original excavation is still visible, the hollow from which the ‘marl’ was dug being now a reedy pond. The new sections consisted of four pits sunk in the vicinity of the pond. These pits were roughly from two to four yards square, and were carried down until the Keuper Marl was reached or the work was stopped by the influx of water. They were supplemented by several bore-holes put down to determine the extent of the «deposit. The sections revealed in the pits were as follows :— Section 1. Feet Inches Surface soil . : Sl) 9 Sand, with small pieces of angular chalk and flint 4 2 0 Gravel of rounded chalk and sub-angular flint : 1 6 Silty blue-black marl or loam, the upper surface very irregular and penetrated by ‘pipes and pockets of sme from the bed above : 3 9 Marl as above, with ‘specks of vivianite . 1 0 Black marl 6 0 Lighter-coloured marl, passing downwards into gravel ( chiefly flints} : 6 =) Total Beat fected - 22 — Section 2. Feet Inches Surface soil. 2 3 A ; : : : : SaR)) 9 Sand Gravel Dark silty marl, with gravel 1 9 2 0 ‘ ; ‘ ; ee Dark marl ; : ; : : ; ; : A HE: 4 Bo 0 6 0 Lighter mar! 0 0 Section 3. Soil . 5 : ‘ ‘ : c P . : “ set Sand 2 Gravel 3 Grey marl, passing dow nwards into ‘black 5 : : ni Coarse oravel é 4 . 5 : 4 : oO Solid Keuper Marl, blue . 3 Solid Keuper Marl, red i 8 Section 4. Feet Inches Soil . : : . 5 : 3 2 : : oY) 9 Sand ‘ 5 : : : ; 2 ; 5 : MS 6 Gravel. 1 6 Keuper Marl, its surface Aipping a at 1 in 3 towards the old marl pit . ; : 6 3 0 From the black muds or marls which occurred below the superficial gravels in these pits the following fossils were obtained :— Bones.—For the following determination we are indebted to Dr. C. W. Andrews, F.R.S., of the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington. “I ON THE FOSSILIFEROUS DRIFT DEPOSITS AT KIRMINGTON. 32 MAMMALIAN REMATNS, Cervus sp Bos sp. (two vertebre). Bos sp. (smaller than longifrons or primigenius). Bos primigenius. Elephas (rib and left scapuia). The bones were not confined to any particular layer, but were dis- tributed sporadically throughout the mass of the marl. The overlying gravels, however, contained neither bones nor other vestige of contempo- raneous life, possibly because of their removal by percolating water. Shells.—The molluscan remains distributed through the marl belong to existing land and fresh-water species, many of which are still living in the neighbourhood. They are all species of wide range, and afford no definite indications as to climate. These species, kindly determined for the Committee by Mr. J. W. Taylor, of Leeds, are as follows :— Moutvs¢a. LTimnea peregra. Cochlicopa lubrica. » palustris. Carychium minimum. » truneatula. Pisidium amnicum. Succinea putris. » _ pusillum. nA elegans. B nitidum. Hyalinia nitidula. . milium, Xonites fulvus. , obtusale. Bythinia tentaculata Valvata cristata. Helix nemoralis. », hispida, var. concinna. » pygmea. Planorbis spirorbis. » pulchella. i contortus. Vertigo antivertige. * glaber. » pygmea. - marginatus. Plants,—The material also contained plant remains, but was difficult to wash and sift. Some small seeds were, however, picked out by Mr. Stainforth, and were submitted to Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., for deter- mination, who recognised the following :— SEEDS or PLANTS. Ranunculus sceleratus. ms repens. “iola sp. @nanthe aquatica Poir. Rumen. Sparganiwm erectum ? Carex. Alisma plantago. With regard to the above list Mr. Reid remarks: ‘If these were all that were found at Bielsbeck, they are an exceptionally poor set, which shows nothing as to climatic conditions.’ ‘There are only one or two seeds of meadow plants among them, and no dry soil plants.’ Insects.—Besides the above, the deposit contains the remains of beetles. but much of the material has not yet been specifically determined. The following may be mentioned :— CoLEOPTERA. Donacia (sp.?) (an almost complete specimen). Hister (sp. ?) (elytron). Further Notes on the Deposits.—The Bielsbeck bone-bearing deposits apparently occupy a depression or hollow in the Keuper Marl of 328 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. undetermined width, and it appears as though this hollow is isolated and inclosed by the marl], though it is just possible that it may represent a portion of a filled-in valley or trench, the direction of which has not been traced. Scattered through the marl at various depths were angular or slightly rounded black flints in large numbers, and these in some cases formed a definite layer. Along with the flints were occasional pebbles of quartz and of sandstone (probably Carboniferous). None of these pebbles showed striz or other indication of glacial action. The overlying gravel was mainly composed of flint and chalk from the neighbouring Wolds, along with scattered fragments of quartz, sandstone, é&c. (like those found in the underlying marl), and G'ryphe and other fossils from the Lias. This gravel is the feather-edge of a wide fan which can be traced up to the mouth of a valley that drains from the Wolds at Market Weighton. In the thicker parts of this gravel, towards the mouth of the valley, other pebbles besides the above have been detected, including the well-known porphyrite which is characteristic of the upper part of the East Yorkshire drifts. The wide extent and depth of this gravel suggests that it has been spread out by floods from the melting ice, when the ice-margin abutted upon the eastern slopes cf the Wolds. The present valley appears to be too short to supply a stream powerful enough to spread a sheet of gravel of these dimensions. The thanks of the Committee are due to W. H. Fox, Esq., for per- mission to excavate ; to the tenant, Mr. Howes ; to Mr. W. H. Crofts ; and to the contractor, Mr. Thomas Moate. The Committee had contemplated work on another site in East York- shire, but have found difficulty in obtaining the requisite permission. Pending a final settlement of this matter, they ask for reappointment, with power to use the unexpended balance of their grant. South African Strata.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. W. GREGORY (Chairman), Professor A. Youna (Secre- tary), Mr. W. ANDERSON, Professor R. Broom, Dr. G. 8. CorsTor- PHINE, Mr. Watcor Gisson, Dr. F. H. Hatca, Mr. T. H. Houtuanp, Mr. H. Kynaston, Dr. Moteneraarr, Mr. A. J. C. Motynevux, Mr. A. W. Rocers, Mr. E. H. L. ScHwarz, and Professor R. B. YounG, appointed to investigate and report on the Correlation and Age of South African Strata, and on the question of a Uniform Stratigraphical Nomenclature. THE Committee have continued the discussion of the subject by corre- spondence ; but as the members of the Committee are scattered through South Africa, India, and Europe, the work has been slow. It will there- fore be impossible to issue a report in time for the Leicester meeting, as had been hoped. Preliminary reports have been drawn up by the members of the Com- mittee, representing Cape Colony, the Transvaal, and Rhodesia. These reports have been submitted to all the members of the Committee, who have been asked to vote by post on the chief points at issue. It is hoped that a report will be prepared in time for the 1908 meeting of the Association. ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 329 Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Professor P. F. Kennan (Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Professor W. J. Sotzas, Mr. R. H. TippEMaN, Rev. S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, and Messrs. F. M. Burton, J. Lomas, A. R. DwErRyHOousSE, J. W. StTaTHER, W. T. TUCKER, and F. W. Harmer, appointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles, and to take measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tue present report records a comparatively small series of erratics, and to this three causes have conspired ; the Committee consider that unless some new and significant facts of distribution are disclosed no useful results would accrue from the multiplication of records of well-known rocks from localities contiguous to those in which similar rocks have already been noted. The early date of the Leicester meeting has thrown the pre- paration of the report upon a time when the Secretary’s leisure-time is limited, and when many of the active workers are afield ; finally, a very large series of specimens are in the hands of the section-cutters. It is hoped that when they have been submitted to microscopic examination a valuable series of identifications will be obtained, especially among the basalts and dolerites of the east of England. Dr. Flett has kindly pro- mised to give the Committee his invaluable assistance in this work. The boulders recorded in the present report call for brief comment. The Shap granite and Borrowdale volcanic rocks recorded from Gelts- dale are extensions of the known range of these rocks across the outer ridge of the Cross Fell escarpment, though not beyond the drainage basin of the Solway. The series of records furnished by Messrs. Culpin and Grace are of very great value and importance, as they tend not only to connect the isolated groups of erratics in the country between Doncaster and Barnsley, but also to extend the area of boulder-strewn country in a north-easterly and south-westerly direction. Some light may possibly be thrown upon the remarkable group at Crosspool, near Sheffield. Mr. Hawksworth’s discovery of Silurian grit in a high-level gravel at Rothwell Haigh establishes the superior limit of age of that interesting deposit. The identification by Mr. J. H. Howarth of an example of a dolerite of the same type as that of Fans encourages the hope that other competent petrologists with experience of the basic rocks in other areas may clear up the uncertanity that has enshrouded the origin of the basalt boulders of Eastern England. Mr. Maule Cole’s observations may ultimately prove to be outside the purview of a Committee dealing with erratic blocks, as it has been sug- gested that the quartz pebbles which strew the higher Wolds of Lincoln- shire and Yorkshire are merely the relics, practically in situ, of Tertiary gravels that once overspread the area. In the meantime, however, while the question is swb judice, an impartial record must be kept. The occurrence of finely preserved ammonites from the Upper Lias under the Wold escarpment near South Cave derives its significance from 330 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the fact that there is no known outcrop in the neighbourhood which could have yielded the specimens. Notes are promised for next year’s report showing that, just as has proved to be the case with the Upper Cretaceous belemnites, some of the Liassic ammonites of the Drift of Holderness appear to be aliens in Yorkshire. The Committee welcome the promise of renewed activity on the part of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, that has done much good work in the past. A considerable change of the personnel of the Committee is necessitated by the retirement of Dr. Marr from the position of Chairman, which he has held since the year 1899, and of Professor P. F. Kendall from the Secretariate, to which he succeeded upon the retirement of the late Dr. Crosskey. The Committee ask for reappointment, with Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse as Secretary, and Professor Kendall as Chairman. CUMBERLAND. Geltsdale.— Reported by Professor P. F. KEnpatu. In the cone of dejection of the cloud-burst of 1894 in New Water, just below Henshaw Wood, Shap granite, Borrowdale lavas and ashes. YORKSHIRE. Communicated by the Yorkshive Boulder Committee (Secretary, J. H. Howarrn, /.G.S.). Reported by H. Cupin and G. GRACE. Bentley, near Doncaster.—In the sinking of the Bentley pit, two miles north of Doncaster, boulder clay has been passed through at a depth of 55 to 75 feet below O.D. The boulders are principally Permian sandstone. There are grits, gannisters, and Carboniferous limestones. Coal Measure shale with Anthracomya Phillipsi also occurs. Tickhill, near Donzaster.—In a distance of two miles the South York- shire Joint Railway has opened out four cuttings through boulder clay. The most southerly cutting is at All Hallows Hill, near Tickhill, and a little over six miles south of Doncaster. In its deepest part the clay exceeds 20 feet in thickness, the base not being exposed. ‘The boulders are Permian limestone up to 12 cubic feet. There are grits, gannisters, and Carboniferous limestones, the latter ranging up to 2-foot cubes. Some of the Carboniferous limestone blocks contain Productus cora, P. scabriculo-costatus, P. longispinus, and Pterinopecten. There are a few Lake District boulders. The stones are sub-angular and are well scratched. Boulders reported are as follows: All Hallows Hill, near Tickhill—Lake District volcanic ash, 1-foot cube. Kirk Sandal.— From trench on South Yorkshire Junction Railway, 13 mile south of Kirk Sandal Church—Lake District volcanic ash 18 x 13 x 13 inches. This is 3 miles N.E of the well-known patch of boulder clay at Balby. ie) ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 351 Alverley.—| mile N.W. of Alverley—Barrowdale andesite 6 x4 x 4 inches. This is one mile 8.W. by W. of Balby. Stapleton Park.—24 miles 8. of Knottingley—Lake District volcanic ash 18 x 10 x 6 inches. Lound, near Retford.—14 mile E. of the village of Lound—Magnesian limestone, grits, and a small fragment of volcanic rock, probably Lake District volcanic. Reported by KE. Hawkswortu, Rothwell Haigh, near Leeds. Silurian grit, hematite. Reported by L. GuaveERt, jun., Sheffield. Hornsea.—In a series of rocks sent to me (J. H. H.) by Mr. Glauert, and collected on the shore at Hornsea, are two exactly similar to the olivine dolerite of Fans, Berwickshire. Reported by Professor P. F. Kunpauy. Pateley Bridge.—At head of Colthouse Gill, 850 feet O.D., fragments of the ‘shell bed.’ These erratics are further up the valley and at a much higher altitude than any known outcrop of the shell bed on the south side of the Nidd Valley. Transmitted by the East Riding Boulder Committee (J. W. STATHER, Secretary). Reported by the Rev. E. Mauer Cote. Wetwang.—In the driftless area round the vicarage the scanty soil covering the chalk contains large numbers of quartz pebbles. Reported by G. W. Mactrurk. South Cave.—At 200 feet O.D., near the railway station, a fine specimen of Ammonites fibulatus in a bed of rounded chalk gravel. On the Beverley Road, at 125 feet O.D., a specimen of Dactylioceras (Ammo- nites) commune. The occurrence of these two very fine specimens of ammonites from the Upper Lias is a striking fact, as the Lias outcrop lies about a mile i a a to the west, and the Upper Lias is very feebly represented, 1f at all. IstE or Man. Reported by T. Axon, of Stockport. Glen May.—A boulder of grey granite about 9 feet in length. [The rock is characterised by the occurrence of biotite and light grey idiomorphic crystals of felspar with zoned structure. It much resembles a granite collected by Mr. Axon and the writer near the eastern end of the clints of Dromore, Kirkcudbrightshire—P. F. K.] 302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The Iron Ore Supply of the Scandinavian Peninsula. By Hy. SJ6GREN. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewtenso.] THE iron ore deposits of the Scandinavian countries are not uniformly distributed all over the peninsula, but confined to certain ore-bearing areas, or ‘ore provinces.’ As an ‘ore province’ I designate an area characterised by a certain geological structure genetically connected with the ore-bearing rocks of the area. An ‘ore province’ may geologically be built up by igneous rocks, or by sedimentary deposits, or by crystalline schists, or by two or three of these kinds of rocks together. The Scandinavian Peninsula furnishes us with examples of ore provinces of very different geological types. Con- sidering only the Scandinavian ore provinces carrying iron ores, we may distinguish six such provinces. The geologically best known is the ‘ore province of Central Sweden,’ the ‘Jarnbaraland’ (iron-bearing land) of the ancient history of Sweden. It is characterised by a rather complicated geological structure, composed of crystalline schists and of acid and basic igneous rocks, all belonging to the Archean age. The same geological features are exhibited in the ‘ore province of the south coast of Norway,’ which may be considered as a westerly extension of the ore province of Central Sweden. Also the comparatively confined ‘ore province of Syd-Varanger,’ in the most north-easterly part of Norway, shows the same geological conditions. The ‘ore province of Norrbotten ’ is also composed of rocks of Archean age, but the chemical and petrographical composition of the rocks is partly different, syenite and syenitic porphyries playing a prominent part in the composition of the ore-bearing ground. Lhe ‘ore province of Northern Norway,’ comprising the coast belt between the latitudes of 65° 50’ and 69° 10’ and the valleys penetrating into the country from the sea, is composed of metamorphosed schists of Cambro-Silurian age. The ore deposits are associated with beds of lime- stone. Through the erosion proceeding from the Atlantic, the ore-bearing horizons have in a number of places been laid bare. The igneous rocks occurring within this area seem not in any way to be connected with the ore deposits, Lastly we have to mention the ‘ore province of Christiania,’ with a great number of mostly small ore deposits connected with the eruptive post-Silurian rocks of the Christiania basin. Considering the importance of the different ore provinces in respect to the quantities of ore obtainable in each of them, the ore province of Norr- botten takes the first place, containing several great deposits, of which one (hulrunnavaara) must be counted among the greatest in the world. Next comes the ore province of Northern Norway, with immense quan- tities of lean iron ores. The ore province of Central Sweden during many centuries played a réle as the chief producer of Swedish iron, and the same may be said of the ore province of the south coast of Norway in respect to Norway. The ore province of Syd-Varanger will in the near future become a very important ore-producer. The ore province THE IRON ORE SUPPLY OF THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. 390 of Christiania is, on the contrary, in respect to iron ores without any practical importance. These ore provinces contain more than 90 per cent. of all the iron ore supply available in Scandinavia, and probably about 99 per cent. of all the iron ore hitherto mined in Sweden and Norway have been extracted from the mines of these ore provinces. From a geological point of view the iron ores of the Scandinavian Peninsula may be classified as follows :— 1. The Ores of the Archean Crystalline Schists.—These ores belong to the part of the Archean rocks which are crystallised in the anamorphic zone and interwoven with intrusive granite. The ores occur associated with ortho- and para-gneisses, granulites, and dolomitised or silicified limestones. The ores of this class were long considered as sedimentary deposits laid down together with the over- and under-lying crystalline schists. In several papers from the beginning of the nineties, and later, I have pointed out that these ores must have been formed in the vertical or inclined positions they now show, and after the plication of the schists had taken place. I also tried to show that metasomatic processes have played a prominent part in the formation of these ores. I consider it most prob- able that the ores were formed in the deep-seated zone from thermal iron-bearing solutions, acting under high pressure. To what degree these solutions were magmatic, carrying ore substance from below, or if the small amount of water contained in the rock was the chief agent in col- lecting and concentrating the iron, is uncertain. At all events, the pro- cess was different from the action performed through solutions circulating in open channels. The ores of this class chiefly occur in the ore province of Central Sweden, but they are also represented by several great deposits in the ore provinces of the south coast of Norway, of Norrbotten, and of Syd- Varanger. 2. The Ores of the Porphyries (also classified as Keratophyres) belong to a division of the Archean system younger than the old granites, but still plicated in pre-Cambrian time. The genetic connection of the ores in question with the porphyry rock is so manifest that it has been admitted by all who have expressed an opinion on the subject. But the nature of this connection is interpreted in very different ways. The ores have frequently been compared with the great iron ores of the Eastern Ural, Wissokaja Gora, Gora Blagodat, &c., also connected with syenitic rocks, and have, like these, been con- sidered as products of magmatic differentiation, But it seems not un- likely that these ores are also produced in a manner not differing essen- tially from the formation of those of the first class, that is, through the agency of iron-bearing aqueo-igneous solutions. The ore deposits belong- ing to this group are confined exclusively to the ore province of Norr-. botten : some of them are among the largest in the world. 3. The Ores of the Basic Eruptive Rocks occur as differentiations in intrusive bodies of diabase and gabbro, forming stocks, bosses, and lac- colites within schists of Archean and Silurian age. The ores of this kind form a natural and well-defined class met with in all parts of the world. That these ores are genetically connected with eruptive rocks has long been admitted. Their nature of differentiation facies is evident from their structural characters, which are the same as those of the eruptive 304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. rocks, as well as from the fact that they frequently present all degrees of transition into the normal rock. The ore deposits belonging to this class are not confined to any of the ore provinces mentioned above, but occur scattered all over the peninsula, both in Sweden and Norway. 4. Ores associated with the Metamorphosed Schists of Cambro-Silurian Age chiefly occur in the mica-schists group characterised by mighty beds of limestone. The deposits of this class are geologically characterised by belonging to a ferriferous formation of vast horizontal extent, occupying nearly the same geological horizon, and they occur as regular members of this sedi- mentary scries. If the ores are to be considered as primary sedimentary deposits, or if they constitute secondary concentrations of leaner iron- bearing formations, is still an open question, not only of theoretical but also of great practical importance. On the whole, one may consider these deposits as the roots or the deepest comparatively unconcentrated parts of regionally metamorphosed chemical deposits laid open by the deeply penetrating firths and valleys of the Norwegian coast, the upper probably more concentrated and thus richer parts of the same deposits having been destroyed by erosion. These ores, which form a geologically very well-defined class, are also territorially confined to a certain ore province, that of Northern Norway. 5. Contact Formations connected with Acid Eruptive Rocks of post- Silurian Age occur in the Archean gneisses and in the Silurian limestones and argillaceous schists of the Christiania Silurian basin. The igneous rocks of the Christiania region comprise, according to Brégger, several different types, of which the more basic, 7.e., gabbro- diabases, basic pyroxene-mica, and nepheline-syenites and quartz-bearing pyroxene-syenite, are the older, and the acid types, 7.e., red quartz-syenite (Nordmarkite), soda granite (Grorudite) and granitite are the younger. The intrusives are bordered partly by Archean rocks, partly also by the Silurian strata, and by porphyry outflows. The contact deposits are found in all these different pregranitic rocks. Most of the deposits are connected with the red quartz syenite (Nordmarkite), some of them with the soda granite (Grorudite) and with the granitite. These ore deposits are, though many in numbers, yet quantitatively too insignificant to play any commercial réle. In earlier times several hundreds of them were worked. 6. Lake and Bog Ores belonging to the most recent Geological Period.— These ores occur scattered over most provinces of Sweden and the southern part of Norway ; yet they occur amply only in such regions of the country where the ground consists of moraines and gravel, and they are found more sparingly in the parts of the country which are covered by glacial and post-glacial marine deposits. In short, the lake and bog ores are most frequent above the marine level of the Glacial period. A certain connection with the distribution of the peat-mosses is indicated. The different geological ore groups defined above are characterised by mineralogical and chemical properties, which have determined their technical utilisation. The lake and bog ores of Group 6 formed, on account of their cheap exploitation and easy reduction, the raw material of the oldest iron manu- facture in the Scandinavian countries, 1nd were used long before the blast-furnace process was known. Carl von Linneus for this reason called THE IRON ORE SUPPLY OF THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. Boo them Tophus Tubalcaini, after Tubal Cain, the first blacksmith. But their importance has been decreasing as the iron manufacture has become a great industry. The ores of Group 1 (Archean, crystalline schists) were next utilised. Owing to the absence of phosphorus, which characterised a part of these ores, and to other excellent qualities, they were for centuries the only ores that were mined in Sweden, and they have been the raw material of the Swedish iron that has won world-wide renown. The supply of the ores of this kind, free from phosphorus, is already to a great extent con- sumed, and that which is left is very limited. The ores belonging to Group 2 (ores connected with porphyries) could not for a long time be utilised on account of their high percentage of phosphorus. Besides that, the situation of the deposits in the extreme north of the Scandinavian Peninsula deterred from mining enterprises. Some of the deposits belonging to this group are among the greatest in the world. Thanks to the basic refining methods, they have now gained great importance having however as yet chiefly given rise to ore export ona large scale. These ores, rich in phosphorus, are also more and more utilised for the Swedish iron industry. Group 3.—These ores are chemically characterised by a high amount of titanium, making them very difficult to reduce. They have hitherto been made use of only on a very small scale, and it does not seem likely that this state of things will change as long as there is an ample supply of better ores. Vast deposits of these ores occur in Sweden as well as in Norway. Group 4 (ores in the metamorphosed Cambro-Silurian)._-The ores included in this group occur only in the metamorphosed Silurian forma- tion of Norway. They are characterised by a low percentage of iron, and have not as yet been utilised for the Scandinavian iron industry, but preparations are going on for mining and exporting them to England and Germany on a large scale, after subjecting them to magnetic concentration. The ores belonging to Group 5 have a limited distribution within the Silurian and Archean rocks of the Christiania field. They may be considered as of no practical importance. Ore Supply.—The Scandinavian countries, especially Sweden, have been from ancient times regarded as very rich in iron ores. Swedenborg gives expression to this opinion when saying, ‘Mars per omnes Sueciz provincias sparsus est.’ This view has arisen from the fact that a famous iron manufacture was carried on in Sweden during centuries without the known ore supplies showing any sign of failing, or even of being strongly exploited. The conclusion that the ore supplies should last for an un- limited future is, however, not well founded. In former times, up to 1870, the output of iron ore required for the home manufacture was so insignificant that one must sum up all the output of the mines during perhaps four or five centuries to get a quantity that will balance the production during a few decades of later time. And since from the beginning of the last decade of the nineteenth century a great exportation vf iron ore commenced, which increased with every year, it is probable that the output of iron ore in Sweden during a few years at present is equivalent to the whole output of the Swedish mines during four hundred to five hundred years before 1870. Several attempts to make quantitative estimations of the iron ore 836 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. supply of Sweden have already been made. Professor G. Nordenstrom, the late Director of the Mining School in Stockholm, introduced for this purpose the conception of ore area, or ore section, 7.¢e., the horizontal section of the ore deposits expressed in square metres or square feet. Since most Archean ore deposits have a nearly vertical position, the horizontal section (=ore area) gives a comparative expression for the magnitude of the deposits. In 1893 he published a statement of the ore areas of the principal iron deposits of Sweden; in a completed and revised state he published it a second time in the year 1898, on the occasion of the meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in Stockholm. The statement of Professor Nordenstrom shows in abridged form the following figures for the principal mining fields :— Ore Area in Norrbotten— Square Metres Kiirunavaara-Luossavaara . 4 A ‘ 430,000 Gellivare r : 4 a p : ; ° 200,000 Svappavaara . . . . : : : ; 38,000 Central Sweden— Grangesberg . 5 : : - - 5 90,000 Other mines in Central Sweden . ; 4 : 156,000 Titanic Ores— Routivaara . 5 - 4 : : é : 300,000 Taberg . . : : : : : : : 260,000 1,474,000 m? The experience of later years has shown that the figures given by Professor Nordenstrém are in some cases much exaggerated. In order to convert the figures of ore area into tons of ore won by sinking the average level of the mine one metre, one has to take into consideration the weight of the ore and the percentage of ore in the rock mined, and by introducing also a measure for the depth, determined either by drilling or by magnetic survey, or simply by an estimation based on the experience from other mining enterprises in the same district, one may arrive at a figure for the probable ore supply of a mine, or of the whole district. In this way one gets an expression for the presumable ore quantity, or the ‘ ore expectant,’ as the American mining engineers express it.! Of course every such estimation leaves ample room for subjective discretion, and can at best only be considered as a rough approximation to the truth. The first estimation of this kind, comprising the whole country, was made in 1898, and is found in ‘ Vermlandska Bergs- mannaforen. Annaler’ for this year. The iron-ore supply of Central Sweden is estimated to be 110 M.T.,? and in Norrbotten at 520 M.T. Already in the previous year Mr. Hj. Lundbohm made an official survey of two of the greater ore deposits of Norrbotten, viz., Kiirunnavaara and Luogssavaara, and calculated the ore quantities obtainable above the level of Lake Luossajarvi to be in Kiirunnavaara 215 M.T., and in Luossavaara 18 M.T. 1 Ore expectant is ‘the prospective value of a mine beyond or below the last visible ore, based on the fullest possible data from the mine, and from the characteristics of the mining district.’—Philip Argall, The Engineering and Mining Journal of February 14, 1903. The ‘ore expectant’ deals rather with the future than with the present, and with the probable life of the property as a producing mine. 2 Here and in the sequel M.T. means millions of metre-tons. THE IRON ORE SUPPLY OF THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. 307 Tn the year 1905, in connection with a motion made in the Swedish Parliament for laying an export duty on iron ore, the question of ore supplies was again discussed. A. E. Térnebohm, at this time Director of the Geological Survey of Sweden, made an official statement, in which he expressed very optimistic views. In respect to Central Sweden he came to about the same figures as those already mentioned above, viz., 105 M.T. ; but in the estimation of the ore quantities of Norrbotten he made the arbitrary assumption that the ore bodies should reach to depths of 300 metres, or even of 500 metres, with the same area as at the surface. In this way he came to a figure for Kiirunnavaara and Luossavaara of 793 M.T., Gellivara 128°5 M.T., and for the other mines in Norrbotten to 175 M.T. ; total for Norrbotten 1096°5 M.T. Criticising this estimation I pointed out that no results of experience at all were accessible concerning the depth of the ore deposits of Norrbotten, that their geological conditions and mode of formation were unknown, and that the experience from other districts in Sweden showed that the ore area of each single ore body tends to decrease with the depth. ; For this reason I believed that the statement could not be verified with such uncertain depths. Accepting the calculation of Mr. Lundbohm from the year 1898 of 205 M.T. above the level of Luossajirvi, I added 100 M.T. as ‘ore expectant’ below this level. For Gellivara, together with other mining-fields of Norrbotten, I came to the result of 200 M.T., to a total for Norrbotten of 500 M.T., and for the whole country 600 M.T., instead of Térnebohm’s 1200 M.T, In this year (1907) Professor W. Petersson has made an official statement of the ore quantities of some of the largest ore deposits of Norrbotten, founded chiefly on the records collected by the mining companies. I shall have an opportunity later to refer to the statement of Professor Petersson, which on the whole was executed on a sound and conservative basis. As to the Norwegian mining-fields, the records are very scanty. Professor Vogt has given a few figures about some of the ore deposits of the Norwegian south coast and of the ore province of Northern Norway. Furthermore, some figures given in commercial papers are obtainable but these must be used with very great caution. After this general review I shall consider each ore province separately. 1. Ore Province of Central Sweden. In this ore province we have one large ore deposit, Grangesberg, con- taining more than half of the obtainable ore and a number of smaller deposits. For Griingesberg we have two recent calculations of the ore quantity. The first, which was made by the mining engineer, Mr. Brunnberg, and published by Térnebohm in the year 1905, resulted in a figure of 60 M.T., reckoned to a depth of 300 metres. Later Mr. Hedberg published a new calculation. This resulted in a figure of 64 M.T. for the ore quantity between the surface and a depth of 350 m.: of this already about 12} M.T. are consumed, so that above the said level of 350 metres at least 51 M.T. will remain. In the other mining-fields and the countless smaller mines scattered over this ore province, chiefly carrying ore low in phosphorus, from 1907. Z 338 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ancient times up to the end of the nineteenth century about 60 M.T. of iron ore were mined. When comparing this quantity with the amount of ‘ore expectant’ still left in the mines, one arrives at the result that the remaining part may be estimated at most at 40 M.T. This corre- sponds with an additional sinking of the average level of all the mines 150--200 m., which is the greatest depth one can reckon upon in such a case. A few words may here be said about the persistence of the Swedish ore deposits in depth. Since the mining of these ores has been carried on for centuries, we have a lot of experience on this question. In most cases the workable ore of a single deposit does not extend to a depth of 100 metres : this represents the great bulk of all the iron mines. Among the others only a few continue to depths between 100 and 200 metres, and the cases in which the ore could be followed to depths over 200 metres are easily counted. Only one mine has exceeded a vertical depth of 400 metres or reckoned along the pitch 500 metres. It is not easy to give a geological explanation of this fact, but experience on this point speaks very clearly. If we add 9 M.T. for ore reserves in old mines already abandoned but which possibly may to some extent be worked again, and for new finds, we arrive at an ore quantity in Central Sweden of— M.T, Grangesberg . - : : : : : : : ep Other mines . F A ; 3 3 : 4 . 40 Old abandoned mines and new finds : ; f s : 9 100 2. Ore Province of Norrbotten. In this ore province the ores were not worked to a noteworthy extent before the end of last century. In consequence thereof we have very little experience about the depths to which the deposits reach ; also the mode of formation of the ores is doubtful. These circumstances make great caution necessary when attempting to estimate the ore supply, and it cannot be calculated at great and uncertain depths. The most remarkable of the ore deposits of Norrbotten is Kiurunna- vaara. The deposit here forms a mountain ridge, rising to a height of 250 metres above the level of Lake Luossajirvi. It crops out for a length of 2:8 kilometres, with a width ranging up to 200 metres. The area of the outcrop is, according to the calculation of Professor W. Petersson, 286,000 square metres. On account of its occupying the higher parts of a mountain ridge, the deposit is to a certain degree ‘developed’ by Nature. Several diamond drillings and a gallery have served to develop this part of the deposit still more, so that it may be considered as comparatively well known. Already Lundbohm, in the year 1897, estimated the ore supply above the level of the lake to be 215 M.T. This estimate was confirmed through the calculation made by Professor Petersson in 1907, who came to a figure of about 200 M.T. above the lake. In both these calculations it is reckoned with 4:5 tons of ore from the mined work, which I consider rather high, taking into consideration that this extremcly pure ore also contains some parts of barren rock. Although I should prefer the figure 4 tons of THE IRON ORE SUPPLY OF THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. 399 ore pro m® rock as more fair, I, with this reservation, accept the calcu- lation of Professor Petersson. About the ore quantities below the level of Lake Luossajirvi we know very little indeed. A few drillings have in some places proved the existence of ore at a depth of 200 m., but nothing is known about the length or width of the deposit on this level. Taking into considera- tion that in some places the hanging wall and the footwall seem to approach each other with increasing depth, it seems to me not allowable to add as ‘ ore expectant’ more than half the amount of the ore above the level of the lake, z.e., 100 M.T. Gellware is, in respect to magnitude, the second of the great iron deposits of Norrbotten. It gives an illustrative example of the way in which certain ore deposits have at first been over-estimated, and then, in consequence of more minute survey, have had their size reduced. As to the ore area, we have the following statements about Gellivare :— Hectares. In 1876 by the Geological Survey of Sweden 65 In 1890 by the Royal Commission for investigating the apatite deposits : : ; ; 44 In 1897 by Professor G. Nordenstrém : 3 : . c pe 7A8) In 1907 by Professor W. Petersson . ; ; ; : : . 185 Thus during a period of thirty years the first estimate of the ore area has been reduced to less than a third. Experience proves that in Gelli- vare one may reckon on 2°9 tons of ore for every square metre of ore area sunk one metre, and from this it may be calculated that by an average sinking of the ore level to a depth of 150 m., about 80 M.T. should be obtained. Of this already about 13 M.T. have been mined, and the remaining 67 M.T. are then to Fe taken into account as ‘ore expectant.’ It may be that some of the deposits in Gellivare do not reach a depth of 150 m., but others among the numerous ore bodies will certainly be found to reach further down, thus averaging the differences. There are in Norrbotten three more ore-fields of the same order of magnitude : LHkstrémsberg, Svappavaara, and Levediniemi ; for each of these the ore area is stated to be about 50,000 m2, but the statement is very uncertain. These ore-fields are not yet worked, lying far away from railway communications, and the ore supply is only known through surface workings, drillings, and magnetic surveys. Owing to the greater percentage of ore obtained from the mined rock at Ekstromsberg, one may count four tons of ore from every square metre sunk, and 3:5 tons per square metre from Svappavaara and Levedniemi. This gives for a depth of 150 m. 30 M.T. for Ekstrémsberg, and about 55 M.T. for the two others. In the vicinity of Kiirunnavaara two smaller ore deposits occur, being of the same nature as this one. One is Luossavaara, the other Zuollu- vaara ; only the latter has, as yet, been worked. The ore area of Luossavaara is about 50,000 m?, that of Tuolluvaara much smaller, The ore quantity of Luossavaara was in 1897 estimated at 18 M.T., and by Professor Petersson, in 1907, at 22-5, both calculating only the ore above the level of Luossajirvi. I think it will be safe to reckon 20 M.T. as an average between the two figures for Luossavaara and for Tuolluvaara, together with other small deposits near Kiiruna, perhaps 8 M.T. There are also several smaller deposits scattered over this ore provin Z2 340 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. about which too little is known in respect to the ore quantities to make it possible to give any details. Among these is Mertaimen, with an ore area stated to contain 10,000 m*. If we put all these ore deposits at 20 M.T. we get a round figure for the whole ore quantity in Norrbotten of 500 M.T., viz. :— M.T. Kiirunnayaara . : : ; ‘ ; ; 5 . 300 Gellivare . ; : é a ; ; ; : ALMGT Ekstrémsberg . ; ‘ : . : wala) Svappavaara ‘and Leveiiniemi ; : ; ; ; on Luossavaara .. - ; : : : P Spine si) Tuollavaara . j ; : : 8 Mertainen and other ‘smaller deposits : , : 4920 Total . = 300 3. Ore Province of Northern Norway. Here we are on more uncertain ground than in the preceding case, not only because very few attempts have been made to arrive at a true conception of the ore quantities in separate ore districts, but also because the experience won in the practical mining of this kind of ores only dates from the last few years. Thus we know nothing about the depth to which the workable ores reach These ores occur, as stated above, in the metamorphosed Cambro- Silurian schists together with limestone. They show in many places an extension of several kilometres in length, and at the same time a con- siderable thickness. If one regarded these ores as ordinary stratified formations, only altered by regional metamorphism, one would have to assume an extent of several kilometres also in the direction of the dip. But such a conclusion might be highly misleading with regard to the ore supply. ‘The possibility that these ores are secondary concentrations in the higher zone must be kept in mind, and, consequently, it does not seem allowable to calculate to any great depths before we have gained a wider experience in this point. As already stated, these ores are in general very lean, and they often go below the limit of being workable. As they cannot be smelted directly, they must first be treated by magnetic concentration, and in this process the non-magnetic part of the iron, 2.e., hematite, iron silicates, &ec., is lost. From such ores, showing by analysis 40 per cent. of iron, only 20 per cent. or a still less percentage may be utilised. Often the ore deposits, though extensive in the direction of the strike, are narrow, or when thicker they contain barren country rock to such an extent that the cost of mining will be too expensive. In many cases it seems difficult to trace the limit between ore and iron-bearing rock, which circumstance, of course, makes the estimation of the ore quantity highly speculative. On the other hand, the concentrated ore in the form of an easily reducible briquette, with 65 per cent. to 68 per cent. of iron, and practically with- out sulphur and phosphorus, is a very valuable product which will, when produced on a large scale, become a factor of great importance for the iron industry of Western Europe. _ Dunderland is the greatest ore-field of this province. The ore area was estimated by me in the year 1894 at one million square metres in round numbers. In 1899 Mr. Hasselbohm calculated it still higher, viz., 1,290,000 m. Starting from the first-mentioned size of the ore area, and THE IRON ORE SUPPLY OF THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. 341 calculating 2-1 tons of crude ore in the cubic metre, we arrive at a figure of 315 M.T., or, in round numbers, 300 M.T. for a depth of 150 m., which depth, as an average, corresponds with the level of the Dunderland River. It is calculated that in the central part of the ore-field, where stoping is now going on, about 89 M.T. could be obtained by open pit workings on an area of 575,000 m. The amount of ore in Dunderland would thus be about as great as is Kiirunnavaara. But it must be remembered that the ores are of very different quality, the Kiirunnavaara ore averaging 65 per cent. iron, the Dunderland ore, on an average, not reaching 40 per cent, Fe, of which only a part can be extracted. Among the other numerous ore-fields of the same class, Sa/angen, Ofoten, and Rollé probably contain the largest ore quantities. These fields have not been sufficiently investigated to make an estimate of the ore quantities possible ; but the ore-bearing strata are very extensive, and may in each case be followed for kilometres in length. New ore deposits of this kind are found every year, and it seems certain that one may count on very great quantities. As a first approximation I venture to say that all these ore-fields together may contain at least half the amount of Dunderland, i.e., 150 M.T. in round numbers. For the ore province of Northern Norway we thus get :— M.T. Dunderland (to a Heath of 150m.) . ; : - . 300 Other deposits . : ‘ : : Spi at; Total . . 450 — 4. Ore Province of the South Coast of Norway. This province contains a number of deposits, some of which were worked in very ancient times ; most of them are comparatively small. Vogt has given figures for the ore area of some of the districts, viz. :— M?. The Arendal district ‘ j : : F ‘ . 5000 The Kragero . : 5 d 5 2 : - 2000-5000 The Nissedal . : 4 : ; : : : . 1400 The ore deposits are of the same nature as in Central Sweden ; many of the mines have already been abandoned at a comparatively small depth. If we put the ore quantity at 10 M.T., this figure is the highest one may venture for the whole province. 5. Ore Province of Syd-Varanger. The deposits of this ore province were discovered only a few years ago, and only exploratory work has as yet been executed there. The deposits have a very great extension both in length and width. Mr. Nordensten recently estimated the ore area in this district at more than one million m?. Calculating 3°6 tons of ore for each cubic metre, he estimates the ore quantity in the Bjornvand field alone, the central part of the district, to be 112 M.T. above the level of the sea. In all one may count on 400 M.T. above the sea-level in this ore province. 342 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Contents of the Ore expressed as Pig Iron. As already pointed out, the figures expressing the ore quantities of the different ore provinces are not directly comparable ; thus, for instance, the ores in the ore province of Norrbotten, z.¢., those of Kiirunnavaara, Gellivare, &c., generally contain about 65 per cent. of iron ; the ores from the ore province of Northern Norway in general hardly reach 40 per cent., of which only a part can be extracted. For the purpose of com- parison we may express the quantity of iron in the ore as pig iron. The majority of the iron mines of Central Sweden yield an ore giving about 50 per cent. pig iron ; only the greatest deposit, Grangesberg, produces a richer ore corresponding to 62 per cent. of pig iron, On the whole, for the ore province of Central Sweden we may calculate on 55 per cent. of pig iron from the ore. For the ore province of the south coast of Nroway the same figure as for the majority of mines in Central Sweden, i.e., 50 per cent., may be true. The ore province of Norrbotten produces ore still richer in iron. The greatest deposit, Kiirunnavaara, yields an ore giving on an average more than 65 per cent. of pig iron, and the same may be said about Luossa- vaara an! Gellivare. The ore from Svappavaara, Leveiniemi, and Ekstroémsberg is less rich, but on an average we may calculate on 65 per cent. pig iron from the ores of this ore province. The ores of the ore province of Northern Norway are all very lean ores. The experience in Dunderland is that it takes four tons of crude ore to produce one ton briquette, containing 65 per cent. to 68 per cent. Fe, which corresponds to about 16 per cent. pig iron from the crude ore. In Salangen and the other fields containing more magnetite the recovery will be better, and may be estimated at more than 25 per cent. pig iron from the ore. On an average, one may reckon on 25 per cent. pig iron from the mined ore in this province. The ores of the ore province of Syd-Varanger are magnetic, thus giving better results, and a percentage of 33 per cent. of pig iron from the ore may in this case be assumed. | | Percentage of | Ore Quantity | as Ore eee | pig iron from | expressed as | ae ela the ore pig iron | M.T, | Ore Province of Central Sweden . zh) 100 55 55 | a » Norbotten . yi ; 500 65 325 » North Norway . . 450 25 112°5 x s, South Coast of Norway | 10 50 5 a » Varanger . . Be 400 33 132 Total 7 . i Bx 1460 — 629°5 In the above calculation the small deposits in the ore province of Christiania are not taken into account, as they seem to be without any commercial importance and not one of them is now worked. For the same reason the Lake and Bog ores, scattered over most provinces, are not taken into consideration. Also the large supply of iron contained in the titaniferous iron ores is not taken into account, though some of these deposits, as Taberg and Routivara, in Sweden, and the titanic ores in the THE IRON ORE SUPPLY. OF THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. 343 Ekersund-Soggendal district, in Norway, are among the largest iron deposits in Scandinavia. All attempts to utilise them either for the home manufacture or for export have hitherto failed because of the unfitness of the ores for metallurgical purposes, which is also the cause why all, or nearly all, other titaniferous iron ores all over the world lie unworked. Qualities of the Ores. The ores considered above differ in such qualities as determine their practical utilisation. From this point of view we may classify the ores into three classes, viz. :— A. Bessemer ores, low in phosphorus. B. Ores high in phosphorus, suitable for the basic processes. C. Lean ores, too low-grade to be smelted without being subjected to magnetic concentration, A. The Bessemer ores chiefly occur in the ore province of Central Sweden. They generally contain less than 0-05 per cent. of phosphorus, often less than 0:01, and only in this case they are considered as free from phosphorus. They originally amounted to about 100 M.T., but 60 M.T. have already been utilised, and the remaining 40 M.T. will last for the home manufacture only thirty years if ores of the same quality from Norrbotten are not utilised to a greater extent. In the ore province of Norrbotten the supply of ore so low in phos- phorus that it may be used as Bessemer ore is very limited. The ores most pure with regard to phosphorus, from Kiirunnavaara and Gellivare, generally contain from 0-017 per cent. to 0-028 per cent. of phosphorus, but the percentage of phosphorus is so variable that the seller does not guarantee less percentage than 0:05. Ore of the same quality also occurs in Luossavaara and Mertainen. This percentage is considered rather too high for the Swedish manufacture of steel by the acid process. Only in Tuollavaara an ore with a phosphorus percentage of 0:007-0:015 is mined, but the quantities are certainly limited. The quantities of ore low in phosphorus available in the above-men- tioned mines of Norrbotten are not yet possible to determine, but if we go as high as to 0:05 per cent. of phosphorus, we may, as a first approxi- mation, anticipate a quantity of 20 M.T. of this kind of ore. This quantity, together with the 40 M.T. in Central Sweden, is thus the only raw material suitable for the manufacture of acid process steel. It has been considered of such importance that this limited ore quan- tity should really be available for the home manufacture, that the Swedish Government has in the agreement entered into this year with the es Company made provisions against the export of this kind of ore. B. Ores high in Phosphorus, suitable for the Basie Processes.—The bulk of the ore deposits in Norrbotten contains ore of this kind. The per- centage of phosphorus varies from 0-05 per cent. to 3 per cent., and even more. Also in Central Sweden we have a Jarge deposit of this class of ore, viz., Grangesberg, and several smaller deposits, containing, taken altogether, about 60 M.T. Owing to the limited supply of ore low in phosphorus, the quantity of ores of this class which the Swedish iron industry consumes is every year increasing ; thus already now about a fourth of all the steel manufactured 344 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. in Sweden is made by means of the basic processes. Most of the ores rich in phosphorus are exported to Germany and England. The export in 1905 amounted to 3:3 M.T. Also most of the ores in the province of the south coast of Norway are rich in phosphorus. 3 C. Lean Ores.—Though low-grade ores are met with in all ore dis- tricts, it is chiefly in the ore provinces of Northern Norway and of Syd- Varanger that it is predominating. Owing to the low percentage of iron, the ore must be subject to magnetic concentration before being smelted. This class of ore has not yet been utilised for the home manufacture either in Sweden or in Norway. Preparations are going on for exporting it on a large scale, not only from Dunderland, but also from the ore-fields of Ofoten, Salangen, and Syd-Varanger. The ores of Dunderland contain about 38 per cent. of iron, mostly as hematite ; the percentage of phos- phorus is on an average 0-2. Through magnetic concentration it will be possible to reduce the phosphorus very considerably, and to export a briquetted ore containing about 65 per cent. of iron and only 0-016 per cent. to 0:026 per cent. of phosphorus. For meeting the demand of iron ore in the western part of Europe this source of ore will in the next year without doubt become of very great importance. The above review gives the following result :— A. Ores low in Phosphorus. MP Mi Central Sweden . ‘ ‘ : ; + 240 Norbotten . : : : : : : = 20 — 60 B. Ores high in Phosphorus. Central Sweden . : - i : : +. 260 Norbotten . C ; ; : ; ; . 480 South Coast of Norway , : < 5 pes) —— 5b0 C. Low-grade Ore. Northern Norway : 3 5 5 : . 450 Varanger ‘ . : ‘ : : 3 . 400 — 8650 Total . 7 ; . 1460 I will conclude with a few words about the ore politics of Sweden, which has caused some alarm in the countries in demand of iron ores. In respect to abundant iron ore supplies, the Scandinavian Peninsula has been richly provided by Nature, but at the same time the lack of fuel makes it difficult to utilise the ores for the home industry. Owing to that, an export of iron ore has arisen during the last twenty years, but it was always the aim of the Government and of the leading parties of the Riksdag to confine this export within certain limits. Thus, when in the year 1898 the railway from Gellivare to the port of Narvik was to be built for the purpose of opening up the ore province of Norrbotten, and prtting the largest ore deposit of Sweden in communication with a port o1 the Atlantic coast, the necessary means were voted by the Riksdag only on the condition that the ore exported on this railway, vid the port a THE IRON ORE SUPPLY OF THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. 345 of Narvik, should not exceed 1:2 M.T. a year. Later on, when one single company—the Grangesberg Company—had managed to control nine-tenths of the ore supplies of Sweden, and the annual export of ore exceeded 3 M.T., a strong movement for laying an export duty on iron ore arose. In the meantime several new investigations of the supplies of the larger deposits had been made, and these having shown that an increase of the export could be allowed without any danger of a premature exhaustion of the deposits, an agreement between the Government ‘and the Grangesberg Company was made, which was this year confirmed by the Riksdag. According to this agreement the Grangesberg Company was allowed to export up to 3:5 M.T. in the year by way of the port of Narvik, but the company became subject to several severe conditions. Thus the company had to allow the State to enter as a shareholder for half the amount of the joint capital without any payment, and, furthermore to give over to the State all the rights to the mines of Luossavaara, Ekstrémsberg, and Mertainen, representing, according to the above calcu- lations, more than 50 M.T. of ore. In the year 1932 the State will have the right to buy also the other mines on certain terms. During the period of twenty-five years from 1907 to 1932 no more than 75 M.T. may be exported from Kiirunnavaara, and no more than 18:75 M.T. from Gellivare. If the State should make use of its right to buy the mines in 1932, the company must prove that at that time there are left at least 150 M.T. in Kiirunnavaara, and at least 37°5 M.T. in Gellivare. In order to guarantee the home manufacture the necessary ore supply, it is provided in the agreement that the export of ore low in phosphorus from certain parts of Kiirunnavaara shall be prohibited, and that the export of ore from Grangesberg has to be gradually reduced. It may be thought surprising that a country without coal supplies should be so anxious to save the ore deposits necessary for a great iron industry. But in Sweden we look forward with confidence to the time when we may utilise our peat mosses and our water power for electrical smelting in the metallurgy of iron. This time may be remote, but it will certainly come. The peat mosses in Sweden only are estimated at 5,000 M.T. dry peat, corresponding to about 2,500 M.T. of coal. And the water power available for electrical energy is practically unlimited. The Fossil Flora of the Transvaal_—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. W. GREGORY (Chairman), Professor A. C. SEWARD (Secretary), and Mr. T. N. LEsir, appointed ‘ to enable Mr. T. N. Leslie to continue his Researches into the Fossil Flora of the Transvaal.’ Mr. T. N. Lestim has made further collections of plants from the lower Karroo beds of Vereeniging, and these have been described in a joint paper by Professor A. C. Seward and Mr. Leslie. It is hoped the paper will be published during the coming winter. The Committee do not ask for reappointment. 46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. DENDY (Chairman and Secretary), Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor A. SEDGWICK, and Professor SYDNEY H. VINEs. ONLY one application for the use of the Association’s table at Plymouth has been received during the year. This was from Mr. A. D. Darbishire, who wished to investigate the function of the spiracle in elasmobranch fishes. Mr. Darbishire occupied the table for about a week at Easter, and the results of his investigations have been incorporated in a pape which he communicated to the Linnean Society on May 2. Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the Comnuttee, consisting of Professor 8. J. Hickson (Chairman), Rev. T. R. R. STeBBinG (Secretary), Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor A. SEDGWICK, Professor W. C. McIntosH, and Mr. G. P. BrppEr. THE Committee report that the Association’s table at Naples was occupied during the Easter vacation by Dr. W. N. F. Woodland and by Mr. R. W. H. Row. The reports of these investigators are appended. The Committee desire to be reappointed and ask for the requisite grant of 100/. Report of Dr. W. N. F. Woopanp. During my three weeks’ occupancy of the British Association table at the Naples Zoological Station, I was for the most part engaged in properly preserving material for investigations in connection with the brain (the structure of the pituitary body in particular), scale-develop- ment and cartilage-calcification in fishes generally, and with the ‘red- bodies’ of teleosts. I carried out numerous experiments in order to ascertain the precise mode of circulation of the cerebro-spinal fluid in the common dogfish, but I was not able to obtain results as accurate as I could wish. I also in my spare time ascertained and made drawings of the general distribution of the cranial and anterior spinal nerves of the Angler fish (Lophius piscatorius). I beg to express my thanks to the Committee for the use of the table. Report of Mr. R. W. Harotp Row. During my occupancy of the British Association table at Naples Zoological Station last Easter, I was chiefly occupied in collecting and preserving Amphioxus material for investigations on the Nephridia. In my spare time I dissected the cranial and anterior spinal nerves of Squatina fimbriata and Trigla sp. I desire to express my thanks to the British Association Committee for the opportunity so kindly provided me. INDEX GENERUM ET SPECIERUM ANIMALIUM. 347 Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. HENRY WoopwarD (Chawman), Dr. F. A. BATHER (Secretary), Dr. P. L. Scuater, Rev. T. R. R. Strespine, Dr. W. EK. Hoy.e, Hon. WaLtTeR RoruscHiLp, and Lord WALSINGHAM. THE indexing of the literature for the second portion of this Index (1801- 1850) has steadily progressed. Among the works included are :— ‘ Archiv fiir Bergbau,’ &c., 43 vols. ‘ Archiv fiir die gesammte Naturlehre,’ 27 vols. ‘ Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte,’ 16 vols. ‘ Athenzeum,’ 23 vols. Basel, ‘ Naturforschende Gesellschaft,’ 8 vols. Batavia, ‘ Batav. Genootsch.,’ 16 vols. ‘ Beitraige zur Petrefactenkunde’ (Muensters). Berlin, ‘Gesellschaft naturforschende Freunde.’ Berlin, ‘ Bericht und Abhandlung k. pr. Akad. Wiss.,’ 50 vols. Also the writings of Audouin, Audebert, Audubon, Audinet, and Bech- stein, a list which might be considerably extended, The accumulated results of three years’ recording have now all been arranged and sorted under their respective genera, and therefore one set of entries is now available for reference by monographers so far as recording has proceeded. The duplicate set of entries has been par- tially arranged ; and further accommodation, provided by the kindness of Dr. Smith Woodward in the Geological Department of the British Museum (Natural History), has greatly relieved the pressure arising from the steady growth of material. The Committee ask for reappointment, and hope that a grant of 1001. will be given for the further preparation of the ‘Index Animalium’ by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn. Experiments on the Development of the Frog.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor G. C. Bournk (Chairman), Dr. J. W. JENKINSON (Secretary), and Professor S. J. Hickson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) On the Relation between the Symmetry of the Egg and the Symmetry of the Embryo in the Frog. For a satisfactory solution of this problem it is necessary to determine quantitatively, and to express in statistical form, the relative positions in the egg of (1) the meridional plane which includes the sperm path ; (2) the plane of symmetry of the unsegmented egg ; (3) the first furrow of segmentation, and (4) the sagittal plane of the embryo. It is not pos- sible to observe directly the relation between the first and fourth in one and the same egg, since all trace of the sperm path is lost by the time that the dorsal lip of the blastopore has appeared, but the angles between the first three or the last three may readily be measured in each of any number of eggs.. 348 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. In the report presented to Section D at the York Meeting, the results of some such measurements were communicated. These results showed (1) that there was a tendency for the first furrow and the sagittal plane to coincide, though no correlation or causal connection could be demonstrated between them ; (2) that there was a much stronger tendency for the sagittal plane to lie in the plane of symmetry of the unsegmented egg, and a considerable correlation between them ; while (3) the first furrow tended either to coincide with or to lie at right angles to the place of symmetry. This statement is however not final, for the possibility of a dis- turbing influence being exerted by certain external factors has still to be taken into consideration. The factors in question are: (1) the mutual pressures exerted by the jelly-membranes, and (2) the position occupied by the freshly laid egg. With regard to the first, it is well known that the direction of the first furrow may be determined by pressure ; and as far as the second is concerned it is possible that gravity may act upon the semi-fluid contents of the egg during the short interval (half a hour) which elapses before the definitive position, with the axis vertical, is assumed. These possibilities have now been experimentally tested, and it has been found in the case of the angle between first furrow and sagittal plane that (a) When the axis is originally vertical, and the eggs spaced, the standard deviation is o=30°94'71 (n=426), (3) When the eggs are spaced but the axis horizontal c=31:23+-90 (n=281). (y) When the axis is vertical, but the eggs closely packed o=33-65 +:°56 (n=793). (¢) When the axis is horizontal and the eggs packed together It is evident that both these factors interfere with the ‘typical’ relation between first furrow and sagittal plane, for when both are removed the tendency of the two to coincide increases markedly. The value obtained for the standard deviation when both factors exist is approximately the same as that obtained from last year’s measurements when disturbing influences were not allowed for, viz., c=40°394-64. At the same time it should be pointed out that in a state of Nature the eggs are laid with their axes making all angles with the vertical and subjected to the mutual pressures of their jellies in the bunch. Probably, therefore, in ‘normal’ development the correlation between first furrow and sagittal plane is very slight if not zero. The correlations in each of the above four experiments remain to be worked out. COLOUR PHYSIOLOGY IN ANIMALS. 3849 Colour Physiology in Animals.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Hickson (Chairman), Dr. F. W. GAMBLE (Secretary), Dr. W. E. Hoye, and Dr. F. KEEBLE, appointed to enable Drs. Gamble and Keeble to conduct Researches on the relation between Respiratory Phenomena and Colour Changes in Animals. Durine the summer of 1906 Drs. Gamble and Keeble, working at Trégastel, Brittany, completed their joint investigation of the green cells -in the worm Convoluta roscoffensis. A full account of the results of this research has appeared in the ‘Quart. Journ. Micros. Science’ (vol. li., May 1907, pp. 167-219, pls. xiii. and xiv). In this paper the structure and life-history of the zoochlorelle, the changes which these bodies undergo within Convoluta, and the physiological significance of this association are dealt with at length. The authors conclude that this green cell or infecting organism is a probably new species of Chlamydo- monad alga exhibiting more primitive features than those of its nearest ally, the fresh-water genus Carteria. It is not only able to utilise for its metabolism such organic nitrogen compounds as urea and uric acid, but, thrives better in such solutions than in the presence of nitrates only. It is capable of a saprophytic as well as of a holophytic mode of life, and under the former conditions exists in both colourless and green forms. The association of this plastic infecting organism with Convoluta roscoffensis is traced by the authors to its hunger for organic nitrogen, such as is afforded by the egg-capsules of the worm and by the tissues of the young Convoluta. Inthe absence of the infecting organism Convoluta soon after hatching ceases to ingest protophytes and to grow. In the presence of this organism Convoluta becomes more translucent and grows rapidly. The excretory organs (protonephridia) so characteristic of other Turbellaria are here absent, and the authors conclude that the green cells function as an excretory system in Convoluta. The fission-products of the green cells that are first ingested by the young Convoluia become mere assimilative corpuscles. Their nucleus degenerates, their membrane disappears. They furnish the carbohydrate required by the animal tissues in a soluble form. Gradually the animal becomes parasitic upon them, and in the subsequent struggle on the part of both animal and plant to obtain sufficient nitrogen the green corpuscles are ingested by the phagocytes. An extension of this investigation to other cases of ‘symbiosis’ has been carried out during the past year. An allied form, the brown Convoluta paradoxa, was bred in fair numbers, and it was shown, contrary to the statements of von Graff, that the pigmented corpuscles of the egg do not give rise to infection of the young animal. Infection by a brown cell occurred sporadically in a few animals hatched from clutches of eggs laid in unfiltered sea-water to which alge were added. Efforts to isolate and cultivate this brown organism were, however, begun too late to give a successful result. This report concludes the joint work of Dr. Gamble and Dr. Keeble. The investigations on the xanthelle or chlorelle of Actinians, of Hydra, and of other Turbellaria than Convoluta, as well as the research on the pigment cells of Crustacea, are now being investigated by these authors working separately. For this reason the Committee do not ask to be reappointed. 350 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Development of the Sexual Cells.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. J. Lister (Chairman), Dr. H. W. Maretr Tims (Secretary), Mr. J. STANLEY GARDINER, and Mr. G. H. F. NuTraLL, wppointed to enable Dr. H. W. Marett Tims to conduct experiments with reqard to the effect of the Sera and Antisera on the Developinent of the Sexual Cells. A seErRrIEs of experiments have been made with guinea-pigs to test the effects of testis extract on the normal Spermatogenesis and Odgenesis, and | incidentally on the leucocytes. The injections have been intra-peritoneal, and extending over varying lengths of time. The histological investigations are not sufficiently complete to warrant publication, though so far as they have gone they seem to point to definite effects. Guinea-pigs have been selected for investigation for two reasons (a) the large size of the testis-cells, and (b) the normal Spermatogenesis in the guinea-pig has been described in detail, and figured by J. E.S. Moore, Walker, and others. Zoology Organisation.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir E. Ray LankesteR (Chairman), Professors 8S. J. Hickson (Secretary), G. C. Bourne, T. W. Bripak, J. Cossar Ewart, M. Hartoa, W. A. HerpMAN, and J. GRAHAM Kerr, Mr. O. H. Latter, Professor H. A. Mincuin, Dr. P. C. MircHe.., Professors C. Luoyp Morean, E. B. Poutton, and A. Sepawick, Mr. A. E. SHIPLEY, and Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING. Tue Committee report that no meetings have been summoned during the past year. There are some important matters at present under the consideration of the Committee, which render it desirab!e that they be reappointed. The Investigation of the Oscillations of the Level of the Land wm the Mediterranean Basin.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. Hocarts (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GUNTHER (Secretary), and Drs. T. G. Bonney, F. H. Gutntemarp, J. 8. KELTIE, and H. R. Mit. THE work for which this Committee was appointed is proceeding, and in presenting this interim report the Committee ask to be reappointed, with the allotment of the unexpended balance of the grant. Mr. Giinther left England for Southern Italy as soon as possible after the expiration of the summer term in Oxford, with the intention of examining certain maritime sites in Calabria in connection with the work of this Committee. It will not be possible to submit any report on the results until the meeting of the Association in 1908. ON INVESTIGATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 351 Investigations in the Indian Ocean.—Second Report of the Committee consisting of Sir JOHN Murray (Chairman), Mr. J. SranLey GARDINER (Secretary), Captain E. W. Creak, Professors W. A. HerpmaN, 8. J. Hickson, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, Dr. H.R. MILL, and Dr. D. Suarp, appointed to carry on an Expedition to investigate the Indian Ocean between India and South Africa in view of a possible land connection, to examine the deep submerged banks, the Nazareth and Saza de Malha, and also the distribution of marine animals. THE Committee record with deep regret the death of Dr. Simpson, surgeon on board H.M.S. ‘Sealark,’ who undertook the collections and preserva- tion of the land plants obtained by the expedition. The Committee have received the following report from Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner, who has had charge of the work :— Work has proceeded regularly during the past year on the collections obtained by the expedition. The dredged and reef-living animals have been sorted, and so far the following groups have been sent out for determination : Sponges (Professor A. Dendy), Hydroids (Dr. Marrett Tims), Stylasteridz (Professor 8. J. Hickson), Actiniaria (Mr. J. A. Clubb), Antipatharia (Mr. C. Forster Cooper), Madreporaria (Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner), Alcyonaria (Professor J. Arthur Thomson), Pennatulide (Pro- fessor 8. J. Hickson), Turbellaria (Mr. F. F. Laidlaw), Nemerteans (Mr. R. C. Punnett), Gephyrea (Mr. W. F. Lanchester), Cheetopoda (Mr. F. A. Potts), Cephalopoda (Dr. W. E. Hoyle), Shelled Mollusca (Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill), Nudibranchs (Sir Charles Eliot, K.C.M.G.), Cirripedes (Professor A. Gruvel), Isopoda (Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing), Amphipoda (Mr. A. O. Walker), Stomatopoda and Prawns (Mr. L. A. Borradaile), Alphzide (Pro- fessor H. Coutiére), Crabs (Miss Rathbun), Macrura anomala (Professor G. Nobili), Pycnogonida (Professor G. H. Carpenter), Actinogonidiate Echinoderms (Professor Jeffrey Bell), Holothurians (Sir Charles Eliot, K.C.M.G.), Tunicata (Professor W. A. Herdman), Enteropneusta (Pro fessor G. W. Spengel), and Fish (Mr. C. Tate Regan). The Lithothamnia have been undertaken by Dr. M. Foslie, and the rest of the Alge by Mr. and Mrs. Gepp. The pelagic or plankton animals have likewise been sorted out for specific determinations, and the following groups arranged for : Medusz and Siphonophora (Mr. E. T. Browne), Turbellaria (Mr. F. F. Laidlaw), Copepoda (Dr. Morris Wolfenden), Schizopoda (Mr. Holt and Mr. Tattersall), Decapoda (Mr. Kempe), Amphipoda (Mr. A. O. Walker), Cephalopoda (Dr. W. E. Hoyle), Tunicata (Professor W. A. Herdman), Awphioxides (Mr. E. 8. Goodrich), and Fish (Mr. C. Tate Regan). So far no arrangements have been made for Spiders and Gammasids among land animals, and Polyzoa, Foraminifera, and Brachiopods among dredged forms. There are also the following large collections of pelagic animals : Chetopoda, Chetognatha, Heteropoda, Pteropoda, Ostracoda, and Protozoa. There are in addition about a hundred bottles containing material which was collected by nets of 180 meshes to the inch for 352 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, unicellular alge. I should be glad to hear of any specialists interested in these groups. During the course of the year papers were published on ‘ The Indian Ocean’ and the ‘Seychelles Archipelago’ in the ‘Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,’ October and November 1906, and February 1907. The full series of reports has been undertaken by the Linnean Society for their ‘Transactions.’ Reports have been read before the Society and are now in the Press on the Land Nemerteans (Mr. R. C. Punnett), Land and Freshwater Crustaceans (Mr. L. A. Borradaile), Hymenoptera (Mr. P. Cameron), Ants (Professor A. Forel), Dragon-flies (Mr. F. F, Laidlaw), Pycnogonida (Professor G. H. Carpenter), Aves (Dr. Gadow and Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner), Lithothamnia (Dr. Foslie), Stomatopoda (Mr. L. A. Borradaile), Coccids (Mr. E. E. Green), Ticks (Professor Neumann), and Fishes (Mr. C. Tate Regan). The above papers show that the expedition has secured a very large number of new species and genera in each of the classes of organisms collected. Of 184 species of fish fifty-three are new, and include repre- sentatives of no fewer than eight new genera. Most authors have as far as possible attempted to give the geographical distributions of the species, genera, and families they have dealt with. Among land animals these are at once of some value, but conclusions as to the geographical distribu- tion of marine animals can scarcely be attempted until the working-out of the majority of the divisions of those forms is completed. To the same time also must be deferred the consideration of the question as to how far the distribution of marine animals throws light on the former connections of lands. A general account of the whole expedition (J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper), giving an account of much of the geographical work, is prefixed to the series of reports now being issued. Geographically the Seychelles Archipelago was the most important area visited by the expedition. Its islands are all formed of granite, a rock which is otherwise peculiar to continental areas. They possess a very small vertebrate fauna, entirely pre-mammalian. Its most important forms are Cecilians, a large species of tortoise, probably the same as is now found in Aldabra, and a crocodile. Unfortunately these last two are now extinct, but the islands should be explored for their remains. Their plants are mostly peculiar, but possess both African and Indian affinities. The same, too, is true of most groups of invertebrate animals. Of their insects we appeared to have a fair knowledge before the expedition went to the group, regarding its islands as purely oceanic. The collections of the expedition were mainly made in the indigenous jungle, and give indications of adding a very large number of new forms. For instance, Mr. Cameron’s report on the Hymenoptera shows twelve new species and one new genus, exactly doubling the species known from the group. The Seychelles must be considered of great importance in view of the supposed former connection between India and South Africa. To eluci- date this, its land animals require to be known as accurately as possible. The indications so far point to a peculiar insect fauna, only a few forms of which—to judge by the analogy of the Hawaiian Islands—have as yet been obtained. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the expedition visited the archipelago in a time of drought. In any case a further exploration from this side would now seem imperative. There would ON INVESTIGATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 353 seem, too, to be no time to be lost, as there are less than three square miles of the indigenous jungle left, and it is daily being encroached upon The expedition had actually only seven weeks in the Seychelles, and hence its work was necessarily of rather a scrappy nature. It is now felt that further explorations are also desirable in respect to the eleva- tions of the islands and to the reefs round their shores, which were shown in the first report of the Committee to be of peculiar nature. I would venture in conclusion to suggest the reappointment of the Committee, with a substantial grant to continue the geographical researches into the origin of the Seychelles Archipelago and the distribution of animals and plants. Rainfall and Lake and River Discharge.—Interim Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Sir JoHN Murray (Chairman), Professor A. B. Macatium and Dr. A. J. Hersertson (Secretaries), Pro- fessor W. M. Davis, Professor P. F. FRANKLAND, Mr. A. D. Hat, Mr. N. F. Mackenziz, Mr. E. H. V. Metvitte, Dr. H. R. Mitt, Professor A. Penck, Dr. A. Srrawan, and Mr. W. WHITAKER, appointed to investigate the Quantity and Composition of Rainfall and of Lake and River Discharge. Tux preparation of the bibliography continues, and it is hoped that it will be ready next year. Meanwhile special attention may be called to a paper by Dr. R. Fritzsche in the ‘Zeitschrift fiir Gewésserkunde,’ vol. vii., part 6, pp. 21-370; ‘ Niederschlag, Abfluss, und Verdunstung auf der Landflachen der Erde.’ The Committee understand that an investigation into the relation- ship between rainfall and run-off is being carried out under the direction of Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S., with grants from the Government Grant Committee and the Research Department of the Royal Geographical Society. The Committee ask for reappointment, and a renewal of the grant made last year. Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom.—In- terum Lveport of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. InGuis PaLGRavE (Chairman), Mr. H. Sranuey Jevons (Secretary), and Messrs. A. L. BowLey and D. H. Macarecor. _ Tue Committee have obtained all the necessary data for estimating the amount of the gold coinage in circulation. These include returns from 698 branches of banks, each stating the dates found on 200 sovereigns and 200 half-sovereigns selected at random from the banks’ tills about the middle of February 1907. The Bank of England and many of the most important banks of the country have kindly furnished valuable information regard- ing the date and quantity of unmixed coin in their reserves. The reduc- tion of the returns is proceeding. It is found that sovereigns of 1906 date form 13°5 per cent. of the whole circulation of sovereigns. The returns show a very unequal distribution of new coin throughout the country, sovereigns of 1906 date varying from 50 per cent. in some parts of London down to less than 4 per cent. in certain agricultural districts 1907. AA 354 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles.—Report of the Com- mittee consisting of Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM (Chairman), Mr. J. Gray (Secretary), Dr. A. C. Happon, Dr. C.S. Mygrs, Mr. J. L. Myres, Professor A. F. Drxon, Mr. E. N. Fauuaize, Dr. RaANDALL- Maclver, Professor J. Symiveron, Dr. WaTerston, Sir EpwarD Brasrook, Dr. T. H. Bryce, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworts, Mr. G. L. Gomme, Major 'T. McCutiocn, Dr. F. C. Sarussatu, Professor G. D. Taane, Mr. J. F. Tocner, Dr. W. McDoucat1, Mr. W. M. Heer, Mr. C. M. Stuart, Professor M. HE. Saver, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. W. D. Hatuisurton, Mr. A. Aspranam, Mr. H. 5S. KinasrorD, Mr. A. F. SHanp, and Mr. W. H. Wincu. Tue subjects which the Committee is called upon to deal with being so numerous and so diverse, it was deemed advisable to appoint five Sub- Committees, each of which would confine its attention to a particular branch of anthropometry and draw up a report to be submitted to the Committee as a whole. The following are the Sub-Committees which were constituted :— 1. An Anatomical Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman, the Secretary, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall (Convener), Dr. T. H. Bryce, Professor G. D. Thane, Dr. Waterston, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth. 2. A Physiological Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman, the Secretary, Dr. W. McDougall (Convener), Dr. C. 8. Myers, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. W. D. Halliburton, Mr. A. F. Shand, Mr. W. H. Winch. 3. A Psychological Sub-Committee, consisting of the same members as the Physiological Sub-Committee. 4. A Photographic Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman, the Secretary, Mr. J. L. Myres (Convener), Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. G. L. Gomme, Dr W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. A. Abraham, Mr. H. S. Kingsford. 5. An Educational Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman, the Secretary, Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Convener), Professor M. E. Sadler, Mr. W.M. Heller, Mr. C. M. Stuart, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, Dr, C. 8. Myers, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Sir Edward Brabrook. The Reports which have been submitted by these Sub-Committees represent the work of the Committee for the past year. They were considered at a meeting of the Committee held in the Anthropological Institute on May 1, and after some emendation were finally approved and adopted. Instead of incorporating them into one more or less homogeneous Report, the Committee believes that it will he more advan- tageous to present them to the British Association in the separate form in which they were originally prepared. Report of the Anatomical Sub-Committee. During the year the Sub-Committee has completed the list of measure- ments of the human body, prepared standard sets of hair and iris colours, and drawn up a series of lists of dimensions and observations of graduated complexity to be recommended for use in schools ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 355 A, Cuest MEASUREMENTS. After some consideration it was decided that the dimensions included in the list already published should be adhered to, but that further inquiry into the level at which chest measurements had been taken at various times and in different countries would be advisable. As a result of this inquiry it would appear: That observations on the shape and the relative if not the actual dimensions of the chest have been made since the days of Hippocrates, circa 500 B.c. Extensive notes were made by Galen and Aretzeus, circa 150 a.p., but after that no further information is available until the end of the eighteenth century, when Skoda and Laennec practically introduced to the medical world the modern procedure for the physical examination of the chest. These observers took tape measurements at the level of the xiphoid cartilage. (Laennec, ‘Traité de lAuscultation Médiate,’ Paris, 1826, p. 21). The examination of the antero-posterior and trans- verse diameters by means of callipers and a flexible metal tube, the cyrtometer, fitted accurately to the chest, was introduced by Woillez. (‘ Recherches cliniques sur l’emploi d’un nouveau procédé de mensuration,’ Paris, 1857.) He made his observations on normal chests apparently at the level of the sterno-xiphoid junction, but as his apparatus was designed primarily for the study of chests in which one side had been rendered asymmetrical by the presence of a pleural effusion, most measurements were taken over the point of maximum bulging. The same level was adopted by Gee, who studied the relation of the diameters by the use of callipers. The extensive series of observations made by Walshe and Cotton, and others by Hutchinson on the shape of the chest in relation to the vital capacity both in health and disease, were always taken at the junction of the sixth costal cartilage with the sternum. Sieveking, on the other hand, measured the circumference just above the nipples. _ The level adopted for the measurement of recruits in this country is to place the tape over the nipples in front and immediately below the angles of the scapule behind, the arms being held above the head while affixing the tape, but being brought to the side before reading off the result. The levels adopted in the Continental armies appear to vary from the fourth costo-sternal junction to the fifth interspace. No record could be found that calliper measurements were taken as a routine in the examination of recruits or conscripts of any army. Polanski, of Warsaw, took both transverse and antero-posterior diameters at the level of the nipple, and at points 4 centimetres above and below this. He later abandoned this, and recorded only the greatest diameters in either direction wherever found. (‘ Zeitschrift fiir Tuber- culose,’ Heft 5.) A greater number of calliper measurements have been made in the United States, of which a réswmé appears in an article by Lawrason Brown (‘American Journal of the Medical Sciences,’ October, 1904). Hutchinson chose the middle of the fourth intercostal space ; Sargent, Seaver, Otis, Beyer, and Hrdlicka used the level of the nipples. Sack in Russia and Hoesch-Ernst in Zurich took the diameters at the level of the mid-sternum. The records of Pagliani, Axel Key, Erissman, Zak, and other Continental observers are from tape measurements at the nipple line. Topinard and Weisberger measured the diameters at the level of the lower end of the sternum. A wide range of variation in the method AA2 356 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. adopted is thus seen to exist, and the comparison of the results of different observers is nearly impossible. Lawrason Brown investigated a series of patients at the Adirondack Cottage Sanatorium to ascertain what variations might occur from the difference in level at which the measurements were taken. He found that the difference between the level of the junction of the fourth costal cartilage and the sternum and that of the nipples varied from 1 to 5 centimetres. Resulting from this the transverse diameter showed a variation of less than 1 per cent., while the antero-posterior diameter varied considerably from 3 per cent., being deeper at the nipple level. A series of confirmatory observations made at the Brompton Hospital on male patients showed the difference in level between the fourth costal cartilage and the nipple line varied from 1:1 centimetre to 3°5 centi- metres. The difference in level between the nipple line and the lower end of the sternum showed far greater variations, ranging from 3 to 9 centimetres, while in female patients the range was only from 1 to 2 centimetres for the upper levels, and 2 to 5 centimetres at the lower levels. In one case (a child) the nipple line was actually upon the junction of the fourth costal cartilage with the sternum, and the distance from this line to the bottom of the sternum was 9 centimetres. The nipple line showed a tendency to vary across the level of the fourth and fifth interspaces. Measurement of the diameters showed a steady increase from above downwards, but not so great a proportionate difference as would appear from the American results. The level which would seem to approximate most closely to the mean of those in constant use is that of the junction of the fifth costal cartilage and the sternum ; but, on the other hand, this cartilage is more difficult to find than the fourth. Taking into consideration, therefore, the results of this investigation, with the methods adopted for chest measurement by other observers in this and other countries, the Anatomical Sub-Committee do not consider that there is any reason for departing from the original decision, viz., that the level at which these measurements should be taken is at the point of junction of the fourth costal cartilage with the margin of the sternum. They are inclined to regard, however, with greater favour the data obtained by calliper measurements of the mesial diameter and of the transverse diameter of the chest taken at the same level. B. Harr Corours. The colours proposed comprised the following shades: Fair, light brown, dark brown, black, and three shades of red—light, middle, and dark. ) Continued, 7.¢., as revealed after interval of twenty-four hours or more. 8. Systematic memory (i.e., retention of facts in virtue of the appre- hension of their connection with topics of special interest to the individual, or because systematically related with one another). 9. Selective memory—exceptional retentiveness for certain classes of impressions, or for facts about certain subjects. 10. Vividness and detailed accuracy of representative imagination (v.e., power of recalling past sense-impressions in corresponding imagery). ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 361 11. Freedom and range of play of ‘ fancy’ (i.e., in popular speech— imaginativeness). 12. Purposive constructive imagination (i.e., ‘inventiveness,’ or the power of bringing things together in imagination in relations in which they have not previously been experienced, under the guidance of the idea of some end to be achieved). 13. Power of ‘logical inference’ or reasoning. 14, Confidence in his own observations, judgments, and inferences. 15. Freedom of expression of feelings and emotions. 16. Liability to anger (a) Readiness with which the emotion is excited ; (b) Intensity of the emotion ; (c) Duration of the emotion. 17. Fear. (a) (d) Same as 16. (c) 18. Curiosity. (a) \ (d) Same as 16. (c) 19. Joyousness. 20. Sympathy (the tendency to be moved by an emotion when the expression of it in another person is witnessed—i.e., primitive sympathy). 21. Courage or resolution (i.e, not mere absence of fear, but degree to which purpose is pursued in spite of pain, fear, opposition, and of difficulties foreseen). 22. Altruism (the tendency to put the welfare of others, individuals or the public, before one’s own as a motive of action). 23. Egoism (the frequency with which the idea of one’s self and its relations is the ruling motive in action and the mainspring of the emotions). 24. Conscientiousness (tendency for action to be controlled by general principles rather than by the immediate promptings of desire and emotion ; expressed, ¢.g., in truthfulness, honesty in schoolwork, punc- tuality, and general trustworthiness). 25. Industriousness. 26. Sensitiveness to opinions of other individuals (e.g., of teachers or schoolfellows) or to public opinion (this is not to be confounded with conscientiousness or with suggestibility). 27. Sociability (the finding of pleasure and satisfaction in the society of fellows). 28. Initiative (expressed, e.g., in tendency to assume leadership in games, in class, We.). 29. Masterfulness—the tendency to impose one’s own will and opinions upon others. 30. Suggestibility—readiness with which opinions and beliefs are impressed by the expressions of other persons. 362 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 31. Competitive or emulative spirit. 32. Sense of ludicrous. 33. Aisthetic feeling. 34. Energy (7.e., capacity for doing work without exhaustion) : (a) Bodily work ; (6) Mental work. Report of the Sub-Committee on Photographic Records of Anthropological Data. Racial characteristics are conveniently recorded by means of photo- graphs. In every case the name, sex, age, and nationality (including tribe, clan, or group), and also the date and place at which the photo- graph was taken, should be recorded, and an identifying mark should be placed on every negative. The portraits which are of anthropological value are as follows :— A, GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. (a) A few portraits of such persons of each sex as may, in the opinion of the observer, best convey the special characteristics of the race as regards features and pose of body. These should be taken in the aspect which best displays those characteristics, and should be accompanied by a note directing attention to the special features shown in the photograph. It is desirable that some of these portraits should not be taken either strictly full-face or in strict profile. Very interesting series are afforded by whole families. Snapshot photography often gives more characteristic records of expression and pose than can be obtained by formal sittings before a stand-camera. (b) Special photographs should be taken to record all characteristic deformations of the head, face, teeth, and other parts of the body ; and all forms of tattooing and scarification should be recorded by photographs taken in the aspect which best displays the peculiarity. Scarifications almost always demand special sidelong illumination ; tattooing also some- times needs orthochromatic plates. It is occasionally necessary to enhance tattoo marks with black paint on the person ; but this should be avoided if possible. ZB. Porrraits oF HEAD AND FACE ONLY. (a) The portraits should show in each case the left side of the face in exact profile. At least twelve male adults and twelve female adults should be photographed. The hair should be so arranged as fully to show the ear, and the males should be beardless if possible. If time only admits of a smaller number, or of only one sex, males should be preferred. To obtain the best average definition, the image should be focussed on a plane midway between that of the ear and the mesial plane of the head. For detailed directions as to pose, illumination, &c., see below. (>) The same persons who were taken in side-face should be photo- graphed also in strictly full-face. The focal plane should be that of the front of the cheek. (c) The same persons should be photographed also, if possible, so as to show the top of the head. This, however, is only of value if the subject is bald or shaven, or has very close-cropped hair. ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 363 It will add much to the value of the portraits if the same persons have also been measured. C. FULL-LENGTH PortRaIts. At least twelve adults of each sex should also be photographed at full length, standing, with heels together and arms by the sides. They should be as nearly nude as circumstances permit, and each should be photo- graphed in three positions :— (a) Full-face, with the right arm hanging loosely by the side and the left held across the body between the breasts and the navel, with the fingers extended. (b) Profile with arms hanging loosely by the side. (c) Back view, with arms in the same position as in (6). Of these the full-face view is the most important, and the back view the least important. For general directions as to pose, &c., see below. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. Camera and Lens.—In all cases record should be kept of the focal distance of the lens and of the distance of the sitter from the camera. A lens of short focus should be avoided. The ordinary field camera is usually fitted with a lens of about 8 inches focal length, but for cabinet portraits nothing under 15 inches is satisfactory, and professional photo- graphers often use lenses of considerably longer focus. Valuable results may even be obtained with a telephotographic lens such as is employed in geographical work. . Rapidity of lens and plates is an advantage : uncivilised folk are im- patient subjects. But note that very rapid plates are often too delicate for field-work. The focussing screen must be kept vertical, and the swing-back should on no account be used in fodussing. Otherwise distortion of the image is inevitable. Size and Scale.—The portraits should be on such a scale that the distance between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin shall in no case be less than 1} inch (30 mm.). Smaller portraits are of com- paratively little value. For composite work greater uniformity of scale is required. The best results are obtained when the distances between eyes and lips are taken as the constant dimensions. In every series it is more important that the portraits should be of uniform scale among themselves than that they should be precisely of any standard scale, but the following hints will aid in securing the latter result also :— FULL-LENeTH Portraits. A full-grown man can be photographed easily at full length on a ‘ half- plate’ (83"’ x 63/’) on the scale of ;L, and ona ‘ quarter-plate’ (43”’ x 32"’) on the scale of 4. But ‘half-plate’ and ‘quarter-plate’ are both just too small to admit head-and-shoulders portraits on the scale of 1 and ¢ respectively. ; Note, however, that the Ecole d’Anthropologie de Paris has adopted the scale of 35 (=,85= 7) for full-length work, the object being to secure 364 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. full-length portraits on the French ‘13 x 18cm.’ plate (approximately the English 5x7” size). See Rev. He. Anthr. viii. (1898), p. 109. HEAD-AND-SHOULDERS PoRrRAIts. The ‘half-plate’ and ‘quarter-plate’ are just too small to admit with security a head-and-shoulders portrait on the scale of 4 and 2 respec- tively. The French scale for these portraits, and for other parts of the body in detail, is $ (=~=2), which permits a head-and-shoulders portrait to be taken easily on a ‘13 x 18cm,’ plate, and with ample margin on a ‘half- plate.’ Similarly on the scale of } a ‘ head-and-shoulders’ portrait can be taken easily on a ‘ quarter-plate.’ A board, on which is marked very legibly a scale of feet and inches and also a ‘metric’ scale, should be suspended over the head of the sub- ject in the plane of his profile, and so as just to fall within the photographic picture. This is the only certain method of preserving a record of the scale, and also makes it easy to secure whatever scale of reduction may be adopted, by comparison of the image of this board with a line or rect- angle of proportional size drawn on the focussing screen of the camera. The name of the district and of the sitter (or at all events a distinctive letter or number) may be written with chalk or charcoal on this same board, thus securing the identification of each subject. Background.—The background should be at a considerable distance from the subject. It should be of a medium tint (say a deep shadow, or a sheet of light brown or French grey paper pinned against the wall beyond), very dark and very light tints being both unsuitable. Some, however, use dead black ; others, red baize. A soft material which does not readily crease obviates trouble from accidental shadows. In any case due allowance must be made for the complexion or skin colour of the persons to be photographed ; and preliminary experiment is advisable. A note should be made of the colour of the background, and also of the complexion or skin colour of the subject. The essential condition is that the*outlines of the figure shall be clearly defined against the background. Illumination.—The incidence of the light should be the same in all cases, otherwise the photographs are difficult to compare, and cannot be used to make composite portraits. The source of light should be single, definite, and placed behind the camera and above it, so that the shadows may be equally distributed on either side of the face. This is especially important for composite work. The light, however, must not be so strong or concentrated as to distress the subject or cause him to close or strain his eyes. But note that subdued light involves longer exposure. A dark background behind the camera relieves eye-strain, without cutting off top-light. When the top-light is strong, a white sheet on the ground lightens the shadows, and helps to prevent the subject from looking down. Mounting.—The photographs should be mownted on cards, each card bearing the name of the district, and a letter or number to distinguish the individual portraits ; the cards of each series may be secured together by a thread passing loosely through a hole in their upper left-hand corners. For convenience of comparison and interchange, attention is called to ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 365 the standard sizes of mounts adopted by the British Association’s Com- mittee on Anthropological Photographs. The ordinary ‘cabinet-mount ’ is used for all sizes up to and including ‘ half-plate.’ The risk of fading is minimised by avoiding gum or paste ; each print being secured by its corners to slits cut in the mount, as in a post-card album. But the only complete security is the use of a really ‘ permanent’ process such as Platinotype. DETAILED DIRECTIONS AS TO Posn. For purposes of comparison, uniformity of pose is essential in photo- graphs in classes B and C' (see above). For side-face (B*) and for full face (B’) the head should be posed so that a line drawn from the inferior orbital margin to the tragus of the auricle is horizontal. This is a test which can be directly applied in ‘either pose with the help of sights and a level on the side of the camera ; for the axis of the camera should lie in the same horizontal plane with the line from the inferior margin of the orbit to the tragus. Without such provision for uniformity, differences of face projection and prognathism are liable to be obscured or misrepresented. The subject should look at some object on a level with his eye and at a moderate distance from it. For top view of the head (B°) the following methods are practicable :— 1. Set the camera on a high stand, pointing vertically downwards, and make the subject sit on the ground below it, with his head posed as for side view. 2. Set the camera to point horizontally, and make the subject lie on his back on a table of suitable height, with his head towards the camera. The line from the inferior margin of the orbit to the tragus should now be vertical. 3. Set the camera to point horizontally ; set a chair with its back to the camera ; make the subject sit straddlewise on the chair, facing the camera ; let him fold his arms on the back of the chair, and bend forward, resting his head on his arms, and looking downwards, till the head is in the right pose ; when a plumb-rule will test the line from the inferior margin of the orbit to the tragus, SUGGESTIONS FOR RAPIDITY AND UNIFORMITY. By attending to the following hints successive sitters may be made to occupy so nearly the same position that the camera need hardly be refocussed :— 1. Much time will be saved if all the side-faces are taken first, and then all the full-faces ; the latter should occupy a different chair, in which case the position of the camera would require to be changed after com- pleting the first series of photographs; unless, indeed, there happen to be two operators, each with his own camera, ready to take the same persons in turn. 2. If the camera has a stand with vertical rack-and-pinion adjustment, the subject’s place should be fixed, and the camera should be raised and lowered to suit each subject. A square of the standard size of the picture should be ruled on the focussing screen of the camera. 3. For field work, and wherever the camera has no such adjustable stand, the eamera should be set at a fixed height and all the subjects 366 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. should occupy in turn the same chair, with movable blocks of known thicknesses on the seat to raise the heads of successive sitters to a uniform height. It is, however, tedious and clumsy to adjust each sitter’s height by trial in front of the camera. The simpler plan is to make the sitter first take his place on a separate seat with his back to a wall, on which are previously marked, at heights corresponding to those of the various heights of head, the numbers of the blocks that should be used in each case. The appropriate number for the sitter is found and noted, and then the proper blocks are placed on the chair by the observer or an assistant, with the assurance that what is wanted has been correctly done. 4, The position of the sitter is easily controlled by the operator if he looks at the sitter’s head over the middle line of the camera, against a mark on the background. The subject can also be caused to adjust himself approximately by means of sights arranged on the side of the camera, as follows :— : A is a small mirror with a cross + painted onit. It is set at an angle of 45° to the sitter’s line of sight. DIAGRAM A. DIAGRAM B. Cc | B is a pin with head of glass or polished metal. The sitter is told to keep the head of the pin sighted in the intersection of the cross. The same device may be employed in photographing side-face to keep the sitter in the right focal plane. In this case the sights are set up in the focal plane, facing the sitter. Or a small plain mirror (C) may be hung up, so that the sitter can only see his face in it when he is in the right pose and focal plane. Report of the Educational Sub-Committee. In dealing with anthropometrics in schools the chief factors which the Sub-Committee has had to take into consideration are time, expense, and the object of the investigations. If time and expense did not enter into the question, it is hardly necessary to remark that, from the scientific point of view at least, the measurement of school-children would require no special scheme of observations as apart from a general survey of the population. In present circumstances, however, when a crowded ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 367 eurriculum reduces the time available for anything outside the absolutely essential to a minimum, and the cost of the education of the large majority of the children is borne by public funds, it is necessary to confine the investigation, so far as possible, to a practical issue more or less immediate. From an educational point of view the value of an anthropometric survey must lie chiefly in the fact that it affords an accurate indication of the development of the individual, and at the same time provides those responsible for education with some means of judging how far the individual, or individuals, of a particular area are modified, physically and mentally, by the education provided. The Sub-Committee is therefore of the opinion that the aim of anthropometric observations in schools should be :— 1..To determine norms or averages, standard deviations and correla tions at different ages, having due regard to sexual, racial, and environ- mental differences. 2. To correlate physical and mental growth with a view to testing the efficiency of different systems of education and indicating the amount of work that may advantageously be attempted at different ages, thereby minimising the dangers of over-pressure. 3. To mark out the physically or mentally unfit for special educational treatment. Where the deviation is abnormal in a number of individuals, a whole school, or a whole area, it would point to the necessity for special investigations of social conditions and environment. 4. To correlate physical, mental, and environmental characters with a view to providing a scientific basis for the better adaptation of education to local needs and character. As regards the anatomical measurements, the Sub-Committee re- commends the adoption of the schedules suggested for use in schools by the Anatomical Sub-Committee (see p. 357). The adoption of a particular schedule must depend largely on local circumstances and finance. And although it must be remembered that more accurate conclusions are to be obtained from a few measurements of a large number of individuals than from a large number of observations on a few individuals, the value of a survey would be increased in propor- tion as a schedule contuining a larger number of observations were generally adopted. The Sub-Committee is of the opinion that the teachers, with a little practical instruction, would be capable of making and recording the necessary measurements. In addition to actual measure- ments, careful note should be taken of the general physical condition, and a record of average (not record) performances in athletic sports and of proficiency in games should be kept. In the case of the psychological observations the conditions are some- what different. They would necessarily extend over a more or less lengthy period, and therefore should, if possible, be entrusted to the teacher. Graduated schedules for use in schools have not yet been drawn up, but the teachers—who, it must be remembered, at any rate in the elementary schools, have received some training in the observation of the psychical characters of childhood—may select for themselves from the schedule tentatively suggested by the Psychological Sub-Committee (see p. ae the characters with which they feel themselves most competent to deal. With regard to the record of observations, unless a special inquiry is 368 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. necessitated by local circumstances, some uniform system should be adopted, and the method of envelopes and cards suggested in the previous year’s Report, which includes a record of family history, seems most desirable. To secure the full value of the records a central body should be established upon which should devolve the comparison and statistical treatment of the observations made. Its duties should include the determination of average values, standard deviations, and correlations in different conditions ; and when this has been done, the reporting the results of an examination of the material submitted to it to local education authorities and others interested. The Physiological Sub-Committee has not reported, but, in the. event of the Anthropometric Committee being reappointed, it is proposed that this Sub-Committee should prepare a code of instructions for testing vision, hearing, tactile sensibility, &c. &c., for the Report of next year. It is further considered desirable that the Committee should report upon the factors of the environment which it would be advantageous to observe and record. Much useful work still remains to be done. The Committee there- fore request that they should be’ reappointed, that the unexpended balance of the grant (13/. 9s. 1d.) should be carried over to next year, and that an additional grant of 10/. be voted for the furtherance of the work of the Committee. The Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), Sir Joun Evans, Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor Boyp Dawkins, and Mr. A. L. LEwIs, appointed to conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tue Committee report that with a view to the execution of the work for which a small grant was made at the last meeting of the Association, they asked Mr. H. St. G. Gray to make detailed surveys and plans of the Fernacre and Stannon Stone Circles on Bodmin Moors, Cornwall. This work has been satisfactorily and skilfully done, and the surveys of the group of five circles in this neighbourhood are now complete, the other three circles, viz., the ‘Stripple Stones,’ the ‘Trippet Stones,’ and Leaze Circle having previously been made. The measurements at the Fernacre and Stannon circles occupied Mr. Gray from September 18 to September 25, 1906, and from them two large-scale plans in 6-inch contours have since been prepared. Detailed notes, sketches, and photographs were also made, and a valuable record of these circles has thus been secured. The ‘Trippet Stones’ and Leaze Circle were revisited for the purpose of checking some measurements. It is satisfactory to be able to state that nearly all traces of the excavation work conducted in 1905 at the ‘Stripple Stones’ have now disappeared, the grass having grown again excellently over the dis- turbed places. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 369 Mr. Gray’s detailed report upon the work done is appended. It may be added that the thanks of the Committee are due to Mr. Gray, who undertook the work without any remuneration. The Committee ask to be reappointed, with the addition of Lord Avebury to their number. Lord Avebury has very kindly agreed to excavations being made at Ave bury Stone Circle, and it is greatly to be hoped that a grant may be made for this purpose. The Avebury circle is perhaps the most important in Great Britain, and it is most desirable that this site should be excavated with a view to gaining fresh evidence as to the period to which the circles belong. Owing to there being a very fine fosse connected with this monument, it is likely that far more definite results may be obtained upon this site than upon any other. The careful exploration of this circle is one of the most important pieces of archxological work remaining to be done in Great Britain. To make detailed partial excavations on the site will involve an expenditure of some 120/. at least, and the Committee ask for a grant of this amount. Notes on the Survey of the Fernacre and Stannon Stone Circles, East Cornwall, 1906. By H. Sr, Gtorar Gray. I, The Fernacre Stone Circle. 1. The Position of the Circle——Fernacre Circle, which belongs to Sir William Onslow, Bart., is in the parish of St. Breward, the village of which is 32 miles distant in a S.W. direction,! and the same distance to the 8.E. of Camelford. It is about 925 feet above the mean level of the sea. Hut-circles abound to the E. between the circle and Fernacre farm, and to the N. on the southern slopes of Rough Tor. To the S. and W.S.W. are barrows and stone cists. To the N.W. at a distance of 4} furlongs, is the Logan Rock at the N. extremity of Louden Hill. The view from the circle is confined to a comparatively small area, bounded on the N. by Rough Tor, on the S. by Garrow Tor, on the E. by Brown Willy, and on the W. by Louden Hill. The Fernacre Circle is situated at the following distances from the neighbouring circles : The Stripple Stones, 15,675 feet (three miles), due S. ; the Trippet Stones, 16,810 feet (31 miles), S.S.W. ; the Leaze Circle 9,220 feet (1j mile), S.8.W. ; the Stannon Circle, 6,270 feet (94 furlongs), W. The Stripple Stones, the Leaze, and Stannon Circles” are almost in line, and the same remark applies to the Trippet Stones, the Leaze, and Fernacre Circles. By reference to the 6-inch Ordnance sheets it is seen that the summit of Brown Willy, Fernacre, and Stannon Circles are very nearly in the same alignment, but the line connecting the former and the latter misses being due E. and W. by just 2°, Fernacre falling a little S. of this line ; Brown Willy is the most northerly of the three. 2. Description of the Circle.—The plan encloses an area 175 feet due N.and 8. by 175 feet E. and W., the ground covering 0-7 acre. The magnetic variation for September 1, 1906, at Brown Willy was 17° 18’ W. of true N. The plan with its 6-inch contours shows a maximum fall of 125 feet from the highest ground in the N.E. corner to the lowest at the S.W. Details regarding the position and size of the stones have been care- fully recorded. A mere glance at the plan shows that the stones were ‘ All measurements are taken as the crow flies. 1907 RB 370 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. probably never placed in the form of a true circle, unless ‘soil-creep’ is responsible for more than I should be inclined to credit it with; still it must be borne in mind that the ground (peat) is very boggy in wet seasons (even more so than at the other circles). The nearest approxi- mation to a segment of a true circle is on the W. side, where the stones are placed about 7 feet apart. Out of the seventy-one stones ! shown in my plan thirty-nine are standing (including stumps), the remainder being prostrate or partly sunk into the peat, whilst others could only be indi- cated on the plan after probing and digging. All the stones are of granite. The highest standing stone is No. VI, which leans slightly and is surrounded by. a depression ‘about 1 foot deep ; its height above the level of the moor is 4:4 feet. Stone XIV comes next with a height of 3°7 feet, while Stone X XXII is 3-4 feet high. Of the prostrate stones No. LXIV is by far the longest, length 6-9 feet ; and No. XIV is by far the widest stone—width 4°2 feet. Nos. XXXII, XXXIV, and LXVI are also comparatively large stones. Early pros- tration of several of the standing stones is to be feared, both here and at the Stannon Circle, as many of them lean considerably, and some are deeply trenched round by the feet of cattle. A mediate circle has been delineated on the plan, which gives an approximate diameter of 149 feet for the ring. Mr. G. F. Tregelles records the diameter as about 146 feet, but the circle described on his plan shows the ring to be of the same Senter as that on my plan. 3. Outlying Stone.—Both Mr. A. L, Lewis and Mr. Tregelles have stated that an outlying stone is situated about 160 feet eastward from the circle directly in line with the highest peak of Brown Willy. Now these observations should be taken from the centre of the circle, and I tind that the outlying stone is about 14° to the N. of a line drawn from the circle’s centre to the highest point of Brown Willy.? This small stone is 231 feet from the centre of the circle, and 1544 feet from the middle of the eastern stone No, XIV. IT. The Stannon Stone Circle. l. The Position of the Circle-—Stannon Circle is the most north- westerly of the group of five circles on Bodmin Moors, and is in the parish of St. Breward. Like the Stripple Stones and the Fernacre Circle it is the property of Sir William Onslow, Ee This circle is only 13 furlong to the 8.S.W. of Stannon Farm, and 2} miles to the N.K. of St. Breward ; from Camelford it is 24 miles in a bee line in a §.E. direc- tion. To the S.8.W. of the circle there is a tumulus on Dinnever Hill, and hut-circles abound on the E.N.E, E., and E.S.E. Alex Tor is situated 7} furlongs to the S.W., and Rough Tor towers over the N. extremity a Louden Hill at a distance of 12 24 furlongs in an E.N.E. direction. On the E. the peaks of Brown Willy, over the 8. slope of Louden Hill, stand out conspicuously against the sky-line. The circle is about 835 feet above mean sea-level. A small tributary of the River Camel rises a little to the east of the circle. 1 Mr. Lukis in 1879 said that the circle consisted of ten fallen and forty-five erect stones. He stated also that the diameter of the circle was 140 feet, but his plan shows it to be about 147 feet. * The summit of Brown Willy is about 22° N. of E., viewed from the centre of the Fernacre Circle. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 37] The Stannon Circle is situated at the following distances from the neighbouring circles : The Stripple Stones, 16,770 feet (about 3} miles), 8.E. ; the Trippet Stones, 16,350 feet (over 3 miles), S.S.E. ; the Leaze Circle, 9,530 feet (about 14 mile), S.E.; the Fernacre Circle, 6,270 feet (9 furlongs), E. A line connecting Stannon Circle with the summit of Brown Willy is only 2° N. of E., and the Fernacre Circle falls only 100 feet to the S. of this line. 2. Description of the Circle-—The plan encloses an area 165 feet due N. and 8. by 157 feet E. and W., the ground covering about 0°6 acre. The contours of 6 inches vertical height show a gradual fall of 8} feet from the highest ground in the 8.E. corner to the lowest at the N.W. The surveying was greatly impeded by the luxurious growth of gorse in most parts of the circle.'_ Much had to be cut away for our purposes, and there was considerable difficulty in revealing the true outline of many of the prostrate stones, and in some cases, either on account of the abundance of gorse or from the fact that some of the stones were entirely clothed in turf, only the approximate outline of the granite blocks could be delineated on the plan. Details of the dimensions and position of the stones have been care- fully recorded. As in the case of the Fernacre Circle, the stones at Stannon could never have been placed in the form of a true circle. Indeed the Stannon stones deviate much more from a true circle than those at Fernacre. The nearest approximation to a segment of a circle in the case of Stannon is on the S.,S.E., and E. By far the greatest amount of flattening of the circle occurs on the N., while at the N.W. there is almost an angle formed by the position of the stones. The N.W. quarter of the circle shows the best line of stones still erect, and had not Stones LXXI and LXXIT fallen outwards there would have been twelve stones standing in sequence in their original position, apparently without any deficiencies between. Of the seventy-nine stones shown in the circle and within it in my plan, forty-one are standing (including stumps), the remainder being prostrate or partly sunk into the peat, whilst others could only be indi- cated on the plan after probing, digging, or gorse-cutting. The highest standing-stones are close together on the S.W. ; Nos. LVI and LIX are each 3°55 feet above the field level, and No. LII is 3:1 feet in height. Stone LXIV leans outwards considerably, but when erect its height was probably 3°8 feet. Of the prostrate stones Nos. XX XVIII and IX are the longest, the lengths being 5:8 and 5:5 feet respectively. These are closely followed by Nos. XIII, VII, and V, with lengths of 5°35, 5:3, and 5:2 feet respectively. The widest stone in the circle is No. LXIV, width 4:5 feet ; this is closely followed by Nos. LII and IX, 4-4 and 4 feet wide respectively. A circle has been described on the plan which, although including the somewhat flattened portion on the N. well within its area, is mediate for the stones on the E., S., and W. It gives a diameter of 138 feet. 3. Outlying Stone.—At 30° E. of N., as observed from the centre of the circle, there is an outlying stone (N o. LX XX of plan) at a distance of 25 feet from the nearest part of the circle described on the plan, and 94 feet from the centre of the circle. This standing-stone probably belongs to this group of stones. It leans in a N.E. direction towards ! See photographs. oe REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Rough Tor at an angle of about 50° with the ground. When erect it was about 1:8 foot above the turf. Its maximum basal width is 4°6 feet, so that it is wider than any of the other stones comprising the Stannon group. Ill. General Remarks. From the fact that neither the Fernacre nor the Stannon Circle are true circles,! it has been contended that they may be earlier in date than the circles in the southern division of the group, viz., the Stripple and Trippet Stones and the Leaze Circle. Such an assumption can only be proved by excavations. I am not aware that any remains of human workmanship have been found in any of these circles, except the few flint flakes and a calcined flint in the excavations conducted at the Stripple Stones in 1905. As the Fernacre and Stannon circles are in close proximity to the sites of dozens of hut-circles, it is probable that the two classes of ancient sites are contemporaneous in date, and that the inhabi- tants of the huts used the circles for various ceremonies and observances. These circles might repay excavating if done carefully, but stone circles in England, with the exception of Stonehenge and Arbor Low, have pro- duced little in the way of relics. In cart-tracks and along a little runnel of water just below the hut- circles on the southern slope of Rough Tor, and between it and the Fernacre Circle, Mrs. Gray found within half an hour six flint chips, a small scraper, two cores, a flake with secondary chipping, and a flint knife, nearly 2 inches long, with traces of considerable chipping. The stones in the five circles are of granite. Those forming the Stripple and Trippet Stones and the Leaze Circle are for the most part solid and well cut, with quadrangular cross-section. The stones making up the Fernacre and Stannon Circles are, on the other hand, smaller as a whole,? and with few exceptions are rough and irregular in outline. The three southern circles, and especially the Trippet Stones and the Leaze Circle, have the megaliths placed at fairly regular intervals apart. The Stripple Stones appear to have been arranged about 164 feet apart ; the Trippet Stones have intervals of 123 feet dividing the stones ; and the spaces between the stones of the Leaze Circle average 12 feet. The Fernacre and Stannon Circles, on the other hand, present uneven out- lines, and the remaining stones in some places occur in close order, in others at irregular intervals. Instances of similar circles are recorded. Withypool, which I have surveyed, is a recent discovery of the sort.* Mr. C. W. Dymond has figured Cumbrian circles of this character ;4 they include Long Meg and her Daughters, the Keswick, Swinside,® and Eskdale Circles. The former of these (average diameter 332 feet) has a similar flattening on the N. side to that of the Stannon Circle The com- paratively small circle of Boscawen-tin, in the parish of Buryan, near Penzance, is elliptical in shape ; in this case the stones follow the line of a true circle on the N.E. and 8.W., but in the other parts they bulge out. 1 How easily these rings could have been made true circles by means of a central pole and a cord for radius. 2 The stones of the Stannon Circle are rather larger and more uniform than those of Fernacre. 3 Proc. Som. Arch. and N. H. Soc., Ui1., pt. ii., 42-50, and plan. 4 Journ, Brit. Arch. Assoc., vol. xxxiv., 31-6. 5 Trans. Cumb. and West. Antig. Soc., N.S., ii. p. 55 et seq. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES, 373 Both Fernacre and Stannon Circles have an outlying stone near to ; the former on the E., the latter on the N.N.E. The former, as viewed from the centre of the circle, does not form an exact alignment with the summit of Brown Willy, and the use of the latter has not been ascer- tained. Another point to be noticed in this group of circles is that none of the circles can be seen from the others, with the exception of the Trippet Stones, which, viewed from the Stripple Stones, stands out grandly along the sky-line ; but the Stripple Stones are not well seen from the Trippets. All the circles are highly placed above sea-level. The Trippet Stones are the lowest, about 799 feet, whilst the Fernacre Circle is the highest, about 925 feet above mean sea-level. The Leaze Cirele, about 815 feet ; Stannon Circle, about 835 feet ; and the Stripple Stones, about 915 feet. In diameter, Fernacre is the largest circle in Cornwall ; allowing for irregularities, it averages 145 feet. The Stripple Stones come next with a diameter of 1465 feet. Of the others in the group, the diameters are as follows : Stannon, 138 feet ; Trippet Stones, 108 feet; and the Leaze Circle, 81 feet. These have been estimated with every attention to accuracy. Mr. Tregelles gives the diameters as 146, 145, 138, 103, and 80 feet respectively. Hxploration of the ‘ Red Hills’ of the Hast Coast Salt Marshes.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor R. MELDOLA (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Rupuer (Secretary), Mr. C. H. Reap, and Mr. T. V. Houmes. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) As the Committee were appointed without any grant, they have not been able to undertake any active work in the field. It happened, however, that all the members of this Committee were also members of the ‘ Red Hills Exploration Committee,’ which, at the suggestion of Mr. I. Chalkley Gould, had been appointed jointly by the Essex Archeological Society and the Essex Field Club. This Committee carried out last autumn some important investigations in certain ‘red hills’ in the parish of Langenhoe, in N.E. Essex, where permission to dig had been obtained by Dr. H. Laver of Colchester, who acted as director of the excavations. Three mounds were systematically examined, under the careful superin- tendence of Mr. Francis W. Reader, whilst a cursory examination was made of several neighbouring hills. These mounds yielded numerous fragments of the coarse red pottery so common in the ‘ Red Hills,’ with a few of the characteristic objects of red ware known as wedges and T -pieces, such as were exhibited at the last meeting of the British Asso- ciation. Fragments of a finer dark-coloured pottery were also found, and one mound yielded a portion of a large bowl believed to be of Late Celtic age. The other objects exhumed included fragments of hard vitrified slag and animal bones, with antlers of the red deer. The site of all the ‘ red hills’ in the districts of Langenhoe, Wigborough, and Mersea have been accurately laid down by Mr. W. H. Dalton on the 6-inch maps kindly supplied by the Director of the Ordnance Survey. The Joint-Committee have issued an interim report, in which they express the opinion that the work is not yet sufficiently advanced to justif, any definite conclusion as to the origin and uses of the ‘red hills.’ Further exploration is therefore to be undertaken, and in order to assist in this work your Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 101. 374 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Anthropological Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. 8. Kinasrorp (Secretary), Dr. T. AsHey, Dr. G. A. AupEeN, Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. E. N. FatuaizE, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. E. Smney Hartuanp, Mr. E. Heawoop, Mr. J. L. Myres, and Professor FLINDERS PETRIE, appointed for the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registra- tion of Photographs of Anthropological Interest. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) THE Committee issue with this report the second list of photographs registered with them. An important matter has come to the front during the past year— namely, the position which already existing collections of photographs should bear to the register of the Committee. For example, most of the missionary societies have large and valuable collections of anthropological photographs which they are willing should be registered, but of which copies cannot be obtained for the Committee’s collection. As it would be unfortunate if these collections were not made available for students, the Committee feel that some modification of the conditions under which photographs are accepted for registration is needed, and that the primary object of their work should be the registration rather than the collection of photographs. The Committee therefore propose that where duplicate copies cannot be obtained, except at considerable expense, a collection should be registered and, where possible, a detailed catalogue published, giving a reference to the place where the collection may be seen. The Committee do not propose to give up collecting photographs, but in special cases they will be willing to register photographs without making the presentation of copies a condition of doing so. The system of numbering and arrangement was published in the last report of the Committee. The following is a list of the numbers already allocated :— 1-2000. The Royal Anthropological Institute, 3 Hanover Square, W. 2001-3000. Mr. J. L. Myres, Christ Church, Oxford. 3001-4000. Dr. D. Randall-MacIver, Wolverton House, Clifton, and the late Mr. Anthony Wilkin. 4001-5000. Mr. T. V. Hodgson, 54 Kingsley Road, Plymouth. 5001-6000. Professor C.8. Myers, Galewood Tower, Great Shelford, Cambridge. 6001-7000. Mr. J. L. Myres, Christ Church, Oxford. 7001-8000. Mr. Edgar Thurston, Government Museum, Madras. 8001-9000. Will be used for small series or single photographs. (8002-8015. Miss E. M. Hartland, Highgarth, Gloucester.) 9001-10000. Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, St. John’s College, Cambridge. 10001-11000. Dr. C. G. Seligmann, 15 York Terrace, N.W. 11001-12000. Dr. G. A. Auden and Dr. H. A. Auden, Bootham, York. 12001-13000. Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., Inisfail, Hills Road, Cambridge. The Committee ask to be reappointed, retaining the balance in hand. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 375 SECOND LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS. EUROPE. DenmarKk.—Photographed by Dr. G. A. AuDEN, Bootham, York. 11014. Jellinge, model of the Gorm Stone, with Runic inscription. FRANCE. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Abbeville. 218, 219. Human jaw. Basque. 268. Young man with bullock cart. Brittany. 501. Breton man and woman. | Photographed by Dr. G. A. AuDEN, Bootham, York. 11056. Polished stone celts. 11066. Carnac, Dolmen la Trinité. 11068. Carnac, Cromlech (Circle) Menec. 11069-70. Carnac, alignments of Menec. 11071. Carnac, alignments of Kermario. 11058. Huelgoat, Koat Mocun monolith. 11059. Huelgoat, Kerampeulven monolith. 11061. Locmariaker, table des marcbants (dolmen) cromlech. 11062. Locmariaker table des marchants (dolmen) cromlech, interior, 11063. Locmariaker, dolmen Kerveres. 31064. Locmariaker, dolmen Kerock. 11065. Locmariaker, dolmen Le Mané Rétual. 11067. Locmariaker, Men-er-H-roeck (fallen monolith). Norway. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 502, Lapp family. PoLanpD. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 237, 238. Young adult male. Russia. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 651-688, Series of ethnographical types. UNITED KINGDOM. ENGLAND. Photographed by Dr. G. A. AUDEN. Cheshire. 11019, Pre-Norman crosshead and portion of shaft, Cheadle (York Museum). 376 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Cornwall. 278. Six photographs of selected types. Photographed by Dr. H. A. AupEN. 11503. Bolleit, part of stone circle. 11512. Boscawen Point, St. Buryan, monolith. 11504. Bosporthennis, beehive hut. 11522. Chywoon, cromlech. 11511. Land’s End, Ruins on Carn Brea. 11505. Lanyon, cromlech. 11523. Lanyon, West cromlech. 11524. Madron, Men-an-Tol (holed stone). 11542. Madron, ‘ Rialobran’ inscribed stone. 11502. Newlyn, ‘ Faugau Stones.’ 11508. Paul, Chy-an-Hal monolith. 11527. Penzance, Chysauster, ‘ British Village.’ 11528. Penzance, Chysauster, details of portion of hut. 11506, 11526. Rosemodaress, holed stone. 11507, 11540. Rosemoddress, ‘ The Pipers.’ 11514. Rosemoddress, Goon-rith monolith 11541. Rosemoddress, ‘ Borah Circle,’ now partially destroyed. 11509. Sanecreed, Brane, beehive hut, exterior. 11513. Sancreed, Tremetiick cross. 11515. Sancreed,‘ Blind Fiddler’ monolith. 11516. Sancreed, ‘ Brother and Sister ’ monoliths. 11517. Sancreed, Boscawen-un monolith. 11518. Sancreed, Trelew monolith. 11519. Sancreed, Tresvenek monolith. 11520. Sancreed, Pridden monolith. 11512. St. Buryan, Boscawen Point, monolith. 11510, St. Cleer, Trevethy, cromlech. 11521. St. Just, Boskednan, circle. 11525. St. Just, Carnyorth, holed stone. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Gloucestershire. 220. Beller’s (Bellas) Napp Barrow, human jaws. 221. Beller’s (Bellas) Napp Barrow, skull. Photographed by Dr. G. A. AUDEN. Monmouthshire. 11048. Caerwent, South Gate. 11049. Caerwent, part of wall and tower. 11047. Staunton, font (? criginally Roman altar). 11050. Staunton, monolith. 11051, Trellech, alignment, three standing stones. Photographed by Dr. H. A. AuDEN. Staffordshire. 11054. Rollestone, pre-Norman cross from Tatenhill. Photographed by Dr. G. A. AUDEN. Westmorland. ; 11004-9. Bowl found in Ormside Churchyard (York Museum). Yorkshire. 11032. Arras, Market Weighton, stellate fibula and pendant inlaid with coral, chariot burial (York Museum). 11033. Hesselskew, Market Weighton, part of jet necklace, chariot burial (York Museum), ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 377 11030. Driffield, Two cruciform bronze fibule (York Museum). 11031. Driffield, five bronze fibulz (York Museum). 11024. Folkton, near Filey, pre-Norman cross-shaft (York Museum). 11034. Kilham, three bronze fibulz (York Museum). 11029. Londesborough, bronze fibula and buckle (York Museum). 11040. Boroughbridge, Devil's Arrows alignments. 11012. Skipwith, flint axe-head with polished edge. 11041. Skipwith, inscribed stone, (?) Scandinavian. 11013. Skipwith, tracing of (?) Scandinavian carving (11041). 11042. Stillingfleet, ironwork on church door (Viking ship, &c.) (‘ Reliq.,’ Apr. 1907). 11053. Stonegrave, pre-Norman cross. 11057. Whitby, cup and ring markings. 11027-28. Thorpe, near Eaidington, Late Celtic sword with enamelled handle . (York Museum) (see ‘ Reliquary,,’ October 1906). 11001-3. York Museum, late Celtic bowl with zodmorphic handles (‘ Reliq.,’ Jan. 1906). 11004-9. York Museum, the Ormside bowl (‘ Reliq.,’ July 1907). 11011. York, The Retreat, earthenware bowl, primary interment of Lamel Hill tumulus. 11015-16. York, portion of pre-Norman cross-shaft. 11017. York, St. Mary Bishophill, pre-Norman grave-slab. 11018. York, portion of pre-Norman hog-backed grave-slab. 11019. York Museum, pre-Norman cross-head, &c., from Cheadle, Cheshire. 11020. York Museum, pre-Norman grave-slab of Scandinavian design. 11021. York Museum, pre-Norman carved slab. 11022-23. York Museum, pre-Norman coped gravestone. 11024. York Museum, pre-Norman cross shaft from near Filey. 11027-28. York Museum, late Celtic sword from Thorpe. 11029. York Museum, bronze fibula and buckle from Londesborough. 11030. York Museum, two cruciform bronze fibulz from Driffield. 11031. York Museum, five bronze fibulze from Driffield. 11032. York Museum, stellate fibula and coral inlaid pendant from Arras. 11033. York Museum, part of jet necklace from Hesselskew. 11034. York Museum, three bronze fibule from Kilham. 11035. York Museum, Scandinavian wooden spoons, knife, &c. 11036. York Museum, Scandinavian stone weight. 11043. York Museum, carved bone of Viking age. 11044. York Museum, fragment of pre-Norman altar from St. Andrews (‘ Reliq..,’ Oct. 1906). 11045. York Museum, bronze votive tablets, coated with silver, with Greek inscription. 11046. York Museum, iron lynch-pin, chariot burial ‘ Danes’ Graves.’ 11055. York Museum, bronze fibula from the Wolds. 11037. York Minster Library, earliest known list of Scandinavian personal names, A.D. 1023. 11038-39. York Minster Library, initial letters, Anglo-Saxon MS. of Gospels, A.D. 950. WALES. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 279. Six photographs of selected types. Photographed by Dr. H. A. AUDEN. Anglesea. 11537. Cromlech, Bodorgan. Photographed by Dr. G. A. AUDEN. Brecon. Ogam stone from Defynnock, now in British Museum. Cardigan. 11091. Ogam stone, Kilgerran. 11092. Ogam stone, Clydai. 378 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Photographed by Dr. H. A. AUDEN. Carnarvon, 11529. Cromlech, Criccieth. 11532. Cromlech, Criccieth. 11630. Cromlech, Duffryn. 11534. Cromlech, Duffryn. 11531. Cromlech, Clynog, No. 1. 11533. Cromlech, Clynog, No. 2. 11535. Cromlech, Llandudno. 11536. Trer Ceiri. Photographed by Dr. G. A. AUDEN. Pembroke. 11084. Carningle, hut circles. 11010. Lilanwnda, pre-Norman grave-slab (rubbing). 11072. Monolith, St. Nicholas Moor. 11073. Longhouses, cromlech. 11074. Newport, Llech-y-dribleth, cromlech. 11075. Newport, cromlech. 11076. Pentre-evan, cromlech. 11077. St. David’s Head, cromlech. 11083. St. David’s Head, hut circles. 11078. Goodwic, cromlech No. 1. 11079. Goodwic, cromlech No. 2. 11080. Goodwic, Carn-gil-fach, cromlech. 11081. Goodwic, Llanwnda cromlech. 11086. Goodwic, Llanwnda, inscribed cross. 11082. Lilanawer, near Fishguard, alignment, four stones. 11085. Llanllawer, holy well. 11087. Nevern, St. Brynach Cross. 11088. Nevern, Ogam bilingual stone. 11089. Ogam bilingual stone, St. Dogmael’s Priory. 11090. Ogam bilingual stone, Bridell. ASIA. Anpaman Isianps.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 240, 241. Chief of tribe near Port Blair and wife. 242. Five young women. 243. Women of South Andaman. 244. Group: widow with skull of husband. 245. Wife of chief of Rutland Island. Borneo.— Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 158-173. Ethnographical objects. Sarawak. 251, 252. Kayan man. 253, 254. Kenyah man. 255-257. Sea Dayak warriors. 258, 259. Sea Dayak girl. Borneo.—Photographed by Dr. C. G. Seriamann, 15 York Terrace, N.W. 10001. Baram Bazaar. 10002. Baram Bazaar. 10003. Baram Bazaar. 10004, Baram Kampong. 10005. Baram Kampong. 10006. Baram Kampong. 10007. 10008. 10009. 10010. 10011. 10012. 10013. 10014. 10015. 10016. 10017. 10018. 10019. 10020. 10021. 10022. 10023. 10024. 10025, 10026. 10027. 10028. 10029. 10030. 10031. 10032. 10033. 10034. 10035. 10036. 10037. 10038. 10039. 10040. 10041. 10042. 10043. 10044. 10045. 10046. 10047. 10048. 10049. 10050. 10051. 10052. 10053. 10054. 10055. 10056. 10057. 10058. 10059. 10060. 10061. 10062. 10063. 10064. 10065. 10066. 10067. 10068. 10069. 10070. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. Baram River, Nipa. Baram River, outpost on. Batu Clob. Blowpipe, piece of wood about to be made into. Blowpipe, boring. Blowpipe, boring. Blowpipe, boring. Blowpipe, boring. Blowpipe, instruments used for boring pith dart buts. Blowpipe, instruments used for boring pith dart buts. Blowpipe, use of. Boat race. Brooketown. Brooketown. Brunei. Brunei. Brunei. Brunei. Brunei. Camp, Kenyah. Camp, midday. Camp, temporary. Camp, temporary. Camp, temporary, breaking up. Camp, Kenyah, temporary. Camp, Kenyah, temporary. Camp, Kenyah, temporary. Canoe. Canoe. Canoe, Baram River. Canoe head. , Canoe figure-head. Canoe figure-head. Canoe, Marudi. Canoe, Marudi. Canoe, Marudi. Canoe prow. Canoe race. Canoe race. Canoe race, end of. Carriers, group of. Carrying pig. Carrying pig. Cave. Cave, Cave, near. Cave, mouth of. Cave, mouth of. Cave, entrance to. Cave, entrance to. Cave, entrance to. Cave, interior of, Chinese merchant boat, Baram River. Dayak girl. Dayak man. Dayak and wife in gala costume. Dayak man. Dayak man (see also 10170, 10171). Dayak and Chinese woman, half-breed. Dayaks, Land. Dye plant. Euphorbia ligularia, used for poisoning fish. Root of species of Dioscwrea, used for poisoning fish. Fishing at mouth of Baram River. 379 380 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 10071. Fishing, casting net. 10072. Fishing, casting net, 10073. Fishing trap. 10074. Fishing, tuba. 10075. Fishing, tuba. 10076. Fishing, tuba. 10077. Fishing, tuba. 10078. Fishing, throwing out tuba in basket. 10079. Fishing, weighing tuba. 10080. Fishing, weighing tuba. 10081. Fishing, weir. 10082. Houses on Baram River. 10083. House, Bessiah. 10084. House, corner of, Tugolis. 10085. House, Dayak. 10086. Houses, Dayak (see also 10192, 10193). 10087. House, head, Land Dayak. 10088. House, fireplace in. 10089. House, floating. 10090. House, Kenyah, on river bank. 10091. House, long. 10092. House, long. 10093. House, long. 10094. House, long. 10095. House, long (see also 10194), 10096. House, small. 10097. House, Malay, with woman and child. 10098. Ipoh, in bamboo clump. 10099. Ipoh, cutting tree. 10100. Ipoh, cutting tree. 10101. Ipoh, collecting. 10102. Ipoh, tools used for scoring bark of tree. 10103. Ipoh, cooking. 10104. Ipoh, poisoning darts. 10105. Ipoh, poisoning darts. 10106. Ipoh, making basket for. 10107. Ipoh, packet of poison. 10108. Ipoh, palm-leaf vessel used for inspissating juice. 10109. Ipoh, dish in which Ipoh is mixed into a paste. 10110. Jar burial. 10111. Joss-house, Kuching. 10112. Kayan (see also 10125-10127). 10113. Kenyah funeral arrangements. 10114. Kenyah girl. 10115. Kenyah. 10116. Kenyah woman. 10117. Kenyah woman. 10118. Kenyah woman. 10119. Kuching. 10120, Kuching bazaar. 10121. Kuching bazaar. 10122. Kuching from river. 10123. Kuching, street in. 10124. ‘Lada’ embroidery. 10125. Ledam (Kayan). 10126. Ledam (Kayan), 10127. Ledam (Kayan). 10128. Lobong Jumong, entrance. 10129. Lumbang, women and children. 30130. Malay boys. 10131. Malay dance. 10132. Malinau, going up rapids, 10133. Marudi village and river. 10134. Natives taking midday meal. 10135. 10136. 10137. 10138. 10139. 10140. 10141. 10142. 10143 10144. 10145. 10146. 10147. 10148. 10149. 10150. 10151. 10152. 10153. 10154. 10155. 10156. 10157. 10158. 10159. 10160. 10161. 10162. 10163. 10164. 10166. 10166. 10167. 10168. 10169. 10170. 10171. 10172. 10173. 10174. 10175. 10176. 10177. 10178. 10179. 10180. 10181. 10182. 10183 10185. 10186. 10187. 10188. 10189. 10190. 10191. 10192. 10193. 10194. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 381 Natives paying taxes. Natives paying taxes. Natives fighting. Native, Orang Kaya of Tumangong. Native, Orang Kaya of Tumangong, in war dress. Native, Orang Kaya of Tumangong, in house. Native man with bark coat. Native man and woman. Native lads. Natives watching races. Natives going to pay tribute. Native woman carrying baby. Native man and woman in corner of house. Native women. Nose flute. Offerings on river bank. Peace-making hall. Punan man. Punan man. Rangas plant, said to be used in certain arrow poisons. Rejang. Rice baskets and blowpipe. Rice cultivation, field scare. Rice girls. Rice houses. Rice pounding. Rice winnowing. Rock sleeping-place near Lobong Juman. Sago making. Sago making. Sago manufactory. Sarawak, street in. Sham fight. Skulls in Long house. Tatued youths, Punans. Dayak man and women. Dayak women. River bank. View from fort. View. View from hill near cave. View from fort. View early morning. Verandah. Verandah. Verandah. Verandah and house. Waterfall. Waterfall in wood. Grave, mock tomb. Grave. Grave, pillar. Graves. Graves. Grave, man’s. Ceremonial hornbill. House. House, with large ladder, Long house. 382 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Borneo, SarawaK.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Photo- graphed by Mr. R. Suut¥orp, 3 Wellington Square, Oxford. 1043. Bakatan girl. 1057. Bakatan man. 1081. Baloi Gorge. 1077. Baloi Dalam River. 1112. Baram River at Claudestown. 1089. Baram River, Kenyah Village. 1091, Baram River, Long Asai. 1059, 1115. Baram River, MacDougall Falls. 1011, 1012. Brunei, views in. 1165. Brunei Gong. 1061. Bukit Batu, Rejang District. 1107. Camp in gravel bed. 1062. Dapoi River. 1116. Dayak warfare. 1073, 1142. Dayaks, Land. 1141. Dayaks, Land, chief. 1142. Dayaks, Land, corsets. 1099. Dayaks, Land, head house. 1055, 1063-1065. Dayak, Sea. 1052, 1116. Dayak, Sea, woman. 1070, 1071. Dayak, Sea, chief. 1133. Dayak, Sea, man and girl. 1131. Dayak, Sea, and Kayan. 1128. Dayak, Sea, head feast. 1127. Dayak, Sea, head feast, heads of Punans. 1136. Dayak, Sea, house in course of construction. 1145. Dayak, Sea, house, beehives in. 1147. Dayak, Sea, cloth. 1148. Dayak, Sea, corsets. 1150. Dayak, Sea, currency, gongs and jars. 1155. Dayak, Sea, ear ornaments. 1159. Dayak, Sea, man’s coat. 1163. Dayak, Sea, fiddles. 1033. Dayak, Sea, cock fighting. 1160. Drums. 1084. Dulit mountain. 1155, 1157. Ear ornaments. 1164. Harps. 1069. Jungle, track through. 1144. Kadayan house, interior. 1046. Kajaman girl. 1050. Kalabit men. 1051. Kalabit women. 1028. Kalabit smithy. 1048, 1117. Kayans. 1131. Kayan and Sea Dyak. 1151. Kayan baskets. 1024. Kayan camp of hunting party. 1143. Kayan carvings. 1041, 1100. Kayan chief. 1023. Kayan collecting gutta-percha. 1129. Kayan firemaking. 1139. Kayan girl. 1121, Kayan house fortified. 1135. Kayan house, supports of. 1138. Kayan house, interior. 1153. Kayan house, skulls in. 1088. Kayan peacemaking. 1044. Kayan woman with child in sling. 1120, Kayan woman dancing with enemy’s head. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 1056. Kayan women. 103. Kayan wrestling. 1071. Kelamantan of the Baram. 1017. Kenyah boring blowpipe. 1018. Kenyah rough hewing blowpipe. 1019. Kenyah testing bore of blowpipe. 1021. Kenyah lashing spearhead to blowpipe. 1022. Kenyah making blowpipe darts. 1142. Kenyah carvings. 1040. Kenyah chief. 1020. Kenyah collecting juice of upas tree. 1026. Kenyah consulting sun-dial. 1035. Kenyah girl dancing. 1025. Kenyah hunter. 1095. Kenyah, Long Sibatu tribe. 1140. Kenyah, Long Sibatu tribe. 1119. Kenyah sacrificial posts outside village. 1089. Kenyah village, Baram River. 1030, 1087. Kenyah warfare. 1092. Kenyah on warpath: watching boat. 1027. Kenyah women husking rice. 1118. Kenyah women. 1002-1011, 1013, 1014. Kuching, views in, 1080. Lirong. 1108. Lirong youths. 1109. Lirong girl. 1086. Lisum women. 1066. Long Dapoi, Tinjar River: huts. 1076. Long Kiput village. 1049. Long Pokuns. 1093. Long Wat chief. 1123, 1126. Malays. 1146. Malay arms. 1098. Malay fishing village. 1158. Malay lace pillow. 1103. Malay playing gongs. 1124. Malay women. 1161. Maloh guitar. 1036-1039. Manufacture of cloth, stages in the: woman, 1097. Miri, mouth of the. 1079. Murik. 1111. Murut head feast. 1157. Murut men’s hairpins. 1154. Necklets. 1130. Offerings to omen birds. 1045. Orang Bukit girl. 1125. Orang Bukit woman. 1060. Paran River, rapid. 1075. Paran River, group of natives. 1068. Pata River rapids. 103]. Pelagus Rapids, poling up the. 1042, 1085. Punans, Tinjar River. 1101. Punan chief. 1127. Punan heads taken by Sea Dayaks. 1067. Rejang River, head of Great Rapid. 1113. Rejang River, Bakun Falls. 1082. Rejang River, Gehan Bakun. 1074, 1096. Rejang River, Upper. 1032. Rice planting, Rejang District. 1015, 1016. Sarawak Rangers, The. 1114. Sekapan grave. 1094. Sibop chief. 1137. Sibop House, interior. 383 384: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 1152. Sibop House, carved door. 1083. Sibop village. 1122. Sibop village, tutelary deity. 1058. Sibuyans of Lundu. 1102. Siduans playing nose flute, &c. 1149. Siduans, baskets. 1134. Tanjong woman. 1073. Trusan Muruts. 1029. Tuba fishing, Baram River. 1090. Tutan River, rapid. 1162. Zither, bamboo. CryLon.—Photographed by Dr. C. G. Serigmann, 15 York Terrace, N.W. 10210. Anuradhapura, on the road to. 10211. Anuradhapura. 10212. Anuradhapura, large Buddha. 10213, Anuradhapura, Dagoba. 10214. Anuradhapura, Dagoba. 10215. Anuradhapura, monolithic pillars. 10216. Anuradhapura, moonstone. 10217. Anuradhapura, Naga Raja. 10218. Anuradhapura, rock temple. 10219. Anuradhapura, shrine in wood. 10220. Anuradhapura, Thuparama Dagoba. 10221. Anuradhapura, tombs of saints. 10222. Bathing lake. 10223. Bo tree. 10224. Bo tree, Pooja to. 10225. Goddess and priest. 10226. Kandy, temple at. 10227, Kandy, temple near. 10228. Kandy, terrace-cultivation. 10229. Kandy, toy shrine. 10230. Kangani and Kali. 10231. Matale, shop. 10232. Matale, Tazia. 10223. Native playing stringed instrument. 10234, Nawalapitya, sacred stones, 10235. Nawalapitya, sacred stones and mango tree. 10236. High priest. 10237. Chief priest, Ruanweli. 10238. Tamil child and charms. 10239. Tamil girl pounding rice. 10240. Tamil house. 10241. Tamil lines. 10242. Tamil lines and landscape. 10243. Tamil men. 10244. Tamil women. 10245. Tamil women. 10246. Tea coolies. 10247. Tea-picking. 10248. Tea-picking. 10249. Tea-picking. 10250. Tea-weighing. 10251. Terrace-cultivation. 10252. Terrace-cultivation (see also 1022 10253. Thurapama, shrine at. 10254. View of hills. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS, 385 INDIA. SourHerRN Inp1a, Topas.—Photographed by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, St. John’s College, Cambridge. (The references are to Dr. Rivers’s ‘The Todas,’ where a description of the photographs will be found.) 9001. Toda man, p. 19. 9002. Toda wan, side face, p. 20. 9003. Toda woman, p. 21. 9004. Toda woman, side face, p. 22. 9005, 9006. Toda village, pp. 25, 27. 9007. Toda house, p. 28. 2008. Kaimukhti salutation of Todas, p. 31. 9009. Toda women pounding and sifting grain, p. 33. 9010. Kalmelpudithti salutation of Todas, p, 35. 9011, 9012. Toda dairy, pp. 44, 46. 9013. Toda method of churning, p. 51. 9014. Toda dairy-vessels, p. 59. 9015. Dairy and dairyman, p. 68. 9016. Dairyman saluting threshold, p. 65. 9017. Dairy (kudrpaili), p. 67. 9018. Toda wursol, p. 75. $019. Dairy and calf-house, p. 77. 9020. Salutation of palol, p. 95. 9021. Palol in attitude of prayer, p. 96. 9022, 9023. Method of carrying dairy-vessels, pp. 125, 127, 9024. Dairy and stones called neurziilnkars, p. 129. 9025. - Newrziilnkars, p. 130. 9026. Palol, kaltmokh, and neurziilnkars, p. 141. 9027. Stones called irnértkars, p. 299. 9028. Scene of irnértiti ceremony, p. 301. 9029. Salutation called nersatiti, p. 304. 9030. Seclusion-hut for Toda women, p. 314, 9031. Boy holding imitation bow and arrow, p. 393, 9032. Methods of Toda dress, p. 573. 9033, 9034. Child, to show method of shaving head, p. 577. 9035. Drill method of making fire, p. 582. $036. Badaga greeting Toda, p. 631. 9037. Sacred stones, p. 646. 9038. Dairyman taking food, p. 46. 9039. Kuriolv and Pilimurg, Toda man and woman, p. 652. 9040. Kuriolv, p, 551. 9041. Kuriolv and Meilitars, p, 564. 9042. Group, pp. 30, 535. 9043. Toda man, p. 575. 9044, Kodrner (7), Karseidi and Kerkwodr (8), p. 14. 9045. Toda men. 9046. Toda women. $047. Toda acting as forest ranger. 9048. Toda village, p. 29. 9049. Village of\Umgas, p. 673. 9050, Village of Pishkwosht, p. 656. 905i, 9052. Village of Naters. 9053, Stones called Teuar, p. 656. 9054 Nerpeiker, p. 206, and hill Tikalmudri, p. 205. 9055, View from Modr showing the hill Koti, p, 291. 9056. Ti dairy at Modr, p. 86. 9057. Ti buffaloes at Mcdr. 9058-9060. Milking scene, pp. 53, 54. 9061. Dairy at Kanodrs, p. 80. 9062. Tarvali at Tovalkan with palikartmokh, p. 655. 9063. Ordination ceremony, p. 146. 9064. Ordination candidate saluting threshold of dairy, p- 146. 1907. cc 386 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 9065. Seclusion-hut, pp. 314, 325. 9066, Ceremony after seclusion, p. 328. 9067, 9068. Funeral-hut and pen, pp. 340, 341. 9069. Old funeral-place, showing tree growing in pen. 9070. Funeral-post, p. 350. 9071. Erkumptthpimi sacrifice: making fire, p. 277. 9072, 9073. Erkumptthpimi sacrifice: prayer, pp. 279, 280. 9074. Lrkumptthpimi sacrifice: killing of calf, p. 279. 9075. LErkumptthpimi sacrifice: passing log and leaves round calf, p. 279. 9076. Lrkumptthpimi sacrifice: cutting up calf, p. 281. 9077. Hrkumptthpimi sacrifice: roasting calf, p. 283. 9078. Merkalars, p. 29. 9079. Tamil coolies. 9080. Tamil child. 9081. Bridge at foot of Nilgiris. 9091. Framework of Toda house, p. 584. 9092. Toda memorial mound, p. 440. Inpo-Cui1na (FrENcH).—Photographed by Dr. C. G. SELIGMANN, 15 York Terrace, NV. W. 10255. Chulon, canoe at. 10256. Chulon, market-place. 10257. Chulon, Chinese temple, interior. 10258. Chulon, Chinese temple, side wall. AFRICA. ALcERIA.— Photographed by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, St. John’s College, Cambridge. 9082. Rag bush at Old Biskra: seat of marabout. 9083. Rag bush in cemetery at Sidi Okba. 9084. Arab; oasis of Sidi Okba. 9085. Nomad Arabs from camp near Biskra. 9086. Nomad child. 9087. Date market at Biskra. 9088. Barber at Biskra. 9089. Arab boys. 9090. Roman pillar in Old Biskra. RuopestA.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Photographed by Mr. Franxiin Wuirte, Bulawayo. Dhio-Dhlo Ruins. 928. North-east side. 929. North-west side. 930. Enlarged view of part of 928. 931. Enlarged view of part of 929. 932. Entrance in north face. 933. Square corner in north-west side. 934, 935. Portion of north-west side, 936. North-west corner from east 937. North-west corner from south. 938. Western face. 939. Outer enclosure. 940. Outer enclosure, or guard-house. 941. Entrance to outer enclosure (940). Zimbabwe: Elliptical ruin. 901. General view from hiil ruins. 902. South-west end of chevron pattern. 903. Wall between chevron and west entrance. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 904. West entrance. 905. West entrance and wall to north. 906. Continuation of wall northwards. 907. Continuation of wall northwards. 908. Continuation of north and side wall. 909. North-west entrance. 910. North-west entrance to gap in wall. 911. Gap in north wall. 912. Wall, south side of gap. 913. Outer passage and main wall. 914. North entrance. 915, Steps to north entrance. 916. The passage. 917. East doorway in passage. 918. The tower. 919. West wall of tower enclosure and western monoliths on wall. 920. Monoliths near west entrance. 921. Interior, south end; Jarge tower, black courses. 922. Interior, south end; monoliths on wall. 927. Plan of the ruin. Hill ruins. 924. Doorway, rounded corners, lintels. 925. Doorway, square corners. Valley ruins. 923. Bird and crocodile carved on soapstone beam. 926. Plasfer-covered stonework. Sout Arrica.—Photographed by Miss Erne, M. Harrianp, Highgarth, Gloucester. 8002. Bushman, 8004-8015. Bantu, full faces and profiles (see ‘Man,’ 1907, 35, pl. D). Supan, E.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 233, 234. Nuba native. SwazILanp.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 80, 82. Boys. 81, 83-94, 101, 102. Women and girls. 83. Kraal, with women and girls. 107. Kraal. TonGa.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 95. Boys. 96. Girl. 98, 103, 105, 106. Doctor and attendants. ZULULAND.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 97,104. Men and boys. 852, 874, 875. Cetewayo. 876. Cetewayo’s wives. 853-873, 877-881. Natives. Photographed by Miss Eruet M. Hartianp, Highgarth, Gloucester 8003. Zulu witch-doctor’s necklace (‘ Folklore,’ vol. xvii. pl. 15). cco2 387 388 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. AMERICA, NORTH. Norto American Inpians.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Crows. 260 Graveyard. 261. Group of chiefs. 262. Interior of lodge. 263. Group of squaws. Pawnees. 264. Village. 265. Painting on buffalo robe. 267. Adult male, Ponca. 210, 211. Composite photo of eight adult male skulls. Salish. 454. Hthnographical objects. 455. Group. 456. Lodges: salmon trap in foreground. 458. Kalispilm lodges. 458a. Sweielp lodges. 551-596, 616-646. Men, women, and children. Sce also British Columbia. Britisa Cotumpis.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 598, 599. Stone implements. (ueen Charlotte Islands. 602-604. Cumshewa village, with totem posts. 614. Kung village, Virago Sound, with totem posts. 613. Lucy {uland: Village, with totem posts. 612, 613. Massett village, with totem posts. 605-608. Skidaus village, with totem posts. 609-612. Skidegate village, with totem posts. 601. ‘Tan-oo or Klue village, with totem posts. See also North American Indians: Salish. Unizep Srares.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Utah. 461, 462. ‘ Aztec Springs’: ruined city. 469-472. Hooven Weep River: ruined fortress. 463 465. McEHlmo River: ruins. 459, 460. Manco Cafion: ancient ruins. 451-453. Rio de Chilly: Pueblo. AMERICA, SOUTH. Boxivia.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 246, 247. Chikuachi: Two dried female bodies. British Guiana.— Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Photographed by Sir E. F. iw Tourn, K.C.M.G. 157. Ackawoi house. 146. Arawack. 147-149. Arawack whip game. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 160, Arawack women: rattle game. 151, Arawack women beating time for dances. 152. Arawack and Portuguese half-breed. 153-155. 116-137. Arawack and Spanish half-breed. True Caribs. 138. Carib and Scotch half-breed. 108. Macusi. 109-114. 139, 140. 141-143. Macusi games. Warrans, Warran shield game, 156. Warran village. 144, 145. 223, 224, Tasmania, Warran and African half-breed. New GRANADA, OR UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA, 5. On the Rio Nerena. 7. On the Rio Truando. AUSTRALIA. Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 250, 287-296, 801-820. Natives. 222. Skull. 225-232. Etuice Isuanps.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 186-193, Fis1 Istanps.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 832-851. New Ca.epon1a.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Natives, OCEANTA. Groups of natives. Natives. 297. Native man: profile, front and back views. 298. Native man, front view. 299. Native man, profile and front views. New Hesrives.— Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Photographed by Commander Boye T. Somervitie, R.N. 37. Specimens of spears. 42. Specimens of clubs, Efati Island. 20, Drums at Leleppa. Epi Island. 24a, Native. 389 390 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, Espiritu Santo. 26,28. Two skulls. Matllicolto. 1,2. Dancing grounds. 6. Sacrifice of pig. 8. Skulls. Port Sandwich. 4. French settlement, with canoes. 5. Three natives. 12. Profile of native. 13. Two natives. 14. Heads of two natives. 15. Native shooting fish. 18. Pig-paying dance. 19. Dancing grounds. 21. Group of natives. 22. Native. 23. Natives in canoe. 29. Dancing grounds and drums. 35. Canoe. 39. Group of natives. 40, Native boy. 41. At the pig-paying ceremony. Saangofu Village. 38. Old chief. Tongariki. Island. 25. Chief Sasamaki. Tongoa. 32. Young man. 33. Group of chiefs. 34. Group of natives. Uripiv. 3. Stone altars on dancing grounds, 7. Two natives. 9. Stones of worship. 10, 11. Shed supported by carved pillars. 16,17. The Maki dance. 27. Rack of sacred pig’s tusks. 30. Widow of chief. 31. Natives. 36. View during the Maki dance. New ZEALAnp.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 821-830. Maoris. 831. Maori house. 83la. Maori carved post. Sanpwicu Istanps.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. 203, 204, 216. Composite photographs of seven adult male skulls. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 391 Sotomon Istanps.—Collection, Royal Anthropological Institute. Photographed by Commander Boye T,. Somervitiey, R.N, New Georgia. 52, 53. Group of natives, Munggeri. 54. Natives. 56. Native king. 57. Natives. 59. Canoe, 60. Native with canoe. 61. Native making fire. 62. Grave and skull house. 63. Olawatu, or sacred island. 64. Native playing flute. 65. Boy playing jew’s harp. 66. Boy playing jew’s harp, European form. 67,68. Prepared head, Rubiana. Megalithtic Remains in the British Isles——Interim Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor W. RipGeway (Chairman), Dr. G. A. AupEN (Secretary), Professor J. L. Myres, Mr. G. L. GommE, and Mr. F. W. RubLer, appointed to report on the best means of Registering and Classifying systematically Megalithic Remains in the British Isles. THE Committee appointed to report upon the best means of registration and classitication of the megalithic remains of Great Britain have devoted their attention to the collection of information relating to the methods employed in several countries (¢.g., Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and France). They have also obtained the views of various persons who have inter- ested themselves in the question, and have secured promises of assist- ance from various societies. The existence of the Committee has also been brought to the notice of the Society of Antiquaries and to the Confer- ence of Archeological Societies held in London in July 1907. Archceological and Ethnographical Researches in Crete.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir JoHN Evans (Chairman),Professor J. L. Myrss (Secretary), Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D. G. Hocarrs, Professor A. MAcaLisrER, and Professor W. RipGeway. Tue Committee regret that unforeseen circumstances have prevented Mr. C. H. Hawes from completing his projected memoir on the results of his examination of the ancient and modern population of Crete, and from making use of the Association’s grant for the purpose of further explora- tion of the same kind, The Committee hope, however, that it may be possible to bring the work already undertaken to a close without great delay ; and therefore ask to be reappoiated, with the unexpended balance 100/, 392 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Ninth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins (Secretary), Sir Joan Evans, Dr. Artuur J. Evans, Mr. Henry Batrour, Mr. C. H. Reap, and Mr. A. BULLEID. (Drawn up by Mr. ARTHUR BuLuLerD and Mr. H. Sr. GeorGE GRaY.) THE excavations at the Lake Village near Glastonbury were reopened this year on May 6 under the joint superintendence of Mr. Arthur Bulleid and Mr. H. St. George Gray, and digging was carried on for six weeks. The ground explored covered some 1,080 square yards, situated in the N.W. quarter of the village, together with half a dwelling-mound near the 8.W. border. The number and variety of the ‘finds’ were below the average, but the structural discoveries compared favourably with those of other seasons. During the digging this year several areas of clay were discovered hitherto unrecognised, bringing the total number of ‘mounds’ up to 89. Dwelling-mounds, or areas of clay, Nos. 66, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, and 89, together with the intervening spaces of level ground, were explored ; dwelling-mounds Nos. 73 and 75, partly examined in 1906, were completed, as were also portions of the following dwellings left from former years: Nos. 13 (1896), 34 (1898), and 81 (1905). This completes the systematic examination of the entire site, with the exception of the small piece of ground on which the shed stands. The excavations were begun in 1892, and have been in progress sixteen years, with an interval of five years. The following - points of interest were noticed in the different mounds :— Mounp 13.—The E. half of this mound was excavated in 1896. The W. half was examined this year, and was found to be composed of several layers of yellow and blue clay, the total thickness of which near the central picket measured 9 feet 3 inches. The lower layers of clay were kept in place along the 8.W. margin by a line of piles and wattle-work. No hearths were discovered on any of the floors A well-detined line of wall-posts was found bordering the N. margin of Floor I. The substruc- ture under the W. half of the mound was strong, and was composed of two layers of timber with much compressed rush and brushwood under. The upper stratum of timber was arranged lengthways, chiefly in an E. and W.direction ; the lower N.andS. The upper timbers varied from 6 inches to 9 inches in diameter, the lower from 9 inches to 14inches. The greatest thickness of the layers of rush and brushwood measured 2 feet 3 inches. The only objects of interest found in the W. half of Dwelling 13 were : H 364, W 116, and X 74. Mounp 66.—This dwelling-mound was of small size, situated in the N.W. quarter of the village, lying E. of Mound 74 and N.E. of Mound 75. It was composed of two floors, the upper made of yellow and the lower of dark-grey clay. The greatest depth of clay near the central picket was 18 inches, and the greatest diameter E. and W. 19 feet. There were indications of a hearth on Floor I. covering an area 5 feet 6 inches in diameter. The hearth belonging to Floor II. was a circular area of clay measuring 5 feet in diameter. At a depth of 5 inches under this a gravel hearth was found 3 feet 8 inches in diameter, and below this two ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. $93 superimposed hearths of baked clay of smaller dimensions. The substruc- ture was not strong, chiefly consisting of brushwood with a few pieces of timber, the two together averaging 12 inches in thickness. A mortised beam of oak with pile driven through in sitw was found under the clay in the S. quarter of the mound; the beam was lying lengthways in a N.W. and S.E. direction. Amongst the ‘finds’ of interest were the following: H 360 to 362, and X 73. Mounp 73.—Only a small part of the S.E. quarter of this dwelling- mound remained for examination from season 1906. No ‘ finds’ of im- portance were discovered except H 359, and no additional points of interest were noticed in regard to the substructure. Mounp 75.—Dwelling-mound 75 was of large size, situated in the N.W. quarter of the village, lying S.E. of Mound 74 and E. of Mound 73. It was composed of four floors of yellow clay, with nine superimposed hearths. The greatest diameter N. and 8. was 33 feet, and the greatest depth of clay near the central picket was 2 feet. Floor I., measuring 27 feet N. and 8. by 24 feet EK. and W., was partially overlapped by Mound 74 along the N.W. margin ; the hearth was a circular area of baked clay about 3 feet in diameter. Floor II. measured 29 feet N. and 8. by 32 feet E. and W. ; the hearth was made of baked clay and measured 3 feet in diameter. Floor TIT. was of much smaller dimensions than those above, and the diameter was not easily determinable ; the hearth was made of baked clay, and was of similar size to Hearth II. Floor IV. was of small size, and the area of clay was largely occupied by a series of six superimposed hearths ; the uppermost, Hearth IV., was made of gravel and measured 3 feet 6 inches in diameter; Hearth V. was composed of baked clay, of circular outline and convex in section, measuring 3 feet 10 inches in diameter ; Hearth VI. was made of stone, but was incomplete when found, and consisted of three large stone slabs, covering an area of 2 feet 6 inches ; Hearth VIT. was also made of stone, and was partly overlapped by Hearth VI. The pavement was composed of fourteen small slabs of lias, much cracked by heat, covering an area of 4 feet 10 inches in diameter ; under Hearth VII. there were two small baked-clay hearths (Nos. VIII. and IX.) measur- ing respectively 3 feet 6 inches and 3 feet in diameter N. and 8. ; both were of circular outline and slightly convex in section. The substructure was not strong ; under the W. half it consisted of a layer of brushwood, but under the N.E. and 8.E. quarters there were large pieces of timber, chiefly arranged in a N.W. and S.E. direction, Under the N.E. quarter of the mound the earth lying on and around the superficial layers of brushwood was very black, and contained a quantity of incomplete animal bones, some of the fragments being calcined, and fragments of pottery. This area appeared to have been lived upon before the clay was placed in position. In the black earth there were occasional traces of bronze staining, but only small pieces of that metal were observed. Amongst the objects of interest found in Mound 75 were: A 5, B 407 (1906), B 408 to 411, C 30, E57, E 268 (1906), E 269, E 271 to 274, F 378, H 358, H 363, I 106 (1906), I 107, I 108, K 31, L 49, N 8, P 179, P 180, W 72, W 95. Mounp 81.—The S. half of this mound was excavated in 1905 and completed this year. It consisted of one floor, and at 5 feet 6 inches Ns 394 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. of the central picket the clay was 7 inches thick, and was covered by a layer of black earth, the average thickness of which was 3 inches. No hearth or doorstep was discovered, and no line of wall-posts was traceable along the N. margin of the clay. The substructure was not strong, and consisted of a layer of brushwood and a few logs arranged lengthways in a N.N.E. and 8.8.W. direction. The only objects of importance discovered were : 8 45, W 111. Area oF Cray 84.—This dwelling-site, unrecognised before digging, was situated S. of Mound 83, the N. and E. margins being overlapped by the clay of that mound for the space of 13 feet. This dwelling-site, con- sisting of two floors and three hearths, was composed of a mixture of yellow and grey clay, the greatest thickness of which was 9 inches, and the greatest diameter E. and W. 23 feet. No hearth was discovered belong- ing to Floor I. The surface of Floor II. was covered with a well-marked layer of black earth, averaging 3 inches thick. Two small baked-clay hearths were found in the E. quarter, placed eccentrically to the middle of the mound, and not superimposed. The margin of Hearth I. over- lapped the N.W. margin of Hearth II. Hearths I. and II. measured 3 feet 9 inches and 3 feet 6 inches in diameter respectively. Hearth III. was found under Floor IT., placed in the centre of a small area of clay measuring 7 feet 6 inches in diameter E. and W.: it was composed of seven slabs of lias embedded in the clay, the greatest diameter of the pavement being 2 feet 10 inches. The stones were unevenly arranged with an irregular outline and much cracked by heat. The hearth was covered and surrounded by a layer of black fire-ash 2 or 3 inches thick. No door-step or wall-posts were discovered. The substructure was un- important. Amongst the objects of interest found in this mound were: D 75, D 76, E 270, G 26, Q 53, W 54. The black earth covering Floor II. contained a quantity of peas and some fragments of bone and unorna- mented pottery ; a triangular loom-weight was also dug up. AREA OF CLay 85.—This area, not noticeable before digging, was of somewhat quadrilateral outline, and composed of one layer of yellow clay. It was situated in the N. central part of the village, lying E. of Mound 66, N.E. of Mound 75, and W. of Mound 62, The greatest diameter was 21 feet, and the greatest depth of clay near the central picket was 14 inches. No hearth, door-step, or line of wall-posts could be traced. The substructure was well marked, consisting of alayer of brushwood supported by pieces of timber, 9 inches in diameter, arranged chiefly in an E, and W. direction. The only ‘ find’ of importance was a piece of cut wood, X 71. When trenching the ground N. of the clay, two alder stumps with roots im situ were discovered embedded in the peat, and in the same position the skull of a small horse was uncovered. ARrA OF CLay 86.—This area was of irregular oval outline made of yellow clay 3 to 5 inches thick, and situated S. of Mound 84. No rise in the ground over it was noticed before digging. The greatest diameter measured 18 feet 6 inches. The substructure was unimportant, consist- ing of a layer of brushwood and a few pieces of rough timber. No hearth, wall-posts, or relics were discovered. AREA OF Chay 87.—This was a small area of yellow clay of irregular oval outline situated N. of Mound 32 and N.W. of Mound 34. It was not noticed before digging. The greatest diameter was 7 feet 6 inches, ¥) ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 395 O and the greatest thickness of the clay 6 inches. The substructure was unimportant, and no objects were found either on or in the vicinity of the clay. ee or Cray 88 anp 89.—-These were small irregularly shaped and thin areas of clay situated N.E. of Mound 31. The greatest diameters of both were 10 feet 6 inches, and the depth of the clay varied from 3 to 5 inches. Nothing noteworthy was found regarding the sub- structure, and the only numbered ‘ finds’ were two whetstones, S 43 and S 44, found near the W. margin of Clay-area 89. Mounp 34.—This site, partly excavated in 1898, was composed of two floors of yellow clay, and situated N. of Mound 33, by which mound it was overlapped along the 8. margin. The greatest diameter of the clay was 22 feet, and the greatest thickness 11 inches. An incomplete line of wall-posts was noticed along the W. and N. margins of the clay, but no hearth was discovered. The substructure was unimportant, and no objects of interest were found in or near the site. Several alder stumps with roots 7m si#w were found embedded in the peat lying N. and N.W. of the clay. . There was a large area of level ground situated between Mound 81 and Areas of Clay 86 and 87, and extending westwards of the latter as far as the boundary of the village. This ground was trenched, but did not yield a single object worth mentioning. It was largely composed of rush peat, and was not piled except near the W. margin of Mound 81 and the N. margin of Mound 84. The ground on which the shed stood was included in this area. SHort DESCRIPTION OF THE RELICS, ALL FOUND IN 1907, Amber, (A.) 5. Complete bead, translucent orange, found in two pieces, 12 foot apart; ext. diam. 23 mm.; thickness 6 mm.; diam. of hole 6-5 mm.; section oval. The edge in one part for a distance of 7 mm. shows considerable signs of wear, the depression being slightly concave. Mound 75. Bone Objects. (B.) 408. Two smooth metatarsal bones of sheep or goat, each with condyle complete at the distal end; a circular hole at the proximal end; in one case the articular sur- faces of this end have been cut off. Mound 75, 409. Part of the shaft of a sheep’s metatarsus, length 31:2 mm.; max. width 9-2 mm. ; carefully trimmed, and having a circular, bevelled perforation (min. diam. 3°3 mm.) through the middle of one of the sides on the greatest width of the object ; ornamented with faintly incised diamonds, intersected by parallel lines arranged transversely. Mound 75. A precisely similar object (B 28), but unornamented, length 30°4 mm., was found previously in the village. 410. Calcined piece of smooth bone of oval section, 11 mm. by 9:5 mm., showing marks of a fine saw at both ends; max. length 195 mm. Mound 75. 411. Polished metacarpus of sheep, with small oval hole at the proximal end. Mound 75. This bone belonged to a sheep about 2 feet 1 inch in height at the shoulder. A horn-core of Bos longifirons, with a fairly deep saw-cut 2 mm. wide encircling the core near the base, was found in the peat below the clay of Mound 13 amongst the wall-posts. Crucibles. (C.) 30. Small portion of a crucible, with fused bronze still adhering to the side. The knobbed end of a small bronze pin was found withit. Mound 75. Mr. Clement Reid, F.K.8., believes that the clays found in assc ciation with the Somerset lias, or oolite or the alluvium, would not be at all suitable for the manufacture of the 396 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. crucibles found in the village; and he thinks they were probably made from material procured from the fire-clay and gritty gannister beds of the Bristol coalfield. Baked Clay. (D.) 75. Small globular bead of baked clay of a light reddish-brown colour; roughly made; ext. diam. 7:2 mm. ; thickness 6 mm.; diam. of hole about 28mm. Mound 84. 76. Very roughly made globular bead of a reddish-brown colour; ext. diam. 10 mm.; average thickness 8°5 mm.; diam. of hole38mm. Mound 84, Baked clay beads have not previously been found in the village. A few pieces of wattle-marked clay were found in Mound 75, 8.5. quarter. One fusiform sling-bullet. Mound 75. Piece of baked clay showing clear impressions of skin-marks of the fingers. A large complete triangular loom-weight with sides practically equilateral was found in Mound 66; the corners are rounded, the faces flat; thickness averages 32 inches: it is perforated across each corner for suspension. Bronze Objects. (E.) 57. Small, gracefully formed fibula, found damaged, but now almost completely restored ; of slender make and of early La Téne type, composed of a continuous piece of wire, nowhere exceeding 1°5 mm. in thickness. The pin and bow are perfect, but the spring and retroflected end of the brooch have been broken ; the coil appears to have completed four and a half turns on either side of the head of the bow, the two sides being connected by the wire running along and almost touching the back of the coil. The catch-plate and the tail were absolutely continuous in the perfect brooch, the retroflected end being bent back to touch the summit of the bow and secured to it by means of a rounded and moulded collar 2°9 mm. in diam. Length from tip of pin to back of spring 39°5 mm. Mound 75. This is not only one of the smallest fibula found in the village, but is probably the oldest in type, with the exception of E173, found in 1898, which may antedate it slightly. 269. Small hook, perhaps the fastening of a belt; length 14:3 mm.; max. width 75 mm.; ornamented by a slightly incised line following the sides of the outer face. Mound 75. 270. The greater part of a small spiral finger-ring, the ends tapering toa blunted point; found in seven pieces; composed of a continuous strand of flat wire measuring 1‘7 mm. by 0°77 mm. Mound 84. It is similar in type to E 127, found near Mound 11 in 1896. 271. Two small lumps of bronze. Mound 75. 272. Complete spiral finger-ring, composed of finer wire than any other ring from the village; the material completes about 23 turns, and is of oblong section; int. diam. about 14mm. Mound 75. Of the same type as the ring E 88 found in 1895. Ot OO Do The evidence from the whole district points to the existence of one forest bed in the upper layers of peat underlaid by an arctic bed. This corresponds with the succession observed in Caithness shire. A leaf bed of some interest was found on the banks of the Tees not far from its source. The bank is 5 feet in height, is situated at a sharp bend in the stream, and formed by the following strata :— - Peat formed of Eriophorum, Nardus (2), and Juncus squarrosus. . Sphagnum peat. . Stiff blue clay with much slatey débris. . Leaf bed. . Stones and clay. Our Ww be The leaf bed begins at about water-level and is 18 inches in thickness, in some places forming part of the hed of the Tees, but covered with stones washed down by the stream. The position of the bed in relation to the stream is much the same as the leaf bed described from the banks of the Dyke River. It extends for only a short distance — not more than .8 feet—and really forms a short band below water-level. As the leaf bed contains the same species as are met with in the arctic bed at the base of the peat, it must belong to that period, the material being washed in by the swirl of the water as it passed round the sharp bend, and from time to time gently covered over with fine sand and clay. The remains so far obtained from the bed are as follows :— Salix arbuscula, leaves—very abundant. S. reticulata, leaves—not frequent. Viola palustris, seeds, Potentitla Comarum, achenes. Carex, spp. The peat at 2,600-2,900 feet, near the summit, is seldom more than a few feet in thickness, and forms detached banks and mounds. It has been so split up by the action of frost that the plant remains can seldom be 416 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, determined. The forest zone is absent and Hmpetrum, Hriophorum, and Sphagnum appear to be the principal plants. The summit plateau at 2,930 feet is covered with patches of Rhacomitrium lanuginosum alter- nating with bare stony areas. The Tyne Basin.—Sections were taken over the great expanse of peat on each side of Smittergill Burn, Black Burn, and Cash Burn, forming the headwaters of the river 8. Tyne, on the north side of Cross Fell. In most places the remains of an arctic or sub-arctic vegetation rest upon the drifts : this is covered with a considerable thickness of peat formed from Phragmites communis. Above this the birch zone forms a datum line over the whole district. The wood varies greatly in size, but is seldom less than 8 inches and sometimes attains 18 inches in diameter. Where denudation has not been active the forest is overlaid by 7-10 feet of recent peat, but in many places the whole of this has wasted away, leaving the birch wood scattered over the surface of the peat. The pre- sence of Hlatine hexandra in the forest bed in several sections at 2,000- 2,600 feet both in Teesdale and Tynedale is of interest} as this plant is chiefly confined to the western portion of Britain at the present time, and is not typical of peat bogs at high elevations. Of similar interest is the occurrence of Vibwrnwm opulus in the birch zone from a section at about 2,330 feet. The presence of these plants implies different conditions from those indicated by the underlying Salix reticulata and S. arbuscula. The basal arctic vegetation and the forest bed can be regarded as true horizons, and as they are present both on the Pennines and in Scotland a brief comparison may be made between the two regions :— General sequence of Strata in the Sequence of Strata in Teesdale Scottish Highlands. and Tynedale. 1, Recent peat, Scirpus cwspitosus, Spha- Recent peat, Hriophorum, Sphagnum, and gnum, and Eriophorum. Calluna. 2. Pinus sylvestris and Calluna. Betula alba, Alnus glutinosa, Viburnum opulus, LElatine hewandra, Lychnis diurna, 3. Sphagnum, Scirpus cespitosus. 4. Pinus sylvestris and Calluna. 5. Sphagnum and Eriophorum. Phragmites communis. 6. Sub-aretic beds, Salix arbuscula, Em- Salix arbuscula, Empetrum. petrum, and Potentilla Comarum. 7. Salix reticulata, S. herbacea, Dryas octopetala, Arctostaphylos alpina, Salix reticulata, &c. Whilst the salient features are the same in both regions (7.¢., an arctic bed at the base overlaid by a forest bed) nothing can be more striking than the difference in the flora. All the Scottish peat areas, at altitudes approaching 2,000 feet, contain the remains of a moorland flora above or below the forest zone, but in this district, at nearly 2,700 feet, several feet of peat below the forest bed are formed entirely of Phragmites communis. The difference is just as marked if we compare the Phragmites zone with the present vegetation of Calluna, Vaccinium Myrtillus, Empetrum, Erio- phorum, and Rubus Chamemorus. Before the period of the Upper Forest, the whole area—even near the summit of Cross Fell—consisted of an extensive reed swamp, and in some places this persisted through the upper forest period. This was the case on the floors of the valleys and at the base of some of the steep escarpments. Several such old swamps or shallow lakes have been traced—one on Cross Gill Pants, where the drifts appear to form a shallow basin, although this has now been filled ON PEAT MOSS DEPOSITS. 417 with peat. Another similar basin has been found in Tynedale, near Bulmans Hills, at 2,000 feet. In most places, however, the Phragmites disappears at the beginning of the Upper Forest period. The flora of the Upper Forest is also very different from the corre- sponding zone in the Highlands. In Scotland this layer nearly always consists of Pinus sylvestris and Calluna, whilst on Cross Fell it contains Betula alba, Alnus glutinosa, Elatine hexandra, Viburnum opulus, Ajuga reptans, and Lychnis diurna. The last-named plant is very abundant, scores of seeds being obtainable from quite small pieces of peat. The abundance of these plants at com- paratively high elevations indicates that the climatic conditions during their growth were much more genial than during the deposition of the Salix reticulata and S. arbuscula of the basal layers of the peat, and affords some evidence that the forest periods were temperate in character. The stratification of the Upper Forest is different in this area from that in the Scottish Highland areas so far investigated. In place of the two zones of Pinus sylvestris separated by peat bog and arctic plants characteristic of the north of Scotland, we have here only a single birch zone. This sequence corresponds with that in the Scottish Southern Uplands. As far as the evidence at present available goes, the Upper Forest period was interrupted by a change which caused a replacement of pine and heather by peat bog and arctic plants. Subsequently the peat areas were re-invaded by a pine and heather association. The changes which pro- duced this alternation in the flora did not apparently extend further south than the north of Scotland, or the Mid-Highlands. The results may be briefly summarised as follows :— The Caithness-Sutherland area exhibits the same general sequence as other areas in the north of Scotland. The arctic plants found between the two layers of the upper forest is a feature of some importance. The constant alternation of pine forest, Sphagnum and Scirpus peat free from tree remains, covered with a second pine forest, seemed to indicate a wide- spread climatic change, and the frequent presence in this district of Salia arbuscula and S. reticulata in the intervening peat is fairly conclusive. The Cross Fell area is of interest, as it shows the same stages as areas in the north of Scotland, although the flora is of an entirely different character. The presence of such plants as Hlatine hexandra, Ajuga reptans, Viburnum opwlus, birch and hazel trees of large size at altitudes of 2,400 feet, points to the fact that the upper forest grew under conditions more temperate than those of the present day. The basal arctic bed, on the other hand, containing Salix reticulata, S. arbuscula, and Arctostaphylos alpina, points to a period when the arctic-alpine plants now confined to small areas in the north of Scotland had a much more extensive range on the hills in the north of England. Gotameal Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro- fessor F, W. OLIVER (Chairman), Professor F. E. Wess (Secretary), Dr. W. G. Smiru, Mr. A. G. Tanstry, Dr. T. W. WoopHEaD, and Professor R. H. Yapp, for the Registration of Negatives of Photo- graphs of Botanical Interest. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tue Committee have met twice during the past year, and have made arrangements with the British Botanical Survey Committee whereby 1907. EE 418 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. photographs dealing with British vegetation will be collected and registered by the Survey Committee, while photographs not falling into. that category will be dealt with by the Secretary of the Committee appointed by Section K. It was decided to house the photographs for the time being at University College, London, Professor F. W. Oliver having kindly under- taken to provide accommodation for the same. It was also decided to obtain as far as possible a duplicate set of prints, one of which could be sent to persons out of London who are desirous of consulting the collection. The duplicate set will be in the custody of the Survey Committee, and its headquarters will be Cam- bridge. The number of photographs added this year is not large, but includes some very interesting ones of Cycads from South Africa taken by Pro- fessor H. W. W. Pearson, of Cape Town, and others illustrating the flora of South Africa taken by Professor R. H. Yapp and Professor F. E. Weiss. The second list of the photographs so far collected is issued together with the present report. The whole of the grant (5/.) made to the Committee has been expended. Inst II. of Photographs of Botanical Interest. Photographed by R. Weucu, 49 Lonsdale Street, Belfast. (8 x6.) Regd. Local No. No. Locality Subject 277 R.W. Crom Castle, Upper Lough ‘ Pleached’ yew-tree bower. 1832 Erne Photographed by H. Ricuarpson, 12 St. Mary’s, York. (1/4.) 278 1 Guimar, Teneriffe. . Lava of 1705, Lichen-covered ; January- April 1905. 279 2m Teneriite! © : : . Euphorbia Regis Jube in Malpais ; 1905. 280 ~ 38 3 , ; . . H#. canariensis; January-April 1905. 281 4 5 : ‘ : . . canariensis, Chrysanthemum in fore- ground; January-April 1905. 282 5 + é 3 - . £. canariensis in flower; January-April 1905. 283 6 s . : : . HH. canariensis associated with #. Regis Jube, Senecio Kleinii, and Opuntia; typical association of the Malpais or lava wilderness at low level; January- April 1905. 284 7 Near Tacaronte, Teneriffe. Canary Palm; January-April 1905. 285 8 Puerto Oratava, Teneriffe . Canary Palm with leaves trimmed ; January-April 1905. 286 9 Teneriffe . é : -. Dracena draco (young tree); seeds forming, 287 10 Puerto Oratava, Teneriffe . Eucalyptus and Aloe (planted) at en- trance to Grand Hotel; January-April 1905. 288 11 Near PuertoOratava, Tene- Banana; January-April 1905. riffe 289 12. Guimar, Teneriffe . . Opuntia in foreground, Figs behind; stony but cultivated ground. 302 303 Photographed by R. Wetcu, 49 Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 63? 1532 1531 1539 ON BOTANICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. Locality Teneriffe Agua Manza, Teneriffe Near Tacaronte, Teneriffe . ” 4 ” ” Teneriffe . Near Tacaronte, Tenerifie . ” ” ” , ” ” + | Teneriffe . Photographed by AtEMANA, Teneriffe. Teneriffe . Photographed by M. Baxze, Teneriffe. (6}x 84.) Teneriffe . Sperrin? Mts., Co. Derry . Belfast Howth Cliffs, Ireland Near Cloonee, Kenmare, Kerry The Tunnels, Kenmare, Kerry Kenmare, Kerry Co. Tyrone s : Boyne Valley, Ireland Killarney, Ireland Banagher Glens, Ireland Kilcoole, Wicklow, Ireland Bundoran, Ireland : Switzerland ” ” ” . = i 419 Subject Opuntia Dillennii, Mesembryanthemum in foreground ; close to seashore. Chestnut, vpper limit of cultivated land; January-April 1905. Laurel forest; January-April 1905. Monte Verde. Monte Verde, Cytisus sp. (white flowers) ; January-April 1905. Monte Verde, Erica, &c. Erica arborea; January-April 1905. Pinus canariensis; January-April 1905. Retama at Pedro Gil; January-April 1905. Retama and snowdrift at Pedro Gil. Retama and Peak from Pedro Gil; January-April 1905. Retama above clouds at Pedro Gil, Spartium supra nubium; January- April 1905. (62 x 83.) Fuphorbia eanariensis. Dracena draco. (8 x 6.) Spiranthes Romanzofiasa; whole plants with six spikes of flowers. Cherophyllum temulum ; habitat. Inula ertthmoides (Golden Samphire) ; growing on cliffs. Cotyledon umbilicus ; 24 inches high, in natural Saxifraga geum and S. wmbrosa; one plant, S. wmbrosa, in centre sur- rounded by numerous plants of S, geun. Euphorbia hiberna ; in the woods. Galium palustre; growing on a bog. Rosa arvensis; in hedgerow. Arbutus unedo; part of grove. Alypnum wundulatum and Thuidium tamariscinum ; in natural habitat. Eryngium maritimum ; growing on shore, Lithothamnium—s_ species encrusting Patella vulgata (central mass is coral- line only). Pools. Photographed by G. K. Batiance, St. Moritz Dorf, Switzerland. 1536 Gentiana purpurea; flowering plants. Anemone sulphurea ; whole plants bear- ing fruits, Sedum album ; in natural habitat. Petrocallis pyrenaica ; in natural habitat, EE2 upper part of 4.20 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE. Regd. Local No. No. Locality Subject 320 Switzerland : ‘i . Sempervivum montanum; in natural habitat. 321 20a u ‘ : . Gnaphalium Leontopodium; in natural habitat, 322 18¢ — x : . Rosa canina; two flowers and foliage against a dark background, 323 86D x é B . Anemone nemorosa; in flower growing under trees. . 324 1528 . : : . Androsace helvetica (in flower); natural habitat. 325 1245 } : . Primula aurieula Gn flower); natural habitat. 326 = 1241 “ep : : . Dryas octopetala (in flower) ; in natural habitat. 327 1542 - : : . Saxifraga oppositifolia; a patch of plants in flower. 328 43D . : i . Crocus vernus; in field (flowering). Photographed by R. Wetcu, 49 Lonsdale Street, Belfast. (6 x 8.) 329 46 The Boyne, Navan, Ireland, Alisma plantago; a clump of plants growing at edge of river; trees in the background. Photographed by G, K, Batuancr, St. Moritz Dorf, Switzerland. 330 1244 Switzerland : : . Globularia nudicaulis; a clump of plants flowering; in natural habitat. 3341 1243 - : : . Primula villosa; a clump of plants flowering; in natural habitat. 332 1526 Ke : : . Campanula sp. (pale blue); a group of plants with five open flowers growing on stony ground. 333 1533 3 : : . Cerastium alpinum and Sawxifraga sp. growing amongst rocks. Photographed by F. H. Gravety, 5 Silver Street, Wellingboro’. (1/4.) Regd No. Locality Subject 8334 Moorsabove Jacob’s Ladder, Edale, Rubus chama@morus; flower and foliage, Derbyshire in natural habitat ; June 1906 335 Near source of the Ashop, Derby- Rubvs cham@morus; general view of a shire yatch of the plant in flower; June 16, 1906. 336 Near the Mines, Ulleswater . . Lyopodium selago; plant with bulbils and sporangia in natural suri oundings, 337 55 mF, % ‘ Lycopodium alpinum, in natural sur- roundings; June 7, 1906. 338 5 “ i. : . Lycopodium clavatum, in natural sur- roundings; June 7, 1906. 339 x os 9 : . Betrychium lunaria (with fructification), in natural surroundings; June 7, 1906. 340 Woods by Aira Force, Ulleswater. Polypodiwm Phegopteris, in natural sur- roundings; June 7, 1906. Photographed by H. W.W. Pearson, S. African College, Cape Town. (1/2.) 341 £E. London,§S. Africa . : . Stangeria sp. Plant with male cone, in natural surroundings; May 1906. 342 a a rs : . Stangeria, in natural surroundings, with Royena pubescens in background ; May 1906. ON BOTANICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 421 Regd No. Locality Subject 343 # Nahoonk >; ; : . Encephalartos altensteinii, in natural habitat ; May 1906. 344 Nahom River, HE. London, $.Africa Hncephalartos altensteinii, in natural habitat; May 1906. 345 Queenstown, S. Africa . : . Lncephalartos Friderici-Guilielmio, ? in natural habitat ; May 1906. 346 Nahoonk, E. London,S. Africa . Hncephalartos altensteinii, in natural habitat; May 1906. 347 = Nr. Finchaus Nek, Queenstown, 8. Zvrythrina acanthocarpa with Acacia Africa horrida scrub in the distance; May 1906. The Conditions of Health Essential to the carrying on of the Work of Instruction in Schools.—Report of the Commuttee, consisting of Professor SHERRINGTON (Chairman), Mr. E.Wuite WALLIS (Secre- tary), Sir Epwarp Brasroox, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Professor L. C. Mirai, Miss A. J. Cooper, and Dr. ErHeL WILLIAMS. THE Committee have under consideration several matters affecting health in schools, but with regard to some of these the investigations are not sufficiently complete to report progress. They submit, however, a further report on children’s playtime and leisure, and an interim statement with regard to ventilation of schools. The Committee had in co-operation with them in their investigations and deliberations the valuable assistance of Dr. C. Childs, Dr. Friede- berger, Mrs. Gomme, Mrs. Kimmins, Dr. James Kerr, Miss Ravenhill, Dr. C. E. Shelly, Professor W. N. Shaw, Mr. J. Osborne Smith, and Mrs. White Wallis. Children’s Playtime and Leisure. Following up the previous inquiry on the playtime and leisure of school children, investigations have been made in the neighbourhoods of Bermondsey, Kensington, and Hampstead as to how the playtime allotted to children is spent, and as to how their leisure is employed at home. It is found that there is practically no connection maintained between the school and the home life of the children ; therefore that in most cases much of the good done at school is being lost to the children because of the ignorance or indifference of the homes as to the welfare of the children ; while in other cases help is being lost that might be rendered to the school by consultation with the parents about the activities of their children at home. The Committee therefore recommend :— 1. That opportunities be afforded to teachers of meeting the parents of children, in the school building, for talks on school and home matters, with the view of bringing home and school into closer touch ; and that for this purpose each class teacher be encouraged to invite the parents of the children in his or her class, once a term if possible, at the end of the afternoon school, in order to interest them in the work done by their own children in school, and to demonstrate to the parents how the physical and moral development of the children has been helped by means of organised play. A422 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 2. That teachers be encouraged to include among physical exercises children’s singing games and the old English Morris dances. 3. That finding how small an amount of time in school is at present reserved to small children for recreation, the Committee urge that the learning to read and write be delayed for twelve months, and the time thus set free be devoted to playing and resting in a room free from form and desk furniture, and having a lavatory adjoining it. 4. That education authorities be asked to allow the playing of games, other than cricket and football, in spaces already allotted in parks for games; and also to provide such spaces where not provided at present, in order that the voluntary helpers may have opportunities for teaching games to girls and small children. Ventilation of School Buildings. At the instigation of the Committee, a series of observations have been carried out during the last year on the relation of symptoms of mental fatigue in school children, whilst at work, to different conditions of ventilation. The results promise to be very instructive. The observa- tions, however, require a long period of time, and are not yet complete. Moreover, further observations are required on the movements of air- currents in occupied rooms, and on the complicated problems involved in the provision of pure air equally distributed to each occupant of a room, before authoritative statements can be made on this subject. The Committee desire to be reappointed, and ask te be allowed to use the unexpended portion of the grant made in 1906, for the hire of instruments for investigations in hearing tests for school use. Curricula of Secondary Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Otiver LopGE (Chairman), Mr. C. M. Sruarr (Secretary), Mr. T. E. Pace, Professors M. E. SapLer, H. E. ARMSTRONG, and J. Perry, Sir Partie Maanos, Principal Grirrirus, Dr. H. B. Gray, Professor H. A. Miers, Mr. A. E. SmipLey, Professor J. J. Finpiay, and Sir WitLiaM Huaeins, appointed to consider and to advise as to the Curricula of Secondary Schools ; in the first instance, the Curricula of Boys’ Schools. Tae Committee submit for consideration the following conclusions which they have reached as the result of their debates :— 1. There is need for secondary schools of different types, with different curricula or combinations of curricula : because (a) All boys are not suited to the same course of study. (6) The requirements of the various callings upon which the boys will subsequently enter differ considerably. (c) The needs of the schools differ in a considerable degree according to the economic conditions of the districts in which they are situated. Broadly speaking, however, the secondary schools fall into two different types—viz., those in which the majority of boys remain till eighteen or nineteen, and then continue their education at places of ON THE CURRICULA OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 4.23 university rank ; and those in which the majority leave at fifteen or six- teen and proceed to business. There is, however, no sharp line of demarca- tion between the two. 2. The Committee consider that one modern foreign language should in all cases be begun at an early age; but are of opinion that it would be a wise educational experiment to postpone the systematic teach- ing of Latin as an ordinary school subject till twelve years of age, and that such a change will prove sufficiently successful to warrant its adoption. On the other hand, they are of opinion that such absence of systematic teaching by no means precludes its incidental teaching before the age of twelve by such means as wil] naturally occur to a fully qualified teacher of young boys. The Committee also desire to record their opinion that the continued teaching of either of the two dead languages to boys who after serious trial have shown little or no progress in, or capacity for, such linguistic study has little or no educational value ; and that, though the mental training afforded by such study is of great value in the case of many boys, yet in the case of others such study not only produces no good results, but does positive harm to their mental and moral progress by reason of their incapacity to grapple with its difficulties. The Committee go further, and express their doubt whether the authorities in some secondary schools have sufficiently recognised this fact: or have provided sufficient alternatives to such linguistic study. 3, The Committee deprecate any form of early specialisation in the education of children, and therefore regard with grave concern the fact that the entrance examinations at the great English public schools give undue prominence to the study of Latin (and Greek) in the course of education at the preparatory schools, the result being that too little time is available for (a) the teaching of the mother-tongue, () manual training, (c) science and mathematics. 4. The Committee would deprecate anything like State-imposed rigidity in the organisation and studies of secondary schools. But the Committee are led to the conclusion that up to twelve years of age there might be a broad general course of education for all. It would in all cases include careful preliminary training in the use of the mother-tongue, so that it could be used in speaking and writing cor- rectly on ordinary occasions, and would further comprise the following divisions :— (1) Literary. (2) Mathematical. (3) Scientific. (4) Manual Training. They consider that a school week of twenty-six hours might be divided as follows :— Literary work, thirteen hours ; mathematical and scientific work, nine hours ; drawing and manual training, four hours ; while for those who after twelve years of age commence the study of Latin the division of time should be: Literary work, sixteen hours ; other subjects, ten hours. 5. The Committee are of opinion that the curriculum in secondary schools suffers gravely from the number of subjects which have been crowded into it, and they regard this as the most serious factor in 4,2 4, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. secondary education at the present time. They are of opinion that this ‘overcrowding’ is due to two causes :— (1) The disproportionate amount of time bestowed in many schools on the two ancient languages, which leaves only a small residuum for each of the other subjects now increasingly regarded as essential items of education, the result being that the pupil obtains only a smattering of the knowledge of such subjects. (2) The ill-founded belief that the curriculum should be an abstract of all modern knowledge. 6. The Committee desire to see a great simplification in the arrange- ment of examinations for secondary schools, and they strongly recommend that examination and teaching should go hand in hand, the examiners co-operating with the teachers and acting in conjunction with them in order to further the interests of real education. The Committee would urge upon the universities and professions to accept as qualifying for entrance the leaving certificates granted by each university to the schools which submit to its inspection. The aim should be to examine in accordance with the teaching, and to pay special attention to the special peculiarity of each school, or group of schools ; and it would be a great relief, and at once improve the teaching of the higher forms, if the results of such examination were accepted by universities and professional bodies without further entrance test. The Committee particularly deprecate any uniform or centrally administered examination applied to all the schools of the country. For a uniform State examination, if it were made the door of entrance to all higher courses of study and to the professions and Civil Service, would do much evil, focussing the efforts of teachers and pupils upon those parts of the school curriculum in which alone examination is possible, Further, the rivalry between schools would cause the standard of attain- ment steadily to rise, until the over-pressure became serious and intel- lectual vigour and independent thought were killed, 7. The Committee feel that no scheme of secondary education can be satisfactory unless it is carried out by teachers of learning and force of character,’ and they would urge that every effort should be made, by con- ditions of appointment, by scale of salaries, and by retiring allowances, to attract a high class to the teaching profession, which should be regarded as a very laborious, but very hcnourable, form of public service. Prompt action in this matter is urgent and imperative ; for, unless something is done without delay, the best interests of the schools, and especially of boys’ day-schools, will be sacrificed to a false and disastrous economy. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECIIONS. Section A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCF. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor A. E. H. Love, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— I propose to use the opportunity aflorded by this Address to explain a dynamical theory of the shape of the earth, or, in other words, of the origin of continents and oceans. The theory which has for more than a century been associated with the phrase ‘the figure of the earth’ is the theory of the shape of the surface of the ocean, Apart from waves and currents, this surface is determined by the condi- tion that there is no up and down upon it.- This condition does not mean that the surface is everywhere at the same distance from the centre of the earth, or even that it is everywhere convex, but that a body moving upon it neither rises against, nor falls in the direction of, gravity (modified by the rotation). A surface which has this character is called an equipotential surface, and the surface of the ocean coincides with part of an equipotential surface under gravity modified by the rotation. This particular equipotential surface runs underground beneath the continents. It is named the ‘geoid.’ The height of a place above sea-level means its height above the geoid. If we knew the distribution of density of the matter within the earth it would be a mathematical problem to determine the form of the geoid. As we do not know this distribution we have recourse to an indirect means of investigation, and the chief instrument of research is the pendulum. The time of vibration of a pendulum varies with the place where it is swung, and from the observed times we deduce the values of gravity at the various places, and it was shown many years ago by Stokes a the shape of the geoid can be inferred from the variation of gravity over the surface. The question to which I wish to invite your attention is a different one. If the ocean could be dried up, the earth would still have a shape. What shape would it be? Why should the earth have that shape rather than some other P In order to describe the shape we may imagine that we try to make a model of it. If we could begin with a model of the geoid we should have to attach additional material over the parts representing land and to remove some material over the parts representing sea. Our model would have to be as big as a battleship if the elevations and depressions were to be as much as three or four inches. In thinking out the construction of such a model we could not fail to be impressed by certain general features of the distribution of continent and ocean, and we may examine a map to discover such features. Fig, 1 is a rough map of the world drawn in such a way that to every degree of latitude or of longitude there corresponds the same distance on the map, Certain very prominent features have often been 4.28 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. remarked: the tapering of America and Africa towards the south, the dispropor- tion between the land areas of the northern and southern hemispheres, the excess of the oceanic area above the continental area, which occupies but little more than one-quarter of the surface; the wide extent of the Pacific Ocean, which with the adjoining parts of the Southern Ocean covers nearly two-fifths of the surface. Another prominent feature is the antipodal position of continent and ocean. South America south of an irregular line which runs from a point near Lake Treen ULATUAEAU Fig.l. Yiticaca to Buenos Ayres is antipodal to a portion of Asia which lies in an irregular triangle with corners near Bangkok, Kiaochau, and Lake Baikal; but no other considerable parts of the continental system have continental antipodes. The Antarctic continent is antipodal to the Arctic Ocean, Australia is antipodal to the central Atlantic, and so on. Another notable feature is the skew position of South America to the east of North America; South America lies to the east of the meridian 85° west of Greenwich; most of North America lies to the west of it. But although we may observe prominent general features of the distribution, we should find it far from easy to attribute to the form of our imaginary model anything that could be called a regular geometrical figure. When we begin to think about the removal of material from the parts of the model which are to represent oceans and seas, we require a map which gives information about the depth of the sea in different places. Around all the coasts there is a margin of not very deep water. If some part of the sea could be dried up, so that more land was exposed around alljjthe coasts, the area of the surface of the sea would be diminished ; and it is known that the depth of water that would have to be removed in order to make the area of the sea just half the total area, is abcut 1,400 fathoms. The contour-line at this depth would divide the surface into two regions of approximately equal area-—the continental region and the oceanic region. Fig. 2 represents the contour-line at 1,400 fathoms, or the line of separation of the continental and oceanic regions. The continental region is shaded. In draw- ing this map I have omitted a number of small islands, and I have also omitted a few PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.29 enclosed patches of deep water. Two of these arein the Mediterranean, one in the Arctic Ocean, and others are in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The Red Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Arctic Ocean belong to the continental region, and so do the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. At this depth Asia and North America are joined across Behring’s Strait, and Europe is joined to North America across the British Isles, Iceland, and Greenland; Australia is joined to Asia through Borneo and New Guinea, and the Australasian continental region nearly reaches the Antarctic region by way of New Zealand. At this depth also South America does not taper to the south, but spreads out, and is separated from the Antarctic region by a very narrow channel. By going down to great depths our problem is very much simplified. We find that the surface of the earth can be divided into continental and oceanic regions of approximately equal area by a curve which approaches a regular geometrical shape. By smoothing away the irregularities we obtain the curve shown in fig. 38, which exhibits the surface as divided up into a continuous continental region and two oceanic regions—the basin of the Pacific Ocean and the basin of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. We may take our problem to be this: to account on dynamical grounds for the Pacific Ocean Indian Fig.3. separation of the surface into a continental region and two oceanic regions which are approximately of this shape. The key of the problem was put into our hands four years ago by Jeans in his theory of gravitational instability. If there are any differences of density in different parts of a gravitating body, the denser parts attract with a greater force than the rarer parts, and thus more and more of the mass tends to be drawn towards the parts where the density is in excess, and away from the parts where it is in defect. In every gravitating system there is a tendency to instability. Ina body of planetary dimensions this tendency, if it were not checked, would result in a concentration of the mass either towards the centre or towards some other part. But concentration of the mass means compression of the material, and it cannot proceed very far without being checked by the resistance which the material offers to compression. There ensues a sort of competition between two agencies: gravitation, making for instability, and the elastic resistance to compression, making for stability. Such competing agencies are familiar in other questions concerning the stability of deformable bodies. A long thin bar set up on end tends to bend under its own weight. A steel knitting-needle a foot long can stand up; a piece of thin paper of the same length would bend over. In order that a body may be stable in an assigned configuration there must be some relation between the forces which make for instability, the size of the body, and the resistance which it offers to changes of size and shape. In the case of a gravitating planet we may inquire how small its resistance to compres- sion must be in order that it may be unstable, and, further, in respect of what types of displacement the instability would manifest itself. If we assign the constitution of the planet, the inquiry becomes a definite mathematical problem. The greatest difficulty in the pioblem arisesfrom the enormous stresses which are developed within such a body as the earth by the mutual gravitation of 4.30 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. its parts. The earth is in a state which is described technically as a state of ‘initial stress.’ In the erdinary theory of the mechanics of deformable bodies a body is taken to be strained or deformed when there is any stress in it, and the strain is taken to be proportional to the stress. This method amounts to measur- ing the strain or deformation from an ideal state of zero stress. If the ideal state is unattainable without rupture or permanent set or overstrain, the body is in a state of initial stress. The commonest example is a golf-ball made of indiarubber tightly wound at a high tension. Now the problem of gravitational instability can be solved for a planet of the size of the earth on the suppositions that the density is uniform and the initial stress is hydrostatic pressure. If the resistance to com- pression is sufficiently small the bedy is unstable, both as regards concentration of mass towards the centre and as regards displacements by which the density is increased in one hemisphere and diminished in the other. A planetary body of suf- ficiently small resistance to compression could not exist in the form of a homogeneous sphere. It could exist in a state in which the surface is very nearly spherical, and the mass is arranged in a continuous series of nearly spherical thin sheets, each of con- stant density ; but these sheets would not be concentric. They would be crowded together towards one side and spaced out on the opposite side somewhat in the manner shown in fig. 4. The effect would be a displacement of the centre of gravity away from the centre of figure towards the side where the sheets are crowded together. How small must the resistance to compression be in order that this state may be assumed hie Fig.5. by the body instead of a homogeneous state? The answer is that, if the body has the same size and mass as the earth, the material must be as compressible as granite. Granite,as we know it at the earth’s surface, is not a typically compressible material. A cube of granite 10 feet every way could be compressed from its yolume of 1,000 cubic feet to a volume of 999 cubic feet by pressure applied to every part of its surface ; but according to the recent measurements of Adams and Coker the pressure would have to be rather more than two tons per square inch. A homogeneous sphere of the same size and mass as the earth, made of a material as nearly incompressible as granite, could not exist; it would be gravitationally unstable. The body would take up some such state of aggregation as that illustrated in fig. 4, and its centre of gravity would have an eccentric position. Now how would an ocean rest on a gravitating sphere of which the centre of gravity does not coincide with the centre of figure? Its surface would be a sphere ‘vith its centre at the centre of gravity (fig. 5). The oceanic region would be on one side of the sphere and the continental region on the other side. It was pointed out many years ago by Pratt that the existence of the Pacific Ocean shows that the centre of gravity of the earth does not coincide with the centre of figure. There is no necessity to invoke some great catastrophe to account for the existence of the Pacific Ocean, or to think of it as a kind of pit or scar on the surface of the earth. The Pacific Ocean resembles nothing so much as a drop of water adhering to a greasy shot. The force that keeps the drop in position is surface tension. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 431 The force that keeps the Pacific Ocean on one side of the earth is gravity, directed more towards the centre of gravity than the centre of figure. An adequate cause for the eccentric position of the centre of gravity is found in the necessary state of aggregation which the earth must have had if at one time it was as compressible as granite. The theory of gravitational instability accounts for the existence of the Pacitic Ocean. But we can go much further than this in the direction of accounting for t continental and oceanic regions. We keep in mind the eccentric position of the centre of gravity, and try to discover the effect of rotation upon a planet of which the centre of gravity does uot coincide with the centre of figure. The shape of a rotating planet must be nearly an oblate spheroid; but the figure of the ocean would, owing to its greater mobility, be rather more protuberant at the equator than the figure of the planet on which it rests. The primary effect of the rotation of the earth upon the distribution of continent and ocean is to draw the ocean towards the equator, so as to tend to expose the arctic and antarctic regions. We have seen that both arctic and antarctic are parts of the continental region. But there is an important secondary effect. Under the influence of the rotation the parts of greater density tend to recede further from the axis than the parts of less density. Ifthe density is greater in one hemispheroid than in the other, so that the position of the centre of gravity is eccentric, the effect must be to produce a sort of furrowed surface; and the amount of elevation and depression so produced can be described by an exact mathematical formula. It has been proved that this formula is the sort of expression which mathematicians name a spherical harmonic of the third degree. The shape of the earth is also influenced by another circumstance. We know that at one time the moon was much nearer to the earth than it is now, and that the two bodies once rotated about their common centre of gravity almost as a single rigid system. The month was nearly as short as the day, and the moon was nearly fixed in the sky. The earth must then have been drawn out towards the moon, so that its surface was more nearly an ellipsoid with three unequal axes than it is now. The primary effect of the ellipsoidal condition upon the distribu- tion of continent and ocean would be to raise the surface above the ocean near the opposite extremities of the greatest diameter of the equator. But, again, owing to the eccentric position of the centre of gravity, there would be an important secondary effect. The gravitational attraction of an ellipsoid differs from that of a sphere, and it may be represented as the attraction of a sphere together with an additional attraction. If the density was greater in one hemi-ellipsoid than in the other, the additional attraction would produce a greater effect in the parts where the density was in excess, and the result, just as in the case of rotation, would be a furrowing of the surface. It has been proved that the formula for this furrowing also is expressed by a spherical harmonic of the third degree. We are brought to the theory of spherical harmonics and the spherical harmonic analysis. Spherical harmonics are certain quantities which vary in a regular fashion over the surface of a sphere, becoming positive in some parts and negative in others, I spoke just now of making a model of a nearly spherical surface by removing material from some parts and heaping it up on others. Spherical harmonics specify standard patterns of deformation of spheres. For instance, we might remove material over one hemisphere down to the surface of an equal but not concentric sphere (cf. fig. 5) and heap up the material over the other hemisphere. We should produce a sphere equal to the original but in a new position. The formula for the thickness of the material removed or added is a spherical harmonic of the first degree. It specifies the simplest standard pattern of deformation. Again, we might remove material from some parts of our model and heap it up on other parts so as to convert the sphere into an ellipsoid. The formula for the thickness of that which is removed or added is aspherical harmonic of the second degree. Deformation of a sphere into an ellipsoid is the second standard pattern of deformation. The mathematical method of determining the appropriate series of standard patterns is the theory of spherical harmonics. Its importance arises from the result that any pattern whatever can be reached by 4.32 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. first making the deformation according to the first pattern, then going on to make the deformation according to the second pattern, and soon. If we begin with a pattern, for instance the shape of the earth, which is not a standard pattern, we can find out how great a deformation of each standard pattern must be made in order to reproduce the prescribed pattern. The method of doing this is the method of spherical harmonic analysis. Except in very simple cases the applica- tion of it involves rather tedious computations. With much kind assistance and encouragement from Professor Turner, I made a rough spherical harmonic analysis of the earth’s surface. I divided the surface into 2,592 small areas, rather smaller on the average than Great Britain, gave them the value +1, or one unit of elevation, if they are above the sea, and the value —], or one unit of depression, if they are below the 1,400-fathom line. To the intermediate areas 1 gave the value 0. The distribution of the numbers over the surface was analysed for spherical harmonics of the first, second, and third degrees, Any spherical harmonic of the first’ degree gives us a division of the surface into two hemispheres—one elevated, the other depressed. The spherical harmonic analysis informs us as to the position of the great circle which separates the two hemispheres, and also as to the ratio of the maximum elevation of this pattern to the maximum elevation of any other pattern. The central region of greatest eT TTT hi eT Te in lich | 4 Ui ; ) vf sil Wil ia) i I Tf Ht eiats, iil il nft | Pau i lh YY [| elevation of this pattern is found to be in the neighbourhood of the Crimea, and Pp 8 , Fig.6. the region of elevation contains the Arctic Ocean and the northern and central parts of the Atlantic, Europe, Africa, Asia, most of North America, and a small part of South America. When the surface is mapped on a rectangle in the same way as before, the chart of the harmonic is that shown in fig. 6." The actual dis- proportion between the amounts of continental area in the northern and southern hemispheres is associated with the result that the central region of elevation, as given by the analysis, is about 45° north of the equator; and the extension of the Pacific Ocean and adjoining Southern Ocean to much higher southern than northern latitudes is associated with the corresponding position of the central region of greatest depression about 45° south of the equator. In regard to harmonies of the second degree, the spherical harmonic analysis informs us as to the ellipticity of the equator and the obliquity of the principal planes of that ellipsoid which most nearly represents the elevation of the surface above or its depression below the surface of the ocean, or the geoid. The result is an equatorial region of depression, which spreads north and south unequally in different parts and forms a sort of immense Mediterranean, containing two great basins, and separating a northern region of elevation from a southern, The northern region of elevation occupies the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean and runs down to and across the equator in the neighbourhood of Borneo, The southern region of eleva- tion occupies the southern part of the Pacific Ocean, and it runs up to and across the equator in the neighbourhood of Peru. The chart of the harmonic is shown in 1 In this figure, and in the following figures, regions of elevation are shaded, and regions of depression are left blank. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. A433 fig. 7. The equatorial regions of elevation given by the analysis are near the ends of a diameter, as we should expect. ; It has not been necessary to enter into a minute description of the harmonics of till Le at len it Ua 10008euy Sey “ee POT Fi g. Te the first and second degrees, because*they-represent very simple things—a shifting of the surface to one side and a distortion of it into an ellipsoid. The harmonics of the third degree arefnot so familiar.&There are essentially four of them, each ak Fig.8. specifying a standard pattern of deformation. ‘The first of these, the zonal harmonic, gives us a division of the surface into two polar caps and two zones by means of the equator and the parallels of latitude about 51° north and 51° south. Fia.9. Alternate zones are depressed and elevated, as shown in fig. 8. The existence of an Antarctic continent and an Arctic Ocean is specially associated with the presence of this harmonic, and the disproportion of the continental areas in the 1907. FF 434. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. northern and southern hemispheres is also connected with it. The second of the harmonics of the third degree, the tesseral harmonic of rank 1, gives us a division of the surface into six half-zones by means of a complete meridian circle and the parallels of latitude about 27° north and 27° south. Alternate half-zones are depressed and elevated as shown in fig. 9. The combined effect represented by the zonal harmonic and the tesseral harmonic of rank 1 is a furrowed surface with an Arctic region of depression extending southwards in the direc- tion of the Atlantic, a zone of elevation which runs across the Atlantic, South America, and Africa, and then turns northwards at either end, a zone of de- pression with the same kind of contour, and an Antarctic region of elevation 2587 WZ : Zeta ATT | nd mst Ii HD ,, mn ii | : me mul ili came TTT Fig.10. se which extends northwards in the direction of Australasia. These regions are shown in fig. 10. J have recorded the result of combining these two harmonics because they represent the particular effects that would be produced by the inter- action of two causes—the rotation, and the eccentric position of the centre of gravity. The third type of harmonics of the third degree, the tesseral harmonic of rank 2, gives us a division of the surface into octants by means of the equator and two complete meridian circles. Alternate octants are elevated and depressed rae —— eet ee ———— ae [ee =e aoe eee —[eeesee [eee eel ESS Sea Se SSS Fig I. as shown in fig. 11. Wecan name the octants where there is elevation: Asia, Australasia, North America, South America. The harmonic of this type is certainly prominent. It is specially associated with the skew position of South America to the east of North America. The fourth type of harmonics of the third degree, the sectorial harmonic, gives us a division of the surface into six sectors by means of three complete meridian circles. Alternate sectors are depressed and elevated as shown in fig. 12. The southward tapering of Africa is specially associated with the harmonic of this type. The combined effect of all the harmonics of the third degree is shown in fig. 13. It represents the sphere deformed into a sort of irregular pear-shaped surface. The stalk of the pear is in the southern part of Australia and contains Australasia and the Antarctic continent. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 435 This is surrounded on all sides but one (towards South America) by a zone of depression, the waist of the pear. This, again, is surrounded on all sides but one (towards Japan) by a zone of elevation, the protuberant part of the pear; and finally we find the nose of the pear in the central Atlantic between the Madeiras and the Bermudas. I do not, however, wish to emphasise the resemblance of the surface to a pear or any other fruit, but prefer to describe it as an harmonic spheroid of the third degree. Another way of regarding it would be as a surface with ridges and furrows.- From a place in the South Atlantic there run three ridges: one north-westwards across America, a second north-eastwards across Atrica and Asia, and the third southwards over the Antarctic continent, continu- se] Ses ed === —— [aaa a —— ———— ————— es ——————— ——— ed SSS — =e SS aS al ———— d eed et a | Se Se a ——— = nl ol era Ss Fig.!2. ing northwards across Australia nearly to Japan. From the Sea of Okhotsk there run three furrows: one south-westwards across Japan, the Malay Peninsula, and the Indian Ocean; a second south-eastwards across the Pacific; and the third northwards over the Arctic Ocean, continuing southwards by way of the Atlantic. Harmonics of the first and third degrees have in common the character of giving depression at the antipodes of elevation ; the harmonics of the second degree give depression at the antipodes of depression and elevation at the antipodes of eleva- tion, The maxima of the harmonics of the first and third degrees are found to Fig. 13. be rather greater than the maximum of the harmonic of the second degree. Of three quantities to be added together the two larger ones agree in giving depression at the antipodes of elevation; a result which is in accordance with the fact that most continents have oceanic antipodes. When we superpose the effects represented by all the various harmonics of the first, second, and third degrees, so as to make, as it were, a composite photograph of all the various elevations and depressions represented by them severally, each in its appropriate amount as determined by the harmonic analysis, we find the curve shown in fig. 14 as the theoretical curve of separation between regions of elevation and depression which are approximately equal in area, FF2 A436 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. I showed before a smoothed curve (fig. 3) which I proposed to take as representing the facts to be accounted for. The resemblance of the two curves seems to be striking. Incidentally it has been noticed how the prominent features of the distribution of continent and ocean are associated with the presence of various harmonics. As regards the contour of the great ocean basins, we seem to be justified in saying that the earth is approximately an oblate spheroid, but more nearly an ellipsoid with three unequal axes, having its surface furrowed according to the formula for a certain spherical harmonic of the third degree, and displaced relatively to the geoid towards the direction of the Crimea. As regards the amount of elevation and depression in different parts, the agreement of the theory with the facts is not so good. The computed elevation is too small in Southern Africa, Brazil, and the southern part of South America, too great in the Arctic regions, to the south of Australasia, and in the Mediter- ranean region. There are many reasons why we could not expect the agreement to be very good. One is the roughness of the method of harmonic analysis that was used. But there is also the fact that many causes must have contributed to the shaping of our actual continents and oceans besides those which have been taken into account in the theory. It appears, however, that the broad general features of the distribution of continent and ocean can be regarded as the conse- quences of simple causes of a dynamical character: eccentric position of the centre of gravity, arising from a past state of inadequate resistance to compression, an ~ inherited tendency, so to speak, to an ellipsoidal figure, associated with the Ocean Ocean Fig. 14. attraction of the moon in a bygone age, the rotation, and the interactions of these various causes. In attempting to estimate the bearing of the theory on geological history we must be guided by two considerations. The first is that the earth is not now eravitationally unstable. From observations of the propagation of earthquake shocks to great distances, we can determine the average resistance to compression, and we find that this resistance is now sufficiently great to keep in check any tendency to gravitational instability. The eccentric position of the centre of gravity must be regarded as a survival from a past state in which the resistance to compression was not nearly so great as it is now. The second guiding con- sideration is that, according to the theory, the inequalities which are expressed by spherical harmonics of the third degree are secondary effects due to the interaction of the causes which give rise to inequalities expressed by harmonics of the first and second degrees. We should expect, therefore, that the inequalities of the third degree would be much smaller than those of the first and second degrees ; but the harmonic analysis shows that the three inequalities are entirely comparable, We must conclude that the harmonics of the first and second degrees which we can now discover by the analysis are survivals from a past state, in which such inequalities were relatively more important than they are now. Both these con- siderations point in the same direction, and they lead us to infer that certain secular changes may have taken place in the past, and may still be going on. Sixty-nine years ago Charles Darwin wrote: ‘The form of the fluid surface of the nucleus of the earth is subject to some change the cause of which is entirely PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 437 unknown, and the effect of which is slow, intermittent, butirresistible.’ Forty-two years later Sir George Darwin showed that any ellipsoidal inequality in the figure must be gradually destroyed by an irreversible action of the same nature as internal friction or viscosity. The same may be said of a state in which the centre of gravity does not coincide with the centre of figure when the resistance to compression is great enough to keep in check the tendency to gravitational in- stability. The state would be changed gradually in such a way as to bring the centre of gravity nearer to the centre of figure. A symptom of such changes might be the occurrence of great subsidences in the neighbourhood of the Crimea, where we found the maximum of the first harmonic. Such subsidences are supposed by geologists to have taken place in rather recent times. Symptoms of the diminution of the inequalities expressed by harmonics of the second degree would be found in the gradual disappearance of seas forming part of the great de- pression which was described above as a sort of immense Mediterranean (cf. fig. 7) in the destruction and inundation of a continent in the northern Atlantic and in a gradual increase of depth of the Southern Pacific. The disappearance of seas from a vast region surrounding the present Mediterranean basin, and containing the Sahara and Southern Asia as far east as the Himalayas, is one of the best ascertained facts in geological history ; and the belief in the destruction of a north Atlantic continent is confidently entertained. In parts of the Southern Pacific a depression represented bySharmonics of the third degree is superposed upon an tis ae { 4 Me —=/; at any point of continuity of @, which is not a point of continuity of dp; dn=f>?- (N.B.— may have points of continuity other than those of dz; e.g., f=9, except at one or more isolated points, where f= 1.) Theorem 4.—The only points where both ¢r and ¢p are continuous are the points of continuity of . 5. Similar theorems hold for the lower associated functions, Hence, con- sidering the common points of continuity of the two pointwise discontinuous functions p and y, there is no distinction of right and left for f, except possibly at points of an ordinary outer limiting set of the first category. This is not the utmost that can be said; the complete theorem is:— Theorem 5.—The points, if any, at which dzF fx are countable. 6. Thus we have proved that the points, if any, where there is a distinction of right and left for f are countable. Example of a function having distinction of right and left at a countable set of points dense everywhere. Make terminating binary points on 2-axis correspond to middle points of black intervals of Cantor’s typical ternary set on the y-axis, and add 1 to the limiting values at all the remaining points. 7, The reasoning proving Theorem 5 serves to prove the following :— Theorem 6,—The points, if any, where f>dr, or f>gr, or f>h are countable. II. Non-uniform Convergence and Divergence. 1. Definition of the right and left peak and chasm functions.—Let f,, fy.» » be a series of functions having a definite limiting function f. Let P be any point ; take an interval on the right of P, say (PQ), and let M, be the upper limit of Ff, in (P,Q). Represent these§ numbers M, on the y-axis, and let Mg be the highest point of their first derived set. Now let the interval (P, Q) diminish indefinitely ; M never increases, and has therefore a limit rp (P). This is the right-hand peak function. Similarly define the left-hand peak function, and, making suitable changes the right and left chasm functions yp and xz. : The omission of the subscripts, or of the words right and left, means that we take that one which is in the case of m not less, and in the case of x not greater than the other. ‘ 2. Theorems 1-6 are the same as in Part 1, only using now the peak and chasm functions. (N.B.—Hence we get precisely the same relations of right and left as in the case of the associated functions.) 3. Assuming now that the functions f, are in the extended sense continuous the condition for uniform convergence is = x; it will then follow that r=x= f. This includes what I call uniform divergence when r=x=f=00. It may easily be shown that the points of uniform divergence form an inner limiting set, The reasoning used by Osgood, and subsequently by myself, in discussing non- uniform convergence shows that the points of non-uniform convergence and non- uniform divergence together form a set of the first category. Hence it follows that if a series of continuous functions diverges at a set of points dense every- where in an interval, it diverges uniformly at points which form a set of the second category. 3 Ona Remarkable Periodic Solution of the Restricted Problem of Three Bodies. By Dr. W. DE SITTER. In the third volume of his ‘ Méthodes Nouvelles’ Poincaré has devoted a short chapter to what he calls periodic solutions ‘de seconde espéce.’ The principle of these solutions is the following. Let two bodies with infinitely small masses TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 4.4.7 move in Keplerian ellipses E, and E, round their primary. At a certain moment their mutual distances become infinitely small, a great perturbation ensues, and after that the two bodies move again in Keplerian ellipses E,’ and E,’, different from the former. This may be repeated, and Poincaré shows that it is possible that after a finite number of meetings the original orbits E, and E, are repro- duced. The solution is then periodic, and Poincaré further shows that such a solution can remain periodic if the masses are made finite. The shortest distance then, of course, is no longer infinitely small, but only a ‘ near approach.’ Now an example of an orbit of this kind is offered in the work of Sir George Darwin. It is the orbit a2,=1:08 figured on page 169 (‘ Acta Mathematica,’ vol, xxi.). Darwin’s orbit starts with the two bodies in symmetrical conjunction in the middle of the large perturbation. At the end of the part of the orbit con- strued by Darwin the orbit of the smaller body P has become practically a Keplerian ellipse, with longitude of perihelion . (The other body, J, of course continues to move in its circular orbit, the mass of P being zero.) Let the time taken by this first part of the orbit be ¢,. The angle between P and J at the end of the time ¢, is then —n#t, +, being the mean motion of J. Now put (1) nt,=7—nt, ta+T where r is a small angle, the meaning of which will be explained presently. If it so happens that P in the time ¢, has completed a whole number of half-circuits in its elliptic orbit, the perihelion of this ellipse having in the same time advanced through the angle r, then at the time 3T =¢,+ ¢, the bodies J and P will again be in symmetrical conjunction or opposition, and the orbit will therefore be periodic with the period T. The condition that this is so is (2) n't, = ker where & is any integer and »’ the motion of the mean anomaly of P in its ellipse. Now by Darwin’s work the time ¢, and the elements of this ellipse are given as functions of, say, 2,. Then (2) gives ¢, as a function of n’, and therefore of «,. Further, an easy computation will give the perturbation of the perihelion during the time f,, .e., the angle 7, as a function of ¢, and of the elements of the ellipse, and therefore of 2,. Thus in (1) all quantities are functions of 2, and it is pos- sible to choose a, so that it shall be satisfied. The periodic solution of the second species is thus perfectly determinate. From Darwin’s figures I find, very roughly, nt, =114° w = 62° and for the elements of the ellipse I find a’ =0'37 e’ =0°69 n'|n = 4:24 In this very rough approximation we can take r=0; we then find from (1) nt, = 128°; and if we take k=3 we have from (2) n’/n=4-22, It is thus evident that Darwin’s orbit 2, = 1°08 if not itself periodic is at least very near to the periodic solution of the second species for C=39-0, An exhaus- tive investigation would, of course, involve a considerable amount of computation, which I have not yet found occasion to undertake. 4. On Essentially Positive Double Integrals and the Part which they play in the Theory of Integral Equations. By H. Baremay. § 1. By an integral equation of the first kind we shall understand an equation of the form 6b f=| oy OO. 2c. 1 in which f(s) and g(s, ¢) are given for values of s lying befween c and d, and p(t) 448 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. is the unknown function, An important question is whether there is more than one continuous function #(¢) for which the equation is satisfied, supposing it to be soluble ; and this leads us to the consideration of the homogeneous equation o-[ GG, op(oat™ Le If no continuous solution (other than @(¢)=0) of this equation exists, the charac- teristic function g(s, t) is said to be perfect tor the ranges (c, d) and (a, 6). § 2. The function ¢(s, ¢) in equation (1) is in general not asymmetrical function of its arguments, but if we multiply both sides of the equation by g(s, 2’) and pais fe with regard to s between c and d we obtain an integral equation of the first kin Aw, NES 5c See ead se a with d ad fAa)= | Heyl, «ds, (2, o-| ie; oats, tia in which the characteristic function «(2, ¢) is a symmetrical function, so that the problem is reduced to one of a simpler character. § 3. Starting from equation (3), Professor Hilbert has indicated a very general class of symmetrical function «(s, ¢) for which the solution of (8) is certainly unique. ‘he characteristic property is that if o() is any function which is con- tinuous in the interval (a, b), the double integral 1 K(3, v)w(so(a)dsde =... ) ava is essentially positive. A function x(s, 2’) which satisfies this condition is said to be definite. ‘The function x(x, ¢) given by equation (4) is easily seen to be definite if g(s, t) is perfect for the ranges (c, d) and (a, 6). When one definite function is known it is easy to construct any number of others; for instance, if x(a, ¢) is definite, and A(x, t)=e(a, Daft). . . . « © U(x, o-|| K(8, Ys, ay, thdsdy « « (@) ava the function A(2, ¢) is definite, and (x, ¢) is definite if f(s, 2) is perfect. A criterion for determining whether a function x(2,¢) is definite or not is furnished by the following theorem due to Hilbert :-—— ‘If x(a, t) is perfect, the necessary and sufficient condition that it should be definite is that the singwar values of d for which the homogeneous integral equation of the second kind ve) -a| x(s, tp(t)dt=0 ey can be satisfied should be all real and posztive.’ An elementary proof of this theorem may be based upon the fact that if K(s, ¢) is the solving function of the integral equation of the second kind b fe)=x)- nls, *)y@)dt teu, Oe a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 44.9 é.e., a function such that the unknown function x(s) is given by the formula x)= +] KG OMOat. eras =, (10) the double integral bb Q a=| | K(s, t)f(s)f(é)dsdt . ; : Teens) increases with A, becoming infinite and changing sign only as \ passes through a singular value for equation (8). When \= — o, it can be shown that Q(A) =0, and when A =0, K(s, t) reduces to «(s,¢). Hence if there are no negative singular values of A, Q(A) is positive for A =0, ze., b fb | |. o, oneyrawt as a is positive ; also f(s) is an arbitrary continuous function, and so x(s, ¢) is definite. § 4. The double integral (5) being considered as analogous to a quadratic form, that arising from a definite function corresponds with a quadratic form which is essentially positive. There is, however, a more general expression, viz., b bb | (ots) asf | k(s, t)w(s)o(t)dsdt f : (12) a aja which also corresponds with this, aud we can show that if the function «(s, ¢) is such that this expression is positive for every continuous function o(s), the singular values of d for equation (8) cannot lie between 0 and p. When x(s, ¢) is not a symmetrical function of s and ¢ the singular values of A are not necessarily real, as is the case when x(s,¢) is, symmetrical. Definite information with regard to their nature can be obtained, however, in the following cases, the first of which is mentioned by A. Myller, and is an extension of a theorem in quadratic forms due to Weierstrass :— (1) If x(s, t) = —x(¢, s), the singular values of \ are purely imaginary quantities, (2) If K(e, t) -| fle, wale, t)de, a where /(s, x) and g(a, ¢) are real symmetrical functions of their arguments and one of them is definite, the singular values of ) are all real; if both functions are definite the singular values of A are all positive. 5, Operational Invariants. By Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S. 6. A Method of obtaining the Principal Properties of the Exponential Function. By Professor A. E. H. Love, /. 2.8. It is desirable to arrange the theory of the exponential function in a form which shall be at once simple, rigorous, and systematic. In order to attach the theory to familiar things, we may begin by attempting to differentiate log,,.«; for computation with logarithms, the appearance of the logarithmic curve, and the method of differentiation, as applied to simple rational functions, ought to be familiar to students before they proceed to the exponential function, Since Ah { log, (+h) —logy, x } =a log, (1 + Ajax)", the process of differentiation naturally introduces the limit limpow (1+1/n)", 1907. GG 450 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. and a simple calculation by means of an ordinary table of logarithms suggests that the limit exists and does not differ much from 2-718. The next step is the proof of the existence of this limit. By help of the binomial theorem for positive integral exponents it is easy to prove that, if 2 is a positive integer, (i.) (1+ 1/m)” increases as 7 increases, (ii.) (1 + 1/2)" lies between 2 and 3, and therefore (1 +1/m)" has a limit when increases indefinitely through positive integral values. Since any positive value of x which is not an integer lies between two consecutive integers, it is easy to deduce that (1+1/n)" has a limit when x increases indefinitely by continuous variation. The statement that the variation is continuous, or, in other words, that the index 2 runs through all values, irrational as well as rational, implies that powers with irrational exponents have been defined. In the elementary theory of indices they are not defined. It would seem to be appropriate to state at this stage that such powers are defined by the following property: If A is any real positive number, and a is any real number, rational or irrational, which lies between two rational numbers @ and 0, then A“ lies between A% and A®, The somewhat abstract discussion necessary to prove that this property defines A* uniquely when a is irrational may be postponed to a later stage. The conclusion which has been reached is that there is a definite number, between 2 and 8, which is the limit lim,_.(1+1/n)". We call this number e and we set before ourselves the problem of computing e. By the process already employed we find d 1 de* e, — log, ==, and thence — =e. Ee BN Stee dx Hence e* has a differential coefficient which is continuous. We now apply the theorem of mean value to the expression @(), where _ (ay, (=a) (n-1)! n! d 1 da log,v= . log, R ba) see (L-COM Shows and adh BPE at sicte alk | DY Se = a This expression ¢(x) vanishes when 2 =1 and also when 2=0. We find R=n![e-1-1- Now #’(x) must vanish for some value of « between 0 and 1. Let a be this value; then R=ce%, and we have SoS he alee Jt eae where l>a>0. Dil ees (n—1)! mn! aL Io Since e lies between 2 and 3, the term = is less than uF and therefore we NM. ns may compute e with arbitrarily close approximation by the formula ALL 1 Itl+tait othe is + In like manner by writing ie aie jee (0-2) 6= 4)" 4 .6=0)% (2) =e — ee —(b—2)e*— aa =i es we iy! e = R, and ! b Gr R= @[e-1-0-5 -...- a bn 2! (n—1)!1’ we find that R=e* for some value of a between 0 and 4, and therefore 6? §r-1 bn ee pon eet ae! _— et é Labie 54S elit ae ee ———- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 451 and it follows that we can compute e* with arbitrarily close approximation by the 2 ne formula 1 +. + = +5490 5 ,- This result is the exponential theorem. In this method e is introduced as a limit which presents itself naturally, e* is defined as the «th power of e in accordance with the theory of indices ; the differen- tiations of e* and of log w are effected very simply. The proof of the existence of the limit by which e is defined is not intricate. The exponential theorem is pre- sented as a formula for the approximate computation of et, and the proof of it is effected by the same process as is used to prove Taylor's theorem (with a remainder after m terms) in the case of functions of a more general character. The theory of infinite series is avoided entirely. DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL Puysics. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. The Transmission of the Active Deposit from Radiwm Emanation to the Anode. By Stoney Russ, B.Sc. A comparison has been made between the amount of active deposit obtained on a wire charged positively and that obtained on the same wire charged negatively at pressures ranging from 0-001 cm. to 10 ems. Diffusion experiments, ¢.e., experi- ments made with the wire and containing vessel maintained at the same potential, have also been made over this range of pressure. Whereas the amount of active deposit obtained on the negative electrode diminishes as the pressure is diminished, as has already been found by Makower, it is found that the amount obtained on a positive electrode increases as the pressure is diminished. A comparison has next been made of the quantity of active deposit obtained on positive and negative electrodes in different gases at pressures between 0:1 mm. andl mm. Up to the time of writing experiments have been completed in air and hydrogen, and the work is being continued for sulphur dioxide. It is found that whereas in air the amount of active deposit obtained on a negative wire is appreciably greater than on a positive wire over this range of pressure, in the case of hydrogen just as much active deposit is obtained on a positive wire as on the same wire charged negatively. Thus the quantity of active deposit which is directed by an electric field at these low pressures depends on the nature of the molecules with which the radium emanation is mixed. 2. The Absorption of Gases by Charcoal. By Miss I. Homrray. The experiments of which an account is here submitted were devised, at the suggestion of Sir W. Ramsay, to throw some light on the question of the absorp- tion of gases in charcoal. The gas which appeared most suitable for the purpose, on account of its molecular simplicity and chemical inertness, was argon. The apparatus used was similar to a constant-volume gas thermometer, the bulb con- taining 3 grams of charcoal. This was connected with a gas burette, a gas reservoir, anda Sprengel pump, all connections being of glass and sealed, Various constant temperature baths were used, ranging from boiling water to liquid-air temperatures, and successive quantities of argon were admitted from the burette, the pressures being read at each temperature. Isothermal curves were then plotted, taking pressures as ordinates and concentrations, corrected for dead space and reduced to standard conditions, as abscisse. From these curves points of equal concentration were read off and a fresh series of curves were obtained, haying pressures as ordinates and absolute temperatures as abscissw. Such curves have been termed by Ostwald ‘isosteres.’? Each curve corresponds thus to a Ga@2 452 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. vapour-pressure curve in the univariant system of a vapour in contact with its own liquid, and is analogous to it in form. Ramsay and Young’s law for the ratios of absolute temperatures of two vapours at the same pressure was then applied to these results in the form where T, T,’ are the absolute temperatures, read from one of the isostere curves, corresponding to two pressures, and T,, T,,’ the absolute temperatures of any other vapour taken as standard, at the same two pressures. Water, oxygen, and argon were successively taken as standards, and the equation was found to hold for all concentrations. A series of straight lines, one for each ccncentration, was thus obtained. It has been shown by Professor Porter that Ramsay and Young’s law n may be directly derived from Bertrand’s vapour-pressure formula P=G ra provided that the constant is the same for all vapours. For a large range of vapours it is found that if »=50 very good correspondence is obtained, and this was found also to be the case with the results of the present experiments. Values of the other constants a and g were calculated for each concentration as well as for argon vapour itself. An attempt hae been made to correlate these constants with the numbers repre- senting the actual concentrations, and, in order to introduce the argon-vapour constants at a finite concentration, these were calculated in terms of weight of argon in 100 gms. of the mixture—a method frequently used in the case of solutions. The concentrations experimentally reached varied from 0°317 to 7-089 per cent., the vapour in the absence of charcoal being represented by 100 per cent. For convenience, the logarithms of the concentrations were plotted against values of a and G respectively, and a smooth curve was obtained terminating at 100 per cent. in the constants for argon. Kquations were then obtained which express with considerable accuracy these curves, and when introduced into Bertrand’s equation the corresponding tempera- tures or pressures calculated for any concentration are in very fair agreement with those experimentally found, except for exceedingly small concentrations. These equations are Poet Soe » 100 a=13 1243 { log + 100 log g= "1085-0124 log 10 9 ye OF where g=(G)°° The values 13:12 and 0:1085 are the values respectively of a and log g for argon vapour. The equations given in this paper are in much better agreement with observation than the usually applied logarithmic or exponential equations for the isothermals. 3. Report of the Seismological Committee.—See Reports, p. 83. 4. The Density of the Ether. By Sir Ottver Lover, F.R.S. 1. The theory that an electric charge must possess the equivalent of inertia was clearly established by J. J. Thomson in the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ for April 1881. 2. The discovery of masses smaller than atoms was made experimentally by J. J. Thomson, and communicated to Section A at Dover in 1889. 3. The thesis that the corpuscles so discovered consisted wholly of electric charges was sustained by many people, and was clinched by the experiments of Kaufmann in 1902, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 455 4, The concentration of the ionic charge, required to give the observed cor- puscular inertia, can be easily calculated ; and consequently the size of the electric nucleus, or electron, is known. 5. The old perception that a magnetic field is kinetic has been developed by Kelvin, Heaviside, FitzGerald, Hicks, and Larmor, most of whom have treated it as a flow along magnetic lines; though it may also, perhaps equally well, be regarded as a flow perpendicular to them and along the Poynting vector. The former doc- trine is sustained by Larmor, as in accordance with the principle of Least Action, and with the absolutely stationary character of the ether as a whole; the latter view appears to be more consistent with the theories of J. J. Thomson. 6. A charge in motion is well known to be surrounded by a magnetic field ; and the energy of the motion can be expressed in terms of the energy of this con- comitant field,—which again must be accounted as the kinetic energy of ethereous flow. 7. Putting these things together, and considering the ether as essentially in- compressible—on the strength of the Cavendish electric experiment, the facts of gravitation, and the general idea of a connecting continuous medium—the author reckons that to deal with the ether dynamically it must be treated as having a density of the order 10! grammes per cubic centimetre. 8. The ether is perfectly penetrable by matter without resistance ; the absence of friction being specially tested by my experiment of the revolving steel discs ; and particles can move through it at nearly the velocity of light, as shown by Rutherford. Consequently reaction between ether and matter is an inertia term, and not a viscosity term. It behaves therefore like a perfect Huid—a perfect liquid of enormous density and zero viscosity. 9. The existence of transverse waves in the interior of a fluid can only be explained on gyrostatic principles, z.c., in terms of kinetic or rotational elasticity. And the internal circulatory speed of the intrinsic motion of such a fluid must be comparable with the velocity with which such waves are transmitted. 10. Putting these things together, it follows that the intrinsic or constitutional vortex energy of the ether must be of the order 10°° ergs per cubic centimetre. Conclusion.—Thus every cubic millimetre of the universal ether of space must possess the equivalent of a thousand tons, and every part of it must be squirming internally with the velocity of light. 5. An Electrical Experiment for illustrating the Two Modes of Condensation of Moisture on Solid Surfaces. By Professor F. T. Trouton, F.2.S. Experiment has shown, what might perhaps have been anticipated from theo- retical considerations, that there are two possible modes in which condensed water vapour can exist on solid surfaces and be in equilibrium with a given vapour pressure. After which of these modes condensation will take place on bringing a surface into a moist atmosphere depends on its previous history. Ifthe surface has been dried at a high temperature, with the aid of phosphorus pentoxide, the amount of moisture is relatively small, and is said to be of the a type; but if the drying has been effected at only ordinary temperatures, there is considerably greater conden- sation, called of the b type. ‘This is attributed to there being in the latter case still some of the liquid on the surface, affording examples of nuclei for liquid con- densation of the 6 type, while in the former case the condensation is more ana- logous to the supersaturated state, which can occur when a vapour is compressed along an isothermal in the absence of the nuclei necessary for condensation. When a completely dried surface of glass is placed in an atmosphere of which the moisture is gradually increased from zero, the course of events is as follows: At first very little moisture condenses compared with that which takes place if the drying has been incomplete, but on reaching a certain critical vapour pressure the condensation is very rapid, and is now of the 6 type. The electrical conductivity of these two types of condensed surface layers is 454) TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. very different. A comparative experiment was made in which two rods of glass were laid from earth to the knobs of two electroscopes, passed up for the purpose into a vessel in which the percentage of moisture could be changed at will. One of these rods was dried by heating, while the other was not. As the percentage of moisture was increased the air-dried rod was observed gradually to acquire con- siderable conducting powers, but the other rod did not conduct until the critical pressure was reached, when it did so relatively suddenly. The critical pressure for glass is roughly 60 per cent. saturation. In the case of shellac the critical pressure was found to be above 90 per cent. A simple experiment illustrating the two modes of condensation was exhibited. An electroscope with shellac insulation was covered by a bell jar which had been previously held for a moment over a Bunsen flame to acquire a damp atmosphere. No discharge occurred. The experiment was now repeated, but the shellac was first moistened and then dried with a cloth, so as to again insulate. On the elec- troscope being covered by the bell jar immediate discharge took place, even though in the meantime the air in the jar must have somewhat dried. This was the b or conducting type of condensation, On now melting the surface of the shellac so as completely to dry it, the surface was found to have reverted to the condition in which the @ type of condensation is deposited. 6. On a Theoretical Method of attempting to detect Relative Motion between the Ether and the Earth. By A. O. Rankine. The explanation which has been suggested to account for the negative results in experiments so far made is that the distance between two points in a body is shorter when the line joining them is parallel to the drift than when the line is perpendicular to it, and this by just the necessary amount to produce exact compensation. If 6/ is the increase in a length / in changing from a direction parallel to a direction perpendicular to the drift, then for exact compensation Z = B*, where B is the ratio of the velocity of the drift to the velocity of light. The method about to be described is based on the assumption that this change does exist. Imagine two particles, each of mass m, one at each end of a massless bar of length 27, Let it be suspended in a horizontal position by a vertical wire through its mid-point. The moment of inertia of the system about a vertical axis through the mid-point is 2m*, and the time period of an oscillation is given by T? = Km", where K is a constant depending only on the elastic properties of the wire. Let this time period be determined for a small oscillation, the equilibrium position of the length of the bar being parallel to the drift of the ether which is supposed horizontal. ; Now attach the bar to the wire perpendicularly to its original direction, The wire itself will be in precisely the same position relative to the drift as before, but the bar is now perpendicular to the drift instead of parallel to it. We there- fore expect an increase in length, and, supposing no other factor to change, a corresponding increase in the time period. From the above equation T6T = Kmrér whence Unfortunately this calculated change of time period is far too small to be detected practically, but it is interesting to regard the experiment from another point of view. It has been aflirmed that no experiment is devisable which will yield a positive result owing to the entry of a compensating factor. If this be true, then no change of time period would take place in the above experiment, and it becomes necessary to seek for the compensating factor. The only possibilities are that K or m, or both, change. Of these K is excluded because, as we have TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 455 seen, the wire is in precisely the same position relative to the drift in both cases, and we are therefore justified in assuming that its elastic properties remain un- altered. Hence we are driven to the conclusion that equality of time periods could only be effected by a change of the correct amount in m, The moment of inertia would be the same in the two cases; that is, mr = const. Hence 2mrér +7?dm = 0 dm _ 98h _ m ” or a.e., the necessary relative change in mass is double the relative change in length. Now, in the first case (7.e., when the length of the bar is parallel to the drift), the particle is executing vibrations in a direction perpendicular to the drift, and, in the second case, it is moving parallel to the drift. In the second case the mass is less than in the first, and in order to account for equality of time periods it is necessary to suppose that the mass of a particle is greater when moving perpendicularly to the ether drift than when moving parallel to it by an amount 8? times the mass of the particle. It will be interesting to examine whether or not this result is in accordance with the values which have heen calculated for the transverse and longitudinal masses of a moving electron. If m, is the longitudinal mass and m, the transverse mass, the above reasoning leads to mi 14 [ey my On referring to Lorentz’s calculation we find NE Eee 2. m (=e and from Abraham’s calculations we obtain 14+2@ co pics Nees “te @m=l- “8 m 1+ = B? 5 in both cases neglecting powers of 8 higher than the second. In both cases the transverse mass is found to he less than the longitudinal mass, and not greater, as required for a negative result in the above experiment. In these circum- stances it is apparent that either these theories of transverse and longitudinal mass do not adequately represent the physical facts, or the experiment suggested in this paper is one which would, if practicable, yield a positive result, 7. On the Nature of Ionisation.! By Professor H. E. Armstrone, F.R.S. 8. Note on the Echelon Spectroscope and the Resolution of the Green Mercwry Line. By H. STansriep. An echelon spectroscope constructed by Messrs. Adam Hilger for Professor Schuster was described. Photographs of the green mercury line obtained with the instrument showed all the known components of the green line and a number of fainter components which had not previously been described. Results obtained recently by different observers with echelon spectroscopes showed good agreement amongst themselves, and agreed with the values for three 1 See the Hectrician, August 9, 1907, A56 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, of the component lines obtained by Michelson by the analysis of the visibility curves for the interference fringes observed in his interferometer. 9. Lhe Production and Origin of Radium. By Professor E. Rutnerrorp, J. 2.8. The results of experiments were described on the growth of radium observed in solutions of actinium. By suitable chemical treatment a solution of actinium was obtained which showed only a minute fraction of the growth of radium nor- mally observed. No evidence was observed that the active deposit of actinium changed directly into radium. It was shown that the results were most simply explained by supposing that there exists in actinium a new substance of slow rate of change which is transformed into radium. This substance differs in chemical properties from actinium, and can be separated from it by suitable chemical methods. It was pointed out that this new substance may prove to be the inter- mediate product of slow change between uranium and radium. There was no direct evidence that actinium itself was the true parent of radium. Further experiments are in progress to endeavour to isolate this new sub- stance in order to examine its chemical and radioactive properties. 10. The Effect of High Temperature on the Activity of the Products of Radium. Sy Professor E. Rutuerrorp, /.R.S., and J. E. Peravet, FR.S. Bronson has shown that the activity of the products of radium is not appre- ciably altered by exposure to a temperature of 1600°C. On the other hand, Makower, working with the active deposit of radium, found that there was a small decrease of its activity, measured by the 8 and y rays, when exposed for some time to a temperature of about 1100° C. The experiments of Schuster and of Eve have shown that the highest obtainable pressures have no influence on the activity of radium, In the present experiments the emanation from about four milligrams of radium bromide was momentarily exposed to the influence of the very high tem- perature produced by the explosion of cordite in a closed steel bomb. The bomb used in these experiments was constructed by Mr. Petavel, and had been used by him in previous experiments on the pressures developed during explosions. The bomb was a complete sphere of mild steel, about 4 inches internal diameter and about 2 inches thick. About forty-six grains of cordite were placed in the bomb, and after exhaustion the emanation was introduced. About four hours later the emanation is in equilibrium with its products, and the activity due to the y rays, which passed through the bomb, was observed by means of an electro- scope placed outside the bomb. The cordite was fired electrically, and obser- vations were made of any change of activity. By running the electroscope during the explosion, it was found that no sudden burst of activity occurred, showing conclusively that the normal rate of disintegration of the product, radium C, was not much altered by this process. Three experiments were made with equal weights of cordite, but of different diameter, in order to vary the suddenness of the explosion. In every case the activity measured by the y rays was found to have decreased about 9 per cent. after the explosion. The activity gradually rose again, reaching nearly the equilibrium value after three hours. A special experiment showed that the rate of change of the emanation itself was not altered by the explosion, The maximum pressure of the gases during the explosion was about 1200 atmospheres, and the maximum temperature certainly not lower than 2500° C. The change of activity produced by the explosion may be due either to a sudden alteration of the distribution of the active deposit or to a change in the amount or period of the products, radium B and radium C, Since the active deposit of TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 457 radium is volatilised at about 1200° C., it would be rendered gaseous by the high temperature of the explosion, and redeposited when it cooled. Since the bomb was exactly spherical, a change of distribution of the active deposit does not appear very probable. In one experiment two electroscopes were used, one by the side of the bomb and the other underneath it. Both showed about an equal decrease of activity. The experiments recorded here are preliminary, and it is intended to examine still further whether there is a real change of activity of radium products by the action of the high temperature. 11. On a Freehand Potential Method. By L. F. Ricuarpson. This paper described a graphic method for obtaining a vector function of position, which function shall satisfy given conditions over a boundary and be irrotational and non-divergent everywhere within that boundary. In contrast to the usual methods, using Fourier series, Bessel functions, spherical or other harmonics, this is very simple. All one has to do is to imitate freehand the characteristic common properties of the diagram of intersecting stream surfaces and equi-potentials as given by Maxwell, Lamb, Hele-Shaw, and others. Many people have doubtless used such a method in a rough way, but no one seems to have realised the accuracy and power of which it is capable. As far as the author has tested it, it will give an accuracy of 1 or 2 per cent. of the range considered, which is sufficient for many purposes. This method can only be applied when the potential is constant along each line of a limited number of families of lines in space. Of these the chief are (1) parallel straight lines ; (2) circles in planes normal to, and with their centres on, a common axis; (3) radii from a point; (4) the normals to the surfaces of a thin shell of any shape ; (5) screw-threads of common and constant pitch about & common axis. But within these types the freehand method far surpasses analysis in its power of dealing with various forms of surface. It will also deal with varying conductivity. It is hoped that it may be of use to engineers, TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. Examples of the Modern Methods of treating Observations. By W. Pawin Evperton. This communication dealt with the application of recognised statistical processes to meteorological statistics, The terms mean, median, and mode were defined, and the methods of calculating their values given, with examples from rainfall statistics. The ‘method of moments’ was described, and as an application a parabolic curve was fitted to statistics of rainfall in the east of England. The standard deviation was then explained, and it was pointed out that this function measures the way the observations are scattered about their mean. The importance of calculating a ‘standard deviation’ or a ‘probable error’ corresponding with means was then insisted on; the mere statement of a mean is statistically in- sufficient and of no use for comparative purposes until we know what deviations from the calculated value may arise. The remainder of the communication dealt with correlation. The coefficient of correlation was first explained, and it was shown how it can be calculated. The rainfall in the east of England was compared with that in the north of Scotland and in the Channel Islands: in the former case the coefficient of correlation is very small, and about equal to its probable error, so that we cannot conclude that there is any correlation; but in the latter case the coefficient is found to he -374 + -065, 458 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. and indicates that there is a distinct connection between the rainfall in the east of Englard and that in the Channel Islands. Another example taken was raiufall and typhoid cases in Surrey districts, the water-supply of which is obtained from river sources. The coefficient of correlation is 0:116, with a probable error of 0:073, so that it is impossible to assert definitely that there is any relation hetween rainfall and typhoid—nt any rate on the evidence afforded by these statistics. Reference was made to a paper on barometric heights by Professor Karl Pearson, F.R.S., and Dr. Alice Lee, and to the use of the coefficient of correlation by Dr. Gilbert T. Walker, F.R.S., in his interesting memoranda on the meteorology of India. The author concluded with an appeal for the more scientific treatment of statistics by modern methods. 2. On the Use of Calcite in Spectroscopy. By Professor W. M. Hicks, £.2.S. The advantages of the large dispersion in the ultra-violet produced by calcite are so great that it may be interesting to describe the method which the author has used to get rid of the double refraction which shows itself at a short distance from the ray experiencing minimum deviation. The method is based on sup- pressing one of the rays by using polarised light. With a parallel beam, vibrating either horizontally or vertically, the transmitted light belongs respectively to the extraordinary or the ordinary ray. The angle of incidence is not far from the polarising angle ; consequently the horizontal vibrations (polarised perpendicular to plane of incidence) are transmitted in larger proportion than the other. The spectrograph in question had one calcite prism of 60° and two half-prisms of 30° each. The calculated intensities of the transmitted light in the two polarised rays come out to be in the ratios 2°35, 3:05, 4:67 respectively for minimum deyvia- tions for the rays 5600, 3000, and 2500—the horizontal vibration being the stronger—whilst the corresponding ratios at points where the doubling is pro- nounced are 2°44, 3°31, and 5°03. Itis therefore preferable to polarise the light in a vertical plane. It is impossible, however, to use polarised light with a quartz lens in the collimator, since the rotations produced by the different thick- nesses of the lens give a mixed beam when it falls on the prism. To get over this difficulty a composite lens was made, of equal plane convex lenses, one of right- handed and the other of left-handed quartz. The spectra obtained are then very satisfactory. As polariser a Nicol can be used for light down to about 3000, but between 3000 and 2950 the thin layer of Canada balsam completely absorbs the light. For wave lengths shorter than this a small Foucault, fixed like a com- parison prism, was used, and this was quite satisfactory down to 2300, at about which the calcite begins to absorb the light. Near this, however, the ordinary ray has only about one-fifth the intensity of the extraordinary, and it is scarcely necessary to use any polarising arrangement at all. The whole spectrum from 6000 to 2300 covers about 30°. Negatives were shown illustrating (1) the doubling and its removal by polarisation; (2) the rela- tive intensities of each component; and (3) the almost complete effacement of the ordinary ray component for wave-lengths below 2500, DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. The Introduction of the Idea of Infinity. By W. H. Youna, Se.D., FBS. It was pointed out that there are three methods of treating mathematics, viz., the logical, the formal, and the practical methods, and it was urged that the formal method had had for many years more than its share of attention in - TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 4.59 England. The author held that the importance of the practical method was now being generally recognised, but that there was considerable danger of the logical method being neglected, and in this way some of the best minds in the country being lost to mathematics. The author explained in some detail how the idea of infinity naturally pre- sented itself at an early stage in a boy’s education, and how it might and should be elucidated. In this connection the importance of the concept of limiting point was referred to, and illustrated by the fact that this concept was involved in a precise definition of the centre of mass of a heterogeneous body. 2. The Teaching of the Elements of Analysis. By C. O. Tuckry. How must the teaching of the elements of analysis be modified in view of the early stage at which the calculus is now reached ? The main defects (which we must hope to avoid) of the now usual course are— (i) The initial elaborate discussion of convergence, which ignores the lesson from history, that only as much of this theory should be given as is shown to be necessary by examples of false results deduced by plausible reasoning. (ii) The apparent lack of object in discussing infinite series. (iii) The abrupt introduction of the exponential function. (iv) The unnecessary difficulty of the proofs of the series for sin 2 and cos w. (v) The proceeding from difficult to easy by taking first the rigorous proofs of the expansions and later the easy method of obtaining the series by the calculus, their existence being assumed. The course advocated is based on the calculus; the necessity of commencing it before differentiating @, and other reasons, point to the convenience of beginning it when the differentiation of cos 2 and sin 2 is known. The numerical calculation of sin x, cos 2, and also log x is put forward as the object of the course, and it is explained that series are obtained for these functions. The series for (a+ a)", n integral, and =. being known to the student, the i avr calculus method of obtaining by repeated differentiation the coefficients of a series (assumed to exist) is illustrated by these known series. Then the binomial series for fractional and negative powers are worked out in the same way. Taking series for (a—a)~", say, and putting a>, shows necessity for dis- cussion of convergence, which is then taken in hand and proofs given that— (i) Su, where Lt “"*1 <1 is convergent (comparison with G.P. used) ; Un (ii) u,—u,+u,—...18 convergent if uy>u,>u,>... An example from partial fractions, taking tsa A B Te I= ee shows that the fact that no hitch occurs in finding the coefficients must not ye regarded as a proof of these series, and shows the necessity for rigorous proofs ater on. The series for sin w and cos a are obtained by the calculus method (existence assumed), and considerable practice is given with these series and the various forms of the binomial series before proceeding to the next stage, viz., the expo- nential function. The importance of a function obeying the law 2 =kx, the ‘compound interest’ Z law, is emphasised by instances—compound interest, and examples from physics 4.60 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. such as the cooling of a hot body—and it is shown by attempting to differentiate a* that a* obeys this law. The solution in series of this equation is obtained, viz., y= A exp (Kr), and we proceed to study the function exp (7). As a*.a!=a*t" is the defining property of a* for other than integral indices, we discuss the product exp 2. exp y [proving that multiplication of such series is legitimate] and find it equals exp (7 +y). Hence in the usual way we deduce that exp («) = {exp (1) }*=e*. This is the first ‘proof’ for the expansion of a function in an infinite series (except the G.P.) that the student will have met. It is taken before the corre- sponding proof for the general binomial series as being easier ; but this should now be worked out on similar lines, and the deduction of the exponential from the binomial series sketched roughly (without rigour in the details being attempted). After practice with exponential functions, the series for log (1 + 2’) is reached ; first this is worked out by the method of the calculus, and made familiar to the student; then the strict proof is attempted. Here two proofs are sketched: integration of the series for — , and re- = arrangement of the series for (1+.)” and comparison with that for evlee@+”, Either of these proofs requires further work in the convergence of series to be tackled—the first ‘uniform’ convergence, the second the convergence of double series, and perhaps it would be well to omit these proofs except for the best boys. To give the strict proof of the series for sin 2 and cos 2’, we must suppose a course of work on complex numbers to be taken, either pari passu with the course that has been sketched or at this stage. We then proceed with complex indices defining a°*'4 as exp {(c+7d)loga and find the value of exp (7°) as follows :— (i) Yiod exp (tx) = / {exp (tx). exp (-iv)} = V {exp (0)} =1 *, a value of 6 can be found such that exp (tx) =cos 6+ 7sin 6 (ii. ,*. differentiating exp (¢x’)idx = (—sin 6 +7 cos 6)d = (cos 6 + isin 8)id0 .. dv=dé *, « =6+ constant (iii) Putting @=0 in exp (10+) =cos 6+7sin 6 we see that k= 2inm “. cos6+7sin 6=exp (76), which gives the series for cos 6 and sin 8. ' If we now show that log (complex number) = log (modulus) + 7 (amplitude) and deduce the series for tan~!7 from that for log (1+z), we shall have completed the usual course on series, with the exception of Taylor's series for f(a +4), which should be discussed at the end of the course, as a generalisation of the previous work, the remainder after the mth term of the series being carefully investigated. 3. On Models of Three-dimensional Sections of Regular Hypersolids in Space of Four Dimensions. By Mrs. A. Booue Storr. After giving an idea of the four different kinds of axes of a regular four- dimensional polytope, and having explained in what manner any of these six polytopes may be intersected by a range of parallel spaces normal to any of these axes, Mrs. Stott exhibited the different kinds of sections that may be obtained by models of cardboard differently coloured, so as to show the position of the different regions of bounding bodies with respect to the central axis. She also exhibited models illustrating the space-filling properties of a three-dimensional section of any set of regular polytopes filling-space of four dimensions. AJso 1 This is a modification of a proof given by Stolz and Gueimer, and is due to my late pupil, Mr. McCleland. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 4.61 models illustrating the rotation of a four-dimensional body about a plane by the sections of it, with a space containing that plane. Professor Schoute showed some lantern-slides in connection with the subject. 4. Models of Three Developable Surfaces. By Professor ScHourts. The author showed three models of developable surfaces in connection with the equations uw + dura + duy+2=0, us + 6urx + 4uy+2=0, uo —1but + lbu?x + Guy +2=0. He moreover indicated that, if only the equation u"+ Ayu 1+ Ajut34+ ... +Anw+A,=0 has all its roots positive, the equation un + Ayu 24 Aw —4e 2. + An qut+au?+yu+z=0 may represent all possible cases of 2n, 2n—2,... 2,0 real roots, and that by means of the double curve the corresponding developable surface really must, and will, divide space into z+ 1 regions. 5. On an Unrecorded and Remarkable Feature in the Splash of a Drop. By Professor A. M. Wortuineton, F.2.S. The object of this paper was to call attention to the fact that the impact of a drop excavates a perfectly spherical hollow, which reaches its greatest depth at apparently the same time that the water thrown up attains its maximum height. The volume of this spherical pit is enormously greater than the volume of the drop, being 360 times as great with a height of fall of 177 cm., forty-four times es great with a height of fall of 40 cm. The spherical hollow is lined by the original liquid of the drop in the form of a thin layer. The centre of the sphere descends as the radius increases till a maximum depth is attained. The phenomenon appears to be one in which surface tension plays but a small part, and should be capable of hydrodynamical treatment. 6. A Property of Abelian Groups. By Haroip Hitow. Let 24) ty.» +) Um tyy toy. . ., fm be two sets of positive integers or zeros such that m+ Umit. +. +Usdtmttnot... +t, for all values of s between 1 and m inclusive. Denote tpt mat... +Us—ta—tma— > - —ter1 by halkm=Um), tm + tn-1 +...+t, byt kytkhpit... +h, by &. We shall write f(z) for (p"—1)(p"1-1).. .(p?-1)(p—1) where p is a prime, and suppose /(0) =1. Take the coefficient of yo in (l+py)(1+p’y)... (L+p%y), of y2 in (1+ ph*ty)(1+ phy)... (L+ph*y), of yein (L+phthtly) ... (Ltphttthy), .. ., of y'n in (La pits may) het (La pits ss thm—rHing, and form their product P. We thus obtain part of the coefficient of y' in (1 +py)(1+p’y) ... (L+ph* °° *'"y); 462 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, the total coefficient AOD . piut+) being obtained by giving ¢,, t,,. . ., tm all possible positive integral or zero values consistent with tn +tnot+...+¢,=¢, and adding the corresponding values of P. Now P Sky) SF ky) Akin) x pe =i} AC = t,) *At) Ak a t,) fees *Htm)- Fig — tn) : where e = $4 (¢,+1)+4t,0@,+1)+ ... +3tn(tnt 1) + 4,4, + t,(k, + ky) te. thnk that... + hm) = $¢(t +1) + (u,—#,)(¢-4,) + (u,—2,)(2t-t,- t,) + (us — ts)(8t — t, — 2t, — 3t,) + re Hence P=Nplu+»; where N is the number of subgroups with ¢,, invariants m, tm-1 invariants m—1,..., ¢, invariants 1 in an Abelian group of order Mog (m—Ditm—y+ +++ 4% with Um invariants m, w%m_, invariants m—1,..., uw, in- variants 1. The index of each subgroup is p'-'; for k—-t= muy, + (m—-1)upn-1 Fie es $U,—Mty—(M—1)tpi—...—t. Now the equations vw, +t, i+... +Us—tm—tmi— ...—t4,;=h% may be put in the form Us —t541 = Ky — Kg 41(Um =him). Hence if we take every abstract Abelian group whose order is a power of p with no invariant greater than m, and find every subgroup with ¢ invariants such that (for all values of s lying between 1 and m inclusive) the number of invariants s+ 1 of the subgroup differs from the number of invariants s of the group by a given integer /,(=k,—k,,1), the number of subgroups so obtained is 70 6D » Where p*-' is the index of each subgroup. If we take every possible abstract Abelian group with no invariant greater than m, and find for each group all subgroups of index p'~' with ¢ invariants which possess no more invariants s+1 than the group possesses invariants s(s=1,2, .. .,m), the total number of subgroups so obtained is ( ; FO). AE=0 “re SG=9) (=F) 2 A) For ai: the number of ways of selecting positive or zero integers such that L4+21,+...+ml =k. where @;, is the coefficient of y* in the expansion of 7. Factorisation of the Pellian Terms (Tny Uny dc.) By Lieut.-Col. Attan Cunnincuan, R.2. Let r,2—Dv,2= +1, and—(when possible)—let one of / 7 Qe 2 "Eo Dybe a2, Di tee Besa cy f where Dy Dy=D Taking =1, 2, 3, .--. gives the successive solutions of above. (i) Then vs, =27,v, always V_n—1=2T,,U, or= X,Y, always where (T,,, Un) = (r'n, v'n) OF try %p) | formed by same rule as Tp, vp, (Xn, Yn) = (En, gn) or (2,,, Yn) 1.0.5 T+] = 27, « Ta—Tn—-1, When 2 >2, Also ra.) = (2u’n—1)(2v’, +1), when D =2, (ii) As to 2! forms: v’,, =a?+b2, To = 2r,,?>—1 always. and when D=2, 7’,=e—2f%, v’',=a?+0?, r,=c?+2d? and ron has the three 2i¢ forms, ' Proc, Lond. Math. Soc., 2, v. p. 3. a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 463 (iii) Generally 72,1 = 9 (mod 1), v, == 0 (mod v), 4 : 7. U, at Yu =O (mod m™ U,, X,, Y, respectively) } Soi te ustiahy SOmmpeRte, Tny Un are factors of vy, and recur iN T,42mny Ve+ann Tespectively, and both recur in Vamn, [m=1, 2, 8, &e.}. (T,,, U,), or (Xn, Y,) are factors of von, and recur in (Tryp) Unsy), (Xniuy Yn+u), respectively, and also paired together in v,, where «=(2x—1)m: and the same rules apply to the prime factors (p) of Tn) Un» Tn, Un, Xn, Yn. (iv) As to division by a prime (p) :— 1°. If D=p, or =0 (mod p), then v, = 0 (mod p). Tn — +1 (mod p), T2n41 = 71, and r, = + 1 (mod p). 2°. If D £ 0(mod p), then v; = 0(mod p) requires that } {p — (°) } = 0(mod r) as a preliminary condition. If g be prime, and p=2ga+1, and i{p - (°) \=0 (mod q), then v? = 0 (mod p). In both 1°, 2°; if vs, =:0 mod p, then one of r,, v, =O (mod p) ; and, if vap_1 = 0 (mod p), then one of T,,, U,, or one of X,,, Y, = O0(mod p). The 2'* forms given above often sutlice (especially when D = 2) to show which of Ty, vp, Try Un; Xny Yny can = 02 (mod p). 8. Report on Bessel Functions.—See Reports, p. 94. 9. Report on the Teaching of Elementary Mechanics.—See Reports, p. 97. DEPARTMENT OF ASTRONOMY AND CosmicAL Puysics. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. Lhe Variation of Latitude. By Dr. O. BackLunp. 2. On some recent Developments of the Method of Forecasting by means of Synoptic Charts. By W.N. Suaw, LL.D., Sc.D., PRS, The method of forecasting based upon the movements of cyclonic depressions and anticyclonic areas has now been in use for some thirty years, and may be called the classical method. It deals with the relations of pressure, wind, and other meteorological elements to centres of low pressure and high pressure respectively, and may be described briefly as consisting in detecting the existence of a cyclonic depression, locating its centre, and anticipating its path. The reference of all the phenomena to a centre tends towards the smoothing of the isobars, as far as possible, into curves, with the minima as centres, and to dealing with the characteristics of an average or typical depression as generally applicable to the individual cases. Observations of pressure and wind which show marked deviation from the conventional type are apt to be regarded as due to errors of observation, or in transmission, or to local conditions of no general importance, That this method gives a fairly satisfactory ‘first approximation’ to the solution of the question of forecasting is evident from the fact that of the evening forecasts of the Meteorological Oflice based upon it 61 per cent. were classed as completely successful for the year 1906 and 656 per cent. for the past ten years, while 30 per cent. and 29 per cent. respectively were partially successful. At the same time, the margin of failures and incomplete successes is sufficiently A464 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. large to show that some closer approximation is desirable, and a reconsideration of the process of dealing with cyclonic depressions as centrical distributions is a first step in that direction. The ‘average’ cyclonic depression is certainly not the most frequent—possibly it has never existed—and the typical cyclonic depression is of very rare occur- rence. Further, it is only for the distribution of pressure, and to a certain extent for winds, that any centrical symmetry can be claimed. ‘Temperature, clouds, and rainfall have no symmetrical distribution with regard to the baro- metric minima, The classical method, indeed, has always recognised the existence of deviations from symmetry, and has regarded them as ‘secondary depressions’ with certain recognised consequences. The report by M. B. Brunhes, Director of the Observatory of the Puy de Déme, upon the results of the competition in weather forecasting in connection with the exhibition at Liége in 1905 has brought into prominence two methods which lay great stress upon the importance of the deviations from symmetry, and constitute, as M. Brunhes says, a definite step towards a second approximation in forecasts of weather by means of synoptic charts. The two methods are by M. Durand Gréville, of Paris, and by M. Guilbert, of the Meteorological Society of Calvados, respectively. The paper gives an account of these two methods and illustrations of them by means of charts specially constructed for the purpose. M. Durand Gréville’s contribution consists chiefly in recognising the existence of disturbances of the smooth course of the isobars surrounding a cyclonic centre extending in a long narrow band from the centre or from near thereto. The band consists generally of an exaggeration of the fall of pressure along the front of the band (couloir de grain) and a more rapid rise following it (ruban de grain), and then a resumption of the rezular march of the isobars until a second ligne de grain arrives. While the rwban de grain is sweeping over a district in a manner similar to the march of a wave-front, changes in the direction and force of the wind, and rainfall, occur with varying degrees of intensity along the line. In some localities, where conditions are favourable, line-squalls or thunderstorms are developed. In order to exhibit the existence of these lignes de grain M. Durand Grévyille adyo- cates the drawing of isobars for intervals of 1 millimetre instead of for 5 milli- metres, as is usual in Continental charts. The characteristics of a ligne de grain are illustrated by the diagrams pre- pared by Mr. Lempfort for his paper on the line-squall of February 8, 1906, read before the Royal Meteorological Society in May 1906; and the special maps pre- pared for further illustration are tbose for June 22-23, 1900, November 1-2, 1893, and December 7-8, 1899. In these the pressure is expressed in degrees of pressure (2000 dynes per sq. cm.) and isobars drawn for intervals of one degree of pressure (15 mm.), as explained to the Association at Cambridge in 1904. Maps were constructed on a similar plan to illustrate M. Guilbert’s contribution for August 31-September 1, 1905, September 4-5, 1905, and February 19-20 -21, 1892. M. Guilbert’s method depends upon the comparison of the actual winds, as recorded on the map, with ideal or normal-winds as computed from the distance apart of the cousecutive isobars. The method of calculation of winds employed in the Meteorological Office in accordance with the formula y= A(2@V sind + V?cotp/R) is considered, and M. Guilbert’s estimate of normal winds compared therewith. Examples are given in the maps already specified of M. Guilbert’s application of the vector-deviation from the normal winds to determine the localities of the rise and fall of the barometer in the ensuing twenty-four hours. M. Guilbert’s method is summarised by the statement that where the vector- deviation forms an anticyclonic system barometric fall is to be expected, and where the vector-deviation is cyclonic a rise of the barometer is to be expected. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 4.65 3. A Mountain Observatory in South India. By ©. Micum Smurvu. 4. The Variability in Light of Mira Ceti and the Temperature of Sunspots. By Rev. A. L. Corriz, S.J., F.R.A.S. The existence of a spectrum of bands in sun-spots has been recorded by dbservers since 1869, when they were first observed by Secchi. A fluted or banded spectrum is characteristic of chemical compounds. Hence the view enun- ciated by Young in 1872 that a fall of temperature over sun-spots allowed the formation of such compounds, Recent spectroscopic laboratory and observatory work at Mount Wilson and South Kensington has strengthened the probability of ‘this view. Some of the bands in the red end of the spectrum are due, as Hale and Adams have shown, to titanium oxide, others in the green have been recently attributed to magnesium hydride by Fowler. The purport of the present paper is to adduce an argument in favour of the relatively low temperature of sun-spots, from the behaviour of the bands of titanium oxide in 0 Ceti, when the star is at two different temperature levels, represented by a whole magnitude in luminous power. At the maximum in 1897 the magnitude of the star was 3:0, at that of December 1906 it reached the brilliancy 20 mag. Two series of plates of the spectrum of the star were taken under precisely identical conditions of instrument and plate by Father Sidgreaves at Stonyhurst at the two periods. In 1897 fourteen bands were photographed between H, and H,: these bands are much reduced in intensity in 1906, those with heads at \ 4757, 4803, and 4842 having entirely lost their winged appearance. Concomitant evidence of the greater tem- eee of the star in 1906 is furnished by the behaviour of the hydrogen lines. ot only is the whole series from H, to H, present, with the exception of H,, covered by calcium absorption, but H, and H, are winged, presenting somewhat of the appearance of the hydrogen lines in the new stars Nova Aurige and Nova Persei. Again, there is a gradual darkening of the titanium-oxide bands in the spectra of stars from a solar star such as a Tauri of Type II, through 8 Andro- medze, a Orionis, y Geminorum, 8 Pegasi, to a Herculis and o Ceti; and in the transition from Type II. to Type [I1. Mira Ceti is further removed from the solar type than a Orionis or a Herculis, and the characteristic sun-spot lines of titanium and vanadium are more prominent in its line spectrum than even in the case of a Orionis. These facts furnish further links of similarity between the sun-spot spectrum and that of o Ceti. Hence, to sum up, the undoubted presence of the chief constituents of the line spectrum of sun-spots as intensified in stars of Type III.; the presence of the bands of titanium oxide, also recognised in sun- spots; the partial disappearance of some of these bands and the totai disappearance of others when Mira Ceti attained a greater luminosity at maximum than is usual, and this too enhanced by a bebaviour in the hydrogen lines akin to that observed in new stars; the substitution of a line for a banded spectrum in a series of stars on an ascending scale of temperature—these are all phenomena which when linked together point to the conclusion that the temperature of sun-spots is lower than that of the solar photosphere. 5. On a Method of improving the Constants of the Plates for the Astro- graphic Catalogue. By Professor H. H. Turner, F.RS. The centres of the plates for the Astrographic Catalogue in any one zone are at intervals of eight minutes apart near the equator and more elsewhere. Suppose we point the telescope to one of them and give an exposure of four minutes. Without disturbing the plate at all, we have now four minutes in which to set for the guiding star of the next region, pick it up, and commence (and finish) an exposure of four minutes to this new region at exactly the same hour-angle as before. Then we again have four minutes to pick up the next region, and the process may be continued indefinitely. When the plate is developed, a réseau 1907. HH 4.66 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. being impressed in the usual way, it will contain the brighter stars of all the regions to which exposure was made: and with a little care the stars of each region can be given sensibly the same réseau co-ordinates as on the separate plate S, already measured for the Catalogue. The superposition of several regions will give no trouble in measuring if the co-ordinates are called out from the existing measures (e y., the measures already printed) by an assistant; and new-measures made on the composite plate C will give, with very little work, the differences C—S, of scale value and orientation (I say nothing here of errors of centre, which are to be for the present neglected, though I am not without hopes of determining them also by photographing a fixed mark with each region) between the separate plate S, and the composite plate C. Now the constants of the separate plates, S,, S., 8,, &c., have all been determined, though the determinations are rough, owing to the roughness of the meridian places and the small number of stars on each plate. Owing to this roughness, when we add the measured differences (C—S,) for any of the plate constants to the provisionally found §,, we shall get values 0, =(C--8,)+8,, C.=(C-—8,) +8,, and so on, which are also rough, but the mean value ©, of C,, C,, &c., will be a much better determination than any of its separate members ; and we can now deduce from the well-determined C, and the measured differences (C—§,), (C—S,), &c., much better values of the constant in question for the individual plates. That for the first plate, for instance, will be C,-(C-§,). ‘ A correction to the orientation is required for precession between the epoch 1900°0 (for which the constants of S, were calculated) and the epoch at which C is taken; but this is a simple matter. The method is being tried at Oxford—two composite plates of thirteen regions, each having been obtained and measured, and one of them reduced—and the results are satisfactory so far. But the work is not yet complete. If successful, the method will be of value in reducing the amount of new meridian observation required. 6. On the Determination of Periodicity from a Broken Series of Maxima. By Professor H. H. Turner, 7.2.8. By his work with the periodogram Professor Schuster has emphasised the fact that we must try all possible periods in a systematic manner if we would properly analyse a set of observations, Even when we seem to have already found the mean period (as, for instance, the eleven-year period in the case of sun-spots) sys- tematic trial of other periods may give us unsuspected information. The labour is great, but there is no evading it. The periodogram method is applicable only when the series of observations is regular and complete over a certain lapse of time. The sun-spot record is not ab- solutely complete, but it can be made so for practical purposes. This is not so in other cases, as, for instance, for the light curve of a variable like U Geminorum, which differs from the sun-spot record in two principal features. (1) Observations near minimum are generally absent altogether and cannot be supplied ; so that the record is essentially a record of maxima only. (2) Even these are often lost from cloudy weather or other circumstances, so that the record is a broken one. In these circumstances it is necessary to substitute for the regular Fourier analysis some other process by which a number characterising each tentative period can be obtained. The suggestion of this note is that, having obtained the epochs of maxima E,, E,, E,...E,,, and having written down a series of theo- retical epochs Ep,Eo + 2n,Ey + 4n,E)+6n, &c., where 2n is a period to be tried, we should then form the differences of the observed epochs from the nearest theo- retical epochs. Calling these differences 1,, 7,, 7"; . . « "my, we form— (a) the algebraic mean = (+0, +++ +7m) (4) the sums of the squares 7,°+7,.°+ +++ +7’. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 4.67 Under certain conditions (%) should be a minimum when we have hit on a real periodicity. The conditions are made obvious by supposing the periodicity perfect and the observations without error, when by choosing Ho properly, we can make all the residuals zero, and hence (4) will be zero. But if Ig. is not properly chosen, (b) will not be zero. Its greatest value will be mz? when all the observed maxima fall just midway between consecutive tabulated maxima. Hence the need for forming also the algebraic mean (@) which in the former case will be zero and in the latter wil] be mm. If (a) comes out sensibly different from zero, we must alter Ep (in a manner which need not here be explained) until (@) is small enough. When there is no periodicity near 2” the residuals will have indifferently any value from 0 to m, and (if 2 is an integral number of days) the sum of the squares of the residuals will approximate to : mn(2n +1) or say 5 mn”, When we get serious differences from this, it is worth while to investigate further. The®method is being applied to the case of U Geminorum, and some interesting results obtained. 7. An Analytical Study of the Meteorological Observations made at the Glossop Moor Kite Station during the Session 1906-1907. By Man- caret Wuits, T. V. Prine, and J. E. Peraven, I’.R.S. In Part I. the change of temperature with height was considered. The rate of fall, or temperature gradient, is measured in degrees centigrade per 100 metres. The average gradient for the present year was given for the various English stations at each successive 500 metres above sea-level. The values for Glossop Moor are 1:24° C., 091° C., 0°61° C., and 0:33° C. per 100 metres at heights of 400, 750, 1250, and 1750 metres, These results were compared with the obser- vations made in previous years in America at Blue Hill, and in Europe at Berlin, Oxshott, and Crinan. The temperature gradient varies: (1) with the wind direction, and is at all levels a maximum for a N.W. wind; (2) with the amount of clouds, and is at all levels 2 maximum on clear and fine days; (3) with the wind velocity, and is a maximum for low velocities. Diagrams illustrating these facts were shown. Part II. dealt with the question of wind velocity. The average velocity had been calculated for all stations at ground level, 500, 1000, and 1500 metres. For Glossop Moor the averages are 135, 26, 30, and 33 miles per hour respectively at these heights. Except at the ground level, where it is influenced by local condi- tions, the average wind velocity at each height differs but little from station to station. Comparing the velocities at various heights it is found that above a height of 500 metres the average increase is 0°7 mile per hour per 100 metres difference of level. Curves showing the connection between the wind velocity and barometric gradient were exhibited. The effects of the absolute barometric height, of the season of the year, and of the wind direction were also considered. With regard to the alteration of wind direction with height, the results indicate the usual slight rotation in a clockwise direction, 7.e., a west wind tends to become more northerly, &c. A number of subsidiary questions, such as the conditions prevailing during tem- perature inversions and the occurrence of vertical air-currents were discussed. 8, Siath Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites. See Reports, p. 99. HH 2 4.68 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 9. On the recent Balloon Ascents. By W. A. Harwoop and J. HE. Peravet, F.R.S. In connection with this investigation balloons carrying the new meteorograph devised by W. H. Dines, F.R.S., were sent up daily between July 22 and 27, 1907, from five British stations, under the direction of the Meteorological Office and of the Joint Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society and the British Association. Out of the total number, twelve instruments have been recovered. The heights attained ranged up to about twenty kilometres. A brief account referring specially to the Manchester Station was given, and a diagram showing the variation of temperature with height as derived from two of the most successful records was exhibited. The curves showed an average temperature gradient of about 08 cent. per 100 metres up to a height of nearly eight kilometres, and a substantially constant temperature above this level. The lowest temperature is in most cases 40° or 45°C, below zero. 10. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. See Reports, p. 100. ll. Results of recent Researches on the Physics of the Earth. By Dr. T. J. J. Sen. 12. Report on the Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory. See Reports, p. 93. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.69 Secrion B.—CHEMISTRY. PRESIDENT OF THE SecTION—Professor ARTHUR SMITHELLS, B.Sc., F.R.S. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— THE year which has elapsed since the meeting of our Section at York has been eventful in the most melancholy cf ways; the losses sustained by our science have been unparalleled. The passing bell seems to have tolled almost without intermission as one after another of our masters has been taken from us: in Russia, Mendeléef, Menschutkin, and Beilstein; in France, Berthelot and Moissan; in Holland, Bakhuis-Roozeboom. Whilst in some of these cases we may find consolation in contemplating a length of life and sustained activity beyond what we might have dared to expect, in others our regret is increased by the sense of untimeliness and of vanished hopes. I am tempted to speak of the work of such mighty men as Berthelot and Mendeléef, to dwell upon the dis- coveries by which they transformed the whole fabric of chemical science; but this is not the occasion on which to offer an estimate of the labours of those who have passed away. I can only say that in the bond of brotherhood which the pursuit of science establishes among the different nations of the earth we who are Englishmen feel and deplore these losses as our own. I must not omit to allude also, as I do with deep regret, to the death in our own country of two such ardent and fruitful workers as Cornelius O’SuJlivan and Robert Warington. These words were already in print when again we were called to muurn the loss of one of our greatest men, one who but a year ago was the subject of our special rejoicings, and whose vigour of body and youthfulness of spirit seemed to promise the long continuance of a noble and an extraordinarily fruitful life. We can at least feel thankful that William Henry Perkin lived long enough to learn in what honour and esteem his name was held, not only among his countrymen, but by all the chemists of the world, and by the leaders of those great industries of which he was justly acclaimed the founder. For more than a generation Sir William Perkin had been one of the most familiar figures at the meetings of this Section, and greatly shall we miss his gentle presence, his wise counsel, and his valued contributions. I can, perhaps, best occupy your time to-day by attempting to give some account of the present state of the scientific subject to which I have paid most attention. The topic of flame, after a long period of repose, has aroused much interest dur.ng late years, and I think we may say that some considerable progress has been made in its elucidation, although in this, as in all other subjects of scientific inquiry, the more closely we scrutinise it the more impressed must we be with what still remains unknown. One of the first questions that meet us in the study of flame is that of the temperature at which in any given case the phenomenon becomes evident. Here, 470 TRANSACTLONS OF SECTION B. J think, a great clarification of view has taken place. The old idea that there existed a fixed temperature at which inflammation suddenly took place cannot now be maintained, and the term ‘ignition temperature’ has acquired a different meaning. It is now known that in a very great number of cases a mixture of two flame-forming gases, when gradually raised in temperature, will develop lumi- nosity quite gradually, part passu, with the chemical combination that is being induced. This phenomenon is, of course, known universally in connection with phosphorus, but it is not so widely known in connection with other combustible substances. There are some simple facts that seem as if they never could gain admission to text-books, and I do not think I have known more than a single chemical book that is not likely to leave a student under the impression that the phosphorescence of phosphorus is an almost unique phenomenon. J do not know how many times the independent discovery has been made that sulphur, arsenic, carbon disulphide, alcohol, ether, paraffin, and a whole host of other compounds, inorganic and organic, will phosphoresce as truly as phosphorus itself; that, in fact, phosphorescent combustion is the normal phenomenon antecedent to what we ordinarily call flame. This is, after all, only in harmony with the general truth that chemical com- bination between two gases does not set in suddenly, but comes into evidence quite gradually as the temperature is raised from a point at which the action, if it occurs at all, is so slow as to be negligible. The increase in the rate of combina- tion is, of course, very rapid as compared with the increase of temperature, a difference of about 10° C. serving to double it. The interval between the beginning of phosphorescence and the production of vigorous flames may there- fore be very short. In the case of phosphorus this interval, being from 7° to to 60° C., includes ordinary atmospheric temperatures ; hence the phosphorescence of phosphorus is a phenomenon that could not well be overlooked. If the pre- vailing terrestrial temperature were below 7° C., at which, under normal air- pressure, the phosphorescence of phosphorus ceases, it is possible that this element might never have acquired its peculiar reputation; it would not have shone in the dark, and in lighting it with a taper the phosphorescent interval would have been passed over as quickly as is ordinarily the case in the ignition of sulphur, paraffin, and other common combustibles. To make phosphorescence apparent in these last cases it is necessary to take special care to heat up a mixture of the combustible gas and air gently, and to maintain it at a temperature approaching, but not quite reaching, that of ignition. There is no simpler way than that used by Sir William Perkin, who brought the combustible substance near to, or in contact with, a massive metal ball previously heated to the suitable temperature, The change from phosphorescence to ordinary flame is not sudden, but the appearance of ordinary flame is the end point of a continuous, though rapid, develop- ment. This end point is the temperature of ignition, What, then, determines the temperature of ignition? The answer to this question has been given with characteristic conciseness by Van't Hoff as ‘ the temperature at which the initial loss of heat due to conduction, &c.,, is equal to the heat evolved in the same time by the chemical reaction.’ We may obtain a clear idea of the meaning of temperature of ignition by supposing a combustible mixture of gases such as that of air and the vapour of carbon disulphide to issue through an orifice into an indifferent atmosphere. If we surround the orifice by a ring of platinum wire, which is gradually heated up by a current of electricity, a flame will gradually make its appearance. If, as soon as this is observed, the heating of the wire by the current be discontinued, the flame will disappear; it is, in fact, not self-supporting, but depends on the accessory supply of heat through the electrically heated wire. If now we raise the rmg to a higher temperature we shall get a brighter flame, owing to an increased rate of chemical action, and at last we sball reach a point where it is possible to cut off the electric current without causing at the same time the extinction of the flame. This is the true temperature of ignition, the temperature at which the reaction proceeds st a rate just sufficient to overbalance the loss of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, A471 heat by radiation, conduction, and convection from the burning layer of gases, so that the next layer is put in the same state, and steady combustion proceeds, Phosphorescence has been spoken of as degraded combustion, and, though literally the appellation is correct, I think it is liable to be misunderstood. Again, it is often supposed that phosphorescence is necessarily associated with the formation of incompletely oxidised products. This may be the case in a chemical system which is capable of affording different products at different temperatures, but it is not an essential feature ; the phosphorescent combustion of sulphur, for example, affords nothing but sulphur dioxide. Temperature of ignition is, then, neither a temperature at which combination suddenly begins nor one dependent solely on the nature of the combining gases. It will vary with the proportion in which the gases are mixed and with their pressure and other circumstances. Notwithstanding the simplicity of this conception, it must be admitted that there are many obscure facts connected with the ignition of gases, The inflammability of gaseous mixtures is not necessarily greatest when they are mixed in the proportions theoretically required for complete combination ; the influence cf foreign gases does not appear to follow any simple law ; the presence of a very small quantity of a foreign gas may exercise a profound influence on the ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of ethylene to hydrogen. When a mixture of methane and air is raised to its ignition temperature, a sensible interval (about 10 seconds) elapses before inflammation occurs. These facts are cognate to others which have increased upon us so abundantly in connec- tion with the influence of moisture on chemical change. The study of the oxidation of phospherus in particular brings us among rocks and shoals. Apart from the influence of moisture on the combination we have the limitation of the process by a certain tension of oxygen and by minute quantities of a vast number of chemical substances, among which, in spite of much labour, no other common bond can be found. We do not know what oxide is initially formed in the oxidation, and the existence of the oxides P,O and P,O is as confidently disputed as it is affirmed. There is some reason for believing’that the phosphorescence connected with phosphorus succeeds the formation of one oxide and accompanies the formation of another. The state of the oxygen, whether atomic, ionic, or molecular, which acts on phosphorus, the induced oxidation of other substances, the ionisation of air accompanying the oxidation—these are all matters concern- ing which there exists a bewildering literature that hangs over us like a cloud, The whole of my Address would, in fact, not suffice for a summary of the state of our ignorance about the oxidation of phosphorus. The subject, simple as it appears at first sight, is really involved with a vast number of unsolved chemical problems the elucidation of which would throw much light on chemical action in general. I may, perhaps, bequeath the topic to some successor in this Chair as one which may serve to illustrate the advance of knowledge since these present days of darkness. The structure of flames has always been regarded as dependent upon the chemical changes taking place in the differentiated regions, but until recent times little attention has been given to any question beyond the cause of the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames. In a flame such as that of hydrogen or carbon monoxide, where we have some reason to suppose that the same kind of chemical transaction is taking place throughout the region of combustion we should not expect to find a differentiation of structure, and, as a matter of fact, we do not find any. Erroneous ideas have gained currency from the use of impure gases, and hydrogen is still described as burning with a pale blue flame, although Stas long ago stated that if the gas is highly purified, and the air freed from dust, the flame even in a dark-room can only be discovered by feeling for it ; a fact con- sistent with the line spectrum of water lying wholly in the ultra-violet. The pre- sence of a very small quantity of free oxygen in carbon monoxide destroys the perfect simplicity of the single shell of blue flame with which the purified gas burns, and in other flames small quantities of gaseous impurities or of atmospheric dust give rise to features of structure and halos which have been frequently supposed to pertain to the flame of the combining gases. The fringe of a flame in air may be often tinged by the presence of oxides of nitrogen, __ A72 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. No flame better illustrates the relation of strueture to chemical processes than that of cyanogen, where the two steps in the oxidation of the carbon are clearly marked out in colour. Apart from hydrocarbon flames, very few others have been carefully explored from this point of view. There is, unfortunately, no gas composed of two combustible gaseous elements; and, though such gases as the hydrides of phosphorus and sulphur do not fall far short of this, the experimental difficulties of an exact exploration of their flames are very great. We are thus prevented from studying the flame of a composite combustible in its simplest form, The flames of hydrocarbons have naturally been the subject of most frequent investigation. The use of single hydrocarbons instead of the mixtures present in coal-gas and other common combustibles has simplified the study considerably. Two problems stand out prominently: one is to trace the steps in the oxidation of the hydrocarbon, the other to account for the bright patch of yellow luminosity. With regard to the question of the luminosity, [ do not think there is any longer doubt about its being due essentially to the separation within the fame of minute solid particles of what is practically carbon. The separation seems to be adequately explained by the high temperature of the blue burning walls of the flame, which decomposes the unburned hydrocarbon within. In a similar way areenic and sulphur and phosphorus are liberated within flames of their hydrides ; but these elements, being volatile, do not appear as solids unless a cold object be placed within the flame. In the case of the hydride of silicon the liberated element at once oxidises to form the solid non-volatile oxide, which gives a bright glow. The mode in which a hydrocarbon yields carbon by the application of a high temperature has been the subject of experiment and of hypothesis; but neither the view of Berthelot, that the carbon results from a continuous coalescence of hydrocarbon molecules with elimination of hydrogen, nor that of Lewes, according to which the formation and sudden decomposition of acetylene is the essence of the phenomenon, appears to me to be in harmony with the experimental facts ; and I am not aware that either view has secured any support from other workers in this field. It is certainly not easy to ascertain experimentally the changes undergone by a single hydrocarbon as its temperature is raised, and at the last it may be objected that the course of events in contact with the solid walls of a containing vessel is not necessarily the same as that within the gaseous envelope of a flame. I am glad to think that there is promise of further light on this subject from the work of Professor Bone. The course of oxidation of hydrocarbons has been the subject of very careful and fruitful study. The old view that a selective or preferential oxidation of the hydrogen always took place, that with a restricted supply of oxygen the hydrogen was oxidised and the carbon set free, is, I think, no longer maintained by anyone who has studied the question, The explosion of ethylene with its own volume of oxygen, which leaves us with practically all the carbon oxidised and all the hydrogen free, is fatal to this view. Again, when hydrocarbons are burned in a flame with a restricted supply of air, as is the case in the inner cone of the flame of a well-aérated Bunsen burner, there is clearly no separation of solid carbon, and the products of combustion when withdrawn and analysed disclose the presence of much free hydrogen and no unoxidised carbon. In describing this experimental fact I have spoken of it as the preferential oxidation of carbon. I have always thought it pedantic to quarrel with that expression; for, in speaking of a chemical transaction, we usually include only a description of the initial and final states of combination. I should be sorry, however, to detach the expression from the facts it describes and to exalt it into a general doctrine. That would be quite inadmissible, and, if there is any danger of misunderstanding, it would be better to avoid using the expression. The admirable researches carried out in the University of Manchester by Professor Bone and his collaborators have afforded most valuable information as to the oxidation of hydrocarbons at temperatures extending from those of incipient oxidation up to the highest ones that prevail in a flame. According to Professor Bone, the oxidation of a hydrocarbon involves nothing in the nature of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. A73 a selective or preferential oxidation of the carbon or the hydrogen ; but it occurs in several well-detined stages, during which oxygen enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule, forming oxygenated intermediate products, among which are alcohols and aldehydes. The reaction, just referred to, between ethylene and an equal volume of oxygen is, according to Professor Bone, to be represented by the scheme: CH, CH.OH CH.OH H,C: 0 H,+CO ee -_ ee > ee —— > e CH, CH, CH.OH H.C: 0 H,+CO There can be no question about the facts on which this scheme is based, and they are a new and important addition to knowledge. It is a great aid to the study of chemical changes, when we can resolve them into stages, whether or not these stages be realisable under certain experimental conditions. In this way we can get a clear view of the relationship between the - action under one set of circumstances to the action under another set ; and in this way also we can often establish rational links between reactions which at first sight seem quite disconnected. Intermediate reactions are much used to elucidate cases of contact action, and in the processes of organic chemistry they are almost universally assumed. I am far from wishing to disparage these practices, but I think it important that we should realise how far we are dealing with convenient devices and how far with ascertained facts. The isolation of an intermediate product under one set of circumstances is in itself no proof that this product is transitorily formed when the reaction is proceeding under another set of circumstances; and if we were to assume generally that because we can represent a chemical transaction as if it were due to a successive construction and destruction of a series of molecular edifices it actually does take such a course, we should, I think, be making the same kind of mistake as to suppose that in the application of two differently directed forces to a body at rest, the body will move successively in the direction of each force instead of moving immediately in the direction of their resultant. I know that I may be considered hypercritical, and perhaps obstinate, in this matter; but I wished to state the reasons that prevent me from accepting entirely the interpretation which Professor Bone has given to his experimental results, and to draw attention to a question of general importance that has not, I think, received the attention it deserves. The mode of burning of carbon, whether in the free state or as a constituent of a compound, is not at all easy to determine; and notwithstanding many investigations, among which must be specially mentioned those of Professor H. B. Dixon and his collaborators, so simple-looking a question as whether carbon forms carbon monoxide by directly uniting with oxygen, or only by reducing carbon dioxide, is still a matter of uncertainty. Our knowledge concerning the question of flame temperatures has been much improved in recent times, thanks mainly to the admirable work of M. Le Chatelier. The well-known memoir of Mallard and Le Chatelier on the explosion of gases supplied the data which first permitted of a moderately exact calculation of flame temperatures, and the perfection of the thermo-couple by M. Le Chatelier gave us the first instrument that could be used directly for making a satisfactory measurement. The uncertainty connected with this subject may be well illustrated by quoting the temperatures that have at different times been ascribed to the flame of coal-gas when burnt in a Bunsen burner, where we have had values varying from 1230° to 2350° C. The question of calculating the temperature attained during combustion by reference to calorimetric values, specific heat, dissociation, and other considera. tions is to form the subject of a joint discussion with Section G during the present meeting, so that I shall not here enlarge upon it. With regard to the use of thermo-couples, I may remark that the practical difficulties have been successfully met. The chief difficulty is, of course, to secure that the thermo-junction attains as nearly as possible the temperature of the AT A: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. region in which it is immersed. As ordinary flames consist of thin shells of burning gases, on either side of which there is a very rapid fall of temperature, it is necessary to use thin wires, and to dispose them so that there is no appreciable drain of heat from the junction. By using wires of different gauge for the couples it is possible by extrapolation to arrive at a temperature for a couple of infinitely small cross-section, and it is also possible to make a correction for the superior radiating power of the couple as compared with the flame-gases. Without this last correction a maximum temperatnre of 1770° was obtained for the Bunsen flame by Waggener in Germany, and 1780° by White and Traver in America. Correcting for radiation, Berkenbusch found 1880° as the maximum temperature. M. Féry, by an ingenious application of his beautiful optical pyrometer to a flame containing sodium, gives 1871° as the highest temperature of the flame of a Bunsen burner burning coal-gas. The consideration of flame-temperatures has become of increasing importance in the arts owing to the use of the Welsbach mantle as a means of deriving light from coal-gas, The great improvements which have been made in the efficiency of atmospheric burners depend primarily on the fact that the smaller the external surface we can give to a flame consuming gas at a fixed rate the higher must be the average temperature; and since the emission of light from a mantle is proportional to a high power of the absolute temperature, a small increase of temperature is of great effect on luminosity. The acetylene-oxygen flame in which a temperature of about 3500° prevails, not very different from that of the electric are, is the hottest of the hydrocarbon flames, and finds some important practical uses. I have already said something about the luminosity of flames so far as relates to the separation and glow of solid carbon. But there remains the more general question of the luminosity of flames containing nothing but gases. The older explanation of the emission of light from combining gases said no more than that the energy liberated during the reaction and appearing as heat raised the product to ineandescence—that is to say, so increased the velocity of its molecules and the violence of their collisions that vibrations were set up whose wave-lengths lay within the limits of visible radiation. This explanation has long been questioned, and there is now, I think, a very general agreement that it will not suffice. The average temperature, in fact, prevailing in a flame, if attained in the product of combustion by the supply of heat from outside, does not suffice to make that sub- stance luminous. We are therefore thrown back upon the conclusion that the generation of light in a flame is not a consequence, though it is an accompaniment, of the elevation of temperature. The question now is, Can we go any further ? To do this we are led to consider individual molecular transactions instead of statistical averages, and the view presents itself that the combining atoms may, in losing their chemical energy, form directly systems of independent vibration where the radiation is such as to fall within the limits of visibility. If we picture such vibrating systems momentarily formed, it is easy to see that by their collision one with another they may acquire in a secondary way increased translational motion, and so lead to a state of things where the greater part of their energy is degraded in the form of heat. The high temperature of a flame would then be a consequence rather than a cause of its light. This subject of the mechanism of luminosity, however, like so many others, has now become involved with the theory of electrons, and a chemist may be excused if he hesitates to pursue the subject further. Some years ago I called attention to the scantiness of our knowledge of the chemical changes that take place when metallic salts are used in flames for the production of spectra. Though there was general agreement that, for example, the yellow flame produced by common salt was due to the liberation and glow of metallic sodium, there was no agreement as to how the sodium was set free. Arrhenius, pursuing the analogy which exists between the laws governing matter in the gaseous state and in the state of dilute solution, had previously been led to the view that the electrical conductivity of flames containing salt-vapours was due to ionisation of the salt throughout the volume of the flame. It appeared PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.75 possible therefore that the luminosity might be ascribed likewise to the metal separated in the ionic state. Experimental investigation undertaken with a view to elicit information on this subject seemed to favour the view that the metal was reduced by chemical processes, and that it glowed in the un-ionised condition. KEvidence seemed to point to the conclusion that, for example, when common salt is introduced into the flame of cval-gas the sodium chloride yields sodium by the conjoint action of steam and reducing gases; when liberation of the metal was prevented by adding a large quantity of hydrochloric acid to the flame the glow disappeared, but the conductivity was not always diminished. The fact that sodium salts, including the chloride, impart their characteristic glow to the flame of cyanogen and to other flames in which water is absent leads to some difficulty in finding a chemical explanation, and it must be admitted that a direct thermal dissociation of an alkaline halide or oxide is not out of the question. The interval of detachment of the metallic atom may be exceedirgly brief, but it must be remembered that even so short a time as the interval between the molecular encounters inagasat a high temperatureis still sufficient for the emission of thousands of undisturbed characteristic vibrations. The experiments to which I have alluded have been followed up with great industry and success by Professor H. A. Wilson, who has added much to our knowledge of the electrical condition of the flames containing vaporised salts; but the question of the condition of the luminous gas is still far from being settled. Very interesting and important investigations have been carried out by Lenard, who has shown that the stream of luminous vapour produced from a sodium salt in a Bunsen flame is deflected in an electric field in such a way as to indicate that the vapour is positively charged; but he gives reason for believing that the charged condition is intermittent with the neutral condition. The lines in the spectrum of an alkali metal are divisible, as is well known, into distinct groups or series, in each of which the oscillation frequencies corresponding with the lines are in a definite mathematical relationship. The prin- cipal series, which include the lines scen individually as such in ordinary flame spectra, are, according to Lenard, due to the electrically neutral atoms. In a salted spirit flame, and in other flames of low temperature where only lines of the principal series are represented, the stream of luminous gas does not behave in an electric field as if it were charged. In the flame of coal-gas burnt in a Bunsen burner the salt-vapour gives, in addition to the distinct lines of the principal series, diffuse bands of luminosity on the dark background, which, according to Lenard, represent the undeveloped subordinate series; and it is the atoms emitting these series that are deflected in the electric field. It is inferred, therefore, that the light in a salted Bunsen flame comes from different groups of centres of emission— the principal series from the neutral atom, and the lines of the first, second, and third subordinate series from. atoms which have lost respectively one, two, and three electrons. Lenard goes further, and shows that the salt-vapour in a Bunsen flame, as in the flame of the electric arc, emits these different kinds of radiation from different structural regions; thus the vapour at the edge of the flame is electrically neutral and gives only the lines of a principal series. The negative electricity in a salted flame would, according to Lenard, be dis- embodied, and recent experiments by Gold confirm the view that the negative carrier in flames is a free electron. In connection with this subject I ought to allude to an investigation by Tufts, which seems to throw some doubt on the conclusions which were drawn from the experiments made by Professor Wilson, Dr. Dawson, and myself; and I must also mention an important contribution to the subject recently made by Professor Hartley, in which considerable light is thrown upon the chemical changes undergone by compounds of the alkaline earth metals when they are introduced into flames, and upon the relation of these changes to the various spectral features. I am afraid, however, that it would be wearisome if I were to prolong this summary, and [I must be content to leave it without doing justice to those who are engaged upon the work. The subject is obviously one of funda- mental importance in relation to spectrum analysis, and my own slight connection with it has only strengthened my opinion that there is still a great deal connected with the genesis of spectra that requires the attention of the chemist even more A76 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. than that of the physicist. Spectrum analysis arose under the joint influence of Bunsen and Kirchhoff, and I think its problems still call for more combined work on the part of chemist and physicist than has latterly been the custom. Having given a short summary of the present state of knowledge on one par- ticular chemical topic, I may perhaps be permitted to conclude my Address with a few general observations relating to the science as a whole. The contemplation of such a life as that of Berthelot makes us realise in a vivid way the progress of chemical science. He was a chemist without limitation, his activity extending over the whole range of the science, physical, inorganic, and organic. Whilst we must not forget his exceptional powers, we cannot help feeling how different in its extent was our science when he entered upon his labours from what it was when they ceased, and we cannot help feeling how vain it now is for anyone to hope for so imperial a sway. Yet it is difficult to believe that the state of chemistry can ever have been more interesting than it is at the present moment, or that anyone who sighs for the good old times can do so from anything but the love of a quieter life. We need not go back more than twenty years to find a sharp contrast. At that time there was indeed no want of activity, but it was that of a band of travellers who had left their frontier adventures far behind, and were marching steadily over a wide and almost uninterrupted plain. To-day we are among the mountains, with new peaks and prospects appearing on every side. Truly a steady head is required ; and well may we ask, Whither are we going and where is the path of progress and of safety? I rejoice to live in such times; but J feel no competence to describe them, still less can I pretend to have vision keen and comprehensive enough to let me figure as a guide. One of the penalties of devotion to a progressive science is the constant feeling of being left behind, and the knowledge that, while we are attending to our personal task, things are happening, near or far, that may, for all we know, be affecting the simplest facts andthe most elementary principles on which we have been accustomed to rely. This is a feeling that may well prevail at the present day. At the same time I do not think there is any occasion for panic, and I cannot help regretting the somewhat sensational language that has been used, even within our own circles, in regard to recent discoveries. The revelations attendant upon the investigation of radio-activity do indeed mark a distinct epoch in the history of chemical discovery, but that they entail anything like an unsettlement of our scientific articles of faith is not to be admitted for a moment. They make us realise in perhaps a not unprofit- able way that scientific knowledge and scientific theories are necessarily proximate, never ultimate, and that ideas which may have been entertained for a long time without modification, and so have begun to seem perpetual, are, after all, only provisional, There is certainly some embarrassment on finding that a substance like radium, which according to the conventions would be called a chemical element, breaks up so as to give substances which, according to the same conventions, are likewise called elements. But the con‘usion is one of terminology and not of ideas. I think it likely that few chemists of my own generation have been in the habit of regard- ing the conventional elements as the ultimate compositional units of matter. We know that in our own country distingnished men of science like Sir William Crookes and Sir Norman Lockyer have always insisted on the complex nature of the elements, and I suspect there are many among us who might own to having made sober, if unsuccessful, attempts at the resolution of elements before the days of radium. The perplexities of chemists at the present day do not come, I think, from the novelty of the ideas that are being presented to them, but from the great rapidity with which the whole science is growing, from the invasion of chemistry by mathematics and, in particular, from the sudden appearance of the subject of radio-activity with its new methods, new instruments, and especially with its accompaniment of speculative philosophy. There is an uneasy feeling that PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.77 developments of great importance to the chemist are being made by experiments on quantities of matter of almost inconceivable minuteness. Spectrum analysis of course took chemistry beyond the limits of the balance, but the new materials which it disclosed could at least be accumulated in palpable quantity. With radio-activity we seem, in relation to the ponderable, almost to be creating a chemistry of phantoms, and this reduction in the amount of experimental materials, associated as it is with an exuberance of mathematical speculation of the most bewildering kind concerning the nature, or perhaps I should say the want of nature, of matter, is caleulated to perturb a stolid and earthy philosopher whose business has been hitherto confined to comparatively gross quantities of materials and to a restricted number of crude mechanical ideas. He is tempted to think of Falstaff’s reckoning and to exclaim with Prince Henry, ‘Oh, monstrous! but one halfpennyworth of bread to this intolerable deal of sack!’ Experimental science has latterly been spun to greater and greater fineness, until in the region of the N rays the objective element seems to have disappeared altogether. I should, however, gravely abuse the position in which I am allowed to speak for the moment as a representative of chemists if I failed to express profound ad- miration for the masterly work which has been accomplished by the pioneers of the science of radio-activity. All that I wish to say beyond that, is in explanation of a certain awe or trepidation which chemists of the older school may feel in the presence of such bold explorers; and I am the more tempted to say something on the subject, because in recent times, before the advent of radium, a good deal has happened which has given chemists occasion to ask themselves whether chemistry was not beginning, as it were, to drift away from them. The most conspicuous development of the science during the past twenty years has been, of course, on the physical side, and abundant have been its fruits; but it has seemed to demand from chemists habits and endowments which they did not normally possess, and which they could not easily acquire. I was much struck by a remark made to me a few years ago by a distinguished chemist, who is, I think, the most perfect manipulator I have ever seen at work, to the effect that he felt himself submerged and perishing in the great tide of physical chemistry which was rolling up into our laboratories. Now, it is precisely such men that must be preserved to chemistry. Though chemistry and physics meet and blend, there is, I believe, an essential difference between the genius of the chemist and the genius of the physicist, and I venture to think that some insistence on the primary functions of a chemist is not untimely. The chemist’s first qualification is that he shall be master of a peculiar craft; his greatest merit that he is a con- summate workman ; his distinctive power a nicety of discrimination in questions affecting the composition and quantity of materials. He is not given to elaborate theories and is usually averse to speculation; nor has he usually an aptitude for mathematics. Such the normal chemist is, or was, and such I hope he always may be—naked perhaps in some respects, but-unashamed. There seems to be a solicitude in some quarters to make a chemist something more than a chemist, a solicitude which, if gratified, will, I believe, make him some- thing lessthanone, Weare told, for example, that a chemist should be a mathema- tician. I do not admit it fora moment. Some mathematics he must of necessity have—that has always been admitted—but in proportion as chemistry develops on the mathematical side does it become important, not that our chemists should be trained in mathematics, but that they should be more than ever carefully trained in the art of exact experiment; that their methods of work, their powers of observation, and, if possible, their experimental conscience, if I may use the expression, should acquire a finer edge. There is never more cause for anxiety than when we see a mathematical theory awaiting the delivery of the confirma- tory facts, and there is nothing more important for chemistry than the continual recruiting of that old guard which will be ever ready to stand to arms on the appearance of an eager theorist. Ido not for a moment wish to disparage the adventurous spirits within or outside our science, still less do I wish to range myself with those who meet new ideas with mere objurgation or raillery. We must be content to see new 478 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. alliances and new activities on the frontiers that separate us from other sciences ; content to see many new kinds of chemistry arise in which we cannot all effectually participate. Chemistry is becoming bewildering in its extent, and it would be a great misfortune if this led to the notion that every chemist must try to enlarge his ambit to its confines and fit himself for every variety of work. Those of us who have responsibilities as teachers cannot, I think, be too careful, lest in the attempt to secure breadth we may encourage shallowness and fail to give our students that peculiar and time-honoured discipline in exactitude of work in chemistry proper, which has characterised the chemista of the past, and which is infinitely more important than superficial dealings with a great variety of pro- cesses and appliances. I confess that I have frequent misgivings as to whether our modern courses of instruction may not tend to turn out chemists more learned in the science and less perfect in the art than was the case under the ancient régime. There was, after all, great virtue in the system which often detained a student day after day, or perhaps week after week, on a single problem of chemical composition such as is involved in the exact analysis of fahl-ore. It is not easy to meet all requirements, but I think we shall all agree that, whatever is left undone, we must make a chemist a good craftsman. It is of the utmost importance that those whom we send out to work in the newer fields shall take with them the resources that have proved most serviceable in the old, and I think it is by supplying such men for special service, rather than by attempting to shift the centre of gravity of the whole system of chemical education, that we can best serve the newer interests. Another perturbation within the chemical camp in recent times has come from the region of philosophy. Even before the days of radium we have been accused of clinging too fondly to our atomic theory and of stating our knowledge too exclusively in terms of that theory. We are said to have drifted into a dogma- tism as real as any we ourselves have had to attack, and to shut our eyes to the light which will enable us to orient ourselves truly in the wide realm of thonght. The answer that most of us would give would be, that we value our hypotheses according to their productiveness in new knowledge, and that it is, on the whole, perhaps better to over-exalt an hypothesis that is fertile than from high considera- tions of philosophy to allow our ideas to become so fluid that they can afford no rigid framework for thought. 1 think that the attempts to view chemical phe- nomena apart from the atomic hypothesis, interesting as they undoubtedly are, have not made us feel that this hypothesis has either misled us in any matter of fact or obscured any pathway that we might have followed with greater profit. The value of the thermo-dynamical treatment of chemical problems is attested by its fruitfulness in promoting fresh discoveries; and here we may welcome a valuable adjunct to the atomic hypothesis. But I do not think we are called upon to acclaim a new method of treating old questions unless it promises some more tangible result than an alleged improvement of our intellectual morals. If, as I have ventured to hint, mathematics brings with it an element of danger into chemistry, I think that the intrusion of metaphysics would give far greater cause for apprehension. Philosophy always stands with open arms desiring a closer embrace of all the sciences, of which she declares herself to be the fond mother, whilst Science, as we understand the term, has stood reluctant, suggesting, as someone has wittily remarked, that she regards Philosophy rather as a mother- in-law. It may perhaps be desirable, especially in the present state of things, that scientific men should allow themselves to become a little more interested in deep questions affecting all knowledge, and should at least examine with some care the gifts that Philosophy is so anxious to bestow upon us. I have a fear that other- wise in the elaboration of scientific theory we may find ourselves embroiled in an unequal contest with what I cannot but regard as the traditional enemy—I mean the unmitigated metaphysician—and the suggestion that I make is, to tell the truth, not so much from the hope of gain as from the desire for self-defence and the safe preservation of the methods that have served us so well in the past. I think the accusation that we delude ourselves: into the belief that our hypo- theses are final truth is not true of any thoughtful chemist; the great men of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 479 science have surely possessed that quality of mind which philosophy would most approve. If, as has often been remarked, Faraday was mathematically-minded, though untraived in mathematics, it seems not less true that he stood in the same relation to philosophy. When, for example, he was asked to express his opinions on the atomic theory, he wrote as follows :— ‘T do not know that 1 am unorthodox as respects the atomic hypothesis. I believe in matter and its atoms as freely as most people—at least I think so, As to the little solid particles, which are by some supposed to exist independent of the forces of matter, and which in different substances are imagined to have different amounts of these forces associated with, or conferred upon, them (and which even in the same substance, when in the solid, liquid, and gaseous state, are supposed to have like different proportions of these powers), as I cannot form any idea of them apart from the forces, so I neither admit nor deny them. They do not afford me the least help in my endeavour to form an idea of a particle of matter. On the contrary, they greatly embarrass me; for after taking account of all the properties of matter, and allowing in my consideration for them, then these nuclei remain on the mind, and I cannot tell what to do with them. The notion of a solid nucleus without properties is a natural figure or stepping-stone to the mind at its first entrance on the consideration of natural phenomena; but when it has become instructed, the like notion of a solid nucleus, apart from the repulsion, which gives our only notion of solidity, or the gravity, which gives our notion of weight, is to me too difficult for comprehension; and so the notion becomes to me hypothetical, and, what is more, a very clumsy hypothesis. At that point, then, I reserve my mind as I feel bound to do in hundreds of other cases in natural knowledge.’ This is the attitude of mind, I think, of all thoughtful chemists ; if they do not exhibit it ostentatiously it is only because it is as disturbing to the proper work of a chemist for him to be constantly dwelling on the inward nature of his hypotheses as it is distracting in ordinary life to have men always talking about their emotions. Few, I think, will deny that the atomic theory stands to-day as an indispensable instrument for productive chemical work ; it has neither had its day nor ceased to be. Physicists have never been quite satisfied with the hard, indivisible ball of specific substance and definite mass which has served chemistry so well. They have given it bells, have made a vortex ring of it,and have indeed done much that few chemists can understand to make it meet the exacting requirements of their science. But to us it has always been the same; what we have done to it has been external; we have given it, vaguely perhaps, a charge of electricity, a store of energy; we have attached the hooks or rods of valency, but we have not meddled with its interior. We are now called upon by chemical considerations of change of composition, as well as by other considerations more recondite, to subdivide our atom, to credit it with an unsuspected store of energy, to consider it a congeries of unsubstantial electrons. We should wish, of course, to know that the evidence is good enough, but otherwise there can be no possible objection from our side; it will undo nothing that has been done, and we may have good hopes that it will lead to the doing of many new things in chemistry. The newer theories are in consonance with the old in one most vital point: they afford those mental pictures of phenomena which most of us find indispensable for fruitful work, They do not belong to what Professor Schaster has characterised as ‘ the evasive school of philosophy.’ ‘ ‘Those,’ he says, ‘ who believe in the possibility of a mechanical conception of the universe, and are not willing to abandon the methods which from the time of Galileo and Newton have uniformly and exclu- sively led to success, must look with the gravest concern on a growing school of scientific thought which rests content with equations correctly representing numerical relationships between different phenomena, even though no precise meaning can be attached to the symbols used.’ Most of us, I think, will take comfort in this pronouncement and rejoice that if our conception of the atom is to be transformed, it may still be represented as having some kinship with what Sir Henry Roscoe’s famous examinee described as the ‘square blocks of wood invented by Dr. Dalton,’ 480 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. Discussion on Valency. (i) The Nature of Valency. By Professor W. J. Pops, F.R.S. (ii) Zur Valenzfrage. By Professor A. WERNER. (iii) Valency. By Professor R. ABEGG. The polarity of valency is distributed through the periodic system according to a well-defined law ; the valency is strongest on the left, and least on the right side, increasing with the atomic weight in the principal groups, decreasing in the sub-groups on the left side of the system, while on the right-hand side they both increase in the same order as the atomic weights. Decreasing + polarity and increasing — polarity are consequently identical. The valency number is very simple and constant in compounds with atoms of different polarity (heteropolar compounds), while most variable in compounds of nearly equal polarities (homeopolar compounds). All elements are able to act amphoterically, being positive against stronger negative atoms, and negative against stronger positive ones, as is proved either by electrolysis or hydrolysis of their compounds. The maximum valency number is limited for both + and — valency, the former being the number of the group, the latter the number which makes this 8. The strength of valency affinity decreases with increasing number of valencies ; thus the polarity with the smaller number of valencies becomes prominent and forms the ‘normal valency,’ while the other forms the ‘ contravalency,’ thereby giving rise to the following table :— Number of Group of Period. System| I. Il. / III. | IV. | MOREE MALE VII. | VIII.=0 Normal valency . ' : +1] +2 +3)| | a8 1) 94-0 Contravalency : : 5 -7 | —6 |-5 | 2 —bs| +7) \ 45 +6| +7|+8-8 The contravalencies of the left-hand groups, being originally an extrapolation from the behaviour of the right side, may be found in homeopolar compounds of the metals—z.e., the alloys. Any binary compound is unsaturated with respect to the two valencies of its components, only one kind being satisfied. The other valencies can and do act as links between binary compounds, bringing about their molecular compounds. ‘The strength of their junction corresponds with the strength of the polarities present, being greater in the case of normal-valency linkage and smaller in the case of contravalencies. This system does not claim to be a complete solution of the problem of valency; but as many known facts are in accordance with it, and may be explained by its help, it might be taken as some approximation to the truth. (iv) Dwisibility of Valency. By Professor Huco KAuFFMANN. One of the first consequences of the theory of electrons is the divisibility of valency, and chemistry furnishes us with much experimental proof of this sup- position. The first investigations of this nature were made by Thiele, who as a consequence formulated a theory of partial valency. The divisibility of valency is most strikingly shown in compounds containing double bonds, and nearly all research up to the present has been developed by the aid of such bodies. The author’s investigations deal with colour and fluorescence, and it has heen found that in the case of benzene derivatives the colour and fluorescence of the sub- stance becomes more marked the greater the amount of partial valency in the chromophore attached to the benzene nucleus. These facts have peculiar signification in the case of chromophores containing TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 481 a carboxyl group. For if a salt be prepared the resulting ions are of a lighter colour, or even colourless. Ionisation produces a redistribution of the partial valencies in such a manner that the chromophore becomes attached to the benzene nucleus with fewer valencies, and is therefore weakened as regards its colour-producing properties, The electrically charged valencies of the ions behave as free valencies, and like these are used for the saturation of other valencies. There is therefore a very close connection between chemical lines of force and electrical lines of force, the former being a consequence of the divisibility of valency and the latter of the electrical charge of the ions. (v) Valency. By Dr. F. M. JAucur. (vi) Note on the Intimate Structure of Crystals, By Professor W. J. Sottas, Se.D., PLS. In attempting to arrive at a knowledge of the intimate structures of crystals it is essential to examine the validity of two assumptions which form the basis of certain proposed systems: one of these is the principle of closest packing, the other the notion of valency volumes. In some few cases closest packing might be re- garded as highly probable; as,for instance, in that of the diamond; but such minerals, and particularly the diamond, were distinguished by exceptional properties, not the least remarkable of which is an unusually high surface tension, a peculiarity taken advantage of on the automatic separation of the diamond from its less valuable associates in the South African mines. The second assumption introduces us to an absolutely new conception, the truth of which is not self-evident but open to question. In studies of this kind, where the constructive imagination necessarily plays a great and dangerous part, it is essential in the case of any structural system which might be proposed to show in the first place that it is not opposed by irreconcilable exceptions. This is the first step ; the next, quite as essential, is to prove that no other system is capable of affording equally satisfactory results. As an example of an inconsistent fact, silver iodide may be cited, for the sudden passage of this salt from the hexagonal to the cubic system is accompanied by con- traction in volume amounting to 16 per cent. Closest packing will not account for this, since the shear which is invoked to explain the transformation leaves the assemblage as close packed after the transformation as it was before. On the other hand, an open packed configuration consistent with the crystalline symmetry of the salt may be conceived, and has indeed been described, which involves of necessity a change of volume similar in amount to that observed. If this configuration should be supported by subsequent inquiry it would be sufficient of itself to destroy the universality of the two assumptions of closest packing and valency volumes, for it cai on the opposed conceptions of molecular volumes and a remarkably open packing. As regards the structure of benzene many configurations could be devised to represent the single molecule, and before accepting any one of these it would be necessary to show that none of the others afforded equally satisfactory results. It is not a substance favourable for testing the truth of the notion of valency volumes, for it is possible that in this and most organic compounds carbon does indeed possess a molecular volume approximately four times as large as that of hydrogen. The real difficulty in this case arises when other monovalent elements are substituted for hydrogen; thus on the valency-volume hypothesis it is necessary to suppose in the case of CBr, that the volume of bromine on entering into com- bination diminishes from 20 to about 6, while that of carbon increases from 12 to about 24, and this although three of the bonds of each atom of carbon are united with carbon and only one with bromine. The difliculty becomes greater when com- pounds like C,H,Br, and C,H,Br, are taken into consideration, The moleculai 1907. II 482 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. volumes of benzene and its substitution products suggest a comparatively open packing, and an investigation of structure based on this suggestion is likely to afford interesting results. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. Joint Discussion with Section G on Explosion Temperatures.! The following Papers were read :— 1. Lhe Ignition Point of Gases. By Professor H. B. Dixon, £. 4.8, 2. Iron Carbonyls. By Sir James Dewar, F.2.S., and H. O. Jones, D.Sc. Iron pentacarbonyl Fe(CO), is a yellow liquid which resembles nickel tetra- carbonyl in its chemical and physical properties, but it is more stable towards chemical reagents. When decomposed by reagents it always gives rise to ferrous salts. The most striking difference observed between its behaviour and that of nickel carbonyl is due to the action of light, iron pentacarbonyl being decomposed with evoluticn of carbon monoxide and formation of an orange crystalline solid, diferro-nonacarbonyl, Fe,(CO),. This change is supposed to take place in two stages, represented by Fe(CO), = Fe(CO), + CO and Fe(OO), + Fe(CO), = Fe,(CO), since when iron pentacarbonyl is dissolved in nickel carbony] it is not affected by light, due, it is suggested, to the formation of an unstable compound, FeNi(CO),. The decomposition induced by light is reversed slowly in the dark. Above 56° C. light has no action on iron pentacarbonyl: this is explained by supposing that the direct action induced.by light is a change that is almost unaffected by temperature, like the reaction between ferric chloride and oxalic acid and some other photochemical actions, whereas the reverse action of carbon monoxide and the diferro-nonacarbonyl has a normal temperature coefficient. When diferro-ponacarbonyl is heated alone a dark green liquid is produced : this consists chiefly of iron pentacarbonyl; on continued heating the green colour disappears and iron is deposited; the change is then represented by the equation 2¥Fe,(CO), = 3Fe(CO). + Fe + 38CO. hen substances like hydrocarbons or ether are present in excess and the temperature is not allowed to exceed 100° C. an intensely green-coloured solution is obtained ; no solid is deposited, and no gasisevolved. The dark green solution under suitable conditions deposits dark green lustrous crystals which represent a third compound of iron and carbon monoxide, tron tetracarbonyl, Fe(CO),, which has a high molecular weight. When alcohol or pyridine is used as solvent in which to heat the diferro-nonacarbonyl the solution obtained is red, and no solid could be obtained from these solutions. Tron tetracarbony] is very stable towards reagents: it dissolves in most organic solvents to give dark green solutions which exhibit a characteristic absorption band in the yellow. In pyridine and alcohol, however, the colour of the solution is green at first, but changes slowly on standing and quickly on warming to a deep red; the red solutions show no selective absorption. Both diferro-nonacarbony] and iron tetracarbonyl when decomposed by reagents such as concentrated sulphuric acid give carbon monoxide and ferrous salts, 1 Reported in Lngineering, August 9, 1907. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 183 3, On the Conductivity of Electrolytes in Pyridine and other Solvents. By KennuetH SOMERVILLE CALDWELL! I. Comparison of Acids and pseudo-Acids in Pyridine. Although previous experimenters have compared acids and pseudo-acids as regards their conductivities in solvents which form hydrogen ions (e.g., alcohols and mixtures of alcohols and water”), no investigations have been carried out in solvents which are of such a nature that the acid is dissolved either entirely or partly in the form of a salt. Liquid ammonia would at once suggest itself as a suitable medium, more especially as a number of widely differing compounds have already been examined in this solvent,’ but owing to the obvious experimental difficulties it was not employed. The attempt to substitute the saturated amine piperidine instead of ammonia yielded results of little interest, owing to the extremely small conductivity of solutions in this solvent. The unsaturated amine pyridine, on the other hand, proved to be more suitable. Members of the following classes of compounds were examined :-— A. Acids which exist in one form only, 1, The strong mineral acids and sulphonic acids, 2, Organic acids. B. Acids which exist in isomeric forms—pseudo-acids. 1. Nitro-compounds—(a) nitrohydrocarbons; (6) nitrophenols; (c) nitra- mines. 2, Oximido-compounds—(a) oximido-carboxylic esters ; (6) oximido-ketones and quinonoximes; (ce) nitrolic acids. 3. Compounds containing the group —CO.NH— 4, Related nitrogen compounds, e.g., aminotetrazol, phenyloxytriazol car- boxy lic ester. 5. Ketonic-enolic compounds. 6. Oxyazobenzenes, The pyridonium halides in pyridine exhibit the same differences in conducting power that is noticed in solutions of their alkali salts in pyridine,* methyl alcohol,° and liquid sulphur dioxide ;° only in pyridine the difference is much more marked (eg., HC]. ps.=116, HBr. p,,=7:12, H1 . ps,=27'4), With this exception, the ‘true’ acids compared among themselves follow approximately the same order in pyridine as in water ; a fact which also applies to the pseudo-acids. The stronger the tendency to pass into an isomeric form, é.e., the more completely the pseudo- acid form is isomerised and ionised in aqueous solution, the better does its pyridine ‘solution conduct. There is to a certain extent a parallel between the affinity con- stants in aqueous solution and the conductivities in pyridine, When, however, the true acids are compared with the pseudo-acids, it is noticed that in pyridine the latter yield very much better conducting solutions than do ‘true’ acids, having approximately the same, or even very much greater, affinity constants. We may eonclude that when a hydrogen compound yields a pyridine solution of far better con- ducting power than is given by a true acid, which in aqueous solution is dissociated to approximately the same extent as the hydrogen compound, the latter is a pseudo- acid. Hexanitrodiphenylamine, for example, must be regarded as a pseudo-acid ; for although, owing to its insolubility in water, its affinity constant has not been determined, the conductivity of its pyridine solution is far greater than that of all true acids, even the strongest mineral acids, * Report of work carried out in Leipzig under the direction of Professor A. Hantzsch. ? Hantzsch and Voegelen, Ber., 85, 1001. 8 Franklin and Kraus, Amer. Chem. Jowrn., 28, 277, 27, 196. * Laszynski and Gorski, Zit. fiir Elektrochem., 4, 290. 5 Carrara, Jahrb, fiir Elektrochem., 8, 12. ® Walden and Centnerszwer, Zeit. fiir Elektrochem., 11, 249. 4.84: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. Il. On the Influence of Temperature on the Conductivity of Electrolytes. 1. The influence of temperature on the conductivity of electrolytes may be expressed by the general equation du_ (. dv di dt “\’ ae” at where 7=concentration of the ions, »=mean rate of migration of positive and negative ions, ¢= temperature, and c= constant. If the effect of change of temperature on the rate of migration is the reverse of that on the degree of dissociation, a maximum in the temperature-conductivity curve is to be expected. 2, It may be deduced that, for a given electrolyte, the smaller the dielectric constant of the solvent the lower must lie the temperature of maximum con- ductivity. 3. These deductions are confirmed by the results of previous experiments on solutions in water,' methyl? and ethyl alcohols, ammonia* and sulphur dioxide,* and especially by the results of the present investigation on solutions in pyridine. ‘The influence of temperature on the electric conductivity of solutions in pyridine has been determined for a number of acids and pseudo-acids, as well as for silver nitrate. The temperature of maximum conductivity is well marked, and the curves have been followed up to and beyond this point. 4, The curves are represented closely by the parabolic equation p, = y,(1 + d¢ + ct”) and the theoretically deduced expression @= t~F+_ is taken as a measure of the p(t 7)? temperature effect. 5. The observation of Walden and Centnerszwer, that for solutions in liquid sulphur dioxide the temperature of maximum conductivity is higher, the greater the conductivity, has not been confirmed for solutions in pyridine. 6. The comparatively rapid decrease in the degree of dissociation with increase in temperature may partly explain the fact that numerous substances which at ordinary temperatures yield good conducting pyridine solutions appear, according to boiling-point determinations, to be undissociated, IL], Abnormally High Values of Ionic Conduetivity.° Solutions of salts which contain either the same cation or the same anion as the solvent itself (pyridonium salts in pyridine, formates in formic acid, acetates in acetic acid, and probably bromides in hydrobromic acid and sulphates in sulphuric acid) show in these solvents an abnormally high conductivity in com- parison with all other salts. Since all salts are dissociated to approximately the same extent, the abnormally high values of the conductivity of the first class can only be explained by assuming an abnormally high value for the rate of migration of those ions which the salt has in common with the solvent. This abnormal value of the rate of migration is, however, only an apparent one. The ions of such salts react with the solvent with exchange of a labile hydrogen atom. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. The Applications of Grignard’s Reaction. By ALEX. MACKENZIE, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D.—See Reports, p. 273. ! Noyes and Coolidge, Zeitschr. phys. Chem., 46, 323. 2 Kraus, Phys. Review, 18, 40. 3 Amer. Chem. Journ., 24, 83. 4 Walden and Centnerszwer, Zeit. phys. Chem., 39, 513. 5 Cf. Danneel, Zit. iin Hlektrochem., 11, 249. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 485 29. Triphenylmethyl. By Professor TSCHITSCHIBABIN. pleny y y 3. Copper Mirrors. By F. D. Cuarraway. ‘The importance from the point of view of the health of the workpeople of obtaining a substitute for the tin amalgam used in the manufacture of mirrors has led many chemists to study the conditions under which metals are deposited from aqueous solution. These investigations have, however, usually had for their object the preparation of a liquid which would deposit a uniform and coherent layer of silver over a large glass surface at the ordinary temperature. Liebig was the first to solve this problem satisfactorily, and his method, in which milk sugar is the reducing agent, was formerly extensively used. Other metals are not so easily deposited, and copper, which from its close relationship with silver one would expect to behave similarly, has never been observed to be so laid upon glass. Although copper mirrors have never been obtained by deposition of the metal from an aqueous solution, Faraday’ about the time when silver mirrors were attracting much attention made the interesting observation that a mirror-like deposit could be obtained by dissolving a little oxide of copper in olive oil and heating plates of glass in a bath of this liquid up to the temperature at which the oil decomposes. The mirrors, however, obtained by Faraday’s method, if of any size, are liable to be stained or discoloured in patches by decomposition products of the oil, and they are, moreover, cenerally lacking in brilliancy. Further, as the deposition of the metal only takes place when the oil decomposes, the process is excessively disagreeable to carry out; and since the oil is spoiled it is also somewhat costly. In the course of an investigation on the oxidation of aromatic hydrazines, the author made the observation that when solutions of cupric oxide are reduced by these compounds the metal is deposited upon the glass in the form of a brilliant coherent film if clear vessels are used. The mirrors obtained by this method are very beautiful, as they show the lustrous red colour of burnished copper, and are as perfect in reflecting surface and as uniform as the similar mirrors obtained by the deposition of silver. It seems probable that this method of depositing copper upon glass could receive important application in the production of objects of art. 4. Oxides of Carbon. By Dr. Boupovarn. The following substances are produced when carbon monoxide is heated at a temperature of 445° in the presence of a catalytic agent such as spongy platinum, nickel, or copper: (A) carbon dioxide; (B) a white crystalline substance, soluble in water, giving an acid solution; (C) a gaseous substance, soluble in water, which gives (B) on evaporation of its solution. Similar results were obtained on submitting a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen to the action of heat in the presence of a catalytic agent. or . Report on the Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Substances, and its relation to Substitution in Benzene Derivatives. See Reports, p. 101. 6. Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances. See Reports, p. 104. ' Phil. Trans., 1857, p. 145. 486 ‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 7. Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—See Reports, p. 116. 8. Report on Dynamic Isomerism.—See Reports, p. 270. 9. Report on the Study of Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene Sulphonic Acid.—See Reports, p. 272. 10. Experiments illustrative of the Infllammability of Miatures of Coal Dust and Air. By Professor P. Puinuirs Bepson, D.Sc. 1l. On Substances which form Three different Liquid Phases. By Dr. F. M. JAEGER. The results now recorded arose originally during an experimental investigation into certain theoretical objections which occurred to the author in connection with Bomer’s method for detecting the adulteration of animal fats with vegetable fats. During this work the series of fatty esters of cholesterol and of Windaus’s two phytosterols of Calabar fat were prepared, and the observation of the brilliant colour changes which occur on melting the cholesterol esters led to the study of the liquid phases of these substances. The colour changes in question occur with greatest brilliance with cholesteryl cinnamate, and were demonstrated to the audience. The colour changes are due to the fact that the substances which exhibit them yield on melting several strongly doubly refracting liquid phases; the liquid phase stable at higher temperatures is always singly refracting. Lehmann showed by the microcrystallographic examination of the caproic ester that two doubly refracting liquid phases exist, and that of these one is in metastable equilibrium with the solid substance. The author has, however, found that in the cases of a number of the esters in question three liquid phases occur, and are in perfectly stable equilibrium with the solid phase: of the three liquid phases two are doubly refracting, and consist of aggregations of liquid erystals, whilst the third is always singly refracting, but often much more viscid than the doubly refracting phases. The colour changes occur at the transition temperatures, or rather at a few degrees below those temperatures, whilst the two liquid layers are separating from each other. The transitions of phase are in many respects analogous to those occurring with polymorphous substances, so that stable and metastable equilibria and therefore also cases of monotropy and enantiotropy occur. It is, however, remarkable that a new kind of equilibrium is observed with these substances ; this the author terms ‘prostable equilibrium.’ A prostable phase resembles a metastable phase in that both can be experimentally realised only as the result of a temperature change in one direction; the two kinds of phase differ in that the prostable phase can only be obtained as a result of raising the temperature, The formation of a prostable phase therefore occurs before and after that of the stable phases during a rise of temperature. This was demonstrated to the audience with the aid of cholesteryl laurinate and illustrated by means of the vapour- tension curve of the ester. With some of these esters the author has further observed that the solid phase can be heated to above the melting-point without melting ; cholesteryl laurinate can thus be heated to five degrees above the highest transition temperature without the solid phase entirely disappearing. Similar retardation phenomena occur in other cases, and their occurrence can be conveniently illustrated by means of the vapour-tension curves of the o-phytosterol esters. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION PB. 487 12. Caleiwm: its Properties and Possibilities. By Arruur E. Pratt, B.Sc. General Properties.—Calcium is a silvery white metal readily oxidised in moist air. It is very light (sp. gr. 1-52), fairly malleable, has a high specific heat, and is a gocd conductor of electricity. It is about as hard as aluminium, but at 400°C. becomes as soft as lead. It is volatile, and can be sublimed zz vacuo between 700° C, and 800° C., and melts at the latter temperature. It is a very powerful reducing agent. Calcium Alloys.—The chief effects of alloying calcium with other metals are to produce brittleness, crystallisation, and hardness; to promote oxidation and dis- integration on expusure to air; to confer the power of decomposing water and in other ways increasing the chemical activity. ~ The author’s experiments confirm Roberts-Austen’s observation that the presence of small amounts of metals of high atomic volume will cause deterioration of the physical properties of metals of low atomic volume. The atomic volume of calcium is high (25:4), and the effect of small amounts on other metals is decidedly prejudicial, provided that the metals in question are pure. The experi- ments were conducted in a converse manner to Roberts-Austen’s, 7.e., the constant was a metal of high atomic volume (calcium) instead of being low (gold). In the course of the work the following observations were made: When an alloy is made of calcium and some metal which possesses a chemical property in common with it, an increased activity in the manifestation of that property is noticed in the alloy. This increase appears to be greater than would be obtained by the simple admixture of a more active metal, the presence of calcium usually increasing the activity of the other metal. In some cases the alloy is more active than either of its constituents, Further, the chemical properties of calcium appear to be more pronounced in an alloy with a metal having an atomic volume closely approaching that of calcium than they are in an alloy of the same percentage with a metal having a much lower atomic value. The two metals in question should be about equally active when unalloyed in the particular property with respect to which they are to be compared. It is probable that both these principles are general, and not confined to calcium, although more extended research on these lines would be desirable. Industrial Possibilities—The most promising applications of calcium are as a reducing agent and for the refining of metals. In the latter case it acts in three distinct ways: (1) By reducing oxides and sulphides; (2) by eliminating dissolved gases ; (3) by forming compounds with certain impurities, thus rendering them Jess deleterious, All three modes of action are strikingly shown in the case of copper. A suitable addition of calcium will remedy ‘dry’ or ‘sulphury’ copper, give a sound casting, and give a soft and tough ingot with prohibitive proportions of bismuth or antimony, besides restoring ordinary overpoled copper to tough pitch. If excess of calcium is present, however, it induces brittleness on its own account. With one or two doubtful exceptions, no alloy of calcium has shown any promise of commercial utility so far as physical properties are concerned, its only likely application in this direction being its hardening property. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. Discussion on the Chemistry of Wheat and Flowr, with Special Reference to Strength. (i) Causes of the Quality Strength in Wheaten Flour. By A. E. Houmpuriss. The Home-grown Wheat Committee of the National Association of British and Trish Millers has for several years been engaged in producing wheats in England 488 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. which shall yield maximum crops of grain and straw, the wheat to be equal in strength, and therefore in commercial value, to the best imported varieties, The field of inquiry has been a wide one, and among other things the Com- mittee has sought to ascertain ‘the ultimate cause of strength in wheat, the nature and source of those constituents which confer on some varieties of wheat the inherent quality of strength, and the power of transmitting it to succeeding generations.’ It has been proved that though climate and soil influence quality, they are not the determining factors in the production of strength, for though the strongest wheats are ordinarily produced in districts where the winters are cold, the summers hot, and the summer rainfall high, certain varieties possess and retain the inherent quality of strength when grown in England. Manuring or early cutting at harvest time has no beneficial effect on quality. Quick growth or rapid maturation of wheats grown in England is not correlated with strength, nor does the percentage of natural moisture in well-harvested wheat indicate its indeed in certain cases the addition of water to wheat materially increases its effective baking strength. The term ‘strength’ has been loosely applied to cover several characteristics, In the view of the Committee it should not be measured by the quantity of water required to make doughs of a standard consistency, nor by the quantity of bread produced per sack of flour used, nor by the way a flour behaves in the douch, but by its capacity for making big, shapely, and therefore well-aérated loaves. This definition covers two characteristics: one, a flour’s capacity for making gas in yeast fermentation, more particularly its capacity for making gas at the latest stages of fermentation ; the other, its capacity when made into dough for retaining the gas so generated. The gas-making power will depend largely on the percentage of natural sugar any given wheat contains and its diastatic capacity. These characteristics vary substantially in different wheats. | The baker can, and does, influence the quantity of gas generated in baking. The retention of gas when made involves complex problems. The percentages of total nitrogen, gluten, gliadin, and amyloids do not correctly indicate the relative strengths of various flours. The theory that strength depends on a correct ratio between gliadin and glutenin is untenable. Professor Wood's suggestion that the strength of flour depends on its ratio of protein to salts is worthy of the closest attention in view of the fact that the physical, as distinct from the chemical, properties of proteins are profoundly affected by small quantities of acids, alkalies, and salts. (ii) Some Considerations determining the Strength of Flours. By J. L. Baker and H. F. 8. Huron. HI. B, Wood recently described! a chemical test for ‘strength’ in flours, which depended on the amount of CO, liberated from a dough under standard conditions. The volume of CO, liberated in most instances was proportional to the baker’s marks assigned to the flour, although there were exceptions. It was assumed that the quantity of CO, liberated depended upon the diastatic power of the flour and the ready-formed carbohydrates present. The authors do not think a correlation of diastatic power and ready-formed carbohydrates is justified in the present state of our knowledge, for nothing has yet been pub- lished concerning the nature of the diastase in wheat. In view of the fact that the diastatic power of wheat is a possible factor to be considered in con- nection with strength of flour, the authors have investigated the diastase of wheat. It has been previously shown * that the diastase of barley is very different from that of malt, and in an investigation shortly to be published, in conjunction with F. E. Day, the authors find that the action of wheat diastate on wheat starch is similar in character to the action of barley diastase. At a temperature of 50°C. maltose and one dextrin (a-amylodextrin) only are produced, and this will have 1 Nature, 1907, 75, 391. 2 J. L. Baker, Journ. Soe. Chem., 1902, 81, 1177. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 4.89 some bearing when the chemical composition of baked bread comes under con- sideration, Kjeldhal’s ‘ Law of Proportionality’ holds within certain limits with wheat diastase ; so if the diastatic power is determined by Lintner’s method ihe results are comparable. The diastatic powers have been measured of a number of flours of known baking value which were kindly supplied by Mr. A. Humphries. In some instances a high baking value is accompanied by a high diastatic power, but the exceptions are so marked that no conclusions can be drawn. Moreover, the diastatic power varies materially on keeping the flour. For example, a series of flours of diastatic powers of 25°, 22°, and 17° in two months became 32°, 29°, and 28°. The converse also holds for a series of diastatic powers: 31°, 3z°, and 35° became 22°, 28°, and 20° in the same time. In this connection it may be pointed out that barleys and malts behave similarly. It is also well known that certain flours improve in strength on keeping. At the ordinary temperature the diastase in flour does not materially act on thestarch, so that the amount of ready- formed sugars existing in the flour may be fairly accurately measured by aqueous extraction for two hours. But at the temperatures of 30° to 40° C. a considerable quantity of maltose is formed. As this maltose, together with the ready-formed sugars, is used up by the yeast, it is fair to conclude that diastase is an important factor in the raising of the dough. In normal flours there is an excess of diastase, so whether its activity varies between 20° and 35° Lintner, there is more than enough to produce a certain amount of maltose from the starch during the making of the dough. For this reason a determination of the diastatic activity is not likely to afford any evidence as to the baking value of a flour. Sugars.—The total sugars, after inversion of the cane sugar present calculated as glucose, vary from 1:6 to 24 per cent. The reducing sugar present in cold aqueous extract of flour—not taking into account the maltose formed by the action of diastase during extraction—appears to consist of a mixture of invert sugar and glucose. The percentages of sugar in different flours do not point to any connec- tion with the baking value. So far it is not possible to judge of the baking value of a flour by determining any one factor, such as total gluten, ratio of gliadin to glutenin, diastatic power, or ready-formed sugars. H. B. Wood suggests that the difference between strong and weak flours is connected more with the physical properties of their glutens than with the chemical composition, and he proposes to investigate the effect of the addition of small quantities of acids, alkalies, and salts. This should yield interesting results, for the character of enzyme change is greatly affected by the addition of such substances. A hopeful line of investigation seems to be afforded by the study of other enzymes than diastase which may be present. Such observations as the destruc- tion of wheat for flour-making purposes by sprouting or the presence of SO, in the holds of vessels, the marked improvement by holding over flours and the grading of flours of different origin to improve the baking value, all appear to us to indicate enzymic activity. The authors are at present examining flours for enzymes other than diastase, and a proteolytic enzyme has been detected which acts on the white of egg. This doubtless has some bearing on the question, for the proteolytic enzyme may possibly effect an alteration in the physical properties of the gluten and modify its capacity for gas retention. It seems likely that it is the variation in the capacity of flours for gas retention rather than absolute volume of gas formed which differentiates strong from weak; and the gas which effects the final volume of the loaf is, it can hardly be doubted, the CO, from the maltose formed by the action of the diastase on starch rather than the gas from the ready-formed sugars. The following Paper was then reed :— 1. The Production of Acid or Alkaline Reactions in the Soil by Artificial Manures. By A. D, Haun, IA, 4.90 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. Section C.—GEOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE Secti0on.—Professor J. W. Grecory, D.Sc., F.R.S. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— I. The Geological Society of London. 1907! This is the centenary year of the Geological Society of London; next month the British geologists will celebrate the event, and their pleasure will he enhanced by the sympathetic presence of a distinguished company of foreign eologists. With a just feeling of satisfaction may we celebrate this event; for to the Geological Society of London is due the conversion of Geology from a fanciful speculation to an ordered science. Yet so quietly has this society done its work that the debt due to it is inadequately realised. When we consider what the world owes to Geology in respect of its economic guidance—the intellectual stimulus of its conceptions—the reverence it inspires for the venerable and majestic universe— its liberating influence from dogma—we may rightly regard the work of the Geological Society, as one of the most valuable British contributions to intellectual progress during the nineteenth century. A hundred years ago the spirit of the eighteenth century still controlled much of the then orthodox Geology. Jameson's ‘ Elements of Geognosy,’ of which the preface is dated January 15, 1808, taught, as the certain conclusions of Geology, doctrines that had been reached by applying prejudiced speculation to imaginary facts. It was a manual of pure, a priori, Wernerian Geology. The author claimed that to Werner ‘we owe almost everything that is truly valuable in this important branch of knowledge’; and that it was Werner ‘ who had discovered the general structure of the crust of the globe and pointed out the true mode of examining and ascertaining those great relations which it is one of the principal objects of geognosy to investigate,’ But Jameson’s book was the death-song of Wernerian Geology in British science. A new Geology was developing; and the Geological Society of London ushered in its birth. No more should observations be made through the distorting medium of preconceived fancies! No more should Geology be inspired by that heedless spirit, which cares not to distinguish between fancy and fact! With youthful vigour the new Geology would have nothing to do with the search for cosmogonies and such like fancy foods; and the Geological Society of London should be nourished on unadulterated facts. The time was ripe for the change. No less a person than Goethe, once an enthusiastic votary of Geology, was, in his play of ‘Faust,’ holding up its teachers to ridicule. The theories ‘evolved from the inner consciousness’ of Continental Neptunists and Plutonists were to Goethe excellent subjects for caricature. It was then the Englishman, Greenough, founded a society to turn Geology from the pursuit of fleeting fancies and lead her to the study of sober PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 491 but enduring facts. The members of this society were to abandon the quest of scientific chimeras; they were to leave to later generations the attempt to solve the universe as a whole. The Geological Society has owed its influence to its bold, original purpose. It was not founded as a drifting social union of men, with a common interest in a single science. Its object was to apply to Geology one particular mode ot research. It adopted as its motto this fine passage from Bacon :— ‘If any man makes it his delight and care—not so much to cling to and use past discoveries, as to penetrate to what is beyond them—not to conquer Nature by talk, but by toil—in short, not to have elegant and plausible theories, but to gain sure and demonstrable knowledge; let such men (if it shall seem to them right), as true children of knowledge, unite themselves with us.’ The methods of the society were as practical as its ideals. London, with characteristic unconventionality and originality, has used its scientific societies as its university for post-graduate teaching. Informally the Geological Society enrolled every British master of Geology on its staff of unpaid professors, then set each of them to teach the branch of Geology which he knew best. And these professors were no carpet knights; they were knights errant who derived their knowledge, not from books alone, but from their wanderings over hills and dales, in mines and quarries, by ice-polished rocks and water-worn valleys. At its meetings the leaders of the society announced what they had discovered, gave sure and demonstrable proofs of their discoveries, and showed in what direction the geological forces should be directed for the conquest of Nature. The goodly fellowship of the Geological Society has always encamped on the ever-advancing frontier of geological knowledge, where the well-surveyed tracks pass out into the bright, alluring realms of the unknown. The actual founders of the Geological Society were apparently men of less showy intellect than the great Werner, whose teaching had intoxicated many of the most gifted of his enthusiastic pupils. They were men, like Greenough and Phillips, who had a practical insight that enabled them to give a permanent help to the progress of science. They had that supreme gift, the power to see things as they are. It would not be fair to claim for them that they were the originators of accurate methods in Geology ; such methods had been used before ther day—by William Smith in England, by Lehman in Germany, and by Desmarest in France. But these men, acting singly, had not been able to save Geology from the eighteenth-century spirit of adventurous speculation, nor had they lifted from Geology the burden of those quaint theories, that made this science the butt of Voltaire’s luminous ridicule. The great achievement of the Geological Society has been this: as a corporate body it has been able to spread its influence very widely ; its clear-sighted pursuit of a practical ideal has been adopted in other countries; its resolute rejection of the temptation to wander in dreamland has affected geological students all over the world. In this way has been laid a broad foundation of positive knowledge upon which modern Geology has been built. The fine self-restraint, which induced the founders of the Geological Society to restrict its work for awhile to observing the surface of the earth, has had its reward. The methods this society was founded to employ have been so widely used, that we now have geological maps of a wider area than was known to geographers of a century ago. The general distribution of all the rocks on the earth’s surface has been discovered ; most settled countries have been surveyed in some detail; the main outlines of the history of life on the earth have been written and carried back almost as far as paleontologists are likely to go. There are doubtless fossiliferous areas still undiscovered in the ‘back blocks’ of the world; but, though negative predictions are proverbially reckless, it seems probable that Palzontology will not carry geological history materially farther back, Fossils have been discovered in the pra-Cambrian rocks ; the best known is the fauna described by Walcot from Montana; but his Beltina, the oldest well-characterised fossil, is still of Paleozoic type. It may be that the poverty 492 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. of carbonate of lime, which is so characteristic a feature of most Cambrian and pre-Cambrian sediments, indicates that the bulk of the contemporary organisms had chitinous shells or were soft-bodied. Palaeontology begins with the appearance of hard-bodied organisms ; it can only reveal to us the dawn of skeletons, not the dawn of life. We are dependent for knowledge of the climate and geography of Eozoic time to the evidence of the sediments, of which there are great thicknesses beneath the fossiliferous rocks in most parts of the world.! II. The Geology of the Inner Earth. Now that this geological survey of the earth is in rapid progress; while the history of life has been written at least in outline; the chief fossils, minerals, and rocks have been described and generously endowed with names; and the manifold activity of water and air in moulding the surface is duly appreciated, it is not surprising to find that the centre of geological interest is shifting to the deeper regions of the earth’s crust and to the problems of applied Geology. The secrets of these deeper regions are both of scientific and economic interest. They are of scientific importance, for it is now generally recognised that the main plan of the earth’s geography and the essential characters of the successive geological systems are the result of internal movements. The relative importance of those restless external agents that we can watch, denuding here and depositing there, has been exaggerated ; probably they do little more than soften the outlines due to the silent heavings produced by the colossal energies of the inner earth. The study of the deeper layers of the crust is of economic interest, for, with keener competition between increasing populations and with the exhaustion of the most easily used resources of field and mine, there is growing need for the better utilisation of soils and waters, and for the pursuit of deeper deposits of ore. If a shaft be sunk at any point on the earth’s surface, a formation of Archean schists and gneisses would probably always be reached ; and, working backward, geological methods always fail at last—in primeeval, Archeean darkness, The Archean rocks still hide from us the earlier period of the earth’s history, including that of all rocks which now lie beneath them. But already there are indications that the mystery of the ‘ beyond’ is not so impenetrable as it seemed. 1. The Nebular and Meteoritie Hypotheses.—The eighteenth century explained the history of the earth by the nebular hypothesis of Laplace. Geologists respect- fully adopted this idea from the astronomers; they accepted it as one of those essential facts of the universe with which geological philosophy must harmonise. The resulting theory represented the earth as originally a glowing cloud of incan- descent gas, which slowly cooled, until an irregular crust of rock formed around a gaseous or molten core; as the surface grew cooler, the depressions in the crust were filled with water from the condensing vapour, forming oceans which became habitable as the temperature further fell. The whole earth was thought to have had a long period with a universal tropical climate, under which coral reefs grew where flow our polar seas, and palms flourished on what are now the Arctic shores. Still further cooling had established our climatic zones; and it was pre- dicted that in time the polar cold would creep outward, driving all living beings toward the equator, until at length the whole earth, like the moon, would become lifeless through cold, as it had once been uninhabitable through heat. This theory has permanently impressed itself on geological terminology; and its corollaries, secular refrigeration and the contortion of the shrinking crust, once dominated discussions concerning climatic history and the formation of mountain chains. This nebular hypothesis, however, we are now told, is mathematically 1 Such are the Algonkian sediments represented by the Huronian and Algonkians of America, the Algonkians of Scandinavia, the Karelian of Finland, the Briovarian of North-West France, the Heathcotian of Australia, the Transvaal and Swaziland systems of South Africa, the Dharwar and Bijawar systems of India, the Itacolumnite series of Brazil, &c. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.93 improbable, or even impossible; and it is only consistent with the facts of Geology on the assumption that, in proportion to the age of the world, the whole of geological time is so insignificant that the secular refrigeration during it is quite inappreciable ; hence Geology can no more confirm or correct the theory than a stockbreeder could refute evolution by failing to breed kangaroos into cows in a single lifetime. The theory of the gaseous nebula has been probably of more hindrance than help to geologists ; its successors, the meteoritic hypothesis of Lockyer and the planetismal theory of Chamberlin, are of far more practical use to us, and they give a history of the world consistent with the actual records uf Geology. According to Sir Norman Lockyer’s meteoritic hypothesis, nebulee comets and many so-called stars consist of swarms of meteorites which, though normally cold and dark, are heated by repeated collisions, and so become luminous. They may even be volatilised into glowing meteoritic vapour; but in time this heat is dissipated, and the force of gravity condenses a meteoritic swarm into a single globe. Some of the swarms are, says Lockyer, ‘truly members of the solar system,’ and some of them travel around the sun in nearly circular orbits, like planets. They may be regarded as infinitesimal planets, and so Chamberlin calls them planetismals. The planetismal theory is a development of the meteoritic theory, and presents it in an especially attractive guise. It regards meteorites as very sparsely distri- buted through space, and gravity as powerless to collect them into dense groups. So it assigns the parentage of the solar system to a spiral nebula composed of planetismals, and the planets as formed from knots in the nebula, where many planetismals had been concentrated near the intersections of their orbits. These groups of meteorites, already as solid as a swarm of bees, were then packed closer by the influence of gravity, and the contracting mass was heated by the pressure, even above the normal melting-point of the material, which was kept rigid by the weight of the overlying layers. This theory has the recommendation of being consistent with the history of the earth as interpreted by Geology. For whereas the nebular hypothesis repre- sents the earth as having been originally intensely hot, and having persistently cooled, yet geological records show that an extensive low-level glaciation occurred in Cambrian times in low latitudes in South Australia ;! indeed, it seems probable that, in spite of many great local variations, the average climate of the whole world has remained fairly constant throughout geological time. Whereas it has often been represented, in accordance with the nebular theory, that volcanic action has steadily waned, owing to the lowering of the earth’s internal fires and the constant thickening of its crust, yet epochs of intense volcanic action have recurred throughout the world’s history, separated by periods of comparative quiescence. Whereas it has been assumed, as a corollary to the nebular theory, that the force which uplifted mountain chains was the crumpling of the crust owing to the contraction of the internal mass, yet observation reveals that the crust has been corrugated, and fold mountains formed by contraction to an extent far greater than secular cooling can explain, 2. The Materials of the Inner Earth.—This planetismal hypothesis is not only consistent with geological records, but also with the known facts as to the internal composition of the earth and the structure of extra-terrestrial bodies as revealed by meteorites. Meteorites are of two main kinds—the meteoric irons, which consist of nickel iron, and stony meteorites, which are composed of basic minerals. Some of the stony meteorites have been shattered into fault breccias, showing that they are fragments of larger bodies which were subject to internal movements, like those that have formed crush-conglomerates in the crust of the earth. Those stony meteorites, therefore, both in composition and structure resemble the rocks in the comparatively shallow fracture zone of the earth’s crust. The nickel-iron meteorites, on the other hand, represent the barysphere beneath the crust. The earth appears to consist of material similar to that of the two types of meteorites ; but whether the proportions of the two materials in the earth represent ‘ As shown by the work of Professor Howchin, of Adelaide. 4.9 4, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, their proportions in other bodies and in meteoric swarms is problematical. There appear to be no satisfactory data for an estimate of the relative abundance in space »f the iron and stony meteoric material. Stony meteorites have been seen to fall far more frequently than iron meteorites ; but the largest known meteorites are of the nickel-iron group, although this material, in moist climates, very soon decays. The most reliable indication as to the relative amounts of the stony and nickel-iron meteorites is given by a comparison of the weight of the two types of material in meteorites of which the fall was seen. According to Mr, Fletcher's list of the meteorites in the British Museum up to 1904, the collection included 319 specimens of which the fall is recorded: of them 305 specimens were stony meteorites of an average weight of 2°63 lb., 9 were iron meteorites of an average weight of 2°31 lb., and 5 were siderolites (or meteorites containing a large pro- portion of both silicates and nickel iron) of an average weight of 54 lb.’ There- fore, according to this test, the stony materials would appear to be the more abundant. But if all known meteorites are considered, the iron group far outweighs the other; for the iron meteorites in the British Museum collection weighed 11,873 lb., as against a total weight of only 865 lb. of stony meteorites. The available evidence suggests that the stony meteorites fall the more frequently on the earth, but the meteoric irons come in such large masses that they outbalance the showers of the smaller stones. ; We might have expected help from another source in examining what lies below the Archean rocks. Cannot the relative proportions of the stony and metallic constituents in the earth help us? Unfortunately, this proportion is as uncertain, as that of stony and iron meteoritic material. The best-established fact about the interior of the earth is that its materials are much heavier than those of its crust. ‘I'he specific gravity of the earth as a whole is about 5°67; the specific gravity of the materials of the crust may be taken as about 2°5, while that of the heavier basic rocks is only about 3:0. Hence the earth as a whole weighs about twice as much as it would do, if it were built of materials having the same density as those which form the crust. Two explanations of the greater internal weight of the earth have been given. According to one, the earth is composed throughout of the same material, and the internal mags is only heavier because it is compressed by the weight of the over- lying crust. Laplace estimated that the material would gradually increase in density from the surface to the centre, where its specific gravity would be 10°74, and the calculations of Schlichter show that condensation due to compression may be adequate to account for the greater internal weight. According to the alternative or segregation theory, the difference in density is explained as due to a difference in composition ; the interior of the earth is thought to be heavier owing to the concentration of metals within it. The probability of this metallie interior has been advanced from several lines of evidence ; and the assumed metallic mass has received frem Posepny the name of the ‘barysphere,’ or heavy sphere. According to this view the earth is essentially a huge ball of iron, which, like modern projectiles, is hardened with nickel ; and it is covered by a stony crust, the materials of which were primarily separated from the metallic mass, like the slag formed on a ball of solidifying iron in a puddling furnace. It has been objected that the weight of the earth is not great enough for much of it to be composed of metallic iron or of meteoritic material. The specific gravity of iron under the pressure at the earth's surface is about 7°7, and it would be even greater when compressed in the interior. But the barysphere is doubtless impregnated with much stony material that would lessen its weight. An estimate by Farrington (1897) of the average specific gravity of the meteorites of which the fall had been recorded is only 3°69. According to the Rev. E, Hill (1885) the mean specific gravity of all the meteorites in the British Museum 1 The weights are given in pounds avoirdupois. For the calculation I am indebted to Mr. W. R. Wiseman, of the Geological Department of Glasgow University. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.95 was 4:5; and, though Mr. Hill duly considered the eflect of compression, he concluded that ‘ the density of the earth is perfectly consistent with its being an aggregation of meteoric materials” Moreover, within the metallic barysphere there may be a core of lighter material; for earthquake waves travel more slowly in the central core of the earth than in the intermediate zone, or are even suppressed altogether there; hence the centre of the earth may be occupied by matter less compact than that of the shell around it; and, according to Oldham’s calculations, the light central core occupies two-fifths of the diameter of the earth. The evidence of density alone, therefore, gives no convincing evidence of the nature of the earth’s interior; and geologists have been left with no conclusive reason for choosing between the condensation. and segregation theories. Radio- activity has, however, unexpectedly come to our aid, and has disclosed a further striking resemblance between the internal mass of the earth and the iron meteorites. It has supplied direct evidence about the constituents of the earth at depths which have hitherto been far beyond the range of observation. Mr. Strutt has shown that radium is probably limited within the earth to the depth of 45 miles; that the deeper-lying material is free from radium; and that this substance is not found in iron meteorites. The agreement in radio-active properties between the iron meteorites and the interior of the earth is an additional and weighty argument in favour cf the view that the earth is largely composed of nickel iron. 3. Physical Conditions and Temperatures.—The physical condition in which the material exists is now of secondary interest. The old controversy as to whether the earth has a molten interior inclosed within a solid shell has lost its importance, because it has become a mere matter of definition of terms. The facts which led geologists to believe that the interior of the earth is fluid are con- sistent with those which prove that the earth is more rigid than a globe of steel. For under the immense pressure within the earth the materials can transmit vibrations and resist compression like a solid; but they can change their shape as easily as a fluid. They are fluid just as lead is when it is forced to flow from a hydraulic press. Not only are geologists now justified in their belief that the deeper layers of the earth’s crust are in a state of fluxion, but, according to Arrhenius (1900), the earth is solid only to the depth of 25 miles, below which is a liquid zone extending to the depth of 190 miles; and below that level, he tells us, ‘the temperature must, without doubt, exceed the critical temperature of all known substances, and at this depth the liquid magma passes gradually to a gaseous magma.’ This distinguished physicist gives a description of the earth’s interior which reminds us of the views of the early geologists. Arrhenius’s theory rests, however, on the existence within the earth of exalted temperatures ; and this assumption a geologist may now hesitate to accept with less risk of getting into disgrace than he would have run a few years ago. It is improbable that the rapid increase of heat with depth which is observed near the surface should continue below the lithosphere; for, if the earth consists in the main of iron, even although it be arranged as a mesh containing silicates in the interspaces, the heat conductivity might be sufficient to keep the whole metallic sphere at a nearly equal temperature. Here, again, Mr. Strutt’s work on radio- activity is in full agreement with the requirements of geologists, for he estimates that below a crust 45 miles thick the earth has a uniform temperature of only 1500° C. Whether the further conclusion, that this heat is due to the action of the radium in the crust, be established or not, it is gratifying to hear a physicist arguing in favour of a moderate and uniform internal temperature. All that the actual observations prove and that geological theories require is that the material within the earth be intensely hot, and that it lie under such overwhelming pressure that it would as readily change its form and as quickly fill up an accessible cavity as any liquid would do. Whether such a condition is to be described as solid, liquid, or gaseous is of little concern to geologists. 4.96 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. III. The Deep-seated Control over the Earth's Surface. The modern view of the structure of the earth adds greatly to the interest of its study, for it recognises the world as an individual entity of which both the geological structure and the history have to be considered as a whole. Once the earth was regarded as a mere lifeless, inert mass which has been spun by the force of gravity that hurls it on its course, into the shape of a simple oblate spheroid. Corresponding with this astronomical teaching as to the shape of the world was the geological doctrine, that all its topography is the work of local geographical agents, whose control over the surface of the earth is as absolute as that of the sculptor’s chisel over a block of marble. Both these conceptions are now only of historic interest. The irregular indi- vidual shape of the earth is expressed by its description as a geoid. The pro- cesses which have produced its varying shape have also controlled its geological history and evolution, for they cause disturbances of the crust, which affect the whole earth simultaneously ; and so the geographical agents are given similar work and powers at the same time in different places. Hence there is a remarkable world-wide uniformity in the general characters of the sedimentary deposits of each of the geological systems. The last pre- Cambrian system includes thick masses of felspathic sandstones alike in the Torridonian of Scotland, the sparagmite of Scandinavia, the Keweenawan Sand- stones of the United States, and perhaps also the quartzites of the Rand. The Cambrian has its greywackes and coarse slates and its numerous phosphatic limestones; the Ordovician its prevalent shales and slates; the Silurian its epi- sodal limestones and shales. The Devonian has its wide areas of Old Red Sand- stones as a continental type, while its marine representatives show the prevalence of coarse grits and sandstones in the lower series, of limestones and slates in the middle series, and the recurrence of sandstones in the upper series; and this sequence occurs alike in North-Western Europe, in America, and Australia. The Carboniferous contains the first regional beds of thick limestone and the first important Coal Measures. The Trias contains rocks indicating the same arid continental conditions in America, Australia, Asia, and Africa that Pro- fessor Watts has shown then prevailed in the neighbourhood of Leicester. In the Mesozoic era we owe to Suess the demonstration of the world-wide influence of those marine encroachments or ‘ transgressions’ whereby the great continents of the Trias were gradually submerged by the rising sea. Speaking generally, there is a remarkable lithological resemblance between contemporary formations in all parts of the world. This fact had been often remarked, but was usually dismissed as due to a number of local isolated coinci- dences of no special significance. But the coincidences are too numerous and too striking to be thus lightly dismissed. They are among the indications that the main earth-changes have been due to world-wide causes, which led to the predominance of the same types of sedimentary rocks during the same period in many regions of the world. The conditions that govern the geological evolution and general geography of the earth are probably due to the interaction between the earth’s crust and the contracting interior; they may take place as slow changes in the form of the earth, causing the slow rising or lowering of the sea surface, or the slow uplift or depres- sion of regions of the earth’s erust; or they may give rise to periods of violent volcanic action in many parts of the earth, between which may be long periods of quiescence. The geographical effects of changes in the earth’s quivering mass affect distant regions at the same time. Therefore the landmarks of physical geology will probably be found to give more precise evidence as to geological synchronism than those of Paleontology, on which we have hitherto had to rely. IV. Plutonists and Ore-formation. Belief in the earth’s internal fires was most faithfully held amongst geologists by the Plutonists of the eighteenth century, and repudiated with PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 497 equal thoroughness by the Neptunists, who refused to concede that volcanic action was due to deep-seated cosmic causes. Thus Jameson in 1807 stoutly maintained that volcanoes were superficial phenomena due to the combustion of beds of coal beneath fusible rocks, such as basalt, and that the explosions were due to the sudden expansion of sea-water into steam by contact with the burning coal. Volcanoes, according to this view, were correctly described as burning mountains, giving forth fire, flame, and smoke. The extreme Neptunist and Plutonist schools have long since been extinct, but the controversy is not quite closed. The battlefield is now practically restricted to economic geology, and the issue is the origin of some important ores. Ore deposits present so many perplexing features that deep-seated igneous agencies were naturally invoked to explain them, and some of the most thorough- going champions of the igneous origin of ores make claims that remind us of the eighteenth-century Plutonists. The question is to some extent a matter of terms. Many of the ores which Vogt, for example, describes as of igneous origin he attributes, not to the direct consolidation of material from a molten state, but to eruptive after-actions due to the hot solutions and heated gases given off from cooling igneous rocks. Igneous rocks probably play a notable part in the genesis of most primary ore deposits ; for the entrance o! the hot ore-bearing solu- tions is rendered possible by the heat of the igneous intrusions, as Professor Kemp has well shown in his paper on ‘The Role of Igneous Rocks in the Formation of Metallic Veins.’ Professor Kemp limits the term ‘ igneous’ to materials formed by the direct consolidation of molten material ; and this decision seems to me to be most convenient. JT’or example, the quartzite that is so often found beneath a bed of basalt is due to hot alkaline water from the lava cementing the loose grains of sand; the process is an eruptive after-action, but it would be unusual to call such a quartzite an igneous rock. 1. Igneous Ores.—That there are ores which are the products of direct igneous origin is now almost universally admitted. The mineral magnetite is a most valuable source of iron, and it is a constituent of most basic igneous rocks. If iron were a high-priced metal, such as tin or copper, of which ores containing one or three per cent. are profitably worked, then basalt would be an ore of igneous origin. Under present commercial conditions, however, basalt cannot be regarded as an iron ore. But if the magnetite in a basic rock had been segregated into clots or masses large enough and pure enough to pay for mining, then they would be iron ores formed by igneous action. There are cases of such segregations large enough to be mined. The most famous is Taberg, a mountain in Smaland, near the southern end of Lake Wetter, in Sweden. It isa locality of historic interest ; a view of it, as a mountain of iron, was published by Peter Ascanius ' in the ‘ Philo- sophical Transactions’ in 1755, and the element vanadium was first discovered in its ore by Sefstrém in 1830. Taberg consists of an intrusive mass of rock composed of magnetite, olivine, labradorite, and pyroxene. Many theories of its formation have been advanced, The view generally adopted is that of Térnebohm, who described the rock as a variety of hyperite in which there has been a central segregation of magnetite to such an extent, that some of it contains 31 per cent.of iron, Térnebohm claims to have traced a gradual passage from normal hyperite to a variety poor in felspar, then to one without felspar, and finally to a granular intergrowth of magnetite and olivine. This Taberg ore was mined and smelted for iron in the eighteenth century, when transport was more costly and commercial competition less keen than it is to-day. The ore has been worked at intervals as late as 1870; and as the hill is estimated to contain 100 million tons of ore above the level of the adjacent railway, it is not surprising that efforts are being again made to utilise the deposit, in spite of its low grade and high percentage of titanium. The Taberg rock has almost reached the line which divides magnetite-bearing rocks from useful iron ores. Its igneous origin, however, has not ‘been universally accepted, The theory has been rejected by so eminent an authority as Posepny, 1 Vol. xlix. pp. 30-34, pl. ii. 1907. K K 498 ‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. according to whom the ore occurs in solid veins as well as in grains; and he holds that, like other Scandinavian iron ores, it was due to secondary deposition, During a visit to the mountain, I failed to see any secondary veins, except of insig- nificant value. The microscopic sections of the ore show that it is a granular ageregate of olivine, generally with labradorite and pyroxene. Hence I have no hesitation in accepting the view of the Swedish geologists and regard Taberg as a magmatic segregation. Posepny! has in this case carried his Neptunist theory of the genesis of ores too far. At Routivaara, in Swedish Lapland, there is a still larger mass of magnetite, which is claimed, in accordance with the descriptions of Petersson and Sjogren, to be due to segregation from the magma of the surrounding gabbro. This mass of magnetite is of colossal size, but it is of no present economic value, owing to its high percentage of titanium and its remote position. An igneous origin is claimed by Professor Hégbom for some small masses of titaniferous magnetite in the island of Aln6, opposite Sundsvall, on the eastern coast of Sweden. ‘This case is of interest, as the surrounding rock is not basic: it is a nepheline syenite, containing only 2 per cent. of magnetite, which, however, has been concentrated in places, until some specimens (according to an analysis quoted by Professor Hégbom) contain as much as 64 per cent. of magnetite, Y per cent. of ferrous oxide, and 12 per cent. of titanic oxide. The Alné magnetites, again, are of no practical value, as they are too low in grade and too refractory in nature. I understand that about 500 tons of the material have been smelted, but with unprofitable results, and the rest of the material quarried has been left on the shore. We may therefore accept the iron- bearing masses of Alné and Routivaara, as well as that at Taberg, as due to magmatic segregation, without having conceded much as to the igneous forma- tion of ores. Tbe process in this case has formed rocks, rich in titaniferous magnetite, from which iron could be obtained, but rocks which no ironmaster is at present willing to buy as iron ore. Whether a basic igneous rock is to be regarded as an iron ore, or as only useful for road metal, depends on cost of treatment, The definition of the term ‘ore’ is very elastic, Petrographers speak of the minute grains of magnetite or chromite in a rock as its ores; but that is a special use of the term ‘ore.’ Usually ore means a material which can be profitably worked as a source of metals under existing or practicable industrial conditions.? According to this definition, the Swedish deposits of titaniferous magnetite are at present doubt- fully within the category of iron ores. The famous iron mines of Middle Sweden at Dannemorra, Norrberg, Gran- gesberg, and Persberg occur under different geological conditions; they work lenticles or bands of ores in metamorphic rocks, of which some are altered sedi- ments; and the view has therefore been held by de Launay and Vogt that the ores also are altered sediments. That ores are formed by igneous segregation of suflicient size and purity to be of economic importance is a theory which rests on two chief cases—the nickel ores of Sudbury in Canada and the iron ores of Swedish Lapland. 2. The Sudbury Nickel Ores.—The nickel ores of Sudbury are the most import- ant historically. ‘They have been repeatedly claimed as of direct igneous origin by Bell (1891), von Foullon (1892), Vogt (1893), Barlow (1903), and by other geologists; and this view was advocated before the Association at the Johannesburg meeting by Professor Coleman. The theory was stoutly opposed by Posepny in 1898, and Professcr Beck in 1901 described some of the brecciated ore, and showed that its metallic minerals are sharply separated from the barren rock. He held that such ore must have been formed, not only after the consolidation of the rock, but even after or during its subsequent metamorphism. The views of Posepny and Beck seem to have been established by additional microscopic study of the ores by C. W. 1 F. Posepny, ‘The Genesis of Ore Deposits,’ Zrans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 1893, p. 323. 2 The Oxford Dictionary adopts a still more restricted definition; according to it an ore is ‘a native mineral containing a precious or useful metal in such quantity and in such chemical combination as to make its extraction profitable.’ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 499 Dickson (1903), He has shown that the sulphides are separated from the barren rock by sharp boundaries, and without any indication of a passage between them ; that the fragments of ore in the rock have short corners, whereas, had they grown in a molten magma, the angles would have been rounded, and the faces corroded. Most of the ore, moreover, occurs as a cement filling interspaces between broken fragments of barren rock and along planes of shearing, The Sudbury ores, there- fore, appear to have been deposited from solution during or after the brecciation of the rocks in which they occur, and long after|their first consolidation. If Dickson's facts be right, the Sudbury ores are necessarily aqueous and not igneous in origin, 3. Scandinavian Iron Ores.—The other important mining field of which the ores are claimed as of igneous origin is Swedish Lapland. Its ores are rich and the ore bodies colossal. One mine, Kirunavaara, yielded over one and a half million tons of ore in 1906, and according to a recent agreement with the Swedish Government the annual output of ore from that mine may be raised to three million tons by 1913. The chief mining fields of Lapland, although situated to the north of the Arc‘ic Circle, have long been known; for some of them contain veins of copper which were worked, for example, at Svappavaara in the seventeenth century. The iron ores, however, could not be used until a railway had been laid through the swamps of Lapland to carry the ores cheaply to the coast. In 1862 an ill-fated English company began a railway to the Gellivara mines, and thirty years later this was completed across Scandinavia, from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia at Lulea to an ice-free port at Narvik, on the Norwegian coast, This railway, the most northern in the world, passes the two great mining fields of Gellivara and Kiruna. The mining field of Kiruna is the larger and at present of the greater geological interest, as its structure is simpler and its rocks less altered. The ore body at Kiruna outcrops along the crest of a ridge two miles long, and it is continued beneath Lake Luossajarvi to the smaller but still immense ore body of Luossavaara. At Kiruna the ore rises to the height of 816 feet above the sur- face of the lake, and it varies in thickness from 30 to 500 feet, with an average thickness of about 280 feet. According to the report by Professor Walfrid Petersson,’ submitted this year to the Swedish Parliament, Kirunavaara contains 200 million tons of ore above lake-level, and Luossavaara another 224 million tons. The ore is high-grade. According to Lundbohm 60 per cent. of the trial pits showed a yield varying from 67 to 71 per cent. of iron, and 21 per cent. of them showed a yield of from 60 to 67 per cent. of iron. The average of nineteen analyses published in Professor Petersson’s recent report gives the contents of iron as 64:15 per cent. Unlike the Taberg and Routivaara ores, the percentage of titanium is very low; thus in nineteen analyses given by Petersson the average of titanic acid is only 0:23 per cent., and it varies in the specimens from 0-04 to 0'8 per cent. The ore lies between two series of acid rocks, which hare been very differently interpreted, but will no doubt be fully explained by the researches now in progress under the direction of Mr, Lundbohm. The rocks were first called halleflinta, as by Fredholm, and regarded as of sedimentary origin. They are now accepted as an igneous series, associated with some conglomerates, slates, and quar'zites. The ore body itself is bounded on both sides by porphyrites, of which that on the lower or western side is more basic than that overlying the ore to the east. The basic western porphyrite is in contact with a soda-augite syenite of which the relations are still uncertain. Interbedded with the overlying eastern porphyrite are rocks that appear to be volcanic tuffs, and both in the tuffs and in the upper porphyrite are fragments of the Kiruna ore. Three main theories of the genesis of the Kiruna ores have been proposed. Their sedimentary origin was urged on the ground that they occur regularly interstratified in a series of altered sediments, and that the ores, therefore, are also sedimentary. This view may be promptly dismissed, since the adjacent rocks are igneous. 1 Bihang till Rikd. Prot., 1907, 1 Saml., 1 Afd., 84 Haft, No. 107, pp. 213, 217, K K 2 500 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. The second theory has been advanced independently by Professor de Launay and Dr. Helge Bickstr6m: according to them the porphyrites above and below the iron ores are lava flows, and the ore was a superficial formation deposited in an interval between the volcanic eruptions, According to de Launay the iron was raised to the surface as emanations of iron chloride and iron sulphide; the iron was deposited as oxide, and most of it subsequently reduced to magnetite during the metamorphism of the district. The third theory—that the ores are of direct igneous origin—has been main- tained by Lofstrand, Higbom, and Stutzer; according to them the ores are segregations of magnetite from the acid igneous rocks in which they oeeur. The segregation theory has been opposed, amongst others, by de Launay and Vogt. Thus, de Launay maintains that the segregation would have been impossible in such fluid lavas as the Kiruna porphyrites, and is improbable, since there is no transition between the ore and the barren rock. The segregation theory has serious difficulties, and is faced by several obvious improbabilities. The ore occurs as a band nearly forty times as long as it is broad. It has the aspect, therefore, of a bed or a lode. The ore has not the granular, crystalline structure of an igneous rock like the hyperite of Taberg, but the aspect of a material deposited from solution or formed metasomatically. It is almost free from titanium, the undesirable constituent so abundant in the ores of Taberg and Routivaara. The igneous theory cannot, however, be lightly dismissed, as it is supported by the high authority of Professor Hogbom, and therefore demands careful con- sideration. It has been advanced in two main forms, the one considering the ore to have been deposited at the time when the igneous rocks were consolidating, the other con- sidering it was deposited at a later period. According to Professor Hégbom, the ore was syngenetic, being a true magmatic segregation from a syenite. But, according to Dr. Stutzer (1906), the segregation was later than the consolidation of the syenite. He describes the lode as an intrusive banded dyke, of which the chief constituents are magnetite and apatite; and the injection of this dyke pneumatolytically affected the rocks beside it, producing an intermediate zone, impregnated with ore, which he compares to contact deposits,’ In spite of the high authority of Professor Hiéghom, I am bound to confess that the Kiruna ores do not impress me as of igueous formation. Their bed-like form, microscopic structure, and poverty in titanium are features in which tbey differ from those admittedly due to direct magmatic segregation. The microscopic sections that I have examined suggest that both the magnetite and apatite were deposited from solution and later than the consolidation of the underlying porphyrite, which the ore in part replaces. An examination of the field evidence supports the conclusions of de Launay and Backstrom as to the ore being a bedded deposit overlying a lava flow, but enlarged by secondary deposition. V. Future Supply of Iron Ores. This conclusion is perbaps economically disappointing. The possible existence of such vast segregations of iron in the acid igneous rocks has an important economic bearing. There is only too good reason to fear that the chief iron ores are comparatively limited in depth ; for most of them have been formed by water containing oxygen and carbonic acid in solution, which has percolated downward from the surface. Ores thus formed are therefore restricted to the comparatively ‘In a later paper, of which only a short abstract has been issued, Dr. Stutzer, however, explains that ‘the intrusion of the ore dyke was at relatively the same time as the formation of the syenite, and that the ores were formed by magmatic separa- tions im situ, or as peregrinating magmatic separations (magmatic veins and bedded streams).’ He adds that ‘ pneumatolysis plays no inconsiderable réle in the formation of these veins.’ Dr. Stutzer’s position may be summarised as regarding the ores as collected by segregation, but deposited in their present position by eruptive after- actions, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 501 limited depths to which water can carry down these gases. On the theory, however, that these ores are primary segregations from deep-seated igneous rocks there need be no limit to their depth. They would rather tend to increase in size downward, while maintaining, or even improving, in the richness of their metallic contents. For these bodies may be regarded as fragments of the metallic bary- sphere which have broken away from it and revolve around it like satellites floating in the rocky crust. On this conception these ore bodies would be of as great interest to the student of the earth’s structure, as their existence would be reassuring to the ironmaster, haunted as he is by constant predictions of an iron famine at no distant date. It is no doubt true that many of the richest, most accessible, most cheaply mined, and most easily smelted iron ores have been ex- hausted. The black-band ironstone and the clay iron ores of the coalfields, which gave the British iron industry its early supremacy, now yield but a small propor- tion of the ores smelted in our furnaces. ‘lhe Mesozoic beds of the English Mid- lands and of Yorkshire still supply large quantities of ore. Nevertheless the British iron industry is becoming increasingly dependent on foreign ores, So it would be pleasant to find that the Scandinavian iron mines are not subject to the usual limits in depth. I fear the typical iron deposits of Middle Sweden and of Gellivara will follow the general rule; but Kiruna may be an exception, and its ores may continue far downward along the surface of its sheet of porphyrite. The uncertainty in this case lies in the extent of the subsequent enrichment and enlargement of the bed; if most of the ore is due to secondary deposition, then it may be restricted to the comparatively shallow depths at which this process can act; and though that limit will be of no practical effect for a century or more to come, the ore deposit may be shallow as compared with some gold-quartz lodes. The geological evidence may convince us that all the economically important iron ores are limited to shallower depths than some lodes of gold, copper, and tin; but this conclusion shall not enroll me among the pessimists as to the future of the iron supply. ‘Twenty years ago a paper on the gold supplies of the world was read to the Association at the request of the Section of Economics. About the time that the report was issued, there were sixty-eight mining companies with a nominal capital of 73,000,000/. at work upon the Rand. Nevertheless, the author, accepting the view that ‘the future of South African gold-mining depends upon quartz veins,’ concluded: ‘ There is as yet no evidence that the yield will be sufficient in amount to materially influence the world’s production. As regards India, the prospect is still less hopeful.’ That quotation may be excused, as it is not only a warning of the danger of negative predictions, but of the unfortunate consequences that happen when geo- logists are unduly influenced in geological questions by the opinions of those who are not geologists. In economic Geology, as in theoretical Geology, we should have greater confidence in the value of geological evidence. Negative predictions are especially rash in regard to iron, it being the most abundant and widely dis- tributed of all the metals. The geologist who knows the amount of iron in most basic rocks finds it difficult to realise the possibility of an iron famine; he can hardly picture to himself some future ironmaster complaining of “iron, iron every- where, and not a ton to smelt.’ There are reserves of low grade and refractory materials which the fastidious ironmaster cannot now use, since competition restricts him to ores of exceptional richness and purity. When the latter fail, an unlimited quantity could be made available by concentration processes. The vast quantities of iron ores suitable for present methods of smelting in Australia, Africa, and India show that the practical question is that of supplies to existing iron-working localities, and not of the universal failure of iron ores. VI. Mining Geology and Education. The genesis of oresand the extent of future ore supplies are intimately con- nected questions, and the recognition of this fact has led to the remarkable growth of interest in economic Geology. This wider appreciation of the practical value of 502 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. academic Geology should, I venture to urge, be recognised among teachers by giving a more honoured place to economic Geology. It was inevitable that until the principles of Geology had been firmly esta: blished, the detailed study of their application should have been postponed. Now; however, last century’s work on academic Geology enables the dificult problems connected with the genesis of metualliferous ores to be investigated with illumi- nating, and practically useful results. British interest in mining education has therefore been revived. Its history has been sadly fitful. Lyell,’ in 1832, deplored the superiority of the Con- tinent in this respect, as ‘the art of mining has long been taught in France, Germany, and Hungary in scientific institutions established for that purpose,’ whereas, he continues (quoting from the prospectus of a School of Mines in Cornwall, issued in 1825) ‘our miners have been left to themselves, almost without the assistauce of scientific works in the English language, and with- out any “School of Mines,” to blunder their own way into a certain degree of practical skill. The inconvenience of this want of system in a country where so much capital is expended, and often wasted, in mining adventures, has been well exposed by an eminent practical miner.’ Though the chief British School of Mines made a late start, the brilliant originality of its professors soon carried it into the front rank; but in an evil day for the Mining School it was united with a Normal School for the Training of Teachers, now the Royal College of Science, and that school by its great success overwhelmed its older ally. Those interested in economic Geology there- fore welcome the recent decision to separate the technical from the educational and other courses, while leaving the Schools of Mines and Science sufliciently connected for successful co-operation. This policy should give such opportunities for the teaching of mining research that we may not always have to confess, as at present, that British contributions to mining Geology do not rank as high as those made to other branches of our science. Regrets are sometimes expressed, and perhaps still more often felt, at the tendency in scientific teaching to become more techoical; but 1, for one, do not fear evil from any such change. It is possible that the educational conflict of the future will be between academic science and technical science, on grounds in some respects analogous to those between classics and science during the last century. ‘The advocates of the educational value of technical science are not inspired by mere impatience with the apparently useless, for they accept the principle that the essence of education is method, not matter. Therefore, they claim that the methods and principles of science can be better taught by subjects which are being used on a large scale in modern industries than by subjects of which the interest is still purely theoretical. Those who fear that academic science will be neglected if technical science be used in education may be encouraged by the brilliant revival of classical research since classics lost its educational monopoly, Academic science is even less likely to be neglected. It will always have its fascination for those intellectual hermits—shall I not say those saints of science ?—who prefer to work for love of knowledge, free from the worrying intrusion of the mixed problems and fickle conditiuns of the industrial world; and the greater the progress of applied science the more urgent will be its demands for help from pure science, and, as a necessary consequence, the wider will be the appreciation and the more generous the endowment of scientific research. Technical education must be as rigorous as that in academic education, and its connection with the fundamental principles must be as intimate. When so taught, economic problems provide at least as good a mental training as those branches of science which are purely theoretical. If the new Imperial College of Science and Technology carry on the mission for which the Geological Society was founded a century ago. If it inspire its students to have their delight im using past discoveries on the open surface of the earth, so that they may penetrate to what is within, then they will gain that sure knowledge of the formation and distribution of ores, which is of ever-growing national importance. " C. Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., ed. 2 (1832), p. 63. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 505 The following Papers were then read :— 1. Notes on the Geology of Leicestershire. By C. Fox Straneways, 7.G.S. The chief features of the district were briefly described, with a general account of the formations that are exposed throughout the county. These are comprised in the following main divisions in descending order: Recent and Pleistocene ; Jurassic; Triassic; Permian; Carboniferous; and Pre-Cambrian. The first of these includes the river deposits and glacial beds. The Jurassic rocks comprise only the two lower subdivisions of the Lincolnshire Limestone and the Northamp- ton Sand, together with the Lias. The Trias occurs in the usual two divisions of Keuper and Bunter. The Permian consists of breccia and marls, the age of which is to some extent doubtful. The Carboniferous is well exemplified in the three subdivisions of Coal-measures, Millstone Grit, and Limestone; but the lower beds are not of the importance they attain elsewhere. The Pre-Cambrian rocks are divisible into three main groups, as shown by Professor W. W. Watts—the Brand Series, the Maplewell Series, and the Blackbrook Series. Special attention was directed to the more important exposures of these rocks, and to the principal points in the local geology that are obscure and require further elucidation, 2. The Geology of Charnwood Forest. By Professor W. W. Watts, / 2.8. 3. The Felsitic Agglomerate of Charnwood Forest. By ¥. W. Bennett, M D., B.Sc. The rocks lying between the Beacon Series and the Blackbrook formation comprise a greater variety than has been hitherto recognised. Three main beds can be distinguished, which may be called the coarse, white, and pink grits. The pink grit, which is the uppermost bed, is the one to which almost exclusively the name of ‘ Felsitic Agglomerate ’ has been hitherto given. Careful examination of the rocks in the Buck Hills has now conclusively proved that they belong to the Felsitic Series The rocks in the north-west of the forest have always given rise to much difficulty. It is possible to trace the Felsitic Agglomerate as a distinct series of rocks in Timberwood Hill. The ground in this part of the forest has been extremely faulted, and a good example of this occurs in Collier Hill. To the north of the monastery, rocks have now been traced which evidently lie on the horizon of the Felsitic Series, They differ in some ways from the ordi- nary agglomerate type, especially as regards their texture, which becomes highly crystalline. It is found that these Felsitic rocks have been intruded into by igneous flows, both near the Cademan area and also in Bardon Hill; and it is probably due to this cause that the texture of the rock has been so much altered. The position of these beds in relation to the Bomb rocks makes it probable that they correspond to the Felsitic Series, and this correlation is confirmed by comparison of some of the more recently discovered types with those of the ordinary Felsitic Agglomerate rocks. 4, The North-West District of Charnwood Vorest. By Bernarp Stracey, I.8B., #.G.S. As the north-west of Charnwood Forest is approached the rocks become more altered, the faulting is greater, and igneous rocks are met with. The vent which ejected the rocks of the forest seems to lie in this direction. Bardon Hill.—The centre and part of the north flank are composed of rock resembling an igneous rock ; evidence is given to show that this rock differs from the agglomerates found in the north-west area, with which it has hitherto, 504. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, been correlated. Certain rocks between the Bardon rock and the Peldar porphy- roid seem to bear some relation to the Felsitic Agglomerate, Birchili Plantation.—Recent research in this exposure has shown the identity of the rock with that found at Bardon Hill. On the north side rocks belonging to the Felsitic Agglomerate Series have also been found. Peldar Tor.—Yhe porphyroid exposed in the Jarge quarries contains inclusions of other rocks, which have been generally considered as segregation masses. An undoubted dyke in the middle of Peldar Tor has been exposed. Ratchet Hill.—An exposure in this hill shows the presence of rocks on the Felsitic Agglomerate horizon. At the north-west end a porphyroid occurs which seems to be identical with the porphyroid at Cadman Wood. Swannymote and Trilobate.— Rock helonging to the Felsitic Agglomerate Series runs between these two places, it has been much altered, and has not hitherto been recognised as belonging to the Felsitic Agelomerate. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. Some Desert Features! By H. T. Furrar, M.A., F.G.S. Contrast between the deserts on either side of the Nile. The Western Desert, sometimes known as the Libyan Desert, presents all the features which one would expect to find in a region of deficient rainfall. There are broad featureless plains with no very definite drainage systems; there are long lines of sand-dunes stretching for tens of miles across the country; there are centripetal basins, and there are monadknocks or inselbergen, and an almost entire absence of vegetation. The Lastern Desert, or the Etbai, on the other hand, displays an integrated drainage system ; sand-dunes are conspicuous by their absence; vegetation is not searce; and comparatively high mountains form a backbone to the country. These mountains are a true chain and form the water-parting between the Nile and the ted Sea. ‘I'his water-parting is very much nearer the east coast, and, as in South Africa, so here we-have the shorter and steeper eastward draining wadis beheading the longer westward drainages. The highest peaks usually consist of granite, which is sometimes foliated, and these high peaks, which rise majestically above the denuded schistose rocks, are not always on the actual watershed. Forms of rock and mountain sculptured by sandblast are not obvious, for the rain whick occasionally falls destroys these and produces typical water-graded slopes, The western desert surfaces consist of a thin veneer of waste, except where monadknocks or the escarpments of the oases display solid rock. This veneer of waste is protected, as in the Antarctic regions, by a layer of pebbles, which prevents the wind transporting the lighter material and prevents the rain-water from flow- ing in definite channels. The eastern, or Etbai, desert shows bare hillsides, and the steep cliffs which form the wadi-walls are quite free from débris. The wadis or dry watercourses are at present being aggraded, and it is only in the wadi-beds that one finds the alluvium. This alluvium of boulders and rock-débris is usually from 5 to 50 ft. in depth, and may be described as a torrential deposit. The only sorting of materials that is obvious in this region is that sorting due to water-action, where the volume of water and the slope of the ground are the determining factors. Sorting of fine material from the coarse is not as common as one would expect. A high wind (Beaufort scale, force 8) will only move pebbles and grit less than 5 mm. in diameter, so that a succession of winds of unprecedented force would be necessary to produce ‘pebble beds.’ The pebbles of the gravels on the western plateau, near Wadi Natrum, are all rounded and water-worn, and form a heavy ' By permission of the Director-General, Survey Department, Egypt. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION OC. 505 mantle over the land which prevents the wind from picking up the lighter material trom below, which they protect. It is only those stones on the surface that are wind-etched or show the faceted form, These gravels were deposited during the pluvial period, immediately preceding the present arid one, and there- fore it would seem that the only reliable test to prove that a deposit was a desert formation would be to find in it tetrahedral and wind-etched stones. 2. Fifth Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the Lritish [sles —See Reports, p. 298. 3. On the Structure of the Mandible in a South African Labyrinthodont. By Professor H. G. Srexey, 7.2.5. The specimen was found by Mr. Alfred Brown at Aliwal North and presented to the British Museum. It is a segment from a ramus indicating a skull about 2 feet long, and at the transverse fractures shows the Meckel cartilage cavity and the bones around it. ‘There are two external bones—the dentary, which carries large teeth in shallow sockets, and parallel to it is the infra-dentary. This element, found in certain fish, has not been observed before in Labyrinthodonts. On the inner side of the Meckel cartilage are two bones: one of these is seen externally on the base of the jaw, and regarded as the angular bone. Above it is the surangular bone, which carries a row of teeth rather smaller than those in the dentary bone. On the inner side of the jaw is the splenial bone, which hides the suture between the angular and surangular bones. The teeth are solid and have a relatively simple labyrinthic structure. The fragment shows that with the coronoid and articular bones the mandible may include seven elements on each side or more. 4. The Origin of the Upper Keuper of Leicestershire. By T. O. Boswortn, B.A., F.GS. The Condition of the Rocks beneath the Keuper.—The Charnian igneous rocks beneath the Keuper are comparatively fresh right up to their surfaces, but where the marl has been denuded and the rocks are exposed to the present climate they are decomposed, The Surface Features of the Rocks beneath the Keuper.—Smoothed, fretted, and curiously carved surfaces are seen at Mount Sorrel,! Croft, Sapcote, Groby, &e., and usually wherever the marl rests on igneous rocks, They are often pitted and sometimes highly polished (e.g., at Narborough). But where the rocks are cleaved or broken, as at Swithland and Bardon, the floor beneath the Keuper is rough and craggy. The Nature of the Deposits—Everywhere the beds dip in the direction of the surface slopes on which they lie, and the amount of dip depends upon the steep- ness of the slope. Catenary bedding is seen at Croft and Groby. Near the rocks the marl contains grit and stones, and there is generally a breccia at the base. The stones are of varied sizes, sometimes worn and sometimes very angular, They are in a remarkably fresh condition. Both stones and grit are derived entirely from the particular rocks which the beds containing them surround. In these beds there is often a small amount of quartz sand, sometimes apparently wind-worn. It yields the same heavy minerals as the ‘ Upper Keuper Sandstone.’ In many cases-—e.g., around the S. Leicestershire igneous rocks—this sand cannot be of local origin. At Croft some of the Upper Keuper Sandstone consists of almost spherical grains, and appears to be a desert sand. ' Prof. Watts, Geographical Journal, June 1903. 506 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. Near Leicester the sandstone is uniformly false-hedded from the south-west, and Estheria and fish-scales occur upon the false-hedding planes. Heavy mineral separations have been prepared from a large number of localities throughout the country. The mineral grains are generally very much worn. ‘he most plentiful are garnet, magnetite, zircon, tourmaline, and rutile. In the normal Keuper Marl, bands showing false bedding, ripple marks, and salt pseudomorphs are generally common, but such evidence of sub-aqueous deposi- tion as there is points rather to the existence of occasional streams and salt pools than to the deep waters of one great Keuper lake. It is inferred that the Upper Keuper is a desert accumulation. 5. The Relation of the Keuper Marls to the Pre-Cambrian Rocks at Bardon Hill. By W. Keay and Martin Ginson. Bardon Hill is situated in the Charnwood Forest area, about ten miles north- west from Leicester. The hill rises to an elevation of 912 feet, and is higher than any of the land intervening between this point and the German Ocean. The hill consists of Keuper marls resting unconformably upon Pre-Cambrian rocks, the latter protruding about 100 feet through the marls. The object of this paper was: (1) To remark upon the unusual elevation of the Keuper marls; (2) To consider the probability of the entire submergence of the hill during the Triassic period. 1. Elevation.—Acting upon a statement of Professor Phillips that ‘the Triassic system offers the remarkable fact of never rising to elevations much above 800 feet,’ the authors by personal inspection, where possible, and by the aid of ordnance levels, failed to discover any point on the Trias in England reaching a greater height than 800 feet except at Bardon Hill. Here, ‘skerry’ bands in the Keuper marl may be seen at a height of 810 feet, and the marl may be traced in the fissures of the Cambrian rocks to a height of 880 feet. Ilence the con- clusion that the Keuper marls at Bardon reach an elevation at least as high, and possibly higher than at any other point in the same strata in England. 2. Submengence.—The probability of Bardon Hill (912 feet), and therefore the whole Charnwood area, being entirely submerged during Triassic times presents itself as a problem. The authors found at 810 feet two distinct ‘skerry’ bands resting upon, and overlain by, Keuper marl. In the Siberia Quarry the marl is found filling in two joints which rise nearly vertically a height of 80 feet. This ‘filling’ may be traced in the joints to a level of 880 feet, or 32 feet below the summit of the hill. There is no evidence suggesting the sudden termination of the marl at this level, but further tracing was prevented by vegetation. It is obvious that the marl must have been deposited trom an elevation higher than 880 feet, Further evidence in support of submergence was offered as follows: The general dip of the marls in this district is from 1° to 38°S.E. Allowing an inclination of 1° only, or 90 feet per mile from a point at the junction with the Rheetics near Leicester, this would give (on the assumption that this inclination originally extended to Bardon) a covering of over 200 feet of marl above the present hill. 6. On a Peculiarity in the Mineralogical Constitution of the Keuper Marl. By C. Ginpert Cutis, D.Se., F.G.S. It has often been proved that the Keuper marl is, in places, markedly calcareous; but little has hitherto been done to show in what mineralogical form the calcareous matter exists in such cases. To determine this an investiga- tion was made, and the results obtained, together with a suggestion as to their significance, are here recorded. Most of the specimens examined were taken from the well-known cliff-section at Westbury-on-Severn, about eight miles S.W. of Gloucester. Treatment with TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 507 acid shows that the marl from this locality is highly calcareous; and thin sections of it under the microscope reveal the condition in which some, if not all, of the calcareous matter exists. Scattered through the matrix of the rock there occur great numbers of minute crystals of rhombohedral carbonates. Experiments made by the author and Mr. Russell F. Gwinnell upon some of these crystals isolated from the rock proved that they are not calcite. Further tests by micro- chemical methods demonstrated the presence in them of both calcium and mag- nesium, and pointed to their being dolomite To test this identification a washed residue of the marl, containing practically nothing but quartz grains and the crystals in question, was submitted to Mr. G. S. Blake, of the Imperial Institute, for analysis, with the result that the identification was confirmed. These dolomite crystals, which have the form of the fundamental rhombo- hedron, and are extraordinarily perfect, are always very minute, ranging in size from individuals just visible to the naked eye to others which can only be seen with high powers of the microscope. They occur in the red parts of the marl as well as in the green. They were also found in specimens of the marl from other localities in the district, extending as far north as Worcester, and doubtless occur in it outside the area already investigated. Moreover, they occur sometimes in great profusion ; indeed, from analyses by Dr. Moody! of samples from the Wain- lode exposure, it may be inferred that they sometimes make up as much as 25 per cent. of the mass. Very similar variegated marls occur in the Gloucester area, at the base of the Old Red sandstone, and samples of these were compared with the Keuper marl. It is an interesting and probably significant fact, in connection with the conditions of formation of these two deposits, that no dolomite crystals were found in these Devonian marls. It seems likely that the presence of these crystals in the Keuper mail is an expression of the special conditions which prevailed during its accumulation ; and the author, though aware of other possible modes of origin, is inclined to the view that they were precipitated from solution from the waters of an inland sea or a lake at the same time as the remainder of the marl was being deposited from suspension. This view is supported by the fact that other substances thrown down from solution during the desiccation of large sheets of water, such as gypsum and rock salt, are familiar constituents of the marl of other and not distant localities. Tt has been suggested that the Keuper marl may represent an accumulation cf wind-borne dust, a Triassic loess formation. But the presence of these dolomite crystals in it seems to the author to militate against this view and to point to the conclusion that such portions of it, at any rate, as contain the crystals were laid down under water. The existence of these dolomite crystals is interesting from one other point of view, inasmuch as it affords a possible explanation of the fact that in many localities where the New Red marls rest directly upon limestones these latter are found to be partly or wholly dolomitised. Waters obtained from the Keuper marl at Blaisdon, near Gloucester, have recently been shown to be so highly mag- nesian as to be unfit for drinking; the magnesium has presumably been acquired by the solution of the minute dolomite crystals. Such waters by percolation through underlying limestones might very well effect the dolomitisation so often observed in them. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. Iron Ore Supplies. (i) By Beynert H. Broven, F.G.S. Of all the problems with which the practical geologist has to deal, none is of greater importance at the present time than the discovery of fresh sources of iron * Quar. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. \xi. 1905, p. 431. 508 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ore supply. Every inhabitant of the United Kingdom, of the United States, and of Germany requires annually about a quarter of a ton of the iron of which the world last year produced 60,000,000 tons, the result of the smelting of over 120,000,000 tons of ore. Year by year the production and consumption are increasing, and many of the deposits of the richer ores are showing signs of depletion, ‘The question of ascertaining how the demand for the vast supplies of iron ore that will in the future be needed will be met calls, therefore, for very serious consideration ; and a few statistical notes may be useful as a contribution to a discussion of the subject. During the past half-century the development of the iron industry has been remarkable. In 1854 Mr. J. K. Blackwell showed that the world’s production of pig-iron did not exceed 6,000,000 tons, of which the United Kingdom produced 50 per cent., France and the United States each 123 per cent., and Germany 6°6 per cent. In 1905 the world’s production had attained the enormous total of 56,000,000 tons, of which the United States produced 42:7 per cent., Germany and Luxemburg 20 per cent., the United Kingdom 17°6 per cent., and France 5'5 per cent. In Great Britain the principal iron-ore producing districts are Cleveland, in North Yorkshire, which in 1905 yielded 41-V per cent. of the total output of the kingdom ; Lincolnshire (14°8 per cent.), Northamptonshire (13-9 per cent.), and Leicestershire (47 per cent.), together yielding 33-4 per cent. of the total output ; Cumberland (8°6 per cent.) and North Lancashire (2*7 per cent.), Staffordshire (6:1 per cent.) and Scotland (5:7 per cent.). The Cleveland iron ore occurs in a 10-foot bed in the Middle Lias, and contains about 30 per cent. of iron. It is worked by underground mining. In Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and Leicestershire the brown iron-ore beds form part of the Inferior Oolite, and contain about 35 per cent. of iron, the workings being mostly opencast. In Cumberland and North Lancashire the red hematite occurs in irregular masses in carboniferous limestone. It contains more than 50 per cent. of iron, and is worked by under- ground mining. The ironstone in Staffordshire and in Scotland is mostly obtained from mines that also produce coal. Such, in brief, are the home deposits from which the British supply of 14,590,703 tons of iron ore, valued at 3,482,184/., was obtained in 1905. Tven that enormous output did not meet the consumption, and 7,344,786 tons were imported, Of that amount 78°5 per cent. was brought from Spain, 5°4 per cent. from Norway, 4:2 per cent. from Greece, 4 per cent. from Algeria, 2°6 per cent. from France, 2°6 per cent. from Sweden, 1°65 per cent. from Russia, and smaller quantities from Turkey, Germany, islands in the Pacific, Belgium, Newfoundland, India, Australia, Italy (Elba), Persia, Portugal, and other countries. In fact, the world is being ransacked for fresh iron-ore fields to supply ores for the British blast- furnaces. The port at which most of the ore was delivered was Middlesbrough (1,789,639 tons), then followed Glasgow with 1,042,179 tons, and then Carditf with 875,462 tons. While it is probable that the British iron-ore fields will be exhausted in a century or two, the outlook in other countries is similar. This is borne out by data relative to the available iron-ore supplies of the world which have been collected by Tornebéhm for the Swedish Parliament, and, although largely con- jectural, these figures are of great interest. In the United States the iron-ore production in 1905 exceeded 423 million tons, the highest output ever recorded, the ore containing more iron than the ores raised in Germany, in the United Kingdom, and in Spain combined. The bulk of the production was ubtained in the Lake Superior region, where the five iron-ore belts, or ranges (Marquette, Menominee, Gogebic, Vermilion, and Mesaba), beds of pre-Silurian Age, have furnished since the beginning of regular mining over 800,000,000 tons of iron ore. The average percentage of iron in the ore is 55, the 60 per cent. ores produced ten years ago having been exhausted by wasteful mining methods. The amount of ore still available in the United States is estimated by Térnebohm at 1,100,000,060 tons. In Germany and Luxemburg two-thirds of the iron ore raised (283 million TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 509 tons in 1905) is derived from the so-called minette beds of Jurassic brown iron ore. The seams yield on an average 36 per cent. of iron and 1-7 per cent. of phosphoric acid. Owing to the high percentage of phosphorus the ore was of little value until 1879, when the basic method of making steel was brought into practical use by Thomas and Gilchrist. The amount of ore still available in Germany is estimated at 2,200,000,000 tons. In Spain the chief deposits are near Bilbao; the ores, which are of great purity, occurring in beds of Cretaceous age. Up to the present time the Bilbao district has yielded about 115,000,000 tons of ore, and for many years pessimistic estimates have been made of the quantity of ore remaining. ‘Twenty years ago it was thought that by the year 1900 there would be no ore left. Nevertheless, in that year Bilbao exported 5,000,000 tons of ore, and Don Julio de Lazurtegui, the most competent authority, estimated that there were still over 57,000,000 tons left. The richest red hematite ores are, it is true, now exhausted, and brown heematites and spathic ores have taken their place, with the result that more attention has to be paid to calcination and to the washing of ores to enable them to satisfy market requirements. Toérnebohm’s estimate of the quantity of ore still available in Spain is 500,000,000 tons, In Sweden deposits of magnetite of great purity occurring in gneiss supply material for the charcoal blast-furnaces, and ores rich in phosphorus are mined for export at Griingesberg, in Central Sweden, and within the Arctic Circle at Gellivare, Kirunavaara, and Luossavara, where there are ample supplies to meet the increased demand that is likely to arise. These deposits have been described in great detail by Dr. Stutzer in a paper submitted at the last meeting of the Tron and Steel Institute. The export of iron ore from Sweden in 1905 amounted to 3} million tons. In Northern Norway important discoveries of similar iron- ore deposits have of late been made. The amount of ore still available in Sweden is estimated at 1,200,000,000 tons. In France the most important deposits are the beds of Oolitic iron ore in the department of the Meurthe-et-Moselle ; and in Russia the greater portion of the iron ore produced is obtained from the Ural region, where, on the western side, the ores are chiefly limonite and spathic ores of a stratified character, and, on the east, masses of magnetite associated with igneous rocks. The amount of ore available in France is estimated at 1,500,000,000 tons, and in Russia at the same amount. The available resources of other countries are estimated by Térnebohm at 1,200,000,000 tons. Including 1,000,000,000 tons for Great Br.tain, he estimates the known available resources of the world at 10,000,000,000 tons. The outlook for the British industry is not altogether a depressing one; for, whilst the rich ores of Bilbao and Elba are becoming scarce, there are still vast quantities of ore available in the north of Scandinavia, in the south of Spain, in Algeria, Canada, Cuba, Brazil, Venezuela, Chili, India, China (notably in the Shansi district), Australia, and South Africa. The high cost of carriage is, of course, an important factor; but the great economies which have, and will be,’ effected in transport will reduce this item. The future of the home demand is likely to be affected by the development of the basic open-hearth process of steel- making which enables phosphoric ores to be utilised. In the course of time such phosphoric ores will doubtless oecupy a very prominent place in the manufacture of high-class steel. The development of magnetic concentration and of the briquetting of pulverulent ores for furnace use will render possible greater utilisation of poorer ores, while the development of the electric furnace will doubtless render it possible to utilise black sands and other titaniferous iron ores which, although met with in abundance, cannot at present be treated profitably in the blast-furnace. There need therefore be no immediate anxiety regarding the supply of the more impure iron ores, the application of which cannot fail rapidly to increase, (ii) The Iron-ore Supply of the Scandinavian Peninsula. By Hj. Sségren.—See Reports, p. 332. 310 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION CG. 2. The Distribution of Radium in the Rocks of the Simplon Tunnel. Ly Professor J. Jory, 8e.D., F.RS, The principal classes of material which enter into the composition of the massif of the Simplon are: (a) The Jura-Trias sediments, lithologically often much alike and much interfolded; (4) the Palzozoic crystalline schists; and (ec) the gneiss of Monte Leone and the Antigorio gneiss, both stated to be of Archzean age. These rocks throughout contain radium, and for the most part in quantities much above what hitherto has been ascribed to sedimentary or igneous rocks. Some thirty-six typical samples, taken from various points in the tunnel, have been examined. The poorest in radium are certain anhydrite rocks. Certain amphibolite schists go very high. The Antigorio gneiss rises from 105 x 10- 2 and 8:0x10-” grams radium per gram of rock at the Italian entrance to 23:7 x 10-¥ at 4000 metres inwards. Some of the Archean gneisses yielded very high results. Such quantities of radium if generally distributed throughout the rocks of the massif would be sufficient to disturb any forecast of the temperature which under normal conditions would be encountered at the level of the tunnel. It is suggested that the radium was in fact the source of the discrepancy between the predicted and the observed rock temperatures, As it is improbable that these results are unique and apply only to this particular sedimentary accumulation and locality, they appear to point to hitherto unsuspected quantities of radium (and its parent elements) in the immediate surface materials of the earth. It seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that these elements were precipitated along with the sediments entering into the composition of the massif, The question then arises whether the accumulation of such quantities of radioactive elements may not enter as a factor in the events attending mountain-building, It can be shown that an area of sedimentation whereon has been accumulated some 10,000 metres of sediments, having a richness in radium comparable with the Simplon rocks, must necessarily become an area of greatly lessened crust-rigidity, and would hence become the probable site of crust-flexure under tangential compressive stress. Further investigation will be required before such views can be generalised and the importance of radium as a source of instability of the earth’s crust be determined. Apart from any speculations as to the influence of radium as the cause of an energetic substratum, the shifting of radium and its parent elements by denudation must be regarded as a convection of thermal energy, and this convection, if the quantities involved are sufficient, must, under the conditions referred to above and the unceasing action of denudation, become rhythmic in operation, and at the same time must result in shifting the areas of high temperature and crust-weakness from age to age as the site of sedimentary accumulation changes, 3. On the Pisolitic Iron Ores of Wales. By W.G. FEARNSIDES. The first part of the paper discussed the occurrence of the well-known iron ores of Caernarfon aud Merioneth, and showed that, though they have been taken by various writers as marking a well-constituted subdivision of the Tremadoc slates, they are really of the nature of fissure phenomena, and may occur at almost any horizon. The various worked exposures seem always to agree in the following par- ticulars :— 1. They are associated with the occurrence of large hypabyssal or minor plutonic intrusions of sill-like habit, and occur among stratified rocks along the limit of the sill’s metamorphic area. 2. They occur in more or less lenticular masses, of no considerable lateral extent, often heaped together, and separated by crushed shale partings in a way which may suggest bedding, but often thinning out, yet maintaining a linear arrangement across considerable tracts of country. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 511 3. Considerable lenticles of ore are always associated with dark-blue or black shales or slates, which, nearer to the igneous intrusion, have become bleached and spotted through the influence of that intrusion. On the side of the ore body nearest the intrusion the country rock is usually little disturbed, and lies evenly ; but on the side remote from the intrusion the country rock is crossed and recrossed by planes of slickenslide, and is often intensely nodular. The more important stratigraphical horizons which have developed pisolitic ore bodies in the North Welsh district are :— (1) Lower Lingula Flags. Bettws Garmon. Black shales which underlie the grey flaggy sandstones with Lingulella beds. (2) Upper Lingula Flags. N., flank of Aran Mawddy. Adjoining shales contain Peltura scarabeoides. (3) Upper Arenig Shales. Moelwyn Bach; Milltirgerig Arenig ; below Llyn y gader, Cader Idris. Country rock contains abundant Didymograptus bifidus. (4) Llandeilo Shales (Glenkiln facies). Tiddyn Diewm, Tremadoc. Country rock contains graptolites of the Didymograptus Murchisoni and Cano- graptus gracilis zones. The workings of Pistyll, near The Rivals, seem to belong to a horizon higher than any of these, and may be among the Hartfell Bala shales. The second portion of the paper dealt with the probable petrological and chemical history of the iron ores. Evidence was brought forward to show that the ore bodies have only been profitable near the present surface, and when smelted with wood charcoal. They are always very rich in pyrites or marcasite, which in certain specimens from the deep termination of an adit make up about 60 or 70 per cent. of the rock, The ores are always impure, and contain much crushed, streaky, or fibrous shale between the pisoles. Where freshest the pisoles of sulphides show only radial arrangement of the constituent fibres, but there may also be concentric structures which are masked by the opacity of the mineral. The radial fibres of the mineral sulphides usually grow out from or around quartz grains or other clastic fragments of country rock or of earlier-formed broken pisolitic grains. During oxidation the sulphide is attacked in stages from the outside and passes by obscure processes first to a colourless and soluble green pleochroic mineral, and afterwards to fibrous limonite and compact magnetite. It is the differential development of the various stages which gives the resultant pisoles of the profitable ore their well-marked concentric structure. That all the pisolitic grains contained in the iron ores of North Wales have been formed as radial growths of iron sulphides is not yet clear; but the method of their geological occurrence will well accord with the hypothesis that they may be the concentration products of the non-carbonaceous colouring matters driven off by the beat of the intrusion from the black shales considered above. An occurrence of perfectly fresh masses of radial pyrites at the limit of a 12-20 foot metamorphic aureole in the Llandeilo shale of Harper’s Quarry, Builth, shows that such concentration does occur on a small scale, while the tinding of considerable leaticles of iron pisolitic ore which are wholly pyrites, and have been concentrated during the turning of coal into anthracite in the Emlyn Mine, Llandeby, near Llandeilo, would seem to show that reformed pyrites does tend to take on a pisolitic habit. 4. The Trilobite Fauna of the Shineton Shales. By F. Raw, B:Se., F.GS. The author passed in review the already known trilobites from the Shineton Shales and announced the occurrence of several new forms, For the material he 512 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. is mainly indebted to H.M. Geological Survey, to Dr. Groom, and to Dr. J. Frazer. Taking first the forms described by Dr. Callaway, the suggestions of Brogger and Linarsson were confirmed as to the following species :— Olenus triarthrus, Call. Parabolinella triarthrus, Call., sp. Conocory phe monile, Salt. which now } Luloma monile, Call., sp. Conophrys salopiensis, Call. stand as Shumardia pusilla, Sars., sp. Platypeltis Croftii, Call. Symphysurus Croftti, Call., sp. The Shineton Shumardta just mentioned is identical with the Scandinavian species, while with Symphysurus Crofti Brogger’s later described S, incipiens appears to be identical. Of Dr. Callaway’s other species: Asaphellus Homphray?,Salt., the writer referred to the genus Megalaspis; and for Olenus Salteri, Call., with which O, Mitchinsont, Thomas, is identical, he proposed the name Leptoplastides Saltert, n. sub-gen., Call., sp. (See next abstract.) Lichapyge cuspidata, Call., based on an isolated tail, is completed, the writer believes, by a head and thorax collected by Mr. Rhodes for H.M. Geological Survey, and appears, as was inferred by Dr, Callaway from the tail, to be related both to Paradonides and to Lichas. Of new forms the fauna includes another dAgnostus, A. Callavei, Raw, of which a description by the writer has already appeared. Besides the Oleni mentioned above, the writer wished to establish another, which, he believes, has been confused—the head with P. triarthrus andthe thorax with Leptoplastides Salteri. It is very close to, but distinct from, the 7rtarthrus spinosus of Billings. It approaches also very closely to the ‘ Peltura’ punctata of Misses Crossfield and Skeat, from which it only differs in the possession of spines on the cheeks and down the axis, and of this form it may well be the ancestor. This and the Shineton form, though bearing a superficial resemblance to the type species of Triarthrus, ave yet quite isolated, and should perhaps constitute a new sub-genus. For the new form the writer proposes 7riarthrus shinetonensis, n. sp. Two new Asaphids have to be recorded: one isa small-eyed Symphysurus, for which the name 8. mcrophthalmus, un. sp., is suggested; the other is a new genus which appears to connect Mobe and Ogygia, having the tail of the former, but spined pleure, approaching those of O. Selwyni, Salt. This was named Desmus Cobboldi, n. gen, and sp., and the genus will be found to include some other uropean forms. A new and strange form occurs, characterised by long spines like wings on the fixed cheeks and a tail resembling that of Dicellocephalus (e.g., D. pepinensis), for which the name Pterocephalus hemicycloura, n. gen, and sp., is proposed. A single tail represents Dicellocephalina furca, Salt., sp., of which it may be regarded as a variety, distinguished by its beautifully curved contour. But what is in many ways the most interesting trilobite is a species of Orometopus, O. clatifrons, Ang., sp., of which the collections by Mr. Rhodes for H.M. Geological Survey and by Mr. Cobbold have furnished the entire form. Only the cranidium had hitherto been known, and this Brégger compared with Arethusina and Cyphaspis. But the characters of the complete form unmistak- ably place it in the Trinucleidz, though it is possessed of normal eyes. Moreover, being both more generalised and more primitive than the previously known members of this family, it indicates that the Trinucleide have been derived by specialisation and atrophy of the eye from more normal and eyed ancestors. Such degeneration is already anticipated in Orometopus, the eye of which is very small, consisting apparently of only sixteen facets. By its many points of agree- ment also with Harpes, it points to acommon origin for that family and the Trinucleidie, the atrophy of the eyes being, however, developed independently in each family. Indirectly it indicates also that other blind forms, such as Cono- coryphe, have been derived from normally eyed ancestors, The complete list of trilobites from the Shineton Shales known to the writer thus stands as follows :— TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 513 Parabolinelia triarthrus, Call., sp. Leptoplastides Sailteri, Call., sp. Megalaspis Homphrayt, Salter, sp. Orometopus elatifrons, Ang., sp. Triarthrus shinetonensis, sp. nov. Dicellocephalina furca, Salter, var. Symphysurus Croftii, Call., sp. Symphysurus microphthalmus, sp. nov. Agnostus dux, Call. Desmus Cobboldi, gen. and sp. nov. Euloma monitle, Call., sp. Agnostus Callaret, Raw. Shumardia pusilla, Sars., sp. Pierocephalus hemicycloura, gen. and sp. Lichapyge cuspidata, Call. nov. All except the last have been obtained from the main fossiliferous horizon in Shineton brook, and a comparison with the latest and most complete list of the fauna of the Ceratopyge series of Scandinavia, given by Moberg 1906, indicates that this horizon falls within the Shuwmardia zone of that author, while the com- plete fauna of the shales indicate that they include also the Bryograptus and Dictyomena zones below. 5. The Development of Olenus Salteri, Call. By F. Raw, B.Sc., F.G.S. Among the specimens from Shineton collected by Mr. Rhodes for H.M. Geological Survey are some small slabs covered with minute individuals of Olenus Saltert, Call., so that the early stages of growth are well represented, and it has been possible to trace the development of this species from individuals with only two thoracic segments upwards. The adult reaches a length apparently of 14 or 23 inches, but only two specimens indicate such sizes. The head closely resembles that of Leptoplastus, e.g., L. stenotus, Ang., the free cheeks bearing exactly similar spines. The eyes, however, are somewhat closer. The thorax, too, is very similar, having exactly the same shape of pleural ends, though the axis is much broader in proportion. The tail, however, is quite different from that genus, being broader than long, emarginate behind, and entire, as against triangular and toothed. But as the form is traced back from the adult through younger and younger individuals considerable changes appear. The tail becomes toothed and pointed, and finally very spinose. The ends of the thoracic pleure become long backwardly directed spines. The glabella, sensibly smooth in the adult, becomes segmented and narrow, and furnished with prominent eye-lines, The cheek-spines take a more forward position, and two additional pairs of spines appear. With a few less segments than the adult there is a definite Leptoplastus stage, _ while an earlier stage still, with seven segments, is very close to such an early Parabolina, as P. acanthura. These later stages of development can, the writer thinks, be taken as indicating the evolution of the form, and so as pointing out its systematic position. As to the latter we cannot refer it to any existing sub- genus of Olenus. Superficially it approaches nearest to Cyclognathus costatus, Brogger, from which the head differs in bearing spines, and in having a frontal limb, characters which again connect it with Leptoplastus. Indeed it can hardly have been derived from any other known genus. From comparisons of adult Oleni, and their succession, and from the development of O. Salter, there appears to the writer to have been in several branches of the Olenus family a similar or parallel evolution, the tail changing from spined triangular to entire rounded, the spines being also often lost on cheeks and axis, the ends of the pleure changing from long-spined to rounded, and the glabella often becoming smooth. Examples of this in whole or in part are seen, the writer thinks, in the derivation of Cyclo- gnathus from Peltwra, and further back perhaps from Leptoplastus, Acerocare perhaps from Leptoplastus, Parabolinella from Parabolina, Misses Crossfield and Skeat’s Peltura punctata from the Shineton Triarthrus. (See last abstract.) For Olenus Saltert the writer would therefore propose the sub-genus Lepto- plastides, and would include in the same sub-genus the Under August 1506 it is stated that the Germans at the fair of the preceding month had bought very little. Various remedies ! See the account of this attempt and its results so far as they are known in G. H. Pertz, Der dilteste Versuch zur Entdeckung des Seeneges nach Ostindien. Berlin, 1859. ? Romanin, as above, vol. iii. p. 335, note (5). 3 As above, vol. iv. p. 461. ‘ We must recognise with due humility that the English are of little account in Venetian eyes in 1501. ° G. Coen, Le Grandi Strade del Commercio Internazionale proposte fino dal Sec. XVI, (Leghorn, 1888), p. 71, 002 564. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. for these evils were thought of, and among these it is interesting to note that in 1504 the Council of Ten seriously discussed a proposal to empower an envoy to the Sultan of Egypt to come to an agreement with him, if possible, for the cutting of a canal through the Isthmus of Suez.‘ But the proposal was not adopted. Other efforts to avert the results of the great achievement of the Portuguese were vain. Other disasters befel the republic about the same time. Not only was commerce taking another direction, but, says Romanin, ‘the wars of Italy were emptying the treasury, the Turkish power was despoiling the republic step by step of its possessions beyond the sea, and Venice was beginning to descend that incline which was to reduce it to a subordinate position among the powers of Europe.’* North Italy generally suffered at the same time. The withdrawal of the greater part of the spice trade, by diminishing the growth of wealth among the inhabitants, made that part of the world a less important market for manufactured goods. Countries outside of Italy, where rival manufactures had already started, were increasing their wealth more rapidly, and thus imparting an increasing stimulus to their manufactures, and these increased while those of Italy declined. In 13838 the number of woollen factories in Florence is given at 200, making in all 70,000 to 80,000 pieces of cloth in the year; in 1472 the number of shops or factories had risen to 270, but no estimate is given of the quantity of the product ; in 1529, however, the number of shops is said to have sunk to 150, and the quantity of cloth manufactured to 23,000 pieces per annum, and in the time of the editor of Balducci Pegolotti the quantity was only about 3,000 pieces annually.® Before going further, however, there is one point in the comments on the discovery of the sea way to India quoted above from the ‘ Diarii’ of Priuli which calls for notice. Hungarians, Germans, Flemings, and French, he observes, will in future go to Lisbon to get the spices of India more cheaply than at Venice. This remark illustrates the difficulty of shifting the geographical point of view according to circumstances, a difficulty of which at all times abundant illustra- tions can be offered. The purchasers of spices who come first into the mind of Priuli are Hungarians and Germans. It was inevitable that they should be among the leading customers of Venice. The Hungarians were supplied from the Dalmatian ports which belonged to Venice. The Germans came by way of the Rhine and the Elbe, and then across the Alps to get supplies for central, north- western, and northern Europe. But it was neither Hungarians nor Germans who came in greatest numbers to Lisbon to buy the spices which Portuguese ships brought from the East. In any case Lisbon had no advantages like those of Venice for supplying by land a large and rich population immediately behind it. The valley of the Tagus was small and poor, and had not the capacity for expansion in wealth and population which the Lombard plains had when the commerce of Venice began to grow. The bulk of the spices brought to Lisbon had therefore to reach their final markets by routes that did not pass through Lisbon into the interior. To supply the most important of those markets it was the Dutch, the people who held ‘the keys of trade’ for the important valleys of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt, who came to Lisbon in greatest numbers to buy spices of the Portuguese. And here it has to be added that, in spite of the discovery of the sea way to India, the Venetians continued to retain great advantages in the spice trade with Hungary and parts of Germany, as well as, of course, the northern plains of Italy. Things did not remain always as bad as recorded in the years 1504 and 1506. The Portuguese, while maintaining successfully for a hundred years the monopoly of the trade in spices at the place of origin in the East, found their advantage in dividing the trade with Europe between the sea way and the Persian Gulf route, of which latter route they held the key since the final capture of Ormuz in 1515. The trade by way of the Tigris through Baghdad (the so-called Babylon of those days) and the Euphrates to the old Phoenician seaboard was again revived, and was maintained as long as Portugal held command of the trade. It was by this 1 Coen, as-akove, pp, 82-3. 2 As above, vol. iv. p. 466, 8 Della Decima, as above, vol. ii. pp. 64, 105. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 565 route that the first English commercial expedition to India, that of Newberie, Leedes, Story, and Fitch, went out in 1583, and by which Ralph Fitch, the sole survivor of that expedition, returned in 1591. By this route Venice got back some of her spice trade ; not perhaps with the same profit to herself as tormerly, but stilla trade of no slight importance not only to Venice, but also to Augsburg, Nuremberg, and some of the other cities of South Germany. But beyond doubt the bulk of the trade was now carried on by the sea route, and we are thereby enabled to get a better idea both of the amount and the nature of the trade. On both points we get information from the ‘ Narrative’ of the above-named Ralph Fitch, who tells us that ‘ the Fleete which commeth every yeere from Portugal, which be foure, five, or sixe great shippes, commeth first hither [to Goa]. And they come for the most part in September, and remaine there fortie or fiftie dayes; and then go to Cochin, where they lade their Pepper for Portugall.’' Now in 1583 a ship of 500 tons would certainly be called a great ship. In 1572 the largest vessel sailing from the port of London was of 240 tons,? and the largest of the first fleet of the East India Company was one of 600 tons. I could give more definite information as to the capacity of these fleets at that time if I knew exactly what a sa/ma was, for in a report on Portuguese trade sent to the Grand Duke Ferdinand I. of Tuscany (1587-1608) we are told that the fleet consisted of four or five carracks of the capacity of 5,000 or 6,000 salme.? But a salma is a term for which one some- times gets a very indefinite meaning, at other times definite but very diverse meanings, sometimes a weight of 25 lb., which is obviously too little, and again a weight of 1,000 lb., which is probably too much. The large dictionary of Tommaseo gives this latter weight with an example stating the capacity of a ship; but if that were the meaning then the carracks would be of a burden of from 2,250 to 2,700 tons, a much heavier tonnage than is elsewhere indicated, so far as | am aware, for vessels of the period. Probably 3,000 tons would be the outside limit of the aggregate cargoes annually brought to Portugal, for in any case much room in the ships was required for the large crews of those days with their armaments, for then the idea of carrying on commerce by sea without being in a position to defend your ship was out of the question. Of the commodities sent home from India, Fitch mentions in this place only pepper, and the correspondence of Albuquerque with the King of Portugal soon after the discovery of the sea way to India clearly reveals how all-important the pepper trade was; but it may be worth while to give the complete list of the commodities which Ralph Fitch enumerates at the end of his ‘ Narrative’ as coming from India and the country further eastward. The list is not a long one, It comprises pepper, ginger, cloves, nutmegs and mages, camphora (‘a precious thing among the Indians... solde dearer then golde’), lignum aloes, long pepper, muske, amber, rubies, saphires, and spinels, diamants, pearles, spodium, and many other kindes of drugs from Cambaia—all of them, it will be observed, having the character of being of high value in proportion to their bulk, so that a very great value of such goods might be carried in ships of small capacity. Fitch does not tell us what was sent in return, but information as to that is to be had from other sources and presents one or two points of interest. In 1513 Albuquerque, after a long course of fighting, concluded a peace with the Zamorin of Calicut, in which it was agreed, among other things, that the Zamorin should supply the Portuguese with all the ‘spices and drugs’ his land produced, and that ‘ coral, silk stuffs, quicksilver, vermilion, copper, lead, saffron, alum, and all other merchandise from Portugal’ should be sold at Calicut as heretofore.* Coral comes first in this enumeration. To us at the present day this does not seem a very important article of commerce, but it was otherwise then. One Mafio di Priuli, writing from India in 1537 to the Magnifico M. Constantino di Priuli, says, ‘ At a great fair which is called that of Tremel I have seen buttons of coral 1 Horton Ryley, Ralph Fitch, p. 61. 2 Tbid., p. 17. *’ Angelo de Gubernatis, Memoria intorno ai viaggiatori Italiani nelle Indie Orientali dal secolo XITI. a tuttoil X VI, p. 149. 4 Danvers, The Portuguese in India, vol. i, p. 288. 566 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. sold for their weight in silver.’' That is the point of view of a European in India, but a native of the East Indies in Europe at the same date would no doubt have spoken with astonishment of the amount of silver that could be got in Europe for a few grains of pepper. Our letter-writer says in his cheerful, hopeful, gossiping way, ‘The gains of these parts are other than those of Damascus, Aleppo, and Alexandria: for if one does not gain cent. per cent. from Portugal here, and from here back again, one thinks that one gains nothing. And three or four years would be quite enough.’? But, while he indicates how these immense gains are made, he also indicates clearly enough how they continue to be made—that is, how they are so counterbalanced by losses that if these great gains were not made on occasion commerce would cease. It was all very well to exchange your coral for spices, but the great matter was to get your coral out and your spices home in safety. The writer of this letter had entrusted to a friend who had left on a ship for Ormuz jewels of the value of 4,000 Venetian ducats, but the jewels were lost. He believed that his friend was murdered. ‘ But such losses,’ he adds, ‘will occur.’ Another time he lost more than 6,000 ducats gold in Portuguese vessels going to Ormuz, and on another occasion he suffered great loss when Pegu was sacked by the King of Burma. These notes may serve to illustrate the conditions of trade in the glorious days for Portugal when fine fortunes were heaped up in Lisbon through trade, but the great bulk of humanity got very little at least directly through that trade ; but we have not exhausted the interest connected with the nature of the outgoing commodities for India, and to that it will be well to return. Another of the stipulations of the treaty of 1513 above referred to was that while duties were to be paid in coin ‘the Portuguese were to pay for all the pepper and other merchandise they might purchase in kind,’ and, as the peace led among other things to a dearth of prizes, Albuquerque ‘was constrained to send an urgent request home for large quantities of merchandise to be sent out to make up for this deficiency.’* How long this stipulation remained in force I cannot say, but things were certainly different a hundred years later. In the report to the Grand Duke of Florence above cited we are told that what the Portuguese carry to India for exchange is above all ‘ silver in reals, and besides silver wine, oil, and some other sort of merchandise, such as coral, glass, and the like, of little import- ance’; and as to the silver he adds that ‘the reals bring a gain of more than 50 per cent. as soon as they have reached India, for the real of eight, which in Lisbon is worth 820 reis, in India is sold and spent at the rate of 480 to 484 reis of that money, and with it one buys all sorts of spices and drugs which are sold there, except pepper, which is the monopoly of the King of Portugal and those to whom he gives a lease of that trade.’ The importance of silver among the outgoing commodities for India has continued from that time down to the present day, latterly, however, in diminishing proportion. For a long time after the date at which we have now arrived it was as predominant as a means of exchange with India as it was in the first century of the Christian era, when the drain of silver from the Roman Empire to the East was bewailed by the writers of that time. In the voyages of the English East India Company of the four years 1620-28 inclusive the value of the bullion (chiefly silver) sent out to India was 205,710/., as against only 58,8062. worth of merchandise.‘ Now, what is the meaning of the change in the position of silver in Indian trade which seems to have taken place between 1513 and the end of the sixteenth century ? No doubt we may see there the result of another change in geo- graphical relations brought about by a discovery nearly contemporaneous with that of the sea way to India—namely, that of the New World. The first result of that discovery of importance to commerce was the pouring into Europe of large quantities of the precious metals, and the quantity was enormously enhanced ’ P. 34 of the letter referred to as published at Venice in 1824. 2 Tbid., p. 29. ® Danvers, vol. i. pp. 284, 286. * I take these figures from p. 6 of the appendix to P. Colquhoun’s Treatise on the Wealth, Power, and Resources of the British Empire, 2nd ed., London, 1815. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 567 after the silver mines of Potosi, in Upper Peru (as it was then called), were dis- covered in 1545. It was probably this discovery that brought it about that of all commodities of such small bulk in proportion to their value as to stand the costs of transport to the East this was the one which could be sent out for most part with the greatest advantage. And this discovery no doubt also helps to explain why that of the sea way to India had so little effect for a very long time in lowering the prices of spices in Europe, why prices even rose. At the time of the return of Vasco da Gama from the first voyage to India the price of pepper at Lisbon is estimated by Danvers' to have been about ls. 5d. per |b., and we all know that the immediate occasion of the foundation of the English East India Company about a hundred years later was that the Dutch suddenly raised the price of pepper against the English from 3s. to 6s. and 8s. per lb. But the particular commodity which made up the principal portion of the outward trade to India is, after all, a matter of detail, though not unimportant detail. The main point on which I want to insist is that, whatever the com- modities were, whether carried out or home, the nature of the trade with the East was little if at all altered by the discovery of the direct route to India by sea, The trade still continued to be one concerned in a moderate number of articles of small bulk but high value. It was merely a change of route that the Portuguese effected, and for more than a hundred years they remained in sole command of this route. After that, however, they were ousted from the greater part of this trade, and that the more valuable part, chiefly by the Dutch, and from a geographical point of view it is very interesting to note how the Dutch did it. They did not trouble themselves much about India proper. They left the Portu- guese alone at Goa, and from that port as a base allowed them to pick up as much trade as they could at Calicut and Cochin, which, said Albuquerque, ‘ were capable of supplying the Portuguese fleets until the Day of Judgment.’ But Malacca, on the straits of that name, gave command of the route to the further East, whence came in the end even larger quantities of pepper than could be got from India, whence came too ginger, cloves, and nutmegs, as well as the pro- ducts of China. The importance of this place Albuquerque had accordingly recognised, and in 1511, the year after he took Goa, he took it also by the right that always belongs to the lion as against the jackal. This place was taken by the Dutch (1641), who had previously established themselves on Java and the Spice Islands, where they maintained an absolute monopoly. Ceylon, again, was (and is) almost the only place from which the true cinnamon was to be obtained, so the Dutch took that island also from the Portuguese(1656). As long as the Portu- guese were the sole Europeans in the East, Calicut and Cochin not merely furnished the Portuguese with Indian wares, but were important entrepéts for the spices, perfumes, drugs, and jewels of the Further East as well as of Chinese silks and porcelains; but the trade in these commodities could be wholly or largely diverted to places in the possession of the Dutch. Even before the capture of Malacca and Ceylon a Portuguese viceroy had reported (1638) that the Dutch had a monopoly of trade from the Bay of Cochin China to the point of Sunda. But this change also was little more than a change of route. The general character of the Eastern trade remained the same. The English East India Company, whose operations, through the hostility of the Dutch, came to be restricted to India proper, there founded a trade that gave much more opportunity for expansion under modern conditions than that of the Dutch, but for a long time it retained the same character. All the commodities enumerated by Colquhoun as brought back by the voyages of 1620-3 in exchange for the bullion and merchandise sent out were pepper, cloves, mace, nutmegs, Chinese and Persian raw silk, besides calicoes, the sole manufactured article, and one of course that had relatively a much higher value than now, when the direction of the trade in that commodity is reversed. A similar character for a long time belonged to the trans-Atlantic trade, even though the costs of transport in that case were less, and favoured the develop- ment of a trade in somewhat bulkier commodities, Furs from the Far North, ‘ As above, vol, i. p. 64. 568 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. tobacco from Virginia, sugar and afterwards coffee and cotton from the West Indies, were by far the most prominent imports. It was the tobacco trade of Virginia that first enabled Glasgow, which at the time of the union of the English and Scottish Parliaments was an insignificant town with less than 13,000 inhabitants, to convert itself into a seaport, and thus lay the foundations of its subsequent prosperity. Now tobacco makes up less than one per cent. of the value of the goods imported at Glasgow, and, though that may be partly due to a diminution in the actual quantity of tobacco imported at Glasgow, this result has chiefly been brought about by changes in relative values. A hundred years ago the value of the imports into Great Britain and Ireland from the British West Indies was about one-fourth of the total value of the imports from all parts; now it is less than one per cent. of that value. What has brought about such changes, what makes the essential difference between recent and all previous commerce, is the series of enormous improvements in the means of communication which followed so closely on the invention of textile machinery and the improvement of the steam-engine in this country. These improvements have had two important effects on commerce. First, they have facilitated the maintenance of order and security both by land and sea, and thus enormously reduced the risks of commerce. Secondly, they have directly lowered the cost of transport for different goods in different degrees. Bulky goods of little value could now for the first time be profitably conveyed many hundreds of miles by land to a seaport, and there load ever larger ships for distant shores, thus opening up markets with vast undeveloped resources in the heart of great continents. Along with these bulkier goods the more valuable goods are carried at a cost far below that of former times, so that for such com- modities as pepper the mere freight is almost a negligible item. At the present day there can be no doubt that in point of quantity the spice trade is much larger than it ever was. If Venice could get the whole of that trade into her hands, a thing which she never had, notwithstanding the patriotic boast of Doge Mocenigo, the trade would not now bring her a tithe of the wealth which it brought in the days of her grandeur. Much has been said of the sudden ‘fall’ of the Portuguese and Dutch in turn, and that fall has often been ex- plained by mistakes in method. ‘The fall of the Dutch colonial empire resulted,’ says Sir William Hunter, ‘from its short-sighted commercial policy. It was deliberately based upon a monopoly of the trade in spices, and remained from first to last destitute of sound economical principles.’! But one may well ask, Did the Dutch ever fail in a manner for which they were in any way respon- sible ? It is true that the Dutch East India Company did not supply as many people as they could with the spices of which they held the monopoly. But that was not theiraim. It is true that they did not build up a great empire like that of the English East India Company. But neither was that their aim. Their aim was to declare dividends, and dividends they declared. The profits of the company down to 1720 averaged 20 per cent. per annum, never sinking below 15 per cent., and sometimes rising to 50 per cent. If spices ceased to enable them to declare such dividends that was not their fault. It was James Watt, George Stephenson, William Symington, and Robert Fulton, who, without in- tending it, and without being able to foresee what in this respect they were destined to do, sucked the value out of pepper, and that in a manner which neither the strength of armies nor the subtlety of statesmen could have done anything to prevent. Now the countries that offer the most attractive markets for the greatest quantities of goods of all kinds are no longer those which look to the spice trade or to trade in any specially valuable commodities for their enrichment, but those which abound in coal so placed as to develop a great amount of manufacturing industry, an industry engaged for the most part in working for the million, not merely in producing the luxuries of the rich. The commodities of very small bulk in proportion to their value now have a comparatively insignificant place 1 Imperial Gazetteer of India, 2nd ed. vol. vi. p: 362. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 569 in commerce. The precious metals and precious stones still indeed retain a good deal of their former importance. But very few vegetable or animal pro- ducts can be put in the same category. Rubber, indeed, may be reckoned as one, and very handsome profits are reaped from some rubber estates. But everyone knows that such exceptional profits can be reaped only for a short time. Of animal products ornamental feathers are the most valuable in proportion to their bulk. Egrets’ feathers, I believe, are seldom worth less and often worth a good deal more than twice their weight in gold, but ornamental feathers altogether make up less than a third of 1 per cent. of the total value of British imports. Perhaps the greatest feature of modern commerce is the unparalleled manner in which it has promoted the increase of population nearly all the world over. Rendering it possible for manufacturing and commercial peoples to depend in a very large measure for their very means of subsistence on supplies brought from the ends of the earth, it is rapidly pushing the settlement of vacant land to the base of the mountains and the edge of the desert. Fifteen years ago Professor Bryce said, ‘We may conjecture that within the lifetime of persons now living the outflow from Europe to North America will have practically stopped.’ We are at least nearing the time when the ‘new lands’ of this earth in the temperate zone will all have been allotted. The results of such a check to expansion after a long period of stimulation to expansion must be momen- tous, but what the nature of these results will be I for one confess that I am unable to foresee. I am, however, convinced that, if we are to be enabled to make any probable forecast as to the course of future development, one of the most important aids to that result must consist in the study of the relations of geography and history from the point of view which I have endeavoured to indicate. To study these relations merely with reference to the immediate causes and effects of wars and treaties gives little real insight into the working of geographical influences in history. As in the study of the human body medical men have recognised the necessity of ascertaining with the aid of the microscope the normal functions of the cells of which the body is composed, the pathological states that interfere with their normal working, and the effects on one part of the body of minute disturbances of function in another part, so in tracing the course of history it is becoming more and more recognised that the minute gradual silent changes must be inquired into and taken into account, not merely in relation to the regions in which they take place, but in relation, it may be, to regions far distant. Such studies, it is true, are not confined to the geographer. In them, indeed, the geographer must seek the aid of workers in other fields ; but there can hardly be a doubt that it must help greatly towards arriving at a sound solution of the problems presented to keep steadily before one the geographical point of view. The field for such studies is of course immense, the material perhaps not all that could be wished ; but I can imagine no task more delightful for those who have the opportunity to engage in it than that of seeking out and examining from that point of view such material as actually exists. The following Papers were then read :— 1. The District of Jederen in Southern Norway.” By O. J. R. Howartn, 1.4. The district of Jederen extends south of the port of Stavanger, on the Birkren Fjord. South of this fjord is the principal of the few interruptions to the skjer- gaard, or great fence of islands which protects practically the whole coast of Norway. At first this coast is unbroken, low, and shingly, backed by a slightly undulating coastal belt, bare and abounding in peat-bogs, from the landward edge of which hills rise abruptly. There then succeeds a coast with rocky prominences 1 «The Migrations of the Races of Men considered Historically,’ in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1892, p. 419. * To be published in full in the Geographicat Journal. 570 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. alternating with sandy beach, and still practically without islands, which extends nearly to the port of Egersund, when the characteristic steep, broken coast, with many islands (though not so many as to the north of Stavanger), is resumed. This intermediate stretch of coast belongs to a peculiar region, which is defined inland by a sharp range of mountains to the north, and by mountains and the valley of the Birkren River to the east. Beyond these boundaries is found the typical scenery of Southern Norway; within them the scenery is wholly individual in character. The district is still hilly but less elevated, the hills rise in semi- isolated clumps, and the whole is practically an unbroken tract of naked rock, which reveals, to an extent dominating every other feature, and scarcely equalled elsewhere in this intensely glaciated country, the work of the glacier which once coveredit. The perched blocks scattered all over it, the innumerable hollows carry- ing little lakes, and the remarkable manner in which at many points huge boulders are piled together and riven, all illustrate the action of the same force. Moreover, the coast of this district demonstrates peculiarly well the upward movement of the land which is traceable elsewhere. A succession of lowlands separated by high ridges indicates former small fjords; an old beach may be traced at a considerable distance inland ; and through the sand-dunes and marshes along the shore high rocky eminences stand up, clearly once islands. But the rocks immediately upon the coast show that at the period of glaciation the land stood higher than it does now, and thus indicate an intermediate period of sinking. The diverse physical characteristics of Jwderen exercise a notable effect on the distribution of its population, 2. Commercial Geography from the Modern Standpownt. By Professor Max Eckert. Anthropogeography, or the geography of mankind, as brought into existence within the last few decades, is essentially the study of the relations of man to his native soil. It is an independent branch of geography, as it deals with a special group of facts and ideas, and its object is to trace the connection between the several factors —geographical, historical, and social—which come into play. The geography of mankind is the one subject of study which supplies an adequate bond of union between the natural and moral sciences. In it the attention is focused, in the first place, on the moral side, since it pays regard to the moral influences which underlie human action, past as well as present ; and in the next place, on the natural side, since it bases all its considerations on the physical conditions of the earth, and by the aid of scientific induction evolves general laws regarding the influence of the soil on man, and of man on the soil. It is the latter consideration which is of special importance in the study of human geography. One of the most important bases of anthropogeography is the study of the geography of settlements, which teaches us how man exploits the ground on which he dwells for the satisfaction of his requirements. With the multiplication of his economic interests man passes beyond the narrow bounds of his dwelling- place and native sphere of action, entering into commercial intercourse with his neighbours, and even with more distant peoples. The character and problems of commercial geography, in the modern concep- tion of the term, are briefly as follows: Starting from a knowledge of the location, the orography and hydrography of a given region, it must also consider certain aspects of its climatology, geology, political economy, and political geography, aud thus arrive at a clear conception of the conditions of production and commerce within such region, as well as throughout the earth as a whole. Or, in fewer words, commercial geography must view the earth as the theatre of human production and commerce. Regarded from the economic view-point, commercial geography must not only determine the places of occurrence of natural and industrial products, but must study the factors which govern such occurrence—e.g., the latitude and altitude of TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 571 the places, their climate and water-supply, and last, but not least, the composition of the soil and variations of the climate. Regarded from the commercial point of view, it has to consider the methods and apparatus of traffic, and the goods forwarded by such apparatus. An important problem is the determination of the regional distribution of the various kinds of routes and means of transport; while other subjects to be studied are the various classes of commerce, railways, sailing and steamship routes, ports, and the like. Joint Meeting with Sections C, D, and K. The Preservation of Natural Monuments. By Professor ConwENTZ. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Surveys of British Africa. By Major C. F. Cuose, &.£. It is perhaps not generally known that during recent years a good deal has been done to ensure the systematic mapping of British Africa, There are at the present moment properly organised survey departments in the Anglo-Kgyptian Sudan, Uganda, Hast Africa, Southern Nigeria, and the Gold Coast. In addition, an exact topographical survey is in progress in the Orange River Colony ; and in the Cape Colony a military reconnaissance survey has been at work for two and a half years, The annual cost of the surveys above enumerated amounts to some 80,0001. An account of the progress made, the scales adopted, and the history of the surveys will be found in a Colonial Office Annual Report, No. 500, entitled the ‘Surveys of British Africa.’ Unfortunately, official reports have a limited circulation and public depart- ments cannot very well advertise their achievements. As a consequence, all this systematic work, which produces surveys of a permanently valuable character, is largely unknown to the geographical world. It is clearly desirable that that section of the public which takes an interest in the matter should be informed as to the steps which are being taken to map and explore British Africa, which, it may be noted parenthetically, covers an area of about 2,690,000 square miles. During the current year about 45,000 square miles will have been topogra- phically surveyed, and to this must be added a large number of compilations, the surveys of boundary commissions, and cadastral surveys. The maps are put on sale as they are published, and can be purchased from the usual map sellers and agents. Anyone desiring special information on the subject is advised to write to the Secretary, Colonial Survey Committee, Colonial Office. 2. The Modern Explorer: his Maps and Methods. By Captain T. T. Besrens, A. Z. The author said that the paper dealt with temperate and tropical conditions, and not with the special circumstances of surveys in the Arctic. He proposed to explain the methods of African field-work by lantern-slides illustrating operations of this nature in East Africa and Uganda. These surveys had recently fixed the positions of Mounts Ruwenzori and Mfumbiro, on the Congo border. The completion of the maps of the whole land surface of the globe on atlas scales has been made possible by the rougher exploratory methods of the past. 572 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. Further advance in our knowledge of the configuration of our planet can only be made by more detailed surveys; and whereas this was formerly impossible, the extension of cheap and rapid means of communication into the very heart of the explorers’ retreats in all parts of the world renders it now not only feasible, but economically desirable. The methods of the past are entirely unsuitable to the production of more detailed maps on larger scales; and money must be spent not on producing long, narrow, disconnected lines of traverse, but in compact and accurate surveys of those areas that most require our study. The methods employed will vary in accuracy according to the conditions in each particular case; but they will in general be modifications of those in use in any organised topographical survey department. At times, even, it may be that the methods will be those of the geodesist. As in every other production of human effort, increased accuracy means an increasing rate of increase in the cost. Before embarking on a survey we must therefore consider well the exact purpose for which the resulting map is required. An expert with large practical experience and the details both of field and cartographic work at his fingers’ ends can ee decide exactly what metheds will economically produce the desired result. In conclusion, we must not forget that to the explorer, in whatever branch of science he may be interested—whether it be geology, botany, or any other of the many branches of natural science—accurate maps on topographical scales become daily of greater importance; each subject becomes more highly specialised, and research is daily made in greater detail than before. 3. Recession of the Niagara Falls. By Dr. J. W. SpENcER. For many years Niagara Falls and the Great Lakes of America have been special subjects of the author’sresearches, These have at last been completed under com- mission from Dr. Robert Bell, Acting Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, and later of A. P. Low, Esq., Director, the results being obtained through precise instrumental measurements, borings, and soundings, the last of which had not previously been undertaken. The recent survey of the crest-line (1904-5), com- pared with that of Professor James Hall (1842), shows the mean rate of recession to have been 4:2 feet a year, the average breadth of the gorge produced by the Falls being 1,200 feet. But a longer record (agreeing with the more recent) has been obtained by Mr. James Wilson and the author in the determination of the position of the Falls in 1678, from the crude description and picture made by Father Hennepin at that time. Between 1890 and 1905 the rate of recession diminished. Soundings under the Falls and throughout the gorge were obtained by the use of Tanner-Blish self-registering tubes, acted upon by the hydrostatic pressure, as the current was too strong for the use of an ordinary line. At the whirlpool, and at some other places, it was necessary to work from a cable swung across the gorze. Under the Falls themselves the sounding-tubes were inserted in a specially designed buoy, which the force of the fall drove down to the rocks that had collapsed beneath the Falls themselves. These were reached at 72 feet, while the floor of the river beyond varied from 84 to 100 feet below the surface of the river. Further down there was a lateral inner gorge, reaching to 192 feet, which could not have been produced by the present descent of the Falls. An explanation of this, however, was found. The river at the whirlpool was measured to a depth of 126 feet; but this was not quite in the middle of the current, where the depth is supposed to be 14 feet greater. Below the whirlpool the river is shallower. From a short distance below the Falls, as far as the whirlpool, the bottom of the channel is at a depth of about 90 feet below the level of Lake Ontario. At points a short distance within the end of the gorge, and also beyond, a narrow, deep, inner channel, reaching to about 180 feet below the level of Lake Ontario, was discovered. This established the fact that the aggregate height of the different parts of Niagara Falls was more than 500 feet. , 1907 77th Re OUTLINE MAP of tHe NORTHERN ETBAI or EGYPT = = Sait : = sei sy, AS SD Fish [Zoo ow Mr, H. T. Ferrar TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 573 A terrace formed upon the birth of the Falls shows that they were at first only 35 feet high. The present height is 158 feet, while the fall along the different parts of Niagara River reaches 326 feet. During the long earlier history of Niagara there were at first two, and later three, separate cataracts. The upper two united when the Falls had receded about three miles ; the third joined the others later, but it had no effect on the recession of the main falls, as it was soon reduced in height by the backing of the waters of Lake Ontario, Until this time, when the Falls had passed the point of union by only 600 feet, the volume of the river was 15 per cent. of the present amount. It was now increased to its full amount, with the result that the floor of the cafion was broken through to a depth of 135 feet. This augmentation resulted from the accession of the drainage of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, which formerly drained to the north-east, and only now joined the Lake Erie discharge, the change being due to a tilting of the earth’s crust, which culminated only 3,500 years ago. The upper rapids are due to the river recently reopening a buried valley and descending over its eastern slope. This valley, however, did not trend northward, but southward. Accordingly, the upper rapids have had little to do with the recession of the Falls. It thus appears that the rate of recession has been modified by changes of volume and of height. These features and the character of the rock-formation, as well as the buried valleys, are now known for every furlong which the Falls have receded. If we apply the laws of erosion to these changing features the result will indicate that the time required for the recession of the first three miles was 35,000 years, but for the last four miles only 3,500 years, which gives a total age of 39,000 years. As all the changing conditions are now known, it appears that the probable error does not exceed 10 per cent. This, the author claims, is the only computation of their age which has been made upon measurements of all the changes in the physics of Niagara Falls. 4. The Physical Geography of the Ethai Desert of Egypt.) By H. T. Ferrar, U.A., F.G.S. [PLATE IV.] The author exhibited an outline map of the Northern Etbai, which he had prepared as an experiment in order to bring out the main physical features of the country. It had been traced from more detailed plane-table sheets on the same scale (1: 100,000) and adjusted to the chains of triangulation stations which cross the country, but many of the details had been omitted. The work of the author's colleagues, Drs. Hume and Ball, which should appear on the eastern border of the sheet, was also omitted, but could be seen on a smaller sheet (scale 1: 500,000). The hill-shading might almost be called diagrammatic, as no attempt had been made to depict more than the most important geological and topographical features which abound in this hitherto unmapped country. Many explorers have made traverses through the deserts, but their maps are on rather a small scale, and apart from a few place-names the data were so scanty that the whole country has had to be re-explored. Of special interest are the following points :— 1. Basins.—Floyer* has drawn attention to the fact that the wadis draining westward from the water-parting are centripetal. The map shows three of these basins, viz., Qena, Edfu, and Kom Ombo. _ 2, Beheading.—As in South Africa, so here the gentler sloping western wadis have been beheaded by the steeper eastern ones, e.g., Rod Um el Farag by Wadi Dabur ; Wadi Zeidun by Wadi Dubbagh. 3. Mushels, i.c., the forking or branching of wadis owing to the ageraded ' By permission of the Director-General, Survey Department, Egypt. 2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Sve., vol. xlviii. p. 576. 574. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. state of their beds, e.g., Wadi Abu Hamamid, Rod el Moghalat ; and more especially Wadi Hendosa and Wadi Abu Tiur, which have the same source. 4. Arabie geographical terms, such as Gebel, Wadi, Rod, Kob, Talla, Khor, Sowahil, Dahariah, Ghradir, Galt, Bir. 5. The history of the region, with special reference to (a) the Nubian Sand- stone escarpment; (b) the age of the drainage system; (c) indications of a former pluvial period ; (d) high-level gravels and alluvium ; (¢) the wide distribution of celts. 5. The Kurdish Tribes of Asiatic Turkey. By Mark Sykes. From Uruma, in Persia, to Angora, in Asia Minor, there is scattered a nation or a group of people who have suffered considerable neglect at the hands of history and science alike. These are the Kurds—nomadic, semi-nomadic, and sedentary. Except that they are credited with a multitude of imaginary vices and are looked on as ignorant savages, they receive but little attention from the people either of Asia or of Europe. Fortune has enabled the author to make certain investigations concerning these people, among whom he finds such startling variety in physique, dress, and custom that he is unable to generalise on their characteristics, save in a very diffident manner. He has distinguished and marked on the map about 323 tribes and sub-tribes, which at a venture may be said to contain a population of close on 2,000,009. It is very difficult to say how the Kurds should be classified. As regards religion, there are to be found among them Sunni Moslems, Shias, Devil- worshippers, Pagans, and Christians. As to language, they are split up into a variety of dialects which are said to form two broad divisions, called respectively Zaza and Kermanji. In regard to appearance and physique there are, again, the most unexpected and astounding contrasts: small, wiry, agile mountaineers in Hakkiari; tall, slim horsemen in Irak; big-boned, heavily built, hook-nosed, and clumsy men north of Lake Van; stcut, full-bearded men with regular features in North Mesopotamia; fair-haired and ruddy-complexioned men north and west of Erzinjian; and straight-featured, exceedingly handsome men in Kochkiri. In respect of civilisation and mode of life we again find surprising contrasts. In Irak the Kurds are generally shepherds, but in the northern mountains south of Lake Van they are industrious agriculturists, some of whom build fine houses and castles. North of Lake Van they are idle; in the Dersim they are more than industrious; in Mesopotamia they are wholly nomads; in the western Taurus they are often degraded and poverty-stricken ; in the valley of Erzinjian they are capable and wealthy agriculturists. Consequently the author is unable to advance any theory, and ventures only to bring forward a certain amount of information which the historian.and man of science may find useful in the future. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Land’s End Peninsula: a Regional Survey. By A. W. ANDREWS. The Land’s End peninsula consists of a granite plateau, of which the higher part is from 400 to 800 feet in elevation and about eleven miles in length by four in width, extending in a south-westerly direction from St. Ives to the Land’s End. This largely consists of moorland covered with furze and heather, but almost entirely bare of trees, owing to its wind-swept character. The hills which rise from the plateau are generally undulating, and only here and there assume bold shapes, though they are crowned by masses of granite boulders many of which are not inferior in size to the tors on Dartmoor. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 575 The whole area is almost unpopulated and has few industries, though the old mine shafts and adits made for prospecting purposes point to much greater activity in former days. Almost the only industries which now exist are con- nected with the granite, a small amount of the fine-grained moorland granite being quarried, though it cannot hold its own against the cheaper sea-borne Norwegian stone. There are also china-clay works, as at Towednack. It is possible that the modern demand for tin, wolfram, and other rare minerals may result in some of the old mines being reworked, but as yet very little has been done on the plateau. To the north and west of the plateau is a narrow coast plain, of less than a mile in width, which was probably covered by the sea in Pliocene times to the height of 340 feet. This is employed for agricultural and pastoral pursuits, but the soil is poor and unproductive. The valleys which seam the plateau on these sides are not well marked, and the streams are small. The coast is, as a rule, lofty, with striking granite and greenstone cliffs, and is almost harbourless, few coves being accessible for even small fishing-boats. The only important centre of population is in the neighbourhood of St. Just, where the Levant mine and that newly reopened at Botallack employ a considerable number of miners. On the south of the higher plateau the streams are longer and the valleys deeper, many of them being thickly wooded. The soil is much richer, especially near Penzance, where the greenstone predominates, and where industries such as the cultivation of cauliflowers are of considerable importance, land being let at from 127. to 141. per acre. The climate is far warmer and milder, the region being largely sheltered from winds. The whole peninsula is separated from the rest of Cornwall by a neck of low land. Though small, it has sufficient characteristic features to mark it off from the rest of the county, and is specially interesting as a type of a somewhat isolated area of old rock, in that respect resembling the inland region of Charnwood Forest. 2. The Hinterland of the Port of Manchester. By J. McFar.ane. The imports of Manchester by way of the Ship Canal are much greater than the exports. Among the former are cotton, grain, timber, paper-making materials, fruit, oil, &c. The area over which American cotton is distributed from Manchester does not correspond with the area over which rates are less than from Liverpool. The latter town has acquired a momentum as a cotton market, which at present more than counterbalances the geographical advantages of Manchester. A large proportion of Egyptian cotton comes, however, to Manchester and is distributed to the towns in the neighbourhood. When the commodity is imported by one firm or company, or when the market conditions are simple, Manchester is able to avail itself of its geographical advan- tages to a greater extent. Grain, oil, and fruit are distributed over a considerable area, varying in each case, but generally covering the east of Lancashire, the west part of the West Riding, and some of the Midland towns within 100 miles of Manchester. The exports are insignificant as compared with the imports, but coal from the Lancashire field is shipped in considerable quantities. There are several reasons for the small export trade. The total shipping is not yet very great, and facilities for export are frequently wanting. Shipping rings also seriously affect the de- velopment of the port in this respect, 3. The Geographical Evolution of Communications. Ly Professor VipAL DE LA BLACHE. Man had originally no other means of travel and transport than himself, . But, whether for the purpose of adjusting or hauling loads, of surmounting obstacles, or of venturing on the water, he has had recourse to devices the 576 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. invention of which points to varying environments and a multitude of independent initiatives, the local flora and fauna furnishing the material for this primitive apparatus, A great step in advance was made in the adaptation of animal power to purposes of transport, and this ensured the superiority of such countries as afforded the opportunity for the recruitment by man of his best auxiliaries, This kind of domestication had its origin at many different centres. The horse was doubtless brought under man’s control independently in many countries of Central Europe and Asia; the camel, in Central Asia ; the ass, in the Sudan, Upper Egypt, &c. The vast region of plains or steppes, with bare uniform surface which crosses Europe and Asia in a diagonal direction, favoured the development of long-distance traffic, as is proved by the numerous improvements in the wheel and cart which were there introduced. But this ancient transport had to do rather with human beings than with dead freight. To the domestication of the horse we may attribute the origin of the great migrations which took place in Central Europe from the close of the Neolithic Period onwards, and which were destined to cease only with the definite crystallisation of modern States. Even the interior traffic of later times originated in the movement of distant products, such as jade, silk, and certain metals. 4, Explorers and Colonists. By J. D. RoGers. 5, A Narrative of the Jamaica Earthquake. By Vaueuan Cornisu, D.Sc., F.R.G.S. Dr. and Mrs. Cornish were in a house in Kingston at the time of the great earthquake of January 14, and the author described the incidents attending their remarkable escape from the wrecked room. He next dealt with the occurrences in Kingston during the days of stress which followed, showing many original photographs of the effects of the earth- quake on buildings, and describing the camp-life in the ruined city and the conduct of different classes of the community. Early in May, Mrs. Cornish having recovered from injuries received in the earthquake, the author and his wife made a second voyage to Jamaica to investi- gate the cause and effects of the earthquake, returning on July 17. A description was given of the methods of inquiry adopted to.determine the place of origin of the earthquake, the character of the shock, the effects upon buildings of different kinds, and other matters; and a further collection of photographs taken by the author was shown. A final account of the conclusions to be drawn from this investigation will be communicated at a later date to the Royal Geographical Society, when Dr. Cornish has completed the examination of the data he has obtained. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. An Expedition to Ruwenzori. By R, B. Woosnam.! The author began with a short itinerary of the Ruwenzori expedition from Mombasa to the West Coast of Africa, illustrated with photographs of Uganda, Ruwenzori, the Semliki Valley, the Congo Forest, and the Pygmies. He then proceeded to sketch the general features and life-zones of the Ruwenzori range, illustrating these by a diagram of the altitudes at which typical forms occur, and by photographs of the vegetation. He concluded with a short account of the distribution of birds and mammals on the mountain. 1 The paper will be printed at length in the Geographical Journal. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 577 2. The Newly Discovered Cave of Atoyac (Mexico) : A Contribution to_the Study of Cave-development. By M. M. Autores, L.es-Sc., L.G.S, Introduction.—When we follow the railway line from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico we cross, first, a line of dunes behind which extends a swampy plain of Pleistocene sands. Ata slightly higher level stands another plain of Pliocene age, built chiefly by the mud streams coming down from the neighbouring volcanic cones, After Passo del Macho we meet for the first time a longitudinal ridge of limestone, which is a spur of the Western Sierra Madre. This limestone contains a number of hippurites and rudiste, establishing its Middle Cretaceous age. The railway runs over this limestone from the 80th kilometre across Orizaba as far as the 180th kilometre near the station of Esperanza, after which the country is completely covered by volcanic ejecta. Upon this calcareous bed, sink-holes swallowing up rivers are of very frequent occurrence. The Spanish name for a funnel-shaped depression of this kind is sumidero, and one of the railway stations has been called by this name. These sumideros correspond to an extensive system of subterranean channels; the deepest are still used by underground streams, whereas the higher ones are mostly dry, and have reached a state of old age, characterised by the deposition of sinter and the formation of stalactites tending to obstruct them again. The cave of Atoyac is an instance of this class. Location —The mouth of the cave is located amidst steep slopes 900 metres east of the station at Atoyac, about 70 metres below the railway, and 26 metres above the present level of the river flowing at the bottom of the gorge. The opening was discovered during the summer of 1906 by Seiior Sanchez when hunting big game among these precipices. During the following autumn the writer had an oppor- tunity of visiting it with Professor C. de la Torre (Havana University), and of making a rapid survey of it. The entrance is partially closed by the fall of débris. The strike of the cretaceous limestone at this point is north to south, the dip is about 75 degrees east, and the jointing is approximately perpendicular to the strike. A glance at the plan of the cave shows that the succession of channels and chambers is not random, but presents a rectangular arrangement. The main passages run in a north to south direction, according to the strike ; they may be called subsequent. They are connected by smaller transverse corridors corre- sponding to the joint planes and obsequent to the direction of the strata. The features of the interior were briefly described and accounted for. A trans- verse corridor is partially closed by a high ridge which has been probably formed by the blocks of limestone falling from the roof, damming back the water and slowly covered by the sinter deposited by the cascade. Near the top of the cave is a series of narrow tortuous passages, recalling to the mind the worm of a still. They are superposed one above another, and suggest the progressive tunnelling down of the waters. All these narrow tunnels run to the bottom of a vertical shaft, which the writer was not able to explore; but a constant current of fresh air (temperature 20° Centigrade) gives evidence of a direct communication with the surface of the soil. It corresponds in all probability to a chimney by which the surface waters were formerly engulfed. Conclusion.—A careful analysis of the succession of chambers composing the cave of Atoyac proves that the work of excavation of the limestone by the waters has been controlled, down to its most minute details, by the planes of bedding and by the system of joints and of fractures. Subterranean waters always take ee of these natural planes of division in dissolving or in eroding calcareous rocks. Up to the great dam, pottery has been found, and there is evidence of the utilisation of this cave by the Indians some five centuries ago. The situation is so favourable that it nas probably been used as a rock shelter at a much earlier period. The author thinks that if the actual sinter floors were carefully removed, and methodical investigations conducted, they would lead to valuable additions to our knowledge of American pre-history. The proximity of a railway station would greatly facilitate this research. 1907. PP 578 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 3. Second Report on Investigations in the Indian Ocean. See Reports, p. 551. 4, Interim Report on Rainfall and Lake and River Discharge. See Reports, p. 353. 5, Interim Report on the Oscillations of the Level of the Land in the Mediterranean Basin.—See Reports, p. 350. 6. A Zraverse of Two unexplored Rivers of Labrador. By Mrs. Leonipas Husparp, Junior. The Labrador peninsula comprises that portion of British North America lying east of Hudson Bay and north of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is a vast rocky plateau, its slopes cut by valleys into which flow the waters of its thousands of lakes and streams in a mad rush to the sea. The journey across the north-eastern portion of the peninsula by way of the Nascaupee and George Rivers was undertaken by Mrs. Hubbard for the purpose of completing the mission of exploration which in 1903 had cost her husband his life. She left North-west River Post, near the head of Lake Melville or Grosswater Bay, on June 27,1905. Her crew numbered four; the outfit included two canoes and 750 lb. of provisions, with two rifles, three single-shot pistols, and one revolver. The first task was the tracing of the Nascaupee River to its source. The river descends from its source at the height of 1,675 feet above the sea, by what may be termed a series of steps. The larger part of the descent is by rapids, only a few falls occurring, and those of no great height. A comparison showed a drop of 1,600 feet in 137 miles in the case of the Nascaupee, but only 224 feet of fall in 113 miles in the swiftest part of the St. Lawrence. Five weeks of struggle with the rapids found the party encamped on August 2 on the shores of Lake Michikaman, a great interior lake; and on August 10 the final source of the Nascaupee River on the Height of Land was reached. Here the travellers were in the midst of the caribou country. On August 8 a herd of some thousands was seen, and for fifty miles of the journey the country was alive with them, the beautiful creatures approaching sometimes to within 20 feet or 30 feet of the camp. The source of the George River was located immediately beyond the Height of Land in Lake Hubbard. It isa tiny stream as it first steals away northward ; but in the three hundred miles of its course it gathers force and volume till at its discharge into Ungava Bay it is a great river three miles in width. The upper part of each of the rivers consists of a series of lake expansions of varying sizes. Some sixty miles from its source the George River drops from the plain of the lakes through three narrow gorges, and thenceforward flows in a distinct valley. Two bands of Indians were encountered, both of which received the travellers in a friendly manner. The first, who were of the Montagnais tribe, were camped on Resolution Lake, about fifty miles from the Height of Land. Only the women and children were there, the hunters having gone to the coast to trade for winter supplies. Fifty miles below, the Nascaupee camp was visited. These Indians are probably the least known and most primitive of the tribes of North America. Some were dressed entirely in deerskins. The most thrilling part of the journey was the descent of the last 132 miles of the George River, Hs ae it flows in almost continuous rapids through country becoming more and more mountainous, rugged, and barren, till in the last fifty miles the banks become gradually lower as the river nears the sea. The journey of about six hundred miles was made in sixty-one days, the party arriving at the Hudson Bay Company’s Post near Ungava Bay on August 27. 7. Notes on British New Guinea. By Dr. W. M. Strona. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.-—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 579 Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—Professor W. J. Asnizy, M.A., M.Com. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— Ir I attempt what has been more than once undertaken by my predecessors in this Chair—a survey of the past history and present position of political economy in this country—there are circumstances, obvious to all, which render the task to-day far easier than before. The passage of time brings many advantages, the advantage, above all, of perspective. We are able to look back and make out the relative magnitude of things; we can see how the objects in the field of vision group themselves together; and the influences which are dubious when they surround us are no longer questionable when we can stand away from them and discern their beginnings and their endings. And thus it is that we can now say— and expect general acquiescence —what twenty years ago would have called forth loud protest, and would, indeed, have been premature ; and that is, that the first phase of economics as a systematic study in this country is now well over; that the orthodox economics of the middle of the nineteenth century has for some time been quite dead. We shall differ, unquestionably, as to its value, both as an intellectual construction and as an instrument of social and political change ; we shall differ, perhaps, as to the relation to it of that present-day teaching which some will deem a natural outgrowth from the old, others its very antithesis. But about the fact of its departure we shall all be agreed. No economist of an reputation in this country, or in America, or in Germany, when left to himself, lays stress now on the propositions which Ricardo and his school emphasised ; nor does he draw the same conclusions as to practical policy. At most he may seek with natural piety to show how certain famous sentences, properly interpreted, may still be regarded as containing an element of truth. Every new text-book that appears makes the disappearance of the old orthodoxy the more evident ; indeed, it is the very consciousness that the old has passed away which is bringin the present flood of new text-books upon us. And hence the position of the first phase of English economics as a system of thought has passed in large measure out of the sphere of the controversial; we can criticise it objectively and dis- passionately ; it has become a closed chapter in intellectual history. It is the additional good fortune of those who would seek to disentangle the outlines of that chapter that the materials for that, as well as for preceding chapters, are now ready to their hands in a whole series of recent publications. Among those to whom we are especially indebted gratitude compels me to mention the names of Professor Oncken, Professor Hasbach, Dr. Cannan, Professor Foxwell, and M. Halévy. But there is one writer upon the so-called ‘classical’ economics whose recent masterly treatise has been peculiarly welcome; I refer to the late Sir Leslie Stephen’s ‘ English Utilitarians,’ And for this reason in particular, that Leslie Stephen was neither an historical, nor a reactionary, nor a socialist critic of Jaisser-faire, His sympathies were with the older economists rather PP2 580 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. than against them; his general mental attitude was still so largely that of the utilitarian circle that he might be counted upon to do the Ricardians full justice. If anyone still doubts whether there really was such a thing as an orthodox body of economic doctrine, the doubt can be quickly resolved by reference to Leslie Stephen’s pages. Few things are more remarkable in the history of thought than the rapidity with which the Ricardian economics secured its dominion over public opinion, Adam Smith had laid the foundation in the assumption of free competition ; Malthus had absolutely reversed the ideas of social philosophers on the subject of population. But neither in 1776 nor in 1798 was the man or the time ready for a ‘system. The creative period came a good deal later; it hardly extends beyond the decade from 1810 to 1820. Towards the end of that decade, in 1817, Ricardo’s book rose above the torrent of controversial pamphlets, and almost at once the edifice was complete. The doctrine of rent which Ricardo championed furnished a centre round which the other doctrines could group themselves ; while the conception of natural law—taken over by the Physiocrats long before from contemporary philosophy, learnt from the Physiocrats by J. B. Say, and now, through Say, impressed anew on Ricardo and his associates—gave to the new tenets a superhuman sanction. For if the word ‘religion’ has any meaning, we must recognise that political economy was, in a very real sense, one of the new religions of that wonderful era of fermentation. As early as 1821 the ‘ deposit’ of doctrine was complete; it only remained to propagate it. And this completion of the system is indicated by two events. One was the foundation of the Political Economy Club; the other, the publication of James Mill’s ‘ Elements.’ The Political Economy Club was the assembly of the elders of the new Church, and its rules breathe all the spirit of ecclesiastical fervour. The ‘ just principles of political economy’ are assumed to be already discovered ; the members bind themselves to procure their ‘diffusion.’ They declare it to be their duty ‘to watch carefully and to ascertain if any doctrines hostile to sound views on political economy have been propagated’; they undertake ‘to avail themselves of every favourable opportunity for the publication of seasonable truths.’ James Mill’s manual is even more symptomatic of the stage which political economy was believed by its adepts to have reached. Political economy, it takes for granted, is already a ‘science’ whose ‘ essential principles’ are known, and need only to be ‘ detached from extraneous topics’ and ‘ stated in their logical order.’ What shows, perhaps, best of all how completely all hesitation has passed away from the mind of its author is the fact that the work is avowedly designed to be a ‘school-book,’ addressed to ‘persons of either sex of ordinary under- standing ’"—the first, in fact, of those manuals by which young people have been turned into prigs before their time. And it was James Mill, we are coming more and more to realise, who did more than any other one man, first to impel Ricardo to write, and then to systematise the new faith and organise its propaganda. How rapidly that propaganda was successful! In 1821 Ricardian political economy was the creed of a part only of ‘a small and very unpopular sect,’ the Utilitarians, which ‘excited antipathy on all sides.’ Its teaching, we may recall, was received with repugnance and protest by the man of that age who saw most deeply into the human soul—I mean, of course, Wordsworth —as well as by Doleridge, who was beginning to teach his countrymen a truer philosophy of history. And yet in another ten years it had won wide acceptance, and had become the dominant force in social legislation. What Coleridge said in 1832 of the Malthusian foundation was true by that time of the system generally ; it had ‘ gotten complete possession of the leading men of the kingdom,’ It would occupy us too long, and it might suggest a controversy I should wish to avoid, if I sought to furnish a complete explanation of this remarkable and rapid success. We should probably all agree that the system owed its general acceptance less to its intellectual merits—for when have great political forces been set moving by sheer weight of argument ?—than to its singular appropriate- ness to contemporary conditions. It appealed both to the good and to the evil PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 581 sides of the new manufacturing middle class ; to the spirit of enterprise which no longer felt the need of the protective legislation of the past; and to the narrow self-satisfaction which found in the law of population a release from the sense of social obligation. The term ‘ manufacturing economists,’ applied to the Ricardian group by a pamphleteer of the period, was eminently apposite; and as the manufacturing interest coalesced with the fragments of the old Whig connection, and formed the modern Liberal party, the new political economy furnished a platform on which both these wings could unite, and which saved them from the necessity of falling back for a policy on the more thorough-going democratic doctrines of un-‘ philosophical’ or pre-‘ philosophical’ Radicals and Chartists. That ‘ they overrated the political economists’ is one of the chief reasons assigned by Dr. Arnold in 1840 for the difficulty he felt in working with the Liberal party ; and it must be remembered that, in thus being taken over into practical politics political economy lost altogether the hypothetical character which its more cautious exponents attributed to it; its conclusions were no longer remembered to require ‘ verification ’; ‘ other considerations besides the purely economic’ were left to the other side to point out ; and economic principles were regarded as rules directly and immediately applicable to existing circumstances. It is not, however, any particular explanation of the very general acceptance of the Ricardian creed as early as 1832, but the bare fact of that acceptance that I wish to lay stress upon. Indications of it abound. Consider, for instance, the almost complete neglect which all contemporary economic writers suffered—and there were not a few—who diverged from the now codified teaching. We can under- stand this with writers like Thompson and Hodgskin, from whom Marx seems sub- sequently to have derived the claim for the labourer to ‘ the whole product’ of industry. This was adoctrine for the manual workers, and their time had not yet come. But, as Professor Seligman has recently pointed out, there was also more than one writer of the period who anticipated what has quite recently become, for the time, the current teaching of most English-speaking economists. The marginal conception of value which this generation owes to Jevons and Menger was clearly enough expounded by Longfield in 1833, but it passed unregarded, As I am not myself altogether convinced that the notion really carries us any great distance, for reasons to which I shall return, I do not particularly blame his contemporaries. But it is evident that their inattention was due, not to dissatisfaction with what men like Longfield offered them, but to satisfaction with the apparently sufficient formule they had already mastered. A further indication of the victory of the Ricardian school may be found in the promulgation of what may fairly be called the orthodox doctrine of economic method, The essay of the younger Mill ‘On the Definition of Political Economy, and on the Method of Investigation proper to it * was drafted and completed in these very years of triumph—between 1829 and 1833. The proper method, according to John Mill, was the @ priori one, ‘the only method by which truth can possibly be attained in any department of the social science” Though he then avoided the term ‘deductive,’ and continued to the end to use ‘inductive and ‘ deductive ’ in a fashion of his own, ‘ deductive’ is the fairest brief description of what he had in his mind, and he finally fell back upon the word in his ‘ Logic.’ In the treatise of Cairnes on the subject, which may be regarded as an expansion and popularisa- tion of Mill’s essay one-and-twenty years later, it is clearly laid down that as ‘the economist starts with a knowledge of ultimate causes’ the preliminary work of induction to reach premisses is reduced to a minimum, and the economist must ‘regard deduction as his principal resource.’ It cannot be necessary to examine the correctness of this opinion, for the simple reason that it is no longer entertained in all its primitive rigour and vigour by English-speaking economists, and it is held by few indeed of those of other countries. Professor Edgeworth, in reviewing some years ago the book of the Dutch economist Pierson, remarked that ‘it is refreshing to find in these days a first-rate economist who has the courage to say that deduction is the only effective method’; and Pierson’s singularity sufficiently indicates the present state of opinion. It would, indeed, be misleading to imply that all 582 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. serious workers in the economic field are absolutely at one in this respect. But since Henry Sidgwick’s eminently judicial review of the controversy in 1883; since the leading representatives of opposing schools in Germany, Wagner and Schmoller, have approached each other so nearly in their recognition of the equal validity of induction and deduction for ‘the tasks appropriate to each’; since the doyen of English economists, Professor Marshall, has come to use, with such hearty acquiescence, Schmoller’s metaphor of the two feet equally necessary in walking— sweeping assertions like those of John Mill and Cairnes sound antiquated to our ears. Let me interpose the remark that a method of observation and generalisa- tion—the method, in fact, of historical and statistical inquiry—is peculiarly appropriate to a kind of investigation which the older economists hardly con- templated, and that is into the structure of industrial organisation and institutions and the evolution of that structure. But for this process it is misleading to use the term ‘ induction,’ since ‘induction’ suggests a different sort of goal. And, on the other hand, it would seem as if less use were being made of ‘deduction’ in recent years by abstract economists themselves. Certaiuly, in the various marginal theories of distribution which have been pushing the simple Ricardian tenets into the background, it is not so easy to disentangle a deductive line of reasoning as it was, for instance, in the earlier doctrine of wages or profit. The fashionable modern term ‘analysis’ is elastic enough to cover several different kinds of mental opera- tion. ‘No one who knows the meaning of terms,’ we have lately been informed in a tone of authority, ‘ will call the analytical study of the motives which govern men in business a strictly deductive method.’ To return, however, to John Mill and the ‘ methodology’ of 1833. Perhaps the most curious fact about it, when one comes to reflect, is its totally unhistorical character. Cairnes says somewhere that ‘no economic or social truth meriting the name of scientific ever has been discovered’ by induction, But it may be said with equal positiveness and more accuracy that none of the fundamental doctrines of Ricardian economics were actually discovered by deductive or a priori reasoning. As Professor Hasbach has so usefully reminded us, they were all of them conclusions directly suggested to observers by the facts of life before them— observers some of them in past.centuries, some recent, like Anderson and West and Malthus. What the Ricardian group did was to work these ‘truths’ into a system and support them more or Jess by formal reasoning. Deduction became in taeir hands an effective pedagogical method, but it had not really been the instru- ment of ‘ discovery.’ Yet its unhistorical character only brings out more clearly the place of John Mill’s doctrine of method in the history of economic thought. Its appearance marks the passage of the Ricardian faith into its third stage—the stage of apologetics ; and apologetics, here as elsewhere, tended to mask and misrepre- sent the real character of the forces and influences which had actually given rise to the doctrine. Nevertheless for some decades it was sufficient for its pur- pose. When John Mill came to write his own great text-book in 1848 he ‘ spoke as one expounding an established system ;’ and established the system remained for at least twenty years longer. Fawcett’s book, which appeared in 1863, which ran through many editions and remained the text-book for passmen well into the ‘eighties,’ was only a simplified Mill. During all this time orthodoxy was a very real thing, and the penalties of heresy were not always light. In the bitterness of his heart Jevons once declared in a private letter that ‘ the Mill faction never serupled at putting their lecturers and examiners wherever they could’ But ‘faction’ is too harsh a word; it was the body of the Church. That the doctrine should remain so long in vogue in academic, civil service and journalistic circles, in spite of the assaults of Mr. Ruskin and in spite of the just anger of the working classes, is easily explained. It was due chiefly to the success, for the time, of the great Free Trade measure of 1846 ; a measure which, though dictated by the immediate interests of the manufacturers, was in complete accord with the then orthodox economics. English trade was increasing ‘ by leaps and bounds’; England was becoming the workshop of the world, and seemed likely so to remain, The doubts which even men like Malthus, not to PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 583 mention conservative philosophers like Coleridge, had entertained as to whether a purely manufacturing policy would turn out in the long run to be safe could be contemptuously dismissed; and the literary dignity of John Mill’s book did much to secure its hold on respectful attention. Those who were drawn to a more generous attitude towards the labouring population and a nobler conception of society than were congenial to the first generation of economists found much to appeal to them in the moving passages which Mill wrote under the influence of Comte and the Socialists. It was as yet hardly realised that such passages had no natural place in the body of orthodox teaching. There were not wanting during this long period of half a century currents of European thought which might have been expected to disturb the complacency of English economics. But these currents never made their way into England. For the failure of each of them there is perhaps some explanation. Comte’s criticism of political economy (1839-42) was associated with a destructive philosophy of religion, and with a personality singularly alien to any usual English type. That Le Play’s method of family monographs and workmen’s budgets should have had to wait to our days before it called forth imitation in England is harder to explain; but that may also have been due to the association of a method of economic investigation with a large philosophy of religion and society, very different from that of Comte, but, like Comte, speaking a dialect foreign to Hnglish ears. The creators of the German ‘historical’ school of economists—Roscher (1843), Hildebrand (1848), Knies (1853)—had no such associations to hamper them, and in their own country their influence quietly | spread over the Universities and among the official classes. But the period was one marked in England by an almost complete ignorance of contemporary German thought. It was indeed the time of Germany’s humiliation; and I suppose the victories of 1870 did more to make us learn German than any spontaneous enlargement of interests. I began by saying that the Ricardian orthodoxy is, by general consent, to all intents and purposes dead to-day among English-speaking economists. By that, of course, I do not mean that there are not even yet portions of their writings that are still valuable ; but that what the Ricardians themselves regarded as the most vital part, the part which they frequently identified with political economy as a whole, the part which lent itself to practical conclusions in the sphere of taxation—that is to say, the doctrine of distribution—is no longer held (with the dubious exception of the doctrine of rent) in any shape which they would themselves have recognised. Its abandonment has been due to a series of assauits from several quarters and on different parts of the fabric, which occupied little more than the decade 1870-80. They were all, immediately if not ultimately, from English directions ; they were all, not from outside humanitarians, but from professed economists; aud some of them were from men who had no sort of realisation of the damage they were doing to an edifice they supposed themselves to be propping up. It will be enough to mention them in order. In 1869 John Mill threw over his disciples and renounced the wage-fund doctrine, giving hardly a thought to the security of what remained.» In 1871 Jevons produced his quasi-mathematical theory, the effect of which was to show, as he declared, how ‘that able but wrong-headed man Dayid Ricardo shunted the car of economic science on to a wrong line, a line on which it was further urged towards confusion by his equally able and wrong-headed admirer John: Stuart Mill.’ In 1874 Cairnes ‘newly expounded’ ‘some leading principles of political economy’ in a way which, while ‘not in any sense antagonistic towards the science built up by the labours of Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, and Mill,’ aimed at showing that, ‘as at present generally received, it contained ‘no small proportion of faulty material.’ In 1876 Bagehot began a series of articles which were intended to rehabilitate orthodox economics—among other ways by returning to the narrowness of its scope before the younger Mill tried in vain to widen it, but with the result, in many minds, of still further discrediting it. In 1877 the American economist Francis Walker produced a new and far-reaching doctrine of wages. In 1879 Cliffe Leslie's collected essays introduced the English reader 584. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, to they German historical economists, and made clear—what the consistent advocates of a ‘hypothetical’ science had never denied, but what ordinary economic writings had been curiously unable to keep before men’s minds—the vast {difference between ‘tendencies’ and actual phenomena. And finally, in, 1881-2, the lectures of Arnold Toynbee made an attempt to show how the historical method could be applied to the interpretation of actual conditions, Meanwhile, it should also be added, the dissemination of the teachings of the so-called ‘scientific’ socialists—of Lassalle’s ‘Iron Law of Wages,’ and of Marx’s ‘Surplus Value ’—disposed conservatively minded thinkers to re-examine that Ricardian teaching to which the Socialists, with so much show of reason, were in the habit of appealing. To what now has all this ferment led? After a time of almost complete chaos it might seem as if a new structure of theory with regard to the funda- mental problem of distribution has once more been erected—to judge from the appearance in these latter years of a whole shelf full of imposing text-books. We need but glance through them to discover that there has as yet been no substantial reconstruction among English-speaking economists on historical lines. The historical study of economic conditions has, it is true, made considerable progress; to that I shall return later. But the centre of interest among academic economists (and with them must be reckoned for this purpose some influential writers outside the Universities) is still to be found, both in this country and in America, in abstract argument. Among the diverse lines of thought which converged upon the old orthodoxy for its destruction in 1870-80, that represented by Jevons has for the time had the widest influence. It has been supplemented by the similar influences of Austrian economists—Menger, Béhm-Bawerk, and Wieser—who have been made accessible to English readers by translation or paraphrase ; and partly under impulses from Jevons and the Austrians, partly from an original turn for abstract speculation, there has appeared in America an independent theorician of the first rank, Professor Clark, who has already carried most of the younger economists of the United States with him, and is beginning to make himself felt on this side of the ocean. In speaking of this second, this newer, phase of abstract economics, my task is more perilous. The movement has only just got well under way; and it would be rash to predict its destination. I shall confine myself to a very few observa- tions; and possibly one who occupies a detached position outside theoretic discussion may see some of the larger features of the situation more distinctly than those who are themselves taking part in the debate. Perhaps the best term for the representatives of the newer abstract phase would be ‘the Marginalists.’ They employ the conception in different ways and with different results; but with all of them the notion of the Margin, the Grenz, is a never-failing resource. They all begin, at any rate, by laying stress on the doctrine of marginal or final utility, some as the key to the whole problem of value, some as the key to the demand side of it. And what has one to say to it? Of course, in the first place, it is quite true, so far as it goes; and, in the second place, it is pedagogically of some use. It puts an elementary bit of psychology in a way calculated to make the youthful beginner do a little thinking. Even for this purpose it is not without its dangers; for ‘utility’ cannot but be a constantly misleading name for mere ‘desiredness,’ however carefully it may be explained. Suppose, however, we all remember always that ‘utility’ does not necessarily mean in economics what it means in ordinary speech, how far does the doctrine take us? I cannot help thinking that it takes us a very short way indeed. In- stead of leading ‘us to the very heart of the problem, the doctrine of marginal value seems to me to remain entirely on the surface; it is not much more than a verbal description of the superficial facts at a particular point of time. The intensity of demand varies inversely, more or less rapidly, with the extent to which it is satisfied ; for different commodities there are different scales of intensity ; under certain circumstances one demand will be substituted for another. True, doubt- less. But why do people demand just those things? On what does the rapidity of satiation depend? Have their desires always been the same; or the possibilities PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 585 of production in order to meet them? How are desires related to one another? What are they likely to become? What are the limits to demand set by the economic situation of the demanders? These are the things we really want to know. The problem is, in a wide sense of the term, an historical one; or, if you prefer the phrase, a sociological one, both ‘static’ and ‘dynamic.’ Behind the work- man’s wife making up her mind on Saturday night whether to buy another loaf or a scrap more meat stand the whole of human nature and the whole of social history. And this is what, I suspect, the deeper thinkers among the Marginalists are obscurely realising. When Professor Marshall distinguishes between normal and market value, and invites us, in order to understand normal value, to contemplate a chain of forces operating, both on the demand and the supply side, for indefinitely long periods, is he not in substance recognising that the problem is one of age-long development ? And, similarly, when Professor Clark points out that even utility is not a homogeneous thing; that every commodity is really a bundle of utilities for different purposes; and that therefore ‘value is a social phenomenon,’ he is approaching the real complexity of a sociological problem. It is with a true instinct that Mr. Carver waives these subtleties of the Columbia economist on one side; he perceives that simplicity of economic ‘ analysis’ would speedily disappear if the psychology became more profound. When we pass from marginal utility to the exposition of the laws of distri- bution to which it serves as a prelude, the attempt to judge of the true character of the neo-abstract literature of recent days becomes extraordinarily difficult. For one who should try, as I have recently done, to review that literature as a whole will be startled to find how far-reaching are the divergences within it. Its only unity would seem to consist in a common belief in the value of abstract (or, as it is sometimes called, ‘ general’) reasoning, and in the common -employ- ment of a few specialised terms. Doubtless all the differences could be construed as differences of emphasis; but this is hardly reassuring, for the emphasis may differ so much as to give totally opposite impressions. A man may be ‘coloured’ with so little emphasis as to be practically white, or with so much emphasis as to be practically black. So long as the student keeps to a particular set of writings, he may cherish the impression of a triumphant analysis, solving all difficulties for intelligent men in the same way; when he extends his reading he will find that there are at least three main groups, following respectively the lead of Cambridge, of Vienna, and of New York; while among the younger men there are all sorts of ingenious but mutually irreconcilable attempts at eclectic compromise. The -want of agreement shows itself, I cannot help thinking, even before we turn to specific doctrines, when we ask ourselves what is supposed to be the relation of the several ‘systems’ to real life. It is the old difficulty, still giving trouble, of the relative importance of ‘tendency’ and ‘friction.’ Grant, if you will, the possibility of a doctrine of tendencies, it is surely of the first importance that we should have a pretty definite and continuous impression as to the width of the gap between the formule and visible phenomena. Yet, while some of the abstract economists give the impression that the tendencies they formulate are actually, with some little delay and in a rough-and-ready way, on the whole realising themselves in concrete circumstances, others give the impression that their science is so very ‘pure’ as to have hardly anything visibly in common with the crude doings of impure humanity. One leading writer assures us that in his book ‘normal action is taken to be that which may be expected, under certain conditions, from the members of an industrial group; and no attempt is made to exclude the influence of any motives, the action of which is regular, merely because they are altruistic.’ On the other hand, his persuasive American colleague turns our thoughts in just the opposite direction. He tells us that ‘ the impression of unreality which is made by the studies of the classical political economy is removed by completing them on the same theoretical plan on which they have been started. We must use assumptions boldly and advisedly, make labour and capital absolutely mobile, and let competition work in ideal perfection.’ There has been one fresh and welcome advance upon the position of the older writers. Both Professor Marshall and Professor Clark would seem to agree in 586 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. describing their methods of treating economic phenomena as primarily ‘ statical,’ even if they are not quite at one in the meaning they attach to the adjective. Both regard a statical doctrine as, in a sense, only an introduction, though a necessary one in their eyes, to ‘a more philosophic treatment of society.’ It is not, indeed, easy to see how a whole abstract system can be made an essential preliminary ; if, as the former writer tells us, ‘ the function of analysis and deduc- tion in economics is not to forge a few long chains of reasoning, but to forge rightly many short chains and single connecting-links ’—a place which all sensible historic economists would readily grant to it. However, the distinction between static and dynamic is a significant precaution, if only the ordinary reader can bear it in mind. If ‘actual society is always dynamic,’ and ‘because of this continual evolution the standards of wages and of interest to-day are not what they will be ten years hence,’ it is evident that the lonely figure of ‘the marginal shepherd’ would give little help in settling, let us say, the Australian shearers’ strike. And this, perhaps, is why a younger American economist already referred to, who retains the old orthodox preference for a short way with dissenters, becomes a little restive, ‘The static state,’ he says, is ‘a heroic assumption of doubtful utility.’ Possibly he fears that, if the appearance of the promised ‘dynamic’ theory is long delayed, the assumption may be as dangerous as some other ‘heroic’ remedies have been. Until that time comes, and looking only at the several ‘ static’ systems them- selves, we find that there is hardly a single point in the whole theory of distri- bution on which there is as yet any approach to unanimity. What was the one doctrine associated with the name of Ricardo which survived the wreck of 1870- 1880? It was the so-called ‘Ricardian’ doctrine of the rent of land. Most British economists cling to the conception still, and regard the distinction between land and other instruments of production as one of the first importance, Indeed, they have gone further, and have applied the marginal idea and the term ‘rent’ to all surpluses derived from the possession of differential advantages. It then becomes natural to see ‘ quasi-rent’ or ‘analogies to rent’ in every direction. But, from seeing a peculiar thing everywhere, the transition is easy to seeing no peculiarity’anywhere, And thus it is not only the Austrian writers who are disposed to rubZout the distinction between land and other instruments of production; the chief American theorist, Professor Clark, throws the whole Ricardian doctrine overboard. He is daring enough to say that the arguments advanced to prove that ‘rent does not enter into price’ would ‘ prove that wages and interest are also residual amounts, having no price-making power; and this is an absurdity.’ A growing band of American disciples accepts this view; and in recent text-books,‘like those of Professors Fetter and Seligman, the beginner is calmly told that the doctrine still taught by high authority in England ‘is now being abandoned by economic students,’ The same contention reaches our ears when we approach any other part of the field of distribution. What, for instance, is profit? Is it a return for the business man’s share in the work of production? Is it a marginal product? Or does it arise because the owners of the real ‘factors of production’ do not succeed in getting thei ‘marginal products’? Is there, after all, normally no absolute net profit (Unternehmergewinn) apart from interest, wages,and insurance? On all these points discord reigns among what would seem to be equally competent theorists. Or take interest. What is the explanation of the fact of interest P Large Austrian books have been translated which dismiss all previous explanations with contempt, and instruct us that the true solution is the discounting of future goods, This view, which our leading English economist condemns as ‘one-sided,’ has, nevertheless, found some acceptance in England, and it is accepted wholesale in the Dutch treatise which has been recently translated for our benefit because of its unique combination of reasoning power with knowledge of affairs. If there were time we could take the remaining topic of distribution, viz., wages, and entangle ourselves in the like perplexity. It may be enough if we notice in passing that, on such a vital question as whether trade-unions could effect a general rise of wages, not cnly would opinions differ, but those who agreed in their answers would get at them in quite different ways, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 587 [t has not been my purpose in thus displaying the present position of abstract economics to deny its interest. Its study is certainly sharpening to the wits, and it is hardly likely that all the opposing doctrines are mistaken. It may be that in another quarter of a century opinions will have shaken themselves down and assumed their permanent places and proportions, and then the ‘system’ to which we shall have arrived may be of evident assistance in the understanding of life. Meanwhile, an Englishman may feel a just satisfaction in the width of sympathies and the sober balance of judgment which marks the chief English treatise of this period, and even an untheoretical reader will gratefully acknowledge the abundant help to be derived from Professor Marshall’s knowledge and insight. My purpose was simply to show that, though there has been a new growth of abstract speculation since the first phase of orthodoxy passed away, there has not emerged a second orthodoxy so far. There is no reason why those who think that a very moderate amount of general reasoning will go a long way in the interpretation of facts, when once these facts have been collected and arranged, should be so dazzled by any of the new systems as to be checked in their own more plodding career. Side by side, however, with all this activity in the field of theory—an activity which, it must be confessed, has almost monopolised the attention of professed economists—there has been a most remarkable awakening of interest in the actual economic history of our land. As I have already observed, the criticisms of the historical school have not led, so far, to the creation of a new political economy on historical lines ; even in Germany it is only within very recent years that some ot the larger outlines of such an economics have begun to loom up before us in the great treatise of Gustav Schmoller. But what has, at any rate, been secured in this country is a most substantial increase in the knowledge of our own economic past. How remarkable the progress has been we only realise when we begin to look back and take stock of our recent acquisitions. Five-and-twenty years ago interest in the subject was curiously languid. This had not always been the case. In the eighteenth century Anderson and Eden had brought together great collec- tions of material; and in the thirties and forties of last century the currency discussion had produced the work of Tooke, and pride in the new inventions a number of histories of particular trades. The most typical book of this later period, however, was the work of Ricardo’s brother-in-law, the first head of the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade. Porter's ‘ Progress of the Nation’ (1836-1843) was a prolonged statistical pean of triumph over the results ot growing enlightenment. The blessings of the new era having thus been displayed, it might seem asif it was hardly worth while to learn anything more about the past. Ifa student had inquired in 1880 for the best recent treatises dealing with our economic history at large, he would have been referred to Leone Levi's ‘ History of British Commerce’ from 1763, and to the first two volumes of Thorold Rogers’ ‘History of Agriculture and Prices,’ coming down to 1400. The former was a useful compilation put together in the most unscientific and philistine spirit; the latter was the outcome of a vast amount of toil, but the material collected was not of such a nature as to afford a clear understanding of the fundamental institutions of the Middle Ages. Accordingly, those who began to interest themselves in such subjects were compelled to look abroad. In the works of Brentano, Ochenkowski, Schanz, Nasse, and Held they found, in varying degrees, a scientific method and a stimulus not to be met with at home; and there can be little wonder if they were inclined to assign to one or other of these German monographs more weight than really belonged to it. But the years 1882-1884 marked the beginning of a better time. Three books appeared, very different in their character, but each in its way opening -a new era. To Toynbee’s ‘ Industrial Revolution’ (1884) I have already referred. Its chief value lay in its showing how impartial investigation of the past could be combined with ardent enthusiasm for social improvement. Shortly before, Dr. Cunningham’s ‘Growth of English History and Commerce’ (1882) had given us for the first time a treatise which attempted to cover the whole historical ground. It was the forerunner of those enlarged and rewritten editions which have grown into the three stately volumes now on our shelves. 588 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. The time would fail me to single out the numerous particular topics on which Dr. Cunningham has enlightened us; what is a far greater service is that by his masterly and encyclopzedic grasp of the whole vast field he has kept before our minds the fundamental idea of the continuity of our national development. About the same date the book of Mr. Seebohm on ‘The English Village Com- munity ’ (1883) gave us, for the first time, the right starting-point for our study of medieval (and therefore of modern) agrarian history. Itis an example of the way in which even the largest facts of national life are apt to drift out of the minds of the next generation that the ‘open-field’ system of husbandry should have been entirely forgotten in hardly more than fifty years from the time when the thing itself finally passed away. The manorial economy, as Mr. Seebohm reconstructed it, may possibly be a little more symmetrical than the facts; but, without an under- standing of its main features, medizval agricultural conditions must have remained unknown to us. Let anyone who fails to appreciate Mr. Seebohm’s incomparable services try to find in any modern writer before him a clear explanation of the yardland—the pivot of the agricultural organisation of every old English village. Of subsequent workers in this field of economic history it is only possible to give a bare list. Professor Maitland, whose untimely loss we all deplore, has enabled us to get truer notions of medizval law: he has confirmed the impression that there were certain underlying conditions common to the whole of Western Europe by his proof of the acceptance of the canon law in England; and to his example and influence we owe a great increase in the printed materials for manorial and municipal history. Mr. Powell has added exactness to our know- ledge of the great peasant rising; Mr. Leadam has printed the official evidence concerning the enclosures of the sixteenth century; Mr. Stevens, Sir George Birdwood, and others have given like assistance for the beginnings of our East India trade ; Miss Leonard has explained the part played by the earlier Stuarts in establishing the English poor law; Mr. Galton and Mr. Unwin have helped to bridge over the gulf between the medieval guild and the modern trade-union ; Mr. and Mrs. Webb have laid bare the local government of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a period more obscure in some ways than the age of the Plantagenets ; Mr. Gray has written the annals of philanthropy; and Mr. Slater has taken up the thread of agrarian history and systematically examined the later enclosures. The beginnings of Scotch manufactures have been explored by Mr. Scott; the troublesome story of the relation of English policy to Irish in- dustry has been told by Miss Murray; the history of nineteenth-century factory legislation has for the first time been written in perspective by Miss Hutchins and Miss Harrison conjointly ; the movement of wages during the same period has been traced by Mr. Bowley ; and while the modern combination of labour has found its first serious historians in Mr. and Mrs. Webb, the even more recent tendency towards capitalist combination has been portrayed by Mr. Macrosty. For particular industries we have now the works of Mr. Ellison and Professor Chapman on the cotton trade, and Mr. Jeans’ reports on the iron trade; while Dr. Creighton has dealt with a subject of the utmost economic interest in his history of epidemics, This is a recital of which we may well be proud. And meanwhile we have been receiving assistance equally valuable from foreign scholars. Two American students trained in Germany—Messrs. Page and Gay—have thrown a strong light on the commutation of labour services in the fourteenth century and on the enclosures of the sixteenth and seventeenth. Two German scholars, Professor Ehrenberg and Dr. Lohmann, have greatly added to our knowledge of the place occupied in our history by the woollen industry, the one explaining the struggle for the admission of English cloth to the Con- tinent, the other the methods of governmental regulation. Two others, Pro- fessor Hasbach and Dr. Levy, have turned their attention to our agrarian development; and, while the former has investigated the fortunes of the agri- cultural labourer, the latter has traced the rise and decline of capitalist cereal farming. And it is a sign of the recent revival of solid historical studies in the land of M. Fustel de Coulanges that a French scholar, M. Mantoux, has just given us by far the most complete account of the industrial revolution of the PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5&9 eighteenth century. If we cannot but regret that some of these books do not bear the names of English scholars, there still remains a large field for English scholars to explore. Accompanying the new zeal in this country for original research, there has come a recognition equally new of the importance of economic history in the examination requirements of the Universities. On looking at the fresh work of investigation which we have just been surveying, it will be observed that a large part of it has been more or less closely connected either with Cambridge or with the London School of Economics; and it is notorious that the impulse has been due in the one place chiefly to Dr. Cunningham and in the other chiefly to Professor Hewins and Mr. Webb. Accordingly, it is appropriate that economic history should have been given a respectable place alike iu the Cambridge History Tripos and in the examination for Science Degrees in Economics in the University of London. Even more significant is the room made for economic history in the Economics paper of the First Class Civil Service Examination, both for home and for Indian appointments. Quite aconsiderable number of undergraduatesdo now every year give some little attention to the subject; at least half a dozen formal examination papers must be set upon it annually; and there are already three or four elementary text-books in existence for the beginner to choose from. And all this is so far to the good; in an examination-ridden country it is the only way in which a subject can command any general attention. But I seem to observe a certain tendency towards what I should regard as an unfortunately sharp division for academic purposes between economic theory and economic history. There is an inclination to regard each as a specialism unconcerned with the other; represented by different experts; or, if sometimes combined in one person, kept in separate compartments of the brain. It is inevitable and salutary that some economists should be much more historical, others much more theoretic, in their interests. But a complete divorce either of narrative history and description from the large consideration of cause and effect or of pure theory from the conception of historic evolution would seem to be equally undesirable. I have not concealed my opinion that much of the labour that has been devoted to economics in English-speaking countries during the last quarter of a century has been less fruitful than one could desire, and yet the outlook is more encouraging in many respects than ever before—certainly in this country. For look at one interesting feature of the present situation. It is only of late years that the teaching of economics has begun to be so recognised and organised in our universities that it can be said to offer a career to a young man of ability in the sense in which, for instance, chemistry offers a career. The triumph of the Ricardians led to the creation of professorships of political economy at Oxford in 1825, at Cambridge in 1828, at Dublin in 1832. The two rival London colleges, University and King’s, and the Queen’s Colleges in Ireland, followed suit. But until a surprisingly recent date there was no real working professorship of political economy in Great Britain comparable to the ordinary professorships in any German university—and by ‘comparable’ I mean carrying with it a living wage and involving the devotion of the main strength of the incumbent to the duties of the chair. The remuneration was in most cases absurdly inadequate; the appointment at Oxford and Cambridge was the sport of election, and was at first made for a term of years; and it was commonly regarded either as a stepping-stone to a Government appointment or as an appendage and assistance to a political career. This was due partly to the place which professorial lectures generally then occupied in university life. ‘ Professors’ lectures were considered to be mainly ornamental, and they scarcely formed a part of the real educational system.’ It was due in part to the then orthodox view of the character of the study. ‘According to Fawcett,’ says Sir Leslie Stephen, diplomatically, in the life of his friend, ‘the leading principles of political economy and those which were really valuable were few, simple, and therefore capable of an exposition on the level of average intelligence.’ And the same view was held by most of his contemporaries, both here and in America, The author of the best-known American handbook of economics of this period has 590 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. himself described his scientific equipment: ‘I had seareely read a dozen pages of Bastiat when, closing the book, and giving myself to an hour's reflection, the field of political economy in all its outlines and landmarks lay before my mind.’ In those days the presidency of an American college was commonly given to an elderly clergyman, and in the choice of teaching duties to be attached to the office the lot usually fell upon political economy, because it was the easiest subject to et up. ® But to return to Great Britain. It was not till Professor Marshall became professor at Cambridge twenty-two years ago that either of the older English universities secured in its chair of economics an effective head of a living department of university study. Meanwhile, certainly, things had been improving elsewhere. At Owens College a chair had been created—or rather a half-chair, for political economy was joined with logic—and it had been made the most of by Jevons; and in 1871 another was founded at Edinburgh. After 1871 followed a long interval, devoid of addition to the scanty number of economic chairs. In the middle of the eighties, however, came a fresh moving of the waters: first iJl-paid lecturerships made their appearance; and then these gradually blossomed out into full professorships. Toronto led the way within the Empire in 1888; Liverpool and Glasgow established professorships in 1891 and 1896; and since then Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, and Bristol, as well as Montreal across the sea, have followed the example. The other universities and university colleges are, with few exceptions, already in the lecturer stage. The professor, where there is one, is also usually assisted by a lecturer; two or three graduate scholar- ships have already been created to assist the future economist in his earlier steps ; and in the ‘ Economic Journal,’ so impartially edited by Professor Edgeworth, as well as in the ‘Economic Review,’ both founded in 1891, there is a medium for the publication of scholarly, non-popular work. Economics, in short, is beginning to furnish a career. This is a condition of things in itself fayourable to economic studies. It has its drawbacks indeed, and I feel personally and painfully enough the dangers of academic life, We must all be aware how much we owe to writers unhampered by the duties of the professional teacher of economics—to men like Mr. Seebohm,° Mr. Booth, Mr. Rowntree, Mr. Palgraye, Mr. Webb, Mr. Hobson, Mr. Money, and Mr. Welsford, to mention but afew among them, But such non-academic work involyes either the possession of private means or the pursuit of some other and yemunerative occupation, such as journalism, And grateful as we must be for all original and stimulating contributions to knowledge, we cannot be so confident, either in the supply of men of means with scholarly interests or in the ability of journalists to overcome partisan predilection, as to dispense willingly with a reason- ably large contingent of professed economists within the Universities. The revival of economic studies in Great Britain of late years has been due to the almost unconscious convergence of several influences. On the one side has been the growing interest in what are called ‘social questions,’ and, combined with this, a perception of the need for more systematic training for that work of municipal and political administration which is every day embracing a larger part of the national activity. It is to motives like these that was due the foundation of the London School of Economics. Too much credit can searcely be given to those who, whatever their own economic views, had the statesmanlike courage to found an institution distinguished from the first by the largest impartiality, or to the first director, Mr. Hewins, who conducted it through the difficult years of its infancy. Coming from another side there has been a realisation of the need for systematic training for commercial careers—the conviction to which have been due the new Faculties of Commerce at Birmingham and Manchester, and the new Economies Tripos at Cambridge. On this aspect of the recent development, which naturally is to me of primary interest, I shall make only one comment—that I am convinced that the study of actual business organisation, methods, and conditions is not only desirable for the preparation of our future leaders of trade and industry for their subsequent careers; though when we consider all that that means we can hardly over-estimate its importance, It is desirable also for the enlargement and PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 591 deepening of the purely scientific understanding of economic problems. To take but one example, the investigation of the modes of life of the working classes which we owe to Mr. Booth, to Mr. Rowntree, and more lately to Lady Bell, will have little meaning unless we can combine it with a study of the situation from the other end, from the end of the director of business operations, and can see how his policy is shaped, and how it affects the workpeople. May I add one concluding observation, and that not, I hope, in an unduly controversial spirit? When one looks back on a century of economic teaching and writing, the chief lesson should, I feel, be one of caution and modesty, and especially when we approach the burning issues of our own day. We economists —for, whether we like it or not, we of to-day have to bear the sins of our pre- decessors—we economists have been so often in the wrong! On so very much that had to do with the condition of the great body of the people we were for half a century either so glaringly mistaken or so annoyingly unsympathetic that even to-day a man is ashamed to avow himself an economist in the face of an English working-class audience. And on questions of trade, how hasty, how superficial, seem now many of the opinions so confidently expressed by our pre- decessors in the days of England’s ‘industrial supremacy.’ In the present position of economic theory, moreover, there is everything to deter us from dogmatism, There are, it is true, a few elementary propositions on which all who have given any systematic attention to the subject are agreed; but they are so very few, and they carry us sucha little way! In various directions in economic literature we can find patches of systematised fact and little bits of general reasoning which deserve attention. The outlines, moreover, of our industrial history are beginning to be unveiled. But there is not yet—perhaps there never will be—a body of generally accepted economic doctrine by which every practical proposal can at once be tested. As Professor Marshall has truly said, ‘the science is still almost in its infancy.’ Surely we have learnt that the time for sweeping generalities has gone by. ‘In the world in which we live ’—the same writer has remarked with regard to the fundamental question of value—‘every plain and simple doctrine . . . is necessarily false, and the greater the appearance of lucidity which is given to it by skilful exposition the more mischievous it is.’ And what is true of the founda- tion is true of the superstructure. Among serious economists there is hardly one left who would maintain that theory is capable of furnishing a conclusive proof either of the wisdom or the unwisdom of free trade under all circumstances. Nothing is easier than to adduce a number of theoretic arguments on either side. The right decision in each case must be reached, not by abstract reasoning, but by estimating the concrete facts and probabilities which give the several argu- ments their due weight. What the Cambridge economist has pointed out so forcibly a few months ago with regard to economics at large is applicable equally to this particular topic. ‘There is a general agreement as to the character and directions of the changes which various economic forces tend to produce... . Much less progress has been made towards the guantitative determination of the relative strength of different economic forces.’ And this, he confesses, is the ‘ higher and more difficult task.’ Meanwhile, it behoves each of us to make it clear that, even if he is speaking ex cathedrd, as people say, he is still speaking in propria persond, with all his limitations and unconscious bias ; he is not the mouthpiece of Science. I venture to lay stress upon this point, because I am most anxious that economists—not as exponents of a unanimous doctrine, but as individuals who have given time and thought to industrial and commercial affairs—should have their just share in guiding national action in the future. In 1840 John Mill startled his utilitarian friends by the remark: ‘The spirit of philosophy in England is rootedly sectarian,’ and in ‘philosophy’ he included economics. We have seen how the Ricardian school, the first phase of economic orthodoxy, was in fact an appendage to the Liberal party of those days. It would be regrettable if an impression grew up to-day that economists still gave up to party what was meant for mankind. I recognise, of course, that the economist’s present attitude must be affected by his forecast of the future. If he thinks that all departure from the present commercial policy of this country is likely to be permanently staved 592 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. off, then the preservation of a future influence is not an object worth considering. But there must be many who, as they look around them and reflect upon what other democracies have done in our own time, will confess that change is probable, much as they may at present be inclined to regret it. And, if so, must they not desire that the measures on which the country may embark should receive as much competent criticism in detail as can possibly be directed upon them? Ihave always recognised that the strongest argument against a policy of preference is that it may open the door to forms of protection that are unnecessary and undesirable. Only a grave sense of the needs of the nation and empire could induce any of us to be ready to face the risk. But the risk could be, and ought to be, minimised by the pressure of competent and well-informed criticism of particular measures, The excesses of protection, both in the United States and in France, have been due, in no small degree, to the extreme doctrinaire attitude of American and French economists, an attitude so extreme that the busy, practical world went on its way as though they were not. Let us hope that this country will profit by the warning, and that her economists will not be put out of court at the outset by the justifiable ascription to them from either side of a disqualifying bias. The following Papers were then read :— 1. A Suggestion for a new Economic Arithmetic. By Professor T. N. Carver, Ph.D. How to make the study of economics of greater value in private as well as in public affairs is a problem of increasing importance, now that University men are turning more and more towards business careers. Something may be done by giving more attention to economic history and to commercial geography and statistics, but reliance must be placed mainly upon economic theory, which need not consist in deduction or @ prior’ reasoning, but simply in the analytical study of the observations and experiences of our common everyday life. The object of this analysis is to trace the relations of cause and effect among the economic phenomena around us. But how to make the results of this analysis a part of the mental equipment of the future man of affairs is a difficult problem. The writer believes that the method of setting problems to be worked out by simple arithmetic, problems based upon well-known economic laws, and requiring careful analytical thinking on the part of the student, will help to solve the difficulty. Agriculture furnishes simpler problems than any other industry, but the method is applicable to all. The following table, with the problems based upon it, will serve to illustrate the method :— Quantity of corn grown with varying quantities of labour-on a given quantity of land. Number of days’ Product, in bushels, of each of four fields of ten | labour of a acres each man and team with | the appropriate hr eu 7 tools Field A Field B Field C Field D | 5 50 45 40 35 10 150 140 130 125 15 270 255 240 220 20 380 360 300 270 25 450 420 : 350 310 30 510 470 390 340 35 560 510 420 360 40 600 540 440 375 45 630 560 450 385 50 650 575 455 390 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 593 The following problems are based upon the above table :— Problem 1.—Assuming that the labour of a man and team, with the appro- priate tools, costs a farmer 20s. a day, and that corn is worth 1s. Gd. a bushel, how many days of such labour could he most profitably devote to the cultivation of each of the four fields, assuming that they are all the land which he has at his disposal ? Ew would the problem be affected if labour cost 10s, a day instead of 20s. ? Problem 2.—Assuming that the farmer has 200 days’ labour, and no more, which he can devote to corn growing, but that he can have, rent free, an inde- finite quantity of land of the grade of field A, how many acres could he most profitably make use of for corn growing ? How would the problem be affected if he had to pay a rental of 30s. an acre ? Problem 3.—Assuming that the two fields A and C belong to the same farmer, and that he has but 20 days’ labour which he can devote to their cultivation, how could these 20 days be most profitably distributed between them? How could 25 days be most profitably distributed? 35 days? 50 days? 60 days? 70 days? 90 days? Problem 4.— Assuming that the relation of the labour-supply to the land- supply is such that 130 days’ labour, of the kind assumed in the table, will seek employment upon the four fields A, B, C, and D, what would be the normal rate of wages, ¢.e., what is the highest rate at which the farmers would find it to their advantage to employ the entire labour-supply—corn being worth 1s, 6d. a bushel ? What would be the normal rental of each field ? How would wages and rent be affected if the labour-supply were 170 days instead of 130? Advantages of this method :— 1. A test of the clearness of the student’s understanding of economic principles and therefore an antidote against slip:hod thinking. 2. It furnishes the future man of affairs with formule to which he may profitably adapt his system of accounting. : 3. More comprehensible, though less compact, than algebraic or trigono- metric formule. 4. It places certain questions beyond the field of controversy. 2. The Laws of Increasing and Decreasing Returns in Production and Consumption. By Professor S. J. Cuapman, V.A., M.Com. The expressions ‘ daw of increasing returns’ and ‘ law of diminishing returns’ are very loosely used. The author aimed at giving definiteness to these conceptions, and inquired whether on @ prior? grounds such laws can be predicated of actual conditions, that is, realistically and not merely in a highly abstract sense, and, further, whether analogous tendencies operate in consumption. First it was pointed out that the field of production, whether industrial or agricultural, is organised in a hierarchy of diverse systems which may be classified into three orders corresponding to ‘the business,’ ‘the industry,’ and ‘the community.’ The argument proceeded by deduction from the abstract laws of increasing and diminishing returns. The former may be represented as a law of specialism, and runs: As a factor in production which is capable of specialising is increased its productive power is increased. It is found that when it is phrased merely in this general fashion no law of diminishing returns can be predicated realistically on deductive grounds. Further inquiry shows, however, that a clause may be added to the effect that the return in productivity of a specialisable factor in response to its tnerease must be subject at some stage to diminishing returns and ultimately become _ insignificant. The abstract law of diminishing returns calls for little discussion. It is enunciated as follows: If the part of a group of factors which yield a 1907. QQ 594. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. product is increased, the other part remaining constant and no improved specialism resulting, the produce will increase, and at a diminishing rate after a time, and will Jinally diminish. From these abstract laws it may be deduced that productive systems of the first. order (7.¢., individual businesses) must in their partial and total growth become finally subject to decreasing returns; that systems of the second order (2.e., industries) are subject to increasing returns as regards total expansion, and must ultimately fall under diminishing returns as regards partial expansion ; that the generalities in question predicable of systems of the second order hold also of those of the third, ¢.e., of communities as a whole. Attention being directed to the problem of consumption, it was indicated that things are demanded as well as produced in systems of different orders, and that within these analogous laws may be laid down, though they do not actually correspond to those of production. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Papers were read :— 1. Lhe Rise and Tendencies of German Transatlantic Enterprise. By Professor Ernst von Haz, Ph.D. There was no German traffic beyond the seas to speak of before the formation of the United States. The consequent disruption of the Colonial system produced lively trade-relations during the ensuing period of French revolutionary wars. After a short interruption, produced by the ‘ continental system,’ a second impetus was given by the establishment of other independent States in South and Central America, 1815-1830. The abolition of the Colonial system in the rest of the European Colonies marks the third phase of expansion ; and the opening of trade relations with Eastern Asia, commercial treaties with Japan and China, mark the fourth, Preceding the formation of the German Empire there existed a very limited commerce with Australasia and Africa. By 1871 German tradesmen and bankers, particularly sons of the Hanseatic towns, were to be found in all parts of the world. A few German merchant princes and a larger number of small tradesmen abroad not only maintained relations with their country, but also handled the traffic of other commercial nations. London was the money market, and to some extent the money-lender. On the other hand, a large share of German Transatlantic exports and imports passed through English warehouses, and more still in English bottoms. The political decentralisation of the country had for centuries left the majority of German States without seaports and seafaring interests. The Zollverein brought commercial unity to the interior and Baltic sections, but did not embrace the North Sea ports till after the three wars which gave the Empire a flag and a commercial policy. At this time the population, which had doubled since 1800, numbered 42,000,000. In the next thirty years 20,000,000 more were added; 65,000,000 live to-day where about 20,000,000 lived at the close of the Napoleonic wars. Besides the increasing population, three events—the opening of the grain-fields in North America, the introduction of iron and steel steamers into the Transatlantic freight service, and the rise of large industries in Germany after the war—were the chief cause of the country’s transition from a grain-exporting nation into a grain-importing nation by the middle of the seventies, The industrial crisis increased the protectionist tendencies among the manufacturers, while American competition turned the agriculturists to protectionism. But the new economic policy did not stand in the way of rapidly increasing imports, which had to be paid for by increasing exports. It was not the manufacturing interests of the capitalist that nourished exports, —- rv TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 595 bat rather the demand of a growing population for food-supplies and industrial opportunities of employment. Up to this time Transatlantic enterprise had been of a somewhat incidental significance for German national economic life: it now became vital. Larger exports of merchandise and capital for foreign investment, the establishment of large commercial fleets, insurance and cable companies, now became necessary to meet the increasing requirements of the importing interests. By inaugurating a Colonial policy in 1884 Bismarck meant to crown the process cf empire-making. The censuses of 1882 and 1895 show a remarkable transformation in the economic structure of Germany. Unable to employ a larger number of people in its pursuits, agriculture had thrown the full surplus population into industria! occupations. The agricultural classes in 1895 numbered about 18,000,000, about the same as a hundred years ago, whilst the industrial population had increased 600 per cent. The standard of life had improved throughout, chiefly in the middle and lower classes. In spite of the introduction of scientific methods, agriculture was unable to keep pace with requirements. By 1900 one-fifth to one-fourth of the foodstuffs, and more than nine-tenths of the raw material for clothing, &c., had to be imported. Tad nct a rapid development of foreign trade and rising foreign investments closely followed the resulting necessities, either starvation, or emigration, or foreign war would have resulted. To avoid a precipitated industrialisation and a dangerous decline of agriculture, the country decided upon an increase of agricultural protection. Germany’s geographical position will always necessitate an ample agricultural resource at home to avoid the dangers of starvation in war times. She was compelled to sacrifice some of the industrial possibilities of tariff-treaties to this point of view. The situation to-day is that Germany’s foreign commerce amounts to 750,000,000/., of which 425,000,000/. are imports. Of the difference, fifteen to twenty millions are made up in the earnings of German shipping, the rest in the interest from foreign investment, consisting of 450,000,000/, investments in trans-oceanic countries, 800,000,000/. foreign stocks and bonds (of which more than 100,000,000V. is trans-oceanic), and more than 250,000,000/. other investments. Of the imports, about 40 per cent. come from over the sea outside of Europe, while of the exports a little less than 25 per cent. go to foreign continents, more than 30 per cent. of its trade. With neighbouring countries Germany exchanges more than 40 per cent. The trade with the United Kingdom amounts to about 20 per cent. of exporta- tion and 14 per cent. of the importation, and with the British Empire 24 per cent. of exportation and 22 per cent. of importation. While England has ceased to be paramount in German and foreign trade, it still holds the first rank. Of the commerce of the world, incoming and outgoing, the three leading countries, England, Germany, and the United States, to-day control the greater part in either direction. Of this a large share is transacted among these three countries. German exports have not increased as rapidly as the demand for imports. The foreign investments are rising in importance. They may become the leading feature by the time that machine-using industries have become more extended in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Germany will have to improve her commercial and industria] processes, her means of transportation, and her business organisation to keep pace with foreign competition. The real dangers of the competition of the future are neither to be found in England nor in Germany, nor even in the United States, though this latter country makes a more rapid progress than the two former, They will ensue from the working of certain natural laws: increasing populations, increasing demand for the products subject to diminishing returns, and increasing supplies of the products subject to increasing returns. The political tasks of Germany’s future are continental, in consequence of its central position, and will continue to centre on the mainland of Europe, though her economic tasks will necessarily consist of a gradual extension of every form of her commercial sea-interests. ‘Sr QQ2 596 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 2. The Labour Legislation of the Australasian States. By J. Ramsay MacDonatp, MP. Labour legislation in Australasia has been characterised by attempts to fix a minimum wage by statute, or by arbitration courts and wages boards; and as proposals are being made to adopt the same legislation here, | propose to discuss the circumstances under which the Australasian experiments are carried on and the economic possibilities of their success. The arbitration courts originated in a desire to prevent strikes, and the wages boards in a determination to prevent sweating; but their evolution has been on the same lines. The workmen have used them as a means of distributing national production favourably for the wage-earners. In the working out of this, a national policy, know as the ‘ New Protection,’ has been inaugurated, which, in its com- pleteness, means: (1) Protection against imports by tariff; (2) a settlement of wages by boards and courts; (3) a fixing of prices by boards and courts; and, ultimately, (4) the securing to the home producer a first claim upon home-produced raw material, ¢g., wool and hides. This is the logical and inevitable result of any attempt to solve labour problems by compulsory trade-unionism, or by fixing a standard nominal wage by statutory decision. The chief interest in these experiments lies in the attempt that is being made by them to secure a national standard wage, for the tendency of both courts and boards is to go beyond a minimum—strictly speaking. The New Zealand experi- ment proves, however, that where there is no agreement—and there can be none— as to what is an absolute standard, machinery created to settle a nominal standard from time to time will simply necessitate constant demands being made for an increase in wages. Such a thing is futile, and must break down.’ A national standard wage is a chimera. The New Zealand Arbitration Act has been more effective in organising the masters than the workmen, and it has therefore raised prices and rents. This I found to be pretty generally admitted, and is borne out by statistics. The Victorian Wages Boards affect only certain trades, and their influence upon prices is obscure. They seem to have improved the character of the work done. Nominally, they only level up to recognised standards, but practically they try to do more; and the workers do not accept that limitation. Their effect upon sweat- ing has been exaggerated, but they have been working under conditions which would yield to them a maximum beneficial result, e.g., small number of workpeople affected, a market on the rise, &c. The statistics supplied are not fully satisfactory, and no thoroughly scientific examination has yet been made on the spot regarding the actual effects of the boards. Coghlan’s analysis of wages shows their effects to be only very moderate. My own inquiries led me to the conclusion that they could be applied with comparative ease under factory conditions, with some difficulty under home-work conditions, and hardly at all under sweating conditions. Even if we agree with what I can only regard as the altogether overdrawn praise given to Australasian labour legislation by some writers, we must remember, in considering how we can apply it to our own country, the industrial differences between us and these Colonies. Particularly (1) the opportunities which a pro- tective tariff gives to increase nominal wages without increasing the workers’ share of the national production; (2) the small industrial population, and the simple industrial constitution of the Colonies which permit them to try many experiments, and elude for a long time what is finally to be failure ; (3) the fact that the Australasian industrial problem is limited and simplified by the considera- tion that production is as yet practically exclusively for the home market; (4) the greater opportunities of apparent success given to such courts and boards by the greater willingness of the Colonial mind to act generously to the worker, ¢.g., courts and boards have been known to award the most extraordinary jumps in nominal wages which no judge or arbitrator would ever think of awarding here. 1 Cf, the Dunedin Seamen’s dispute ; the resolutions passed by the Annual Trades and Labour Conferences of New Zealand; the attacks upon Mr. Justice Chapman, President of the Court. - _ or TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 597 3. Sweating and Legislation. By L. G. Cutozza Money, J.P. Defining sweating as ‘a condition of employment in which, through any or all of the following factors, (a) low rates of remuneration, (b) excessive hours of Jabour, or (c) unhealthy workplaces, the workers are unable to sustain physical efficiency,’ existing legislation touching on these three heads is briefly as follows :— 1. Wages.—lIt is at present perfectly legal to sweat by under-payment. The method of payment of wages is in part controlled by existing legislation, but home-workers have practically no protection under the Truck Acts. 2. Hours of Labcur.—There has been legislative interference with the hours of females, of young persons, and of children; but home-wonkers, not being within the scope of the Factory Act, are not subject to regulation in respect of hours. 3. Environment during Labour.—The Factory and Public Health Acts regulate the conditions under which work is carried on. The Factory Act, which imposes conditions as to cubic air-space, ventilation, &c., has little application to home-workers. In practice the home-worker is subject to little more than the provisions of the Public Health Act. Summing up existing labour legislation, while it is found to be timid in many respects, even in its application to factory, workshops, laundries, mines, &c., it has little or no application to the home-worker. Thus the tendency of existing legis- lation is to put a premium upon home-work, Proposals for legislation on the subject of sweating are next considered. 1, To Make all Workplaces Legal ‘ Workshops. —This proposal seeks to make an employer as liable for the condition of the home of the outworker as he is for his own factory or workshop. 2. To Register and License Outworkers —This proposal seeks to prevent work being done under insanitary conditions. It provides that it shall be illegal to give out work save to a licensed person. The foregoing proposals do not touch the question of remuneration. The next deals solely with the wages question. 3. To Establish Wages Boards.—This proposal is to establish wages boards, on the lines of those in existence in Victoria, to control wages in the sweated trades by arranging minimum rates either for piece or time work. If adopted it would be the first act of legislative interference with rates of remuneration. It stands or falls with the principle of the minimum wage. The conclusions submitted are :— That sweating is a widespread evil which endangers at once the physical life and the industral strength of the nation. That the question of under-payment demands the recognition and adoption of the principle of the minimum wage. That the further questions of excessive hours of labour and unhealthy environ- ment during labour demand the drastic strengthening of labour law and its application to all workplaces, large and small, without exception. That it is advisable entirely to prohibit the giving out of home-work to middle- men. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. Small Occupying Ownerships. By the Right Hon. Jesse Cotuines, U.P. The British land system, namely, that of landlord, farmer, and labourer—which meant three separate castes—has broken down in every other eountry in Europe, 598 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, has broken down in Ireland, and is breaking down in England, To it is mainly due our startling rural depopulation. Whilst there was an increase of 12:17 per cent. in the total population of England and Wales at the last census, the dwellers in the rural districts had fallen to less than 74 millions, or to 25 per cent. only of the whole population. Those who urge that we must rely on trade and commerce for our prosperity are reminded that the greatest wealth of a nation is its producing power, and that, whilst the producing powers of many other undertakings are becoming more and more difficult, those of the land are not half-developed. The conelusions urged are :— (1) That the policy of placing trade and manufactures above agriculture is a wrong one. (2) That an amount of capital (including the personal labour of the cultivating owner and his family) properly invested in land yields a far greater return to the community than a similar amount invested in commerce and manufactures, (8) That, if health, physical strength, and an increase of the population are to be reckoned as national assets, agriculture enriches the nation far more than manu- factures can. (4) That the home trade, resulting from the development of agriculture, is larger, more certain, less fickle, and more valuable than the foreign trade. Agriculture must not be regarded simply as any other trade, but as the basis of all trades. In France, Germany, and other Continental countries a prosperous agriculture and a consequent numerous and thriving rural population are regarded by statesmen as the two great pillars of the State on which the general well-being of the people rests. They are regarded as the true sources of wealth, as the most effective means to secure a wider distribution of wealth, and as the best guarantees for national stability. Leaving the larger branches of agriculture—the raising of corn, cattle, &¢.—and turning to ‘small cultivation,’ we observe that we annually import some sixty million pounds’ worth of the smaller articles of food, such as butter, cheese, bacon, eggs, poultry, fruit, vegetables, &c., and that these articles might be wholly or mainly produced at home if our land system were what it ought to be. We have the land, and we have the wen standing idle or only partially em- ployed. Many countr y-bred men now employed in the towns would gladly return to the villages (tor which they are better fitted) if adequate and reasonable facilities were offered to them. As to the land, inquiries show that in Great Britain there are some ten to twelve million acres of permanent grass (apart from the land used for hay, rich meadow land, and land unsuitab!e for the plough) which could be used by small cultivating owners, and this acreage is annually increasing. These ten to twelve million acres of uncultivated land are for the most part a national loss, and on them pro- fitable employment could be found for at least a million of families, growing pro- duce for which there is an almost unlimited demand. To bring the men and land together is the work of the State, acting through a central department as well as through the local authorities. Where small ownerships have been tried in this country, under the Small Holdings Act, 1892, they have been eminently successful: cases in point are the small holdings i in Worcestershire created by the Council of that county. That Act, however, requires amendment, and some attempts were made by the author this’ year to get it amended, but they were resisted by the Government. These proposals are only a part of a complete scheme for re-creating a peasant proprietary and yeomen freeholders. Attention is called to a Bill (No. 99) before Parliament this year, entitled the ‘ Purchase of Land (England and Wales) Bill,’ under which it is proposed (1) that present farm-tenants shall be able to purchase the freehold of their land on agreement with their landlords or on its coming into the market, and (2) that the Board of Agriculture shall be enabled to purchase land for ‘small holdings’ for persons who desire to buy, and who will themselves culti- vate such holdings. The principle of the Bill is the same asthat ofthe Irish Land — TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 599 Act, 1903. If necessary, all the purchase money is to be advanced by the State to the farmer, to be repaid—interest and sinking fund—by annual instalments. The Bill contains provisions against mortgaging, subdivision, and sub-letting, and thus the occupier is safeguarded from these admitted evils, to which all owners are often subject. It is not contemplated that all the land should pass into the hands of culti- vatiug owners—every kind of tenure would no doubt remain—but that ‘ occupying ownerships ’ ought to be the governing principle of our land system instead of being a mere incident in it. To facilitate the carrying-out of the suggested scheme of small occupying ownerships, the author strongly advocates: (1) a better system of rural education, and (2) the establishment of co-operation among the cultivators both for the pur- poses of buying ard of selling. But it is pointed out that co-operation is the natural outcome of small ownerships, but is not readily adopted by yearly tenants, who are often here to-day and gone to-morrow. In conclusion it is claimed that the suggested scheme as a whole would go far to solve the grave social problems of the day—the problems of the ‘unemployed,’ ‘housing,’ ‘ widespread destitu- tion,’ &c.—and that to pledge the national credit for the purpose of carrying it out would be in accordance with the principles of a sound national and political economy. 2. The Importance of the Distinction between (1) Subsistence Farming and (2) Producing jor a Market, in connection with Small Holdings. Dy W. Cunninauam, D.D., LBA. The competition of American agriculture, since the Civil War came to an end and the West has been opened up, has been felt very generally throughout Europe, and has threatened the rural system in many places by spoiling the markets. Agriculture as carried on up to 1860 has ceased to pay, and the local producer has great difficulty in getting a remunerative price. The difficulty has appeared in different forms in France, Germany, Austria, and Sweden, and has been met in various ways; but wherever agriculture is unremunerative it is likely to decline, with consequent depopulation of rural districts. The magic of property cannot be relied upon to render land remunerative, or we should not find such numbers of derelict farms in the New England states. The sense of property is a stimulus to a certain extent, both to the investment of capital and to assiduity in labour, but it is in no sense magical. ‘Tillage is not likely to be rendered more remunerative in England unless something new i3 adopted—new crops, new modes of tillage or of marketing; and the small holder has neither the capital nor the enterprise to embark in such undertakings; his forte lies in doing with assiduity that which his father did before him, or that which he sees his neighbour do. There is little reason to believe that great changes either in the crops or methods of English agriculture will be initiated by a cultivating peasantry, or that they will render it more remunerative. Instead of invoking magical aid, we may learn from contemporary experience that it is sometimes possible to evade American competition; there are markets for the produce of poultry farms and dairy farms, for flowers, fruit, and vege- tables, where local producers may hold their own. It is to be noticed, however, that the small holder, who lives by raising and selling such produce and has no other means of support, may be very severely hit, if not wholly ruined, by a single bad season; and that in any case he is at a disadvantage in regard to marketing as compared with the man who deals in large quantities. If we look to the experience of the past we may find a suggestion as to another method of utilising the land that evades alike the influence of American competition and the economic difficulties which beset the small holder who farms fora market. ‘The yeoman and the artificer in the Middle Ages farmed for their subsistence or to supplement their subsistence. If allotments and small holdings can be combined with opportunities of wage-earning, so that the land is used to eke out subsistence, the labouring population will be placed in a position of far 600 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. greater stability and will have greatly increased interests in life. This is being borne in mind in Sweden, where the movement for an increase of small holdings—to be farmed for subsistence—-is going on side by side with the move- ment for increased employment in connection with forestry. Where the same kinds of crops are grown on small holdings and on large farms, there is of course greater difficulty in combining work for subsistence and opportunities of employ- ment in rural districts. In towns, however, the facilities of communication render it much easier than in former days to provide artisans with allotment gardens, and thus to reintroduce the system by which the manufacturing popu- lation could rely on what they themselves raised from the soil for a portion of their subsistence. Nothing would make more for the welfare of artisan families than to increase facilities of this sort, which give a double means of support and a wider range of common interests. 3. Some Notes on the Small Holdings of Worcestershire. Ly Professor Kirkaupy, M.Com. The county of Worcester is a pioneer in the application of both the Allotments and Small Holdings Acts. 1. Sketch of what has been done. (1) The Allotments Acts, 1887 and 1890. (2) The Small Holdings Act, 1892. The demand which led the County Council to take action was due to a peculiarity of changing conditions affecting the population of North Worcester- shire. The application of machinery to the small trades connected with iron and steel has thrown many people out of work. These people have striven against fate, and legislation has provided a way of escape. First experiment by the Council—the Woodrow estate at Catshill, 150 acres in extent. Purchase price, including timber, about 332. per acre. Points to note here: (i) Suitability of the soil for spade cultivation; (ii) proximity to a good market. state divided into thirty-two holdings, averaging 43 acres. Initial expenses, 287/. 14s. 7d., added to the purchase price ; then a margin allowed for contingencies. Sale price about 42J. per acre. The scheme was not only advertised, but discussions and lectures arranged, so as to give the utmost publicity to the project. Of the accepted applicants for tenancy about half were able to pay the 20 per cent. deposit required by the Act, and were at once registered as owners. The others were treated as tenants until they complied with this condition. The half-yearly instalments are worked out ona four per cent. basis, spread over forty years. Housing. — Different customs obtain in different localities, e.g., at Catshill ‘holders’ as a rule build a cottage on their land; in South Worcestershire ‘holders’ prefer to live in a town and go out to their land. If he wishes to build, a ‘holder’ can only borrow money for the purpose from the County Council. Hence the Worcester County Council has approved a special scheme to this end. Briefly this is that, certain conditions being complied with, the Council will advance on the security of the land 75 per cent. of the cost of a cottage and outbuildings. N.B.—The tenant’s 25 per cent. may be chiefly made up of the expense of hauling materials (in his own cart) to the spot. 2. Methods of Working. These for the most part are primitive. There is no co-operation or even mutual helpfulness among ‘holders.’ Hence are found uneconomic methods, such as overlapping, wasteful prices paid for seeds, &c., and an unwillingness to listen to experts. In a word, the ‘holders’ are for the most part typical ignorant conservative TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 601 countrymen, suspicious alike of each other and of anyone inquiring into things, There are some bright exceptions to this, The result of the above is the necessity for small holdings to be near a good market, so that each ‘ holder’ can cart in his own produce. The tools used are primitive, mostly spade and fork. There is no attempt at joint ownership of labour-saving tools. Experience in the Evesham Valley: The sons, as a rule, do not wish to leave the land. A beginning is made as gardener’s boy or labourer; then an acre of allotment will be taken and cultivated in off time. The life is hard but pays, and eventually the labourer-allotment ‘holder’ becomes the tenant of three or four acres of market-garden land, and can do well if he be hard-working and thrifty. 5. Assessment. A thorny subject, but one to tackle. Instances of hardship :— (i) Land before being divided up was, as part of a farm land, rated at about 19s. per acre; on being divided up in 1892 assessment was raised to 25s., the farm being left at 19s. In 1905 the assessment put up to 40s., but on appeal fixed at 30s., the farm remaining at 19s. Immediately land is added to any of these holdings now the assessment is raised to 30s. before any profit is made or improvements effected. (ii) [In a different locality.] Land originally assessed at 30s. on becoming holdings was raised to 55s. before any profits were made. (iii) Instance of a farm assessed on land and good buildings at 40s.: local expert told of adjoining holdings, similar land without buildings, assessed at 62s. 6d. and 65s. 4, Summary. (i) Small holdings movement is in its infancy; much has yet to be learned. (ii) The Worcestershire experiments show value of a committee of practical men keen for the success of the schenté, (iii) The small holder is not found ready-made; he must learn his business. (iv) The application of co-operative methods would probably admit of a very extensive development of small holdings throughout the country. (v) The French and German methods might be studied with advantage. (vi) Small holders should take advantage of the help of science. (vii) The question of assessment requires thorough overhauling. 4, Agricultural Co-operation in Great Britain. By R,. A. YERBURGH. The problems to be solved are the limitation of the rural exodus and the rehabilitation of rural life. The economic aspect of the problem is how to make farming pay on a small as well as on a large scale. The economic forces at work against the farmer are the competition of new countries, made possible by the development of cheap transport, and the competition of older countries in which an agricultural revival has taken place. In the latter case, co-operation has been one of the chief factors in the success of our competitors. By its means farmers are enabled to obtain goods of guaranteed quality and purity; to purchase their requirements more cheaply, and so to decrease the cost of production ; to bulk the consignments of goods purchased and goods sold, and so to.reduce the cost of transport; to get into closer touch with the consumer, and so to secure a larger share of the protit upon goods sold ; to place large quantities of produce of uniform quality upon the market, and so to meet the requirements of a wider circle of customers and to obtain better prices. Co-operation has other advantages which should commend it to us. Among them are the development of character and of the intellect. Farmers as a class are intensely conservative, wedded to the ways of their forbears and jealous and 602 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. mistrustful of one another. Intercourse at the meetings of their societies tends to break down the barriers of mistrust and jealousy which separate farmer from farmer, to broaden their outlook, and to teach them no longer to regard the welfare of their neighbours as detrimental to their own; while the discussions upon business matters have a stimulating effect upon their minds and arouse a spirit of inquiry and a desire for knowledge. While there are instances of agricultural co-operation in Great Britain of many years’ standing, there was no systematic effort to promote it until the Agricultural Organisation Society was formed in 1901. It is true that co-operation was part of the programme of the National Agricultural Union, of which Lord Winchilsea was the founder and the inspiring spirit, but it was never seriously taken in hand. In 1900, in addition to the N.A.U., another body had come into existence to promote agricultural co-operation, viz., the British Agricultural Organisation Society. To prevent waste of force it was decided to amalgamate the two and to form them into a society on the lines of the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society. This was done and the results obtained have been eminently satis- factory. The number of agricultural co-operative societies affiliated to the Agricultural Organisation Society had reached 153 at the end of June 1907. These included 109 societies for the purchase of requirements and sale of produce, 14 dairy societies, 13 credit societies, 4 allotment societies, 2 motor-service societies, 2 fruit- grading societies, 7 miscellaneous societies, and 2 federations. The membership of the societies in June 1907 was roughly estimated to be 10,000, and their turnover in 1907 is expected to reach 450,000/. The material benefits to the members of the societies have been considerable, but it is impossible to estimate them with any accuracy. In the purchase of requirements they have secured reductions in price averaging probably about 15 per cent., and the benefit of obtaining goods of guaranteed purity is fully equal, if not superior, to that of the reduction in price. The sale of produce has not been developed to the same extent as the purchase of requirements, but where it has been carried out the net prices to the farmers have been sub- stantially increased. There has been ample evidence of educational as well as material results. It is the experience of the societies that co-operation has produced a more neigh- bourly feeling amongst the farmers, who become more ready to interchange ideas and place their knowledge at each other's disposal., With this has come a greater desire for knowledge. An important form of co-operation is co-operative credit. Village banks on the Raiffeisen model were promoted by the Co-operative Banks Association before the formation of the Agricultural Organisation Society. In 1903 the two associa- tions were amalgamated. In June 1907 there were thirteen village banks affiliated to the Agricultural Organisation Society. The object of these little banks is to provide their members with capital for reproductive purposes at low rates of interest. A Central Co-operative Agricultural Bank has been formed for the purpose of financing the village banks. For the success of the small holdings system co-operation is essential. Without it the small holder is at the mercy of the middlemen from whom he purchases his requirements and to whom he sells his produce. Co-operation places the small holder on an equal footing with the large farmer in his dealings, and provides him with the use of cheap loans for economic and productive purposes. The intense conservatism of the farmer makes the work of organisation very difficult. His naturally suspicious temperament adds to the difficulty, as he is apt to imagine that those who are urging him to co-operate have an axe to grind in doing so. Gradually the Agricultural Organisation Society has been able to remove this suspicion from the farmers’ minds, and the success of the co-operative societies is breaking down their disinclination to adopt new methods. The chief difficulty which now confronts the Agricultural Co-operative Move- ment is that of obtaining the necessary funds for carrying on propagandist work. The Agricultural Organisation Society feels that it may reasonably look to the TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 603 Government for assistance. The Small Holdings Committee recommended that the Society should receivo a grant from the Board of Agriculture, and in the Small Holdings and Allotments Bill the importance of agricultural co-operation in the development of small holdings is recognised. In Ireland the Department of Agriculture makes a grant to the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society pro- portionate to the subscriptions which it receives from other sources, and it would greatly help to foster the movement in Great Britain if the Board of Agriculture would make a similar grant to the Agricultural Organisation Society. 5. Some Considerations about Interest. By Professor E. C. K. Gonner, M/A. The main groundwork of interest. Causes for its existence under present social conditions, Two theories alleged in respect of its connection with accumulation and the provision of capital. These advanced to justify it as a branch of remuneration. These theories canvassed and points of difference indicated. Their interaction if both are operative. The second theory considered in more detail and with particular reference to two points: (a) The extent to which saving under interest by one generation renders unnecessary saving by subsequent generations. In this case a decrease in the net capital thus provided by one generation, should interest vanish, may be wholly or largely compensated for by more general saving; (4) the extent to which the elimination or even the great decrease of interest involves the growth of insurance. The general growth of insurance. 6. Interim Report on the Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom. See Reports, p. 3538. 7. Index Numbers of Prices. By Professor A. W. Fiux, JA. The paper called attention to some defects of the ordinary methods of con- structing index numbers, as illustrated by such numbers as that of Sauerbeek. A formally unweighted average becomes in course of time effectively weighted. Thus in 1904 the index number for Java sugar was 40, that for Straits tin 121. In 1905 these became 45 and 136 respectively.. Equal percentage changes do not affect*the aggregate equally. Tin is practically weighted three times as heavily as sugar. In other index numbers, such as Bradstreet’s, the weighting employed is peculiar; yet the results correspond fairly with those of other authorities, in accordance with the general results of the Committee of this Section, which dealt with the matter some twenty years ago. A method which continually reverts to equal weighting seems worth trying. By determining each year the percentage change of price trom the preceding year for each of the commodities dealt with, and averaging the result, we have the material for building up a continuous index number free from some inherent defects of the method of the fixed-reference period. Some results of applying this process to the data used by the Bureau of Labour of Washington, U.S.A., were given. About 260 commodities contribute to this index number. When proceeding by this method the geometric mean of the items is sub- mitted to be more appropriate than the arithmetic. The actual results over the period 1890-1905, sixteen years, are very close to those obtained by the reference- period method, with an arithmetic mean, in the Bureau Index. Attention was also called to the probability that the study of the grouping of the index numbers of individual commodities about their mean may yield valuable results. The standard deviations of the groupings of the year-to-year price-indices 604 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. were quoted as varying between about J1 and 17 per cent. during the period studied. It was suggestsd, in conclusion, that the measurement of the extent of the average change in prices over any prolonged period cannot be done with great precision. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. The following Papers were read :— 1. Co-operation. By C. R. Fay, B.A. In a sense we are all co-operators, just as in a sense we are all Socialists. With- out ‘co-operation,’ without, i.e., the organisation and interchange of services, human activity is ineffective. But co-operation in its technical sense signifies a peculiar organisation of business activity, As a trading body, the co-operative society differs from the trade union, which is organised for collective bargaining and friendly benefits, and from the friendly society or mutual insurance society (la Mutualité), which make provision among their members for occasional acci- dents and periodic needs. The co-operative society is essentially a trading body, but, as distinct from the joint-stock company, it is a union of persons knit together by a common need rather than by a material capital, and prepared to grant the profits of membership to all those who perform its duties, in proportion to the loyalty with which they make use of the society. Co-operation is, in effect, the means whereby in the last fifty years or more over the continent of Europe generally the weaker members of the population have successfully assumed certain functions of organisation and management, hitherto ineffectively or harshly performed by independent parties. (Co-operation may be organised from the standpoint of the producer, both in the country and in the town. The rural credit-bank provides the producing farmer with capital, just as the supply society supplies him with his raw materials, and the machine-owning society with the use of machines. These societies, together with the different forms of productive societies, dairies, distilleries, wine societies, bacon societies, societies for the sale of corn, vegetables, or fruit, have made the small cultivator the business equal of the big farmer and the townsman. The counterpart of the rural productive society in the town is the labour co-partnership, as it is called in England. In the labour co-partnersbip, the working members are organised in a single business concern, whether it be a boot and shoe society, such as flourishes in England; or a society of builders, such as in France; or a labour (.e., navvy) society, such as in Italy. , They are not independent producers and do not therefore require supply societies or credit banks like the farmers. In Germany, where the town credit-banks flourish, there are practically no labour co-partnerships. The two are in a measure opposed. The former tend to keep the small independent producer small and independent, their chief active members being small artisans and shopkeepers; the latter assemble their workers under one roof and try to educate them up to the delicate task of conducting a modern business in the double réle of employers and employed. The labour co-partnership obviously makes very severe demands on the character of the worker, and it is unlikely in the future to be a common industrial type. But its organisation has, in England especially, roused employers to imitate its methods by introducing into their businesses schemes of profit- sharing and representation of workers. Co-operation may also be organised from the standpoint of the consumer. This is the form which predominates in Great Britain as the ‘store,’ and which, as first established by the Rochdale Pioneers, has been faithfully and consciously imitated by almost every country of Europe. The Association of Consumers is uninterested in the occupation of its members as such, since it exists to provide them with the necessaries of life as cheaply and efficiently as possible. It begins in the store with retail distribution; it then goes one stage back to wholesale distribution; and finally to large scale produc- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 605 tion. This is what Great Britain through its wholesale organisations in Manchester and Glasgow has done; and this is precisely what other nations are in process of doing. Great Britain took the lead, because it was the first to possess, as the result of the industrial revolution, a distinct working-class, which proceeded to organise itself as wage-earners in a trade-union and as wage-spenders in a co-operative store. ‘Three problems at present confront the stores in Great Britain :— (1) The relation between the stores and the land. In Denmark and Switzerland, the peasant proprietors in addition to their productive associations have also their own retail and wholesale stores. In Great Britain the farmers are only just beginning to co-operate for production, and the agricultural labourers are almost totally unorganised. Is it desirable that the stores should own productive establishments on the land? The erection of creameries in Ireland by the two British wholesales has been resisted on the ground that it obstructs co-operation among the resident farmers as producers. Further, is it probable that the inhabitants of the land, whether farmers or labourers, will become in large numbers members of the stores, most of which are recruited from the towns? This is partially realised in some districts of England, where the farmers and labourers sell their produce to the store and take provisions in exchange. (2) The relations between the retail stores and the wholesale. In Great Britain the hold of the wholesale on the stores has tightened with the growth of the movement. By what means, therefore, can the strength of unified organisation be retained without a sacrifice of that democratic freshness which marked the self-sprung and self-directed work of the early pioneers ? (3) The attitude of the store-movement towards Socialism. If the stores mingle in politics, they may degenerate into mere party instru- ments. If on the other hand they confine themselves to strictly business opera- tions, there is greater danger of their becoming a working-class aristocracy, looking askance at their poorer and more undisciplined brethren. How far will this ever-growing army of organised co-operators, comprising already the élite of the working classes, be able to win the lower strata of working men and women without modifying that strict neutrality in politics and religion which has hitherto distinguished the store-movement in Great Britain ? 2. Co-operative Production from the Labour Co-partnership Standpoint. By Amos Many. The principles of labour co-partnership in production are, briefly, that every worker should have the opportunity of becoming a partner in the concern in which he is employed, and should share in the development, control, and direction of the business. In the co-operative movement there are two schools of thought, represented by the English Co-operative Wholesale Society, called the Federal system, on the one hand, and the Labour Co-partnership Association on the other. In the former system co-operative distribution societies join together to produce the articles they need. In their workshop employees occupy the same position as they do in any ordinary workshop. The results of such trading are given back in dividends to the shareholding societies. The worker, as a worker, has no share in the profits or responsibilities, as is the case in what are called independent productive societies. These are composed of sharehold- ing societies and individuals; every worker is allowed—and in some instances obliged—to become a shareholder in the society; a fixed portion of the profits is paid to the workers, and they share in the responsibility and control of the business by voting for the committee of management, and in many cases have seats upon the directorate. The author claimed that this latter system comes 606 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. close home to the worker, making him take a greater interest in his work and bringing foith the best results of his labour, In order to show fully how this principle appears in actual practice, a number of illustrations were given of its actual application to a variety of trades. These indicate the way the principle is applied and the results accruing. The relationship of co-partnership societies to trade-unions has always been of an amicable character, because co-partnership societies set out with the determination to pay at least the trade-union rate of wages and conform to the trade-union conditions of the district in which their workshops are established. In several instances they have set the pace in better wages, better conditions, and shorter hours of labour, some societies already working forty-eight hours per weel, and others forty-nine and fifty hours per week, while the ordinary working hours are fifty-four. The good feeling existing is shown by several trade-unions investing their funds with co-partnership societies. That co-partnership principles commend themselves to captains of industry is proved by the application of the principle to several ordinary companies and firms. Representatives of these firms say the economic results have been good. This view is emphasised by the results of the South Metropolitan Gas Company. The approval of the co-partnership principle is shown by the opinion of the Times newspaper, of the Review of Reviews, and of Mr, Mosely, of American labour commission fame. The general conclusion arrived at was that the rightful aspirations of labour can only be met by this system of co-partnership; also that its acceptance would largely do away with the friction between capital and labour, while the result would be to widen the outlook of the workers, elevate their characters, give them a better business knowledge, and thus increase their efficiency. 3. The Co-operative Oryanisation of Consumers. By T. TweppEtLt. Co-operation is an appropriate theme for discussion in Leicester, a town of co-operative enterprise. It exhibits two phases in its development: (1) Co- operation organised in the interests of the worker as exemplified in the inde- pendent production workshops ; (2) Co-operation organised in the interests of the consumer as exemplified in the ‘store’ and the ‘ wholesale.’ The stores originated in the ‘hungry forties,’ and were based upon the principle of ‘profit upon cost,’ the influence of which upon early co-operators was discussed. The Free Trade agitation naturally gave prominence to the interests of the consumer. The economic basis of the ‘ Rochdale Pioneers’ was considered together with its important and far-reaching consequence, and the progress of the movement up to the present day was sketched. The constitu- tion of the ‘wholesales’ was necessarily dictated by their parentage. These organisations have met with remarkable success and developed into widespread ramifications. The causes which have contributed to the growth and progress of the consumers organisation are as follows :— 1. It represents the highest socia] interest, viz., that of the consumer. 2. It satisfies most completely the conditions imposed by modern industrial progress. 3. It provides the most effective system of thrift ever devised. 4, It is in harmony with modern social and economic tendencies. ~ 5, It has in it the elements of unlimited expansion. 4. Economic Theory and the Formation of Trusts. by H. W. Macrosty, B.A. The theorist describes as ‘normal’ combinations unions of representative firms to realise external economies of the market. The representative firm, however, is hardly discoverable, and combinations of representative firms are very few and weak, being exposed to the destructive competition of the weak firms outside. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 607 The common form (described by theorists as ‘ abnormal’) arises out of the inability of the private firm to foresee and control the market. The desire to make a living and readiness to fight for the chance to do so generate competition as a natural outlet of human activity. Hence naturally (or normally) proceeds excessive competition. Desire to control or suppress competition is the funda- mental principle of all combinations, and therefore the common form is really ‘normal,’ This is important, since our view of what is ‘normal’ in the com- bination movement may colour our view of the future of that movement. Tariffs exercise a direct influence in the direction of combination in Pro- tectionist countries. The view that indirectly they promote the same tendency in other countries seems contradicted by the spread of combination in trades not affected by Protection. General free trade, even if it dissolved some unions, would by increasing competition produce internationally the same state out of which have arisen domestic combinations. Over-capitalisation attends the origin of combination, but only because over- capitalisation is an essential condition of over-competition. Hither by competition or by combination over-capitalisation must be eliminated, and combination does it in the most peaceful and gradual manner. This refers only to moderate over- capitalisation, and not to criminal or foolish valuations. There is nothing in economics hostile to the view that the large amalgamation will be the dominant industrial form of the future; but this will depend on the wan of business, and not on the man of theory. 5. The Development of Trusts. By D. H. Macerecor, M.A. Many of the causes of Trusts are historical, and due to the progress of invention in machinery and transport. These must, in any case, have created a larger manu- facturing unit. Accidental causes have also operated, such as tariffs, forms of taxation, the influence of strong personalities, and of national sentiment. When these have given the ‘momentum of the start,’ Trusts maintain themselves by various forms of what is best called ‘economic advantage.’ This advantage has been allied to forms of competition which were not allowed for in orthodox economic theory. It seems certain that we must reckon with Trusts in some form for the future. The difficult problem is between their ultimate nationalisation and their legislative control. The latter has not had a distinguished history, The former is beset with all the difficulties of socialism, 608 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Section G.—ENGINEERING. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—Professor Sitvanus P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1, The President delivered the following Address :— Ir would be impossible for any assembly of engineers to meet in annual gathering at the present time without some reference to the severe loss which the profession has so recently sustained by the death of Sir Benjamin Baker. Born in 1840, he had attained while still a comparatively young man to a position in the front rank of constructive engineers. His contributions to science cover a considerable range, but were chiefly concerned with the strength of materials, into which he made valuable investigations, and with engineering structures generally. His name will doubtless be chietly associated with the building of great bridges, to the theory of which he contributed an important memoir entitled ‘ A Theoretical Investigation into the Most Advantageous System of Constructing Bridges of Great Span.’ In this work he set forth the theory of the cantilever bridge. Upon the plan there laid down he built the Forth Bridge, besides many other large bridges in various parts of the world. With that memorable structure, completed in 1890, his name will ever be associated; but he will be remembered henceforth also as the engineer who was responsible for the great dam across the Nile at Assouan, a work which promises to have un influence for all time upon the fortunes of Egypt and upon the prosperity of its population. Sir Benjamin Baker was, moreover, closely associated with the internal railways of London, both in the early days of the Metropolitan Railway and in the later developments of the deep- level tubes. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1890, became President of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1895, and was a member of Council of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, besides being an active member of the Royal Institution and of the British Association. He was also a member of the Council of the Royal Society at the time of his death. He enjoyed many honorary distinctions, including degrees conferred by the Universities of Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 1890 there was conferred upon him the title of K.C.M.G., and in 1902 that of K.C.B. He had but just returned from Egypt, whither he had gone in connection with the project for raising the height of the Assouan dam, soas to increase its storage to more than double the present volume, when he died very suddenly on May 19, in his sixty-seventh year. The Development of Engineering and its Foundation on Science. We live in an age when the development of the material resources of civilisa- tion is progressing in a ratio without parallel. International commerce spreads apace. Ocean transport is demanding greater facilities. Steamships of vaster size and swifter speed than any heretofore in use are being built every year. Not PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 609 only are railways extending in all outlying parts of the world, but at home, where the territory is already everywhere intersected with lines, larger and heavier locomotives are being used, and longer runs without stopping are being made by our express trains. The horsed cars on our tramways are now being mostly super- seded by larger cars, electrically propelled and travelling with greatly increased speeds. For the handling of the ever-increasing passenger traffic in our great cities electric propulsion has shown itself a necessity of the time; witness the electric railways in Liverpool and the network of electrically worked tube rail- ways throughout London. In ten years the manufacture of automobile carriages of all sorts has sprung up into a great industry. Every year sees a greater demand for the raw materials and products, out of which the manufacturer will in turn produce the articles demanded by our complex modern life. We live and work in larger buildings; we make more use of mechanical appliances ; we travel more, and our travelling is more expeditious than formerly ; and not we alone, but all the progressive nations. The world uses more steel, more copper, more aluminium, more paper; therefore requires more coal, more petroleum, more timber, more ores, more machinery for the getting and working of them, more trains and steamships for their transport. It requires machines that will work faster or more cheaply than the old ones to meet the increasing demands of manufacture; new fabrics; new dyes; even new foods; new and more powerful means of illumination ; new methods of speaking to the ends of the earth. We must not delude ourselves with imagining that the happiness and welfare of mankind depend only on its material advancement; or that moral, intellectual, and spiritual forces are not in the ultimate resort of greater moment. But if the inquiry be propounded what it is that has made possible this amazing material progress, there is but one answer that can be given—science. Chemistry, physics, mechanics, mathematics, it is these that have given to man the possibility of organising this tremendous development. And the great profession which has been most potent in applying these branches of science to wield the energies of Nature and direct them to the service of man has been that of the engineer. Without the engineer how little of all this activity could there have been; and without mathematics, mechanics, physics, and chemistry, where were the engineer ? If looking over this England of Edward the Seventh we try to put ourselves back into the England of Edward the Sixth—or for that matter of any pre- Victorian monarch—we must admit that the differences to be found in the social and industrial conditions around us are due not in any appreciable degree to any changes in folitics, philosophy, religion, or law, but to science and its applications. If we look abroad, and contrast the Germany of Wilhelm the Second with the Germany of Charles the Fifth, we shall come to the like conclusion. So also in Italy, in Switzerland, in every one indeed of the progressive nations, And it is precisely in the stagnant nations, such as Spain, or Servia, where the cultivation of science has scarcely begun, that the social conditions remain in the backward state of the Middle Ages. Interaction of Abstract Science and its Applications. In engineering, above all other branches of human effort, we are able to trace the close interaction between abstract science and its practical applications. Often as the connection between pure science and its applications has been emphasised in addresses upon engineering, the emphasis has almost always been laid upon the influence of the abstract upon the concrete. We are all familiar with the doctrine that the progress of science ought to be an end in itself, that scientific research ought to be pursued without regard to its immediate applica- tions, that the importance of a discovery must not be measured by its apparent utility at the moment. We are assured that research in pure science is bound to work itself out in due time into technical applications of utility, and that the pioneer ought not to pause in his quest to work out potential industrial develop- ments. We are invited to consider the example of the immortal Faraday, who 1907. RR 610 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. deliberately abstained from busying himself with marketable inventions arising out of his discoveries, excusing himself on the ground that he had no time to spare for money-making. It is equally true, and equally to the point, that Faraday, when he had established a new fact or a new physical relation, ceased from busying himself with it and pronounced that it was now ready to be handed over to the mathematicians. But, admitting all these commonplaces as to the value of abstract science in itself and for its own sake, admitting also the proposition that sooner or later the practical applications are bound to follow on upon the discovery, it yet remains true that in this thing the temperament of the discoverer counts for something. There are scientific investigators who cannot pursue their work if troubled by the question of ulterior applications; there are others no less truly scientific who simply cannot work without the definiteness of aim that is given by a practical problem awaiting solution. There are Willanses as well as Regnaults; there are Whitworths as well as Poissons. The world needs both types of investigator; and it needs, too, yet another type of pioneer—namely, the man who, making no claim to original discovery, by patient application and intelligent skill turns to industrial fruitfulness the results already attained in abstract discovery. There is, however, another aspect of the relation between pure and applied science, the significance of which has not been hitherto so much emphasised, but yet is none the less real—the reaction upon science and upon scientific discovery of the industrial applications. For while pure science breeds useful inventions, it is none the less true that the industrial development of useful inventions fosters the progress of pure science. No one who is conversant with the history, for example, of optics can doubt that the invention of the telescope and the desire to perfect it were the principal factors in the outburst of optical science which we associate with the names of Newton, Huygens, and Euler. The practical applica- tion, which we know was in the minds of each of these men, must surely have been the impelling motive that caused them to concentrate on abstract optics their great and exceptional powers of thought. It was in the quest—the hope- less quest—of the philosopher’s stone and the elixir of life that the foundations of the science of chemistry were laid. The invention of the art of photography has given immense assistance to sciences as widely apart as meteorology, ethno- logy, astronomy, zoology, and spectroscopy. Of the laws of heat men were profoundly ignorant until the invention of the steam engine compelled scientific investigation; and the new science of thermodynamics was born. Had there been no industrial development of the steam engine, is it at all likely that the world would ever have been enriched with the scientific researches of Rankine, Joule, Regnault, Hirn, or James Thomson ? The magnet had been known for centuries, yet the study of it was utterly neglected until the application of it in the mariners’ compass gave the incentive for research. The history of electric telegraphy furnishes a very striking example of this reflex influence of industrial applications. The discovery of the electric current by Volta and the investigation of its properties appear to have been stimulated by the medical properties attributed in the preceding fifty years to electric discharges. But, once the current had been discovered, a new incentive arose in the dim possibility it suggested of transmitting signals to a distance. This was certainly a possibility, even when only the chemical effects of the current had yet been found out. Not, however, until the magnetic effects of the current had been discovered and investigated did telegraphy assume commercial shape at the hands of Cooke and Wheatstone in England and of Morse and Vail in America, Let us admit freely that these men were inventors rather than discoverers: exploiters of research rather than pioneers. They built upon the foundations laid by Volta, Oersted, Sturgeon, Henry, and a host of less famous workers. But no sooner had the telegraph become of industrial importance, with telegraph lines erected on land and submarine cables laid in the sea, than fresh investigations were found necessary ; new and delicate instruments must be devised; means of accurate measurement heretofore undreamed of must be found; standards for the comparison of electrical quantities must be created, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 611 and the laws governing the operations of electrical systems and apparatus must be investigated and formulated in appropriate mathematical expressions. And so, perforce, as the inevitable consequence of the growth of the telegraph industry, and mainly at the hands of those interested in submarine telegraphy, there came about the system of electrical and electromagnetic units, based on the early magnetic work of Gauss and Weber, developed further by Lord Kelvin, by Bright and Clark, and last but not least by Clerk Maxwell. Had there been no telegraph industry to force electrical measurement and electrical theory to the front, where would Clerk Maxwell’s work have been ? He would probably have given his unique powers to the study of optics or geometry; his electromagnetic theory of light would never have leapt into his brain ; he would never have propounded the existence of electric waves in the ether. And then we should never have had the far-reaching investigations of Heinrich Hertz; nor would the British Association at Oxford in 1894 have witnessed the demonstration of wireless telegraphy by Sir Oliver Lodge. A remark of Lord Rayleigh’s may here be recalled, that the invention of the telephone had probably done more than anything else to make electricians understand the principle of self-induction. In considering this reflex influence of the industrial applications upon the progress of pure science it is of some significance to note that for the most part this influence is entirely helpful. There may be sporadic cases where industrial conditions tend temporarily to check progress by imposing persistence of a particular type of machine or appliance ; but the general trend is always to help to new developments. The reaction aids the action; the law that is true enough in inorganic conservative systems, that reaction opposes the action, ceases here to be applicable, as indeed it ceases to be applicable in a vast number of organic phenomena. It is the very instability thereby introduced which is the essential of progress. The growing organism acts on its environment, and the change in the environment reacts on the organism—not in such a way as to oppose the growth, but so as to promote it. So is it with the development of pure science and its practical applications. In further illustration of this principle one might refer to the immense effect which the engineering use of steel has had upon the study of the chemistry of the alloys. And the study of the alloys has in turn led to the recent development of metallography. It would even seem that through the study of the intimate structure of metals, prompted by the needs of engineers, we are within measurable distance of arriving at a knowledge of the secret of crystallogenesis. [Everything points to the probability of a very great and rapid advance in that fascinating branch of pure science at no distant date. History of the Development of Electric Motive Power. There is, however, one last example of the interaction of science and industry which may claim closer attention. In the history of the development of the electric motor one finds abundant illustration of both aspects of that interaction. We go back to the year 1821, when Faraday, after studying the phenomena of electromagnetic deflexion of a needle by an electric current (Oersted’s discovery), first succeeded in producing continuous rotations by electromagnetic means. In his simple apparatus a piece of suspended copper wire, carrying a current from a small battery, and dipping at its lower end into a cup of mercury, rotated continuously around the pole of a short bar-magnet of steel placed upright in the cup. In another variety of this experiment the magnet rotated around the central wire, which was fixed. These pieces of apparatus were the merest toys, incapable of doing any useful work; nevertheless they demonstrated the essential principle, and suggested further possibilities, Two years later, Barlow, using a star-wheel of copper, pivoted so that the lowest point of the star should make contact with a small pool of mercury, found that the star-wheel rotated if a current was sent through the arm of the star while the arm itself was situated between the poles of a steel horseshoe-magnet. Shortly afterwards Sturgeon improved the appa- ratus by substituting a copper disc for the star-wheel. The action was the same, RR2 612 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. A conductor, carrying an electric current, if placed in a magnetic field, is found to experience a mechanical drag, which is neither an attraction nor a repulsion, but a lateral force tending to move it at right angles to the direction of flow of the current and at right angles to the direction of the lines of the magnetic field in which it is situated. Still this was a toy. Two years later came the announce- ment by Sturgeon of the invention of the soft-iron electromagnet, one of the most momentous of all inventions, since upon it practically the whole of the constructive part of electrical engineering is based. For the first time mankind was furnished with a magnet the attractive power of which could be increased absolutely indefinitely by the mere expenditure of sufficient capital upon the iron core and its surrounding copper coils, and the provision of a sufficiently powerful source of electric current to excite the magnetisation. Furthermore the magnet was under control, and could be made to attract or to cease to attract at will by merely switching the current on or off; and, lastly, this could be accomplished from a distance, even from great distances away. How slowly the importance of this discovery was recognised is now a matter for astonishment. To state that Sturgeon died in poverty twenty-six years later is sufficient to indicate his place among the unrequited pioneers of whom the world is not worthy. Six years elapsed, and then there came a flood of suggestions of electric motors in which was applied the principle of intermittent attraction by an electromagnet. Henry in 1831 and Dal Negro in 1832 produced see-saw mechanisms so operated. Ritchie in 1833 and Jacobi in 1834 devised rotatory motors. Ritchie pivoted a rapidly commutated electromagnet between the poles of a permanent magnet—a true type of the modern motor—while Jacobi caused two multipolar electromagnets, one fixed, one movable, to put a shaft into rotation and propel a boat. A perplexing diminution of the current of the battery whenever the motor was running caused Jacobi to investigate mathematically the theory of its action. In a masterly memoir he laid down a few years later the theory of electric motive power. But in the intervening period, in 1831, Faraday had made the cardinal discovery of the mechanical generation of electric currents by magneto-electric induction, the fundamental principle of the dynamo. Down to that date the only known way —save for the feeble currents of thermopiles—to generate electric currents had been the pile of Volta, or one of the forms of battery which had been evolved from it. Now, by Faraday’s discovery, the world had become possessed of a new source, And yet again, strange as it may seem, years elapsed before the world— that is, the world of engineers—discovered that an important discovery had been made. Not till some thirty years later were any magneto-electric machines made of a sufficient size to be of practical service even in telegraphy, and none were built of a sufficient power to furnish a single electric light until about the year 1857. Inthe meantime in America other electric motors, to be driven by batteries, had been devised by Devonport and by Page; the latter’s machine had an iron plunger to be sucked by electromagnetic attraction into a hollow coil of copper wire, thereby driving a shaft and flywheel through the intermediate action of a connecting-rod and crank. Page’s was, in fact, an electric engine, with 2-foot stroke, single-acting, of between 3 and 4 horse-power. The battery occupied about 3 cubic feet and consumed, according to Page, 3 lb. of zine per horse-power per day. This must have been an under-estimate ; for if Daniell’s cells were used the minimum consumption for a motor of 100 per cent. efficiency is known to be about 2 lb. of zine per horse-power per hour, Electric Motive Power Impossible in 1857. Upon the state of development of electric motors fifty years ago information may be gleaned from an exceedingly interesting debate at the Institution of Civil Engineers upon a paper read April 21, 1857, ‘On Electromagnetism as a Motive Power,’ by Mr. Robert Hunt, F.R.S. In this paper the author states that, though long-enduring thought has been brought to bear upon the subject, and large sums of money have been expended on the construction vf machines, ‘ yet there does not appear to be any nearer approach to a satisfactory result than there was PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 613 thirty years ago.’ After explaining the elementary principles of electro- magnetism, he describes the early motors of Dal Negro, Jacobi, Davenport, Davidson, Page, and others. Reviewing these and their non-success as com- mercial machines, he says: ‘Notwithstanding these numerous trials... it does not appear that any satisfactory explanation has ever been given of the causes which have led to the abandonment of the idea of employing electricity as a motive power. It is mainly with the view of directing attention to these causes that the present communication has been written.’ He admits that electromagnets may be constructed to give any desired lifting power; but he finds that the attractive force on the iron keeper of a magnet of his own, which held 220 lb. when in contact, fell to 36 1b. when the distance apart was only one-fiftieth of an inch. To this rapid falling off of force, and to the hardening action on the iron of the repeated vibrations due to the mechanical concussion of the keeper, he attributed the small power of the apparatus. Also he remarked upon the diminution of the current which is observed to flow from the battery when the motor was running (which Jacobi had, in his memoir on the theory, traced to a counter electromotive force generated in the motor itself), and which reduced the effort exerted by the electromagnets ; this diminution he regarded as impairing the efficiency of the machine. ‘All electromagnetic arrangements,’ he says, ‘ suffer from the cause named, a reduction of the mechanical value of the prime mover, in a manner which has no resemblance to any of the effects due to heat regarded as a motive power.’ Proceeding to discuss the batteries he remarked that as animal power depends on food, and steam power on coal, so electric power depends on the amount of zinc consumed; in support of which proposition he cited the experiments of Joule. He gives as his own results that for every grain of zinc consumed in the battery his motor performed a duty equivalent to lifting 86 lb. one foot high. Joule and Scoresby, using Daniell’s cells, had found the duty to be equivalent to raising 80 lb. ove foot high, being about half the theoretical maximum duty for one grain of zinc. In the Cornish engine, doing its best duty, one grain of coal was equivalent to a duty of raising 143 lb. one foot high. He put the price of zinc at 35/, per ton as compared with coal at less than 1/. per ton, which makes the cost of power produced by an electric motor—if computed by the consumption of zinc in a battery—about sixty times as great as that of an equal power produced by a steam-engine consuming coal. He concludes that ‘ it would be far more economical to burn zine under a boiler and to use it for gene- rating steam power than to consume zinc in a battery for generating electro- magnetical power.’ In the discussion which followed, several men of distinction took part. Professor William Thomson, of Glasgow (Lord Kelvin), wrote, referring to the results of Joule and Scoresby: ‘These facts were of the highest importance in estimating the applicability of electromagnetism, as a motive power, in practice ; and, indeed, the researches alluded to rendered the theory of the duty of electro- magnetic engines as complete as that of the duty of waterwheels was generally admitted to be. Among other conclusions which might be drawn from these experiments was this: that, until some mode of producing electricity as many times cheaper than that of an ordinary galvanic battery as coal was cheaper than zinc, electromagnetic engines could not supersede the steam-engine.’ Mr. W. R. Grove (Lord Justice Sir William Grove) remarked that a practical application of the science appeared to be still distant. The great desideratum, in his opinion, was not so much improvement in the machine as in the prime mover, the battery, which was the source of power. At present the only available use for this power must be confined to special purposes where the danger of steam and the creation of vapour were sought to be avoided, or where economy of space was a great consideration. Professor Tyndall agreed with the last speaker, but sug- gested that there might be some way of mitigating the apparent diminution of power due to the induction of opposing electromotive forces in the machine itself. Mr. C. Cowper spoke of some experiments, made by himself and Mr. E. A. Cowper, showing the advantage gained by properly laminating the iron cores used in the motor. He put the cost of electric power at 4/. per horse-power per 614, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. hour. He deprecated building electric motors with reciprocating movements and cranks; described the use of silver commutators; and mentioned the need of adjusting the lead given to the contacts. There was, he said, no reason to suppose that electric motors could be made as light as steam-engines. Even in the case of small motors of one-tenth or one-hundredth ofa horse-power, for light work, where the cost of power was of small consequence, a boy or a man turning a winch would probably furnish power at a cheaper rate. Mr. Alfred Smee agreed that the cost would be enormous for heavy work. Although motive power could not at present be produced at the same expense on a large scale by the battery as by coal, still they were enabled readily to apply the power at any distance from its source; the telegraph might be regarded as an application of motive power trans- mitted by electricity. Mr.G. P. Bidder considered that there had been a lamentable waste of ingenuity in attempting to bring electromagnetism into use ona large scale. Mr. Joule wrote to say that it was to be regretted that in irance the delusion as to the possibility of electromagnetic engines superseding steam still prevailed. He pointed out, as a result of his calorimeter experiments, that if it were possible so to make the electric engine work as to reduce the amount to a small fraction of the strength which it had when the engine was standing still, nearly the whole of the heat (energy) due to the chemical action of the battery might be evolved as work. The less the heat evolved, as heat, in the battery, the more perfect the economy of the engine. It was the lowerintensity of chemical action of zine as compared with carbon, and the relative cost of zinc and coal, which decided so completely in favour of the steam-engine. Mr. Hunt, replying to the speakers in the discussion, said that his endeavour had been to show that the impossibility of employing electromagnetism as a motive power lay with the present voltaic battery. Before a steam-engine could be considered, the boiler and furnace must be considered. So likewise must the battery if electric power were to become economical. Then the President, Mr, Robert Stephenson, wound up the discussion by remarking that there could be no doubt that the application of voltaic electricity, in whatever shape it might be developed, was entirely out of the question, commercially speaking. The mechanical application seemed to involve almost insuperable difficulties. The force exhibited *by electromagnetism, though very great, extended through so small a space as to be practically useless. A powerful magnet might be compared to a steam-engine with an enormous piston, but with exceedingly short stroke; an arrangement well known to be very undesirable. In short, the most eminent engineers in 1857 one and all condemned the idea of electric motive power as unpractical and commercially impossible. Even Faraday, in his lecture on ‘Mental Education’ in 1854, had set down the magneto-electric engine along with mesmerism, homeopathy, odylism, the caloric engine, the electric light, the sympathetic compass, and perpetual motion as coming in different degrees amongst ‘ subjects uniting more or less of the most sure and valuable investigations of science with the most imaginary and unprofitable speculation, that are continually passing through their various phases of intellectual, experimental, or commercial development, some to be established, some to disappear, and some to recur again and again, like ill weeds that cannot be extirpated, yet can be cultivated to no result as wholesome food for the mind,’ Fifty years later. Fifty years have fled, and Hunt, Grove, Smee, Tyndall, Cowper, Joule, Bidder, and Stephenson have long passed away. Lord Kelvin remains the sole and honoured survivor of that remarkable symposium. But the electric motor is a gigantic practical success, and the electric motor industry has become a very large one, employing thousands of hands. Hundreds of factories have discarded their steam-engines to adopt electric-motor driving. All travelling cranes, nearly all tramcars, are driven by electric motors. In the Navy and in much of the merchant service the donkey-engines have been replaced by electric motors, Electric motors of all sizes and outputs, from one-twentieth of a horse- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 615 power to 8,000 horse-power, are in commercial use. One may well ask: What has wrought this astonishing revolution in the face of the unanimous verdict of the engineers of 1857 ? The answer may be given in terms of the action and reaction of pure and applied science. Pure science furnished a discovery; industrial applications forced its development; that development demanded further abstract investiga- tion, which in turn brought about new applications. It was beyond all question the development of the dynamo for the purposes of electrotyping and electric light which brought about the commercial advent of the electric motor. For about that very time Holmes and Siemens and Wilde and Wheatstone were at work developing Faraday’s magneto-electric apparatus into an apparatus of more prac- tical shape ; and the electric lighthouse lamp was becoming a reality which Faraday lived to see before his death in 1867. That eventful year witnessed the intro- duction of the more powerful type of generator which excited its own magnets. And even before that date a young Italian had made a pronouncement which, though it was lost sight of for a time, was none the less of importance. Antonio Pacinotti in 1864 described a machine of his own devising, having a specially wound revolving ring-magnet placed between the poles of a stationary magnet, which, while it would serve as an admirable generator of electric currents if mechanically driven, would also serve as an excellent electric motor if supplied with electric currents from a battery. He thereupon laid down the principle of reversibility of action, a principle more or less dimly foreseen by others, but never before so clearly enunciated as by him. And so it turned out in the years from 1860 to 1880, when the commercial dynamo was being perfected by Gramme, Wilde, Siemens, Crompton, and others, that the machines designed specially to be good and economical generators of currents proved themselves to be far better and more efficient motors than any of the earlier machines which had been devised specially to work as electro-magnetic engines. More- over, with the perfection of the dynamo came that cheap source of electric currents which was destined to supersede the battery. That a dynamo driven by asteam engine furnishing currents on a large scale should be a more economical source of current than a battery in which zinc was consumed, does not appear to have ever occurred to the engineers who, in 1857, discussed the feasibility of electric motive power. Indeed, had any of them thought of it, they would have condemned the suggestion as chimerical. There was a notion abroad—and it persisted into the eighties—that no electric motor could possibly have an efficiency higher than 50 per cent. This notion, based on an erroneous under- standing of the theoretical investigations of Jacobi, certainly delayed the progress of events. Yet the clearest heads of the time understood the matter more truly. The true law of efficiency was succinctly stated by Lord Kelvin in 1851, and was recognised by Joule in a paper written about the same date. In 1877 Mascart pointed out how the efficiency of a given magneto-electric machine rises with its speed up to a limiting value. In 1879 Lord Kelvin and Sir William Siemens gave evidence before a Parliamentary Committee as to the possible high efficiency of an electric transmission of power; and in August of the same year, at the British Association meeting at Sheffield, the essential theory of the efficiency of electric motors was well and admirably put in a lecture by Professor Ayrton. In 1882 the present author designed, in illustration of the theory, a graphic con- struction, which has been ever since in general use to make the principle plain. The counter-electromotive force generated by the motor when running, which Hunt and Tyndall deplored as a defect, is the very thing which enables the motor to appropriate and convert the energy of the battery. Its amount relatively to the battery’s own electromotive force is the measure of the degree to which the energy which would otherwise be wasted as heat is utilised as power. Pure science stepped in, then, to confirm the possibility of a high efficiency in the electric motor per se. But pure science was also brought into service in another way. An old and erroneous notion, which even now is not quite dead, was abroad to the effect that the best way of arranging a battery was so to group its component cells that its internal resistance 616 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. should be equal to the resistance of the rest of the circuit. If this were true, then no battery could ever have an efficiency of more than 50 per cent. It was supposed in many quarters that this misleading rule was applicable also to the dynamo. The dynamo makers discovered for themselves the fallacy of this idea, and strove to reduce the internal resistance of the armatures of their machines to aminimum. Then the genius of the lamented John Hopkinson led him to apply to the design of the magnetic structure of the dynamo abstract principles upon which a rational proportioning of the iron and copper could result. A similar investigation was independently made by Gisbert Kapp, and between these accomplished engineers the foundations of dynamo design were set upon a scientific basis. To the perfection of the design the magnetic studies of our ex-President, Professor Ewing, contributed a notable part, since they furnished a basis for calculating out the inevitable losses of energy in armature cores by hysteresis and parasitic currents in the iron when subjected to recurring cycles of magnetisation. Able constructive engineers, Brown, Mordey, Crompton, and Kapp, perfected the structural development, and the dynamo within four or five years became, within its class, a far more highly efticient machine than any steam engine. And as by the principle of reversibility every dynamo is also capable of acting as a motor, the perfection of the dynamo implied the perfection, both scientific and commercial, of the motor also. The solution in the eighties of the problem how to make a dynamo to deliver current at a constant voltage when driven at a constant speed, found its counterpart in the solution by Ayrton and Perry of the corresponding problem how to make a motor which would run at constant speed when supplied with current at a constant voltage. Both solutions dep -nd upon the adoption of a suitable compound winding of the field magnets. A little later alternating currents claimed the attention of engineers; and the alternating current generator, or ‘alternator,’ was developed to a high degree of perfection. To perfect a motor for alternating currents was not so simple a matter. But again pure science stepped in, in the suggestion by Galileo Ferraris of the extremely beautiful theorem of the rotatory magnetic field, due to the combination of two alternating magnetic fields equal in amplitude, identical in frequency and in quadrature in space, but differing from each other by a quarter-period in phase. To develop on this principle a commercial motor required the ingenuity of Tesla and the engineering skill of Dobrowolsky and of Brown: and so the three-phase induction motor, that triumph of applied science, came to perfection. Ever since 189], when at the Frankfort Exhibition there was shown the tour de force of transmitting 100 horse-power to a distance of 100 miles with an inclusive efficiency of 73 per cent., the commercial possibility of the electric transmission of power on a large scale was assured. The modern developments of this branch of engineering and the erection of great power- stations for the economic distribution of electric power generated by large steam plant or by water-turbines are known to all engineers. The history of the electric motor is probably without parallel in the lessons it affords of the commercial and industrial importance of science. But the query naturally rises: If a steam-engine is still needed to drive the generator that furnishes the electric current to drive the motors, where does the economy come in? Why not use small steam-engines, and get rid of all intervening electric appliances ? The answer, as every engineer knows, lies in the much higher efficiency of large steam-engines than of small ones. A single steam-engine of 1,000 horse-power will use many times less steam and coal than a thousand little steam-engines of 1 horse-power each, particularly if each little steam- engine required its own little boiler, The little electric motor may be designed, on the other hand, to have almost as high an efficiency as the large motor. And while the loss of energy due to condensation in long steam-pipes is most serious, the loss of energy due to transmission of electric current in mains of equal length is practically negligible. This is the abundant justification of the electric distri- bution of power from single generating centres to numerous electric motors placed in the positions where they are wanted to work. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 617 Education and Training of Engineers. Interplay of action and reaction make for progress not only in the evolution of the scientific industries, but also in the development of the individual engineer. In him, if his training is on right lines, pure theory becomes an aid to sound practice ; and practical applications are continually calling him to resort to those abstractions of thought, the underlying principles, which when known and formulated are called theories. Recent years have brought about a so much better understanding of education, in its bearing upon the professions and constructive industries, that we now seldom hear the practical man denouncing theory, or the theorist pooh-poohing practice. It is recognised that each is useful, and that the best uses of both are in conjunction, not in isolation. As a result of this better understanding distinct progress is being made in the training of engineers. Of this the growth of the engineering departments of the univer- sities, and of the technical colleges and schools, affords striking evidence. The technical schools, moreover, are recognising that their students must have a sound preliminary education, and are adyancing in the requirements they expect of candidates for admission. They are also finding out how their work may best supplement the practical training in the shops, and are improving their curricula aceordingly. In the engineering industry, too, Great Britain is slowly following the lead taken in America, Germany, and Switzerland, in the recognition afforded to the value of a systematic college training for the young engineer, though there is still much apathy and even distrust shown in certain quarters. Yet there is no doubt that the stress of competition, particularly of competition against the industry and the enterprise of the trained men of other nations, is gradually forcing to the front the sentiment in favour of a rational and scientific training for the manufacturer and for the engineer. As William Watson, in his ‘Ode on the Coronation,’ wrote in a yet wider sense of England :— For now the day is unto them that know, And not henceforth she stumbles on the prize ; And yonder march the nations full of eyes. Already is doom a-spinning.... Truly the day is ‘unto them that know.’ Knowledge, perfected by study and training, must be infused into the experience gained by practice: else we com- pete at very unequal odds with the systematically trained workers of other nations, Nor must we make the mistake here in the organisation of our technical institutions of divorcing the theory from its useful applications. In no department is this more vital than in the teaching of mathematics to engineering students. For while no sane person would deny that the study of mathematics, for the sole sake of mathematics, even though it leads to nothing but abstract mathematics, is a high and ennobling pursuit, yet that is not the object of mathematical studies in an engineering school. The young engineer must learn mathematics not as an end in itself, but as a tool that is to be useful to him. And if it is afterwards to be of use to him, he must learn it by using it. Hence the teacher of mathematics in an engineering school ought himself to be an engineer. However clever he be as a mathematical person, his teach- ing is unreal if he is not incessantly showing his learners how to apply it to the problems that arise in practice; and this he is incapable of doing if these problems do not lie within his own range of experience and knowledge. Were he a heaven-born senior wrangler, he is the wrong man to teach mathe- matics if he either despises or is ignorant of the ways in which mathematics enter into engineering. The fact is that for the great majority of engineering students, the mental training they most need is that which will enable them to think in physics, in mechanics, in geometric space, not in abstract symbols. The abstract symbols, and the processes of dealing with their relations and combinations, are truly necessary to them: but they are wanted not for themselves, but to form 618 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. convenient modes of expressing the physical facts and laws, and the inter- dependence of those physical facts and laws. When the student loses grip of the physical meaning of his equations, and regards them only as abstractions or groupings of symbols, woe betide him. His mathematics amount to a mere symbol-juggling. That is how paper engineers are made. The high and dry mathematical master who thinks it beneath him to show a student how to plot the equations y=A sin 2, or r=6 sin 6, or who never culls an example or sets a problem from thermodynamics or electricity, must be left severely on one side as a fossil, Better a living Whitworth scholar than a dry-as-dust Cambridge wrangler. He at least knows that elasticity is something more real than the group of symbols E= p+, which any mathematician may ‘ know,’ even though he be blissfully ignorant whether the force required to elongate a square-inch bar of steel by one one-millionth of its length is ten ounces or ten tons. One evidence of the wholesome change of opinion that is springing up con- cerning the training of engineers is the abandonment of the system of taking premium pupils into works with no other test or qualification than that of the money-bag. Already many leading firms of engineers have been finding that the practice of taking sons of wealthy parents for a premium does not answer well, and is neither to their own advantage nor in many cases to that of the ‘ pupil, whom it is nobody's particular business in the shops to train. Premium pupilage is absolutely unknown in the engineering firms of the United States or on the Continent of Europe. The firms who have abandoned it are finding themselves better served by taking the ablest young men from the technical schools and paying them small wages from the first, while they gain experience and prove themselves capable of good service. Messrs. Yarrow & Co. have led the way with a plan of their own, having three grades of apprenticeship, admission to which depends upon the educational abilities of the youths themselves. Messrs. Siemens have adopted a plan of requiring a high preliminary training. The Daimler Motor Company has likewise renounced all premiums, preferring to select young men of the highest intelligence and merit. Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth have quite recently reconstructed their system of pupil-apprenticeship on similar lines. The British Westinghouse Company and the British Thomson- Houston Company have each followed an excellent scheme for the admission of capable young men. Even the conservatism of the railway engineers shows signs of giving way; for already the Great Kastern Railway has modernised its regulations for the admission of apprentices. What the engineering staffs of the railway companies have lost by taking in pupils because of their fathers’ purses rather than for the sake of their own brains it is impossible to gauge. But the community loses too, and has a right to expect reform. To this question, affecting the whole future outlook of engineering generally, a most important contribution was made in 1906 by the publication by the Institution of Civil Engineers of the report of a committee (appointed in November 1903) to consider and report to the Council upon the subject of the best methods of education and training for all classes of engineers. This Committee, a most influential and representative body consisting of leading men appointed by the several professional societies, the Institutions of Civil, Mechanical, and Electrical Engineers, the Institution of Naval Architects, the Tron and Steel Institute, the Institution of Gas Engineers, the Institution of Mining Engineers, and two northern societies, was ably and sympathetically presided over by Sir William H. White. Its inquiries !asted over two years and included the following sections: (1) Preparatory Training in Secondary Schools ; (2) Training in Offices, Workshops, Factories, or on Works; (3) Training in Universities and Higher Technical Institutions; (4) Postgraduate Work. The findings of this Committee must be received as the most authoritative judgment of the most competent judges. So far as they relate to preparatory education they suggest a modernised secondary school curriculum in which there is no one specialised scientific study, but with emphasis on what may be called PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 619 sensible mathematics, They also formulated one recommendation so vital that it must be quoted in full :—- ‘A leaving examination for secondary schools, similar in character to those already existing in Scotland and Wales, is desirable throughout the United Kingdom. It is desirable to have a standard such that it could be accepted by the Institution [of Civil Engineers] as equivalent to the Studentship Examination, and by the Universities and Colleges as equivalent to a Matriculation Examination.’ One may well wonder why such a reasonable recommendation has not long ago been carried out by the Board of Education. Perhaps it has been too busy over the religious squabble to attend to the pressing needs of the nation. The second set of recommendations relates to engineering training. It begins with the announcement that ‘long experience has led’ to general agreement among engineers as to the general lines on which practical training should proceed’; but goes into no recommendations on this head beyond favouring four years in workshops, on works, in mines, or in offices, expressing the pious desire that part of this practical training should be obtained in drawing-offices, and suggesting that during workshop-training the boys should keep regular hours, be subject to discipline, and be paid wages. It then lays down a dozen recommendations as to the ‘academic’ training suitable for the average boy. He should leave school about seventeen; he should have a preliminary year, or introductory workshop course of a year, either between leaving school and entering college, or after the first year of college training. If the workshop course follows straight on leaving school there must be maintenance of studies either by private tuition or in evening clases, so that systematic study be not suspended. For the average student, if well prepared before entering college, the course should last three academic years (three sessions); in some cases this might be extended to four or shortened to two. A sound and extensive knowledge of mathematics is — necessary in all branches of engineering, and those departments of mathematics which have no bearing upon engineering should not claim unnecessary time or attention. The Committee strongly recommends efficient instruction in engineering drawing. The college course should include instruction (necessarily given in the laboratory) in testing materials and structures, and in the principles underlying metallurgical processes. In the granting of degrees, diplomas, and certificates, importance should be attached to laboratory and experimental work performed by individual students, and such awards should not depend on the results of terminal or final examinations alone. All this is most excellent. It will be seen that it is entirely incompatible with the premium-pupil system, which may therefore be regarded as having been weighed and found wanting. For two things clearly stand out ; that the young engineer must be college-trained, and that when he goes to works he should be regularly paid. It would have been well if the Committee could have been more explicit as to the proper course of workshop training; for instance as to the systematic drafting of the young engineer through the shops—forge, foundry, pattern-shop, fitting-shop, &c., and as to the proper recognition of the duty of the shop-foreman to allocate work to the novice in suitable routine. These are doubtless among the matters in which ‘long experience has led engineers to general agreement.’ But this being so, it would have been well to state them authoritatively. A notable feature of this report is its healthy appreciation of the advantages of training, and an equally healthy distrust of the practice of cramming for examinations. So soon as any subject is crammed, it ceases to afford a real training. ‘Nature provides a very convenient safety-valve for knowledge too rapidly acquired.’ It is even whispered that a new species of crammer has arisen to ‘prepare’ candidates in engineering for the graduate examinations of the Institution of Civil Engineers. The distinguished framers of this epoch-making report on the education and training of engineers at least give no countenance to any such parasitical development. For the scheme of education and training at which the Committee has aimed is genuinely scientific, a happy federation of the theoretical with the practical. It seeks to place the 620 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. training on a broad basis, and to secure to every future engineer worthy of the name the advantage of learning his professional work in both its aspects. It seeks, in short, to take advantage of that reflex action between science and its applications in which lies the greatest stimulus to progress. Its adoption will utilise for the young engineer, and therefore for the engineering industry as a whole, the facilities for training now so widely afforded throughout the country. If the institutions, schools, and colleges where engineering training is offered are but rightly developed and co-ordinated, the engineers of Great Britain need have no fear as to holding their own against the trained engineers of other countries It is for the employers to make use of these institutions, and to show that sympathetic interest in their efficiency which is essential to their full success. The following Paper was then read :— The Present Condition of Gas and Petrol Engines.\ By Ducarp Crier, VW Inst.C.£. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Paper was read :— On the Gases exhausted from a Petrol Motor.? By B. Hopxinson, M.A. Joint Discussion with Section B on Explosion Temperatures.3 MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Papers were read :— 1. Pupin’s Compensated Cable for Telephone Transmission.* By Sir W. H. Preece, K.C.B, RS. 2. Tuning in Wireless Telegraphy. By Sir Outver Lopas, F.R.S. The principles of tuning were clearly explained by Mr. Duddell in his evening lecture to the Association last Friday, and I shall assume them known; but it is not to be supposed that the application of these principles requires the arc. Sufficient tuning for all practical purposes can be obtained by using the right kind of spark. It is possible to require too long a train of waves, in which case the latter half of the train will undo what the former half has begun, in analogy with beats. Thirty or forty swings can be easily got by a spark, and that is enough for practical requirements. Effect of the Earth. But attention to the spark alone is not sufficient; it is necessary to eliminate the influence of the earth. For the snappy or non-tuned emission, such as was employed by Mr. Marconi for great distances, it is convenient to use an elevated wire on the one hand, and the earth on the other; but for a tuned station this is not appropriate. 1 Published in Hectrician, August 9. ? Published in Hngineering, August 9. 8 Reported in Engineering, August 9. ‘ Published in Hlectrician, August 9. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 621 A tuned station requires two capacity areas, both elevated above the earth, as published by me in 1897. These capacity areas are usually horizontal frames, of shapes devised by my friend and partner, Dr. Alexander Muirhead, who has found that there is a best position for the lower aérial, such that the capacity is a minimum. The sending efficiency is then most marked. If the lower aérial be too much raised, the radiating power diminishes; if it be lowered, the train of waves is shortened until, when it is allowed to touch the earth—still more if it is connected with the earth—there is hardly any train of waves at all, and the discharge is almost dead-beat. There is a great advantage in thus getting rid of earth contacts, inasmuch as variations of moisture and uncertainties of the soil do not enter in to confuse the problem and throw the tuning out, But even if the earth remained constant it would be deleterious: it seems by its resistance to damp out the vibrations and shortens the train of waves, in so far as it is allowed to exert any influence. Kind of Spark. A non-tuned station puts all the energy into a single snap, so as to produce a single discontinuous pulse calculated to affect every kind of station within the range of its power. For a tuned station this sudden snappy spark is to be avoided. The ideal arrangement is a spark of a sufficient number of alternations, of approxi- mately equal strength, no one of which is sufficient to operate, but such that the accumulated influence of all of them is powerful. Instead therefore of the clean polished metal knobs in fresh or compressed air, which are suitable for a snappy spark, a tuned station may employ a series of points enclosed in ionised air so as to maintain conduction as long as possible. The maintenance is also assisted by using an alternator with a curve of the right shape—not a sine curve, but a high- shouldered curve—so as to keep up the stimulating potential for a sufficient time. It is this kind of spark which, at the Lodge-Muirhead station at Elmers End, was photographed by Mr. Duddell in a revolving mirror, and was exhibited by him on Friday night. Method of Receiving from a Distant Tuned Station. The first thing is to tune up the receiver accurately. This can be done by a Duddell radio-micrometer, which measures the received energy satisfactorily although it is very small. Tuning is altered until the reading on this micrometer rises to a high value; then the receiving apparatus is purposely made insen- sitive, so that the coherer will only respond to this high value: in other words, to the top of the curve. The message can then be received from the desired station. If the receiving apparatus were left sensitive, it would be affected violently by the desired station, but it would pick up a number of disturbances from other stations. By working at the top of the curve it feels the desired station alone. Perfection of Tuning. In this way it was possible to receive at Hythe from Elmers End while a much more powerful and nearer station at Dover was making a disturbance which was entirely eliminated. It is easy to hear the ships in the Channel, but it is also easy to tune everything out and listen to the desired station alone. A 5 per cent. change could be made to throw this out and throw a neighbouring one in; but in practice it would be undesirable to try to work quite so close as that. With changes of that order of magnitude, however, several neighbouring sending stations can he made to send to several neighbouring receiving stations without interference. That is to say, diplex telegraphy is possible, though not duplex. Tuning at the Sending End. In order to economise power, it is desirable to have every part tuned. The aérials connected through the secondary of a peculiarly made Ruhmkorff coil 622 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. constitute one oscillating system of a low frequency, to correspond to an ordinary commercial alternator which excites them. When the swing is worked up they burst through the spark gap, short-circuiting out the Ruhmkorff and giving ex- cessively rapid oscillations, which are the ones transmitted. These are picked up by the receiving station and are transferred at constant frequency into a closed air- condenser circuit, which, when its swings reach a maximum, overflows into the coherer. This is called the ‘overflow method,’ and was described by me in 1889 and 1891. Ratio of Received to Emitted Energy. Theoretical calculation shows that the energy received, compared with energy radiated, depends on the cube of the linear dimensions of emitter and receiver, if they are alike, and likewise on the cube of the distance between them. Measurements made with the radio-micrometer confirm this estimate approxi- mately, the value in one series of experiments being 10-°. Although this is a small fraction, the accuracy of tuning is such that messages are sent between Burma and the Andaman Islands—a distance of about three hundred miles—with less than a horse-power. Other Precautions. To get such a result, precautions must be taken to avoid damping out the oscillations, not only by elevation even of the lower aérial above the earth, but by using appropriate conductors for these excessively high frequencies. To this end the wires are finely subdivided into insulated strands, and consist of a great cable or bundle of thinly insulated No. 40 wires, and the various self-inductions and other arrangements for effecting tuning are similarly wound. The tuning capacities are also arranged so as to be continuously adjustable, without pegs or discontinuities ; and every kind of broken or uncertain contact is scrupulously avoided. 3. Note on Oscillograph Study of Duddell Arcs of Low Frequency.' By J. T. Morris. 4. Developments in Electric Incandescent Lamps.? By Leon GASsTER. 5. The new Engineering Laboratory at the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury.2 By Professor E. G. Coxer, J.A., D.Sc. The recent extension in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury, has been provided for by the City Companies aided by a private donor. ; } A new wing has been added to the College, in which accommodation has been found for an engineering laboratory, drawing-offices, lecture and preparation rooms. The principal feature of interest is the engineering laboratory, of about 4,000 square feet in area, on the basement floor. A part of this laboratory has been devoted to hydraulic equipment, which is mainly grouped with reference to a cast-iron channel, 80 feet long, and of square section 2 feet side. At one end of this is a space for a vertical pressure cylinder, for experiments on jets, impact on vanes, and the like. At the other end are measuring tanks, of a total capacity of 3,500 gallons, into which the water drains after passing over a weir in the main channel. There are also two subsidiary channels, parallel to the main one, and draining directly into the measuring tanks. The water after use is raised to 1 Published in Electrical Review, August 9. 2 Published in Electrician, August 23. 3 Published in ewtenso in Engineering, August 16. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 623 a roof tank of 5,000 gallons capacity by a centrifugal pump of 200 gallons capacity per minute, and it is returned to the laboratory by a falling main for use anew. The hydraulic machines already installed comprise an inward-flow pressure turbine, an outward-flow Girard turbine, a Worthington pump, a three-cylinder hydraulic engine, and a considerable amount of other apparatus for experimental work. The heat engines are all of moderate size, and are in most cases of special design for experimental work. A gas engine of 12 horse-power is fitted for work with either town gas or suction gas from a Dowson producer. A refrigerating plant is arranged to work with either carbonic acid er ammonia by using interchangeable cylinders, An oil engine, hot-air engine, steam engines, and a compound air-compressor are also installed, while space has been left for future developments. The equipment also includes a 10-tcn Buckton testing-machine and a varied collection of other apparatus for testing materials. The drawing-office has accommodation for a hundred students, and is divided by a glazed partition for convenience in teaching. The workshops have been entirely remodelled, and nearly all the old machine- tools have been replaced by new ones. A new lecture-theatre seats a hundred students, and is fitted with the neces sary appliances for experimental and lantern demonstrations. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. The following Papers were read :— 1. Ferro-concrete and Examples of Construction. By J.8. HE. pe Vusian, I Inst.C.#., MInst.M.£. The author referred briefly to the various kinds of materials that have been used for constructing buildings from early days, and showed that ferro-concrete was the most rational method, as in the Hennebique system the disposition of concrete and steel allowed of the maximum inherent strength of the two materials being made the utmost use of—that is to say, that the steel takes up all the strains due to tension, while the concrete bears those due to compression. In this manner one square inch of steel (say in the tension area of a beam) will interest 30 square inches of concrete on the compression side; and when one thinks of the different cost of concrete and steel, the economy is at once apparent. Not only is this method economical, it is also extremely durable and fireproof. The importance of careful selection, of mixing, and treatment of the concrete was shown, and the specifications for this, as well as for the steel, set forth. The author insisted on the test of reinforced concrete buildings, shortly after construction, with a load of 50 per cent. in excess of the calculated load. The behaviour of Hennebique ferro-concrete under stresses shows that this is really a new material, as its behaviour is so different from that of the concrete and steel separately. Perhaps one of the most marvellous uses of ferro-concrete is in the manufacture and use of piles. It seems a strange fact that a loose frame of steel bars and a concrete setting can be made which one can drive into the ground better than any timber piles, An important point which is often raised is the protection afforded to the steel by the concrete, and this the author mentioned, giving as an instance the head of a pile which had been cut off and left on the foreshore, where it was uncovered and covered by the tide for over nine years, and in which the steel showed as good as new a quarter of an inch under the skin of the concrete. This pile-head was brought up and broken in the presence of several eminent engineers the year before last, ' Published in ewtenso in the Contract Jowrnal, August 21. 624 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. The impossibility of drawing up fixed rules for reinforced concrete construc- tions generally by corporations and municipalities was referred to, The chief safe- guard to be employed is that of stringent tests after the construction is finished. In cases where much vibration is feared, from running machinery or other causes, ferro-concrete is admirably adapted to minimise the trouble. 2. Some new Uses for Reinforced Concrete! By W. Noste Twetvetrees, M.J.Mech.#., Assoc. M.L.E.E. So many papers have been read of late discussing the general principles governing the design of reinforced concrete structures and describing works of familiar character in which reinforced concrete has been adopted as the material of construction, that the author thought it well to follow a less frequented path. Under the heading of ‘New Uses for Reinforced Concrete’ he considered some types of construction that have not yet been applied in this country, others that have been adopted only recently, and others again that are not new in them- selves, but are very suitable for employment in novel directions. In the first category may be placed such constructions as railway sleepers, standards for overhead electric cables in power transmission and electricity distri- bution systems, and poles for telegraph and telephone wires. The paper contained particulars relative to the design, construction, and application of such accessories as these, which are now coming into general use on the Continent and in America. In the second category was considered the employment of reinforced concrete to dock engineering, as illustrated by the Scotstoun Dock on the Clyde—the first example of its kind in Great Britain ; of coast defence and harbour works, as illus- trated by the sea wall and protective slopes at West Hartlepool, groynes near Brighton, and a breakwater near Waterford ; and of long-span bridges for main- line railway traffic and for crossing important rivers, as exemplified by typical structures in this and other countries. In the third category the author indicated the special advantages to be obtained by the adoption of reinforced concrete as a material for the construction of railway-station roofs, locomotive depéts, and bridges over railway lines. In all such structures steelwork is particularly liable to corrosion by reason of its exposure to steam and destructive gases from locomotive engines and boilers. To illustrate the adaptability of reinforced concrete to these new uses, the author gave brief particulars of roofs that are akin to those generally built in steel for covering railway stations, of a locomotive depot erected on the Jura-Simplon line, and of highway and foot bridges over railway lines. Finally he alluded to the method successfully adopted on the Continent for preserving steel bridges by encasing them in concrete, a course that is commended to the attention of railway companies and highway authorities in places where the corrosive effect of locomotive fumes is a constant source of trouble and expense. 3. The Origin and Production of Corrugation of Tramway Rails.? By W. Worsy Beaumont, M.Inst.C.£. 4, Modern Machinery and its Future Developments.’ By H. I. Brackensury. 5. Resistance Coils and Comparisons. By C. V. DRYSDALE. This paper dealt with the existing forms of standard resistance coils and of standardising bridges, and with some new forms of standard coils and testing 1 Published in extenso in the Builder, August 24, 2 Published in Hngineering, August 16 and 23. 8 Published in Hngineering, August 30. wa TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 625 arrangements devised by the writer. A short account of previous tests on resist- ance alloys was followed by a description of some recent tests on modern resistance materials obtained by Mr. J. H. Baugh and tested by Mr. A. C. Jolley in the laboratories of the Northampton Institute. The alloys best suited for standards, owing to their low temperature coefficient, are those of copper and manganese, or of copper and nickel. The former has the advantage of low thermo- electric force against copper, but a very curved temperature variation. The copper nickel alloys, on the other hand, have a nearly regular temperature coefticient which may be either positive or negative, but their thermo force is very high. The desirable features of standard coils were mentioned, emphasising the matter of low and uniform temperature variation and good heat radiation, and it was pointed out that most existing standards are deficient in these respects and in the design of their terminals. The author proposed an open wound coil with special form of terminals, and wound with a wire of copper nickel or similar alloy, in which the temperature variation is compensated, either by joining two such wires of positive and negative coefficient in series or in shunt with each other, or by coating a wire of nega- tive coefficient with a suitable proportion of a metal or alloy having a positive coefficient. By suitable selection it may be possible to compensate both the first and second terms in the temperature variation. It has been found possible in this way to obtain a coil having a temperature variation probably less than one part in a million for 1° Centigrade over the ordinary working range of temperature. The bridge method either in the single or double form was considered best for standardising purposes, and a comparison made of the slide wire bridge in its various forms with that of the Reichsanstalt. A description was given of a new bridge in which the advantages of both forms have been combined, this bridge being capable of being used either as a single or double bridge for resistances of any value, with or without potential contacts, and of any gauge. The readings can be taken either by shunting or on a double slide wire, and in the latter case the difference between the coils is read directly over a range from 1 to 5,000 millionths. A special form of ratio coil, enabling step-up or step-down measure- ments to be made, was also described. WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 7. The following Papers were read :— 1. A Machine for Weighing the Forces on a Cutting Tool.' By Joun F. Brooks. The object of the machine is to measure the three co-ordinate components of the force on a cutting tool while in the act of cutting metals. The tool, fixed in a holder, forms part of a simple lever carried by a thin diaphragm of steel, This device gives a universal frictionless pivot when used for very small dis- placements, The location of the lever is effected by means of electrical contacts in circuit with telephone receivers, Weights are used to balance the forces, gate apparatus is capable of measuring maximum, minimum, as well as mean, values, The position of the centre of pressure may be found by two or more experi- ments, The paper was illustrated by diagrams, showing the values of the forces on tools with cutting angles of 65° and 70° when cutting cast iron and mild steel, with small cuts at moderate speeds. " Published in ewtenso in Engineering, August 23. 1907, 88 626 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 2. Notes on the Governing of Hydraulic Turbines.' By Rozerr 8. Bau, Assoc.M.Inst.C.L. This paper dealt with the problems involved in the speed control of hydraulic turbines for the range of head of 2 to 3,018 feet, under which turbines are at work throughout the world, and was particularly intended to apply to hydro-electric installations. All hydraulic regulators may be divided into two classes as follows :— (1) Disengagement governors (mechanical), which come into action when an assigned departure from the normal speed is attained, being otherwise out of gear with the gate-controlling mechanism. (2) Continuous governors (mechanical and hydraulic), which are always con- nected to the gate-controlling mechanism and which begin to operate through the mechanism upon the gate at the moment the speed rises or falls from the normal. Mechanical governors are of many kinds, such as the Hartford, Gilkes, Replogle and others described in the paper, all of which operate upon the con- trolling gates through a system of gearing or mechanism actuated by the pendulum governor. The power to drive these governors is taken from the turbine usually, but is also sometimes obtained from an independent source, as in a large hydro- electric installation. Hydraulic governors are so called because water or oil under pressure is employed in closed cylinders to actuate the gates, the valves being controlled by the pendulum governor. These governors take various forms, such as the Bell, Gilles, and Escher Wyss, according to the type of wheel they are set to control. Where the hydrostatic pressure is sufficient it is used directly in the hydraulic cylinders, but for turbines working under low falls auxiliary oil-pumps are used to provide the necessary pressure for actuating the water gates. There are three forms of gate to which governing mechanism is applied: (1) movable turbine vanes ; (2) a circular gate between the runners and the guide vanes ; (3) nozzles such as are used for Pelton wheels and other impulse turbines acting under high heads. The function of the fly-wheel, as distinguished from the governor, was dis- cussed, the former being a mode of keeping the angular acceleration low when the balance is upset between the driving torque and the resistances opposed to it, while the latter is intended to re-adjust the balance. ‘The cyclic variations of angular velocity encountered with some forms of heat engine, especially the internal-combustion engine, are absent in the hydraulic plant, which results in a saving in the flywheel capacity, though for impulse turbines it is sometimes necessary to increase the moment of inertia by the addition of a fly-wheel. The action of hydraulic governors was described and the paper illustrated by eleven figures and diagrams plotted from the results of tests. 3. Lhe Ice Problem in Engineering Work in Canada.? By Professor Howarp T. Barnes, D.Sc., LRS.C. In Canada the physicist has excellent opportunity to study on a grand scale the operation of the natural laws governing the formation of ice in the many forms met with in the large and often turbulent rivers. To the engineer the problem is more serious, for the development of the vast water powers of the country must include means for combating the ice troubles which arise each winter. The conditions which must be met during the winter months are some- times very serious, when ice is forming rapidly, and ice-bridges, dams, and shoves may change the whole character of the levels and channels in a single night. Rivers are known to have been turned entirely out of their course to seek new channels during a winter of unusual severity, and in some instances the reversal } Published in eatenso in Engineering, August 16 and 23. ? Published, with illustrations, in Zagineering, August 9. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 627 of a rapid is of yearly occurrence. ‘Nowhere ‘can one witness a more ‘wonderful sight of the delicate poising of the forces of Nature than in one of the Canadian rivers in winter. The steadiness of the temperature of the water throughout the ice season is a matter of great interest. It seldom varies more than a few itthousandths of a degree from the freezing-point even in ‘the severest weather. This is true for rivers flowing too swiftly for surface ice to form, as well as for the quieter streams protected by an ice covering. In general, three varieties of ice are distinguished and present characteristics brought about by their method of production, Surface or sheet ice forms over the surface of quiet lakes or rivers, and is helpful or not depending on the particular conditions, Spicular ice, or as itis called in Canada, frazil ice, is formed by surface agitation in the more turbulent rivers, and in waterfalls, and accumu- lates in great quantities in the quieter portions of the stream where it is carried by currents. It varies in size from thin plates to fine needle crystals depending on the degree of agitation of the water, and of all the forms of ice it gives the most trouble in hydraulic work, Amnchor- or ground-ice is the most interesting form, on account of the fact that it grows along the bed of a river which is not covered by a surface sheet. It is formed in two ways: by the cooling of the bottom by the radiation of heat during cold clear nights, and by the freezing of frazil-ice carried down by the currents of water when in a super-cooled state. A bright sun has a great influence on the ice, and as soon as its rays are sufficiently high to penetrate to the bottom, the ice is detached and rises to the surface. in so doing it frequently brings up stones or boulders of considerable size to which it is attached. A study of the temperature conditions in the water during the production of these forms of ice shows that the freezing is accompanied by a small temperature depression in the water, amounting to a few thousandths of a degree from the freezing-point.1 During severe cold weather the water is thus thrown into a slightly super-cooled state, during which time the ice crystals grow rapidly by continued freezing, and give rise to the agglomerating stage, when they possess adhesive properties and form lumps and spongy masses. In this condition the ice is dreaded by power users, for it quickly adheres to the rack-bars and to the machinery of the wheel-gates and turbines. In a short time it interferes with the operation of the wheels, and may at any moment cause a temporary cessation of operations. Fortunately, it is only a minute temperature depression which brings about these conditions, and methods of artificial heat applied about the affected spots relieve the situation in a short time. An intelligent use of artificial heat, especially at night time when supercooling is most common, is found valuable im preventing any interference with the normal operation of a power-house. It is not necessary to warm the entire volume of water passing through, which would be very costly and difficult, but by applying the heat in the racks or wheel cases, or blowing steam about the affected parts, the ice is prevented from obtaining a foothold. The ice is as effective as so much water in producing a head, hence the necessity of passing it through, and never allowing it to freeze to the metal surfaces of the machinery, It is safe to say that where it is possible to apply even a small quantity of heat directly to the machinery and racks, a condition of affairs may be done away with which for many years has been regarded as involving inevitable interruption to the continuous operation of a plant. There are other causes at work, however, to interfere with the operation of power plants which depend on the particular spot where a power-house is located. Rivers like the St. Lawrence at Montreal are subjected to winter floods, occasioned by the accumulation of frazil- and disintegrated anchor-ice. Wherever open water or a rapid occurs above a surface sheet of ice, large quantities of frazil- ice are carried under by the currents, and settle upwards in the quieter parts. Large hanging dams of spongy ice are thus produced, which so reduce the avail- able waterway as to cause serious changes in level. Sometimes the channels become blocked entirely, and then the water backs up sufficiently to clear the ice 1 Cases are known, however, where anchor-ice was formed by copious nocturnal radiation when the water was slightly above the freezing temperature. 882 628 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. away and produce a shove. A tremendous upheaval results, and large masses of ice are piled on high for miles around, often doing much damage. It is well known that the most effective prevention to the formation of both frazil- and anchor-ice is the protection afforded by a surface sheet of ice. If a power-house is located on a river normally frozen over, with no stretches of open water above, no ice troubles are experienced. When this is not possible, artificial intake canals are usually constructed, in which the water flows sufficiently slowly to freeze over. If the canal is fed from the open river, booms and crib-work are resorted to in order to deflect much of the ice. If the inflowing water-current is sufficiently rapid to draw the frazil under the surface ice, it is often necessary to cut artificial channels to allow of sufficient water for the wheels. Thus a surface sheet may prove to be disadvantageous. So many and varied are the conditions to be met with in the location of a power-house that no set of rules can be given to meet the general case. It is only by a thorough knowledge of the laws under- lying the formation of ice that means may be found to cope with any particular situation. It may safely be said, however, that the ice problem in Canada is no bar to the future development of her vast water-powers. 4. On the Application of Water Power, and how to secwre the greatest Efficiency in its Working.| By Joun Suytu,M.A., M.Inst.C.£.I. The author showed that a great many falls of water are not now made use of because they are too small or the supply of water is too irregular, but that they may become valuable by supplementing the water power by means of a variable auxiliary power. On the Upper Bann River, in the North of Ireland, there are a number of these small falls, and the author described one where the normal quan- tity of water, as maintained by the Reservoir Company, only produces through the turbine 7:2 horse-power to the foot of the fall; but having made the turbines of sufficient capacity to take and use the winter and flood flow of the stream, an average of 11 horse-power is obtained, making a distinct gain of 3:8 horse-power, equal to 19/. per annum, as compared with steam power for a drive of ten hours per day. In the case described a steam engine is used as the supplementary power, since it is specially suitable to the work done in that mill. Any other motor, however, such as an oil or gas engine, would do equally well, according to the nature of the work to be done. The author would also make these falls more valuable by the construction of compensating or subsidiary reservoirs or lakes on poor Jands along the course of each river, into which floods might be drained or impounded and gradually with- drawn afterwards to the lower reaches for the use of the mills. This would have the further advantage of diminishing floods, and would not interfere with the construction of reservoirs on the higher grounds, where the water is purer for the supply of towns, and thus the full advantage would be taken of the entire drainage area of each river. In a paper read before this Association in 1874, at the Belfast meeting, on the industrial uses of the Upper Bann River, and published in ertenso in its Report, the author mentioned one such reservoir which had then for many years been of great service to the mills. It is still doing the same good work, The author believes water-power is not sufficiently valued by engineers and millowners because of the inefficient water motors so long in general use, but there is no difficulty now in procuring motors to give 80 per cent. of the full power instead of from 30 to 70 as heretofore. ! Published in Zlectrical Review, August 23. bo oO TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 6: Secrion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—D. G. Hogar, M.A., F.S.A. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— Religious Survivals. THE science of Anthropology, from its very nature, seldom touches the beliefs or customs of the higher actual civilisations; but exceptions occur when it enters the field of comparative religion. In coming to the aid of this fascinating study it can hardly help offending, sooner or later, certain prejudices which are deeply rooted and widely distributed, and that not only when it really contravenes the beliefs of pious minds, but, often enough, when its exponents neither wish to impair these beliefs, nor, as a matter of fact, are taking any steps to doso; for the opposition which meets science when it concerns itself with religion is very frequently arrayed before the opponent has taken the time or the trouble to ascertain whether anything vital or essential is concerned in the investigation. At any rate it will be allowed that the majority of the treatises on this study written in the English tongue do not, by any lack of reverent treatment or by any obvious oblivion of the responsibility resting on those who inquire into the religious basis of our social order, display any desire to offend. But just because some offence must almost inevitably be given, even by the most reverent anthro- pologist, in pursuing investigations which involve examination of actual pious beliefs, it is especially incumbent on students of this particular subject to proceed only along the most strictly judicial lines, careful not to force a conclusion from evidence which is in any respect dubious or even incomplete; and, moreover, to be quite clear in their own minds and to make it clear to others how far their inves- tigation really touches actual religion in vital and essential points of belief as distinguished from mere points of observance or ritual, ¢.e., religious accidents, as they might be called. Obvious as this caution may seem, neglect of it is very general, and has led to much needless suspicion of Anthropology as a science with covert and far-reaching purpose, subversive of all religion. It is in the interests of definition and clearness (in a controversial topic among the religious inquiries of anthropologists) that I have chosen my theme to-day. I have small claim to expound the science, as usually understood, to which this Section is devoted, whether on its physical or on its social side, so far as the latter is principally concerned with actual custom and folklore. But as one who has spent more than twenty years in studying the ancient life of that region of the world in which three of the greatest actual systems of religion were developed, and a good part of his time among the modern peasantry of the region itself, I have had my attention particularly directed to the evolution of religious beliefs and observances during long periods of time, which are unusually well illu- minated for us from first to last by the light of both monuments and literature ; 630 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. and that attention has often been arrested by striking instances of cwltus continuity under successive religious systems or dispensations. I enjoyed the advantage of beginning travel in the Nearer Kast in the company of the acute observer who is now Sir William Martin Ramsay, and to his comments on what we saw together in the Phrygian highlands as long ago as 1887 I owe muchof my earliest interest in the question of religious survival and my direction towards the lines on which I have since tried to study it. Some day let us hope that, prompted by such a lectureship as the Gifford Foundation, or encouraged by some discerning publisher, Sit William Ramsay may collect from his many books the scattered observations upon the religious elements which survived from Anatolian heathendom into both Christian and Moslem observance, and adding to them others from the storehouse of his memory and his note-books, produce a volume arallel to that ‘Religion of the Semites’ which is the abiding memorial of his dead friend and ally. I have called ‘Religious Survivals’ a controversial topic. That is to put it mildly. Indeed, few anthropological topics generate so much heat. In addition to a common distaste with which one may sympathise, even if one does not share it, manifested by many reverent minds for all objective discussion of things religious, this topic challenges a certain very widespread prejudice, as irrational as it is strong—namely, the prejudice against the inclusion of orthodox religious beliefs and observances under the general maxim, ‘ There is nothing new under the sun.’ The more sacred a man holds anything the less will he believe that evolution has had anything to do with it—eyolution with its inevitable impli- cation of embryonic aid imperfect stages. The Athenian loved to think that the great patron goddess of his city sprang fully grown and fully armed from the head of the King of heaven. The devotees of all creeds have wished to he- heve that when the first founders of systems proclaimed their missions the old things passed away like a burning scroll and a wholly new earth and heaven began. Nothing is more repugnant to the ordinary orthodox Moslem than the suggestion that the Prophet borrowed theology and doctrine from earlier Semitic systems, notably the Hebraic, and that much of the ceremonial and observance now followed by the faithful in their most religious moments, those of the Meccan pilgrimage, survive from the times of ignorance. Yet what contentions are less controvertible in fact than these? The devotee can believe that every detail of a new dispensation was known from all time in heaven, but will refuse to allow that anything can have been known on earth. With that direct revelation which he thinks to have been vouchsafed at a given moment from on high, the slate of time must have been wiped clean of all previous religious thought and practice. I do not, of course, speak for one moment of the enlightened and scholarly doctors of our own creed or any other. These have always seen and often stated that the réligious systems by which they hold have assimilated much from systems of earlier date ; norin admitting that have they found their faith take any harm. How natural and compelling, however, is the prejudice in question may be estimated by the fact that it is extended to dispensations in otber fields than the religious. For example, that message to civilisation which it was given to the pagan Hellene to deliver does not admit in the view of certain devout Hellenists of the view that the Greek artistic sense had any pedigree in pre-classical times. They resent as an insolent innuendo the contention that what is essential in the Greek spirit can be detected in the work of peoples living in the Hellenic area long before the rise of classic Hellenic art, and that from these peoples and from others who possessed older civilisations the fabric of Hellenism was built up in strata, which can still be observed, and referred to their pre-Hellenic authors. So close akin is odiwm archeologicum to odium theologicum! Yet, perhaps, in this case they are really one and the same, for perfervid Hellenism is the last half-conscious protest of the Western peoples of Europe against the dominance of an Asiatic religion. Irrational is this prejudice in the first degree of course, because not only have we the clearest historical evidence that in our own religious practice, as in that of other races, details of earlier ritual and observance have survived, often by con- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 631 scious and intentional adoption, but also, as Robertson Smith well said, ‘experi- ence shows that primitive religious beliefs are practically indestructible, except by the destruction of the race in which they are ingrained,’ All apostles of rew creeds have had to preach to and gain the adherence of societies which they could not hope to lead to a perfect way all at once or even in centuries of time, and all have had to take account of pre-existing habits of religious thought and actual expressions of religious feeling, and by accepting some compromise to modify these to their purpose. And if this be obviously true of those societies which such an apostle as Mohammed could influence directly and retain under some sort of personal control, what must we say of the societies to which the truth only came at second hand or by many more degrees removed from the original prophetic utterance? What of the remote or scattered folk to whom it came not at all till after a long interval, and then faint and confused as a reverberating echo? For these at least there was no possibility of such utter change as revelation working through the human agency of a magnetic personality may have effected elsewhere ; and of their belief and their practice much, perhaps the most, has remained primeval and local, and as the physical conditions of their life have prompted it from all time to be, and prompt still. All this stratification in religious belief and practice it is the function of Anthropology to investigate ; and thereby it may render no small service to religion itself by distinguishing accidental elements in ritual and observance which have persisted from systems worn out and abandoned. But while proclaiming that this investigation is not only legitimate but necessary, I wish to-day to utter a note of warning against a certain confusion of thought which is often manifested by the investigators in this particular field, and is apt to occasion unfortunate ethical consequences or, at the best, unnecessary scandal. It finds expression in the grouping of all the elements in belief, observance, and ritual, which have persisted from earlier systems to later, under one head as religious survivals, without due account being taken of very vital differences, both in their essential nature and in the history and reason of their persistence. The word ‘survival’ itself is per accidens not a very fortunate one. Though in the broad sense perfectly appro- priate to all things that persist, it has acquired in our modern speech, largely from its use in medical science, a certain particular connotation of opprobrious import. It suggests something which has lost its useful purpose, and is effete or even dead, persisting among living organisms usually to their detriment. Such is the sense in which many anthropologists seem to use the word in speaking of religious persistences without discriminating between divers kinds of these; and such, still more often, is the connotation which their readers attach to the word in this con- nection. Yet all religious persistences are not survivals in this pathological sense —nay, the class to which this connotation is suitable includes but a small propor- tion of the whole. It is to distinguishing these classes of survivals that I propose to address myself in the remainder of the time which is allotted to me to-day. In the first place there is a most numerous and important body of religious persistences which ought not to be called survivals at all, if that word be used, as it usually is, with a causative implication; that is to say, there are elements of belief and practice whose existence in actual cult is not necessarily due at all to the fact that they, or something very closely akin, existed in a previous cult. If religion is the expression of the instinctive desire of man to find an intelligible relation between his own nature and a nature which transcends its limitations, he appears unable to establish that relation by other than a very small and definite number of conceptions; and among certain races, and indeed in certain geographical areas, those conceptions seem not to vary over immense spaces of time and under successive dispensations. The just way to regard them, therefore, is as falling within categories of thought inevitably imposed on the human mind by its humanity and necessary conditions of any religious sense whatever. Man does not form these conceptions because his predecessors formed them, nor indeed because his contemporaries hold them; but because, as an individual limited by race and environment, he cannot otherwise satisfy his religious instinct. How important this class is, and how much it includes which 632 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. has often been discussed by anthropologists under the head of religious survival, may be judged if we recall that there falls under it such an article of belief as the Incarnation of God with all its consequences of expression—the immaculate conception, atoning death, and bodily resurrection. Neither this belief nor any of its expressions, | need hardly say, make their appearance for the first time in Christianity. They are to be recognised as forms—necessary cdtegories of creed if you will—under which races of the Nearer East and of other regions of the world also have conceived the relation between the human and the divine as far back as we know anything of their history. But since anthropological knowledge concerning this delicate and difficult instance has been set forth lately in full - detail by a distinguished student of religious persistences, Mr. J. G. Frazer, in his ‘ Adonis, Attia, and Osiris,’ I feel no obligation to deal with it further than to remind you that, apart from all question whether Christian tradition states historical facts in this matter, nothing which Anthropology has collected in the way of comparative facts from other creeds serves to place either this belief or its form of expression among religious: survivals in the narrower sense—that is to say, among religious elements which appear in Christianity merely because they existed in earlier religions. Much accidental circumstance has beyond doubt attached itself to this Christian tenet from the previous cult observances and ritual of the many races which it has convinced ; and to certain of these I shall call attention presently when I come to deal with another class, more properly to be called religious survivals ; but as for the essentials of the belief, they have as much right to be regarded as independent conceptions of Christianity, despite their earlier appearance in other religions, as history proclaims them to have been endued by Christianity with a wholly new ethical significance. But in order to fortify my generalities with a particular example, I may be allowed to deal in brief detail with another, though related, religious conception of the same class, which has not been so exhaustively treated by anthropologists. As a student of Mediterranean races and a frequent observer of their actual representatives, I have often been struck by the persistent dominance of femi inity in their conception of the Divine, and equally by the distinction which that fact makes between their instinctive creeds and those of other races domiciled contiguous to them, but round an outer radius. In fact, it would not be difficult to draw a broad frontier line at a certain distance inland round the Mediterranean area from the Atlantic to the African deserts, within which a Goddess has always reigned supreme in the hearts of the unsophisticated folk, with a God occupying only a subordinate, and often demonstrably a less primeval, throne; while without it the God has been dominant and feminine divinity secondary. Within the frontier lie the peninsular and other littoral districts with a broad hinterland of mountainous or hilly regions. With the great continental plains begins the outer and contrasted circle. The predominance of a great Nature Goddess among all the races of the East Mediterranean basin in the earliest historic time is well known; and to what had been ascertained of her among the Semites, under her many names, Tanith, Al-Lat, Baalit, Ishtar, Atta, Ashtaroth—these last but variants of one appellation; among the Nilotic peoples also under many names, e.g., Neith and Isis; among the Anatolian races as the Great Mother, Kybele, Ma, and the unknown ‘ Hittite’ title; among the historic inhabitants of Greece and the Ajgean as Rhea, Artemis, Britomartis, and a score of other appellations ; among the Italic tribes, as Diana or local variants, there has been added latterly the discovery that a Goddess of character and attributes, readily to be compared with those of the Nature deity in various parts of the surrounding area, was dominant in the religion of that important artistic race which occupied the Aigean in the prehistoric age, and had so much influence on the momentous civilisation of its later time—that race which has been rescued from long oblivion by Schliemann in Greece and Troy, and by Evans and others in the Isles. The more we learn of this great Nature- or Mother-Goddess, the more primeval and predominant is the position she is seen to hold, All round the Eastern Mediterranean she was before all created things: she became the mother of a son by spontaneous generation or some other process independent of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 633 the male—an idea, it may be remarked, which presents no impossibility to the minds of very primitive races, some of whom even at this day do not connect fertilisation and conception as cause and effect. With her son she produced all life: she gave her son to the humanity so created, and humanity killed him that it might live; he revived and returned again to his mother, was again killed, and so the cycle of the seasons revolved. So far as concerns Him in all his avatars Mr. Frazer's book may be consulted. As for Her, a Woman still holds the same place in the religious belief of the old races of the same region, wherever they have escaped assimilation by conquering races and faiths from beyond the border. Hear any Greek or Italian peasant in a moment of excitement or danger. He calls on no Person of the Trinity, but on the Virgin. For him her power does not come from her Motherhood of her Son. Indeed, I have known Christian countrymen of a West Anatolian valley to whom that motherhood was evidently unknown, and when spoken of remained without interest or significance. She is a self-sufficient, independent embodiment of divinity, to whom the ruder folk of Mediterranean lands offer their prayers and pay their vows alone. She and no other is beseeched to grant increase and fertility; she and no other is credited with the highest direction of human affairs, But to say, as so often is said, that, for instance, in Greek lands the Panaghia is simply a survival of Artemis or Aphrodite under another name, is to convey a false impression. She stands for the same principle of divinity as they; she has taken on, as I shall point out presently, even the feasts and the ritual of her predecessor ; and she has often made peculiarly her own the spots especially sacred to the earlier Mother-Goddess. But, as I take it, she is not worshipped now in Ephesus or Cyprus merely because there was once a dominant cult of Artemis or Aphrodite in those places, but because to the peoples of a wide Mediterranean region it is still, as it always was, a religious necessity to embody their idea of divinity in the feminine ; and I would state the relation of the Christian Virgin-Goddess to the pagan one rather in this way—that, coming from without, she gained acceptance at once for herself, and probably also, in a great measure, gained acceptance for the whole creed with which she was connected, because she offered a possible personification of the same principle which had always been dominant in the local religion. Why that principle was so deeply rooted in the peoples of this particular region I cannot pretend precisely to say. To ascribe it, as has been suggested, to the original prevalence of Mutterrecht is probably to mistake effect for cause. The principle has its roots deeper down than even the matriarchal system. In a general way we may hold it the result of a peculiar mental concentration upon the idea of generation and reproduction of life, upon the increase of man, the brute creation, and the earth. In these processes the more obvious part played by the female in Nature inevitably tends among primitive peoples, who are com- paratively peaceful and more of agriculturists and herdsmen than warriors or hunters, to make woman seem the sole condition of their being and the pre- dominant arbiter of their destinies. More we can hardly say. We cannot determine whether there were peculiar geographical conditions in the dawn of time, which, either in some other home or in the Eastern Mediterranean region itself, predisposed the ancestors of the actual races of the latter to this cult of the reproductive force. One can but bear witness that at the present day this idea is an obsession of these inhabitants wherever they remain in a comparatively simple state of society. All their thoughts, their prayers, and their actions seem to be inspired by it, and of all their thoughts, their prayers, and their actions—so far as they have not been warped to the Father-God of the Southern Semites by the armed pressure of an alien folk from the warlike steppes of Northern Asia— Mary, the Panaghia, is the focus. ; In her essential identification with the religious sense ot these peoples, there- fore, the Virgin is no mere survival. But in an accidental or secondary sense her actual personality may, perhaps, be so regarded in the region in question if we are careful to exclude from the word all connotation of superfluity or decaying energy. Her cult may be brought under that body of beliefs, observances, and practices which have demonstrably passed from earlier religious systems to later 634 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. by processes of transference, usually unconscious, but often half-conscious, and undoubtedly in some cases wholly conscious. Where the process has been un- conscious or half-conscious these beliefs, observances, and practices have survived in the new system because the religious sense of the masses felt instinctively that they were necessary to its expression. They cannot therefore be regarded as survivals with any implication of decay or death. They were necessities under the former system; they remained necessities under the later, and may be living forces and vital expressions of the human desire for relation with the divine under the new as much as under the old. Where the process has been conscious a popular demand for their survival as necessities has been appreciated by leaders of the system, and observances and forms of ritual have been consciously taken from the old system to express a principle still active under the new. Often we are in a position to know that the old beliefs, observances, and forms did not accord with the highest ideals of the most advanced professors of the new system, and that they came to be consciously adopted by compromise in the interests of the more rapid and permanent establishment of the latter among inferior intel- ligences.. They were better than the worse, if not as good as the best. Of these Dr. Bigg is speaking in the preface to his book ‘The Church’s Task under the Roman Empire’ when he says, ‘The most significant changes in history were not imposed upon the Church by the bishops from above, but forced upon the bishops by the pressure of popular opinion from below.’ A well-known example is supplied by the early history of Islam, when the Prophet, having learned in exile at Medina, what many of his apostles have since had to learn, that the Semitic masses could not be weaned to a perfectly spiritual system, came to terms with the primeval worship of the Arabian Goddess in Mecca and displaced her personality by retaining many expressions of the popular cult of her; and, as so often has happened in similar cases of religious transference, those expressions remaining to this day the most strictly observed by Moslems, testify still to the vitality of the religious necessity which lay and lies behind them. And not only the early history of Islam, but the early history of Christianity offers instances of such conscious transference, some of which may be read of in Sir William Ramsay’s works, e.g., in ‘The Church in the Roman Empire,’ where he deals with that strange story of Glycerius the Cappadocian deacon, who broke out at a certain great gathering of Christians at Venasa, one of the holiest of the pagan high places of the land, and revived the former orgiastic form of cult by leading a band of enthusiastic maidens dancing and singing through the hills to the glory of Christ crucified. Condemned in haste by the stern Basil of Czesarea, the recalcitrant deacon found an apologist and a protector in no less saintly a priest than Gregory of Nazianzos, who knew better than his Metropolitan how real and deep a local religious instinct lay beneath this scandalous manifestation, and how much better it were to bend to the service of the Church, than to break, the religious zealots who had expressed it. Another curious collection of such transferences may be found in a recent work of Mr. Rendel Harris, which he entitled ‘The Heavenly Twins.’ Here are set out an immense number of facts and suggestions tending to show how the early Church adapted to its ends the cult of the Dioscuri or of similar twin gods known by other names both in the West and East, a cult which expressed a certain conception of the relation between human and divine, salu- tary and indeed necessary to many pagan minds. The book needs to be read in a critical spirit, for the author has been led on by the fascination of myth-inter- pretation to find his twin nature-gods wherever he turns to look for them; and often his reading of the legends is less convincing than would be (if it is allowed to use a frivolous instance in such a connection) a similar explanation applied to the story of Box and Cox—those obvious twins of Dark and Light who occu- pied, turn and turn about, their chamber, the World, under the benign influence of the landlady of the tale, a manifest Harth-Mother of mythology. Many of the undoubted transferences which took place under the Christian system cannot at this time of day be certainly distinguished into the conacious and the unconscious. We know that saints of the Church have entered often into the honour and the local habitations of pagan deities. Mr. Frazer has told us PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 635 how St. Felicita has replaced Mephitis, the heathen personification of the poisonous gas of the pool of Frigento, and how Adonis in Sicily and Sardinia lives on as St.John. These instances might be multiplied to many hundreds. We know, too, that almost all our stated ecclesiastical festivals are continuations of heathen feasts, so far as their dates and the general nature of their commemorative significance are concerned. What had to be changed has been changed, but not more, Christmas has succeeded to the festival of the winter solstice which celebrated the new birth of the Sun; Easter to the spring festival at which in many parts of the Mediterranean world the Nature-Goddess, and especially the death and resurrection of her Son, were commemorated. The Assumption of the Virgin replaces the August feast of Artemis and Diana in Greece and Italy. The anniversary of St. George, so great a day in modern Greece, seems to be the old Parilia; St. John the Baptist has taken on the heathen rites of midsummer, and you may see the folk of Smyrna, Christian and Moslem alike, jumping through fire to his honour on any St, John’s Eve. Very rarely, as in the case of the Feast of All Souls, the late Christian adoption of which in the tenth century happens to be known, can we ascribe these transferences to any definite action of a leader of the Church. Usually we know no more than that where and when there was once a pagan saint or a pagan feast there are now saints and feasts of Christianity. But no reasonable person feels that the latter are discredited or lose anything of their actual significance by the fact of their having a pre-Christian pedigree. St. John may have succeeded to Adonis, but he is not Adonis. Christmas may be the heir of the Saturnalia, but it is the Saturnalia no longer. To feel that the sanctity of either is impaired by these facts is as if one were to refuse reverence to the art-types of early Christianity, because most unqestionably these were not invented fresh and new for the new religion. Why should they have been? If there were ready to hand images in pagan art, fit to express the early Christian ideas, it would have needed a miracle for the nascent Church to have invented new ones. The human creative faculty in matters of art is strictly limited as to types. Presentations of Apollo or Orpheus were used naturally for the new Christ, and those of the Nature-Goddess of Asia with her Son for the new Mother and Child. How else should gracious maternity have been represented ? Last year I showed in this Section certain terra-cotta images of the Ephesian Goddess with her child, dated to the fourth century before Christ, which might easily have been mistaken for Madonna figures of the Italian Renaissance ; and last winter 1 saw in a newly excavated Coptic chapel of the sixth century at Memphis a fresco painting of the Virgin suckling her Son which was indistinguish- able from late representations of Isis. As a matter of fact there is little fear that anthropologists in demonstrating the fact of transference in such categories of religious expression as these with which I have just been dealing will impair their religious efficiency. For, after all, how much is there not in the everyday expression of the religious sense among ourselves which has suffered a transference in time and space so obvious that no reflective mind can be unconscious of it? Consider only the religious phraseology current among the simplest Christians—all that mass of images and ideas proper to an alien race and to the latitude and climate of the Mediterranean in which, for example, the Presbyterian of Scotland expresses the most pious of his aspirations. He sighs for the shadow of a great rock in a weary land, for the plash of running waters, for the shade of the fig and the vine; and, the most restless of men to whom all inaction is hateful, he aspires to a heaven floored with the crystal of Oriental imagery, where he shall for ever sit still. These ideas one meets at every turn, not only in the religious, but in the secular, thoughts of every Oriental or South European. Among us they appear in religion only, known for manifest exotics, but not the less full of religious significance, even to the least congruous Christian. Ere I leave this second class of Survivals let me revert again for a moment to the cult of the Virgin in the Nearer East. It is possible, even probable, that Mary, the mother of Jesus, also owes her divine, or at least semi-divine position in the Christian system to such a conscious effort by leaders of the Church as those to which we have just alluded. It is a well-known fact that neither the 636 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. primary nor the secondary authorities for the first two centuries of Christianity supply any warrant for the position which she was to hold later. They are, in fact, almost silent about her. Nor has Christian archeology discovered any better evidence of her glorification above other holy women during that time. It seems established that it was not till the third century that she began to assume semi-divinity. By the fourth her position was sufficiently exalted to cause the schism associated with the name of Nestorius, whatever the real views of that ecclesiastic may have been; but it was not till a.p. 431 that she was officially acknowledged by a General Council to be divine in virtue of her Theotokia, her Motherhood of God. It is difficult not to believe that this is one of the examples of the general fact whick I have just quoted from Dr. Bigg, and that the bishops assembled at Ephesus on that occasion were tardily conceding a demand for the recognition of the feminine principle in divinity, made ever more and more openly by the voice of the common people all round the Eastern Mediterranean. We are told indeed in a contemporary Jetter written by one present in Ephesus at the time that the populace of the city itself, that immemorial seat of a Virgin-Goddess, gathered about the church while the Council was sitting, and put pressure on the bishops when they showed signs of wavering in their decision to proclaim the Theotékos by condemning Nestorius; and that when the decree had at last gone forth the Ephesians went wild with joy. Their Great Mother had come again to her own. Once established, or, more probably, little by little while she was gaining recognition, the Christian Virgin appropriated the festival dates, the holy places, and even the rites of her predecessor. Here we approach a third class of survivals, The great August feast of Artemis, as I have said, became that of the Assumption of Our Lady; temples, groves, sacred springs, and other holy spots of Nature-worship were transferred to the new patroness of all life and fertility. There are hundreds of places in Anatolia, Greece, and Syria which might be called to testify. One of singular interest I visited a few years ago, that wild spot in the Lycian mountains where the ever-burning gaseous flames of the Chimera break out in a clearing of the forest. Here, on the foundations of a temple, stands the ruin of a church built over the largest vent of the fire, Islam has decreed that the goddess of the earth-flames be no longer openly adored, but all the bushes which grow about the ruin I found hung with mouldering rags of quite modern date, witnesses that her cult is not yet dead in the hearts of shepherds and woodmen. On the wall of a ruined convent hard by is a half-effaced fresco of Mary. And for persistent rites and ceremonies let me quote once more the anointing of the great corner- stones of the ruined shrine of Paphian Aphrodite—the ‘Queen,’ as she is called shortly in inscriptions in the old Cypriote character. This observance takes place on the Feast of the Assumption of the Virgin, to whose honour, under the name Panaghia Chrysopolitissa—the Lady of the Golden City—a church stands hard by in the precinct of the Temple. Even Moslems in Cyprus at times of stress reveal the pre-Islamic secret of their souls and bow down before the holy icon of the Virgin, painted, it is believed, by St. Luke, wafted oversea to the same Paphian shore as Venus of old, and kept by the Monastery of Kykko, to be carried in proces- sion round fields to bring rain and bless their increase, So too do they in the remoter parts of Egypt. When I was being taken over the Church of the Convent of St. Gemiana, in the marshland of the Northern Delta, I saw a woman kneeling and muttering prayers before an icon of the Virgin. It struck me she was no Copt, and I put a question to the monk who acted as guide. He shrugged his shoulders apologetically: ‘She is of the Muslamin,’ he said. ‘ Her son is very ill. Why should she not? Who knows?’ Finally, let me return to Ephesus, whose cult with its environment I have peculiar reason to know. A phenomenon has taken place there latterly which illustrates singularly well both kinds of religious transference, the conscious and the unconscious. About fifteen years ago a Catholic priest of Smyrna who had been reading Clement Brentano’s ‘ Life of the Virgin,’ which is based on visions of the German mystic Anne Catherine Emmerich, and contains the story that Mary PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 637 accompanied St. John to Ephesus, lodged in a dwelling at some distance from the city, and there died—a belief which we know from the French traveller Tournefort to have been held locally two centuries ago—identified the holy house with a ruined building, standing above a spring in the southern hills, and dedicated by the Orthodox Church to Panaghié Kapouli—Our Lady of the Gate. He succeeded in | buying the site and much ground about it, fenced it in, found the gardens which the Virgin had tended, and the path with its stations by which she had climbed daily to Calvary on the hill-top, and when I was there was sanguine of finding also her tomb. He proclaimed his discoveries far and wide and instituted two pilgrimages which now draw thousands of Catholics every year on the Wednesday in Easter week and in the octave of the Assumption. So far we are considering a conscious revival, located by a coincidence at the great Asiatic seat of the pagan Virgin Goddess. But there is a stranger coincidence of which the good priest was not conscious. The holy house stands far from all villages or haunts of men at the head of that same glen of Ortygia where we know, from Strabo and Tacitus, stood the original shrine of the great Ephesian Mother. It stands too on obviously earlier foundations, and, as I have said, over an Aghiasma, as it is called, that is, a holy spring. Indeed, very possibly it occupies the actual site of the Ortygian temple. How did this coincidence come about? On this wise. When searching the Ephesian district the Smyrniote priest asked the Orthodox peasants for places sacred to the Virgin, and was directed to this in the glen as the most holy of all. It had been, in fact, a place of pilgrimages and of intercession for the sick, for rain and fertility, and for the easy delivery of women as far back as local tradition ran. This it had been because it was Ortygia, though the villagers of Kirkinji and Arvalia knew it not. In virtue of that fact the priest appropriated it, though he never suspected the identity ; and thither the faithful flock twice a year, even less aware of, but none the less compelled by, the persistent sanctity of Ortygia. Such, then, are the religious survivals which are not survivals at all in what may be called the pathological sense, not, that is to say, elements in actual religion which have survived their utility in the system ; and such should not, I urge, be treated by anthropologists without explicit reference to the fact that they are as full of meaning, as vital, and as necessary in actual cult as ever they were. They offer not so much examples of the conservatism of religion—a much used phrase of slightly contemptuous implication—as of the identity of the religious sense through- out the life of particular races and within certain geographical areas, and of the necessary conditions and limitations of its expression. They claim all the respect and tenderness of treatment due to beliefs which still make part of the foundations of our social order, and cannot be impaired or cut away, like a pathological sur- vival, without the provision of substitutes equally efficient, Even when the tudest beliefs of primitive and simple folk are dealt with, maxima debetur pueris reverentia; and much, be it remembered, in the content of these great classes of religious persistences is concerned with the belief of folk who are by no means simple or primitive. There remains of course an immense body of religious persistences which are more or less rightly to be regarded as survivals in the ordinary pathological sense, beliefs, observances, and rites, that is, which have indeed survived from earlier religious systems, and have lost or are losing their meaning, because they express nothing necessary or vital to the religious sense. So far as this class includes beliefs at all, these are of the kind which are called superstitions, and I venture, despite the reluctance of some anthropologists to admit a definite distinc- tion between religion and superstition, to maintain that there is such a distinction, and that it is just this, that superstition includes only those beliefs which are held wholly or chiefly because they have always been held ; which are, in effect, results of earlier religious systems, or survivals in the narrower pathological sense of the word. Some religious beliefs may be survivals in the wider sense; all superstitious beliefs are survivals in the narrower sense. The most numerous content of the class, however, is composed of observances and ceremonies. These may often persist as pathological survivals in connection 638 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. with beliefs of the really religious kind. The object of cult may be a survival of the necessary and vital class, as, for example, the Virgin Mother; but the par- ticular place and manner of her worship may be conditioned by survivals of the pathologic sort. The persistence of local sanctity supplies the most obvious illus- tration of the latter kind of survival. For instance, while the consideration of many holy places of Christendom is due to events or traditions of Christian history itself, to connection with the Gospel story or with early preachers, teachers, or other saints, to reputed epiphanies, and so forth, a much greater number owe the fact that they are still frequented by the pious to reasons of which the pious have not the dimmest consciousness, often to features of pre- Christian Nature-worship—to rocks or springs, or even objects which may have perished long ago, like sacred trees, What Greek votary in the shrines of St. George or St. Elias could give a satisfactory account of either of those saints, demonstrate their place in the history of his Church, or say why their shrines stand in certain valleys or on certain peaks of the hills? We often know better than he; for we can say definitely that many of these saints of the Orthodox Church and of Islam, whose churches and tombs dot the Nearer Kast, have never died because they never lived, but are the unsubstantial shadows of old gods, clinging to the sites of shrines and groves whence their names perished long ago with the victory of the Galilean. The particularism, which communities—village, tribal, urban, and even national—display all the world over, has had, of course. much to do with local per- sistence of sanctity. A small body, blessed with a private deity of its very own for uncounted centuries, who has been identified with its particular interests, and has favoured it in its multifarious local feuds, will not readily resign it for a deity of more general jurisdiction. If it accepts the Christian Virgin in place of a pagan goddess, she will be the Virgin of that particular community, unconnected with any other Virgin, and in full sympathy with the insults which Latin peasants, for example, will heap upon the Madonna of the rival village across the valley. Indeed, an instinctive distrust of and disinclination to accept an impartial god is characteristic of all imperfect humanity, and lies beneath the sectarianism which has been promptly and continuously developed within the pale of all the great universal religions—for instance, in both Islam and Christianity. The omni- present, omniscient Deity is too far removed, too catholic, too vague. Man ever desires to focus divine attention on a smaller area, to establish for himself some preference in the eyes of his God; and, even when most anxious to bring the rest of the world into the fold, he often most jealously reserves to his own community the distinction of a Chosen People. This great and well-known class of observances and rites, which represent true pathologie religious survivals, supplies the bulk of the matter of all the great treatises written on cult by anthropologists, such as those, for example, of Mann- hardt and Bétticher on Tree-worship, as well as others to which | haye already referred, and many more. With this class the anthropologist can deal freely. In the others it seems reasonable that he should move with greater reserve; and I venture to think that he will best avoid offence if he keep clearly in his own mind, and as clearly before his readers, the main distinction between the classes of religious survivals, which, quite independently of my presentation of it, is real, vital, and of momentous significance. The following Paper was then read :— 1. Dr. Usener’s Theories concerning Sonder-Gotter and ‘ Augenblich-Gotter in his ‘Gotternamen. } By L. R. Farnety, .A., Litt.D. The Roman ‘ Indigitamenta,’ transcribed by St. Augustine from Varro, present a long list of divinities or divine potencies that presided over the manifold and ' Published in full in Anthropological Hssays presented to Hdward Burnett Tylor, p. 81. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 639 often momentary activities of man in the spheres of agricultural and domestic life, These powers are indicated ‘by no proper personal names, but by mere appellatives that are invented to express their limited function: they appear to have a very slight degree of personality, no definite relations with concrete divinities, and no continuous life, but are merely invoked at the particular moment of a certain action, Also in the record of the Greek cults we find a species of divine beings that seem to possess a similar character, such as ’ExerAatos, Etvvooros, Kvapirns, Kovporpéqos, Kad\tyévera, Mviaypos, and many others; and Dr. Usener has discovered a similar system of functional divinities designated by adjectival names in the old Lithuanian religion. A few examples have been recently gathered of cognate cult-forms among modern savage peoples. This system may be regarded as a peculiar form of animism. But Dr. Usener has coined the terms ‘Sonder-Gott’ and ‘Augenblick-Gott’ to express the character of these vague, transitory, limited divinities. Dr. Usener’s theory about these gains its chief importance from two assumptions: (a) that these are the relics, in Greece and elsewhere, of a very primitive period when the religious imagination had not yet created the concrete personal figures such as dominate Greek polytheism, but only such shadowy half-personal forms as in the ‘ Indigitamenta’; (6) that the Greek pantheon was deeply indebted to this system, since its divinities attach to them- selves and absorb many of these appellatives that once characterised independent and vaguely conceived ‘numina,’ and that now serve to express the complex individuality of a Zeus, Apollo, Demeter, &c. But a critical examination of the Greek evidence, whatever may be said of his theory when applied to other religious areas, does not support his assumptions, and he does not give due weight to the other and opposing explanation of many of these Greek appellative ‘numina’ that, e.g., Kouvporpogos, KadXiorn, EvBooia, may be creations of the personal polytheism, mere emanations of concrete divinities like Nike of Athena, coming into being owing to the accidental detachment of an epithet from a personal god or goddess. The same epithet is often applied to many anthropomorphic divinities, and his argument that, ¢.g., because Zeus, the Nether-God, and Dionysos are all called MewAiywos there must have been an aboriginal ‘ Sonder-Gott’ Me:Aiytos existing independently whom all these absorbed, has no logical force. Again, none of these Greek appellatives of ‘Sonder-Gotter’ proper appear to belong to the earliest stage of the language: Zevs is probably an earlier linguistic form than MeAiyios, and many of the assumed ‘ Sonder-Gotter,’ such as ZavOos, ‘the yellow-haired one,’ KaAXNiorn, ‘the very beautiful one,’ are not functional, and if they ever existed as independent powers in the popular imagination belong obviously as much to the anthropomorphic system as Apollo and Artemis. Etvooros, whose name is purely functional, and who was doubt- less a very early product of a peasant-agricultural religion, distinct from the ‘Olympian,’ has nothing shadowy about him, but is fitted with a very anthropo- morphic legend and personality. Finally, many of these appellative ‘Sonder- Gétter’ are provably late fictions, such as Muiaypos and Tapdéumros, and are merely created to assist the festivals of the higher personal gods, Doubtless many of the divinities of the Hellenes took over the epithets and names of those whom they dispossessed. But there is reason for believing that a strong personal religion, a pervading belief in concrete individual divinities, was brought with them by the earliest Hellenic tribes, and that this character also attached to much of the earlier religion that they found in their Mediterranean homes. Joint Discussion with Section L on Anthropometrics in Schools. See p. 704. 640 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Papers were read :— 1. Morgan’s Malayan System of Relationship! By W. H.R. Rivers, WD. Morgan’s concept of the ‘consanguine family’ as the earliest stage in the development of human society was founded on his belief in the primitiveness of the system of relationship now existing in Polynesia, The characteristic of this ‘ Malayan’ system is the very wide connotation of the terms expressive of kinship, so that relatives are denoted by one term, for whom there are several terms in the more usual forms of the classificatory system of relationship. It is unlikely that people so advanced in culture as the Polynesians should have retained the most primitive of existing methods of reckoning relationship, and there is evidence that communities elsewhere, such as the islanders of Torres Straits and the Kurnai of Australia, possess kinship systems which are in process of modification in such a way that they are coming to resemble the Malayan form, and it thus becomes highly probable that the Malayan system is a late product of change rather than the representative of a primitive stage of the human family. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that similar approaches to the Malayan form are to be found in North American tribes which show no indica- tion of forms of social organisation earlier than those of their neighbours. 2. On some new Types of Prehistoric Objects in British New Gwinea.? By C. G. Szviemann, .D., and T. A. Joycn, M.A. The specimens described fall into four classes, viz., objects of (1) obsidian, (2) stone of other kinds, (8) engraved shells, (4) pottery. All are truly prehistoric, since the natives now living in the localities in which they were found cannot say who made them, and in some cases cannot even suggest for what purpose they were used, The most striking of these finds have been made by prospectors while sinking shafts, but a single piece of worked obsidian of moderate size has been picked up on the surface of the ground of Murua (Woodlarks) ; and on Goodenough Island a long knife-like flake, which had been recently and quite roughly lasbed to the ends of two wooden spears Jaid side by side and tied together at intervals, was brought for trade. The most interesting obsidian implement is an axe or adze with a convex edge and a much- worked tang. The stone objects include a stone mortar weighing about 60 lb, and several heavy stone-pestles. All of these were found by prospectors in the neighbourhood of the Yoda Valley, in the northern division of the Possession. The engraved shells and the most remarkable of the pottery finds come from a site called Rainu, in Collingwood Bay. On cutting into a number of mounds for the urpose of levelling the site for a new village, fragments of pottery and human Hones, with a few stone adze-blades and engraved Conus shells, were found. The adze-blades are of the stone until recently used in the district, but, judging from the specimens we have handled, are on the whole lighter and less effective tools. The carving on the shells consists of spirals, rectangles, and leaf-like patterns; on one shell there is a human face, which, as far as its technique is concerned, would easily pass as a piece of work from the Papuan Gulf. The pottery found on the Rainu site is superior in make and ornament to that in use at the present day in any part of British New Guinea. This part of the find includes club-heads (‘pineapple’ and ‘emu egg’ types), the necks of pottery vessels, which, from the narrowness of their mouths and the length of their necks, formed parts of vessels which must be called bottles, and a large number of fragments of pottery bowls, 1 Published in full in Anthropological Essays presented to Edward Burnett Tylor, p. 309. ? Published in full in Anthropological Essays presented to Edward Burnett Tylor, p. 325. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 641 - the rims of which are broadened into a flange and are often ornamented with impressed or incised patterns. Applied ornament and practicable handles have been added in some instances, though in most specimens the handles are so degenerate as to be ornamental rather than useful. 3. The Anthropological Field in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. By J. W. Crowroor, The dervish rule, which worked havoc in the Northern Sudan, left the pagan black zone to the south almost untouched. In the Bahr-el-Ghazel region anthropo- logists will therefore be able to work directly upon the foundations laid by Schweinfurth and Junker; north of this, in Dar Nuba, they will find a virgin field which, though difficult to work, may yield most valuable historical results. To the east lies another district unknown until this year—-the land of the Buruns. In the Northern, or Muslim, Sudan the dervish period has completely changed the conditions. Whole tribes have been devastated, or transplanted, or mixed with black slaves or Egyptian prisoners, and written records of the past have been destroyed. The three main language groups—Nubian, Bega, and Arabic—how- ever, remain, and scientific controversy has hitherto turned upon the origin of the people using them, the most recent conclusion being that all are African in spite of their traditions. Similar debates were raised both in the Medizval and Roman periods, and the two facts of survival and invasion appear to be both established : the issue is one of degree how tar the invaders have modified their predecessors. If we apply Professor Petrie’s views upon migrations, as set forth in his Huxley Lecture,t we may state the problem thus: We should expect to find three main types—a sedentary riverain type, a sedentary maritime type, and a nomad desert type, with varieties according to latitude, variants from each being classified as recent immigrants. The solution of this problem should present no more difficulties than the solution of similar problems in Europe, for the country is healthy and the people are amenable and ready to communicate their traditions and pedigrees. As special fields in which to study the plasticity of the various types and open problems of medizval history, which must be settled before ancient history can be approached, I suggest the following :— (a) The sedentary Ababde at Daraw and in Berber. Pa (6) The families claiming Arab and Turkish origin in the district south of alfa. (c) Villages in the Shabluka cataract and on the Blue Nile claiming descent from the Anag, a medizeval people which held the Central Sudan before the last Muslim invasions. (d) The tumuli in the Bega district from Suakin to the Atbara and the Nile. When these questions have been discussed with new material, we may be able to deal with the problems raised by the exploration of Nubian temples and sites that is now beginning, 4. Notes on the Wild Tribes of the Ulu Plus, Perak.? By ¥. W. Knocker. This paper gave preliminary anthropological results of research work amongst the aborigines inhabiting the valley of the Plus in the British protected State of Perak, in the Malay Peninsula, pending further inquiries to be carried out ata future date. After referring to the difficulties of carrying out an expedition in the remote parts of a tropical jungle, the author called attention to the problem sur- rounding the wild tribes of the Ulu Plus, commented on the probability of a mixed 1 Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxvi. 1906, p. 36. 2 To be published in full in Jowrnal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 1907. a 642 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. Sakai-Semang race, and quoted evidence to support the same, though on the word of the people themselves they are a pure Sakai race. The paper then dealt with various camps separately, giving particulars of the inhabitants of each. Blowpipes and poisoned darts are not much in use, and no spears or bows and arrows were met with. Tatuing and painting of the features are practised by some, and nose-quills and necklaces of seeds and wild beasts’ teeth are also worn, Absence of religious rites and ceremonies at births, marriages, and burials seems to be general, and only very little evidence was obtained respecting super- stition of any sort. The men exhibit great reluctance in introducing their women- folk to white strangers, hence there was great difficulty in gathering much interest- ing data. Further up-stream this reticence was found to be fortunately absent. Clothing, though scanty, is of cloth, Malay dress being largely in evidence amongst the women nearer civilisation, but bark-cloth is worn by tribes further up-stream. Agriculture of only a very primitive nature is carried out, and the basis of food is the boiled or roasted root of the wild tapioca-plant. Houses are built of bamboo, bark and palm-leaves, but all the people are more or less nomadic. They are short in stature—as are the rest of the aborigines of the Malay Peninsula—reddish brown in colour, with black hair of a varied character. Their features are negroid, but with lips only moderately thick, and prognathism is almost entirely absent. They are friendly and hospitable towards strangers, and light- hearted in disposition. They call themselves ‘Sakai’ or ‘Orang Darat,’ the latter a Malay word meaning ‘countrymen,’ Senmnot, a heretofore supposed tribal name, they use as signifying ‘ person’ or ‘ people.’ Ethnological specimens of undoubted Semang origin were collected from amongst them, and the blowpipe and poison darts, when used, are all of Semang make. 5. A Study of the Conditions of the Maoris in 1907. By Miss B, Putten-Burry. This study dealt with the population, distribution, and the Government repre- sentation of the Maoris, their transitional condition, education, religion, character, and health, and concluded with a sketch of the native land question. The census of 1906 shows an increase of over 4,000 natives from that of 1901, but the increase is only apparent. The Maori enumerations prior to 1906 are in reality valueless. The last census was taken by responsible members of lately established, native village councils. The Government policy has been generous in the way of education, and with respect to the disposition of native lands, humanely con- ceived. Many regret that technical and industrial education is not included in the educational curriculum, and it is unfortunate that the present insecurity of land tenure has rendered the Maori indifferent and lazy. Individualising tribal communal lands in the Native Land Court is a slow and costly process, besides being accompanied with endless disputes on the part of the natives. Medical returns show that 22 per cent. of the diseases afflicting the Maori are pulmonary. Consanguineous and too early marriages conduce to racial deterioration. The village councils and ‘the young Maori party’ are doing much to protect, preserve, and educate the race. 6. Notes on the Ethnology of the South-west Congo Free State. By E. Torpay and T, A. Joyon, IA. The inhabitants of the south-west corner of the Congo Free State, that is, the tribes living in the territory drained by the Kwango, Kwilu, and Loange and their tributaries, are the Ba-Samba, Ba-Songo, Wa-Ngongo, Ba-Bunda, Ba-Yanzi, Ba- Yaka, Ba-Pindi, Ba-Mbala, Ba-Huana, Ba-Kwese, Ba-Lua, and Ba-Djoke (also the Hollo and Tu-Kongo, with whom this paper does not deal). 1 Published in full in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. 1907, p. 133. — TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 643 From a consideration of various ethnographical and historical points of evidence, the following conclusions with regard to the population of the district are reached :— The aborigines of the Kwilu were, in all probability, the Ba-Samba, Ba-Songo, Wa-Ngongo, and possibly the Ba-Bunda, the Ba-Yaka, extending from the Kwango to the Inzia. The Ba-Yanzi moved down from the north, occupying peacefully a country which was as yet very sparsely inhabited. The Ba-Pindi arrived next, from the upper Kwango, occupying the country from the Inzia to the Loange, and reaching as far north as 5°30 south. Almost immediately the Ba-Mbala were forced up from their home on the headwaters of the Kwengo, between the Ba-Yaka and Ba-Pindi. This movement had its origin in troubles further south, the ultimate cause being the Ba-Djoke (Kioko, Kioque, Chiboque: applying pressure to the Ba-Lua, who, in their turn, attacked the Ba-Mbala and drove them north, At the same time a tribe of Ba-Yaka revolted from their great chief and spread eastwards to the Lukula; shortly afterwards the Ba-Huana, coming from the north —probably the region of Stanley Pool—cut through the Northern Ba- Mbala, and occupied the banks of the Kwilu. Then followed the arrival of the Ba-Kwese from the Upper Kwango: these people occupied the two shores of the Upper Kwilu, pushing in between the Ba-Mbala and Ba-Pindi. Being a people amongst whom the tribal feeling is very strong, they had probably forced their way through the sterile country occupied by the Ba-Lua. They were stopped in the north by the Ba-Bunda, Ba-Pindi, and Ba-Mbala; probably their arrival was the cause of the extension of the Ba-Pindi to the Kasai, where they were” found by Wissmann. About this time a section of those Ba-Yaka already “established on the Lukula appeared to have forced their way through the Ba-Mbala east- wards, crossing the Kwilu somewhere near the present site of Michakila, fighting the Ba-Mbala, Ba-Pindi, and Ba-Huana. Further fighting resulted in the Ba-Pindi, who in this neighbourhood are very warlike, cutting off the eastern section of Ba-Yaka, which now appears as an enclave, The section of the country in the extreme north of the Southern Ba- Mbala territory seems to have belonged at no very remote date to. the last-men- tioned branch of the Ba-Yaka. i The enclave of Ba-Huana to the west of the main body seems to have been formed at the same time, and as a result of the same troubles, In fact, the mouth of me Kwengo appears to have been at this period the focus of deadly inter-tribal strife. Then followed the later movements of the Ba-Kwese (related in detail in a section dealing with that people) which resulted in theirabandoning the right bank of the Kwilu, succeeded by the driving back of the Ba-Djoke, who had meanwhile penetrated as far north as the sixth degree of S. latitude, and the laying waste of the strip of territory which now separates them from the Ba-Lua and Ba-Pindi, 7. Considerations on the Origin of Totemism. By G. UL. Gomme, F.S.A, Totemism must have arisen from conditions of human life which were universal. These conditions are supplied by the migrations by which man had spread all over the world. Migrations left the sexes differently constituted, the male being the moving element, the female the stationary element. Women in this way became more intimately associated with friendly animals, plants, and trees, and looked to them for food and protective power rather than to the males. This produced a sex-cleavage. Women influenced the totem names given to children, of which the Arunta system in Australia and the Semang system in the Malay Peninsula may be taken as instances, Natural exogamy arises from difference in totems between the fathers and the mothers. Totemism began as an artificial association of groups of people, and was not based on a kinship society. TT2 644 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 8. Iranian Tribes of the Ottoman Empire. By Marx Syxzs. 9. Egyptian Soul-houses and other Discoveries, 1907.1 By Professor W. M. FuinpErs Petrig, 2.2.8. 10. The Excavations at Deir-cl-Bahari. By Professor E, NAvinue. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. The Beginnings of Iron. By Professor Ripceway, J.A., Litt.D. Formerly it was generally believed that iron was the gift of Africa to mankind, and, if not of Afriva, most certainly of Asia. Modern research has shown that Egypt did not use iron until about 800 B.c., that the Libyans were not using it in 480 B.c., and that the Semitic peoples did not use it from a remote past, but that they borrowed it comparatively late. I urged in 1896 and in 1902 that Central Europe was the true centre of the use of iron as a metal, and that it was first diffused from Noricum. At Hallstatt iron was seen coming into use first to decorate bronze, then to form the edge of cutting implements; next it gradually replaced bronze weapons, and finally took new forms of its own. Everywhere else iron as a metal came into use per saltum. Man probably found it ready smelted by Nature, as the Eskimo discovered it at Regent’s Bay and at Ovifak. Some still imagine that it was used very early in Egypt, because its name occurs in early documents ; but this is readily explained, since hematite was known and used very early in Egypt, and the same material was used very commonly in the Aigean long before the Bronze Age. But it was treated not as a metal to be smelted, but as a stone to be ground into axes and beads. The Egyptians thus knew the mineral and had a name for it, which they continued to employ when they had learned its use as a metal from Europe. Others also cling to the belief that iron was worked in Central Africa from a remote time. But in Uganda, which was in touch with Egypt by means of the great lakes and the Nile, iron, as I am informed by the Rev. J. Roscoe, became first known in the reign of a king about nineteen reigns back (about five hundred or four hundred years ago). This renders it very unlikely that the metal was worked until very late in Central Africa. It is certain that the peoples beyond the Caspian, as well as those along the Indian Ocean, did not use iron till quite late; that India herself did not know it at an early date; and that Japan only got it about 4.v. 700; yet some still imagine that it must have been known to the Chinese from remote antiquity. But the earliest mention of iron in Chinese literature is about 400 8.c., whilst a bronze sword belonging to Canon Greenwell has an inscription read by Professor Giles which dates it between 247 B.c. and 220 B.c. There is evidence that bronze swords were being used till a.p. 100, and that it was only then that iron swords were coming in. It is now clear that the use of iron as a metal is due to Central Europe, 2. The Sigynne of Herodotus: a Problem of the Early Iron Age.? By Professor J. L. Myres, J/.A. Herodotus® describes the Sigynnee as a people who live mainly north of the Ister (Danube), but extend nearly to the head of the Adriatic, ‘near the Veneti.’ They wear ‘ Median dress,’ 7.e., trousers,* and drive (but do not ride) small shaggy 1 Published in Man, 1907. 2 Published in full in Anthropological Essays presented to Edward Burnett Tylor, p. 255, vy, 9. 4 Cf. Herodotus, v. 49. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 6445 ponies. The ‘Ligurians up country from Marseilles’ apply the name ‘ Sigynne ’ to their pedlars, and the men of Cyprus to their spears. The last-named use of the word is confirmed by Aristotle,' and by an ancient commentator on Plato, 384, who describes this Cypriote spear as a ‘throwing-spear wholly made of iron,’ Such spears have been found in Cypriote sites of the Hellenic Aye. ‘Their close resemblance to the Roman legionary pilwm cannot be due to direct imitation, for the Cypriote examples are earlier than the period when Rome reached Cyprus. On the other hand, a very similar weapon, the ge@swm (which Hesychius describes as a ‘spear like a spit, wholly of iron,’ and which Athenzeus states that the Romans borrowed later from the Celtiberiaus of Spain® in the first half of the second century B.c.) became known to the Romans in the latter part of the third century B.C. through the invasion of the Po valley by the Transalpine Gesate. The home of the latter was certainly within the region within which was developed the La Tene phase of Karly Iron Age culture; and both the earlier La Téne culture, and the later Hallstatt phases which preceded it, show great experimental freedom in the modelling of their spear-heads, and close approximation to the pilum type of weapon. i view of the Herodotean description of ‘Sigynne’ as carrying on retail trade as far west as the hinterland of Marseilles, the suggestion is made that the Celtiberian prototype of the Roman gesum is itself a western offshoot of the same iron culture as gave rise to the transalpine gesum. Copious iron-workings have been studied by Quiquerez on the slopes of the Jura within site of La Téne and the other Swiss sites of that series; and the name of the Sigynnee itself seems to survive in that of the Seguani, who still occupied the Jura and its neighbourhood in the first century B.c. That sections of the Sigynne moved similarly eastward is suggested by the recurrence of their name on the lower Danube ° and in Caucasus,‘ in both cases associated with ‘ Median dress’ and with the same shaggy ponies. In Caucasus they inhabit a region characterised by a notable offshoot of the same early Tron Age culture as that of the Hallstatt region, An intermediate link is supplied (1) by the repetition of the name of the ’Eneti or Veneti in Homeric times in N.W. Asia Minor; (2) by the survival, in N.E. Asia Minor, of a notable iron culture among the folk whom the Greeks knew as the Chalybes. The suggestion is therefore made that Herodotus may be right in recording the same name ‘Sigynnie’ as applied to the similar ‘throwing-spear wholly made of iron’ which characterised the Iron Age culture of Cyprus in early Hellenic times, more particularly as Cyprus preserves also a peculiar type of iron sword and a group of types of fibulee which only find parallel in the Italo-Hallstatt region, 3. An Account of some Souterrains in Ulster. By Mrs. Mary Hoxson. The souterrains described are for the most part situated in the two counties of Antrim and Down, The muterials are rough, undressed field stones, no mortar being used. The buildings display great diversity in plan, some being merely oblong chambers and long passages; others crescent-shaped, some resembling the letter F, the same letter without the middle stroke (F), an inflated stocking, an uneven capital W, &c., and some are circular. Greater variety of construction occurs in Antrim than in Down. In the former, two described were scooped out of basaltic ash; in others, rocks in situ were used and filled in artificially ; in some, tunnelling had been done in harder rock. The entrances are small, but the tiny doorways between one chamber and another are even of more diminutive dimensions—great numbers: being too small to admit the average-sized man—a person having to lie down flat in order to get through, and even then the width will not allow other than the shoulders of a woman or boy to pass through, Tradition assigns the souterrains and the raths in which so many of them 1 Poetics, 21. ? Athenzus, vi. 273. % Apollonius Rhodius, iv, 320. * Strabo, p. 520. 646 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. occur to the ‘ fairies,’ the ‘good people, the ‘ Danes’—-and by the latter is meant the Tuatha da Danaan, who are said to have lived in Ireland before the Celts. This race is always described as a small people. It seems impossible that any but a small people could have built and used the souterrains. The souterrains in Co. Down run to a greater length than those of Co. Antrim ; many are over 100 feet. Ardtole is 108 feet long, Rathmullan 120 fe+t, Slieve-na- Boley 128 feet. Heights of chambers vary from less than 3 feet to 6 feet and even 8 feet, but it is more usual to find them about 5 feet. The heights of the chambers of one at Shankbridge are as follows: first chamber, 3 feet 9 inches; second chamber, 4 feet 6 inches; the last about 3 feet, one of the ‘doorways’ being 17 inches square. At Donegore and Ballymartin, in Antrim, are two caves scooped out of basalt ash. The former is 29 feet 3 inches long; the latter has a total length of 44 feet 6 inches. The stones which form the roof are very large. Their preserva- tion in such numbers can be accounted for partly by being underground, but chiefly by the superstitious reverence with which they have always been regarded. The structures are quite dark, of an even temperature, usually very near the surface, which accounts for many being accidentally discovered, the plough often displacing one of the covering stones. They are not oriented, yet few entrances can be successfully photographed during the middle of the day, and, in addition, they are so cunningly constructed and concealed as to be, in most cases, very difficult to find. In these counties the roofing stones are very large, while further south occurs a circular type, with overlapping courses and closed with a single stone, as in some of the tumuli, both sorts determined, no doubt, by the matenals lying close to hand. Very frequently a variety of monuments of early man are found in the vicinity—standing stones, cromleacs, kistvaens, and occasionally kitchen-middens. The only Ogam inscription found in Ulster was discovered in a souterrain at Carncomb, Connor, by the Rev. W. P. Carmody, B.A. Detailed measurements were given, with plans, of the following: Knockdhu, Cullybackey, Tannybrack, Fort Hill, Lisnataylor Fort, Crebilly, Shankbridge, Fort of Ross, Muckamore, Donegore, Ballymartin—all in Antrim; and Bally- grainey, Backaderry, Clanmagery, Slanes, Lough Boley, in Down, &c., and one at Lucan, in Co. Dublin, 4. Some Objects recently found in York referable to the Viking Period. By G. A. AuprEn, I/.A., UD. During the autumn of 1906 excavations for building purposes in the city of York, a few yards from the left bank of the Ouse, have revealed a number of objects which may with certainty be referred to the Viking period. The area in question is situate at the junction of Nessgate and Coppergate, and contiguous to the site in which a large number of objects, dating from the Scandinavian occupation, were found during excavations for the Public Library and Friends’ Meeting House in 1884. Several objects are enumerated which have not been previously reported in England, and amongst these the chief interest centres in a brass chape of a sword scabbard, exhibiting an open zodmorphic interlacing design terminating in a conventionalised animal head which attached the chape to the material of the scabbard. The zodmorphic motif is further illustrated by several portions of contempo- raneous stonework which have been found from time to time in York. A consensus of opinion upon the objects described attributes them to the first half of the tenth century—a period which saw the Scandinavian power in York rise to its zenith, 1 Published in full in Ann. Rep. York. Phil. Soc, 1906-7. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 647 5. Report on the Age of Stone Circles.—See Reports, p. 368. 6. Ninth Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury.—See Reports, p. 392. 7. The Dances of British New Guinea. By Dr. C. G. SELIGMANN. 8. Religion and Custom in the South Seas. By O, BAINBRIDGE. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. The following Report and Papers were read :— 1. Report on Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete. See Reports, p. 391. 2. Excavations at Sparta in 1907. By R. M. Dawkins, IA. The work of this second season comprised (1) the further excavation of the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, (2) the partial excavation of the sanctuary of Athena Chalkioikos, and (8) the tracing of the course of the city wall. (1) The buildings of the Orthia site are at a temple built probably in the sixth century B.C., and lasting on until the third century 4.D., although rebuilt during the Hellenistic period. Secondly, a Roman theatre, built at the end of the second or beginning of the third century a.D., in which the fagade of the temple was included, occupying the position of the stage building. The Roman theatre has now been completely cleared. In the arena or orchestral area were found the remains of the altar, built at the same Roman period as the theatre itself. Beneath this altar were blocks that belonged to the altar of Hellenistic times, and in con- nection with them a deposit of burned refuse from sacrifices and some late Greek sherds and terra-cottas, More than a metre below the Hellenistic level a deposit of archaic Greek objects was reached: this has now been cleared down to solid earth all over the arena and inside the temple. Above the archaic deposit was a layer of sand which had been brought from the river to raise the level when the temple was built—probably, to judge from the objects found in the sand, about the middle of the sixth century B.c. The deposit below the sand is in parts as much as a metre thick, and ranges in time from the eighth, or possibly the ninth, century to the middle of the sixth century B.c, Very near the bottom of this structure is a cobble pavement on which stands a large altar built of stones in regular courses. This altar is directly below the Hellenistic and Roman altars. The temple that existed contemporaneously with this altar has not yet been found, but there are indications that its remains are below the foundations of the Roman building The archaic altar was surrounded by a mass of burnt matter, amongst which were a quantity of fragments of burnt bones. The archaic deposit contained a great quantity of small objects and pottery. It was dug in layers, with the result that at the lowest levels no pottery except ‘geometric’ was found; above this ‘geometric’ was mixed with ‘ Protocorinthian’ and a ware akin to ‘Corinthian, whilst at the highest levels nothing but this last kind occurred. With the pottery were found a large number of small bronzes, pins, fibule and animals, lead figurines, and carved ivories. These latter were either small figures of animals or men in the round, seals with devices cut in intaglio, or plaques with scenes carved on them in relief, Many, if not all, of these plaques were fastened by bronze. 648 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. rivets on to the front of fibule. The subjects represented on them comprise male, or female, winged figures grasping birds, a warrior stabbing a .gorgon, a dead man on a bier, a ship with full rigging and crew, sphinxes, a man on horseback, and others. Jewellery, engraved gems, terra-cotta figurines, some representing prob- ably the image of the goddess, fragments of terra-cotta masks, and other objects were also found. The occurrence of amber, in view of the northern origin of the Dorians and its rarity on classical sites, is of great interest. Thus the cult of Orthia began in the earliest times with a large altar. This altar was covered up when the temple corresponding to it was destroyed in the sixth century and a new temple built a little way off. In Hellenistic times this temple was rebuilt, but lasted on, on the same site, until the end of paganism. Under the late empire it was surrounded by a theatre, from which the rites per- formed in front of it could be conveniently witnessed. The altar always was in the same place, which it occupied with ever-rising level for at least 1100 years. (2) The sanctuary of Athena Chalkioikos was found behind the theatre on the Acropolis Hill. A mass of geometric pottery shows that this sanctuary also goes back to a very early period. The building itself was much destroyed, but the finds were important. A very fine Panathenaic amphora, bronze statuettes, and a large archaic inscription were found. (3) The work of tracing the course of the ancient city wall was continued. This has again been done largely by the discovery of tiles stamped with the infor- mation that they were public tiles used for the walls. The name of the tyrant Nabis found on some of them connects the building of the wall with him. Ina few places the actual wall has been found with remains of towers. In looking for the Agora some Hellenistic tombs were found, well built of ashlar, and containing vases and discs of stout gold-leaf chased with patterns of wreaths and flying birds. The other members of the expedition were Messrs. G, Dickins, J. P. Droop, H. J. W. Tillyard, A. J. B. Wace, and A. Woodward. The architectural draw- ing was undertaken by Mr. George, and the survey work by Mr. W. Sejk. 3. Artemis Orthia and the Scourging Festival at Sparta. By Professor R. C. Bosanquer, I/.A., F.S.A. The excavations of the British School at Sparta have shown that the altar in the precinct of Artemis Orthia beside the Eurotas occupied the same position for more than a thousand years. This was the altar before which the Spartan youths were scourged, and from it the youth who outdid all others took the title of Bomonikes, or Victor at the Altar. It has always been assumed that this custom, described in detail by Roman writers, was a survival from the days of Spartan independence. Recent writers have compared it with the ordeals which, among primitive peoples, are sometimes imposed upon lads as an initiation into the privileges of manhood. But an examination of the passages relating to the custom shows that it did not take shape until after the decline of the Lacedzemonian State. (1) In the fourth century B.c., when we have the first mention of whipping in connection with the sanctuary of Orthia, a rough game was played there in which the young Spartans had to snatch cheeses (no doubt the offerings at a festival) from the altar, while others armed with whips tried to beat them off. The element of passive endurance, so characteristic of the later ordeal, is entirely wanting. (2) This game may have been developed out of a custom, for which there are many parallels, of the lads striking one another for luck with boughs cut from the sacred tree, the Agnus Castus, which grew in the river bed, and under which the image of the goddess had been discovered. (8) In the latter part of the third and first half of the second centuries B.c. there was a complete break in Spartan traditions. Revolutions, proscriptions, and other internal disorders alternated with disastrous campaigns. Upon the restora- tion of the Spartan constitution under Roman protection, there was an artificial TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 649 revival of the old discipline. Sparta nolonger had an army, and the training of the boys in manly virtues became an end in itself, pursued—as the inscriptions found at Sparta attest—in a curiously antiquarian spirit. (4) From the first century B.c. onwards the scourging of the lads appears to have been a regular competitive examination, conducted under rigid rules at an annual festival, before crowds of spectators. It was called the Contest of Endurance, or simply the Scourges. The winner was the lad who bore the greatest number of blows without sound or movement, and the emulation of the boys, and even of their parents, led to protracted contests in which a competitor sometimes expired under the lash. (5) The theatre recently excavated by the British School at Athens was built soon after A.D. 200 round about the altar and temple to accommodate the visitors who flocked to the festival. It was maintained far into the fourth century. (6) It follows that the cruel scourgings described by Cicero, Plutarch, and many other writers were a late perversion of the old Spartan discipline grafted on a traditional recollection of the rough game of running the gauntlet mentioned by Xenophon. A false idea of the antiquity of the custom has coloured the views of Roman and recent writers on the cult of Orthia. At Sparta, as elsewhere, Artemis seems to have been worshipped, on the one hand, as the goddess of fertility, therefore as protectress of women and children; and on the other as mistress of mountains and woods and the wild life in them, and so as protectress of man, first in the chase and then also in war. The evidence of the archaic strata suggests intimate relations with Ionia, perhaps especially with Ephesus, where ivories of very similar character have veen found, 4. Door-step Art: a Traditional Folk Art. (i) The Art Relations. By F. H. NEwBery, The early scribblings of children, though apparently meaningless, may be shown to be instinctive art products. As development, physical and mental, pro- ceeds, the drawings become more purposeful and regulated, and forms are evolved that come under the heading of applied art. Jlustrations of such forms occur in many of the historic styles of ornament, notably in primitive and savage art, and the whole region of ‘ door-step’ art is filled with the designs and application of geometrical patterns and drawings created in this stage of artistic evolution. Patterns are produced in infinite variety, and are used chiefly to decorate door- steps, hearths, and the borders of rooms, (ii) Some Remarks on its Anthropological Bearings. By T. H. Brycn, M.D. The designs of the numerous examples of ‘ door-step’ art which have been col- lected are traditional in character, being handed down from generation to genera- tion. They are purely geometrical and conventional. There is no zodmorphic motive, and very rarely any attempt to represent natural vegetable forms. The art is practised entirely by women, and is entirely independent of any outside influence. The question arises whether the designs are, as Mr. Newbery interprets them, the expression of primitive art-instinct, or whether they are a survival. In any case it is very desirable that attention should be directed to the existence in this country of such primitive, untaught folk-designs, so that some adequate col- lection of examples may be formed before the art of the Board School kills the spontaneity of the designs. 5. The Origin of the Crescent as a Muhammadan Badge. By Professor W. Rincrway, J.A. Primitive peoples are in the habit of wearing as an amulet the claws or tusks of the most powerful and dangerous animals, In time these claws were placed 650 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. base to base, and the crescent form resulted. The Muhammadan, therefore, adopted a pre-existing symbol, and the connection of the crescent with the moon is a later development. 6. Note on the Ethnography of Sardinia. By T. Asupy, D.Litt., F.S.A. The opinions expressed by Dr. Mackenzie and myself last year in our Note on the Ethnology of Sardinia’ have only been contirmed by a subsequent visit to the island paid by myself and Mr. J. ff. Baker-Penoyre in March last. It would seem that there is an opportunity for ethnographical research, con- ducted by scholars who have experience of the problems which present themselves in the Eastern Mediterranean with regard to the ethnological affinities of the earliest inhabitants, and with which members of the British School at Athens have been, in recent years, especially occupied. Nor would it be well to lose sight of the fact that the prehistoric remains of the British Isles may supply important parallels. This comparative work the British School at Rome hopes to be able to undertake in the near future. 7. The Work of the British School at Rome during the Session 1906-1907. — By T. Asusy, D.Liti., FSA, The forthcoming volume of the ‘ Papers of the British School at Rome’ will include: A paper by Mr. 8. J. A. Churchill, H.B.M.’s Consul at Palermo, on ‘The Goldsmiths of Rome under the Papal Authority : their Statutes hitherto discovered, and a Bibliography ’; another by Mr. A. J. B. Wace on ‘ Roman Historical Reliefs’ ; another by Mr. A -H. 8. Yeames on ‘ An Ivory Statuette in the British Museum’; another on ‘ The Prehistoric Civilisation of Southern Italy,’ by Mr. T. E. Peet; and the first portion of a paper on ‘ The Via Latina,’ by the Director (Dr. T. Ashby). This last forms the first part of the third section of the ‘Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna,’ which is in course of publication in the ‘ Papers’ of the School. The Via Latina is one of the earliest (perhaps the very earliest) of the ancient roads radiating from Rome; and though the determination of the course taken by it preseuts no difficulty, the remains which have been discovered, and which still exist along its course, are of very great interest and importance. The School has also been actively engaged in the preparation of the first part of the Catalogue of Sculpture of the Municipal Museums of Rome: in this the Assistant Director, Mr. A. M. Daniel, and Mrs. Daniel have been especially occupied. The work is under the general editorship of Mr Stuart Jones, ex- Director of the School; and it is hoped that the first part, dealing with the Capitoline Museum, may be sent to press fairly early in the year 1908, 8. The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation.? By Professor Epwarp Navitie. Who were the Egyptians? Were they anative race born in the country which they inhabited, or did they come from abroad as immigrants? Were they a mixed population, and if so, can we distinguish the various elements which formed the Egyptian nation ? The excavations made during the last twenty years by Prof. Petrie, Mr. Anélineau, Mr. de Morgan, and others have revealed to us that the primitive Egyptians presented the same characteristics as the white races which have been established from all antiquity in North Africa, and that their degree of culture had not gone beyond the Stone Age. The knowledge we have of these Egyptian aborigines, and of their civilisation, is 1 Report for 1906, p. 701. * Published in full in Journ. Royal Anthrop. Institute, xxxvii. 1907, p. 201. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 651 derived from the contents of the so-called prehistoric tombs, a great number of which contain deceased in the so-called embryonic posture, which is nothing but the sitting posture described by Herodotus as being customary with the African population of the Nasamonians. The name ‘ prehistoric ’ must not be taken strictly in its chronological sense, since it is proved that the civilisation which these tombs represent lasted late in historical times. It should be replaced by the word ‘ native’ or rather ‘ African,’ it being well understood that ‘ African’ does not mean ‘ negro.’ From the pictures cf the vases we gather that the primitive Egyptians lived in huts placed on mounds. These huts were surrounded by enclosures in order to shelter the inhabitants from wild animals. At the side is a standard bearing the totem or the god of the village. The men living in those huts are hunters armed with bows and spears; their animals are those of the desert—ostriches, antelopes, gazelles. They do not seem to have been agriculturists ; the absence of cattle and domestic animals is very striking. Boats with sails are seen occasion- ally, showing that they practised navigation and fishing. Their physical type is decidedly not negro, though some anthropologists admit, a negroid influence. They seem connected with the African natives called in the Egyptian inscriptions Jamahu and Jehennu, which originally extended further south than at the time of the Pharaohs. Wehave no reasons to dispute the native character of those Africans. Their civilisation, which is entirely determined by the nature of the soil and by the climate, is decidedly of African growth. The name of the prehistoric Egyptians is the dnw, whom we find on theUpper Nile in Egypt, where they have left their name to An, Heliopolis, one of the oldest cities of the kingdom, and even in Sinai, The Anu are not foreign invaders ; they are, on the contrary, the native stock which has been subdued by foreign conquerors. The invasion took place in prehistoric times. With it appears the hiero. glyphic writing. We see the invaders calling their kings ‘ falcons,’ the symbol of the god Horus. They are the tribe of Horus coming from South Arabia, from the Asiatic land of Punt. The Egyptian sculptures show us only the African Punt, which must have been between Massowah and Somaliland. Its inhabitants are of the same race as the Egyptians. They, are not Semites; they belong to the Hamitic stock. The Arabian origin of the Egyptians is stated by several classical writers. The conquerors must have crossed the Red Sea somewhere near Massowah; they stopped some time on the Upper Nile before they settled finally below the Cataracts, The traditions of the old Egyptians also point to their coming from the South. The victory of the tribe of Horus or the native stock was commemorated by a festival called the ‘ festival of striking the Anu,’ which was celebrated as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty. The movements of the first dynasties give us an idea of the civilisation of the invaders, As soon as they appear, we see domestic animals, not imported, but derived from the indigenous fauna, such as the bull, the sheep, the ass. They were domesticated by the new-comers. On the whole, civilisation seems to have grown entirely in the last settlement of the invaders. They adopted and improved the rudimentary culture of the natives, in whom they infused their more progressive and active spirit. There is one art only which they must have brought from abroad, metallurgy, and in fact the legends speak of the blacksmiths who were the companions of Horus. They prob- ably brought from the Upper Nile the papyrus. As for the vine, it may have come from Africa. The first historical king was Menes, who is said to have done a great deal to civilise his subjects. He united under his rule the various tribes inhabiting the country. But he did not destroy their totems or local divinities, which became the great gods of the provinces or nomes. As conquerors and conquered belonged to the same race, and as there was no religious feud between them, they very soon amalgamated completely and formed one nation, the Egyptians. An interesting religious object of the conquerors are the large slate palettes in 652 -TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. the middle of which is a round depression. ‘This depression contained an aniconic representation of a god—what Quintus Curtius calls an ‘ umbilicus "—which was preserved in the oasis of Jupiter Ammon, ; In conclusion, the Egyptians are a nation formed by an indigenous stock of Hamite African origin, among which settled conquerors from Arabia, who were also Hamites, coming from the same starting-point as some of the Chaldeans. The dawn of Egyptian culture is a distinct proof of the great part played by Africa in the history of human civilisation, and supports the idea recently put forward that Aigeean culture came from the South. 9. Recent Explorations in Asia Minor and North Syria. By Professor J. GARSTANG. The expedition organised by the University of Liverpool visited Boghaz Kein and Euyuk, and obtained photographs of the sculptures, &c. Thence by Cxsarea to Cilician Gates and North Syria, discovering numerous Greek with some new Hittite and one Phrygian inscriptions, A large sculptured eagle standing on three lions on the banks of the Halys was also discovered. WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 7. The following Reports and Papers were read :— 1. Interim Report on Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain. See Reports, p. 400. 2. The Six Races of Mankind: their Mental Capabilities and Political and Commercial Tendencies. By T. E. Smurrawalirte. The method of determining racial stocks in mixed races is chiefly by the cephalic index and facial contour, and these contours are only modifications of geometrical figures. The different changes in the types of facial contours are due partly to natural alterations and in part to intermarriage. The result of intermixture is shown in the shortening or lengthening of the cranial vault. The result of a careful comparison of facial contours and cephalic indices of the same persons show the merging of long types into the medium and even short-headed indices, and, on the contrary, the brachycephali gradually pass through the mesocephali into the dolichocephali. Longheaded Types.—The Iberian facial contour is oval, egg- shaped, or somewhat lozenge-shaped, the contour of skull oval. The Teutonic facial contour is oblong or keystone-shaped, the skull contour oblong. Broad- headed Types—The Remian: facial contour conical, pear-shaped or wedge- shaped; skull contour somewhat pear-shaped. The Ligurian: facial contour pentagonal or five-pointed ; skull contour squarish. The Magian : facial contour round or roundish; skull contour roundish. The Celtic: facial contour square or squarish; skull contour squarish. We find on close examination that each race shows distinct and different mental capabilities. An attempt has been made to differentiate the psychological phenomena which characterise the mental capa- bilities, political ideals, productive and commercial tendencies of each race. 3. Haucavations at Caerwent 1906-1907. By T. Asupy, D.Litt, F.S.A. The excavations of 1906 were mainly devoted to the investigation of a large house (numbered house No. VII. N) in the northern part of the city. This building — had been twice reconstructed, and it was often no easy matter to determine to TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 653 which of the three periods a given wall should be assigned. In all its stages its plan was that characteristic of the larger houses at Caerwent, z.e., it had rooms round all the four sides of the central courtyard. In this yard a well was dis- covered ; samples of the mud were taken from the bottom (21 feet 6 inches below grass level) and, as before, examined for plant remains and small animal re- mains by Mr. A. H. Lyell, the seeds being submitted to Mr. Clement Reid, and the bones, &c., to Mr. E. T. Newton. The only novelty among the former was the sorrel (Rumewx acetosa), the other species found haying already occurred at Caerwent. Another sample, taken from a pit at a depth of 19 feet below grass level, pro- duced a sample of the raspberry (Rubus Ideus), which is another species new to Caerwent. A very remarkable discovery was made in one of the rooms on the south side of this house. A large grey pot was found standing upright, sunk in a hole in the concrete floor of the room: it was covered by a mortarium, which had apparently been cemented on, and contained two smaller pear-shaped black pots and three red bowls, one with white painted decorations; also a pewter bowl with a foot, and fragments of another similar vessel, and an iron hook. In the larger of the two pear-shaped pots were some pieces of fabric; but though the earth found in the large pot was carefully examined, no clue could be obtained to the object of this strange deposit. Work was also done on the mound on the north side of the city, but, as it is to be continued in the present year, it will be better to defer a report upon it till then. The excavations of 1807 have led to the discovery of the Forum and Basilica of Caerwent. They occupy the more sunny of the two central insule, that on the north of the high road. On the edge of this are remains of what may have been a monu- mental gateway: this leads into the open area of the Forum, on the east side of which we have found traces of taberne. On the north side of this space is the Basilica ; the total extent of the building (including the rooms attached to it) is 176 feet from east to west and 104 feet from north to south. The existence of a continuous flight of steps along the south front leads us to suppose that there were arcades all along. The aisles are about 13 feet wide and the nave 25 feet wide; the walls dividing them are 5 feet 4 inches wide. They are constructed of tiles—partly of broken flanged tiles—upon which were laid sand- stone slabs which carried the columns, but which have disintegrated or been carried away for building material. A drum of one of the columns is nearly 3 feet in diameter, and fragments of Corinthian capitals, very like those of the Basilica at Silchester, have been found. At the east end of the south aisle is a doorway leading into the street, and at the east end of the nave is a chamber heated by a hypocaust, and approached from the nave by broad steps, probably the Curia. To the north of the Basilicais a range of rooms to which belong those described as a portion of house No. XVI. N in our last report (‘ Archeologia’ Ix. p. 128). The west termination of the Basilica lies under a garden, and has not yet been attacked. To the north of this block of buildings is a road along the south side of which we have traced the course of a line of wooden pipes—for a water-supply, no doubt. To the north of this road, in the courtyard of a house, another well, 17 feet deep, has been found, and samples of mud taken for examination. 4, Some Sociological Definitions. By W. H. R. Rivers, ID. Anthropology has now reached a stage in its development in which it has become imperative that its technical terms should acquire definite meanings, and some kind of collective action is necessary to do what is possible towards obtain- ing general agreement in the use of such terms. The following are to be regarded merely as suggestions for the use of any body which may undertake the task of 6d4 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. defining terms on the sociological side of anthropology. I will begin with the terms for the different divisions of society. Tribe.—A group of a simple kind occupying a circumscribed area which has a common language, common government, and common action in warfare, &c. The words ‘ of a simple kind’ are inserted in order to distinguish the tribe from the nation. Sept.—The social group for which there is at present the greatest diversity of nomenclature is the exogamous section of a tribe, the chief terms in use being clan, gens, sept, and totem-kin, The last term is open to the objection that there is no difference from the social point of view between a section of a tribe which takes its name from a totem, and one which has a designation of some other kind. The term clan is perhaps the most widely used, but is rejected by some, and it will probably be least disturbing to adopt the term sept, which cannot be said at present to have any definitely recognised meaning. Phratry.—A. division of a tribe larger than the sept, as in North America, including two or more septs (though it may sometimes happen that, owing to the disappearance of septs, a phratry may have only one sept). Moiety—When there are only two phratries, and they are exogamous, so that a member of one division must marry a member of the other, the divisions may be called moteties. Class.—This term should be limited to the matrimonial classes of the Austra- lians, or to any similar groups which may be found elsewhere. Caste.—This is not always easy to distinguish from the tribe even in India, but it may be defined as a section of a larger community which stands in definite relations to other similar sections, which usually has an occupational basis and a definite rule of endogamy. Family.—This term should be limited to the group consisting of parents and children, The term ‘extended family’ may be used for a group of persons descended from the same grandfather or grandmother or more distant progenitor (i.e., where the descent can be demonstrated genealogically and is not mythical, as is often the case with the sept). Occasionally the sept and the extended family may correspond to one another. Kin and Kinship.—These terms should be limited to the relationship set up by ties of blood which can be demonstrated genealogically. Sib and Sibship.—The old word stb may be used for the relationship set up by membership of the sept. Terms connected with Marriage and Descent. Those suggested by Mr. Thomas in his ‘Kinship Organisations and Group Marriage in Australia’ may be adopted, with possibly the modification that the supplementary unions which make it necessary to distinguish between similar and dissimilar polyandry and polygyny might be separated from marriage proper, those in which a man has supplementary partners being called concubinage, while those in which a woman has supplementary partners are called cicisbeism. Mother-right —This might be adopted as a convenient term for a state of society in which there are two or all of the three conditions, matrilineal descent, matrilocal marriage, and matripotestal family. 5. Racial Types in Connaught. By Professor R. J. ANpERson, ILD. It seems probable @ priort that a sea-coast people should exhibit some ethno- logical varieties. A stream of immigrants from the East can scarcely be said to have ever existed in Connaught. It is true that at various times migrations from the north of the island, from Scotland and from England, west and south-west, took place; but some centuries ago emigration took place from Spain and Por- tugal, chiefly of merchants and their attendants, who settled down in Galway City, whilst piratical adventurers landed along the coast. Hence there is evidence of an Iberian immigration, of Norwegian local landings, and of an admixture of a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 655 Faroe strain. It is quite likely that the explanations given by Cossar Ewart and Wendel may be regarded as applicable to the arrangements found here, Taking 200, one group, mostly from Connaught, 54 per cent. had light hair and light-blue eyes; 12 per cent. had black hair, and of these 6 per cent. had brown eyes. In a second group, entirely local and special, light hair and light-blue eyes pre- dominate. The dark type and sallow type are also in evidence. The influence of towns is less marked in the west of Ireland than on the eastern side, and much less so than in England; so that the tendency to darkening which has been marked in town populations in England does not show in Ireland, 6. A Terminology of Decorative Art. By Professor J. L. Myrss, J.A. Decorative art, as the subject of anthropological study, needs analysis, on the technological side, in order to describe and define the precise contribution made by the artist’s hand to the decoration of the object. So long as the decorative motives are recognisable attempts to represent some actual object, such as an animal or a plant, or part of one, description in general terms is easy ; and, for all beyond this, graphic illustration is inevitable. But in the more abstract, and particularly for ‘ geometrical,’ types of decoration the actual processes employed by the artist stand in a more important relation to the completed work, Artisti- cally the effects produced by drawing on the same surface (a) a double series of alternate triangles and (6) the limiting lines of a band of continuous chevrons BOD ISS INST QPLAPT, BM res CNN are practically indistinguishable; but technologically their origin, affinities, and potential development are quite different. For example, simple enhancement of the construction lines leads in the case of (a) to patterns like (c) and (d) in the case of (5) to patterns like (e) and (/). TITTY $$ JRRZ; A SV NGG In such cases the mere graphic reproduction of the ornament is not an adequate description, still less a definition of it. On the other hand, a sufficiently precise terminology would enable a student at a distance to reconstruct from dictation a pattern which was similar technologically, and actually more valuable for purposes of comparison than a photograph of the original design. Similar needs have led, in other sciences and arts, to the adoption of a simple conventional terminology. A botanist, for example, can convey in speech a very precise conception of the morphology of a compound leaf, and of its junction with the main stem; and heraldry has developed a terminology of the distribution of lines, subdivisions, and patterns on the surface of a shield or panel, which enables heralds to communicate at a distance almost without the use of diagrams, In pure technology the language of sewing and knitting is perhaps the most lucid and idiomatic instance. The basis of any such system, applicable to the description of abstract designs, must be strictly technological ; that is, it must be essentially a description (1) of what the artist did; (2) as far as possible, of the order in which he did it, dis- tinguishing motif from enhancement or filling ; (3) if necessary, of the effect produced by the completed work, in cases where this differs from that of the artist’s work while in progress, Z.g.,in figure (a) we have the mot?f of ‘ alternate 656 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. series of recurrent triangles,’ leading to a ‘chevron’ effect; in (c) these triangles are enhanced by ‘hachure’ or ‘ hatching’ (a term borrowed from the engraver’s art), and in (d) by ‘cross-hatching.’ In (6), on the other hand, motif and effect are alike ‘chevron.’ In composite patterns the minor elements must be located by reference to the major element which they enhance, or on which they are based, and subsequent phrases must define their relations to each other; ¢.g., the motive (a) would be described as ‘between parallel lines, a convergent series of recurrent alternate triangles’; but in (g) VDCEECEY 7 VIN L>L the ‘recurrent triangles ’ would be not ‘alternate’ but ‘ opposite,’ and the ‘effect ’ is that of a string of lozenges; and in (’) the triangles would be not ‘recurrent’ but ‘intermittent’ or ‘sparse’; while the ‘effect’ is that of a hexagon pattern. Similarly in figures (ce), (g), and (2) the triangles would be ‘hachured’ or ‘hatched’ from the left, (i.e., when viewed with their dase downwards and their apex upwards), for the reason that the ‘ generating line’ of the ‘hachures’ is the left-hand side of the triangle, to which they are parallels. In figure (e) the chevrons are ‘enhanced’ by ‘ external repetition ’ of their generating lines; in figure (/) the enhancement is ‘internal.’ It might eventually be possible to subsume the special term ‘hachure’ under the general term ‘ enhancement,’ and to describe the triangles of (c), (v7), and (2) as ‘enhanced internally from the left.’ The elaboration of such a terminology as is here proposed should of course be gradual; it should be based upon careful comparison of terminologies actually employed in the past by expert technologists ; and it should conform in its syntax to the approved usages of heraldry, systematic botany, and the like, which fortunately agree in essentials. It should take account, from the first, of foreign synonyms, and proceed—like other artificial terminologies—partly by the incorpo- ration of brief graphic idioms from the vocabulary of the industries concerned, partly by judicious coinage of words, as in zoology, from Greek or other universal vocabularies. Much may be done in the meantime to fix current idiom by detailed descrip- tive analysis of some of the commoner geometrical forms, such as the triangle (which has formed the basis of illustration here), the wavy line, the spiral, or the plait. A conspicuous instance of the confusion produced by neglect of ‘ termino- logical exactitude’ is the greater part of the recent literature of basketry ; and this is the less excusable, because in the allied art of weaving an ancient, idiomatic, and peculiarly accurate vocabulary exists in nearly every European language. 7. Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthropological Interest.—See Reports, p. 374. 8. A Preliminary Report on the Progress of the University of Wales Ethnographical Survey. By T. C. James and H. J. FLeure. The survey was begun two years ago, and the measurements taken include the more important ones recommended by the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association. Any persons with any known non-Welsh ancestors are not measured, Attention has so far been concentrated on Cardiganshire, and some TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 657 700 subjects have been observed, 100 of these being women. The county has been divided into three districts, and a special study made of the central division, bounded on the east by the moors above Tregaron, and on the north by the hills just south of the Ystwyth and Wyre. The following preliminary analysis of this district will be of interest, the grouping being purely experimental :— (a) Average height, 1693 mm. Average cephalic index, 76:1. Hair and eyes darker than medium brown. Face long and narrow. The group may per- haps be provisionally connected with Homo mediterraneus. (6) Average height, 1682 mm., but with a wide range of variation. Average cephalic index, 78°2. Hair and eyes fair, reddish hair and blue eyes being a typical combination. The group may provisionally be identified with the ‘ Northern Race,’ except that stature is low. (c) Average height, 1680 mm. Cephalic index, 81. Hair medium brown and darker. Eyes grey or brown. i (d) Moderately tall. Fair. Cephalic indices as in (4), but grading into the other groups, 9. The Cephalic Indices and the computed Stature of the Pagan Saxons in East Yorkshire. By J. R. Mortimer. The data on which the paper was based were collected in various burial-grounds of the mid-wolds of Yorkshire. The series of interments may be considered as fairly representing the Anglo-Saxons of the district. Of the sixty-one skeletons examined thirty-one were dolichocephalic, with an average cephalic index of 72°3 and with a mean computed stature of 5 feet 53 inches, Seven were brachycephalic, with an average index of 81:1 anda stature of 5 feet 4 inches. Twenty-three were wesaticephalic, with an index of 77 anda stature of 5 feet 3} inches. It therefore seems clear that the long-headed people were taller than those with short heads. 10. Report on the Exploration of the ‘Red Hills’ of the East Coast Salt Marshes.—See Reports, p. 373. 11. Interim Report on Classifying and Registering Megalithic Remains in the British Isles.—See Reports, p. 391. 1907. uv 658 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY., PRESIDENT OF THE SEctION—A. D, Water, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— On the Action of Anesthetics. Tue duty laid upon me by the Chair which I have the honour to occupy to-day is in the first place to copy the example of my predecessors by submitting to the Section some distinct and definite contribution to the advancement of science. And inasmuch as the subject has firmly held my attention during the last fifteen years, | am naturally led to name Anesthesia as the title of my Presiden- tial Address to the Section of Physiology. With due regard paid to the fact that the audience to which the British Association addresses itself is not principally medical nor exclusively scientific, I shall deal with the subject in a manner that may,I hope, justify my opinion that it is a subject capable of being usefully considered by all educated minds. And surely, quite apart from its value as an illustration of the method of physiological inquiry, the subject is one with which any educated man may well desire to possess some rational acquaintance, since every one of us may some day require the saving boon of anesthesia. Most people have some idea of what is meant by an anesthetic, and will recog- nise by name at least one anesthetic drug—chloroform, It is even probable that the first stranger whom you should meet in the street might also name ether and ‘gas’ as being anesthetics. And pretty surely he would also know that the use of an anesthetic is to abolish pain. But if you were to tell him that a plant can be anzsthetised—that seeds can be chloroformed or etherised—he might very possibly express surprise. The popular notion of an anesthetic, in conformity with the literal meaning of the word, is that it is something that abolishes sensibility and takes away pain. But how, then, can a plant be chloroformed? Does that mean that a plant is sensitive and can feel pain as we do? Well, probably not; nevertheless it is very certain that a plant can be anzesthetised, and when you have properly appre- ciated what this means I think you will admit that our notions of vital processes and of their anesthesia by ether, or by chloroform, or by a host of other reagents have been considerably widened. For we shall then have realised that the state of a person or of an animal rendered insensitive of pain by an anesthetic is a particular instance of the general principle that all protoplasm—vegetable as well as animal—is liable to be immobilised—put to sleep—more or less com- pletely—temporarily or permanently—by the action of substances which we therefore designate as anesthetics or narcotics. A volatile narcotic, like ether or chloroform, gets to the living cells of a plant by direct diffusion; in the case of ourselves and of the higher animals it gets to the living cells by the channels of respiration and of circulation. The molecule of chloroform (or of ether) is PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 659 drawn into the lungs with the inspired air, passes from the pulmonary air to the pulmonary blood, combines with its corpuscles, is thus carried first to the heart and then distributed with the blood to all parts of the body; in the capillaries the molecule of chloroform parts company from hemoglobin, passes from the blood to the tissues and tissue fluids and enters into combination with the living cells which it immobilises more or less profoundly, temporarily or permanently. The various kinds of living cells that constitute our organs are unequally suscep- tible as regards the immobilising effect of this general invasion of the system by the narcotising molecules. Of all the cells of the body, the most labile, and therefore the first immo- bilised, are the master cells of the body—the cells of the grey matter of the brain, that is, the seat of sensation and the organ of voluntary motion. The most stable, and therefore the last immobilised, are the executive cells of the body that constitute muscle and nerve. The order of lability from greatest to least is as follows: Brain; spinal bulb and cord; terminal nerve cells; cardiac muscle ; skeletal muscle; nerve fibres. And while all living cells and tissues of the body are subject to the immobilising action of narcotic substances, their individual differences of susceptibility are such that, whereas one part of chloroform in 5,000 of blood is sutticient to immobilise cortical nerve cells, a nerve fibre requires a more than tenfold eftective mass of chloroform before exhibiting any falling-off of its normal excitability. Let us now briefly consider what happens when a patient is anzsthetised by, say, chloroform in the usual manner by inhalation of an unknown mass of vapour. The inhaled vapour, more or less diluted in air, diffuses into, and is distributed to, the entire body by the circulating blood. The lymph bath that surrounds and permeates all the tissues and cells of the body becomes a weak solution of chloro- form in water, and gradually within that weak chloroform atmosphere the most labile parts fall under the immobilising effect of the anesthetic, first the organ of conscious sensation and movement—the cortical grey matter of the brain— then the organ of unconscious reactions, the medullary grey matter of the spinal bulb and cord. So that the order in which the effects unfold themselves are (after a brief stage of excitement or mobilisation) first a suppression of sensation and voluntary movement, then a suppression of reflex and automatic movements, inclusive of the movements of respiration. Finally—and if this finally is reached the immobilisation can no longer be recovered from—the heart stops beating. The patient is dead. From life to death by the way of anesthesia there are three principal finger- posts dividing the journey into three stages. Of these three finger-posts two are to be carefully watched for; the third should never be sighted. During the first stage of aneesthesia— commencing, it may be, by some amount of preliminary agitation—sensation and voluntary motion become suppressed, while reflex and automatic movements are preserved. The finger-post between this first stage and the next is quite clear: if when the conjunctiva is touched the eye winks the anesthesia is ‘light’; if the eye does not wink the anxsthesia is ‘deep.’ Dating the second stage of anesthesia not only voluntary but also reflex movements (of which the conjunctival reflex is the most convenient indicator) are wholly suppressed, while the automatic movements of respiration persist. This is the degree of anesthesia required for any major surgical operation, and is therefore frequently spoken of as surgical anesthesia. The finger-posts to its boundaries are: on this side the conjunctival reflex, on that side the movements of respiration. The third and last finger-post—arrest of the heart’s beat—should not be passed. Arrest of the pulse signifies an almost hopeless state. The time of grace between arrest of respiration and arrest of the pulse from which recovery is almost hopeless is very brief indeed—hardly more thun a minute. The doctrine of the Edinburgh school—watch the respiration, not the pulse—is sound doctrine. Stoppage of respiration means danger ; stoppage of the pulse means death, I think this sketch, rough as it is, will be sufficient to bring before our minds uv2 660 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. a clear picture of the process of anzsthesia and of its principal danger—cardiac syncope. I do not wish to blur it with details. I shall therefore not enter into the question of primary cardiac syncope, nor call off your attention to other symptoms such as the state of the pupil and the character of the pulse and the colour of the face. Nor shall I at present lay any stress upon the fact that chloroform can be of variable quality, and that like alcohol it may act differently upon different people. First and foremost, if we are to secure the safe administration of a powerful poison like chloroform, we require to know how much of the drug is required for the production of the desired physiological effects, how much is dangerous, how much is necessarily fatal. Considering the fact that chloroform has now been in common use for sixty years,' and that the uniform experience of physiologists is to the effect that it is a dangerous drug as ordinarily used, it is astonishing that its administration should not rest upon any definite scientific basis. Occasional attempts have been made in the past—by Snow? first of all, by the French school of physiologists, Paul Bert,’ Grehant,* Dubois,’ and others, more recently by committees of medical societies and of the British Medical Association ‘—to determine what may be designated as the physiological arithmetic of chloroform ; but partly by reason of the difficulty in the way of measuring percentages of chloroform in the air and in the blood, partly by reason of the facility with which chloroform can be administered without any reference to percentages, the results obtained produced very little impression upon clinical practice, and deaths that could not have occurred if the principles laid down by Snow and by Bert had been properly appreciated and acted upon, were and still are regarded by the medical profession and by the public as the normal incidents of medical practice, and attributed to any but their true cause—an overdose of chloroform. I shall not venture to guess at the number of avoidable deaths that have taken place from this cause, but I place before you a diagram constructed from the annual returns of Somerset House and giving the number of deaths officially classified under the heading ‘ Anesthetics’ during the last fifty years. I do not wish to use the diagram in an alarmist sense, so I hasten to call your attention to the fact that the numbers are not percentages, but absolute figures which may in your opinion be sufticiently accounted for by the fact that the absolute number of cases has augmented in which anesthetics have been employed, and that official returns of fatal cases may have become more complete. Indeed, I do not myself base my judgment of the matter so much upon statistics, which are notoriously apt to be imperfect and misleading, as upon the common experience of most members of the medical profession and of many persons outside that profession; I have rarely met a well-informed person who was not personally acquainted with at least one accidental death by chloroform. Nevertheless I have presented to you the above statistical diagram because I consider that with due reservation this outcome of unprejudiced observation gives a by no means exaggerated picture of an actual fact, and because I believe it is an avoidable fact and will be diminished in future years by the wider know- ledge of the physiology of anzesthesia. T hope I shall not tax your attention too severely if I ask you to follow me through a short arithmetical argument in order to convince you that accidental deaths by chloroform must of necessity be expected to occur in the ordinary way of administration if the administrator is not fully alive to the physical and physiological properties of chloroform, and to outline in your minds a definite picture of some very simple and important measurements. By ordinary methods of administration the percentage of chloroform vapour in the mixture of chloroform and air inhaled may be anything between 1 and 10 per cent.; let us say that it is 4 per cent.—z.e., that an inhalation of, say, 1 The first major operation under chloroform was performed by Sir James Simpson on January 19, 1847. : 2 Snow On Chloroform and other Anesthetics, 1858. 3 Paul Bert. * Grehant. 5 R. Dubois. 6 B.M.A. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 661 500 c.c. carries 20 c.c. of chloroform vapour into the lungs. Of this 20 c.c, it is no exaggerated estimate to take one-half, or 10 c.c., as absorbed by the pulmonary blood, the other half being expelled in the expired air. If the subject breathes twenty times per minute 500 ¢.c. at each inspiration, his blood absorbs 206 c.c. of chloroform vapour in one minute—i.e., one gramme of fluid chloroform. He may, of course, absorb less than one gramme per minute; but he may also absorb more. Snow estimated that 17 minims of chloroform in the blood (7.e., about one gramme) was sufficient to produce anzsthesia, while double the amount was fatal. Grehant found that after death by chloroform the blood contained half a gramme of chloroform per litre of blood—i.e., five litres of blood, which is the normal amount in an average man, would contain two and a half grammes. Buckmaster and Gardner find from numerous experiments results that may be summarised as follows :— Quantity of chloroform (in grammes) contained in 100 grammes of blood :— Min, Mean. Max, Taken during deep anesthesia. . 0:020 0:030 0-040 Taken after death by anzsthesia . . 0:040 0:050 0-060 These results signify in five litres of blood between one and two grammes as the anzesthetic amount, between two and three grammes as the lethal amount. Consider, then, what might happen if a patient were to absorb chloroform at anything like the rate of one gramme per minute, and what might happen if by mischance he should absorb two or three grammes in a fraction of a minute. This is a mischance that can occur in the ordinary method of inducing anesthesia: a few deep gasps by a struggling patient, a few moments’ inattention on the part of an administrator, and the blood almost at once be fatally overloaded with chloroform, In the early days of chloroform anesthesia it used to be considered admissible to administer chloroform vapour of 4 and 5 per cent. strength in air; but at that time the means of estimating percentage were very imperfect, and the figures quoted were little better than guesswork. The dictum of the Edinburgh school was ‘ plenty of chloroform with plenty of air by continuous administration.’ Some ten years ago, at a meeting of the Society of Anesthetists,’ I pleaded for the continuous administration of chloroform vapour at a strength (in air) of not below 1 per cent. and not above 2 per cent., which amounted to a translation into figures of the Edinburgh dictum, with justification of the figures by quantitative observation. Perhaps I may briefly explain the method? by which the percentages of chloroform and air are obtained :— Grammes A litre, or 1,000 ¢.c., of chloroform vapour weighs . » bfado A litre, or 1,000 c.c., of air weighs . ; ; “ . 1288 The litre weight difference is therefore . - . . 4045 The weight difference of 1 ¢.c. is approximately 4 milligrammes. So that a 100 c.c. flask in which 1, 2, 3, &c., c.c. of air are replaced by 1, 2, 8, &c., c.c. of chloroform vapour is 4, 8, 12, &c., milligrammes heavier than the same flask filled with air. So that added weights of 4, 8, 12, &c., milligrammes indicate 1, 2, 3, &c., per cent. of chloroform vapour present. Thus, by simply counterpoising a 100 c.c. flask (or, preferably, a 250 c.c. bulb, as to give weight increments of 10, 20, 80, &c., milligrammes as indications ot 1, 2, 3, &e., per cent.) filled with air against a similar bulb filled with chloroform mixture, the percentage of the mixture is read directly by the number of centi- grammes required to counterpoise. For instance, a bulb full of mixture being, 1 Waller, British Medical Journal, April 23, 1898. 2 Waller and Geets, zbid., June 20, 1903. 662 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. say, 18 milligrammes heavier than when it is full of air, the chloroform vapour percentage is known to be 1°8 per cent. Evidently, with a ready means of estimating percentage, one is entitled to talk about the percentages that one considers from experiment to be necessary and sufficient and excessive, My argument up to this point comprises one or two tacit assumptions that ought to be briefly dealt with, or, at any rate, mentioned. In the first place, I have assumed that the great majority of accidents by anesthetics are caused by chloroform. This is accounted for by the fact that chloroform is the most powerful, the most convenient, and the most extensively used of all anesthetic vapours. I hasten to add that, in my opinion, this fact is an argument not so much for ‘the substitution of other less dangerous anesthetics as for the more careful administration of chloroform itself. In the second place, I have assumed that chloroform is a remarkably uniform and certain reagent, producing its physiological effects in strict conformity with the quantity of vapour administered, and by no means irregular in its action by reason of irregularities or impurities of manufacture. Pure chloroform is more powerful than impure chloroform. I do not dwell upon these two points now; nevertheless I should like to say that these are not gratuitous assumptions, but, more properly speaking, results of observation and experiment, of which I can offer some evidence. I have tested purified chloroform against the concentrated residue of its impurities, and have found the former to be far more powerful than the latter. And I have compared with each other chloroform or trichlormethane, CHOCl,, dichlormethane, CH,Cl,, monochlormethane, CH,Cl, tetrachlormethane, CCl,, a3 well as many anze-thetics of the ether group, Et,O, EtCl, EtBr, Etl, and several anesthetics belonging to the series of chloroethanes, members of which have at various times been recom- mended as substitutes for chloroform—e.g., ethylene chloride or ‘ Dutch liquid,’ CH,Cl-CH,Cl, and ethyledene chloride, CH,—CHCI,. The conclusion I have drawn from this study is that of all these more or less powerful anesthetics chloroform is the most powerful, the most certain, the most convenient, and the most trustworthy. But I would repeat the statement that the safe administration of chloroform consists in its continuous administration at a strength of between | and 2 per cent. And if anyone now objects that it may be sufe to go up to 3 per cent., or sufficient to go down to 4 percent., I am content to accept the objection as being possibly well founded, because it carries with it the all-important admission that the question of safe anzesthesia is in first instance a question of quantity, and in second instance a question of idiosyncrasy and of clinical conditions, Admitting, then, that the primary condition of the safe administration of chloroform consists in the continuous administration of an atmosphere in which chloroform vapour is between the limits of 1 and 2 per cent., the question is how best to secure this essential condition. It can be secured by many methods, Given the requisite care, skill, and experience on the part of the administrator, anzsthesia may be properly carried out by any method, empirically or otherwise. But some methods demand more skill and care than other methods, and the task of the anesthetist may be lightened (or it may be aggravated) by various mechanical appliances. A folded towel drenched with chloroform may be safely used by an anesthetist whom previous experience has rendered fully alive to the extreme danger of two or three deep inspirations of a concentrated vapour, and whose attention is never distracted from the paramount necessity of ‘plenty of air’ with the ‘ plenty of chloroform.’ On the other hand, a person unmindful of the physiological elements of chloroformisation is a dangerous administrator if he is content with the empirical use of any apparatus, however faithfully he may carry out the instructions of his instrument maker. Methods and apparatus are legion, and it would be futile or invidious on my part to attempt to describe or criticise in detail any one method or apparatus. But I may usefully invite your consideration of certain principles and ask you to PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 663 recognise that for their trial by experiment the chief necessity is a simple method, such as I have just described, enabling us to test percentages quickly. Thus, by the use of this method, Mr. Symes! has determined what are the usual per- centages of chloroform vapour offered to inspiration by an ordinary Skinner's mask, and found them to range between the desirable limits of 1 and 2 per cent., with occasional fluctuations up to about 3 or 4 per cent. All apparatus designed for the delivery of chloroform vapour of definite and controllable percentage is based upon one or other of two principles. On the first or vacuum system, of which the best known examples are the apparatus of Snow and that of Harcourt, the patient inspires air through a vessel containing liquid chloroform by a broad inlet tube and a closely fitting face-piece. On the second or plenum system, of which the examples best known to me are the apparatus of Dubois and that to which I have given the name of the ‘wick vaporiser,’? the patient inspires from a freely open face-piece in which an excess of chloroform and air at required percentage is maintained by a pump. In my opinion, if apparatus is to be adopted, the plenum is preferable to the vacuum principle: for in the latter case it is more difficult to secure uniformity of administration, which requires a perfect fit of the face-piece, stillness of the chloroform over which the inspired current of air is drawn, and which causes of necessity a considerable added resistance to inspiration. By the plenum system there is a more uniform percentage of supply, and the patient breathes freely from an open loosely fitting face-piece, the cavity of which is kept filled to overflowing by an excess of mixture of controllable strength. But, whichever of these two systems be tollowed, the choice is obviously one that can only be determined by experience, both clinical and of the laboratory. Equally obviously the so-called accurate percentages afforded by any method can only be approximately accurate under the sometimes difficult conditions of prac- tical administration, and it is therefore of principal importance to ascertain by a simple and ready method of estimating percentages such as I have described above what is the degree of accuracy, or, if you prefer to say so, the range of inaccuracy to which any method or apparatus is subject under the ordinary con- ditions of its application. You may indeed sometimes hear it said that the percentage can be judged of by the sense of smell, which therefore affords the readiest means of estimating the strength of a mixture, to which I should like to add yes certainly, provided the observer by previous experience of known percentages has formed some standard of comparison on which his opinion is based. I have finished what I set myself to say to-day concerning the physiological problems involved in the question of safe anesthesia by chloroform. But I have reserved for my conclusion certain considerations by which it is customary to introduce the particular subject under review. May I briefly trespass further on your attention to say something about the conditions under which physiological inquiry is pursued in London ? Physiology, in the technical and restricted sense commonly received in this country, has become £0 closely associated in the public mind with vivisection, and, as dealt with in the medical curriculum, is so narrowly reduced to what is strictly necessary and practicable, that its real scope and value as a general science have been altogether lost sight of. I do not propose on the present occasion to deal with the question of vivi- section either on its ethical or on its utilitarian aspect. All I wish to do is to bring distinctly before your minds two considerations that may, I hope, contribute to a broader and truer conception of the place of physiology among the sciences, though they assuredly will not justify the claim of Dubois-Reymond that physiology is the queen of the sciences, The first of these two considerations is that the province of vivisection, essential as it is, is a very narrow and restricted province indeed in the domain of 1 Symes, Zancet, July 9, 1904. 2 Waller, Proc, Physiol. Soc., August 19, 1904. 664 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. physiology. In the ordinary routine of the physiological laboratory experiments involving vivisection are infinitely less numerous and infinitely less exacting than experiments that involve no vivisection. Vivisection is, in fact, an infinitesimal fraction of experimental physiology, whereas in the minds of many who should know better experimental physiology always means vivisection: the two terms are taken as synonymous, and an odium that should not have been attached either to physiology or to vivisection has been directed through vivisection upon the whole of physiology. Yet do not mistake my meaning. I do not for one moment surrender the claim that upon ethical and utilitarian grounds vivisection is lawful ; I deprecate the perverted picture of vivisection that is presented to public opinion by sensational agitators and the perverted notion of physiology that is one of the evil results of the anti-vivisection crusade. But I do not desire to dwell on the vivisection question; I do not consider that it can be usefully considered by the general public without an intimate knowledge of the subject, itself possible only to the specialist. An ordinary normal person who should say he approved of vivi- section would be, in my opinion, even more objectionable than an ordinary normal person who should express a detestation of vivisection, for the bare idea of vivi- section is repugnant to every humane person. To bring dispassionate argument against such natural repugnance seems to me hardly less mischievous than to fan repugnance into hatred by passionate appeals to the imagination. The surgeon to whom an ignorant crowd should impute cruelty would fail to serve the cause of ee by the technical descriptions to them of the operations he is required to erform. : There are two great principles involved in the welfare of any applied science— in the welfare indeed of any living thing—the conservative principle and the pro- gressive principle, Any organised living mass—let it be an animal or an organised body of men— by virtue of the conservative principle of heredity, of repetition of like by like, of imitation of action that has proved to be successful, works more economically than it could have done if each individual mass had perforce to work out its own salva- tion, evolve for itself its own suitability to and temporary mastership of surround- ing circumstances. But the child that can only imitate and repeat the actions of its ancestors brings no positive addition to the excellence of the race whose upward progress requires to be fed by the costly process of initiative efforts, by the sports of talent and of genius, by the cumulative effect of innumerable hits among innumer- able misses of innumerable multitudes of individuals. Transfer this thought to education—to medical education in particular. An educated person—a competent physician or surgeon—must in the first place learn» at the feet of his masters, believe and learn what he is told, imitate what he sees done by his instructors, be the apprentice and follower of the experienced craftsman who shows him tried and approved ways of working. But the apprentice who is to contribute to the commonwealth of knowledge and power has to be something more than the faithful imitator of his teacher; he must initiate, and he must make a hit among, it may be, his many misses. He will then have contributed to the advancement of knowledge and power. In all provinces of human activity we may distinguish the result of our two complementary principles—imitation, the conservative principle; initiation, the progressive principle. But while in all provinces the conservative factor, being, so to speak, the means of wholesale economy, bulks the larger, the progressive factor, as the means of retail economy, is relatively insignificant. Between the two extremes—imitation on the one hand, initiation on the other —there is room for numberless variations; and, by reason of the vastness of area of even the minutest province of human activity, the aim of education even the most technical is perforce more and more directed to teach the pupil to use his own mind in presence of the task set him rather than to copy minutely and to reproduce perfectly the model facts shown or described to him by the master. But in every province, and in particular in that of education, the power of imitation is easier to exert and easier to develop than the power of initiation PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 665 which is a rare and costly ingredient, since at any given juncture the odds must be heavily in favour of the success of the time-honoured fact or method as com- pared with its yet untried competitor. There are of necessity many misses and few hits among the novelties that come to trial. The genius of our nation is admittedly a practical genius that looks upon the conservative way as the better way, and makes its changes by as small steps as can be from precedent to precedent. This is the safe and easy way, the way of nature; and to this predominance of fact copied over fancy realised may fairly be ascribed our own prolonged constitutional prosperity. We have found by long experience that it is very long odds indeed against any dark horse without a good pedigree of precedents, so we prefer to back the field; old methods are the safe thing and the good thing. But one may have too much of a good thing, and in education I think we have had too much of the old methods, in which the keynote is imitation and examination of copy, and too little of that expensive and dangerous ingredient—so dangerous that to some authorities it appears in the light of a poison—initiative and originality of thought. I admit all the danger; I grant to the old authorities that there is a good deal of trash current under the label of original research. But I do not think we can have wheat without chaff, and Iam convinced that the adherents of original research, as against the clientéle of the examiner and of the erammer, bring to the educational commonwealth the scanty and much needed ingredient of initiative. We want education still further urged in the direction of teaching the pupil to use his own mind upon unseen translation of new facts into effective conduct, and one of the best ways of obtaining that the teacher shall cuide his pupils to use their own minds is that he should himself use his own mind, and not suffer himself to drop into the jog-trot of routine. We want our teachers to be learned men, but we also want them to continue to be learning men; and that is why, in spite of its defects, I want to urge that greater encouragement be given to original research. I hope I shall not have taxed your patience too far if I bring these considera- tions to their natural conclusion by telling you as briefly as may be of an effort that is now being made in the University of London to strengthen and organise that spirit of initiative which is, I am convinced, of capital importance in all teaching, the most elementary no less than the most advanced. We have formed ourselyes into a school of physiology, including every teacher of physiology in London, each of whom undertakes to give at the headquarters of the University lectures upon those portions of the science with which his own previous study has rendered him specially conversant. ‘The teaching offered is of an advanced character, and is addressed more especially to post-graduate and to Honours students; and, in pursuance of the principle that such teaching is the immediate consequence of learning, the University has provided a research laboratory in which teachers and other post-graduate students find the necessary facilities for work. We believe that the experience of the last five years has sufficiently proved that a ‘college of learning’ thus constituted renders valuable assistance to the teachers and students of the schools of London, and that it is helping to draw to a focus resources and efforts that are at present scattered and wasted among the several schools. I cannot do better in this connection than quote the words of the Chancellor of the University (Lord Rosebery): ‘We hope to make this laboratory the central spot for medical research in London .. . an institute of studies ancillary to medicine, which may develop and complete the work of the University in that direction.” And I think that you will agree with me that any movement that contributes to the good health of the University of London contributes to the good health of every university in the Empire, and of every school whose teachers are animated by the university spirit—the love of learning for its own sake as well as for the sake of the mental and material power that is required of us, 666 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. The following Papers and Report were then read :— 1. Cancer Investigation: with special reference to the Gastric Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid. By 8, Moncxton Copeman, 2.2.8. Professor B. Moore and his colleagues, Messrs. Alexander, Kelly, and Roaf, have shown that deficiency of HCl in the gastric secretion in cancer is not, as previously believed, confined to cases of carcinoma of the stomach itself, but that it can be demonstrated equally in patients suffering from cancer, wherever situated in the body. It appeared that the recent development of experimental cancer research, involving the transplantation of Jensen’s and other similar tumours from one to another of a series of mice, would be likely to afford a means of accurate control of the results obtained in man. Material for the purpose has been supplied from the laboratories of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, and the amount of physiologically active hydrochloric acid in the stomach contents of nearly 1,000 mice, either normal (for purposes of con- trol) or suffering from inoculated cancer, has been estimated by means of the method devised by Dr. Willcox. Taking into consideration the whole series of experiments, there has been found, on the average, a decided INCREASE of physio- logically active HCl, amounting in some instances to as much as 50 percent. The meaning of this divergence from results obtained in cases of human cancer is at present under investigation. As the result of the work of various observers on the demonstration of HCl in the gastric secretion, dependent, as it apparently is, on an increased alkalinity of the blood, it would seem that cancer must be regarded as the local manifestation of perverted body metabolism, and in this connection it is of interest to note that there is already some evidence that gowt (in which the alkaline reaction of the blood is diminished) and cancer are mutually antagonistic, inquiries, statistical and otherwise, having up to the present failed to obtain evidence of occurrence of these two diseases in the same patient. 2. The Investigation of the Effects of Climate by means of Laboratory Experiments. By Professor ZuNtTz. The author gave a short report of investigations begun and partly finished on the effect of tropical climate on human metabolism. The principal questions to be answered are the effect of the climate on the work of the digestive apparatus during rest and during exercise. Dr. Schilling and Dr. Jaffé are doing those experiments at Togoland; the chemical analysis is performed at the laboratory at Berlin. Moreover Zuntz considers it a most important part of the research to study the secretion of the skin, which work he has begun already in the Alpine climate, and together with von Schrotter in balloon ascents. Secondly, Professor Zuntz gave a description of a respiratory chamber of large size, containing a treadmill adapted to different kinds of muscular work. This chamber is ventilated by the method of Regnault and Reiset, and gives the possi- bility of producing any temperatures and any degree of moisture required. 3. The Study of Sea Climate. By Dr. Franz MULuER. 4. Report on the Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease. See Reports, p. 403. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 667 FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Papers and Report were read :—- 1. The Nervous Impulse. By Professor J. 8. Macponatp, B.A, The nervous impulse travels at a rate of 30 metres per second, that is to say, at about the rate of an express train. The chemical and physical changes charac- teristic of its passage were therefore difficult to examine. The fact, however, that two stationary conditions, namely, the condition of injury and the condition found at the kathode through which a polarising current was led out of the nerve, presented in all probability all the essential features of the same change, offered an indirect opportunity for the study of this process. In both of these conditions the same leading features could be identified, the colloid materials of the fibre were precipitated and a new material made its appearance, which in greater part at least could be identified by appropriate tests as potassium chloride, In view of these facts it was suggested that the nervous impulse was a physical process in which a change in the size of colloid particles led to the liberation and subsequent free movement of salt solutions condensed upon their surface, This free movement of new salt solutions was capable of effecting all the phenomena characteristic of the nervous impulse, 2. Spinal Reflewes. By Professor C. 8. Suurrineton, 7.2.5. Records of spinal reflexes were shown illustrating the grading of intensity of the reflex movements in accordance with grading of intensity of the electrical stimulus used. This was demonstrated to be the case when the reflex contraction of a single muscle among those responding was taken for examination, as well as when the movement of the whole limb was used for recording. It was also the case when the stimulus used was a single break shock applied either to the skin or to an exposed afferent nerve. Examples of the staircase effect were also shown from the action of reflex centres. It was also reported that the change produced by strychnine in the inhibition part of the flexion reflex can be traced to occur through the early supervention of what is usually an after rebound of excitation. The change from inhibition to excitation produced by strychnine is easily temporarily reconverted back to inhibition by even a small dose of chloroform. 3. Metabolism of Arum spadices : Enzyme Action and Electrical Response. By Miss H. B. Kemp and Miss C. B. SanDERs. In a paper tu the Botanical Section last summer we showed that the rise of temperature in the Arum spadices on the unfurling of the spathe is accompanied by a marked rise in CO, production and O, absorption, which follows very closely the temperature curve. The disappearance of starch in the tissue led us to some preliminary chemical tests which made it appear probable that there was a concurrent phase of extreme enzyme activity, and the putrefactive smell pointed to the presence of proteases. By the following tests (amongst others) one of us has ascertained the presence of these in A. maculatum, italicum, elongatum, crinitum, Sauromatum guitatum, and Dracunculus vulgaris. Extracted from the crushed spadix, twenty-four hours, and filtered (covered with toluol solution): The filtrate with 5 per cent. starch solution gives disappear- ance of starch in forty-eight hours, Boiled controls negative. The filtrate with } vol. Witte’s peptone solution in neutral HCl 0°025 per cent. ; 668 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. with acetic 0:2 per cent. gives in all cases tryptophane reaction in forty-eight hours. Boiled controls negative. Extract with fibrin (boiled in urea) in natural medium (faint acidity) NaCO, 1 per cent. ; acetic 2 per cent. All give tryptophane in twenty-four hours. Boiled zontrols negative. Extract with ground barley, shaking twenty-four hours. Kjehldahl estimation of soluble nitrates shows 7-05 per cent. increase in unboiled over boiled. (Dr. Horace Brown’s method—we are very much indebted for help in this.) Crushed spadix auto digest: under toluol, with NaCl, 0:2 per cent.; with salicylic acid, 2 per cent. Tryptophane is present after forty-eight hours, and has totally disappeared in fourteen days. Boiled controls never show any trace. Crushed ovules and ovule region give no tryptophane. Oxydases were tested for in Dracunculus, S. guitatum, and A. crinitum with H,0, and guaiaconic acid. They are present in the spadix, but hardly traceable in the filtrate. The disappearance of tryptophane above noted under aseptic conditions seems of peculiar interest as a result of enzyme activity. Material has been wanting for determining whether it is due to further cleavage of the molecule or to oxidation in the presence of strong oxydases. The sad failure of our growers (to whom we are nevertheless much indebted) to give an adequate supply of material has up to now prevented us from tracing the point in floral development at which each enzyme is liberated, or from obtain- ing any quantitative analyses apart from those of gaseous interchange. The electrical responses under these very active conditions seemed likely to be of value, In Sawromatum the very elongated spadix frequently shows an unequal state of activity (as indicated by the temperature) in different regions. ‘The responses were found to bear a definite relation to this hotter region—namely, to run from inactive to active spot within the tissue. The normal current (¢.e., prior to stimulation) was of opposite direction. The responses over short distances were of opposite direction to the stimulation, extra-polar currents away from the stimu- lated region at either kathode or anode. The values varied enormously. 4, The Play of Forces in the Normally Dividing Cell. Sy Professor Marcus Hartoe, D.Se. The processes, dynamic, and other, of the normally dividing cell may be analysed as follows: (1) Such as are known in the inorganic world: (a) osmosis and turgor, found in the enlargement of the spindle; (4) traction and tension of the viscid threads of the spindle; (c) fluid resistance deforming the disceding chromosomes; (d) solution and desolution ; (e) surface tension. (2) Such as are known to occur elsewhere in living plasma, but which have not been adequately referred to physico-chemical phenomena: (a) growth of centrosomes of chromatic substance and of achromatic fibres; (2) protoplasmic movements, and especially that which is expressed in the elongation of the spindle ; (c) the transverse division of the elongated viscid bodies, with increase of their surface, occurring in the chromatin granules at right angles to the threads in which they lie, and in the final division of the cell; (d@) the fusion and apparent loss of identity of the daughter-chromosomes, and in the reconstitution of the daughter-nuclei. (8) ‘Mitokinetism,’ a force analogous to electrostatic force, manifested in the karyokinetic figure, in the splitting of the chromosomes, and in the discession of their daughter-segments. (4) Such as tind no clear equivalents elsewhere: the resolution of the nuclear network into a definite number of chromosomes, the orderly sequence of events, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 669 the different phenomena leading up from different beginnings, by different routes to the same end. These theses are shown in a consecutive review of the changes in a normally dividing cell. Tn the complex process taken as a whole we can find no promise of an explana- tion by the exclusive play of physical and chemical processes known outside the living organism. Still more is the history incompatible with a reference to any one single dominating force, such as osmosis (Leduc), or changes in electrostatic potential due to transformations of colloids (Ralph R. Lillie, G. Mann, Angel Gallardo), 5. Report on the ‘ Metabolic Balance Sheet’ of the Individual Tissues. See Reports, p. 401. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. Discussion on the Physiological and Therapeutical Uses of Alcohol. Professor Ousuny said that, though the exaggerations of anti-alcoholists had produced a reaction in the public mind, the uses of alcohol in medicine in the past had been entirely erroneous. He proposed to confine his observations to the action of alcohol on nutrition, on the brain, and on the circulation. There was an idea that alcohol both improved digestion and acted as a food itself; but a large number of investigations had not been able to confirm the idea of the improve- ment of the digestive processes as a whole, though sometimes they acted more quickly in individual cases. Alcohol might sometimes increase the taste for food, which was no doubt of great importance, and so improve gastric secretion ; yet, in general, there was no greater amount of food absorbed in the day whether alcohol was or was not used, because the increased gastric juice was devoid of or poor in ferments, and could scarcely promote the preparation of food for absorption. When moderation was departed from, the whole of the digestive processes were dis- organised. While the usefulness of alcohol in treating some digestive disorders mizht still be uncontroverted, for, its effects were very complex, Binz’s dictum that the healthy stomach needed no stomachic, and therefore no alcohol, must be the standpoint of the physician to-day. But it might be argued that the present artificial conditions of life necessitated measures unnecessary in a more healthful environment. Did not the jaded appetite demand exceptional measures, and might not wine be used to render food palatable and promote gastric secretion and digestion, just as other condiments, like mustard, are employed? The answer was that the objection to alcohol did not arise wholly from its effect on digestion, but from the tendency towards the habit being formed and from the specific action of alcohol on the brain. In respect to the food-value of alcohol, experiments over many years had shown that over 95 per cent. ingested underwent combustion in the tissues and was utilised by them as a source of energy for muscular strength and body-heat. Alcohol was therein strictly comparable to sugar, which was also an alcohol, though of a more complex nature. And, in fact, the more closely the metabolism under alcohol was examined, the more clearly was it seen to conform to that under an equivalent amount of carbohydrate ; and it seemed to him that the protagonists in the fight against alcohol could only harm their cause by still refusing to accept these results, for the recognition that alcohol resembled sugars and fats in its fate in the tissues by no means implied that it was a suitable food in disease or in health. The same was true of vinegar, or even of morphine, under 1 Reprinted from The Times, August 6, 1907. 670 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. certain conditions. The question was, Oould alcohol be taken without toxic effects on the tissues in general, quite apart from those on the brain and more specialised organs? On this point experiment had shown that alcohol appeared to behave like other nitrogen-free foods when substituted for other forms of food in persons not accustomed to its use, in that it sometimes failed to act as an equivalent for some days, during which the deticiency had to be made up by combustion of other available sources of energy, but that this effect was not proved to be toxic in its nature. But another series of investigations had shown that alcohol left the tissues in an impaired state, and that its abuse lessened the resistance to invasion by pathogenic organisms; the records of pneumonia in our hospitals and of cholera in the East indicated this beyond doubt. But they failed to show that it was beyond question that the habitual use of alcohol in small quantities or its thera- peutic use had this effect, and the whole interest of the question at present lay in the dietetic use of alcohol as contrasted with the drunkard’s abuse of it. The effects of alcohol on the central nervous system differed very considerably in different individuals. In the lower animals they were marked by depression; the symptoms were exactly similar to those of chloral and other narcotics, simple sleep being produced with no stage of excitement or exhilaration or intoxication so called. It was not sufficiently recognised how often alcohol acted thus in man as a pure depressant. The environment of social surroundings was largely responsible for the liveliness, physical excitement, and loquacity caused by drinking alcohol in company with others. In hospitals no such excitement or exhilaration generally appeared after the administration of alcohol. The effect of alcohol on the brain was capable of two explanations—namely, the view, at first sight appearing to be the more natural one, that it first stimulated the cerebral cells to greater activity and then depressed them, like strychnine; and the view, supported by the majority of experimental observers, that the stimulation of the brain was only apparent, and that the excitement was caused by a loss of the associations which ordinarily retarded the expression of mental activity. To adopt the mechanical simile of the brain being like an engine fitted with powerful brakes, the more closely one examined the engine the more evident it became that what appeared to be the result of increased motive power was really the effect of the removal of the brakes. It was generally recognised that soma of the highest functions of the brain were thrown out of action by alcohol administered in quantities which induced the phase of exhilaration. The further question was, What functions were actually increased in activity, and how far was this increase dependent upon the reduced activity of the processes which were depressed by aleoholP Many valuable experi- ments had shown, in this respect, that those mental processes which were ordinarily performed readily were less retarded than those in which the subject was less practised, and which required more effort—that was, the powers most recently acquired and most readily lost were those on which alcohol first acted, while those operations which had become habitual were less impaired. This was in complete accord with what was observed in the earlier stage of intoxication or exhilaration. The most recent acquisitions in adult life were the power of self-control and the feeling of self-respect which were manifested in regard for the conventions of life, and in the prudence which led one to avoid many procedures which in earlier life one might have indulged in without reproach. Under alcohol these were the first mental processes to be disordered. In vino veritas was the conclusion to which the latest results of experimental science had come; in intoxication, the natural man was exposed, stripped of the trammels of convention, and robbed of the fruits of experience and education. The results of these investigations on the mental state under alcohol, as well as many others not now discussed, appeared to place the theory that alcohol acted as a narcotic upon a firm basis. But this would not preclude its chief use in therapeutics, for, like opium, its chief therapeutic use was not to induce, but to repress, cerebral activity and to produce a result of cerebral depression. In this respect alcohol was in many points not inferior to other narcotics as a medical remedy. The experimental results of the effects of alcohol on the circulation would be discussed by Dr. Dixon, who suggested that alcohol might support the heart by acting as a foodstuff, and that this might increase the TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 671 blood pressure and improve the circulation. In addition to any direct action on the circulation, alcohol might prove of value in circulatory failure through its narcotic action in the same way as opium, over which it had the advantage of not inducing any embarrassment of the respiration. But, though it might be useful in therapeutics, it must not be considered as indispensable, and its use must be curtailed to the utmost limit. In some conditions, such as old age and debility, it might be justifiable to neglect its drawbacks, but 1t ought to be advised only with eyes open to the risks run and with the recognition that a drug was being prescribed. The laity were justified in regarding alcohol, not as a drug, but as an article of diet so long as the physicians ordered it in the casual way familiar to all, They could hardly be blamed for ignoring the evidence of danger presented daily if their scientific mentors adopted the ambiguous position of physicians who allowed it, not believing that it would do any good, but assuming that it would do no harm, and not hesitating to make that statement; and hence the medical profession could not complain if they were accused of indifference towards the greatest evil of their country and their age. Dr. WALLER urged that a note of warning ought to be uttered—namely, that one should not take the raw data of the laboratory and put them before the public until there had been complete analysis and strict debate. There were many forms of alcohol, and their effects on the nervous tissues differed. He then described experiments on isolated muscle with brandy diluted with water and the same spirit diluted with a 10 per cent. saline solution, and showed that the latter facilitated muscular contraction; he also mentioned other experiments with the dynamo- graph, showing that, while alcohol sometimes might have no effect on muscular contraction, it might have at the same time considerable effect on the dissipation of heat. Dr. Rrvzrs pointed out that there were two different problems—first, the determination of the effect, immediate or within a few hours, of a single dose of alcohol; and, secondly, the question whether the continuous taking of alcohol had any effect on the capacity for muscular and mental work. In experiments with the ergograph it had been found that it was necessary to eliminate certain disturb- ing factors, and chiefly the interest and sensory stimulation produced by the act of taking the alcohol. There was no increase in the amount of muscular work with doses of from 5 to 20 cc. of a pure alcohol when doses were given with such a disguise that the subject of the experiment was not aware that he was taking alcohol. Dr. Dixon drew attention to the statements as to alcohol being a poison from results of experiments on protoplasmic tissue. He could similarly prove that distilled water, beef-tea, and caffeine were poisons. It was possible to distil off ethyl-alcohol from the tissues of men and animals who had never had any alcohol; and alcohol was therefore an actual constituent of all forms of living matter. The most remarkable point about alcohol was its rapid absorption from the stomach, and during absorption it assisted in the absorption of other not easily absorbable substances, including ordinary articles of food. It was absorbed and oxidised exactly as starch and sugar, and these could be replaced by alcohol as an energy-producing substance. He had been for three years working at the action of ethyl-alcohol on the circulation, and he thought he had conclusively proved that the presence of small quantities of alcohol in the blood up to 0:2 per cent. increased the amount of work and the output of blood from the heart, especially when the heart was beating quickly or failing. This small quantity facilitated the work of the heart; but very curiously the type of action was changed entirely when the amount was increased to 0°5 per cent., when the work of the heart was not facilitated. The action of a small quantity of alcohol in giving the heart a readily assimilable form of food substance was exactly similar to that of sugar, which was normally oxidised to alcohol. It was very likely that ordinary sugar in the body was not burned off directly into carbonie acid gas and water, but that it passed through a series of ferment changes of which alcohol was one, and that that was one reason why alcohol was found in the brain, liver, and tissues of the body. The fact that alcohol depressed the mental functions 672 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. constituted no reason why men should not take alcohol, for narcotics were wanted for hyperactive minds. Sugar in excess produced fatty degeneration of the tissues, as well as excess of alcohol, and cirrhosis of the liver was far rarer in Scotland than in England, while the consumption of alcohol was at least equal in proportion in the two countries. Alcohol had a special value as a food, for it was so easily absorbed. The objections to it were that it was an expensive type of food, and that it might lead to a continuous and undesirable habit. But it was a question whether this habit of taking small quantities was sufficient to justify us in com- pletely stopping its use. Sir Vicror Horstey said that the scientific examination of alcohol should be an accurate determination of its so-called stimulating effects, and, if such really existed, how soon did the paralysing and narcotic stage begin? Dr. Dixon’s results could not be accepted until it was proved that the alcohol perfused through the tissue was actually used up. Further, the well-known effect of alcohol in increasing the diastolic relaxation of the walls of the heart could not be regarded as either a stimulation effect or an advantage to the circulation. With respect to the ergograph as a method of investigation, the majority of investigators using it decided against alcohol, but he thought it was not a sufficiently delicate or accurate method. In medicine,as Dr. Sturge and he had shown in a recently pub- lished book, alcohol was during the last thirty years being given up as a stimulant, oWing to its inefficiency and its serious depressant after-effects. This change of view on the part of the medical profession was a true scientific result based on many years’ observation. As alcohol was thus found wanting, physiologically and therapeutically, its abolition ought to be considered from the point of view of social science. The Physical Deterioration Committee appointed by the House of Commons proved that the first greatest evil, socially, was defective housing, and that the second was alcohol. From patriotic reasons, therefore, total abstinence should be our ideal and practice. Yet the majority took alcohol for its so-called pleasurable effects, the only results of which were natural. inefficiency, poverty, vice, disease, and crime. Mr. C. J. Bonp exhibited and explained a series of diagrammatic curves showing that the consumption of alcohol, which had dropped gradually at different periods between 1845 and 1900, was intimately connected with the rise and fall in the nation’s commercial prosperity, and had a certain connection with the accumulating scientific evidence as to the small value of alcohol as a food. The rise and fall in its consumption also had an effect upon the number of inmates in our asylums. From 1900 to the present day there had been a continuous decline in this nation’s consumption per head of alcohol, which was a tendency none ought to deplore. Dr. Rerp Hunt, of Washington, described a series of experiments on young guinea-pigs, to which small doses of a few cubic centimetres of 5 or 10 per cent. alcohol solution were daily given with their food. On four generations, over a period of two years, it was shown that they grew as quickly, reached maturity as soon, were just as fertile, as were those to which alcohol was not given. There was never a symptom of intoxication, no loss of weight, and no pathological changes. The comparison was strictly analogous to human beings who were ‘moderate drinkers.’ Nobody seemed to have discussed deeply the question of the increased tolerance for alcohol in the bodies of animals or meu who had become accustomed to its presence. There was an increased power produced on the part of the physical body to oxidise aleohol, In respect of the comparison of sugar and alcohol, however, he had found that, while sugar increased resistance to poison, alcohol lessened it. He’ had made experiments with guinea-pigs and acetonitril, and alcohol seemed to lessen the resistance to the formation of prussic acid from the acetonitril introduced into the body. Most probably the continued use of alcohol produved, he thought, definite physiological changes in the body processes, sometimes for good and sometimes for evil. Dr. WALLER closed the discussion, which he characterised as having been of very great interest and importance. He hoped that at the next meeting of the Association more positive answers and more definite statistics would be given in respect of the at present doubtful questions raised. There ought to be more M a ‘ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1. 673 knowledge of what a moderate dose of alcohol was, though he had no conception as to what constituted an ‘ extremely’ moderate dose. He had learnt to-day that the amounts of alcohol that could be present in the blood as physiological and pathological standard amounts—viz., 0°2 per cent. and 0°5 per cent. respectively, as shown by Dr. Dixon—were strictly proportional to the amounts of 0:02 and 0:05 respectively for chloroform. He was conscious that the ethical side of the alcohol question had not been touched upon. In the present state of the matter it was the most desirable method of procedure, and was the best way by which to arrive at definite and disinterested scientific conclusions as to the results produced by aleohol upon the physical tissues of the body, and upon the heart, brain, and circu- lation. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. Discussion on the Value of Perfusion Euperiments. The following Paper and Report were then read :— 1. Certain Problems in Electro-physiology. By Dr. N. H. Atcock. In this paper the author considered the analysis of nerve, non-medullated and medullated nerves from the same amount being compared. It appeared that the amount of water was greater, and the total salts slightly less, in the former than in the latter. If the non-medullated nerves be considered to represent the axis- cylinders of the medullated, it follows that the concentration of salts in their structure is less than in the medullary sheath. KCl was specially considered ; the amount of this is not greater than 0:1 per cent. in the axis cylinder, and this salt is present in rather less amount in the medullary sheath, although Macallum’s micro-chemical reactions do not show its presence. 2. Report on the Ductless Glands.—See Reports, p. 400. 1907. Gb 674 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. Section K.—BOTANY. PRESIDENT OF THE SxctTION.—Professor J. B. Farmer, M.A., F.RB.S. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— Custom has decreed that those who are charged with the responsibilities that to-day fall to my lot should endeavour to address themselves to the consideration of matters such as they may deem to be of advantage to others, or, at any rate, of interest to themselves. It is not, perhaps, always easy to combine these two courses, and if I choose the less altruistic one I experience the smaller com- punction in doing so because the undisturbed repose that most Addresses enjoy when they have been decently put away between the covers of our Annual Report seems to indicate that an attempt to express the passing thought, however ephemeral its interest, may not be the worst introduction to the business of the advancement of our science. Any attempt to give a survey of the progress and present position of botanical science, even were so large a task at all within my power, has almost ceased to be necessary, owing to the enterprise which has so admirably provided for its adequate fulfilment elsewhere. I propose, therefore, to try to put together, in a form as intelligible as I can, the result of reflections on some of the aspects of botany that are often not seriously regarded ; perhaps because they belong rather to the nebulous region of speculation than to the hard (and sometimes dry) ground of accepted fact. J am by no means blind to the risks incurred in venturing on such a course, but I believe that a glance directed, however imperfectly, towards some of the less obvious sides of our science may not be altogether futile, even though the attempts should evoke the criticism :— Dum vitat humum, nubes et inania captat. The problems that confront us as botanists are far more numerous and far more complex than formerly. We are attached to a science that is rapidly growing, and this rapid advance is carrying with it a process of corresponding differentiation. Some years ago a danger arose, even within this Association, that we might have replaced differentiation, that quality which distinguishes the higher organisms, by a process of fission which is more characteristic of the lower ranks of life. The products of the threatened fission would doubtless have pursued divergent paths, and the botanist of to-day would have been the poorer for it. He would have been lost to physiology, and all that physiology implies. Happily that danger was averted; and to our lasting advantage as members of the botanical organism our science escaped disruption, and physiological investigation still continues both to inspire, and to be aided by, other branches of botanical research. A physiological conception of morphological phenomena is the one that to me _——_ —eek&F,_,_, as PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 675 seems to afford the broadest outlook over our territory. It serves to check a tendency towards mere formalism on the one hand and to correct the not less baneful effects of a superficial teleology on the other. Both are real dangers, and we have all encountered examples of them. In rating highly the value of maintaining a physiological attitude of mind towards the phenomena presented by the vegetable kingdom, one is mainly influenced by the logical necessity which such a position carries with it of constantly attempting to analyse our problems, as far as may be possible, into their chemical and physical components. It seems to me that this is the only really profitable method that we can bring to bear on the difficulties that lie before us, because in using it we are constantly forced to consider the causes which have led to the final result. Of course I am well aware that to some minds the very attempt to apply such a method beyond a very limited range may appear futile, or at least premature. But the goal of all scientific inquiry lies in the ultimate ascertaining of cause and effect, and only with this knowledge can we hope to get control over the results, Ohemistry and physics each present to their followers problems far more elementary than those with which we have to grapple; but the explanation of the great advances which these two branches have made lies essentially in the fact that an analysis of the factors involved has enabled the investigator intelligently to interfere with, and so to control, the mode of presentation of the reacting bodies to each other. And our own special problems, whether we confine our- selves to the simpler ones, or whether we approach the obscurer matters of organisation, heredity, and the like, are assuredly susceptible of a similar method of treatment. We can never expect to get further than to be able to modify the mode of presentation to each other of the materials that interact to produce what we call the manifestations of life ; but the measure of our achievement will depend on the degree in which we are successful in accomplishing this. Indeed until we have analysed the nature of the reacting bodies, and also especially the particular conditions under which the reactions themselves are con- ducted, we are avoiding the first steps in the direction of ultimate success. At present, when we desire to know the taxonomic value of this or that character, we are perforce largely guided by purely empirical considerations. We find, for example, that a particular structure is very constant through a group of species otherwise closely resembling each other, and we rightly (but quite empirically) regard the possession of that character as a valuable indication of affinity within that alliance. But the very same feature in other groups may be highly variable, and lack all importance in them for systematic purposes. It may be, and very probably is, optimistic to look forward to the time when we shall know why the character is good in one, and worthless in another, alliance. But when we do, I am convinced that the reason will be found to lie in chemical and pbysical causes. We are very ignorant as yet of the details, but we can nevertheless even now form a fair guess at their general nature. In this connection I would venture to express the opinion that much real harm is done by the toleration of an uncritical habit of mind, all too common, as to the significance of structures which are regarded as adaptive responses to stimuli of various sorts. It is mot enough to explain the appearance of a structure on the ground of its utility ; properly speaking, such attempts, so far from providing any explanation, actually tend to bar the way of inquiry just where scientific investiga- tion ought to commence. That many of the responses to such stimuli are of a kind to render the organism ‘ adapted’ to its environment no one, of course, will dispute; but to put forwards the adaptedness as an explanation of the process is both unscientific and superficial, The size and the spherical shape of duckshot are admirably adapted to the purposes for which duckshot is used; but this affords no insight into the necessary sequence of cause and effect, which makes the melted lead assume the characters in question as it falls down the shot-tower. But many people still find consolation and satisfaction in an anthropomorphic and somewhat slipshod application of a kind of doctrine of free-will to matters xx2 676 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. that really call for rigorous examination into the causes which, under given con- ditions, must inevitably and of necessity bring about their definite result. One of the commonest responses to the stimulus of wounding in the higher plants is the formation of a layer of cork over the injured and exposed tissue. No one can deny that this is a reaction of great utility, checking as it does the undue evaporation of water and the entrance of other parasitic organisms. And yet I suppose that no one would go so far as to seriously maintain that the obviousness of these advantages satisfactorily explains why the cork layer is produced. It seems to me that an investigation of the real underlying conditions which govern such a modified reaction would be of immense value, and that the information we might gain therefrom ag to the nature of the chemical processes involved would prove to be of first-rate importance in tracking to their sources some of the factors that influence the course of carbohydrate metabolism within the cell. Again, we know how easy it is to produce colour-changes in the leaves of certain plants—eg., rhubarb—by severing the vascular bundles, and thereby interfering with the process of translocation. Overton has shown how the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates within the leaf of such a plant as Hydrocharis modifies the metabolic processes within the cells. Thus in bright light, under conditions of cold sufficient to arrest starch formation, but not enough to stop photosynthesis, a red-coloured substance makes its appearance in the cell, and this again disappears on raising the temperature, so that the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates diminishes. The red colour which is associated with the change may possibly by absorbing the heat ray aid in restoring metabolism to its ‘normal’ course; but such a teleological explanation is not of general applica- tion, and gives no real insight into the nature of the processes involved. The well-known laboratory method, which we owe to Klebs, of inducing Eurotium to enter on a sexual phase by keeping it at a temperature of 26° C. is another example of the same order, The particular reaction that occurs in each of these instances is that which necessarily results under the specified conditions, and no other course of chemical change is possible. In the last-mentioned example, Eurotium acts in a way similar to that caused by drought, only the result is more quickly produced. This perhaps indicates that we are dealing with a definite series of changes which are inhibited by the presence of too much available nutriment supplied at a temperature too low to enable it to be sufficiently rapidly altered within the organism, so as to give rise to the specific substance which is more directly responsible for the ascogonial phase of the life-history. Something of an analogous character is probably effective in the formation of ‘fairy-rings,’ so typical of the growth of certain agarics. This appearance of fairy-rings may be easily reproduced in artificial cultures of moulds by appropriate means. Thus if the nutriment agar be kept fairly dry, so that the rate of diffusion of soluble materials is slowed down, it is found that concentric zones of sterile and sporiferous hyphz regularly alternate with each other. An explana- tion of this behaviour, which seems most probable, is that the hyphe, after they have been growing over the substratum for a certain distance, have acquired sufficient raw material to provide for the building-up of the substance which stimulates spore-production. When this has taken place the substance so elaborated is used up, and spore-production ceases until a fresh supply of material, under the conditions of the experiment, has been formed to act in its turn asa new stimulus. This suggestion is supported by the interference with the circular form of zones that can be brought about by artificially interfering with the rate of diffusion of the supply of nutriment in the jelly. The rhythmical alternation of sterile and fertile zones seems to prove that quantity of elaborated material is an essential factor in the process, just as in the stimulation of a motile organ the stimulus itself has to reach a certain minimal intensity in order to cause a movement, The parallelism between the nutritive, ¢.e., the chemical, stimulus in the case of the fungus and the minimal time-stimulus required to provoke geotropic move- ment is very striking. For it will be remembered that there is evidence in the latter instance also of the occurrence of a definite chemical change as the result of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 677 the disturbance of normal gravitational relations. This finds expression in the accumulation of homogentisinie acid as the result of the formation of an anti- oxidative substance which arrests the complete disruption of tyrosin in the cells. Whether this is the immediate cause of the geotropic movement, or merely a con- comitant of it, we cannot settle at present. But it is of the highest interest to know that chemical change is initiated as a result of the external gravitational impulse, even when the latter is of too short duration to produce an actual geotropic movement. And although we may not at present be able to identify the exact material which is directly concerned in these stimulatory or formative processes, we have, as it seems to me, irresistible evidence in favour of its real existence, It is more than mere analogy that leads us to believe that the various kinds of galls, for example, that may be produced on an oak leaf owe their formation to the specific interference of the secretion of the grub with the higher metabolic processes going on in the cells of the leaf. I have alluded to the different conditions under which given reagents may interact, and these may in turn very materially affect the final result by modifying the course of ihe reaction itself, We are coming to realise the fact that the physical state of the cellular constituents exercise an important influence on the course of chemical activity manifested within their range. We all know what an important part water plays in ordinary chemical reactions, but the water question assumes a special prominence when the reactions are going on in a colloidal matrix, or rather in a mixture of colloids, such as the various proteins that occur in the cell. Questions of rates of diffusion, physical adsorption, and the like have to be taken into account; and beyond all these there remain the series of remark- able electrical relations which the proteins exhibii, as well as those changes in surface-tension that are, in part at least, connected with them. It is impossible to resist the belief that a closer study of the physico-chemical changes that accompany a nuclear division will yet throw much light on the mechanics of this wonderful process. Indeed we already possess some data which are serving as starting-points for further investigation, and they have placed some of the known facts in a very suggestive light. It has often been urged as a reproach against the histological methods employed in the study of the cell that all such investigations can, after all, only give information as to the character of coagulations or precipitations. . Of course this is perfectly true ; but provided we have sufficiently good grounds for enabling us to feel confident that the precipitation or coagulation faithfully maps out the positions originally occupied by the respective colloids during life, there is no real force in the objection. No one would call in question the accuracy of a photo- graphic negative on the ground that after development it no longer consisted of the actual substances which had been formed in the film by the exposure to the action of light. All that is required is that the deposited silver shall accurately express the limits of, and be proportionate in amount to, the alteration in the | composition of the salt which was produced when the plate was exposed in the camera. Much of the general detail of a nuclear division can be followed even in the living cell, and we therefore possess direct as well as indirect means of testing the degree of accuracy with which the fixed preparation represents the original pattern of distribution of the colloids within the cell. No one who has studied the behaviour of artificially prepared mixtures of colloidal proteins and nucleins after ‘fixing’ and staining them can entertain reasonable doubts as to the substantial identity of the structures visible in a well-fixed cytological preparation with those present during life. For the substances, even in these artificial mixtures, keep remarkably distinct, as indeed Fischer showed some years ago, Few things are more striking than the remarkable series of evolutions passed through by the linin, and by the chromosomes which finally emerge from it during the progress of a mitosis. We have clear evidence that the nucleus at this period is the seat of rapid chemical change. ‘he process of distribution of the nuclein within the linin is sufficient proof in itself of this, But we have also, I believe, 678 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. evidence of physical disturbances of an electrical nature which accompany, and indeed in a measure determine, the course of mitosis. This is indicated, not only by the movements that proceed within the nucleus, and concern the linin and chromo- somes, but also by the remarkable alterations in surface-tension exhibited by the nuclear membrane. It is well known that at a certain stage of the heterotype division, for example, the chromosomes move to the periphery of the nucleus, and each one is removed as far as possible from every other chromosome. At this stage, to which Haecker has given the name of ‘diakinesis,’ the nucleus reaches its maximal size. Diakinesis is not the only stage in which there is an indication of repulsion between the elements of the chromatic linin. Measurements prove that all such periods of repulsion are also marked by an increase of nuclear size which is transitory, and either disappears or alters in a synchronous fashion with them, These phases of enlargement have generally been regarded as directly connected with the intake of liquid by the nucleus, due to a hypothetical change in osmotic conditions. But, so far as I am aware, no satisfactory explanation has yet been given as to why, or how, the supposed increase of osmotically active molecules within the assumed semi-permeable nuclear membrane could be effected. On the other hand, an enlargement of the surface-membrane of the nucleus would necessarily follow on the migration towards it of chromosomes or other bodies carrying similar electrical charges. For the induced charge in the particles of the membrane would of course weaken its coherence, and for the same reason that the free chromosomes repel and move away from one another. There is evidence to show that the proteins are able to carry such charges, and this is a matter of the highest importance as affording a clue to many other processes in which changes of surface-tension play a part, besides those connected with nuclear division. Not the least of the many remarkable properties exhibited by the proteins lies in their capacity of taking on either a positive or a negative charge of electricity. A clear proof of this was afforded by the beautiful experiments of Billitzer, who showed that, when so charged, the colloid moves as a whole towards one pole or the other on sending a current through the liquid in which it was suspended. At first sight it may not be easy to understand how it is possible for a colloid to receive and retain a charge under the conditions which obtain either in the solution or in the cell. It must, however, be remembered that the liquid contains electrolytes in solution also, and any disturbance in the equilibrium of the products of ionic dissociation will be accompanied by corresponding differences of potential. The most reasonable explanation of the phenomenon in question seems to be that the colloids are unequally permeable to the ions, whereby there comes to be a preponderance of one or the other group associated with the proteins. Perhaps this should be connected with the remarkable though still imperfectly understood property of adsorption which is characteristic of many colloids. Much, however, still remains to be done before a complete survey of the electrical changes that are associated with mitosis can be made. We especially desire more complete information on the nature of the chemical processes which are involved. For it is obvious that the physical changes must ultimately be connected with the transformation of materials which goes on so energetically at these recurrent periods of nuclear activity. We do not yet know how or why the chromosomes that have been dispersed at diakinesis should again congregate on the spindle prior to their final separation. Possibly this is to be connected with the signs of disturbance in the extra-nuclear cytoplasm, which in its turn finds expression in the differentiation of the achromatic spindle. The character of this body has long aroused the suspicion that its existence is to be attributed to electrical causes. The more recent work serves to indicate that this suspicion was well founded. The more complete study of the chemistry and physics of karyokinesis is certain to prove valuable for another reason. The successive changes which the nuclei of both animals and plants exhibit when they are undergoing division are so remarkably similar that it seems exceedingly probable that the processes actually a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 679 involved may turn out to be relatively simple, at any rate in their broader features. I mean that they probably belong to what we might term the lower grade of metabolic problems. For the great uniformity of the process as a whole, complex though it undoubtedly is, hardly suggests direct relations as exist- ing between it and those more specialised forms of metabolism on which the properties of specific form, and such like characters, depend. This view of the mutter is not in any way weakened by the fact that the materials providing for the multiplication of nuclei have themselves passed through the very highest stages of anabolic construction. There are, indeed, some grounds for believing that the composition of the higher proteins is distinctly spevific for different groups of organisms; but apart from this it is difficult to resist the conviction that, in so far as its essential constituents are concerned, the nucleus is the seat of a complex organisation which is superadded to its chemical composition. But this conception of the nucleus does not affect the position of the lower-grade chemical changes, with their physical accompaniments which are periodically rendered apparent during the rhythmical series of changes that culminate in the division of the nucleus. It is true that there are some who refuse to admit the necessity of what I might perhaps call architectural complexity in protoplasm. They prefer to regard all the phenomena of organisation and heredity as the outcome of dynamical, rather than of structural, conditions. It seems to me that it is impossible to reconcile such a view with the known facts respecting the inheritance of characters, and that we are driven to postulate the existence of material units which are together responsible for the sum of the characters represented in any individual. There are grounds for believing that these entities, whatever be their nature, are doubled, and are then equally distributed to the two daughter cells at every ordinary nuclear division; and thus the properties of organisation are preserved and transmitted over and above the flux of chemical change. Most people who have concerned themselves with cytological studies agree that the salient features of karyokinesis strongly emphasise the probability of a conservation of definite material; and that an extremely accurate distribution of it occurs where two daughter cells arise from a parent cell by division. And this inference is greatly strengthened by what occurs, more or less immedi- ately, in connection with the formation of the sexual cells. The origin of these in all the higher animals and plants, as is well known, can invariably be traced to a nuclear division of remarkable complexity. In this, the so-called heterotype division, the special feature consists in the sorting-out of the nuclear constituents originally furnished by the two parents of the individual. This sorting or dis- tribution takes place in such a way that each of the two daughter nuclei which arise as the result of the division receives only half the total number of chro- mosomes previously contributed by the two parents. The essential point of interest lies in the fact that the process does not consist in the mere halving of nuclear substance, but in the distribution of nuclear constituents. When two sexual cells which have been formed in this way unite to give rise to a new individual, the total number of nuclear chromosomes is again made good; but the resulting nuclear constitution will not exactly resemble that of either parent. That such is really the case is borne out by innumerable experiments that have been made by breeders. Furthermore the extensive investigations on the results of crosses, both in animals and plants, have confirmed the view that particular characters can be treated as entities. For they are distributed amongst the posterity of the original parents in proportions that closely approximate to mathe- matical expectation. In this distribution the separate characters behave inde- pendently. For instance, the green colour and round form of peas are two characters which may occur in the same or in different individuals. The nume- rical proportions in which they wild appear can be foretold with a considerable degree of accuracy. With these facts before us—and many others could be adduced, all pointing in the same direction—it is not easy to resist the conviction that within the nucleus there must exist material entities which are severally responsible for the appearance 680 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. of the characteristic traits of any given individual. ‘The question is, What con- ception can we form as to their nature, and how are they able to produce the observed results? It is not necessary to discuss the evidence that the chromosomes, or the materials of which they are composed, play a most important part in con- nection with development. All the work of the last decades has tended tu emphasise their importance in the transmission of hereditary qualities, and this is equivalent to admitting that they contain factors that determine the path of development, and are responsible for the production, from the egg, of the form and structure of the adult. Now it is certain that it is not the chromosome-substance acting as a whole which is effective in those processes summed up in the term Ontogeny. It might be, and till recently was, thought that in those plants in which there is a marked alternation of generations a definite relation existed between the number of the chromosomes and the particular stage of the life-history. The double number was supposed to be essential for the sporophyte, whilst the halved number was similarly regarded as causally related with the appearance of the gametophyte or prothallial generation. But Loeb and others had already shown that the eggs of echinoderms might be stimulated to parthenogenetic development by means other than fertilisation, and Wilson found that such larvee only contained the half number of nuclear chromosomes, as, indeed, was only to be expected. But the idea of a close parallelism between chromosome number and the alternative phases of the life history was so deeply rooted that the full significance of Wilson’s discovery was not at cence grasped. The comparative neglect was, perhaps, partly justified, inasmuch as the larve could not be reared. It may, however, be incidentally remarked that no one, so far as I am aware, has yet succeeded in raising the normal echinoderm larva beyond the pluteus stage. The investigation of cases of apospory that occur in the pteridophytes have proved that no causal relation can exist between the number of the chromo- somes and the characters that distinguish the gametophyte and the sporophyte respectively. For the sporophyte may give rise to the gametophyte aposporously without any reduction, whilst the various types of apogamy with which we are now acquainted exhibit all gradations between a coalescence of more or less differentiated nuclei and the complete absence of all semblance of nuclear fusion. In the latter case, when the sporophyte springs from a gametophyte that has itself arisen after nuclear reduction, the sporophyte continues to retain the smaller number of chromosomes normally associated with the other generation only. We thus have a complete proof that a single sexual cell which has undergone reduction in the number of its chromosomes retains, in so far as its architectural contiguration is concerned, the capacity of giving rise to a plant possessed of the full complement of characters belonging to the species. But this, after all, is only what the facts of heredity might have led us to anticipate. For, whilst we are ignorant of the fundamental significance of the sexual fusion of the gametes, one of its most obvious veswts consists in the duplication of the primordia of the specific characters in the cells of the individual thus produced. This statement is not only in accord with results of experiments in breeding, but it is also in harmony with the essential features of the heterotype mitosis; and no other satisfactory interpretation of the latter series of phenomena has yet been found. Furthermore, the facts of Mendelian dominance clearly show that each parent, through the gametes to which it gives rise, contributes an independent organisation responsible for at least some of its own distinctive characters, as well as for those which distinguish the species. Consequently, when two gametes fuse, the embryo will be provided with a duplicate stock of agents or primordia which determine the appearance of its own specific and individual characters, These will not always be similar in the two parents, and when this is the case it often happens that the offspring resembles one parent only in respect of a particular feature. Neverthe- less the results of further breeding shows that the corresponding, but apparently lost, character only is latent, for it reappears in a proportion—and often a fixed ae PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 681 proportion—of the individuals of the succeeding generations. Insuch an example, where both agents or primordia are present, one of them lies dormant, whilst the dominant one alone influences the course of metabolic processes, and thus brings about the appearance of the character itself. The dormant primordium can be transmitted as such through many generations, betraying its existence in each by the occurrence of some individuals in which it tindsits perfect expression. This happens when the opposite dominant agent or primordium has been removed from some of the gametes by the sorting-out process during the heterotype mitosis to which I have already alluded. The particulate character of inheritance seems, as many writers have pointed out, to demand a structural organisation for its basis ; and the units or primordia of which the latter is composed must be relatively permanent, inasmuch as heredity itself is so stable. The agents or primordia themselves probably act by definitely influencing the course of chemical reactions that proceed within the living protoplasm, somewhat after the fashion of the ferments. But whether this influence on the course of metabolism is to be attributed more directly to the chemical or the physical aspect of the organisation must, of course, remain an open question, though I incline to the latter alternative on grounds which I have already indicated. The processes of the higher metabolism offer suggestive analogies with those reactions for which the ferments are responsible. In contemplating them one can hardly fail to be struck by the orderly way in which ferment succeeds ferment on an appropriate medium. Each one produces its own special change, which it is unable to carry further itself, but it thereby provides a substratum suitable for its successor. Starting, for example, with a complex substance like cane sugar, we see it acted on by a series of ferments, each the result of protoplasmic differentia- tion, and each one carrying the process of disintegration a little further, but strictly limited in its power to act, and only able to take the change on to a definite stage. Everyone who has experimented with plants with the view of inducing the formation of some structure foreign to the species or individual by artificial means must have become impressed by the great difficulty of getting into touch, so to speak, with the higher metabolism at all. It is often easy enough to divert the life-history into either the vegetative or the reproductive channel, as every gardener is more or less consciously aware, and as Klebs has conclusively shown in his remarkble series of carefully conducted experiments. But even here it is some- times difficult to exactly hit off the conditions requisite to ensure the production of one or other of the various phases of the life-history. There are many furgi, for example, which are believed to represent vegetative stages of Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes, but it has not yet been found possible to ascertain the conditions that would cause them to form the highest fructifications. Even in simpler instances a similar difficulty is sometimes encountered. Thus Bispora moniliforme, a mould that often occurs on the wood and stumps of oak or hornbeam, is not readily cultivated as the Bispora form, whether it be grown on wood or on various nutritive media. The usual result of raising it under artificial conditions is to obtain a luxuriant crop of Eurotium-like mould. But the Bispora form can be reproduced from such a culture by growing it in strong solutions of cane sugar under certain conditions, all of which are not as yet understood. I take it we shall agree that the properties of structure and form are to be interpreted as the necessary result of the action of particular substances on the protoplasm, and that these cause it to assume those definite attributes which we term specific on account of their constancy through a larger or smaller range of individuals. But this constancy of form must then be the result of a correspond- ing definiteness in tha series of changes undergone by the raw materials supplied as food in their upward transformations; each stage in the process limits the possible range of those that follow, as in the case of the ferments to which I have alluded ; and thus it becomes increasingly difficult to modify the final result. In this way we may see, perhaps, an explanation of the circumstance that in amphibious plants the particular structure, whether adapted for land or water, 682 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. that will arise in conformity with the environment, is irrevocably determined long before the organs themselves are sufficiently developed to be exposed to the direct influence of the conditions to which they are supposed to be specially adapted, ae it is a matter of common knowledge that the formative processes can be, and sometimes are, disturbed with the most surprising results. I may again refer to the fungal or insect galls as examples that will be familiar to everyone. It appears to me that these exceptional developments are of extraordinary importance in relation to any endeavour to probe the mysteries of organisation. The very difficulty experienced in imitating the effect of the iusect’s secretion strongly em- phasises the specialised nature of the particular substance which is able to modify the ‘normal’ reactions of the plant. The latter are dependent on the way in which the organic apparatus determines the fashion of the molecular presen- tations, so that, as I have said, the course of the reactions themselves become increasingly limited in their range. Now as regards the mauner in which the secretion of the insect operates, it seems clear that it can produce no permanent change in the organising apparatus of the protoplasm, since the growth is at once arrested on the removal or death of the insect. But whether the influence is one that more directly affects the physical state of the apparatus for the time being, or whether it acts more directly by introducing new substances into the final chemical reactions, are questions which are plainly worth investigation, but at present certainly do not admit of an answer. Another example of interference with the developmental processes is afforded by the well-known ‘lithium larva,’ which was discovered by Herbst to arise when the eggs of some species of sea-urchins are allowed to segment in sea-water that has been altered by the addition of lithium salts. The monstrosity produced under these conditions was just as constant and specitic in character as are the different galls which can be induced to develop on an oak leaf by the corresponding species of insect. Extending these considerations a little further, one sees that what we call disease also falls into the same category. For disease represents the necessary outcome of a disturbance, however introduced, into the course of metabolism, which diverts it from the ‘normal’ channels. Pathology has long recognised that the explanation and the consequent control of disease lies, ultimately, in the correct appreciation of the cellular reactions as the result of their experimental study. We cannot pride ourselves on the advances that have been made in the study of plant pathology as yet. Our remedies are commonly of the crudest kind, and we have only recently begun to take serious count of the facts of organisation in the scientific attempt to breed races of plants immune from the attack of certain diseases. The results that have already been obtained, both abroad and by Biffen and others in this country, are full of hope at the present time. The study of the caus+s of immunity along scientific lines ought assuredly to form a fruitful field of investigation in the near future. From what we already know it seems clear that the proximate causes of immunity may be diverse in character, and may consist in very different reactions in different cases. It may be that the response hecomes expressed in a modifi- cation of the carbohydrate metabolism, leading to the formation of an excluding layer of cork; or it may lie in the direction of those substances, as yet so little understood, the anti-toxins; or, again, it may be due to still other and eyen less apparent causes. But whatever the true nature of the response, it will have to be investigated for individual cases, and its secrets will only be unlocked when the chemical and physica! processes invulved in its operation are understood. In making these remarks I dare say I may be accused of putting forward an impossible ideal, or at any rate one that is impracticable of attainment. I am not very much concerned about that. Progress is only to be made by trying to penetrate further than we can at present see, and I believe we have gained enough insight into the chemistry and physics of the living processes to warrant us in hoping that we shall penetrate a good deal deeper still. But if we are to ever unravel the tangle, it can only be by applying such methods ag have been successful in dealing with material things elsewhere. —— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 683 For the problems that rise up before us are seen, as we become able to get at close quarters with them, to resolve themselves more and more into questions of chemistry and physics. I believe that it is only by the help of these elder branches of science that the accurate formulation, to say nothing of the final solution, of the problems will be achieved. A recent writer has suggested that life is not the cause of the reactions underlying the phenomena of life. Nevertheless the reactions that go on in the living body are obviously guided as to the particular directions they take by the apparatus or mechanism of the individual organism. When the conditions for the manifestation of life, and all that it implies, are satisfied, what will be produced depends partly on the structure of the apparatus itself (z.c., on the hereditary organisation), partly on the nature of the substances fed into the apparatus, and finally on the physical conditions under which it is working. Itis probably along the last two lines that investigation will continue to be pursued with more immediate profit ; but the goal will not be finally reached till we have solved the problem as to the nature of organisation itself. The following Papers and Reports were then read :— 1. Charnwood Forest. By WiuL1AM BELL, The paper dealt with the situation, original boundary, physical features (un- doubtedly caused by volcanic action), inhabitants—people, animals, birds, &c.— and the vegetation of Charnwood Forest. The original flora can be to some extent restored by the extension of the vegetation found in the undisturbed country round Groby Pool to those parts of the forest which exhibit similar physical features. There is a suggestion of an alpine or sub-alpine flora by the survival of such plants as Empetrum nigrum, Cotyledon umbilicus, Ke. There has been a gradual contraction of the forest area with the vanishing of the woodland and bog. Edward I. gave permission for a park to be enclosed from Charnwood Forest. There is strong reason to believe that a stretch of country reaching from the River Soar, near Birstall, along the southern side, and on the western side right up to the border of Derbyshire, were so enclosed. If so, the ramifications of the forest reached considerably further than is generally held at the present day, and in fact joined up to the Leicester Forest.) Further contraction of the area was brought about by the allotments to the various adjoining parishes and the claims or gifts to the various religious orders who built abbeys and priories in and on the borders of Charnwood; and the final enclosure of the remainder, sanctioned by an Act of Parliament in 1808, which became effective in 1829. i The chief features of the woodland are oak, birch, beech, fir, ash, elm, &c. ; but the gradual clearance of all timber from the forest for building, naval, and fuel purposes led to the practical absence of timber for about two centuries, though | there has been partial reafforestation. Dr. Richard Pulteney’s (1746) list of plants found in the neighbourhood of Loughborough contains 315 records undoubtedly referring to Charnwood Forest ; a comparison of these records is made with the later ones of Bloxam and Coleman, Mary Kirby, and the ‘ Flora of Leicestershire’ (1886), and with our recent personal experience of plants on the forest area. Tables were given, showing the increase or decrease in quantity or number of stations of the plants named by Pulteney, and demonstrating the change in the character of the flora by subdividing the plants which exhibit a change into woodland, bank, rock, bog, water, heath, and field (arable and pasture) forms, Some features of the present flora were illustrated by lantern-slides and maps. 684 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 2. On the Disappearance of certain Cryptogamic Plants from Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire, within historic times. By A. R. Horwoop. Like some phanerogams formerly found within the boundary of the historic Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire, there are many cryptogams which have become extinct within the last century. Amongst these last the lichens, hepatics, and mosses have received most attention from a systematic point of view locally, and the communication referred mainly to those plants. It may be stated, however, that, as a general rule applying to all the Crypto- gamia, certain plants are confined, in the Leicestershire district, to Charnwood Forest, From various causes a considerable number have disappeared from that region. The principal of these are (a) the drainage and disforestation of the forest, and (6) the increased amount of smoke resulting from the ever-growing number of colliery and other workings in the neighbourhood, causing the diffusion of sulphurous gases, which are detrimental to the growth of plants, affecting principally their leaves or vegetative organs. Licheus are especially susceptible to this new poisoning agent, and it does not seem to have hitherto been placed on record how widespread is the extermination of the lichens of Great Britain. As a result, numerous species and genera have become extinct, and many plants are found to be imperfectly developed. According to the Rev. H. P. Reader, who first pointed out this fact to the author, the approaching disappearance of all but the hardiest lichens is not confined to Leicestershire, nor even to the manu- facturing districts of Central England, but is noticeable also in the less populated portions of the South of England. A summary of the cryptogamic plants that have become extinct in Leicester- shire was given, which included not only a large number of the rarer and more interesting lichens, but a considerable number of species of hepatics and mosses. 3. On the Cotyledon of Sorghum as a Sense Organ. Sy Francis Darwin, F.2.S. The observations here given are supplementary to the paper on Geotropism and the Localisation of the Sensitive Region read before Section K in 1899 and published in the ‘ Annals of Botany,’ vol. xiii. The method employed is a modification of Czapek’s well-known experiment on roots in which the organ is bent by being allowed to grow into acurved glass tube. In my work, the cotyledon of Sorghum is forcibly bent close to the base and fixed in that position to a vertical plate of cork. It was found that this treatment produces a traumatic eflect on the hypocotyl which tends to curve in the direc- tion of the bend impressed on the cotyledon. The seedlings can be fixed in two positions: in one (No. 1) the traumatic effect is added to the geotropic stimulus which according to my experiments of 1899 originates in the cotyledon; in position 2 the traumatic effect and the cotyledonary stimulus are opposed to each other. In position 1 the curvature of the hypocotyl is always in the direction which would be accounted for if the cotyledon were the sense organ for gravity. In position 2 the results were irregular, no doubt owing to the opposition of the sraumatic effect. Thisresult is not conclusive, but it should be noted that if the teat of geo-perception were exclusively in the hypocotyl the results must have been reversed—a curvature should have occurred regularly in position 2, while the curvatures should have occurred irregularly in position 1. The conclusion that geo-perception occurs in the cotyledon is confirmed by using the method which Piccard employed in the case of roots. Sorghum seedlings are fixed by their cotyledons to a Knight’s machine (having a horizontal axis) so that the cotyledon and hypocotyl are exposed to opposing centrifugal stimuli. his is effected by arranging the seedling so that the junction of the cotyledon with the hypocotyl } But see a paper read at the Bradford meeting, 1900, by Mr. Albert Wilson, dealing with the same question. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 685 is in line with the axis of rotation: under these conditions the hypocotyl curves away from the centre in obedience to the stimulus arising in the cotyledon. If geo-perception were confined to the hypocotyl the curvature must have been towards the centre. 4. A Botanical Excursion in the Welwitschia Desert. By Professor H. H. W. Pearson, Sc.D., F.L.S. Welwitschia is confined to the littoral strip of desert which, commencing near the mouth of the Orange River, extends northwards far into the tropics. The paper records observations ! made in 1907 in the neighbourhood of Haikamchab and Welwitsch, situated in the most southern area from which the plant is known. The flora of the desert belt (the ‘ Namib’) is of a marked desert type, mainly characterised by several highly peculiar and endemic forms. The western fringe of the Namib is occupied by sand-dunes, some of which are as much as 200 feet high. Their vegetation is very scanty, and it appears that the whole pbanero- gamic flora of the dunes of Walfisch Bay comprises no more than a dozen species. Of these, two are of special interest, viz., Acanthosicyos horrida and Tamarix articulata, The former, a member of the Cucurbitacez, is well adapted to growth in accumulations of sand, and many of the large dunes owe their stability, and indeed their existence, to this plant, whose deep roots serve as anchors, East of the sand-dunes, where the surface is hard, the flora is richer in species, though in many localities considerable areas are quite destitute of flowering plants. The vegetation consists chiefly of deep-rooted woody perennials of low habit and with small leaves. Among these are Zygophyllum Stapfii, a very characteristic Namib plant, and one of the surprisingly few succulents met with, Commiphora saxicola, Sarcocaulon sp., whose stems are encased in an armour of hard wax, a Bauhinia, a few Capparidacez and Blepharids. The grasses are rather numerously represented in sandy places by species of Aristida, and prostrate Cucurbitaces are not infrequent. The arborescent Aloe dichotoma is common among the barren crags of the broken country overlooking the main river-beds. Welwitschia occurs abundantly on the Namib plateau, and descends the ravines leading down to the deeper river-channels. Its altitudinal range is about 400 feet. A number of photographs illustrating the habit of the plant, its inflorescences, cones and flowers, were shown. Pollination is mainly, if not entirely, effected by the hemipteron Odontopus sexpunctulatus, as has already been described.” Subfoliar inflorescences commonly occur. Fertilisation rarely fails, and very large numbers of fertile seeds are pro- duced. No germinating seeds nor young seedlings were found, and it appears that the conditions necessary for effective reproduction rarely occur, The Namib flora must be regarded as of great age, and it must be supposed that the climatic conditions at present prevailing in South-west Africa, especially the distribution of the rainfall, have, in their mean features, been permanent for an enormously long period. Although now so distinct the flora is probably derived from the same stock as the Acacia formation which flourishes to the east of it, and which in a former period may perhaps have extended considerably to the west of its present limit. 5, Report on the Registration of Botanical Photographs. See Reports, p. 417. 6. Report on Research on South African Cycads and on Welwitschia. See Reports, p. 408. ? Assisted by a grant from the British Association. * Nature, vol, Ixxv. pp. 536, 537. 686 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 7. Third Interim Report on the Structure of Fossil Plants. See Reports, p. 408. 8. Report on Peat Moss Deposits.—See Reports, p. 410. 9. Report on Studies of Marsh Vegetation.—See Reports, p. 409. 10. Report on Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity. See Reports, p. 410. 1l. The Preservation of Natural Monuments. By Professor CoNWENTZ. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Embryology of Pteridophytes. By Professor F. O. Bowsr, /.2.S. Comparative embryology of the sporophyte stands at the moment in a dis- credited position as compared with other avenues to an opinion on the phylogeny of Pteridophytes. The chief reasons for this are :— 1. Distrust of segmentation as bearing any constant relation to the genesis of arts. f 2. The apparent inconstancy of position and of number of the parts in embryos of near affinity, e.g., in the different species of Lycopodium. 3. The obvious physiological opportunism which dominates the development of certain embryos, notably those of the Leptosporangiate ferns. 4. The inconstancy of the occurrence of a suspensor, and of certain tuberous and suctorial swellings. The position commonly held at the moment is that stated by Goebel,’ that ‘oot, shoot, and haustorium are laid down in the positions that are most beneficial for their function.” This implies that there is no generally constant feature in the conformation of embryos in vascular plants. To those who accept this as true, embryology cannot form a secure basis for general comparisons, or for phylogenetic argument. A revision of the embryology in the whole series of Pteridophytes, in which the facts relating to the Psilotacez form now the only conspicuous gap, has led to the con- clusion that the form is not so inchoate as Goebel’s statement implies. There is one point comparable in them all, which does not appear susceptible of disturbance on a basis of opportunism—viz., the position of the apex of the axis relatively to the primary segmentation. The position, number, and time of origin of the primordial leaves may vary, roots may also vary im number and position and time of appear- ance, and haustoria and tuberous swellings may be large or small, present or absent, but a comparison of embryos shows that the apex of the axis bears a constant posi- tion in the epibasal hemisphere. The time of initiation of the epibasal hemisphere varies according to the presence or absence of a suspensor, and in different types it may he directed towards, or away from, the archegonial neck. But whatever these variants, the apex of the definitive axis lies at a point coincident with, or in very near proximity Organography II., p. 246. lof, et ne it TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 687 to, the intersection of the octant walls of the epibasal hemisphere, The position of the apex of the axis defines the polarity of the embryo; and as its position relatively to the basal wall is constant, that wall is itself the early indication of that polarity. There are two or three sources of disturbance, which veil the recognition of the polarity thus noted, as a constant feature in embryos :— 1. The initial polarity is apt to be inverted, and evidence of such inversion may be found within definite phyla. Examples will be quoted in Lycopodiales (Selaginella and Iscétes); in Ferns (Marattiacee and Leptosporangiates); in Ophioglossaceze (Ophioglossum and certain species of Botrychium). 2. Certain parts may be hastened forward in their development, or delayed, according to biological requirements, If leaves be precocious, the axis is apt to be delayed or dormant; but where most insignificant its constancy of position is indicated by the orientation of the leaves. 3. Parenchymatous swellings may be formed of the nature of a‘ protocorm’ or of an haustorium (foot) ; these may distort the embryo in a high degree, and mask the relation of the ultimate shoot-apex relatively to the initial segmentation (e.g. Lyc. cernuum). But it is believed that in all cases that relation really exists The definition of such a polarity in the embryo presents it to the mind as a spindle of varying proportion upon which appendages may be borne. This is the obvious condition in Eguisetwm—the only one of the strobiloid sporangiophoric Pteridophytes in which the embryology is known. The condition of other embryos, even the most divergent, is believed to be due to modifications of a similar construction, susceptible of biological explanation. In extreme cases, suck as certain Lycopods, a peculiar embryologic phase—the protocorm—thus pre- cedes the regular vegetative shoot: this is held to be the result of a secondary specialisation. In others, such as Z. Selago and Phlegmaria, the development passes directly to a condition characteristic of the permanent shoot; these are believed to reflect more nearly the primitive history. In Ferns, as also in Jsoétes, the early polarity of the embryo is marked by the precocious development of the cotyledon. In Ophioglossacez this precocity varies ina high degree, and in many of them it is the root which is precocious, while the first leaves may be developed sometimes as insignificant scales. But under all these diverse proportions the embryo is so con- structed that the apex of the axis originates at, or in near proximity to, the centre of the epibasal hemisphere. 2. Joint Discussion with Section D on the Physical Basis of Heredity. Opened by Professor S. J. Hicxson.—See p. 541. 3. Some Advances in our Knowledge of the Pollination of Flowers. By Professor F, E, Weiss, D.Sc. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Morphology of Aspergillus herbariorum. By Miss H. ©. I. Fraser and H. 8S. Cuamsers. Aspergillus herbariorum was first studied by De Bary in 1863. His investiga- tions were non-cytological, and in view of the very common occurrence of this fungus further knowledge of its development was felt to be desirable. Cultures were made on 3 per cent. agar-agar mixed with prune juice and cane sugar. _ The archicarp is more or less coiled, and is divided into three parts, all multi- nucleate. The apex of the coil forms a unicellular trichogyne ; below this is a considerably longer unicellular ascogonium, and below again a septate stalk, 688 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, An antheridium is usually developed ; when present it either becomes continuous with the trichogyne or degenerates before reaching this stage. We were not able to trace the breaking down of the wall between the trichogyne and ascogonium, but we think it probable that normal fertilisation sometimes takes place. In the absence of this process we infer that a form of reduced fertilisation occurs, similar to that observed by one of us in Lachnea stercorea. After fertilisation or its equivalent has taken place, sheathing hyphe grow around the archicarp, arising mainly from the cells of the stalk. They eventually form two layers—the outer protective, the inner nutritive. The ascogonium becomes septate and its cells branch, giving rise to ascogenous hyphe. These grow irregularly among the nutritive cells and produce asci. The nuclei of the ascogenous hyphee are often in pairs. Fusion of two nuclei occurs in the ascus. This is followed by three karyokinetic divisions, and eight spores are produced. Pairs of confluent ascocarps were occasionally seen. Recent observations on Eremascus (Stoppel, 1907) have brought into renewed prominence the question of the phylogeny of the Ascomycetes. The genus Aspergillus is no doubt primitive; its antheridium and archicarp (still more, perhaps, those of Penicillium) recall the ‘copulating hyphe’ of Eremascus. In another direction it may be related to Boudiera, the paired ascocarps forming a possible step towards the compound arrangement normal in that genus. Recent work (Claussen, 1907) has approximated Boudiera and Pyronema. The spermatia and the septate archicarps of the Lichens and Pyrenomycetes may also be related to the sexual organs of Aspergillus. In this genus, as in Spherotheca, the antheridium develops as a hypha, at the end of which an antheridial cell is cut off. If this cell, instead of fusing with a neighbouring archicarp, were set free from its parent hypha it would scarcely differ froma spermatium. In Nemalion (Wolfe, 1904), among the Red Algz, the so-called spermatium is actually an antheridium, and still contains two nuclei. 2. Fertilisation in Ascobolus furfuraceus (Pers.). By E. J. WELSFORD. The development of Ascobolus furfuraceus was first described in 1871 by Janczewski, and since then has been more fully investigated by Harper and by Dangeard., The ascocarp in its early stages consists of a scolecite of from six to ten cells, arising from a dense tangle of multinucleate hyphe, and is rapidly covered by a hyphal sheath, The cells of the scolecite are at first uninucleate, but they soon increase in size and become multinucleate; one of them, generally that fourth from the apex, is larger than the others, and gives rise to the ascogenous branches. Large circular pores are present in the transverse walls of the scole- cite, and through these the nuclei and cytoplasm of the neighbouring cells migrate into the large cell, Here they fuse in pairs, and the fusion nuclei eventually pass into the ascogenous hyphx, which by this time have grown out from all parts of the ascogenous cell. Asci arise as branches of these hyphe and the ascogenous cell is soon emptied of its contents. The process of syngamy in Ascobolus furfuraceus is evidently of a reduced type, since a male organ is not present. Fusion in pairs of the nuclei of the scolecite, however, takes place. ‘The ascogenous cell in which this occurs is obviously female. If the neighbouring cells of the scolecite be placed in the same category, the sexual fusion in Ascobolus furfuraceus closely resembles that in Humaria granulata ; if, on the other hand, tuese supernumerary cells be regarded as vegetative, the form of syngamy approximates to that observed in such of the Uredinese as Phragmidium violaceum. 3. Nuclear Fusions and Reductions in the Asconvycetes. By Miss H. C, I. Fraser. The following observations were made primarily on Humaria rutilans, a small orange Discomycete with exceptionally large nuclei. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 689 The ascocarp originates as a tangle of septate hyphae among which sexual organs are not differentiated. Normal fertilisation is replaced by the fusion of vegetative nuclei in pairs, occasionally preceded by migration. The process is quite analogous to that which takes place in ‘ pseudapogamous’ fern prothallia,' and probably also in certain Uredinew,’ and in the Basidiomycetes. Cells containing fusion-nuclei give rise to sporophytic or ascogenous hyphw; those in which fusion has not taken place produce the paraphyses and other gametophytic structures. Divisions in the sporophytic hyphae show sixteen chromosomes. Asciare formed in the usual way, but since the terminal cell continues its growth, they are regarded as lateral branches of the ascogenous hyphe. After it is cut off, the two nuclei of the ascus enter independently on the prophases of a heterotype division. They fuse soon after the stage of the first contraction. Fusion is regarded as brought about by their close proximity at a time when the nuclear membrane is breaking down ; occasionally it fails to take place. The subsequent stages of the first and second mitoses in the ascus are in agreement with those described by Farmer and Moore (1905) for the reducing divisions of various animals and plants; the chromosomes divide ¢ransversely in the heterotype. The chromosomes throughout the meiotic phase are sixteen in number; but since sixteen is the diplocytic number and, at this stage, the reduced number is typically present, they are regarded as representing two gametophytic sets of chromosomes, Fusion in the ascus thus results in the doubling of the chromo- somes. In. the prophase of the third division sixteen chromosomes appear; they separate without fusion, so that only eight pass to each daughter nucleus. second reduction is thus brought about, and the true gametophytic number of chromosomes is restored. Probably the extraordinary regularity with which two fusions occur in the life history of the Ascomycetes is due to the establishment of two reductions in the ascus. In all investigated organisms the meiotic phase is related to fertilisation or its equivalent ; the simpler reduction of the third division is held to be connected with the fusion in the ascus. It is probable that a reduction of this type compensates other asexual fusions also. A method of distinguishing between sexual and asexual fusions is thus suggested. The processes in the ascus of H. rutilans are related to those observed in Phyliactinia* and the few other Ascomycetes studied from this point of view. There is reason to believe that a sorting of the chromosomes, analogous to that seen in meiosis, takes place in the third division of the ascus; the most essential difference between the two reductions seems thus to lie in the more complex prophases of the heterotype division and particularly in the characteristic con- traction of the chromatin. Spore formation was also studied; the general appearance was that described by Harper, but neighbouring vacuoles take part in the process. The main observations on H. rwtilans and especially those relating to the third division in the ascus have been confirmed by the author in conjunction with Miss HK, J. Welsford for Peziza aurantia. 4, Enzymes: their Mode of Action and Functions. By Professor H. E. Armsrrone, £.2.8., and Dr. E. F, ARMSTRONG. Joint Discussion with Sections D and L on the Teaching of Biology in Schools.—See p. 547. 1 Farmer and Digby, 1907 2 Blackman and Fraser, 1906 ® Harper, 19065. 1907. YY 690 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Real Nature of the so-called Tracheids of Ferns. By D. T. Gwynne VauGuan, J/.A. The metaxylem elements of the Osmundace, both recent and fossil, are not tracheids, but form a special and peculiar type of vessel. The pits, both in the end and in the lateral walls, are true perforations, and usually more than one series of pits occurs on the same side of the wall. Further, there is no middle substance in the median plane of the wall joining together the pairs of bars of thickening that separate the corresponding pits of two adjoining tracheids. There is therefore a cavity or free passage up and down connecting each vertical series of pits in the middle of the substance of the wall. These cavities arise by the re-absorption in these regions of the whole of the primary wall of the young trachee. The same type of element seems to be widely spread among the other orders of the Pteridophyta. 2. On the Structure and Affinities of Physostoma elegans (Williamson), a Pteridospermous Seed from the Coal Measures. By Professor F. W. Outver, I.R.S. * The diversity of form usually met with in a modern group of plants, such as a natural order of Angiosperms, is of great assistance in determining the affinities of the group. The differing floral characters of a series of allied genera, for instance, furnish the data upon which judgments can be based as to the probable line or lines of floral evolution within and even beyond the limits of the order. In this respect the palzo-botanist who studies petrifactions is at a disadvantage owing to the very isolated and specialised character of the floras that are available. Thus the position in regard to the coal-measure flora is somewhat analogous to that which would obtain in regard to the existing flora were the latter represented by a portion of a single forest and a salt-marsh. Or, to put the matter in a slightly different way, our carboniferous petrifactions are largely isolated and often special types comparable with Ginkgo, Welwitschia, and Taxus in the existing flora. In these circumstances, in the rare cases in which a series of allied forms is available, the detailed comparison of its members is most desirable. Such a series is afforded by the Lagenostoma-group of pteridospermous seeds of which the seed Physostoma elegans’ is one of the representatives. The present paper deals with Physostoma and with a consideration of its relationship to the Lageno- stomas, The seed is quite exceptional among structures of this class in the ensemble of unique and curious characters which it presents. The grounds are considered fully for regarding it as the most primitive of the pteridospermous seeds that have yet come under observation. 3. On the Cone of Bothrodendron mundum. By D. M. 8. Watson, B.Se. The small cone described by Williamson in 1880, part x. of his ‘Memoirs on the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures,’ pl. 15, fig. 8, has been obtained in transverse section by the author. The wood of its axis agrees exactly with that of Bothrodendron mundum (Will). 1 This name was originally proposed by the late Professor W. C. Williamson for the seed which, owing to the imperfect material then available, he afterwards called Lagenostoma physoides. ‘Che time has now arrived when effect may be given to Williamson’s original intention. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 691 The whole cone is very small and weakly constructed. It is found to be hermaphrodite, the microspores being at the top, where the cone is smaller in diameter than in the lower macro-sporangiate region, The macro- and micro-sporangia and their sporophylls have the same structure, In each case the radial extension of the sporophyll is very slight; the sporangium is attached to the middle of the horizontal portion by a narrow circular neck of tissue. Between this attachment and the upturned lamina is a large ligule. The base of this is surrounded by transfusion tissue of the ordinary type. The macrospores occur four in each sporangium, and are characterised by bear- ing long branched spines, The micro-sporangia when isolated have been often confused with those of Miadesmia. They are shown to belong to this Bothrodendron cone by comparison with attached examples and with detached macro-sporangia, with which they agree perfectly in structure. 4, On the Hairiness of certain Marsh Plants. By Professor R. H. Yaprpr, IA. In contrast to true aquatics, a large number of marsh plants possess more or less abundant hairs on their leaves and other parts. In some cases the hairs are sparse; in others (e.g., Spirea ulmaria) the hairs form a dense felt on the under- surfaces of the leaves. But in the leaves of many species there are marked seasonal differences in this and other respects. Thus in Mentha aquatica, Lysimachia vulgaris, Epilobium hirsutum, Spirea ulmaria, and other species, the first-formed leaves of the year are small and glabrous, while the later-formed leaves are larger and more hairy. Asa general rule the low-growing shoots have either glabrous or only slightly hairy leaves, while the taller, erect shoots are more hairy. Spirea wlmaria is especially striking in this respect. It forms in the spring- time successively glabrous, partially hairy, and hairy leaves, the pubescence on the latter being exceedingly dense, particularly in the case of the leaves on the erect flowering stems. The distribution of the hairs on the partially hairy leaves is interesting, and seems to follow quite definite rules. Thus (1) in a partially hairy leaf the terminal leaflet is always the most hairy, the pubescence on the other leaflets decreasing from above downwards; while (2) in a partially hairy leaflet the pubescence first appears round the edges of the leaflet, or sometimes in well-marked bands between the main veins. Now, there exists an entirely glabrous form of Spirea ulmaria, the so-called var. denudata, which, so far as my own experience goes, occurs in Nature only in quite sheltered places. On growing this variety in situations exposed to strong winds it appears to suffer more from the exposure than the ordinary hairy form, The effect of such exposure is that the leaves soon become partially withered, the distribution of the withered parts very nearly coinciding with the distribution of hairs on a partially hairy leaf of the ordinary variety; that is to say, the most vulnerable parts of the leaves are precisely those parts on which hairs first appear in a partially hairy leaf. 5. On the Inheritance of certain Characters in Primula sinensis. By R. P. Greaory, IA. The primary object of these experiments, begun in 1903 by Mr. Bateson and the writer, upon Primula sinensis and other heterostyled plants, was the investi- gation of the inheritance of the characters of long and short style. Ina previous. communication’ we showed that the inheritance of these characters is Mendelian, 1 Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1905; Roy. Soc, Proc., B, vol. lxxvi., 1905. ¥Y2 692 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. the short-styled or thrum-eyed form being dominant over the long styled (pin-eyed) form. Subsequent experiments have confirmed this, and the larger numbers now obtained approximate closely to the theoretical ratios, although in particular cases discrepancies sometimes occur, In the case of one race of plants the results of our earlier experiments appeared to indicate an interesting departure from the normal. Used as male parents, these plants gave results consistent with the gametic constitution DD, while used as female parents they appeared to be heterozygous. This case has been followed up, but in all the offspring the peculiarity was found to have disappeared, all the plants used proving to be pure in respect of the short style (DD). Other characters which have been investigated are the form of the leaf, the presence or absence of the large yellow ‘eye’ in the flower, the colour of the stem and petioles, and the colour of the flower. Of these the first gives simple Mendelian results, the palmate character of the leaf being dominant to the fern leaf. In some cases a form of leaf somewhat intermediate in character between the palmate and fern-leaf types occurs. We conjecture that this type may be of a heterozygous nature. The large yellow ‘eye’ may occur in thrum-eyed or non-thrum plants. It is a recessive character, rendered interesting by the fact that when it occurs in a plant which is not a thrum the style does not project above the level of the anthers, although the position of the anthers and the size of the pollen, as well as the results of breeding experiments, prove it to be a long-styled plant. As regards the colour of the stem and petioles, both may he green, or red pigment may be present, which varies in intensity and distribution in different races. The red colour may be confined to a faint appearance of red round the ‘collar,’ the stems being green; the stems may be light red, with or without a darker ‘collar’; or the stems and collar may be a deep red. The colour of the stem is therefore determined by two (and perhaps more) pairs of allelomorphic characters. The colour of the flowers presents a very complex problem, and we are still very far from its complete elucidation. Perhaps the most interesting result at present definitely attained is the discovery of two distinct classes of whites. One race of white-flowered plants with pure green stems (Sutton’s ‘Snowdrift’) proves to be a true albino, being devoid of any colouring pigment. But in all the other races of white-flowered plants examined a character occurs which must be looked upon as inhibiting the development in the flower of a colour which is potentially present in the plant. These white plants all show red pigment in the stem, although it may be confined to the merest trace of colour at the collar. ‘Snowdrift’ crossed by a form with coloured flowers gives a coloured F,. The ‘Dominant Whites’ crossed by the paler colours give in F, white flowers, and crossed by the forms possessing full-coloured flowers give tinged white in F,. In F, these tinged whites break up into a long series of coloured, tinged, and white forms. The offspring of the ‘Dominant Whites’ x ‘Snowdrift’ possess white flowers (F,), and in F, give whites and coloured forms. The appearance of coloured flowers in F, may be explained from the gametic constitution of the parents. The ‘Dominant White’ possesses both inhibition and colour (DC) ; ‘Snowdrift’ possesses neither (de). In the F, of such across three plants out of six- teen will be of the constitution (dC), and will therefore show colour in the flowers. The character of the colour depends on the particular race of ‘ Dominant White’ used in the experiment. From the results at present obtained one may perhaps say that when the ‘ Dominant White’ has a red collar only, the stems otherwise being green, the colour which appears in Fis a pale pink. When the ‘Dominant White’ is one which possesses deeper colour inthe stem, magenta-flowered plants, as well as pale-pinks, appear in F,. In both cases the pale-pink flowers are always borne on plants with red only in the collar, the magenta flowers on plants with red or full-red stems. This is an instance of the coupling between the colour of the flower and the —— TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 693 presence of colour in the stem which is found to hold good also in the case of plants of other races than those just described. Whether this coupling is simply zygotic or whether it may sometimes be gametic is not yet clear. 6. The Phylogenetic Connexions of the recent Addition to the Thread Bacteria (Spirophyllum ferrugineum [Z//is]). By Davip Exis. This new species, discovered in the iron-waters of Renfrewshire, and since found to be fairly well distributed throughout the west of Scotland, is phylo- genetically interesting because it links the iron-bacteria with the genus Spiromonas, which has hitherto been thrust out of the bacteria-group, but inserted in Migula’s classification as a dependent. Spirophyllum agrees with Spiromonas in possessing a flattened body thickened at the edge in the same way. Both are also spirally twisted, but whereas Spiromonas never shows more than one and a quarter turns, and is motile in the mature condition, Spirophyllum may exhibit any number of turns, and is only slightly motile immediately subsequent to germination, Whilst the relationship between these two genera is undoubted, it is equally certain that the new genus Spirophyllum is very closely allied to the other iron-bacteria on account of the similarity in their mode of life, their mode of deposition of iron, and more especially in their mode of reproduction. It therefore seems desirable to alter slightly the definition of the order Chlamydo-bacteriaceee (Migula’s classification), so as to include koth Spiromonas and Spirophyllum. This could be done by inserting ‘cylindrical or flat cells, usually surrounded by a limiting membrane,’ instead of ‘cylindrical cells, arranged in threads, and surrounded by a limiting membrane.’ 7. The Structure of Root Tubercles in Leguminous and other Plants. By Professor W. B. Borromuey. The root-tubercles in all leguminous plants examined appear to arise endo- genously from the cortical cells just outside the endodermis of the root. These cells are stimulated by the ‘infection thread,’ which grows almost straight from the infected root-hair towards the vascular cylinder of the root, and a conical mass of cells develops which forms the young tubercle. Vascular strands are developed in the cortex of the tubercle, but there is no central strand of conducting tissue, and nothing comparable with a root-cap covering the end of the tubercle. In fully developed tubercles the ‘ bacteroid’ tissue is situated entirely within the vascular strands—intrafascicular. The root-tubercles of Alnus, Eleagnus, and Cycas are morphologically lateral roots, showing a central vascular cylinder, with a well-marked endodermis, com- pletely surrounded by ‘ bacteroid’ tissue—eatrafascicular. These tubercles branch dichotomously, and are perennial, thus differing from leguminous tubercles, which are of limited growth, 8. Cell Division in Merismopedia glauca. By B. H. Bentiny. Eaeh cell is ovoid in form, with its long axis perpendicular to the surface of the colony. It contains a ‘central body’ which appears to consist of two spiral threads. During cell division each thread becomes wider and undergoes longitudinal fission, Two of the four threads pass into each daughter cell, No breaking of the threads into short segments was seen. 694 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION tL. Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. PRESIDENT OF THE SecTION—Sir Puitie Maanus, B.Sc., M.P. THURSDAY, AUGUST 1. The President delivered the following Address :— The Application of Scientific Method to Educational Problems. NorwirHstanpiIne the fact that the greater part of my life has been spent in educational work, in teaching, in examining, in organisation, and in the investiga- tion of foreign systems of instruction, I have experienced considerable difficulty in selecting, from the large number of subjects that crowd upon me, a suitable one on which to address you as President of a Section of the British Association devoted to educational science. At the outset I am troubled by the title of the section over which I have the honour to preside. I cannot refrain from asking myself the question, Is there an educational Science, and if so, what is its scope and on what foundations does it rest? The object of the British Association is the advancement of Science, and year by year new facts are recorded in different branches of inquiry, on which fresh conclusions can be based. The progress of past years, whether in Chemistry, Physics or Biology, can be stated. Can the same be said, and in the same sense, of Education? It is true that the area of educational influence is being constantly extended. Schools of every type and grade are multiplied, but is there any corresponding advance in our knowledge of the principles that should govern and determine our educational efforts, or which can justify us in describing such know- ledge as Science? If we take Science to mean, as commonly understood, organised knowledge, and if we are to test the claim of any body of facts and principles to be regarded as Science by the ability to predict, which the knowledge of those facts and principles confers, can we say that there exists an organised and orderly arrangement of educational truths, or that we can logically, by any causative sequence, connect training and character either in the individual or in the nation ? Can we indicate, with any approach to certainty, the effects on either the one or the other of any particular scheme of education which may be provided? It is very doubtful whether we can say that educational science is yet sufficiently advanced to satisfy these tests. But although education may not yet fulfil all the conditions which justify its claim to be regarded as a science, we are able to affirm that the methods of science, applicable to investigations in other branches of knowledge, are equally applicable to the elucidation of educational problems. To have reached this position is to have made some progress. For we now see that if we are ever to succeed in arriving at fixed principles for guidance in determining the many difficult and intricate questions which arise-in connection with the provision of a national system of education, or the solution of educational problems, we must proceed by the same methods of logical inquiry as we should adopt in investigating any other subject matter. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 695 In order to bring Education within the range of subjects which should occupy a place in the work of this Association, our first efforts should be directed towards obtaining a sufficient body of information from all available sources, past and present, to afford data for the comparisons on which our conclusions may be based. One of the five articles of what is known as the Japanese Imperial Oath states, ‘ Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the whole world, so that the welfare of the Empire may be promoted’; and it may certainly be said that, as the welfare of our own Empire is largely dependent on educational progress, a wide knowledge of matters connected with Education is indispensable, if we are to make advances with any feeling of certainty that we are moving on the right lines, There can be no doubt that of late years we have acquired a mass of valuable information on all sorts of educational questions. We are greatly indebted for much of our knowledge of what is being done in foreign countries to the Reports of different Commissions, and more particularly to those special reports issued from the Board of Education, first under the direction of my predecessor in this Chair, Professor Sadler, and latterly of his successor at the Board, Dr. Heath. But much of the information we have obtained is still awaiting the hand of the scientific worker to be properly co-ordinated and arranged. A careful collation of facts is indispensable if we are to deduce from them useful principles for our guidance, and unfortunately we in this country are too apt to rest content when we have provided the machinery for the acquisition of such facts without taking the necessary steps to compare, to co-ordinate, and to arrange them on some scientific principle for future use. Within the last week or two a Bill has passed through several stages in Parliament for requiring Local Authorities to undertake the medical inspection of school children, but, unless the medical inspectors through- out the country conduct their investigations on certain well considered lines laid down for them by some Central Authority, we shall fail to obtain the necessary data to enable us to associate educational and physical conditions with a view tc the improvement of the training given in our schools.! On the other hand, although I personally am sceptical as to the results, we have reason to believe that the inquiry recently undertaken into the methods adopted here and elsewhere for securing ethical as distinct from specifically religious training will be so con- ducted as to give us not only facts, but the means of inferring from those facts certain trustworthy conclusions. The consideration of Education as a subject capable of scientific investigation is complicated by the fact that it necessarily involves a relation—the relation of the child or adult to his surroundings. It cannot be adequately considered apart from that relation. We may make a study of the conditions of the physical, intellectual, and ethical development of the child, but the knowledge so obtained is only useful to the educator when considered in connection with his environment and future needs, and the means to be adopted to enable him, as he grows in physical, intellectual, and moral strength, to obtain a mastery over the things external to him, Education must be so directed as to prove the proposition that ‘ Knowledge is Power.’ It can only be scientitically treated when so considered. Education is imperfectly described when regarded as the means of drawing out and strengthening a child’s faculties. It is more than this. Any practical definition takes into consideration the social and economic conditions in which the child is being trained, and the means of developing his faculties with a view to the attainment of certain ends. It is in Germany that this fact has received the highest recognition and the widest application, and for this reason we have been accustomed to look to that country for guidance in the organisation of our schools. We have looked to Germany because we perceived that some relation had been there established ! Since this was written the President of the Board of Education kas stated in the House of Commons that ‘it was the intention of the Board,if the Bill now before Parliament passed, to establish a medical bureau, which would guide and advise the local authorities as to the nature of the work they would have to do under the Act,’ 696 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. between the teaching given to the people and their industrial and social needs; and further, that their success in commerce, in military and other pursuits was largely due to the training provided in their schools. Unmindful of the fact that Education is a relation, and that consequently the same system of education is not equally applicable to different conditions, there were many in this country who were only too ready to recommend the adoption of German methods in our own schools. Experience soon showed, however, that what may have been good for Germany did not apply to England, and that, in educational matters certainly, we do well to follow Emerson, who, when addressing his fellow citizens, declared: ‘We will walk on our own feet; we will work with our own hands, and we will speak our own minds.’ Still, the example of Germany and the detailed information which we have obtained as to her school organisation and methods of instruction have been serviceable to us. Whilst all information on educational subjects is valuable, I am disposed to think that in our efforts to construct an educational science we may gain more by inquiring what has been effected in some of the newer countries. Wherever educational problems have been carefully considered and schemes have been intro- duced with the express intention and design of training citizens for the service of the State and of increasing knowledge with a view to such service, those schemes may be studied with advantage. Thus we may learn much from what is now being done in our Colonies. Their efforts are more in the nature of experiments, Our Colonies have been wise enough not to imitate too closely our own or any foreign system. They have started afresh, free from prejudice and traditions, and it is for this reason that I look forward with interest to the closer connection in educational matters of the Colonies with the mother country, and I believe that we shall gain much knowledge and valuable experience from the discussions of the Federal Conference which has recently been held in London, and which, I under- stand, is to be repeated a few years hence. But valuable as are the facts, properly collated and systematically arranged, which a knowledge of British and foreign methods may afford us in dealing scientifically with any educational problem, it is essential that we should be able to test and to supplement the conclusions based on such knowledge, whenever it is possible, by direct experiments, applicable to the matter under investigation. We have not yet recognised the extent to which experiments in education, as in other branches of knowledge, may help in enabling us to build up an educational science. Some years since there was established in Brussels an Ecole modéle in which educational experiments were tried. I visited the school in the year 1880, and I could easily point to many improvements in primary education which found their way from that school through the schools of Belgium and France to our own country, and, indeed, to other parts of the world. From a special Report on Schools in the North of Europe, recently published by the Board of Education, we learn that in Sweden the value of such experiments is fully recognised. We are told that in that country ‘it was early felt that the uniformity in State Schools was of so strict a kind that some special provision should be made for carrying out educational experiments,’ and experiments in many directions have been made, mainly in private schools, which receive, however, special subventions from the State. We gather from the same Report that the State regards the money as well earned ‘if the school occasionally originates new methods from which the schools can derive profit.’ I venture to think that experimental schools might with advantage be organised under the direction of some of our larger local authorities. The children would certainly not suffer by being made the subjects of such experiments. The intelligent teaching which they would receive—for it is only the most capable teachers who should be trusted with such experiments—would more than compensate for any diminution in the amount of knowledge which the children might acquire, and indeed such experimental schools might be conducted under conditions which would ensure sound instruc- tion. Many improved methods of teaching are constantly advocated, but fail to be adopted because there is no opportunity of giving them a fair trial. As a general rule it is only by the effort of private individuals or associations that i Pewee PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 697 changes in system are effected, and teachers are enabled to escape from the old grooves on to new lines of educational thought and practice. It is not difficult to refer to many successful experiments. The general introduction into our schools of manual training was the direct result of experiments carefully arranged and conducted by a Joint Committee of the City Guilds and the late London School Board. Experiments in the methods of teaching Physical Science, Chemistry, and Geometry have been tried, with results that have led to changes which have revolutionised the teaching of those subjects. The age at which the study of Latin should be commenced with a view to the general education of the scholar has been the subject of frequent trial. I would like to see such experiments more systematically organised, and I am quite certain that the curriculum of our rural and of our urban schools would soon undergo very considerable changes, if the suggestions of competent authorities could receive a fair trial under conditions that would leave no manner of doubt as to the character of the results. It would seem, therefore, that if our knowledge of the facts and principles of education is not yet sufficiently organised to enable us to determine a prior? the effect on individual or national character of any suggested changes, education is a subject that may be studied and improved by the application to it of scientific method, by accurate observation of what is going on around us, and by experi- ments thoughtfully conducted. This is the justification of the inclusion of the subject among those that occupy the attention of a separate section of this Association. Our aim here should be to apply to educational problems the well known canons of scientific inquiry; and, seeing that the conditions under which alone any investigation can be conducted are in themselves both numerous and complicated, it is essential that we should endeavour to liberate, as far as possible, the discussion of the subject from all political considerations. Such investigations are necessarily difficult. We have to determine both statically and dynamically the physical, mental, and moral condition of the child in relation to his activities and surroundings, and we have further to discover how he is influenced by them, how he can affect them, and the character of the training which will best enable him to utilise his experiences, and to add something to the knowledge of to-day for future service. Notwithstanding the undoubted progress which we have made, it cannot be denied that in this country there still exists a large amount of educational unrest, of dissatisfaction with the results of our efforts during the last thirty years. This is partly due to the fact that there is much loose thinking and uninformed expression of opinion on educational questions. No one knows so little as not to believe that his own opinion is worth as much as another's on matters relating to the education of the people. In this way statements, the value of which has not been tested, pass current as ascertained knowledge, and very often ill-considered legislation follows. In this country, too, the difficulty of breaking away from ancient modes of thought is a great drawback to educational progress. Suggestions for moderate changes, which have been most carefully considered, are deferred and decried if they depart, to any great extent, from established custom, and the objection to change very often rests on no historical foundation. Occasionally, too, the change proposed is itself only a reversion to a previous practice, which was rudely broken by thoughtless and unscientific reformers. The opposition which was so long raised to the establishment of local universities was largely due to want of knowledge on the subject; and certainly the creation, some seventy years ago, of a teaching University in London was actually hindered through a mere prejudice, which broader views as to the real purposes of Uni- versity teaching and fuller information on the course of University development would have removed. There never was a time perhaps when it was more necessary than now that education should be regarded dispassionately, apart from political bias, as a matter of vital interest to the people as a whole, Education nowadays is a question which affects not only the life of a few privileged, selected persons, but of the entire body of citizens, The progress that has been made during the last few 698 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. years in nationalising our education has been very rapid. It may be that it has been too rapid, that sufficient thought has not been given to the altered social and industrial conditions which have to be considered. We have witnessed a strong desire and a successful effort to multiply Secondary and Technical Schools and to open more widely the portals of our Universities. The object of the desire is good in itself. As the people grow in knowledge the demand tor higher educa- tion will increase; but the serious question to be considered is whether the kind of education which was supplied in schools, founded centuries ago to meet requirements very different from our own, is equally well adapted to the con- ditions which have arisen in a state of society having other needs and new ideals. Very rightly our students in training for the profession of teachers are expected to study the writings of Locke, Rousseau, Milton, Montaigne, and others ; but many are apt to overlook the fact that these writers had in view a different kind of education from that in which modern teachers are engaged, and that their suggestions, excellent as many of them are, were mainly applicable to the instruction to be given by a tutor to his private pupil, and had little or no reference to the teaching of the children of the people in schools expressly organised for the education of the many. Only recently have we come to realise that a democratic system of education, a system intended to provide an intellectual and moral training for all citizens of the State, and so organised that, apart from any consideration of social position or pecuniary means, it affords facilities for the full development of capacity and skill wherever they may occur, must be essentially different in its aims and methods from that under which many of us now living have been trained. It has also been brought home to us that the marvellous changes in our environment, in the conditions under which we live and work, whether in the field, the factory, or the office, have necessitated corresponding changes in the education to be provided as a preparation for the several different pursuits in which the people generally are occupied. Yet, notwithstanding these great forces which have broken in upon and disturbed our former ideals, forces the strength and far-reaching effects of which we readily admit, we still hesitate to face the newly arisen circumstances and to adapt our educational work to its vastly extended area of operation and to the altered conditions and requirements of modern life. When I say we hesitate to face the existing circumstances I do not wish to be misunderstood. Asa fact changes are continually being discussed, and are from time to time introduced into our schools. But such modifications of our existing methods are generally isolated and detached, and have little reference to the more comprehensive measures of reform which are now needed to bring our teaching into closer relation with the changed conditions of existence consequent on the altera- tions that have taken place in our social life and surroundings. Four years ago, it will be remembered, a committee of this section was appointed to consider and to report upon the ‘Courses of Experimental, Observa- tional, and Practical Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools.’ That com- mittee, of which I had the honour to be chairman, presented a report to this section at the meeting of the Association held last year at York. The general conclusion at which they arrived was that ‘the intellectual and moral training, and indeed to some extent the physical training, of boys and girls between the ages of seven and fourteen would be greatly improved if active and constructive work on the part of the children were largely substituted for ordinary class teaching, and if much of the present instruction were made to arise incidentally out of, and to be centred around, such work.’ It is too early, perhaps, to expect that the suggestions made in that report should have borne fruit, but I refer to it because it illustrates the difference between the spasmodic reforms which from time to time are adopted, under pressure from bodies of well-meaning representa- tives of special interests, and the well-considered changes recommended by a com- mittee of men and women of educational experience who have carefully tested the conclusions at which they have arrived. There can be no doubt that, as regards our elementary education, there is very general dissatisfaction with its results, since it was first nationalised thirty-seven PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 699 years ago. Our merchants and manufacturers and employers of labour, our teachers in secondary and technical schools all join in the chorus of complaint. They tell us that the children have gained very little useful knowledge and still less power of applying it. There is enough in this general expression of discontent. to give us pause and to make us seek for a rational explana- tion of our comparative failure. The inadequacy of the results attained to the money and effort that have been expended is in no way due to any want of zeal or ability on the part of the teachers, or of energy on the part of school boards or local authorities. They have all discharged the duties which were imposed upon them. It is due rather to the fact that the problem has been imperfectly understood, that our controlling authorities have had only a vague and indistinct idea of the aim and end of the important work which they were charged to administer, If we look back upon the history of elementary education in this country since 1870, we cannot fail to realise how much its progress has been retarded by errors of administration due very largely to the want of scientific method in its direction. It is painful to reflect, forjinstance, on the waste of time and effort, and on the false impressions produced as to the real aim and end of education, owing to the system of payment on results, which dominated for so many years a large part of our educational system. We must remember that it is only within the last few decades that education has been brought within reach of all classes of the population. Previously it was for the few; for those who could pay high fees; for those who were training for professional life, whether for the Church, the Army, the Navy, Law, or Medicine, or for the higher duties of citizen life. This had been the case for centuries, not only in this country but in nearly all parts of the civilised world. If we read the history of education in ancient Greece or Rome, or medizval Europe, we shall see that popular education, as now understood, was unknown. All that was written about education applied to the few who got it, and not to the great mass of the people engaged in pursuits altogether apart from those in which the privileged classes were employed. Trade and manual work were despised, and were considered degrading and unworthy of the dignity of a gentleman. I need scarcely say that these social ideas are no longer held. The fabric of society is changed, and we have to ask ourselves whether the methods of education have been similarly changed, whether they have been wisely and carefully adapted to the new order of things. What is it that has really happened? Is it not true that we have annexed the methods and subjects of teaching which had been employed during many centuries in the training of the few and applied them to the education of the people as a whole— to those who are engaged in the very callings which were more or less contemned? Surely it is so, and the results are all too manifest. We have applied the principles and methods of the secondary education of the Middle Ages to our new wants, to the training of the people for other duties than those to which such education was considered applicable, and it is only within the last few years that we have begun to see the error of our ways. In the report of your committee, to which I have referred, it is pointed out that the problem of primary education has been complicated by the introduction of the methods which for many years prevailed in secondary schools, and at a meeting of the National Education Association, held only a few weeks since, it was truly said: ‘In this country secondary education preceded primary by several centuries, and so the nation now finds itself with the aristocratic cart attempting to draw the democratic horse.’ Let it not be supposed that in the days not so far distant, yet stretching back into the remote past, the people as a whole were uneducated. This was not so. But we have to widen the meaning of education to include the special training which the- people then received—an education that was acquired without even the use of books. It cannot for one moment be said that the artisans, the mechanics, the farm hands, male and female, were wholly uneducated in those far-off days. In one sense possibly they were. Very few of them could read or write. But from earliest childhood they had received a kind"of training the want of which their descendants have sadly felt in the cloistered seclusion of the modern elementary school. They were brought face to face with Nature. They learned 700 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. the practical lessons of experience ; and as they grew up their trade apprentice- ship was an education which we have been trying vainly to reproduce. They gained some knowledge of the arts and sciences, as then understood, underlying their work. Their contact with their surroundings made them thoughtful and resourceful, for Nature is the most exacting and merciless of teachers. The difficulties they had to overcome compelled them to think, and of all occupations none is more difficult. They were constantly putting forth energy, adapting means to ends, and engaging in practical research. In the field, in the workshop, and in their own homes boys and girls acquired knowledge by personal ex- perience. Their outlook was broad. They learned by doing. It is true that nearly all their occupations were manual, but Emerson has told us, ‘ Manual labour is the study of the external world.’ Compare for a moment this training with that provided in a public elementary school, and you cannot be surprised to find that our artificial teaching has failed in its results, that our young people have gained very little practical knowledge, and that what they have gained they are unable to apply; that they lack initiative and too often the ability to use books for their own guidance, or the desire to read for self-improvement. We seem to have erred in neglecting to utilise practical pureuits as the basis of education, and in failing to build upon them and to evolve from them the mental discipline and knowledge that would have proved valuable to the child in any subsequent occupation or as a basis for future attainments. We have made the mistake of arresting, by means of an artificial literary training, the spontaneous development of activity, which begins in earliest infancy and continues to strengthen as the child is brought into ever closer contact with his natural surroundings. We have provided an education for our boys which might have been suitable for clerks; and, what is worse, we have gone some way, although we have happily cried a halt, to make our girls into ‘ladies,’ and we have run some risk of failing to produce women. If we are to correct the errors into which we have drifted, if we are to avert the consequences that must overtake us through having equipped our children for their life-struggle with implements unfitted for their use, we must consider afresh the fundamental ideas on which a system of elementary education should be based. Instead of excluding the child from contact with the outer world we must bring him into close relationship with his surroundings. It was given to man to have dominion over all other created things, but he must first know them. It is in early years that such knowledge is most rapidly acquired, and it is in gaining it that the child’s intellectual activities are most surely quickened. It is unfortunate that we failed to realise this great function of Elementary Education when we first essayed to construct for ourselves a national system. The three R’s, and much more than that, are essential and incidental parts of Elementary Education. But what is needed is a Lettmotif—a fundamental idea underlying all our efforts and dominating all our practice, and I venture to think that that idea is found in basing our primary education on practical pursuits, on the knowledge gained from actual things, whether in the Field, the Workshop, or the Home. Instead of fetching our ideas as to the training to be given in the people’s schools from that provided in our old grammar schools, we should look to the occupations in which the great mass of the population of all countries are neces- sarily engaged, and endeayour to construct thereon a system with all such addi- tions and improvements as may be needed to adapt it to the varied requirements of modern life. By this process—one of simple evolution adjusted to everyday needs—a national system of education might be built up fitted for the nation as a whole—a system founded on ideas very different from those which, through many centuries, have governed the teaching in our schools. In the practical pursuits connected with the Field, the Workshop, and the Home, and in the elementary teaching of science and letters incidental thereto, we might lay the foundation of a rational system of primary education. These three objects—the Field, the Workshop, and the Home—should be the pivots on which the scheme of instruction should be fixed, the central PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 701 thoughts determining the character of the teaching to be given in rural and urban schools for boys and girls. It was Herbart who insisted on the im- portance of creating a sort of centre around which school studies should be grouped with a view to giving unity and interest to the subjects of instruc- tion. I have elsewhere shown how a complete system of primary education may be evolved from the practical lessons to be learned in connection with outdoor pursuits, with workshop exercises and with the domestic arts, and how, by means of such lessons, the child’s interest may be excited and maintained in the ordinary subjects of school instruction, in English, arithmetic, elementary science, and drawing. In the proposals I am now advocating I am not suggesting any narrow or restricted curriculum. On the contrary, I believe that, by widening the child’s outlook, by closely associating school work with familiar objects, you will accelerate his mental development. and quicken his power of acquiring knowledge. I would strongly urge, however, that the child should receive less formal teaching, that opportunities for self-instruction, through outdoor pursuits, or manual exercises, or the free use of books, should be increased, so that as far as possible the teacher should keep in view the process by which in infancy and in early life the child’s intelligence is so rapidly and marvellously stimulated. Already we have discovered that our unscientific attitude towards primary education has caused us to overlook the essential difference between the require- ments of country and of town life, and the training proper to boys and girls, Our mechanical methods of instruction, as laid down in codes, make for uniformity rather than diversity, and we are only now endeavouring, by piecemeal changes, to bring our teaching somewhat more closely into relation with existing needs. But the inherent defect of our system is that we have started at the wrong end, and, instead of evolving our teaching from the things with which the child is already familiar, and in which he is likely to find his life’s work, we have taken him away from those surroundings and placed him in strange and artificial conditions, in which his education seems to have no necessary connection with the realities of life. The problem of primary education is to teach by practical methods the elements of letters and of science, the art of accurate expression, the ability to think and to control the will; and the ordinary school lessons should be such as lead to the clear apprehension of the processes that bring the child into intimate relation with the world in which he moves. During the last few years the importance of such teaching has dimly dawned upon our educational authorities, but, instead of being regarded as essential, it has been treated as a sort of evtra to be added to a literary curriculum, already overcrowded. What is known as manual training is to some extent encouraged in our schools, but it forms no part of the child’s continuous education. It is still hampered with conditions inconsistent with its proper place in the curriculum, and is uncoordinated with other subjects of instruction. Moreover no connecting link has yet been forged between the teaching of the Kindergarten and workshop practice in the school, We speak of lessons in manual training as something apart from the school instruction, as something outside the school course, on the teaching of which special grants are paid. Twenty or thirty years ago people used to talk about ‘teaching technical education,’ and from this unscientific way of treating the close connection that should exist between hand-work and brain-work our authorities have not yet freed themselves. It is true we have long since passed that stage when it was thought that the object of instruction in the use of tools was to make carpenters or joiners ; but, judging from a report recently issued by the Board of Education, it would seem that it is still thought that the object of cookery lessons to children of twelve to fourteen years of age is the training of professional cooks. Until the Board’s inspectors can be brought to realise that the aim and purpose of practical instruction in primary schools, whether in cookery or in other subjects, is to train the intelligence through familiar occupations, to show how scientific method may be usefully applied in ordinary pursuits, and how valuable manipulative skill may thus be incidentally acquired, it does not seem to me that they themselves have 702 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. learned the most elementary principles of their own profession. An anonymous teacher, writing some weeks since in the ‘ Morning Post,’ said: ‘The cookery class can be made an invaluable mental and moral training ground for the pupils, the most stimulating part of primary education. It teaches unforgettable lessons of cleanliness and order, of quickness and deftness of movements. The use of the weights and scales demands accuracy and carefulness, and the raw materials punish slovenliness or want of attention with a thoroughness which the most severe of schoolmasters might hesitate to use. Practical lessons in chemistry should form an important feature of each class... . The action of heat and moisture on grains of rice provides an interesting lesson on the bursting of starch cells, and the children’s imagination is awakened by watching the hard isolated atoms floating in milk change slowly to the creamy softness of a properly made rice pudding. The miraculous change in the oily white of egg when it is beaten into a mountain of snowy whiteness gives them interest in the action of air and its use in cookery.’ Can the teaching of grammar or the analysis of sentences provide lessons of equal value in quickening the intelligence of young children ? I must add one word before passing from this suggestive illustration of the value of scientific method in the treatment of educational questions. We live in a democratic age, and any proposed reform in the teaching of our primary schools must be tested by the requirement that the revised curriculum shall be such as will provide not only the most suitable preparatory training for the occupations in which four-fifths of the children will be subsequently engaged, but will, at the same time, enable them or some of them to pass without any breach of continuity from the primary to the secondary school. There mast be no class distinctions separating the public elementary from the State-aided secondary school. The reform I have suggested is unaffected by such criticism. The practical training I have advocated, whether founded on object lessons furnished by the Field, the Workshop, or the Home, would prove the most suitable for developing the child's intelligence and aptitudes and for enabling him to derive the utmost advantage from attendance at any one of the different types of secondary schools best fitted for his ascertained abilities and knowledge. The bent of the child’s intel- lect. would be fully determined before the age when the earliest specialisation would be desirable. No scheme of instruction for primary schools can be regarded as satisfactory, which is not so arranged that, whilst providing the most suitable teaching for children who perforce must enter some wage-earning pursuit at the age of fourteen, or at the clcse of their elementary school course, shall at the same time afford a sound and satisfactory basis on which secondary and higher education may be built. And I hold the opinion, in which I am sure all teachers will concur, that a scheme of primary education pervaded by the spirit of the Kindergarten which, by practical exercises, encourages observation and develops the reasoning faculties, and creates in the pupil an understanding of the use of books, would form a fitting foundation for either a literary or a scientific training in a secondary school, I have purposely chosen to illustrate the main subject of this address by reference to defects in our primary instruction, because the success of our entire system of education will be found, year by year, to depend more and more upon the results of the training given in our public elementary schools. We have scarcely yet begun to realise the social and political effects of the momentous changes in our national life, consequent on the first steps which were taken less than forty years ago to provide full facilities under State control and local management for the education of the people. At present all sorts of ideas are afloat which have to be carefully and scien- tifically considered. The working classes have to be further and somewhat differently educated, in order that they may better understand their own wants and how they are to be satisfied. We have placed vast powers in the hands of local bodies, popularly elected, powers not only of administration, for which they are well adapted, but powers of determining to a very great extent, by the free use of the rates, the kind of instruction to be given in our schools, and the LL PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 703 qualifications of the teachers to impart it. Moreover, these local bodies have shown, in many instances, a distrust of expert advice and a desire to act independently as elected representatives of the people, which cannot fail for some time at least to lead to waste of effort and of means. It was said years ago, when the centre of our political forces received a marked displacement, that we must educate our masters, Our masters now, both in politics and education, are the people, and it is only, I believe, by improving their education that we can enable them to under- stand the essential difficulties of the problems which they are expected to solve, and can induce them to rely, to a greater extent than they do at present, on the results of the application to such problems of scientific method, founded on the fullest information obtainable from historical and contemporary sources. I might have illustrated my subject by reference to the acknowledged chaotic condition of our secondary education. In the report of the Board of Education published in December last we read: ‘While the develop- ment of secondary education is the most important question of the pre- sent day, and is the pivot of the whole education as it affects the efficiency, intelligence, and well-being of the nation, yet its present position may be described as ‘‘chaos.”’ The ‘chaos’ by which the present position of our secondary education is here described is intimately connected with the questions relating to primary education, which I have been engaged in considering. If we construct a system of primary education which serves equally for children of all classes, apart from social conditions—a system educationally sound, both as a preparation for immediate wage-earning pursuits and for more advanced and somewhat more specialised training in a secondary school, many of the difficulties which confront the Board of Education, and which are largely of an administra- tive order, would disappear. The difficulties are in part dependent on the question of curriculum, to the discussion of which a day will be devoted during the present meeting. University education in this country, and indeed in other countries, has also suffered much from the hands of the unscientific reformer. In Germany, owing to many causes, the higher education has made considerable advances during the past century; but, even in that country, a more critical study of the development of University education and a truer recognition of the twofold function of a University might have prevented the early separation in distinct institutions and under separate regulations of the higher technical from University instruction, Only within recent years has France retraced her steps and returned to the University ideal of seven centuries ago, But perhaps the climax of unscientific thinking was reached in the scheme, happily abandoned, of founding a new Uni- versity in Dublin on the lines suggested by Mr. Bryce in his now famous speech of January last. Our conception of the functions of a University has undergone many violent changes. Between the ideal of the University of London prior to its reorganisa- tion and that of a medizeval University, in which students were never plucked, obtaining their degrees whether they did their work well or badly, there have been many variations; but I think it may be said that, recently at any rate, we have come to realise the fact that our Universities, to fulfil their great purpose, must be schools for the preparation of students for the discharge of the higher duties of citizenship and professional life, and Institutions for the prosecution of research, with a view to the promotion of learning in all its branches, and that examinations for degrees, necessary, as they undoubtedly are, as tests of the extent of a student’s acquired knowledge, must be regarded as subordinate to these two great functions. I will not detain you longer. I have endeavoured to show under what limita- tions education may lay claim to be included among the sciences, and how a knowledge of the history of education and the application of the methods of scientific inquiry may help in enabling us to solve many of the intricate and complicated questions which are involved in the establishment on a firm founda- tion of a national system of education. I have taken my illustrations mainly from the reform of elementary, or, as I prefer to call it, primary education, and 704 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. I have sought to indicate some of the errors into which we may fall when we fail to apply to the consideration of the problem the same principles of inductive inquiry as are employed in all investigations for the attainment of Truth. I believe that this Section of the British Association has the opportunity of rendering a great service to the State. Numerous educational societies exist, in which questions of importance are discussed, and all, perhaps, do useful work. But none is so detached from separate and special interests; none stands so essentially apart from all political considerations; none is so competent to discuss educational problems from the purely scientific standpoint as are the members of this Association. If, in the remarks I have offered, somewhat hastily prepared under the pressure of many different kinds of work, I have contributed anything to the solution of a problem, the difficulty and national importance of which all will admit, I shall feel that I have not been altogether unworthy of the honour of occupying this Chair. The following Reports and Papers were then read :— Joint Discussion with Section H on Anthropometrics in Schools. 1. (i) Report on Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles. See Reports, p. 354. (ii) Anthropometrics in Schools, By J. Gray, B.Sc. Measurements and observations in all schools should be made in accordance with the scheme of the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association. The data obtained should be entered on the card schedules recommended by the said Committee. The front card contains data concerning the stock to which the subject belongs, including such information as insurance companies demand from their clients— namely, the age, orage at death, of parents and grandparents, brothers and sisters, and first cousins, the size of family and position of subject in it, the nature and frequency of family complaints, such as gout and heart or lung disease. This information is most conveniently given by reference to the schedules of the rela- tives, where such exist. The following cards contain data as to the physical and mental characters, health and environment of the subject. In the case of a child, these data are entered on separate cards for each year of its school life. If data can be obtained after the subject leaves school, cards with these should be added to the subject’s dossier. All these data, for each individual, having been entered upon cards, which are kept together, as forming a more or less complete record of his structure, activities, defects or disease, and of the factors of his environment, we have the material for ascertaining with the greatest possible accuracy the nature of the human machine, and how it is controlled by changing the environment. This is done by calculating correlations between any pair of characters whose values are recorded. We have reason to believe that correlations of greater or less intensity exist between all the characters of man and the factors of his environment. Very few have as yet been calculated on account of the lack of data, and in many cases where they have been calculated the values obtained are untrustworthy, because the methods of observation have not been sufficiently precise. One of the great benefits to be derived from the general introduction of anthropometry in schools would be the supply of data for the calculation of a large number of useful corre- lations, which would point the way for legislative and other measures of reform, For example, the effect of free meals to school children on their physical and mental characters might be predicted; or the ultimate effect of the increasing TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 705 urbanisation of our population on the character of the nation. ‘The following are some correlations that have been ascertained with more or less accuracy :— Pigmentation and Habitat (urban and rural). », Disease. Pe » Mental and moral characters. Intelligence ,, Over- and under-feeding. Social status ,, Physical and mental characters. Dentition » Nutrition. (iii) Zhe Aims and Function of Anthropometry in relation to the School. By F. C. Surussauy, JA., M.D. Anthropometrics covers everything in the structure and functions of the human body susceptible of definite measurement. The exactness of the data and ease of interpretation vary. To obtain valuable results exact conditions of experiment are necessary to reduce the number of variable factors at any given time. By means of correlations it is possible to determine the mutual changes in pairs of factors under the influence of some common cause. While the most reliable evidence is obtained as to physique, data can also be obtained for fatigue and for some mental processes. The chief need at present is to establish a series of norms and the allowable range of variation. Work in this direction has recently been done in the schools in London, Liverpool, Bradford, Dunfermline, and elsewhere. The value of food-supplies, surroundings, hours of sleep, &c., of children is being gradually determined, and it is probable that light will be thrown on the problems of the best forms of exercise for school children under different conditions, ‘and possibly even on the arrangement of the curriculum. For these purposes considerable numbers of observations will be necessary, and these must have been made under practically uniform conditions, (iv) On the Practical Difficulties in obtaining Measurements of Growth in Schoolboys.| By E. Mryricx, B.A., F.R.S. Although the task of obtaining regular measurements of growth in schoolboys seems at first sight a simple one, the paucity of ‘such measurements shows that in practice considerable difficulties are met with. These are partly (1) essential, arising from such causes as the smallness of the differences to be apprehended, or the troublesome nature of some tests, which require practice in the boy tested; but more particularly (2) circumstantial, especially (a) causes of irregularity, such as illness, indolence or indifference, and preoccupation, and ()) causes of inaccuracy, such as inexpertness of operator, un- certainty of dates or age, variation of clothing or other conditions, and uneven or spasmodic rate of growth. These perturbations are so considerable that the final results would be nearly valueless unless available in bulk, when they are autu- matically corrected by the law of average. Some figures were given to show that, notwithstanding these difficulties, consistent results are obtainable, 2. Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the carrying-on of the Work of Instruction in Schools.—See Reports, p. 421. 3. Types of Physical Development in Schools. By Crecin Hawkins, J/.A. What the schoolmaster requires from a system of physical measurements is an easy means of discovering whether individuals or groups of individuals are thriving or the reverse. } Published in the School World for September 1907. 1907. ZZ 706 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. A good rough estimate of the manner in which a boy is thriving can be formed by comparison of periodic measurements of his height and weight. In order that the lesson to be learnt from these observations may be sufficiently obvious a system of grades is required. Comparison with the rate of growth of the mean boy is unsatisfactory ; a high-grade boy of fourteen will normally grow twice as fast as a low-grade boy, while at eighteen the low-grade boy should be growing twice as fast as the high-grade hoy. I have used for some years a set of tables by means of which the height and weight of all boys observed may be referred to one or other of twenty grades—all equally probable—of which grade 1 is the highest, The record of a boy’s growth can conveniently be kept upon a form divided by parallel lines into twenty spaces to represent the twenty grades, separate graphs being drawn for height and weight. These graphs will be fairly level in rather more than 50 per cent. of the cases observed. In the majority of the remaining cases periods of steady rise or fall will be noted in which the two graphs, as a rule, remain fairly parallel. In some cases the graphs are very irregular, constant fluctuations being apparent. In such cases the fluctuations in the two graphs are generally found to correspond. Consecutive observations will give the same grade in about 50 per cent. of the cases observed. The graph normally rises in 25 per cent. and falls in 25 per cent., speaking roughly. Any disturbing cause will alter these proportions in a group affected by it; e.g., in a school in which observations are recorded in March, June, and October or November I found that in the various intervals the percentages were :— In Height, Up Level | Down March to June . : c¢ 7 = 25°4 53'0 | 21°6 June to October . A : ; A aie hall 45:7 | 21:2 November to March . : ; 4 14-2 47:3 38°6 In Weight Up Level Down March to June . : 3 : . 33°5 41°2 25°4 June to October . : : : : 359 41°6 22°7 November to March . : ; 24:4 37°6 38:0 Variations in chest-girth are far more marked than those in height and weight, the chief disturbing factor being systematic physical training. Thus of 225 Haileybury boys—taken as they came—who were measured on entrance, and again after three terms of compulsory physical training, one boy improved 15 grades in chest-girth, three boys 13 grades, four boys 12 grades; 12 per cent. had gone down from 1 to 5 grades, 14 per cent. were level, 50 per cent. had improved from 1 to 5 grades, 15'5 per cent, from 5 to 10 grades, and 85 per cent. had improved more than 10 grades. Typical schemes of development may be arrived at by working out the average grades of the type required. E.g., Typical Athletes grade at 7 in height, 5 in chest-girth, 3 in weight, and are early developed. Typical Gymnasts grade 13 in height, 7 in weight and chest-girth, the grade of height being very uniform throughout their scheme of growth. Typical Scholars grade 9 in height and chest-girth, 7 in weight. The importance of weight as a sign or factor of vigour is very marked. For general use I would urge that a system of percentile grades be adopted, which should include all classes of the population. In order to construct such a system we require a large number of accurate observations, which must include children of all ages, subject to every variety of condition as regards nurture and environment. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 707 FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The following Papers were read :— 1. The English Scholarship System: its Principles and Results. By Professor M. E. Sapier, LL.D., and H. Bompas Smiru, M.A. The paper of which this is a summary is the outcome of an inquiry conducted by the authors in different parts of England during the summer of 1907, with the help of officers of local education authorities and of headmasters, headmistresses, and other teachers in elementary and secondary schools. The scholarship system is a distinctive mark of English education. Its beginnings date from the Middle Ages. Its modern developments are connected with the growth of competitive examinations, upon which it largely depends. There has always been in England a readiness to help forward youths of excep- tional promise to intellectual opportunities appropriate to their powers. But there has also been a great reluctance to place secondary and higher education under the direct control of the State, and consequently a preference for a variety of semi-independent schools representing different social traditions and points of view. ‘These two facts in combination resulted in the scholarship system, to which in the mid-Victorian era the general belief in the benefit of open competition gave a wider vogue. During the last generation, however, new forces have subjected English educational arrangements to a heavy strain. Improved higher education had become on civic and economic grounds a national necessity. New sections of the community were demanding access to secondary schools. It became necessary, therefore, either to extend the scholarship system or to embark upon a policy of free, or nearly free, secondary and higher education in institutions under direct public control. The latter policy would have been wasteful of existing educational resources. Nor is the remission of school fees sufficient by itself to enable the poorest scholars to postpone the time of their entrance into wage-earning occupations. Maintenance allowances are also necessary. The scholarship policy has enabled the local authorities established under the Educa- tion Act of 1902 to meet in the quickest and most economical manner the demand for extended facilities for secondary education, a demand accelerated by new Government regulations for the training of pupil-teachers. The fact that many of their pupils pay fees has enabled the secondary schools to carry on their work with less public aid than would otherwise have been necessary, and more public money has thus been made available for maintenance allowances. Thus through the rapid extension of the scholarship system, which links together schools of different types under the general supervision of public authority, much has been done within the last five years to construct a framework of national education. The five chief branches of the English scholarship system are: (1) Scholarships tenable at universities or other places of advanced education; (2) scholarships tenable at the great secondary boarding-schools (‘Public Schools’); (8) junior scholarships from the public elementary schools to the secondary day schools ; (4) intermediate scholarships enabling pupils to prolong their secondary education ; (5) scholarships tenable at evening schools and classes. The new regulations for the payment of Government grants to secondary schools may greatly affect the present situation. But the scholarship system has at any rate served as a useful expedient in a time of rapid social change. There is some reason to think that the offer of junior scholarships has been too profuse. Improvements in the elementary and secondary schools themselves are far more important than an indefinite increase of facilities for the transference of children from the one to the other. The following have been the chief results of the working ot the scholarship system as it has developed in England during recent years :— (1) The scholarship system has made the English universities, old and new, the educational goal of hundreds of students of good ability who under former conditions would have been shut out fronr academic studies, ZZ2 708 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. (2) Many boys and some girls of exceptional ability have been helped forward to high academic distinction. (3) A large number of boys and girls from public elementary schools have been enabled by means of scholarships to obtain access to secondary schools. This has been especially the case during the last five years, in consequence of the operation of the Education Act, 1902, and the requirements of the new regula- tions for the training of pupil-teachers. (4) In some cases the provision of junior scholarships of small value has been in excess of the needs of.the situation. With this has occasionally gone a tendency to fail in giving sufficiently prolonged or ample help to the handful of pupils who show very marked ability or promise. To secure for large numbers of children of average powers a somewhat longer education than they would otherwise have received is an excellent object, if the education so given is appro- priate to the children’s needs. But a scholarship system may in the long ren prove socially deleterious if it gives brief but widespread encouragement to merely average ability without at the same time taking special pains to secure the opportunity of long and thorough training for carefully selected individuals of unusual capacity. And a scholarship system is economically vicious if it imposes a disproportionate share of the burden of taxation upon cultivated families with slender incomes without at the same time providing for such families educational opportunities of an intellectual quality appropriate to their needs. (5) To a limited extent scholarships have bridged over the gulf between lower and higher secondary education, a gulf which im England is social as well as intellectual. (6) The scholarship system has virtually failed to span the gap between the public elementary schools and the great Public (boarding) Schools. The latter are mainly fed from a special type of preparatory school. But many clever boys whose parents can give them the intellectual preparation afforded by such preparatory schools are enabled by scholarships to obtain a Public School education at a greatly reduced cost. And it appears that, in the majority of cases, these boys could not be sent to Public Schools of this kind without such pecuniary help. (7) A lopsided development has recently been given to the scholarship system through the administrative need of securing large numbers of recruits (chiefly girls) for the elementary school teaching profession. Apart from this, the claims of girls are still less liberally recognised than those of boys. (8) The records kept of the later careers of scholarship-holders are at present inadequate. Such evidence as is forthcoming points to the conclusion that an overwhelming majority pass into literary, clerical, and other non-industrial callings. This would suggest that the scholarship system as at present organised fails to select and reward a due proportion of boys and girls whose abilities are practical and constructive rather than literary or purely scientific. (9) A chief motive in the English scholarship system has been the benevolent desire to give every clever boy (and, more recently, clever girls) a chance of indi- vidual advancement through higher education. But less thought seems to have been given to the practical question, What kind of secondary and higher educa- tion is best suited to the special aptitudes of each individual scholarship-winner ? As the dominant tradition in the older form of secondary education for boys has been fixed by the requirements of literary callings, many of the secondary schools which are justly held in high esteem are not necessarily in a position to give the most suitable training to all the pupils for whom a slightly prolonged education is now desired. The experience gained through the working of the present scholarship system is revealing the lack of adjustment between some traditional courses of study and the intellectual and social needs of modern life. To remedy this defect new types of secondary school curriculum are needed. (10) The scholarship question should be looked at from a national point of view, not only from the standpoint of the personal advantage and preferment of the individual scholar. The fundamental purpose of a scholarship system in all its grades and branches is the direction of ability towards those callings in which the individual scholars are best qualified, by natural aptitude and by physical TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 709 stamina to render valuable service to the nation. But hitherto there has been some tendency to give preferential treatment to the recruiting of the more literary professions. (11) Tbe English scholarship system has worked fairly well in a rough sort of way during a period of rapid social change and of resulting educational development. But in itself it is no suflicient substitute for a coherent system of higher education, intellectually efficient in all its grades and practically adjusted to the needs of a modern community. Reforms needed. (i) Our fundamental needs are the reform of the elementary schools, both in town and country, and the provision of new types of secondary school curriculum. The conditions under which the vast majority of English elementary school teachers are at present obliged to work prevent them from giving a sufficiently individualised training, moral and intellectual, to the children com- mitted to their care. The improvement of the elementary school will secure for the children the kind of early training which will best enable the more promising of them to take advantage of advanced courses of study. It will also tend to lessen the social cleavage which at present destroys the unity of English education in its elementary stage. But any effective improvement will be very costly, and necessarily slow in operation. The necessary counterpart of the reform of the elementary school will be the increased differentiation of the secondary schools and the better adaptation of their curricula to modern needs. Nearly all the secondary day schools in England need more generous financial assistance in order to attain a new measure of intellectual efficiency. (ii) The English scholarship system in its present form gives special advantage to urban districts. It fails adequately to meet the needs of promising children living in the country. These are often prevented by distance or expense from gaining access to a secondary school. In some cases more boarding scholarships are needed. Secondary ‘tops’ should be added to some centrally situated rural elementary schools. (iii) Much more should be done to provide higher secondary education of first- rate quality in day schools in many smaller towns. There is a danger of higher secondary education becoming (outside a few favoured centres) the privilege of the well-to-do. The new Regulations for Secondary Schools increase this danger. Government grants at a considerably higher rate are needed for higher secondary schools and in aid of higher secondary ‘ tops’ in other carefully selected secondary schools. (iv) There is need for a more generous provision of intermediate and ‘higher scholarships to enable pupils of special ability to complete the full course at a higher secondary school or to proceed to an institution of university rank or of advanced professional training. For girls especially more higher scholarships are required, tenable at a variety of institutions for academic or practical study. (v) The fixed value of the scholarships awarded by open competition at the Public Schools and Universities might well be reduced. Ample supplementary allowances should be given to those scholars who need them, after private inquiry into the circumstances of each case. (vi) Methods of selection which set a premium upon cramming and lead to the neglect of the candidate’s health and physique should be sternly dis- couraged. The best examinations now conducted for junior scholarships are con- fined, so far as written tests are concerned, to papers in English and arithmetic. The written examination should, where numbers are not too great, be supple- mented by a simple oral test. The examiners should also have access to the pupil’s school record. Stress should always be laid upon physical fitness. Each local scholarship system might thus become an incentive to the healthy up-bringing of children by making a fair standard of physical development a condition of eligibility, 710 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 2, Scholarships for Girls from Elementary to Secondary Schools. Ly IsaBeL Ciecuorn, L.L.A. In directing attention to existing scholarship schemes it is well to ask whether they are always of the right kind, awarded to the right children, in the right manner, and leading in the right direction. The true purpose of any scholarship system should be to give children of special ability the opportunity of continuing their education on the best possible lines, As, in ordinary circumstances, the poorer parents are unable to keep their children at school beyond the age when they may reasonably expect them to begin to add to the family income, it is necessary that there should be a full and complete system of maintenance scholarships, so that specially gifted children from the elementary schools should have every possible chance of developing all that is in them for the good of the community at large. With regard to scholarships for girls, differentiation must be made between two kinds; the one generally known and fairly freely given already, the other scarcely as yet recognised as necessary, but in reality equal, if not superior, in importance, for the future well-being of the social and industrial side of our life as a nation. I. Those of the literary type leading from the elementary school proper to the higher elementary, the municipal secondary, the grammar or high school or the pupil-teacher centre. Such scholarships are fairly numerous but very unequally distributed. Many of them are earmarked for the teaching profession—a system to be deprecated—and many of them are scholarships only, prohibitive to the children of the labouring classes, who find themselves unable to provide the necessary maintenance while the scholarship lasts. But besides the necessity for providing a liberal number of maintenance scholar- ships for the intellectually endowed children from our elementary schools, it is also essential that the ‘corridor’ from the one school to the other should not only be widely open, but that the curricula of the two schools should be so co-ordinated that the one should form the natural entrance to the other, and the names ‘ pri- mary ’ and ‘ secondary’ be realities and not unmeaning titles. Such scholarships should not be awarded on written examinations only, but depend also on the recommendation of the primary teacher and in some cases on a joint oral ex- eee conducted by the head teachers of both the elementary and secondary schools. II. Practical scholarships leading girls from the elementary school to some form of domestic or industrial training. These should never be awarded on a written examination. They should depend, not on the power to write well, spell correctly, and describe clearly in accurate English, but should be bestowed on the girl of faculty, the bright, intelli- gent, but not especially intellectual, girl whose senses are alert, who has the true eye, the delicate touch, the power to do. It is quite as necessary to prepare the future wife and mother for the duties of home making, the future workwoman for the labour of the workshop, the future servant for the routine of the kitchen, as it is to help the future teacher to obtain the knowledge to enable her to fulfil the duties of the schoolroom. All work is sacred, and true education helps people to live their lives so as to get and to give the greatest possible amount of good, Education that carries children forward into their future work in the world, be it brain-work or work with the hands, is ‘secondary,’ and therefore equal facili- ties should be given to both. Up to the present, only London, a few of our large provincial cities, such as Gloucester and Bradford, and two or three philanthropic firms, such as Rowntree’s of York and Cadbury’s of Bournville, have seriously undertaken the provision of this kind of secondary education. In London the polytechnics, the technical institutes, and trade schools are doing magnificent work, while many of the elementary schools possess cookery, laundry, and house- wifery centres where really good practical teaching is given. To the polytechnics and technical institutes some three or four hundred TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 711 L.C.C. maintenance scholarships are given annually, by means of which girls from the elementary schools receive twelve months’ instruction in domestic subjects, while some eighty additional scholarships, awarded on special aptitude, carry for- ward the best of these girls into the trade schools, where under skilful and com- petent teachers they specialise in such work as dressmaking, corset or waistcoat making, upholstery, tailoring, or art needlework. The spread of such secondary education is one of the necessities of modern times, and when this is fully recognised by education authorities throughout the country a liberal supply of scholarships for the same should follow as a matter of course. iad 3. The Scholarship System. By A. R. Picxuss, M.A., B.A. a, School Relationships.—-In view of the rapid increase of municipal secondary schools and of the modernising of many of the older foundations, and especially in view of the most recent pronouncements of the Board of Education in favour of a broadly democratic scheme of higher education, it is of importance to define the precise relationship between the primary and the secondary school systems, in order to be able to discuss a scholarship system with any real profit. b. The Aim of the Primary School.-The old conception of the primary school as a place for teaching poor children the three R’s, along with a smattering of history and geography, has happily receded, giving place to the new conception, which regards these schools as places for the formation of right habits, for the cultivation of thought and intelligence, and for fashioning the too]s of learning. To regard a child’s education as completed at the close of the primary school period is an absurdity, He may, by imitation, by the aid of a retentive memory, and by an oftentimes puzzling inquisitiveness, pick up many scraps of useful information; but the powers of reason, of independent thought, of balanced judgment, lie latent in the young child to a very large degree, It is in the vital years from about twelve to sixteen or seventeen that these powers attain working strength, and it may therefore be considered that all which goes before the age of about twelve is merely preparatory, and that the real educational development properly dates from this time. e. The Transfer to Secondary Schools.—As the artisan classes are taking an increasing share in municipal and national government, the supreme Imperial task of our time is the raising of popular intelligence, and it is as desirable as it will be beneficial to give the artisan as broad an education as is given to those whose privilege it has hitherto mostly been. As yet the greater number of our working- class children must go out at the age of thirteen or fourteen to earn a livelihood, but it is to be hoped that in the very near future a much greater proportion of the children even of poor parents will be able to proceed to a secondary school, especially if they desire and deserve it. So the essential thing at the present moment is to popularise secondary school teaching; to make the lower middle and artisan classes feel that they have as great an interest as anybody in our secondary schools. The narrow ladder must give place to a wide corridor between the primary and the secondary schools. d. The Present Scholarship System Inadequate and Wrong in Principle.—If this yiew of the aim of the primary school and of the relationship between the primary and the secondary school be granted, then it follows that our generally existing method of awarding scholarships is wrong in principle as well as inadequate. A local authority offers 2 scholarships, and primary school teachers far too often look upon the winning of scholarships more as bringing kudos to the school than advantaging the child. They eagerly scan previous years’ questions, and do their best to anticipate what questions may next be set; and, on the other hand, the examiner generally tries to set what he thinks the child will not know. Neither is to be blamed. Under present conditions they could hardly do otherwise. The system is at fault. Then the list is announced, and the child with 55:9 per cent, of marks may secure a scholarship, and the next pple TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. one with 55:8 per cent. is ‘ just out of it.’ Surely the fact only needs stating to show its absurdity. The principle, too, is wrong, remembering the new conception of the scope and aim of primary education. Secondary school teachers frequently lament the ~‘ falling-off’ of scholarship children, despite the fact that a fair number of such have done well. Ifthere must be a competitive examination, it would be pre- ferable to give the candidates some new work to prepare in the examination room, and judge their capacity and intelligence by their power to get knowledge for themselves, rather than by their power to yield up what has often been so laboriously crammed into their heads. e. Nomination and Consultation better than Examination.—It would be well if all special preparation could be avoided. It should be possible at the end of the educational year to ask the teachers in primary schools what children desire and deserve to go forward to a secondary school, and, after nomination, the secondary school teacher should meet the candidates face to face; then, by a few skilful questions and by consultation between the primary school and secondary school teachers, a wise selection could be made, a selection based, not upon the throw of a single examination—often too much of a lottery— but upon the child’s school record and upon the secondary school teacher's personal opinion of those latent powers which are at this time just beginning to make their presence evident. J. Desirability of varying Number of Scholarships.—There seems no reason why these scholarships should not vary according to the number of suitable applications. The list of children who may ‘ desire and deserve’ scholarships is not constant, but varies from year to year. There should be no poverty barrier. Maintenance allowances should be awarded where necessary, but no child ought to be transferred to a secondary school unless the parents are prepared to allow attendance for a full four-years’ course. For those who cannot do this the tops of the elementary schools should be strengthened in order to give an extended education for a year or two, of a type useful both for a livelihood and for life. That hybrid institution, the so-called higher elementary school, is a needless excrescence. g. The Future of Bright Children from Poor Homes.—As public money is spent to benefit the State as well as to help on the child, it would appear desirable that much more care should be taken to secure suitable employment for these children at the termination of the secondary school course than is generally taken at present. It seems in one sense a waste of public money to give an efficient higher education to a promising lad, and then find him at fifteen or sixteen years of age starting work as an errand-boy, and even in some cases entering the ranks of unskilled Jabour. Not but that the errand-boy is al) the better citizen for his education; yet it is disheartening to many a bright lad to find the doors bolted against him in the walk of life he would select, because he lacks influence. He should find it possible to serve his town and his country in that station in life for which his capacity and intelligence fit him, remembering Plato’s rule, ‘that children should be placed not according to their father’s con- ditions, but according to the faculties of their mind.’ h. Correlation of Aim and Co-ordination of Curricula.—It is obvious that the more natural and easy the transition is made from the primary to the secondary school, the less will be the wastage of time and effort in settling down in the new school. To this end there should be periodical conferences on questions of curricula, and, so far as is practicable, a continuity in the scope and aim of the instruction, with the object of rendering easy the passage of intelligent pupils from the primary to the secondary school. 4. The Scholarship System. By Miss 8. Heron. In this paper the scholarship system was considered from the point of view of the secondary school into which girls are received from the elementary school. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. Brie (ve The age of admission should be not later than twelve. The method of selection of junior scholars should include nomination by the head teacher of the school from which the girl comes, proving her to be suitable in ability, conduct, health, and home conditions for more advanced work and a wider curriculum, This should be followed by a written examination, held by the staff of the secondary school into which the girl is received, in arithmetic and English, and this paper test must be supplemented by an oral examination as well as by a medical examination of the best candidates. For intermediate scholars the examination held by the Joint Scholarships Board should be superseded by some recognised examination taken in the ordinary school course, ¢,g., the Junior Oxford or Cambridge Local. Yor senior or leaving scholarships the candidates should haye taken some certificate qualifying for admission to a university before leaving the sixth form. The monetary value of junior scholarships should cover school fees, books and stationery, and travelling expenses (if any), with a small margin for incidental outlays. The value of intermediate scholarships should be about half as much again, to provide a maintenance grant and to induce parents to keep a suitable girl at school as long as they can afford it, The rejection of the unfit should be done as early as possible and without hesitation ; but, if the method of selection is thorough and careful, not many scholars, once entered, will prove unsuitable. The most usual reason for such unfitness is previous ‘ cram,’ but a wise entrance examination will detect this evil. Conditions of award.—Scholarships ought not to be confined to pupils from any special class of school, but should be open to all girls, whether previously educated in elementary or private schools or at home. Some should be awarded to girls already in the secondary school who show sufficient merit and whose parents have slender means. . The duration of tenure of junior scholarships should depend on periodical reports, but should be generously extended from year to year to satisfactory scholars up to the age of sixteen, z.e., for at least four years. Intermediate scholarships should be given to a judiciously selected number of junior scholars who have passed a qualifying examination proving them to be able to profit by remaining at school till the age of eighteen. ‘These, again, should be followed up by senior or leaving scholarships for the few who wish to go to the university. Treatment of scholars.—Scholarship-holders should be welcomed in the secondary school as keeping up a high standard of work and conduct, and helping to break down any tendency to foster class distinctions. Each girl should stand on her own merits, independently of social position or creed. No difference should be made in any way between fee-payiny and non-fee-paying pupils, unless it be to bring forward the latter, who by industry or ability haye won free places, 5, The Scholarship System as affecting Preparatory Schools. By G. Gipitry Rosinson, IA. Entrance scholarships at the public schools are of great importance to preparatory schools, both from the financial and from the educational point of view. (i) Financial—Candidates from preparatory schools are by no means neces- sarily sons of wealthy people. The parents often make self-sacrificing efforts: the schoolmasters do much to help them. For many such boys scholarships are an inestimable boon or even necessary. Onthe other hand, parents who do not need scholarships are keen to get them; for competition stimulates a boy to do his best, and if successful he makes a good start and is not overlooked inthe crowded world of a public school. If elected on the foundation at Eton or Winchester, he has the advantage of living among a picked lot of clever boys. Sometimes scholarships are declined by wealthy people for their sons; but generally they are 714 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. regarded as prizes, not as eleemosynary endowments. As a step towards creating a public conscience in the matter, why should not the face-value of scholarships be reduced to, say, the amount of the tuition fee, and only increased on the application of the parent ? This would be a matter for private negotiation, and would leave no stigma of poverty on thescholar. The moral effect of sucha reform, if required by general statutory enactment, would probably be great. (11) Educational.—Scholarships are offered by the public schools in order to attract clever boys who will win honours later on at the universities and else- where. The system encourages early specialisation, especially inclassics. Hence an undue proportion of the time-table in preparatory schools is devoted to Latin and Greek. Scholarship examinations are at present the only public test of work and teaching in these schools; they set a standard, and so render important service. On the other hand, they dictate the curriculum for all boys, dull as well as clever, The latter can always take care of themselves; but for boys of small linguistic ability, the curriculum is overburdened with languages, and is therefore one- sided and unsatisfactory. It should be framed from the point of view of the boy whose aptitudes have to be discovered, ¢.c., provide for many-sided interest. This is good policy for the scholar, and essential for the boy of average ability. Ordinary abilities, backed by moral qualities, do some of the world’s best work ; we cannot therefore afford to neglect them in favour of specially-gifted boys. The time necessary for a wise readjustment of the curriculum can only be found by postponem-nt of Greek and Latin verse. This might be done without any violent changes of methods and standards. And it is necessary to ‘ hasten slowly,’ for there are rocks ahead in the question of the supply of properly qualitied teachers. 6. The Scholarship System at Oxford and Cambridge. By H. B. Baxer, W.A., D.Sc., FLR.S. The present system of open scholarships at the older universities owes its existence to Richard Jenkyns, Master of Balliol 1819-1854, Until about eighty years ago help was given to students in two ways. There were scholarships, confined to particular schools, districts, or families, and there were servitorships or sizarships, the holders of which did not necessarily possess very high intellectual qualifications, but who were essentially poor men. Jenkyns’s system was the offering of scholarships, after a competitive examination, to schoolboys without any reference to the question as to whether the money was or was not needed for their university education. The status of scholars was improved, and they were made to rank in the college immediately after the fellows. In a short time many of the most brilliant boys in public schools were attracted to the universities, and, what was more important, there was an improvement in the work of the schools, which benefited not only the prospective scholars, but also the rank and file of the school. The competition for open scholarships is perhaps keener in our own day than it has ever been, and the success of a school is now gauged, quite wrongly in my opinion, by the number of open scholarships it can claim at the end of the school year. It has been several times suggested during the last few years that the scholarship system involves a great waste of money, and schemes have been proposed which, while retaining the stimulus of competition, give the money only where it is needed. This seems the only logical position, and were the question as simple as it sounds few would hesitate to adopt one or other of the solutions. The most recent of these proposals is briefly this, that all entrance scholarships should be of the value of 40/, a year, and that they should only be increased when the parent could prove that the increase was necessary. On the face of it the proposal seems reasonable, with the one exception that the giving of 40/. a year to a scholar who does not need it seems a half-hearted measure. Exaggerated statements of the waste of money given in scholarships are so —e—eoe Cl ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 715 often made that an attempt to arrive at an approximation to the facts should be of interest. The heads of all colleges at Oxford and Cambridge were asked to give an estimate of the proportion of their scholars during the last ten years who could have afforded to reside at the university without the aid of their émoluments. Acknowledgment is gratefully made of the kindness of these gentlemen and of the tutors of colleges in compiling the statistics which it is now possible to bring before the Section. The estimates show that at Cambridge 17 per cent. of scholars could have resided at the university without their scholarships, while at Oxford the proportion is only 6 per cent. But even in many of these few cases it was very largely the opinion of my correspondents that the money given in scholarships was not misused. The head of the college at Oxford which had apparently the largest percentage of wealthy scholars pointed out that they weve largely sons of professional men whose incomes are uncertain. In these cases if the father happens to die during his son’s university career there is no possibility of the boy’s education being completed without external aid. Many have pointed out the difficulty in dealing with the figures supplied by parents with the object of proving poverty. Others consider that if scholarships were made purely eleemosynary the status of scholars would immediately fall, and a condition of things spring up which exists, to their great detriment, in some of the American universities, It must be remembered that the social life of the older universities is one of the most important things to a youth, and anything which would tend to diminish its educational value is much to be deprecated. Considering the disadvantages which the new scheme presents, I would advocate two alternatives. First, let there be a voluntary relinquishment of the emoluments of a scholarship by a wealthy parent, the other privileges of the scholar being retained. It would soon become a point of honour for a wealthy man to refuse to accept money which would be so useful to poor men, Second, let a former scholar who has attained in later life to a position of comparative opulence pay back his scholar- ships in some way or other for the help of other poor scholars. With regard to the first of these proposals I may point out that it is occasionally carried into effect. At one Oxford college six out of twelve wealthy scholars have during the last ten years refused the emoluments of their scholarships, and isolated instances have occurred at other colleges, With regard to the second proposal, cwm veniret ad pinguiorem fortunam (when a man has attained to fatter fortune), as the St. Andrews statute has it, he should pay back the money which was the foundation of his fortune. This also is done, and perhaps more often than is known. Occasionally the whole sum is paid back to a college, but more frequently the former scholar, out of the not very fat fortune of a schoolmaster or college tutor, pays the sum back in helping poor scholars at the university. Hither of these systems of relieving college funds would, if backed by the force of public opinion, relieve an amount of hardship and poverty which is scarcely realised by any who have not been either poor scholars themselves or been brought’ into intimate contact with them. The cost of living varies very greatly at different colleges. It is possible to live with economy at many colleges on 120/. a year. Two of my own pupils at Christ Church have managed with self-denial to limit their expenses to 110/. a year. Since an open scholarship is 80/. a year, and school-leaving exhibitions may give a man another 20J. a year, it is not difficult to see that the very poor man has still need of assistance. Most colleges have an exhibition fund from which grants are privately made to the ee students, and anyone who is willing to pay back his scholarship by the elp of which, it may be, he has attained a good position, could hardly do better than contribute the money to such a fund. 7. The Scholarship System at a Residential University. By Professor H. A. Miers, W.A., D.Sc. F.R.S. At a residential university like Oxford two main objects are to be secured by the scholarship system: (1) the opportunity for poor lads of marked ability to get 716 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. admission to the university; (2) the encouragement of an intellectual class of student and the maintenance of a body of scholars who can live together to their mutual benefit. To these may be added (3) means of endowing industrious lads who are unable to win the greater scholarship prizes in open competition, but require endowment if they are to live at an expensive university, and (4) the encouragement of special studies by special scholarships. With regard to (1) there is very little now to prevent any lad of really marked ability from winning his way to the university by means of scholarships, how- ever humble his origin. So far the present system is a success. But it is also quite certain that, at Oxford, scholarship money is spent on many young men who could afford to do without it, although the estimates of how many vary greatly. With regard to (2), it is most important that boys of ability should come together and form an intellectual class in the university, and that every college should have a considerable number of them, but that is no reason why they should all receive a uniform endowment of about 80/. a year. It has been suggested that all scholarships should be of a nominal value, say, of 40/. a year, and should only be supplemented by an additional endowment raising them to 80/. or more for those to whom it is really necessary. This would liberate funds which would render it possible to bring to the university, and to maintain there, many of a highly deserving class, mentioned above under (2), namely, the industrious boys who are not quite up to the open scholarship standard, but who have everything to gain from a university career, and are a great strength to the university and the colleges. Call them exhibitioners or what you will, the point is that they should not be elected merely on open competition, but to some extent on personal recommendation. The present scramble for scholars not only between the two older universities, but also between the various colleges at each, leads to no useful result. It some- times ends in very indifferent competitors being left for those colleges which come late. Add to this the worry and inconvenience caused by sending boys up from school for several successive competitions, and it is clear that there is room for more combination and organisation on the part of the colleges. The group system, by which several colleges combine and hold the examinations together, is a great improvement on the old independent system, and has been more developed at Cambridge than at Oxford. A college objection to large groups is that, owing to the number of candidates, there is no opportunity for the examiners to become personally acquainted with them ; but if the examination were held only twice a year it might be made more prolonged and more thorough than it is now, and give ample opportunity for the examiners to study their candidates on behalf of their respective colleges. From a large group system it is only one step to a still larger combination by which scholarship examinations would be really conducted by the university, say, twice a year, and the scholars drafted into the various colleges. This would of course leave each college free to reject an offered scholar, and would not preclude the possibility of a certain number of college scholarships in addition to those administered by the university. The endow- ments mentioned above for boys below the highest scholarship standard might well be exhibitions administered by the colleges themselves. That such an arrangement is not impracticable is shown by the working of the Rhodes scholarships. One of the great grievances at the present time concerning the scholarship system is the fact that the examinations are constantly becoming harder and are tending more and more to enforce specialisation at schools, Anything which will prevent this would be a gain, and it would be far easier for the university as a whole to keep the standard uniform and general than for the individual colleges which are in competition with each other. It is as easy to select scholarship boys of real promise from a crowd of competitors by means of a fairly simple and wide examination as by the more special and advanced examination which now pre- vails, and there is perhaps no reason why the same papers, including classics, mathematics, science, English, and modern languages, should not be set to all competitors alike, though it might be necessary to preserve a distinction between —— SS TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. (ALY scholarship examinations for modern side boys and those on the classical side, But such things as examinations in classics or mathematics, or history, or science alone ought to be unnecessary; so long as they exist there is little reason why scholarships should not be given also for geography, or divinity, or modern lan- guages and each of the other subjects which form part of the ordinary school curriculum. But if scholarships in special subjects should be discouraged for schoolboys, they should be encouraged for another class who are at present almost entirely overlooked by our university system—namely, the class of advanced students. A few of them from favoured countries are now provided for by the Rhodes scholarships at Oxford, but it is remarkable that while we are establishing all sorts of advanced courses, diplomas, and research degrees, we have established no scholarships to enable the poorer student to enter upon these courses. ‘ A kindred need, which is also very often overlooked, is that for some pro- vision whereby a scholarship may be prolonged for post-graduate study. Nothing is more valuable, both for a university and for its better students, than the maintenance of a considerable body of young men employed in research or teach- ing work, or in advanced study, under the direction of the university teachers. Too many men drift away into professions or occupations for which they are not best fitted merely because they cannot afford to stay on at the university at the exact time when a year or two of advanced work would supply just the intel- lectual stimulus that they require, and would enable those who possess some origin- ality to show their capabilities. Another matter of supreme importance is the influence of the scholarship system upon school teaching. The present harmful overtraining of certain boys in special directions, and the consequent neglect of others, can only be prevented by examining on the normal curriculum and by refusing to allow the exami- nations to increase in difficulty as they do now; in other words to ensure that the scholarship examinations shall set the normal standard of curriculum for the abler boys at schools, and not a standard which is only attainable by a few highly trained boys of quite special ability, just as the ordinary entrance examinations to the universities, if they are to he maintained, should set the normal standard of curriculum for the ordinary boys. Considering the enormous expenditure of time and money throughout the country upon examinations, it might be profitable to consider how far the present examination system, with its feverish writing against time, might be partly replaced by the more rapid, more economical, and more personal viva voce exami- nation. At present many a teacher lives almost as much by examination work as by remuneration for legitimate teaching work ; if some of the money now spent upon the payment of examiners were saved for the better payment of the teacher very considerable advantages would be gained. This is, however, a matter that con- cerns examinations in general rather than scholarships in particular. To conclude: the suggestions made amount to this, that school scholarships should be by examination of a less special character, should be in general of less value, and should be administered by the university; that exhibitions given otherwise than by examination should be administered by the colleges; that a certain number of scholarships should be awarded for advanced or post-graduate work ; and that there should be more provision for prolonging ordinary scholarships for these purposes. 8. The Scholarship System. By Rev. A. A. Davin, WA. The scholarship system is at present based on two general principles. The first and original principle is the assistance of those who can prove their fitness for higher education, but without monetary aid would be unable to avail them- selves of it. It is somewhat remarkable that in a country not specially inclined to respect intellectual distinction as such, the position of the ‘ poor scholar’ has developed into one of honour. This leads to the second principle, which is the 718 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. recognition of superior ability and attainment by means of a special status, carrying with it a fixed emolument. The difficulty of the existing situation is largely caused by the fact that these two principles are in confusion. Open competition has naturally resulted in the bestowal of emoluments on candidates who distinguish themselves in the examina- tion, but may or may not be deserving of financial assistance. In devising a solution of this difficulty two things must be borne in mind. Firstly, it is wost important that students needing such assistance should not be separated from those who deem the distinction worth winning for its own sake, but cannot, except in a very few cases, bring themselves to refuse the emoluments. Secondly, it is important that the distinction should not be entirely dissociated from the money grant which seals its value. A possible reform would be to reduce the money value of all scholarships to something quite nominal, but sufficient to serve as a symbol of the intellectual distinction. The remainder of scholarship revenue might then be converted into augmenta- tion funds from which grants would be made privately in full proportion to need. Experience already gained in administering small funds both at school and uni- versity shows that such an augmentation of nominal scholarships, though involving delicate investigations and sometimes difficult decisions, would not be impracticable even on a very large scale. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. The following Report and Papers were read :— 1. Report on the Curricula of Secondary Schools.—-See Reports, p. 422. 2, Education and Evolution, By Rev. A. E. Craw ey, IA. Though the literature of education during the last fifty years has been volu- minous, the problems of education have never been examined on a sufficiently large induction of facts, and the biological and evolutionary point of view has been entirely ignored. The principles which underlie the education of to-day are entirely unsatis- factory: they are fortuitous, traditional, or opportunist. (1) The curriculum is overcrowded with subjects; many of these are not educational, in the proper sense, for real life; (2) the results are nil; vulgarity, squalor, obscenity, hooli- ganism, seem to increase with the education of the lower orders, while general capacity and power of thought have not increased. Individuality is actually destroyed. From a study of the subject in its anthropological and psychological aspects, and from a long practical experience of teaching, it would appear that— 1. The education of a savage child is at once practical and liberal, and offers valuable lessons for our purpose. 2. Education should make, not good workmen, clerks, or citizens, but men. 8. The biological significance of childhood is all-important; the child represents the future of the race in two senses of the phrase. The superficial and immediate meaning is obvious, but the other and deeper meaning, which is not generally understood, is that in terms of evolution the child is higher in the scale of development than the adult, just as the infant ape is much nearer to man than the adult ape. 4, The importance of physical culture and athletics is not sufficiently under- stood. The neuro-muscular system is at present either not exercised, or exercised improperly, or overworked. a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 719 5. We ignore the delicacy of children’s nerves, Especially fatal is the fallacy of brain-exercise : the brain is not a muscle; to venture on a paradox, there should be. no work at all in schools. Mental fatigue is daily forced upon children to their incalculable injury. 6. Subjects of curriculum, Two prime needs are: (1) The encouragement of the imagination, which in childhood is actually at its best. (2) The exclusion of useless subjects. Useless subjects will not pass the following tests: (a) A child must learn the world of Nature, and later of men, as we now know it. This means Nature-study and science generally. It must learn the various aspects in which a thing ia knowable—surface, area, form, numerical values. Only so much mathematics is necessary as is required to work with science and mechanics. (6) It must know itself. (c) It must learn to express its knowledge and co-ordinate it. History in the ordinary sense is useless, but biological and evolutionary history is essential. No languages other than the vernacular are to be learned. The old plea of ‘culture’ involves many fallacies. Culture comes from luxury and refinement of surroundings: it cannot be taught, and its only importance is in the zsthetic side of life. As to the plea of ‘formation of character,’ there are many fallacies enshrined in this and in the ordinary conception of duty. Ideal teaching should be the answering of children’s questions in terms of the knowledge already acquired by themselves. 3. The Secondary School Curriculum in France, with particular reference to Instruction in Modern Languages. By Professor Lton Moret. Since 1902 a complete reorganisation of the whole course of studies has been imposed upon all State schools. After a first stage of primary or elementary teaching which applies to boys from a very early age, and already comprehends a teaching of one foreign language, secondary teaching proper begins with the sixth form (boys of ten on an average). The whole course, then extending over seven years, is divided into two cycles—one of four years (sixth, fifth, fourth, and third forms), the other of three years (second and first forms), philosophy or mathematics. The first cycle comprises two sections throughout the four years. In one of them (Section B) no Latin is taught ; in the other Latin is taught from the sixth form; Greek is optional from the fourth form. In all classes of both sections living foreign languages are allotted as many as five hours a week. In the second cycle four sections are established in the second and first forms. One, Section A, is characterised by the teaching of Latin and Greek; Section B by that of Latin and foreign languages; Section C by that of Latin and sciences ; Section D by that of sciences and foreign languages. The last is the normal course followed by the boys who, in the first cycle, have learnt no Latin. But Section D is equally accessible to boys who, having belonged in the first cycle to Section A, choose to abandon the study of Latin. In all four sections living foreign languages are taught. They receive two hours a week in Sections A and C, seven hours in Sections B and D, Of those seven hours, three are allotted to the language learnt by each boy previous to his entering the second form, and four to the study of a second foreign language. At the end of the first class boys undergo the examination for the first half of a bachelor’s degree, different tests sanctioning their various programmes of study. Boys who have passed successfully that first B.A. examination enter either the class of philosophy or that of mathematics, both comprehending a further study of living languages, to the rate of two hours for some and of three for such as wish to go on with the study of two languages, It will be seen from this brief summary of the system that a strenuous effort is being made (1) at securing a varied and supple curriculum which may ensure both 720 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. practical usefulness and disinterested culture, and (2) at giving to foreign languages, either entirely or partly, the share in the formation of young minds which was previously considered as a privilege of ancient languages, 4, Conditions of Science Work in Secondary Schools. By R, HE. Towairtes, M.A. In a paper on the ‘ Internal Economy of School Science,’ read before the Public School Science Masters’ Association in January 1907, figures were presented relating to conditions of science work in thirty-six public schools. More recently similar data have been obtained from about the same number of secondary schools, working in conformity with Board of Education regulations. In both cases information was asked for on the following points: Number of boys taking science in (1) general course, (2) special course; average number in class; number of hours per week for (1) general course, (2) special course ; number of science masters ; number of laboratory assistants; approximate annual expenditure for science; and answers to the following questions: Do you consider your present arrangements to be adequate in respect of—(1) laboratory accommodation, (2) laboratory equipment, (3) staff, (4) laboratory assistants ? The average results may here be given :— Public Schools.—In twenty-nine schools 60 per cent. of the boys take science : in twenty-three of these the average percentage of boys in the general course is ninety-five, the remainder being specialists. The number in class for twenty-seven schools is 21°5 in the general and fourteen in the special course. The time for the general course is four hours a week, usually divided between chemistry and physics, and for the special course twelve hours. In eighteen schools the annual expenditure per boy was about 17. Chemistry costs more than physics for main- tenance. In twenty-three schools there is a science master for every seventy-six boys and a laboratory assistant to every 147 boys. Sixty-five per cent. of the correspondents were satisfied with their laboratory accommodation, 71 per cent. with equipment, 77 per cent. with the number of the staff, and only 58 per cent. with‘laboratory assistants. Secondary Day Schools.—All boys above twelve years of age take science. The percentage of boys in the general course, lasting four years, is 94, in the special course 6. The average number in class in the general course is 22'6, in special course 8 or 9. The number of hours for science in general course is rather over four a week, and in special course from eight to fifteen. The work is usually divided between chemistry and physics; very little biology istaught. The annual expenditure per boy for apparatus and chemicals is 8s. 6d., or 2s. for one hour of science a week. The average number of boy-hours a week for one science master is about 310. There is one laboratory assistant to 218 boys. Ninety per cent. of the correspondents are satisfied with their staff, 77 per cent. with laboratory accommodation, 80 per cent. with laboratory equipment, and 50 per cent. with laboratory assistants. It will be seen that the ratio of specialists to boys in a general course is roughly the same in the two classes of schools. In the matter of expenditure the day schools are markedly inferior to public schools. In both there are too few laboratory assistants. The consequences of this misguided economy are that the time of the science master is wasted in drudgery which could be performed less expensively by an assistant, and opportunity for preparation of experiments is lacking. Tin alasipes to the question, ‘ What do you consider to be the maximum size of a laboratory division for successful work ?’ the average reply from thirty schools was: Twenty boys in the lower classes, twelve in the higher. It need not be said that these figures still represent only a pious aspiration in many cases. Another question addressed to the same schools related to the advisability of teaching experimental mechanics as part of the science course. The answers TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 72) showed a strong feeling of the value, and even necessity, of such a course as a preliminary to all advanced work in physics. aint It is hoped that this report, fragmentary as it is, may be of some use to educationists and those interested in the supply of secondary education, as indicating the present conditions under which science work is prosecuted in public schools and the better class of secondary day schools, Joint Discussion with Sections D and K on the Teaching of Biology in Schools.—See p. 547. TUESDAY, AUGUST 6. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Need of a Scientific Basis to Girls’ Education from a Domestic Point of View. By Professor H. E. Armstrone, Ph.D., LL.D., F.RNS. 2. The Teaching and the Teacher in Evening Technical Schools. By J. H. Hawrnorn, M.A. In considering curricula, too little account “is often taken of the question ‘What is the type of student attending Evening Technical Schools?’ The type of student is even now rapidly changing. Ten years ago our schools were largely occupied in catering for an army of adult workmen whose previous education, scanty as it was, had been long forgotten. Looking back over these years, a pro- gressive lowering of the average age of the students is observed. In the case of the adult student all we could hope was to give him some scraps of knowledge which he could at once fit into his trade requirement. To-day a much larger view of the functions of a Technical School may be taken, and the fact may be emphasised that the beginning of things scientific is undoubtedly Pure Science. There has been so great a demand for Applied Science of late years that a murmur of dissent may be expected when a recognition of this principle is asked for, but we may fairly ask the question whether we are not over- doing the so-called application of science. What students do we find come out best in our evening classes ? Undoubtedly those whose previous work has been in pure science. We may teach chemistry of the boot trade, or even chemistry for the engineering trade, but a course of chemistry as chemistry will Jay a much better foundation for the later application of it than to begin at once dovetailing chemistry to leather or steel. This attitude may be criticised by pointing out that much of the application of science (so called) has been rendered necessary by the fact that we must attract the evening student, and that we have no compulsory evening school attendance scheme. Experience shows, however, that evening students worth keeping and worth teaching are generally ready to be advised as to what course to take and how to take it, Seekers after Applied Science are mainly hunters of wrinkles and tips which may be useful in the factory and can be obtained with a minimum of mental effort, Nevertheless, a technical school ought certainly to provide ‘ Applied Science’ as its chief educational item, but it ought to be divided into two departments > The higher should be the applied science department, and this should be the trade department also. Leading up to this should be the pure science side, as prepara- tory to it. No student ought to be allowed to take a trade class (as trade classes are known in Leicester) unless he has laid a foundation of pure science in the preparatory department. What of the plumber, the shoe-hand, the bricklayer, and the carpenter? Will he devote winter after winter to a painful struggle with geometry, physics, 1907. 3A 722 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. mathematics, &c., while he desires a knowledge of struts, bonds, beams, lasts, pipes, and all the other trade paraphernalia? It must be admitted that we cannot expect this of him if he comes to the Evening School with ten years’ shop experience and ten years’ blank after his schooldays. There are nevertheless a few, even of this type, who come at the age of twenty-five entirely ignorant, but with an appetite for knowledge sharpened by a rude awakening to their incompetency. These of course do well, but the great majority of older students barely attain mediocrity. The adult student in evening technical schools is gradually dis- appearing, and though his elimination is slow, yet we shall best study the interests of our pupils if we take special care of our younger members, and whether they get their preliminary training in science in the school itself or in some preparatory school, one condition of admission to any trade class ought to be the possession of at least a modicum of pure science. The question of the best type of man to teach in evening technical classes is a very difficult one, but we are helped to a solution if clear ideas are held about the curriculum. If we assume the existence of the preliminary course of pure science, &e., the choice of a teacher for this will not be a source of much anxiety. When we come to trade subjects we are on very debatable ground. The usual evening teacher works all day in the factory, and comes one or two evenings to take charge of a trade class in the technical school. While appreciating the splendid work that has been done by these men, it cannot be an ideal system which only brings a teacher into contact with his teaching when his mind and body are carrying the burden of a hard day’s work in the factory or workshop. The chief fault of the system, however, is that the teacher has no opportunity of correlating his work with that of other teachers, and he and his class become an isolated community. The average teacher of this type is, as a rule, lacking in general scientific training, and usually his knowledge of trade methods and processes is in inverse ratio to his knowledge of scientific matters, He has never been taught to teach, and fre- quently has the haziest notions as to the capacity of his students. In fact, the ‘odd evening’ artizan teacher is not a satisfactory solution of the difficulty. The alternative is, of course, to employ the science teacher who has probably spent the day in another school. In this case we get rid of one difficulty, but meet another perhaps more serious. The teaching of trade subjects requires trade knowledge, and there are hundreds of records of classes wrecked for lack of this vital necessity in the teaching, Experience shows that the best results are obtained by a blending of these two methods. A science teacher with a compe- tent artizan demonstrator will ensure both the correct development of the subject taught and the welding of the scientific principles with the workshop application of them. Of course, where day classes are held, and it is possible to employ teachers for full time, the difficulty largely cures itself, but the question of ‘ Up-to-date-ness’ needs very careful watching. A man who occupies his whole time in the teaching of the principles of any trade must, by his separation from workshop conditions and developments, inevitably become out of date and behind the times; and it is here that the good will of local manufacturers can be utilised to great advantage, When the teacher is known to, appreciated by, and keeps in touch with local factory owners, and is encouraged to visit factories and manufacturing works, he keeps abreast of the trade in its growth, and best satisfies the demand in our schools for that desideratum, a technical teacher, In working the scheme consisting of a trade teacher plus a science teacher, the position of the two men in relation to the class must be decided, partiy by the qualifications of the men themselves and partly by the administrative possibilities, In the Leicester Municipal Technical School a plan is adopted which has worked so far with excellent results. One member of the staff devotes his time to what may be termed technological science. He works in close conjunction with the several trade teachers. With slight modifications to suit the different trades, the same course of introductory science is suitable for many classes, and the detach- ment of such a teacher for this purpose enables him at the same time to study the trade questions to an extent sufficient for him to bring his teaching more or less TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 723 closely into line with the requirements of the trade teacher. No doubt in most schools one such man, with his energies devoted altogether in the direction indi- cated, would find his time fully and profitably occupied, and have on the trade teaching a beneficial effect where such influence is most wanted, 3. Problems of Trade Education considered in relation to owr School System. By C. T. Mruiuis, M.L. Mech. £. The object of this paper is to point out the several problems connected with the continuance of education beyond the elementary school stage in the direction of technical or trade education, and to make suggestions that may be useful in deciding whether the higher elementary school or some other type of school is the best suited for the purpose. There is a general consensus of opinion that some reforms are needed in our elementary school education to make it an effective preparation for the battle of life, especially for those children who will take up industrial work. The time is ripe for the discussion of the question, seeing that there is an increasing number of persons who feel that elementary education has hitherto given too much attention to the requirements of those going into clerical occupations and practically none to those of the children going into trades. The education has been too bookish, has tended to increase the taste for mere clerical work, and has not impressed children with ideas of the dignity of labour. The bright children wishing to enter the office or the Civil Service, or to become teachers, have had opportunities of entering secondary schools by means of scholar- ships, whilst, broadly speaking, there have been no schools of a practical character for children to enter who are going into trade, or scholarships provided which would assist them. There is a great tendency to regard the effort to make good workmen as utili- tarian and to a certain extent as derogatory compared with the humane side of education, though this side is often quite as utilitarian, in that it is given asa means of piling up marks and securing coveted positions in the professional world. The humane and utilitarian subjects of education are not mutually exclusive; each has power to make noble characters with high ideals for work, and education has no other object. The inference which seems to lie at the root of popular notions of culture, that the more useful a subject is the less is its culture value, is wrong. New conditions in our industrial system, owing to the introduction of machinery and subdivision of labour, combined with decline in apprenticeship, make it necessary to provide a broad basal training in our educational system for those who are to become skilled workmen, which will discourage young workmen from being content with a knowledge of one or at the most two branches of whatever trade it may be, and will render them more efficient all-round men, able to cope with the ever-varying conditions of manufacturing industries. The absence of such knowledge tends to increase the number of unemployed. The importance of the subject is recognised by the formation of Apprenticeship Committees, Reports of Education Committees, Mr. Edric Bayley’s pamphlet on ‘ Industrial Training in Elementary Schools,’ and Circular 604 issued by the Board of Education. All these, as well as the establishment of several types of trade and technical schools, notably in London, are evidences of a feeling of unrest. The types of schools may be considered under three heads :—(a) Trade schools for girls; (4) technical (specialised) trade schools for boys for particular trades ; and (c) technical or preparatory trade schools, Schools of Type (a).—Highly specialised training schools for girls, between fourteen and sixteen years of age, in needlework trades, as dressmaking, ladies’ tailoring, waistcoat-making, upholstery, &c., modelled on Parisian schools, These take the place of apprenticeship up to the ‘improver’ or assistant stage, but would be more valuable if preliminary training were possible for one year between elementary and trade schools. Schools of Type (6).—For boys, between fourteen and sixteen years of age 3A 2 724 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. hoping to become foremen and managers, chiefly from higher elementary and secondary schools. Engineering and bakery trades chiefly dealt with. These only provide for the few bright boys and only touch the fringe of the question. Schools of Type (c).—-For boys who will enter trades at between fifteen and sixteen years of age, suitable for the mass, and providing preparatory trade training ; specialisation deferred to the last year. Such schools are safest under modern conditions in that too early specialisation and late age of entering trades are ayoided. No special ability is required. Fundamental principles relating to handicraft are taught ; no attempt is made to replace workshop experience, but merely to shorten period of learning a trade. Practical mathematics, science, drawing, and workshop practice in relation to various groups of trades are taught. The opinion of manufacturers is in favour of better trained workers, of whom they say there is a scarcity. The State and educational authorities for many years have failed to grapple boldly with the question of providing better opportunities for the training of the industrial workers. There has been an indecision of policy; first we had a few day classes in the same subjects and under the same syllabuses as those suitable for evening classes in science and art; next the organised science schools under similar conditions, which were really not organised schools; these were improved, and we had what became known as Division ‘A’ type of schools, which were afterwards transferred from the management of South Kensington to Whitehall on the reorganisation of the Education Department to a Board of Education, The Division ‘A’ type of schools was squeezed out of existence by the Regulations for Secondary Schools, and clause 42 of the Regulations for Evening Schools was introduced as a means of dealing with schools of types other than secondary. Lastly, we had the Higher Elementary School Minute, and by a process of evolution we are coming to the trade schools of various types. The several types of trade schools are better suited to the needs of the times and are more needed than hicher elementary schools. These trade schools, in close connection with or in technical institutes, and working under clause 42 of the South Kensington branch of the Board of Education, will be a greater success than any schools under the regulations of the Whitehall branch—that is, they should be administered under codes drawn up by those who are intimately in touch with development in technical work. To get the full value out of such trade schools there must be reform in our scholarships system and in our elementary schools. The reforms most needed in our elementary schools are smaller classes, a simplified curriculum, fewer special subjects, more correlation, and improvements in the teaching of arithmetic, which must be taught in connection with geometry from an early age and be combined with manual work. Manual work must form a real part of the school work and not be looked upon as a special subject. Close co-ordination is needed between the work of the elementary school and that of the trade school, so that children will enter them better prepared between thirteen and fourteen years of age, and one year’s work of the trade school course will be saved. The important general principles to be considered in the establishment and management of trade schools are :— (a) Plan the school course to permit boys to enter any given trade at the right age. (6) Co-ordinate the work at the beginning with that of the elementary school if possible, and vice versd. (c) Co-ordinate the last year’s work with the system of apprenticeship followed in the trade to avoid waste of time. (d@) Watch the labour market in order to guard against mistaken specialisation. (e) Secure the right kind of teacher. Properly managed by co-operation of parents, teachers, employers, and trade- union leaders, there will be no opposition. An adequate supply of well-trained teachers in touch with the requirements of trade is necessary to teach the science TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 725 subjects cognate to various trades, and for the special trades subjects the teacher must be a person who has had actual trade experience of workshop and factory conditions, 4. Day Trade Schools for Girls. By Mrs. J. Ramsay MacDonatp. The experiment of day trade schools for girls is still in its infancy in this country, but the promising infant has a great future before it. The standard of wages and conditions of work of women in industry is even lower than that of men. This is due to the fact of woman’s double work—wage-earning in factory or workshop and the responsibilities of home. The former is apt to be looked on as temporary and comparatively unimportant, whereas men look upon their trade as their life work. This tendency is disastrous to the four million women wage-earners of the country. eo eee To raise the conditions the training for industry must be taken more seriously. At present there are few opportunities for such training. Evening classes are comparatively valueless after girls have worked at trade all day. The Women’s Industrial Council has pressed upon the London County Council the need for day trade schools for girls. In October 1904 the London County Council started the first of these—that for waistcoat-making—at the Borough Polytechnic. Now there are, in addition, schools for dressmaking and upholstery at this polytechnic. Also there are classes for ready-made clothing and upholstery at Shoreditch Technical Institute; for dressmaking at Paddington and Woolwich; and for dressmaking, corset-making, and ladies’ tailoring at Morley Coliege—to be moved in the autumn to special premises in Westminster, where classes for laundry work are also planned. The broad lines of instruction are the same in each. Altogether 280 girls are now receiving instruction, and this number will be increased in the autumn. The pupils attend after leaving elementary schools, most of them having scholarships with maintenance grants, and the course is about two yeurs in length; six half-days a week are devoted to trade teaching ; four half-days to general instruction, including art work, bookkeeping, writing of business letters, and so forth, in close connection with the trade work. The trade teachers are in each case women who have come straight from good positions in the workroom, and are closely in touch with trade methods, Hach class also has an advisory committee of trade experts, employers, foremen, and others, who visit regularly and give most helpful criticisms and suggestions important to gain the confidence of the trade. Mrs, Oakeshott, the L.C.C. organiser, gains knowledge of conditions in workshops and factories, and helps schools to keep up to date. The girls begin with easy exercises, and soon proceed to more and more varied and elaborate work, instead of beginning, as in the workroom, with running errands and being kept at drudgery tasks to suit the convenience of older workers. The fundamental difference is that in the school the pupils’ develop- ment is the first consideration; in the workroom, the customers’ convenience. The youngest or slowest pupil has the special attention of the trade teacher and the expert advisers, and the use of good materials to practise on, even at the risk of spoiling them. They are also taken to see the best shops, museums of art work, and so on. Another especial advantage is that the hours are short, and the pupils do not get the backache, anemia, and general weariness which fall to the lot of the girl of fourteen who goes straight from school to work ten and a half hours, or even more, daily in the season. It is remarkable to see how the girls respond to this teaching. Girls of thirteen and fourteen manipulate blouses and evening dresses in best West-end style; make waistcoats which evoke the enthusiasm of their teacher, who herself ‘sees something fresh to admire in her trade every day’; and at their art lessons design ornamentations and traceries for embroidery which are tasteful and graceful. The girls are at first made to do the work thoroughly and 726 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. carefully, without being hurried ; but during the second year they are gradually speeded up and made to work to time. We have not yet much knowledge of what the girls can do when they go out into the trade, but so far as we have any, amongst the Borough scholars, it is encouraging. It is hoped that the girls now being trained will be equipped by their thorough grounding and insight into all branches of the trade and their higher level of general knowledge and intelligence to rise to the best positions in the trade. If the numbers are increased and the operations widened, the level of the average worker will be raised and every girl will be given a chance of being a good all-round hand, taking pride and pleasure in her work; whilst the union in the school of the art and science teaching with the practical details of industry foreshadows a gradual revolution in our trade methods which will raise our industries to a perfection hitherto only pictured by dreamers and idealists. 5. Technical Training of the Rank and File. By J. G. Luacu, U.A. The public is more alive to-day than ever it was to the necessity of technical training, but the avowed end is often merely the training of captains of industry, to the neglect of the rank and file. The need of capable and resourceful work- men is quite as great as that of experiencd foremen and scientifically trained managers or directors. Moreover, the workman should be furnished with such an equipment in boyhood as will enable him by steadiness and by study in youth ope early manhood to rise through the ranks of foremen to that of manager or irector, But the public is still perplexed to some extent by a confusion in educational ideals. This confusion may be traced all through the history of the theory and practice of education, and is due to the continual conflict between the intellectual and the practical ideals of education. One party has always laid stress on giving all children what is called a liberal education, interpreting this as an education which is largely literary and linguistic, and if it has any direct bearing on the future occupation of a child points to a professional or commercial career, not that of any horny-handed son of toil or mechanic. The other party has con- sidered the main business of education to be the training of a child to follow the line of life circumstances are likely to necessitate, and mistrusts the introduction into school of subjects which might tend to give the child a distaste or to unfit it for such employment as is likely to fall to its lot. The real problem in education is now, as always, how to effect a compromse between the two ideals. To make the ladder of education a real one, one must see that the bottom rungs are there, so that the child, from the very depths, can step on to it without having to be hoisted. The circumstances of many children demand that their manual activity shall be just as carefully cultivated from early years as their intellectual faculties ; hence the need for dovetailing into each other the industrial and the literary or intellectual elements of their training. Consideration ought to be given to the bearing on this point of the change in the relation of the home both to school and to work brought about by the industrial development of the last century. Evidence of the value of industrial training is afforded by a study of the movement in schools under the control of the Admiralty, the War Office, the Home Office, the Local Government Board, and various voluntary associations for the care of orphans and the like. It is clear that what is known as hand and eye training, and weekly lessons making up a course of manual instruction or handicraft, are inadequate. The main ideas underlying all satisfactory schemes of industrial training are the following, every one of which requires full attention :— (1) The acquisition of the workman’s touch. (2) The art of handling every tool of a trade to the best advantage. (3) The full understanding of the materials one has to work upon. (4) The capacity to plan out as well as to execute a piece of work. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 727 It should not be difficult to devise a curriculum for elementary schools alter- native to the literary and commercial curriculum generally pursued. The first step toward this curriculum would be to divide a school day clearly into two sessions, the morning session being devoted mainly to the literary and intellectual side, covering such subjects as English, arithmetic, writing, geography, history, and the laws of health, and the afternoon session to what may be called the practical and recreative and constructive elements—drawing, singing, physical training, manual work of the most varied kind—affording full scope for originality both in teacher and child, and housewifery for girls, It should be clearly under- stood that there is to be correlation between such subjects as arithmetic taken in the morning and such manual work, whether by boys or by girls, as is taken in the afternoon, and similarly between any instruction in elementary science and the manual occupations taken, Demands for sucha curriculum were recently put forward by the Physicial Deterioration Committee in its report; by Prof. Sadler in his Presidential Address to the Educational Science Section at the meeting of the British Association in 1906; and by the president of the National Union of Teachers at the annual conference in 1907. Incidentally the advantage of such a curriculum will lie in the improve- ment of the conditions of the classes of the population most exposed to physical deterioration, and in helping to counteract some of the deadening influences too often involved in the conditions of modern industry. For the principle at the root of such a curriculum high authority can be quoted. There are physiologists of eminence who are ready to support Mr. C. G. Leland’s contention that ‘from seven to fourteen years of age a certain suppleness or knack or dexterous familiarity with the pencil or any implement may be acquired that diminishes with succeeding years’; and the following maxim from Goethe is worth pondering: ‘In all things to serve from the lowest station upwards is neces- sary; to restrict yourself to a trade is best. For the narrow mind, whatever he attempts is still a trade; for the higher, an art; and the highest in doing one thing does all, or, to speak less paradoxically, in the one thing which he does rightly he sees the likeness of all that is done rightly.’ ‘ 728 EVENING DISCOURSES. EVENING DISCOURSES. FRIDAY, AUGUST 2. The Are and the Spark in Radio-Telegraphy. By W. Duvvet., F.R.S. Tab discovery by Heinrich Hertz between 1887 and 1889 of experimental means for the production of electric waves and Branley’s discovery that the con- ductivity of metallic particles is affected by electric waves form the foundation on which, in 1896, Signor Marconi built up his system of wireless telegraphy. Many of the early investigators certainly had glimpses of a future system of being able to transmit messages without connecting wires, for as early as 1892 Sir William Crookes predicted in the ‘Fortnightly Review’ the possibility of telegraphy without wires, posts, cables, or any of our costly appliances, and said, granting a few reasonable postulates, the whole thing comes well within the realms of possible fulfilment. Two years later Sir Oliver Lodge gave his memorable lecture on the work of Hertz, and carried the matter a step nearer the practical stage. There will not be time to dwell to-night on the early history of the art and its development. It will be necessary, however, to explain some of the fundamental properties of signalling by means of Hertzian waves in order to be able to bring out clearly the relative advantages and disadvantages of the two rival methods now in practical use for producing Hertzian waves for wireless telegraphy. The fundamental part of the transmitting apparatus may be said to consist of a long conductor, generally placed vertically, in which an alternating or oscillating current is set up by some suitable means. Such a conductor radiates energy in the form of Hertzian waves at right angles to itself into space, in very much the same way that an ordinary candle sends out light in all directions. This radiation, though it is strictly in the nature of light, is invisible to our eyes, as the frequency is too low. If we set up any other conductor approximately parallel to the first, there will be produced in this second conductor alternating or oscillating currents having the same frequency as those in the first conductor, and which can be detected by suitable instruments. The simplest, and one of the earliest methods for producing Hertzian waves for use in wireless telegraphy consisted in charging up by means of an induction coil a vertical insulated conductor, which was allowed to discharge itself to earth by means of a spark taking place between its lower end and another conductor which was connected to earth. To detect the Hertzian waves, Marconi employed an improved form of the Branley filings tubes, which is known as the ‘ coherer.’ In order to transmit messages the radiation is started and stopped so as to form short and long signals, or dots and dashes of the Morse code, out of which the whole alphabet is built up in the well-known way. As I have already stated, the radiation takes place round the vertical conductor approximately equally in all directions. Suppose that I set up my transmitting apparatus here in Leicester, a receiving station set up either in Nottingham, ~ Derby, Rugby, or Peterborough would be able to receive the message equally well. Should I wish to send a message from here to Nottingham at the same FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE. 729 time that Derby wishes to speak to Rugby, then the receiving station at Notting- ham would receive both the message from Leicester which it should receive and the message from Derby which it was not required to receive. To get over this difficulty, known as ‘ interference,’ a large number of devices have been patented. The most successful in practice is syntony, or tuning: in this method each station has allotted to it one definite frequency or tune, and the apparatus is so arranged at each station that it will only be affected by messages which are radiated by other stations on its own frequency or tune, and not by any other radiations. To take a musical analogy, supposing I had somebody who was either deaf to all notes of the piano except, say, the middle ‘C,’ or had such a musical ability that he could tell at once when I struck the middle ‘C’; then I could transmit to that person a message in the ordinary Morse code by playing on the middle ‘C,’ and that person, whom I shall call Mr. C, would not take any notice of the fact that I might also be playing on the notes D, K, F, G, &c., but Mr. C would confine his attention entirely to what is being done with the middle ‘ C.’ It is conceivable that I might find a series of persons or train them so that they could each pick out and hear one note only of the piano, irrespective of what was being played on the other notes or of any other noises that were taking place. Taking an ordinary seven-octave piano and neglecting for a moment the black notes, this would give me fifty-six distinct notes on which I could transmit messages ; so that, transmitting from Leicester, I might send messages simul- taneously to fifty-six different towns. The number of possible simultaneous messages depends on the number of octaves there are on the piano used, and on how close together the different notes are which can be used without producing confusion. For instance, it might be quite easy to train someone to distinguish with certainty between ‘C’ and ‘ E,’ and pick out signals on ‘C’ at the same time that signals are being sent on ‘EK.’ It is certainly more difficult to do this with two notes that are closer together, say ‘C’ and ‘ D,’ and still more difficult if the half-tones are used as well. The problem, therefore, in wireless telegraphy is to arrange the receiving apparatus so that it can hear, or perhaps I should say, more accurately, so that it can only see, notes of one definite frequency or pitch, and not be affected by any other notes, even though of but slightly different pitch. Another requirement to obtain good working is that we should use as little power as possible at our transmitting station consistent with obtaining enough power in our receiving instruments to work them with certainty. I have a mechanical model to illustrate how we are able to make our receiving instruments very sensitive to one frequency and only slightly affected by fre- quencies which differ but slightly from its proper frequency. The transmitter in the model consists of a disc that can be rotated slowly at any speed I like, with a pin fixed eccentrically on its face. This pin can be connected to a vertical wire which moves up and down as the disc rotates. I shall assume that the movement of this wire corresponds with the movement of the electricity in the vertical conductor. As a receiving apparatus I have a pendulum, and representing the ether between the transmitter and receiver I have an elastic thread connecting the pin in the disc to the pendulum. When I set the disc rotating slowly the elastic thread is alternately stretched out and relaxed, and the pendulum is a little affected. If I gradually increase the speed of the disc at one definite speed it will be found that the pendulum is set into violent oscillation, and by observation it will be found that when this is the case the dise makes one complete revolution in exactly the same time that the pendulum would make one complete swing if left to itself ; that is to say, that the disc and the pendulum make the same number of swings per second or have the same frequency; in music they would be said to be in tune with each other. If instead of allowing the disc to rotate continuously I allow it to make only half a dozen revolutions, then the pendulum will be affected, but much less strongly. The greater the number of revolutions the disc makes up to a certain maximum number the more the pendulum will be caused to swing. Instead of starting and stopping the disc I can keep the disc rotating and start and stop the pulls on the elastic thread by moving the pin in the face of the dise 730 EVENING DISCOURSES. in and out from the centre, which produces a movement which much more nearly corresponds with the actual current in the vertical wire as used in spark telegraphy. It is necessary here to explain the relationship that exists between the wave- length, the frequency, and the velocity of propagation of Hertzian waves. ‘The waves travel with, as far as we know, the same velocity as light—namely, 300,000,000 metres, or 186,000 miles, per second. Between these quantities we have the relationship that the product of the wave-length by the frequency is equal to the velocity of propagation, or, as I have already mentioned, the velocity of light. The wave-lengths which are of practical use in wireless telegraphy at the present time range between 100 and 38,000 metres, though, of course, it is quite possible to use for special purposes wave-lengths outside these limits. The corresponding frequencies in practical use are therefore between 3,000,000 and 100,000 complete periods per second. We require, therefore, to produce in the vertical conductor alternating or oscillating currents of any frequency within this range, and to have a sufficient number of oscillations following one another without interruption to allow of good syntony being obtained. There are three methods of producing these currents—namely, the alternator, the spark, and the arc methods. There are great difficulties in the way of constructing an alternator to give such high-frequency currents, and I can best illustrate this by taking an example. Suppose that it is required to build an alternator to work at the lowest frequency, namely, 100,000 periods per second, and let us assume that we can drive this alternator by means of a turbine at the high speed of 30,000 revolutions per minute. This alternator could not have a diameter much above 6 inches for fear of bursting; and, as it makes 500 revolutions per second, it would have to generate 200 complete periods for each revolution, so that the space available for the windings and poles for one complete period will be less than ;4, inch, a space into which it is quite impossible to crush the necessary iron and copper to obtain any considerable amount of power. In spite of the small space that we have allotted to each period, as there are 100,000 periods per second, the speed of the surface of the moving part works out at over 500 miles per hour. A small alternator has been built to give over 100,000 frequency, but the amount of power it produced was extremely small. Several experimenters have stated lately that they have built alternators giving these high frequencies and a considerable amount of power, but, so far as I am aware, there is no reliable data available as to the design of these machines. If it should prove possible to construct alternators for these very high fre- quencies, we shall be able to obtain a sufficient number of consecutive oscillations of the current in the érial of definite frequency to enable very sharp syntony to be obtained. Ne* only will this greatly reduce interference troubles in wireless telegraphy, but sh alternators will be of the greatest value for wireless tele- phony. The earliest method of producing high-frequency oscillations was proposed by Lord Kelvin, who pointed out that if a Leyden jar or condenser be allowed to discharge through a circuit possessing self-induction or electrical inertia, then under certain conditions the discharge of the jar is oscillatory, that is to say, that the electricity flows backwards and forwards in the circuit several times before the jar or condenser becomes finally discharged. I think that perhaps the best ‘way to make this matter clear is by demonstrating experimentally with an oscillo- graph the nature of the discharge of a condenser, and how it is affected by the resistance and self-induction in the circuit. As a mechanical analogy one may look upon the charged condenser as a weight attached to a spring which has been pulled away from its position or rest. To discharge the condenser we let go the weight and it begins to oscillate backwards and forwards, and, after making a greater or less number of oscillations, finally comes to rest. The number of oscil- lations per second will depend upon the strength of the spring and the mass of the weight, which correspond with the capacity and self-induction in our electrical circuit, The number of oscillations before the weight finally comes to rest is FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE. 731 determined by the friction which tends to stop the weight, or by the resistances and other losses in the electrical circuit. In practice the aérial conductor acts as a Leyden jar or condenser, It is charged with electricity and allowed to discharge, the current oscillating back- wards and forwards in the aérial during the discharge. In many installations Leyden jars or condensers are electrically connected to the aérial, so that the oscillations taking place in them are transmitted to the aérial. Any remarks, therefore, that I may make as to the oscillations which may be set up in con- densers apply equally well to the oscillations in the aérial in wireless telegraphy. For wireless telegraphy it is usual to charge the condenser or aérial by means of an induction coil or an alternator to a very high voltage, and it is allowed to discharge by means of a spark between the two electrodes which form the ends, so to speak, of a gap in the electrical circuit. As long as the pressure is low the spark gap is a perfect insulator; when the pressure becomes high enough the air between the electrodes breaks down and a spark passes the gap, becomes conduct- ing, and allows the condenser to discharge. The property of the spark-gap of passing almost instantaneously from a condition of being an insulator for elec- tricity to being an extremely good conductor for electricity is of the utmost value in the spark method of wireless telegraphy. The more perfectly the spark-gap is insulated before the discharge takes place, and the more perfectly it conducts after the discharge has taken place, the better it is for our purpose. If I take two electrodes sufficiently far apart in air and gradually raise the electrical pressure between them, the first indication that anything is going to happen is the formation of fine violet aigrette on the more pointed or rougher parts of the electrodes. This is known as the brush discharge. By gradually raising the pressure, this brush discharge extends further out into the air, until finally the air between the two electrodes becomes so strained that it breaks down and the real spark passes. The long thin spark that occurs in this case is not very suitable for wireless telegraphy, as its resistance is too high. Ordinary lightning flashes are good examples of long sparks on a very large scale. If instead of working with the electrodes far apart they are placed nearer together, and if the electrical pressure is supplied from a very powerful source, then directly the spark passes 1t forms a thick discharge having the appearance of a flame in which the nitrogen of the air is actually being burnt; a process which, it is hoped, in the future may have immense importance in the supply of artificial nitrates for agriculture. This flame-like discharge has a low electrical resistance, but has the effect, that it so heats or modifies the air that it is difficult to get the air to insulate again, after one discharge, ready for the next. If a large quantity of electricity is discharged through the spark-gap, and if the spark lasts a very short time compared with the interval between successive sparks, then a highly conducting spark can be obtained, as well as a good insula- tion between the sparking terminals when no discharge is passing. In order to help to bring the gap back to its insulating condition after each discharge, many devices are employed, such as subdividing the spark into several shorter sparks, cooling the electrodes, blowing air across the spark-gap, &c. When the condenser, or antenna, discharges through the spark-gap, oscillations are set up which radiate Hertzian waves. In practice in wireless telegraphy it is difficult to obtain a large number of oscillations during each discharge as corresponding with each oscillation; the antenna radiates energy. A large number of oscillations means, if we keep ampli- tude of each the same, that we are radiating a large quantity of energy. Besides this radiated energy, which is useful for transmitting messages, there is also energy wasted in heat in the spark-gap, in the conductors, in the glass or other insulation of the condensers. It is this useless part which we require to make as small as possible. I have lately had an opportunity to determine how many oscillations actually take place in a certain wireless transmission. The experiment was made by photographing the spark as seen in a mirror rotated at a very high speed, and it was found that each spark consisted of nine or ten complete oscillations. 732 EVENING DISCOURSES. If all the oscillations had been of equal strength or amplitude, and if the receiving circuit had been similar to my pendulum in my mechanical model, then there would be very little to be gained by increasing the number of oscillations. As the oscillations die away in the spark method, two or three times this number would probably be required for the best effect. As a matter of experiment very good tuning was obtained with the wireless transmission referred to above. As an example of the sharpness of tuning obtainable by the spark method the following test carried out on the Lodge-Muirhead installation at Hythe may be of interest. The station at Hythe had to receive messages from Elmers End at a distance of 58 miles over land, in spite of the fact that the Admiralty station at Dover, only 94 miles distant, was transmitting as powerfully as it could, in order to produce interference, and that the regular communications were going on in the Channel between the shipping. It was found possible with a difference of wave- length of 6 per cent. to cut out the interference from the Dover station. In the are method of producing continuous oscillations we employ, as before, a condenser and self-induction ; but, instead of charging the condenser to a high voltage and allowing it to discharge by means of oscillations which die away, and then repeating the process over and over again, we actually maintain the condenser charging and discharging continuously without any intermission, so that we practically obtained a high-frequency alternating current in the aérial. To impress the difference on your minds, I have an incandescent lamp, which I switch on and oft rapidly about ten times, and then after a short time I repeat the same flickering of the light, and so on. The flickering of the light corresponds with the oscillations in the ordinary spark method, and the time spaces between the flickers represent the times during which the condenser or antenna is being charged ready to produce a fresh series of oscillations. In practice we may have as many as, say, a couple of hundred discharges of the condenser a second, and during each discharge we may get, say, ten complete oscillations, each oscillation lasting one millionth of a second, if the wave-length is 300 metres; thus the total time that the condenser is discharging is only one one-hundred-thousandth of a second, or one five-hundredth part of the interval of time between two successive discharges, My lamp here flickers about five times per second, and makes ten flickers before it goes out; the total time that it is flickering is two seconds, and the time before it should start to flicker again to correspond with the practical wireless case is therefore 1,000 seconds, or rather over a quarter of an hour. If now I represent continuous oscillations, such as are obtained by the are method with this lamp, I shall simply keep the lamp flickering continuously, and there will be no intervals whatever. The are method of producing continuous oscillations is founded on my musical arc. In order to explain this I must demonstrate some of the properties of the direct-current arc. If I vary the current flowing through the are very slowly and note the potential difference corresponding with each value of the current, keeping everything else constant, I obtain a curve generally spoken of as the characteristic of the are. These curves under different conditions have been very thoroughly investigated by Mrs. Ayrton. With the carbon arc between electrodes in air the voltage decreases very rapidly when the current is gradually increased, starting from very low values. As the current becomes larger the rate of decrease of the voltage becomes less and less until it is, comparatively speaking, quite small, with a current of 10 or 12 amperes. With the are between metal electrodes similar results are obtained, except that the discontinuity in the curves, called the hissing point by Mrs. Ayrton, takes place at very small currents, generally well below an ampere. With arcs burning in hydrogen, Mr. Upson has found that the curves are generally much steeper for the larger values of the current than for the cor- responding ares burning in air, This point is of great importance as explaining the value of the hydrogenic atmosphere used by Poulsen and referred to later. In general, I may therefore say for the above arcs that increase in current through the are is accompanied by decrease of the potential difference between its oe ee . FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE. 733 electrodes, and vice versd decrease of the current causes increase in the potential difference ; on the other hand certain arcs, such as the are between cored carbons, behave in an opposite manner, that is to say, current and potential difference increase and decrease together. I demonstrated in 1900 that if I connect between the electrodes of a direct current arc (or other conductor of electricity for which an increase in current is accompanied by a decrease in potential difference between the terminals) a con- denser and a self-induction connected in series, I obtain in this shunt circuit an alternating current. 1 called this phenomenon the musical arc. The frequency of the alternating current obtained in this shunt circuit depends on the value of the self-induction and the capacity of the condenser, and may practically be calev- lated by Kelvin’s well-known formula. Besides the condition that an increase of current must be accompanied by a decrease in potential difference, it is necessary that the relative decrease in poten- tial difference produced by a given increase in current, that is to say, the steepness of the characteristic, shall exceed a certain minimum yalue which depends on the losses in the shunt circuit. It is also necessary that an increase in current shall be accompanied by a decrease in potential difference,even when the current is varied very rapidly. Let us consider what takes place when I connect this shunt circuit to an are. At the moment of connection a current flows from the are circuit into the con- denser circuit, which tends to reduce the current flowing through the are. This reduction of the current through the are tends to raise the potential difference between its terminals, and causes still more current to flow into the condenser circuit, and I now have a condenser charged above the normal voltage of the are. The condenser, therefore, begins to discharge through the are, which increases the arc current and decreases the potential difference, so that the condenser discharges too much; the reverse process then sets in; the condenser becomes successively overcharged and undercharged, due to the fact that, instead of the potential difference between the terminals of the arc remaining constant and allowing the condenser to settle down with its proper corresponding charge, the potential difference actually decreases when the condenser is discharged and increases when it is charging, so as to help to keep up the flowing backwards and forwards of the current indefinitely. The oscillograph wave forms show what is going on very clearly, and they show that in general the swing of the current in the condenser circuit attains such a magnitude that when the condenser is charging it takes the whole of the current away from the are, so as to make the arc, although burning on a direct current, a pulsatory are, ‘he pulsation of the current through the are causes the vapour column to grow bigger and smaller, and the light to vary. When the vapour column grows bigger and smaller it displaces the air around it and pro- duces a note the pitch of which is determined by the frequency of the current in the shunt circuit. The values of the capacities of a series of condensers have been calculated by Kelvin’s formula to give the frequencies corresponding with a musical octave, and the nearest values in an ordinary laboratory box of condensers have been taken and connected to a keyboard. ‘The result shows how nearly Kelvin’s law is obeyed. With this apparatus I can demonstrate the importance of tuning in electrical circuits and perform electrically some experiments which I have already performed mechanically earlier this evening. I use the large coil which forms the self- induction in the cireuit shunting the are as a transmitting circuit for wireless telezraphy by the magnetic induction or Preece method, and I have a receiving circuit consisting of a coil of wire connected to a small lamp and not connected in any way to the transmitting circuit. Ata certain short distance between the transmitting coil and the receiving coils the indicating lamp lights if I cause my arc to sound any one of the notes of the octave, and so produce an alternating current of corresponding frequency in the transmitting coil. If I now tune the receiving circuit, by connecting a condenser in it, the lamp on the receiving circuit 734 EVENING DISCOURSES. will light at about five times the distance ; but it will only light when one definite note is sounded by the arc. These are the two distinct advantages of tuning, namely, greater distance and syntony, or responding to only one definite note. For wireless telegraphy by means of Hertzian waves, based on my arc method, we require much higher frequencies in the shunt circuit. If we attempt to obtain this higher frequency from the ordinary are burning between solid carbons in air, we find that above a certain limit the oscillations will no longer take place. This is due to the fact that we are varying the current through the are at this higher fre- quency too bere for an increase in current to be accompanied by a decrease in potential difference. I have demonstrated that if I only vary the current through the ordinary current arc sufficiently rapidly, then an increase in current is accom- panied by a proportionate increase in the potential ditference, and the are behaves just like an ordinary resistance. If we work with very small current arcs we can obtain high-frequency musical arcs burning in air either between carbon or metal electrodes. In a paper read before the International Electrical Congress at St. Louis in 1904 Mr. Poulsen showed that by placing the are in a flame it was possible to obtain higher frequencies than when the are was burning in air. Following this up Mr. Poulsen came to the conclusion that the best results were obtained when the are was burning in hydrogen, or a gas containing hydrogen; and he further added a magnetic field around the arc somewhat similar to that which has been previously used by Elihu Thomson. The are burning in coal gas in a powerful transverse magnetic field was used by Poulsen in his early experiments to produce the high-frequency current neces- sary for wireless telegraphy between Lyngby and Esbjerg in Denmark. This apparatus has been further improved, and is now employed by the Amalgamated Radio-Telegraph Company in their station at Cullercoats and the other stations that they are erecting. In both the arc and the spark methods of wireless telegraphy we employ a high-frequency alternating current in the aérial conductor. The essential difference between the two methods lies in the fact that with the spark method our alternat- ing current in the aérial conductor first increases to a maximum value and then dies away rapidly, making only a limited number of oscillations, whereas in the arc method the oscillations are maintained continuously of unvarying amplitude. With the are method we are further able to choose the number of consecutive oscillations which make up each signal sufficiently great to obtain the very best syntony. On the other hand, improvement in the arrangement and construction of the apparatus for the spark method has so increased the number of oscillations corresponding with each spark that it may be that we shall be able to obtain a sufficient number in each train to give as good syntony by this method as that obtained with the are method. The are method seems eminently suitable for very high speeds of working. As the oscillations are quite continuous, we can cut them up into groups to form the dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet, just as if we were working with a continuous current such as is used on land lines, so that there seems no reason why as high a speed of working should not be obtained from the are method of wireless telegraphy as is obtainable by automatic signalling on land lines ; for it is to be noted that the dot or shortest signal of the Morse alphabet, even at a speed of three or four hundred words per minute, will last long enough to consist of many hundreds of oscillations of the current in the aérial, so that there will be plenty of oscillations in the group forming the dot to give good syntony. Turning to the spark method for high working speeds, we find a difficulty in that the dot of the Morse alphabet must at least occupy the average time required to charge the condenser or aérial and produce one spark, and preferably sufficiently long for several. We are therefore obliged in the spark method to use a high rate of sparking for high-speed signalling. This difficulty has not become very serious with the present low speeds of sending. When we come to use consider- able amounts of power to transmit messages over long distances, and we also require a high speed of working, the practical difficulty in constructing apparatus suitable for sufficiently rapid sparking will become serious. . ee ley FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE. 735 Mr. Marconi in 1905 claimed to have already reached a speed of a hundred words per minute by the spark method, and lately there has appeared in the technical press examples of high-speed signalling by the British Post Office over a distance of 15 miles in which readable signals were received at a speed of seventy words per minute. Turning to the receiving end, almost all the receivers that have been used in the spark method can be equally well used for the are method; for it must be remembered that the transmission in either case is affected by Hertzian waves traversing space, and that the only fundamental difference consists in the number of oscillations in each train of waves. It must be noted, however, that in those methods in which a telephone receiver is used it is necessary to break up the continuous oscillations of the are method into groups succeeding one another sufficiently rapidly to produce an audible sound in the receiver; for in the spark method the sounds we hear in the receiver correspond with the succession of impulses of the diagram, one for each spark at the transmitter. This chopping up of the continuous wave-train so as to produce audible signals in the receiving apparatus can be done either at the transmitting end or in the receiving apparatus. An example of this latter method is Poulsen’s ticker. The question whether receiving apparatus can be arranged so as to receive messages from stations equipped with the spark apparatus and from stations equipped with the are apparatus is a matter of enormous importance at the present moment in view of the probable ratification of the Berlin Convention, which imposes an obligation on all commercial stations to intercommunicate without regard to the make or system of transmitting apparatus employed. I am of the opinion that there will be no difficulty in carrying this into effect provided that the stations using the spark method send out long trains of waves, as they should do to obtain syntonic working, which is also called for by the Berlin Convention. An extremely interesting development which is now progressing rapidly, owing to the possibility of producing continuous oscillations by the arc method, is wireless telephony. Suppose that we can vary the intensity of the oscillations in a manner corresponding with the vibrations of the air which constitutes sound and speech, then we should obtain at the receiving stations a train of Hertzian waves whose amplitude varies in a corresponding way; by allowing these waves to act ona telephonic receiver which is sensitive to the intensity of the waves we shall obtain in the telephone a reproduction of the sounds. This has actually been carried into effect by employing an ordinary microphone to modify the current through the transmitting arc so as to vary the intensity of the oscillation current produced, and by employing what is known as a point-detector and a telephone at the receiving station. Another method which may be used consists in causing the microphone to vary the frequency of the oscillations of the generator, and by arranging the receiver so that it is more or less strongly affected according to the frequency of the received waves. I am informed that such good results have already been obtained on the experimental stations for wireless telephony that it is proposed to equip stations at Oxford and Cambridge for the further perfecting of this application. It is greatly to be desired that wireless telephony may develop rapidly, as it seems to me that for the purpose of communicating with ships wireless telephony will have great advantages over wireless telegraphy. I am deeply indebted to Mr. Colson for all the facilities that he has placed at my disposal, and to his engineers for their assistauce, which has enabled me to carry out the experiments in the lecture ; and I have also to thank the Tramway Department for the special supply of current. 736 EVENING DISCOURSES. MONDAY, AUGUST 5. Recent Developments in the Theory of Mimicry. By ¥. A. Drxty, WA., M.D. The remarkable resemblances that exist between certain insects belonging to widely different orders, as, for instance, the likeness borne by some of the ‘ clearwing moths’ to wasps and hornets, have long been known to naturalists. They were interpreted by the older observers as cases of ‘repetition’ and ‘analogy’ in Nature. Kirby and Spence were the first to attempt a rational explanation. These authors got so far as to suggest that one species might gain an advantage by resembling another ; but the first really scientific account of the matter was given by Bates, who pointed out that certain kinds of butterflies in South America escaped attacks from birds by mimicking the appearance of other conspicuous species which were immune from persecution on account of the possession of distasteful qualities, This resemblance to a distasteful model he considered had been gained by a gradual selection of varieties tending in the appropriate direction. Bates’s theory of mimicry, which was at once accepted by Darwin and met with general approval, marked an important step in advance, It left, however, unex- plained the fact that these resemblances occurred, not only between distasteful models and their presumably edible mimics, but also between the distasteful models themselves. ‘To account for this he could only suggest that there must be something in the local or geographical conditions which had a direct effect upon forms inhabiting the same region, causing them, even if widely separated in affinity, to assume a common aspect. But the existence of large groups of insects with various affinities and a common facies was felt as a stumbling- block in the way of the theory of mimicry until in 1879 Fritz Miller found the key to unlock the difficulty. He showed that if (as experiments, chiefly by Lloyd Morgan, have subsequently proved to be the case) birds had no instinctive knowledge of what forms would be suitable for food and what should be avoided, so that each bird had to gain its knowledge by experience, a certain number of the distasteful forms would have to be sacrificed by each generation of birds until these enemies had learned to leave such iorms alone. In other words, each distasteful form would have to pay a tax for itsimmunity. ‘Now if two distasteful species resembled each other so closely that birds or other enemies did not distinguish between them, the disagreeable experience gained by tasting an individual of one species would be applied to the benefit of the other, and so each of the two species would only need to contribute a portion of the tax, instead of each paying the whole. And what is true of a combination of two species would be equally true of a larger assemblage: the greater number of forms that could be got to share the tax, the better for all. Hence the forma- tion of these large Miillerian groups, or, as they might be called, ‘ inedible associa- tions,’ giving room, no doubt, for a certain amount of Batesian mimicry side by side with them or within their own ranks. It is obvious that the resemblances shown between members of these groups, constituted as they are by insects of widely separated orders, cannot be explained by affinity; while the fact (amongst others) that the resemblances are superficial only, never structural, makes strongly against the view which would attribute them to the direct operation of external conditions. The Miillerian theory, which is rather a theory of common warning marks, or ‘ synaposematism’ (Poulton), than of mimicry proper, may thus be said to hold the field as meeting the facts to an extent of which no alternative explana- tion has been found capable. Miiller’s suggestion was first brought to the notice of British naturalists by Professor Meldola; and in its futher developments at the hands of Meldcla himself and of Poulton, it was accepted both by Wallace and by Trimen, the two naturalists who had done most by their own observations to con- tirm the validity of the original theory of Bates. It is to be observed that both theories alike postulate the operation of natural selection, SECOND EVENING DISCOURSE. 737 It seemed desirable to seek for further confirmation of the truth of Fritz Miiller’s interpretation, and this the lecturer has made it his business to do, It appeared to him that if the Miillerian theory were valid, certain consequences ought to follow. Did these consequences follow or did they not ? (1) It is obvious that in Batesian or true mimicry the advantage is all on the side of the mimic. Experience gained by tasting the mimic would be used to the injury of the model. hile therefore there is every inducement for the mimic to seek safety by approaching nearer and nearer to the aspect of the model, there is no reason for the model to assimilate itself to the mimic, but rather the contrary. In a Miilerian association, on the other hand, the benefit is mutual. Each fresh accession to the group is a source of strength, not of weakness. Everything is in favour of the formation of such groups as rapidly and on as large a scale as possible; hence there is nothing to impede, and everything to promote, the free interchange of characters all round, each ember being able to act, so to speak, as both mimic and model. This could not happen, as has been shown, in the case of Batesian mimicry, Several instances of such reciprocity or interchange of features have been detected by the lecturer, and others have since come to light. From what has gone before, it is clear that such cases, inexplicable on any other theory, tend to establish the validity of the Miillerian hypothesis. (2) A further consequence of the mutual influence exercised by the constituents ofa Miillerian group is this: it ought sometimes to happen that two species, though both influenced in common by a third, will show a nearer approach to each other than either does to the common model. As a matter of fact this is found actually to occur in Nature, and fresh evidence is thus supplied for the validity of the Miillerian interpretation. This phenomenon, again, could not happen in Batesian mimicry. Two true or Batesian mimics of the same model could nct influence each other; they could only be influenced in common by their model. (3) Finally, the fact that each distasteful form is capable of affording protection to forms on each side of it may be expected to favour the existence of gradational groups; distasteful forms, with perhaps little or no resemblance between them, being held together, as it were, by a chain of distasteful intermediates. This also has been found to be the case, many of the mimetic groups in a given zoological region forming together a kind of nexus, each node of which may be occupied by a dominant group or species showing a very different colour-scheme from the occupants of the other nodes, while the uniting strands of the network are con- stituted by a more or less completely gradated series of transitional forms. It will be seen from the foregoing how far we have advanced beyond the original conception of Bates, and it must be allowed to be a striking fact that the progress of recent investigation has uniformly tended to supply fresh confirma- tion of those developments of the theory of mimicry which have traced their origin from the fertile suggestion of Fritz Miiller. 1907, 3B tr iy ‘ ' vA ; ef to MR dT > ht ae fot) IMESHLAS of} Tidy ob “— .- ; “ wollo!l poser t go wilt: wall a] ’ — =. Ha & “ied Oper 6 Wiss) iL i is qmokzeleh a ish ts i 5) dae ald aylitgad gh Apso cs rig dik, ada wes “ial aadal wary ay artsd} eto! we pore tale ont civthen femriee ss: in2uiIm eth vias o,f 3 Sigal atin SeR ua) ( ‘ Re: ts : r etapa Poadcedy. Doalaars é atlgua onl inion -earciogte rit aon ey 8 St ssid 4 yet ease ils. oF Es & 49% ae WT io heirs eihigaes an 2fROun Gore ta cones it Pages: > ¥ 37 elsainy'ty Gb Sahin Darn oben rae a uw? jus gow ate aa ay va uh Had: ws! Ks ¥ wT go aha skies, crane tie plage tens Retr gest ea se ted ne ares eee haeaniiaiiegiat, ta. ¢ beorgioes- af Ae pubs | A ay SORTER OY tae ce As it, : uaa . ; ; : iz J seth with w a2 ini ; io Votan s tte nae rtp Lb bye alta td ay jsf Entds to 1f at Algol ’ nokays e Yeah) ee ce: Sie P) s SA 3 Bes sho Sabo wpa sar td ebtbee gu tt at yao? roid Bike ype oithtied facies aoa ep tafraes® bat sy otiom Bal tue ga barred beg wr hls ; 4 oils ot gee ytititte Roe # pn " ng at 4 : fie ond neitegi Via dsvite * cet tal aa lon ets ‘ eu uM Gi, sia t is: INDEX. References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics. An asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given. The mark + indicates the same, but that a reference is given to the Jowrnal or News- paper where the paper is published in extenso. FFICERS and Council, 1907-1908, XXV. Rules of the Association, xxvii. Places and Dates of Meeting, Presi- dents, Vice- Presidents, and Local Secretaries, xliii. Trustees and General Officers, lviii. Sectional Presidents and Secretaries, lix. Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates, Ixxx. Evening Discourses, 1xxxi. Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixxxiv. Attendances and Receipts at Annual Meetings, Ixxxvi. Analysis of Attendances, ]xxxviii. Grants of Money for Scientific Pur- poses, Ixxxix. Report of the Council, 1906-1907, cx. General Treasurer’s Account, cxiv. Leicester Meeting, 1907 :— General Meetings, cxvi. Sectional Officers, exvi. Officers of Conference of Delegates, exvii. Committee of Recommendations, exvii. Research Committees, cxviii. Communications ordered to be printed in extenso, CXXxVii. Resolutions referred to the Council, Cxxvii. Synopsis of Grants of Money, cxxviii. Address by the President, Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.RBR.S., 3. *ABEGG (Prof. R.), valency, 480. Abelian groups, a property of, by Harold Hilton, 461. ABNEY (Sir W. de W.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. ABRAHAM (A.) on anthropometric in- vestigation in the British Isles, 354. Absorption of gases by charcoal, the, by Miss I. Homfray, 451. *Acid or alkaline reactions in the soil, the production of, by artificial manures, by A. D. Hall, 489. Apams (Prof. W. G), on practical elec- trical standards, 73. —- on magnetic observations at Fal- mouth Observatory, 93. ApDENHY (Dr. W. E.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. Africa, British, the surveys of, by Major C. F. Close, 571. Agricultural co-operation in Great Britain, by R. A. Yerburgh, 601. ALCOCK (Dr. N. H.), certain problems in electro-physiology, 673. Alcohol, the physiological and thera- peutical uses of, discussion on, 669. ALLORGE (M. M.), the newly discovered cave of Atoyac (Mexico), 577. Amaltheus spinatus zone and the tran- sition bed in the middle lias at Billes- don Coplow, Leicestershire, a hitherto unnoticed section of the, A. R. Hor- wood on, 516. Analysis, the elements of, C. O. Tuckey on the teaching of, 459. ANDERSON (Prof. R. J.), the thickness of the skull in mammalia, 546. -—— racial types in Connaught, 654. ANDERSON (Dr. Tempest) on the fossili- ferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §c., 325. ANDERSON (W.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform strati- graphical nomenclature, 328, ANDREWS (A. W.), the Land’s End peninsula: a regional survey, 574. Anglesey, the composition and origin of the crystalline rocks of, report on, 317. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the anthropo- logical field in the, by J. W. Crowfoot, 641. 3B2 740 Anthropological field in the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, by J. W. Crowfoot, 641. Anthropological photographs, report on the collection of, 374. Anthropological Section, Address by D. G. Hogarth to the, 629. Anthropometric investigation British Isles, report on, 354. Anthropometrics in schools, discussion on, 704. —— by J. Gray, 704. Anthropometry, the aims and function of, in relation to the school, by Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, 705. ARBER (EH. Newell) on the structure of Fossil plants, 408. Archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, report on, 391. ARCHIBALD (D.) on the investigation of the upper atmosphere by means of kites, im the Arithmetic, a new economic, a sugges- tion for, by Prof. T. N. Carver, 592. ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on dynamic isomerism, 270. on the study of isomorphous deriva- tives of benzene sulphonic acid, 272. on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. on the nature of ionisation, 455. the need of a scientific basis to girls’ education from a domestic point of view, 721. *____. and Dr. E. F. ARMSTRONG, enzymes: their mode of action and functions, 689. Aromatic nitroamines and allied sub- stances, the transformation of, and its relation to substitution in benzene de- riwatives, report on, 101. Artemis Orthia and the scourging fes- tival at Sparta, by Prof. R. C. Bosan- quet, 648. Arum spadices, metabolism of: enzyme action and electrical response, by Miss H. B. Kemp and Miss ©. B. Sanders, 667. Ascobolus furfuraceus (Pers.), fertilisa- tion in, by E. J. Welsford, 688. Ascomycetes, nuclear fusions and re- ductions in the, by Miss H, OC. I. Fraser, 688. ASHBY (Dr. T.) on the collection of photo- graphs of anthropological interest, 374. —— on excavations on Roman sites in Britain, 400. ——on the ethnography of Sardinia, * 650. —— the work of the British School at Rome, 1906-07, 650. — excavations at Caerwent, 1906-07, 652. h * INDEX. ASHLEY (Prof. W. J.), Address to the Section of Economic Science and Sta- tistics, 579. Asia Minor, recent explorations in, by Prof. J. Garstang, 652. Aspergillus herbariorum, the morphology of, by Miss H. C. I. Fraser and H. 8. Chambers, 687. Astrographic catalogue, a method of im- proving the constants of the plates for the, by Prof. H. H. Turner, 465. Atmosphere, the upper, investigation of, by means of kites, siwth report on, 99. *Atom, the constitution of the, discussion on, 439. Atoyac (Mexico), the newly discovered cave at, by M. M. Allorge, 577. AUDEN (Dr. G. A.) on the collection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. — on registering and classifying mega- lithie remains in the British Isles, 391. some objects recently found in York referable to the Viking period, 646. Australasian States, the labour legisla- tion of the, by J. R. MacDonald, 596. AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. *BACKLUND (Dr. O.), the variation of latitude, 463. *BAINBRIDGE (0O.), religion and custom in the South Seas, 647. BAKER (Dr. H. B.), the scholarship system at Oxford and Cambridge, 714. BAKER (J.L.) and H. F.S. HULTON, some considerations determining thestrength of flours, 488. BALFOUR (H.) on the age of stone circles, 368. —— on the collection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. —— on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. BALL (R. §.) on the governing of hy- draulic turbines, 626. Balloon ascents, the recent, W. A. Har- wood and J. E. Petavel on, 468. BARCROFT (J.) on the ‘ metabolic balance- sheet’ of the individual tissues, 401. —— on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. BARNES (Prof, H.T.), the ice problem in engineering work in Canada, 626. Basutoland, the ancient volcanoes of, Rev. 8. S. Dornan on, 517. BATEMAN (H.) on essentially positive double integrals and the part which they play in the theory of integral equations, 447. BATHER (Dr. F. A.) on life-zones in the British carbonifercus rocks, 316. ——on the compilation of an index generum et specierum animalium, 347, INDEX. BEASLEY (H. C.) on the fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. —— report on footprints from the Trias: Part V., 300. {BEAUMONT (W. W.), the origin and production of corrugation of tramway rails, 624. *BUDSON (Prof. P. P.), experiments illus- trative of the inflammability of mix- tures of coal dust and air, 486. BEHRENS (Capt. T. T.), the modern ex- plorer: his maps and methods, 571. BELL (Wm.), Charnwood Forest, 683. Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on, report on, 100. BENNETT (Dr. F’, W.), the felsitic agglo- merate of Charnwood Forest, 503. BENTLEY (B. H.), cell division in Meris- mopedia glauca, 693. Bessel functions, the further tabulation of, report on, 94. BEVAN (Rev. J. O.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. BIDDER (G. P.) on the occupation of a table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. Biology, the teaching of, by O. H. Latter, 547, —— economic, the rise and recognition of, by W. H. Collinge, 542. BLACHE (Prof. V. de la), the geographical evolution of communications, 575. BLACKMAN (Dr. F. F.) on marsh vegeta- tion, 409. BOLTON (Herbert) and C. J. WATERFALL on the occurrence of boulders of strontia in the Upper Triassic marls of Abbots Leigh, near Bristol, 517. BonNEY (Dr. T. G.) on seismological investigations, 83. — on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. —— on the oscillations of the level of the land in the Mediterranean basin, 350. BosaAnquet (Prof. R. C.) on archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, 391. -—— on excavations on Roman sites in Britain, 400, Artemis Orthia and the scourging festival at Sparta, 648. BoswortH (T. O.), the origin of the Upper Keuper of Leicestershire, 505. Botanical photographs, the registration of, report on, 417. Botanical Section, Address by Prof. J. B. Farmer to the, 674. Bothrodendron mundum, the cone of, D. M. 8. Watson on, 690, BorroMuLey (Dr. J. T.) on practical electrical standards, 73. BorroMteEy (Prof. W. B.), the structure | of root tubercles in leguminous and | other plants, 693. BoOUDOUARD (Dr.), oxides of carbon, 485. | * 741 BOURNE (Prof. G. C.) on experiments on the development of the frog, 347. on zoology organisation, 350. Bower (Prof. F. 0.) the embryology of pteridophytes, 686. Bow ey (A. L.) on the amount of gold coinage im circulation in the United Kingdom, 353. Boys (C. Vernon) on seismological inves- tigations, 83. —— on the teaching of elementary me- chanics, 97. on the investigation of the upper atmosphere by means of kites, 99. BRABROOK (Sir Edward) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29, —— on anthropometric inwestigation im the British Isles, 354. ——-.on excavations on Roman sites in Britain, 400. on the conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the work of in- struction in schools, 421. {BRACKENBouRY (H.I.), modern machi- nery and its future developments, 624. BRIDGE (Prof. T. W.) on zoology organi- sation, 350. British School at Rome, the work of the, 1906-07, by Dr. T. Ashby, 650. Brooks (J. F.), a machine for weighing the forces on a cutting tool, 625. Broom (Prof. R.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform strati- graphical nomenclature, 328. BrouGH (B. H.), iron ore supplies, 507. Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, 100. | BRown (Dr. H. T.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. BRvuCcE (Col. D.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. BRUNTON (Sir T. Lauder) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. Bryce (Dr. T. H.) on anthropometric in- vestigation in the British Isles, 354. —— door-step art: its anthropological bearings, 649. BucHAN (Dr: A.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. BULLEID (A.) on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. BULLEN (Rev. R. A.) on the advisability of appointing a committee for the pho- tographic survey of ancient remains in the British Tslands, 37. BurRTON (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. Caerwent, excavations at, in 1906-07, by Dr. T. Ashby, 652. Calcite, the use of, in spectroscopy, Prof. W. M. Hicks on, 458. 742 Calcium : its properties and possibilities, by A. E. Pratt, 487. *Calculus of variations, an account of modern work on the, by Prof. A. R. Forsyth, 445. CALDWELL (K. S.) on the conductivity of electrolytes in pyridine and other solvents, 483. CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on practical electrical standards, 73. CAMPBELL (Dr. 8. G.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. Cancer investigation, with special re- ference to the gastric secretion of hydrochloric acid, by 8. M. Copeman, 666, CARR (Prof. J. W.) on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- shire, S¢., 325. CARTER (Rev. W. Lower) on the fossili- Serous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, J¢., 325. CARVER (Prof. T. N.), a suggestion for a new economic arithmetic, 592. CHAMBERS (H. S.) and Miss H. C. I. Fraser, the morphology of Aspergillus herbariorwn, 687. CHAPMAN (Prof. S. J.), the laws of increasing and decreasing returns in production and consumption, 593. Charnwood Forest, by W. Bell, 683. , the disappearance of certain cryp- togamic plants from, within historic times, by A. R. Horwood, 684. ——, the felsitic agglomerate of, by Dr. F. W. Bennett, 503. *___, the geology of, by Prof. W. W. Watts, 503. ——-, the north-west district of, by B. Stracey, 503. CHATTAWAY (F. D.), copper mirrors, 485. Chemical Section, Address by Prof, A. Smithells to the, 469. CHISHOLM (G. G.), Address to the Geo- graphical Section, 556. CHREE (Dr.) on magnetic observations at Falmouth Observatory, 93. CHRYSTAL (Prof.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. CLEGHORN (Isabel), scholarships for girls from elementary to secondary schools, 710. {CLERK (Dugald), the present condition of gas and petrol engines, 620. Climate, the effect of, upon health and disease, report on, 403. ——, the effects of, the investigation of, by means of laboratory experiments, by Prof. Zuntz, 666. *___, sea, the study of, by Dr. F. Miiller, 666. CLOSE (Major ©. F.), the surveys of British Africa, 571. INDEX. *Coal dust and air, the inflammability of mixtures of, experiments illustrative of, by Prof. P. P. Bedson, 486. Coker (Prof. E.G.), the new engineering laboratory at the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury, 622. *COLLINGH (W. E.), the rise and recog- nition of economic biology, 542 COLLINGS (Rt. Hon. Jesse), small occu- pying ownerships, 597. Colombian and San- Francisco earth- quakes, on the duration of the first pre- liminary tremor in the, by R. D. Old- ham, 93. Colour physiology in animals, report on, 349, Commercial geography from the modern standpoint, by Prof, Max Hckert, 570. Conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the work of instruction in schools, report on the, 421. Congo Free State, the South-west, the ethnology of the, E. Torday and T. A. Joyce on, 642. Connaught, racial types iv, by Prof. R. J. Anderson, 654. *CONWENTZ (Prof.), the preservation of natural monuments, 539. CooPER (Miss A. J.) on the conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the work of instruction in schools, 421. Co-operation, by C. R. Fay, 604. Co-operative organisation of consumers, the, by T. Tweddell, 606. Co-operative production from the labour co-partnership standpoint, by Amos Mann, 605. CoPEMAN (8. M.), cancer investigation : with special reference to the gastric secretion of hydrochloric acid, 666. Copper mirrors, by F. D. Chattaway, 485. CoRNISH (Dr. Vaughan) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. —— a narrative of the Jamaica earth- quake, 576. Corresponding Societies Committee :— Report, 29. Conference at Leicester, 30. List of Corresponding Societies, 48. Papers published by Corresponding Societies, 53. {Corrugation of tramway rails, the origin and production of, by W. W. Beau- mont, 624. CORSTORPHINE (Dr. G. 8.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. CortTtEe (Rev. A. L.), the variability in light of Mira Ceti and the temperature of sun-spots, 465. CRAWLEY (Rev. A. E.), education and evolution, 718. 3 INDEX. CREAK (Capt. E. W.) on magnetic observa- tions at Falmouth Observatory, 93. on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. Crescent, the, as a Muhammadan badge, the origin of, by Prof. W. Ridgeway, 649. Crete, archeological and ethnological re- | searches in, report on, 391. Cricetus frumentarius of Thuringia, skin varieties of, by Prof. H. Simroth, 550. Crick (G. C.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. CrossLey (Prof. A. W.) on the study of hydro-aromatie substances, 104. Crowroot (J. W.), the anthropological field in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 641. Crustacea, sex in the, with special refer- ence to hermaphroditism, by Geoffrey Smith, 543. Crystalline rocks of Anglesey, the compo- sition and origin of, report om, 317. Crystals, the intimate structure of, Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 481. Cutis (Dr. C. G.) on a peculiarity in the mineralogical constitution of the Keuper marl, 506. CUNNINGHAM (Lieut.-Col. A.), factorisa- tion of the Pellian terms, Tn, un, &C.), 462. CUNNINGHAM (Prof, D. J.) on anthropo- metric investigations in the British Tsles, 354. CUNNINGHAM (Dr. W.), the importance of the distinction between (1) sub- sistence farming and (2) producing for a market, in connection with small holdings, 599. Curricula of secondary schools, report on the, 422. Cutting tool, a machine for weighing the forces on a, by J. I’. Brooks, 625. Cycads, South African, interim report on, and on welwitschia, 408. *Dances, the, of British New Guinea, by Dr. C. G. Seligmann, 647. *DARBISHIRE (A. D.), functions of the spiracle in sharks and rays, 540. DARWIN (Francis) on experimental studies in the physiology of heredity, 410. —— on the cotyledon of Sorghum as a sense organ, 684. DARWIN (Sir G.) on seismological investi- gations, 83. DARWIN (H.) on seismological investiga- tions, 83. DARWIN (Major L.) on seismological investigations, 83. DAvip (Rey. A. A.), the scholarship system, 717. 743 DAvis (Prof. W. M.) on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. DAWKINS (R. M.), excavations at Sparta in 1907, 647. DAWKINS (Prof. W. Boyd) on the age of stone circles, 368. —_— on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. —— on excavations on Roman sites in Britain, 400. Day trade school for girls, by Mrs. J. R. MacDonald, 725. Decorative art, a terminology of, by Prof. J. L. Myres, 655. *Deir-el-Bahari, the excavations at, by Prof. E. Naville, 644. DxnDy (Prof. A.) on the occupation of a table at the marine laboratory, Ply- mouth, 346. DescH (Dr. C. H.) on dynamic isomerism, 270. Desert features, some, by H. T. Ferrar, 504. Developable surfaces, models of three, by Prof. Schoute, 461. DEwaxk (Prof. Sir J.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. —— and Dr. H. O. JonEs, iron carbonyls, 482, DINES (W. H.) on the investigation of the upper atmosphere by means of kites, 99. Discussions : * on the constitution of the atom, 439. on valency, 480. ton explosion temperatures, 482. on the chemistry of wheat and flour, with special reference to strength, 487. on the physical basis of inheritance, 541. on the teaching of biology in schools, 547, on the physiological and therapeutical use of alcohol, 669. *on the value of perfusion experi- ments, 673. on anthropometrics in schools, 704. DIvERs (Dr. E.) on the study of hydro- aromatic substances, 104. DixEy (Dr. F. A.), experiments on seasonally dimorphic forms of African lepidoptera, 540. _—— recent developments in the theory of mimicry, 736. ~ Dixon (Prof. A. F.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Isles, 354, *Dixon (Prof. H. B.), the ignition point of gases, 482. DopBIE (Dr. J. J.) on dynamic %so- merism, 270. 744. Door-step art: (i) the art relations, by F. H. Newbery, 649; (ii) some remarks on its anthropological bearings, by Dr. T. H. Bryce, 649. Dornan (Rev. S. S.) on the ancient volcanoes of Basutoland, 517. DRYSDALE (C. V.), resistance coils and comparisons, 624. DuckwortH (Dr W.H.L.) on anthro- pometric investigation in the British Tsles, 354. Ductless glands, report on the, 400. DUDDELL (W.), the arc and the spark in radio-telegraphy, 728. +Duddell arcs of low frequency, oscillo- graph study of, J. T. Morris on, 622. DWERRYHOUSE (Dr. A. R.) on the fos- siliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §¢., 325. on the erratic blocks of the British Tsles, 329. Dynamic isomerism, report on, 270. Dyson (Prof. F. W.) on meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, 100. Earthquakes, destructive, a catalogue of, by Dr. J. Milne, 515. Earthquakes, the San Francisco and Colombian, R. D. Oldham on, 93. Earthquakes and changes in latitude, by Prof. C. G. Knott, 91. Echelon spectroscope, the, and the reso- lution of the green mercury line, H. Stansfield on, 455. ECKERT (Prof. Max), commercial geo- graphy from the modern standpoint, 570. Economic arithmetic, a suggestion for a new, by Prof. T. N. Carver, 592. *Economic biology, the rise and recogni- tion of, by W. E. Collinge, 542. EconomicScience and Statistics, Address to the Section of, by Prof. W. J. Ashley, 579. Economic theory and the formation of trusts, by H. W. Macrosty, 606. Education and evolution, by Rev. A. E. Crawley, 718. Educational Section, Address by Sir Philip Magnus to the, 694. Egyptian civilisation, the origin of, by Prof. E. Naville, 650. tEgyptian soul-houses and other dis- coveries, 1907, by Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, 644. ELDERTON (W. P.), examples of the modern methods of treating observa- tions, 457. }Electric_ incandescent lamps, develop- ments in, by Leon Gaster, 622. Electric units, the present condition of the work on, at the National Physical Laboratory, F. E. Smith on, 76. INDEX, Electrical measurements, ewperiments for improving the construction of practical standards for, report on, 73. Electrolytes, the conductivity of, in pyridine and other solvents, by K. 8. Caldwell, 483. Electrons in metals, the range of freedom of, Prof. J. Larmor on, 440. Electro-physiology, certain problems in, by Dr. N. H. Alcock, 673. Elementary mechanics, the teaching of, report on, 97. ELLIS (David), the phylogenetic con- nexions of the recent addition to the thread bacteria (Spirophyllum ferru- ginewm [Ellis]), 693. ELRINGTON (Rev. G. A.) on the struc- ture of the lava of Lanice conchilega, 549. Engineering laboratory at the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury, the new, by Prof. E. G. Coker, 622. Engineering Section, Address by Prof. 8. P. Thompson to the, 608. English scholarship system, the, by Prof. M., E. Sadler and H. B. Smith, 707. *Enzymes: their mode of action and functions, by Prof. H. E. Armstrong and Dr. E. F. Armstrong, 689. Erratic blocks of the British Isles, re- port on the, 329. Essentially positive double integrals and the part which they play in the theory of integral equations, H. Bateman on, 447. Etbai Desert of Egypt, the physical oe of the, by H. T. Ferrar, then the, and the earth, on a theoretical method ‘of attempting to detect rela- tive motion between, by A. O. Rankine, 454, —— the density of, by Sir Oliver Lodge, 452. t the motions of, produced by colli- sion of atoms or molecules containing or not containing electrons, Lord Kelvin on, 439. Ethnographical survey of the University of Wales, the progress of the, by T. C. James and H. J. Fleure, 656. Ethnography of Sardinia, Dr. T. Ashby on the, 650. Ethnology of the South-west Congo Free State, E. Torday and T. A. Joyce on the, 642. Evans (Dr. A. J.) on the age of stone circles, 368. on archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, 391. —— on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. EVANS (Sir J.) on the age of stone circles, 368, INDEX. Evans (Sir J.) on archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, 391. —- on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. Evening technical schools, the teaching and the teacher in, by J. H. Hawthorn, 721. Ewart (Prof. J. Cossar) on zoology or- ganisation, 350. EWING (Prof. J. A.) on seismological investigations, 83. —— on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. * Feact significance of local terms, report on the, 514. Explorer, the modern: his maps and methods, by Capt. T. T. Behrens, 571. *Explorers and colonists, by J. D. Rogers, 576. tExplosion temperatures, discussion on, 482, Exponential function, a method of ob- taining the principal properties of the, by Prof. A. E. H. Love, 449. *Hye-colour, inheritance of, in school children brought from Burbage, Hinck- ley, demonstration of, by C. C. Hurst, 555. FALLAIZE (E. N.) on anthropometric in- vestigation in the British Isles, 354. —— on the collection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. Falmouth Observatory, report on mag- netic observations at, 93. FANTHAM (H. B.), the classification of the Haplosporidia, 553. ——, the movements of spirochetes, as seen in S. balbianii and S. anodonte, 554, FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on experimental studies in the physiology of heredity, 410. —— Address to the Botanical Section, 674, FARNELL (Dr. L. R.), Dr. Usener’s theo- ries concerning Sonder-Gétter and Augenblick-Gétter in his ‘ Gétter- namen,’ 638. Fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, fifth report on the, 298. Fauna and flora of the Trias (Keuper only) in Leicestershire, the, by A. R. Horwood, 306. Faunal succession in the carboniferous limestone of the south-west of England, report of the Committee to enable Dr. A. Vaughan to continue his researches on the, 313. Fay (C. R.), co-operation, 604. FEARNSIDES (W. G.) on the pisolitic iron ores of Wales, 510. 745 Felsitic agglomerate of Charnwood Forest, the, by Dr. F. W. Bennett, 503. Fernacre and Stannon stone circles, East Cornwall, on the survey of the, by H. St. G. Gray, 369. FERRAR (H, T.), some desert features, 504. the physical geography of the Etbai Desert of Egypt, 573. Ferro-concrete and examples of con- struction, by J. 8. E. de Vesian, 623. Fry (Prof. C.), optical pyrometry, 442. FILon (Dr. L. N. G.) on the further tabu- lation of Bessel functions, 94. FiInpDuay (Prof. J.J.) on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical electrical standards, 73. FLEMING (Prof. J. A.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. FLEURE (H. J.) and T. C. JAMES on the progress of the University of Wales ethnographical survey, 656. Flora and fauna of the Trias of the British Isles, fifth report on the, 298. Flora and fauna of the Trias (Keuper only) in Leicestershire, the, by A. R. Horwood, 306. Flours, some considerations determining the strength of, by J. L. Baker and H. F. 8. Hulton, 488. FLux (Prof. A. W.), index numbers of prices, 603. Foorp (Dr. A. H.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. Footprint slab, a, in the Museum of Zoology, University of Liverpool, J. Lomas on, 304, Forecasting by means of synopic charts, some recent developments of the method of, by Dr. W. N. Shaw,‘ 463. ForstER (Dr. M. 0.) on the study of hydro-aromatic substances, 104. on dynamic isomerism, 270. *FORSYTH (Prof. A. R.), an account of modern work on the calculus of ,varia- tions, 445. Fossil flora of the Transvaal, report? on the, 345. Fossil plants, the structure of, third interim report on, 408. Fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §c., report on the, 325. Fossils from the Loner Keuper-of Broms- grove, L. J. Wills on the, 312. Foster (Prof. G. Carey) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. Fox (H.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. Fox (W. L.) on magnetic observations at Falmouth Observatory, 93. FRANKLAND (Prof, P. F.) on the"quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. ss 746 FRANKS (Sir Kendal) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. Fraser (Miss H. C. 1.), nuclear fusions and reductions in the ascomycetes, 688. __— and H. 8. CHAMBERS, the morpho- logy of Aspergillus herbariorwm, 687. FRr«EcH (Prof. F.), mountain building and seismology, 516. Freehand potential method, L. F. Richard- son on a, 457. Frog, the, experiments on the development of, report on, 347. Fungi, the desirability of local societies investigating, by Carleton Rea, 40. GAMBLE (Dr. F. W.) on coluwr physiology in animals, 349. GARDINER (J. Stanley) on the effect of the sera and antisera on the develop- ment of the sexual cells, 359. on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. GARSON (Dr J.G.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. —— on the age of stone circles, 368. GARSTANG (Prof. J.), recent explorations in Asia Minor and North Syria, 652. GARWOOD (Prof. E. J.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. {Gas and petrol engines, the present con- dition of, by Dugald Clerk, 620, Gases, the absorption of, by charcoal, by Miss I. Homfray, 451.| *Gases, the ignition point of, by Prof. H. B. Dixon, 482. {Gases exhausted from a petrol motor, B. Hopkinson on the, 620. {GASTER (Leon), developments in elec- tric incandescent lamps, 622. Geographical evolution of communica- tions, the, by Prof. V. de la Blache, 575. Geographical science, the advancement of, by local scientific societies, H. J. Mac- hinder on, 33. Geographical Section, Address by G. G. Chisholm to the, 556. Geological Section, Address by Prof. J. W. Gregory to the, 490. *Geology of Charnwood Forest, the, by Prof. W. W. Watts, 503. Geology of Leicestershire, C. F. Strang- ways on the, 503. German transatlantic enterprise, the rise and tendencies of, by Prof. E. von Halle, 594. Gipss (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. Gipson (Prof. G. A.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. INDEX. GIBSON (Prof. R. J. H.) om peat moss deposits in the Cross Fell and other districts, 410. GIBSON (Walcot) on South African strata and the question of a wniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. GILL (Sir David), Presidential Ad- dress, 3. GIMSON (Martin) and W. Kray, the re- lation of the Keuper marls to the pre-Cambrian rocks at Bardon Hill, 506. *Girls’ education, the need of a scientific basis to, from a domestic point of view, by Prof. H. E. Armstrong, 721. Glacial gravels of Holderness, a new sec- tion in the, T. Sheppard and J. W. Stather on, 515. Glastonbury, the lake village at, ninth report on, 392. GLAZEBROOK (Dr. R. T.) on practical electrical standards, 73. —— on seismological investigations, 83. —— on magnetic observations at Falmouth Observatory, 93. —— on the investigation of the upper atmosphere by means of kites, 99. Gold coinage in circulation in the United Kingdom, interim report on the amount of, 353. GOMME (G.L.) on anthropometric inves- tigation in the British Isles, 354. on registering and classifying mega- lithic remains in the British Isles, 391. —— on the origin of totemism, 643. GONNER (Prof. E. C. K.), some con- siderations about interest, 603. GoopRIcH (EH. S.) on the systematic position of Polypterus, 545. GotcH (Prof. F.) on the ‘metabolic balance-sheet’ of the individual tissues, 401. Gray (Dr. H. B.) on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. Gray (H. St. George) on the survey of the Fernacre and Stannon stone circles, East Cornwall, 369. —— on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. GRAY (J.) on anthropometric investiga- tion in the British Isles, 354. —— on anthropometrics in schools, 704. GRAY (M. H.) on seismological investiga- tions, 83. GREEN (Prof. J. R.) on peat moss de- posits in the Cross Fell and other districts, 410. Green mercury line, the resolution of the, and the echelon spectroscope, H. Stansfield on, 455. GREENHILL (Prof.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. GREENLY (E.) on the crystalline rocks of Anglesey, 317. INDEX. Grecory (Prof. J. W.) on Dr. A. Vaughan’s researches on the faunal | succession in the carboniferous lime- | stone of the south-west of England, 313. —— on South African strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. — on the fossil flora of the Transvaal, 345, —— Address to the Geological Section, 490. GREGORY (R. P.) on South African cycads, and on welitschia, 408. —— on experimental studies in the phy- siology of heredity, 410. ——on the inheritance of certain characters in Primula sinensis, 691. GRIFFITHS (Principal BE. H.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Commitice, 29. on practical electrical standards, 73. on the teaching of clementary me- chanics, 97. —— on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. Grignard’s reaction, the applications of, by Dr. A. McKenzie, 273. Growth in schoolboys, the practical diffi- culties in obtaining measurements of, | BE. Meyrick on, 705. GUILLEMARD (Dr. F. H.) on the oscilla- tions of the level of the land in the | Mediterranean basin, 350. GUNTHER (R. T.) on the oscillations of | the level of the land in the Mediter- ranean basin, 350. HADDON (Dr. A. C.) on anthropome- trie investigation in the British Isles, | 354. —— on the collection of photographs of | anthropological interest, 374. Hairiness of certain marsh plants, Prof. R. H. Yapp on the, 691. HAuLt (A. D.) on the quantity and com- position of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. *____ the production of acid or alkaline reactions in the soil by artificial manures, 489. HALLE (Prof. E. von), the rise and ten- dencies of German transatlantic en- terprise, 594. HALLIBURTON (Dr. W. D.) on anthropo- metric investigation in the British Tsles, 354. Haplosporidia, the classification of the, | by H. B. Fantham, 553. HARKER (A.) on the crystalline rocks of Anglesey, 317. 747 HARMER (F. W.) on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, Fc., 325. —— on the erratic blocks of the British Tsles, 329. HARRISON (Rev. 8S. N.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. HARTLAND (E.Sidney) on the collection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. HARTLEY (Prof. W.N.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. Hartoe (Prof. M.) on zoology organisa- tion, 350. the play of forces in the normally dividing cell, 668. Harwoop (W. A.) and J. E. PETAVEL on the recent balloon ascents, 468. Haten (Dr. F. H.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. HAWKINS (Cecil) types of physical de- velopment in schools, 705. HAWTHORN (J. H.), the teaching and the teacher in evening technical schools, 721, Health and disease, the effect of climate upon, report on, 403. HEAWOOD (E.) on the collection of photo- graphs of anthropological interest, 374. *Helium and radio-activity in common ores and minerals, by Hon. R. J. Strutt, 439. HELLER (W. M.) on anthropometric in- vestigation in the British Isles, 354. HEwrict (Prof.) on the teaching of ele- mentary mechanics, 97. HERBERTSON (Dr. A. J.) on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. —— on the fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. —— on zoology organisation, 350. -——on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. —— plankton fishing off the Isle of Man, 550. *Heredity, the experimental study of, by R. C. Punnett, 555. —— the physiology of, experimental studies in, report on, 410. HERON (Miss S.) the scholarship system, 712. Hewitt (Dr. J.T.) on the transformation of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub- stances, and its relation to substitution in benzene derivatives, 101. Hicks (Prof. W. M.) on the use of cal- \, cite in spectroscopy, 458. 748 Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on the occupation of a table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. —— on experiments on the development of the frog, 347. on colour physiology in animals, 349. on zoology organisation, 350. on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. —— on the physical basis of inheritance, 541. HIuu (A. W.) on marsh vegetation, 409. HILL (Prof. M. J. M.) on the further tabulation of Bessel functions, 94. HILTON (Harold) a property of Abelian groups, 461. HinpD (Dr. WHEELTON) on Dr. A. Vaughan’s researches on the faunal succession in the carboniferous lime- stone of the south-west of England, 313. on life-zones in the British carboni- ferous rocks, 316. HINDE (Dr. G. J.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. HOBSON (Dr. BE. W.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. HOBSON (Mrs. Mary), an account of some | souterrains in Ulster, 645. *Hopeson (T. V.), pycnogonida (sea- | spiders), 542. HoGaArtH (D. G.) on the oscillations of INDEX. Horwoop (A.R.) ona hitherto unnoticed section of the Amaltheus spinatus zone and the transition bed in the middle lias at Billesdon Coplow, Leicestershire, 516. on the disappearance of certain cryptogamic plants from Charnwood Forest within historic times, 684 HowartH (J. H.) on the fossiliferous adrift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- shire, §c., 325. - Howakrru (0. J. R.), the district of Jeede- ren in Southern Norway, 569. HoyLeE (Dr. W. E.) on the compilation of an index generum et specierwm animalium, 347. —— on colour physiology in animals, 349. —— Address to the Zoological Section, 520. HUBBARD (Mrs. L., jun.), a traverse of two unexplored rivers of Labrador, 578. HuGGINS (Sir W.) on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. HUGHES (J. O.), methods of rock analysis, 323. HuLTon (H. F. 8.) and J. L. BAKER, some considerations determining the strength of flours, 488. HUMPHRIES (A. E.), causes of the quality strength in wheaten flour, 487. | *Hurst (C. C.), demonstration of inherit- the level of the land in the Mediter- | ranean basin, 350. —— on archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, 391. —— Address to the Anthropological Sec- tion, 629. Housorn (Dr. L.), optical pyrometry, 440. Holderness, a new section in the glacial | gravels of, T. Sheppard and J. W. Stather on, 515. HOLLAND (T-H.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform strati- graphical nomenclature, 328. Houmes (T. V.) on the work of the Cor- responding Societies Committee, 29. of the Hast Coast. salt marshes, 373. HomFray (Miss I.), the absorption of gases by charcoal, 451. on the exploration of the ‘red hills’ | THOPKINSON (B.) on the gases exhausted | from a petrol motor, 620. HOPKINSON (J.) on the work of the Cor- | responding Societies Committee, 29. HORNE (Dr. J.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. Horwoop (A. R.), the flora and fauna of the Trias (Keuper only) in Leicester- shire, 306. —— a contribution to the paleontology of the North Derbyshire and Notts coalfield, or the southern part of the North Midland coalfield, 514. | ance of eye-colour in school children brought from Burbage, Hinckley, 555. Hydraulic turbines, the governing of, by R. 8. Ball, 626. Hydro-aromatic substances, report on the study of, 104. Ice problem in engineering work in Canada, the, by Prof. H. T. Barnes, 626. *Ignition point of gases, the, by Prof. H. B. Dixon, 482. Index generum et specierum animalium, report on the compilation of an, 347. Index numbers of prices, by Prof. A. W. Flux, 603. Indian Ocean, investigations in the, second report on, 351. Infinity, the introduction of the idea of, by Dr. W. H. Young, 458. Inheritance, the physical basis of, by Prof. 8. J. Hickson, 541. Integral equations, the theory of, on essentially positive double integrals . and the part which they play in, by H. Bateman, 447. Interest, some considerations about, by Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, 603. International ampere, the definition of the, specification for the practical application of, 77. tlonisation, the nature of, by Prof. H. E. Armstrong, 455. INDEX, *Iramian tribes of the Ottoman Empire, by Mark Sykes, 644. Tron, the beginnings of, by Prof. Ridge- way, 644. Tron carbonyls, by Sir J. Dewar and Dr. H. O. Jones, 482. Tron ore supplies, by B. H. Brough, 507. Tron ore supply of the Scandinavinan | Peninsnlar, the, by Hj. Sjogren, 332. Tsomorphous derivatives of benzene sul- phonic acid, report on the study of, 272. JACKSON (C. 8.) on the teaching of ele- mentary mechanics, 97. Jzderen in Southern Norway, the dis- trict of, by O. J. R. Howarth, 569. * JAEGER (Dr. F. M.), valency, 481. on substances which form three different liquid phases, 486. Jamaica earthquake, a narrative of the, by Dr. Vaughan Cornish, 576. JAMES (T. C.) and H. J. FLEURE on the | progress of the University of Wales | ethnographical survey, 656. JENKINSON (Dr. J. W.) on experiments on the development of the frog, 347. JEVONS (H. 8.) om the amount of gold coinage in circulation in the United Kingdom, 353. JOHNSON (Rev. W.) on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- shire, Sc., 325. Jouty (Prof. J.), the distribution of | radium in the rocks of the Simplon tunnel, 510. JONES (Dr. H. O.) and Sir J. DEWAR, iron carbonyls, 482. JOYCE (T. A.) and Dr. C. G. SELIGMANN on some new types of prehistoric objects in British New Guinea, 640. —— and E. TorpAy on the ethnology of the South-west Congo Free State, | 642. Jupp (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in- | vestigations, 83. on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. KAUFFMANN (Prof. H.), divisibility of valency, 480. Keay (W.) and MARTIN GIMson, the relation of the Keuper marls to the pre-Cambrian rocks at Bardon Hill, 506. KEEBLE (F. W.) on colour physiology in animals, 349. KELTIE (Dr. J. 8.) on the oscillations of the level of the land in the Mediter- | ranean basin, 350. | KELVIN (Lord) on practical electrical | standards, 73. | — on seismological investigations, 83. I, 749 tKELVIN (Lord) on the motions of ether produced by collision of atoms or molecules containing or not containing electrons, 439. Kemp (Miss H. B.) and Miss C. B. SANDERS, metabolism of Arum spadices : enzyme action and elec- trical response, 667. KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on the fauna and Hlora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. —— on life-zones in the British car- boniferous rocks, 316. on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §'c., 325. on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. KERR (Prof. J. G.) on zoology organisa- tion, 3509 Keuper marl, a peculiarity in the mine- ralogical constitution of the, Dr. C. G. Cullis on, 506. Keuper marls, the relation of the, to the pre-Cambrian rocks at Bardon Hill, by W. Keay and M. Gimson, 506. KrpsTon (R.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. KIMMINS (Dr. C. W.) on the conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the work of instruction in schools, 421. KINGSFORD (H. 8.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Isles, 354. on the collection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. KIpPING (Prof. F. 8.) on the transforma- tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied substances, and its relation to substitu- tion in benzene derivatives, 101. KIRKALDy (Prof.) on the small holdings of Worcestershire, 600. KNOCKER (F. W.) on the wild tribes of the Ulu Plus, Perak, 641. Knorr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological investigations, 83. —— earthquakes and changes in lati- tude, 91. Kurdish tribes of Asiatic Turkey, the, by Mark Sykes, 574. | KyNnAston (H.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform strati- graphical nomenclature, 328. Labour legislation of the Australasian States, the, by J. R. MacDonald, 596. Labrador, a traverse of two unexplored rivers of, by Mrs. L. Hubbard, jun., 578. Labyrinthodont, a South African, the structure of the mandible in, by Prof H. G. Seeley, 505. Labyrinthodon leptognathus, Oren, Dr A. Smith Woodward on a mandible of, 298. 750 Lake and river discharge, the quantity and composition of, and of rainfall, interim report on, 353. Lake village at Glastonbury, report on the, 392. ninth LAMB (Prof. HoRACE) on the teaching of | elementary mechanics, 97. : —— on secular stability, 439. LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. — on the fossiliferous drift deposits | at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, S'c., 325. Land’s End peninsula, the: a regional survey, by A. W. Andrews, 574. Lane (Dr. W. H.) on South African cycads and on welwitschia, 408. Lanice conchilega, the structure of the , larva of, Rev. G. A. Elrington on, 549. LANKESTER (Sir E. Ray) on éhe occwpa- tion of atable at the marine laboratory, Plymouth, 346. __— on the occupation of a table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. on zoology organisation, 350. exhibition of photographs of a living okapi, 544. LAPWORTH (Dr. A.) on the transforma- tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied substances, and its relation to substitu- tion in benzene derivatives, 101. —— on dynamic isomerism, 270. LaRMoR (Prof. J.) on the range of freedom of electrons in metals, 440. *Latitude, the variation of, by Dr. O. Backlund, 463. LATTER (0. H.) on zoology organisation, 350. on the teaching of biology, 547. of increasing and decreasing * Laws returns in production and consump- | tion, Prof. 8. J. Chapman on the, | 593. Lesour (Prof. G. A.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. LEGGE (J. G.), technical training of the rank and file, 726. Leicestershire, the geology of, C. F. Straneways on, 503. __— the origin of the Upper Keuper of, by T. O. Bosworth, 505. Lepidoptera, African, experiments on seasonally dimorphic forms of, by Dr. | ¥. A. Dixey, 540. LESLIE (T. N.) on the fossil flora of the Transvaal, 345. Le SupUR (Dr.) on the study of hydro- | aromatic substances, 104. LEWIS (A. L.) on the age of stone circles, 368. Lewis (F. J.) on peat moss deposits in | the Cross Fell and other districts, 410. Life-rones in the British carboniferous rocks, report on, 316. { INDEX. Liquid phases, substances which form three different, Dr. F. M. Jaeger on, 486. Lister (J. J.) on the effect of the sera and antisera on the development of the sexual cells, 350. —— on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. Liveine (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. *Zocal terms, the exact significance of, report on, 514. LockybR (Sir Norman) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. LopGE (Prof. A.) on the further tabula- tion of Bessel functions, 94. LODGE (Sir Oliver) on practical electri- cal standards, 73. -—on the teaching mechanics, 97. on the curricula schools, 422. -—— the density of the ether, 452. ——— tuning in wireless telegraphy, 620. Lomas (J.) on the fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. on a footprint slab in the Museum of Zoology, University of Liverpool, 304. —— on the erystalline rocks of Anglesey, 317. —— on the erratic blocks of the British Tsles, 329. —— ona marine peat from the Union Dock, Liverpool, 516. Love (Prof. A. E. H.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. —— Address to the Mathematical and Physical Science Section, 427. a method of obtaining the principal properties of the exponential function, 449. Lowry (Dr. T. M.) on dynamic isomerism, 270. of elementary of secondary MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, 391. MacaLuumM (Prof. A. B.) on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. —— on the ductless glands, 400. MAcBRIDE (Prof. E. W.) on some points in the development of Ophiothria Sragilis, 542. McCuuiocu (Major T.) on anthropome- tric investigation in the British Isles, 354. MacDoNALp (J. R.) the labour legisla- tion of the Australasian States, 596. MacDonaup (Mrs. J. R.), day trade school for girls, 725. INDEX. MACDONALD (Prof. J. 8.), the nervous impulse, 667. McDOUGALL (Dr. W.) on anthropomeiric investigation in the British Isles, 354. McFARLANE (J.), the hinterland of the port of Manchester, 575. MACGREGOR (D. H.) on the amount of gold coinage in circulation in the United Kingdom, 353. —— the development of trusts, 607. +Machinery, modern, and its future de- velopments, by H. I. Brackenbury, 624. McIntosH (Prof. W. C.) on the oceupa- tion of a table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. McKenpbRIck (Prof. J. G.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. McKENZIE (Dr. A.) the applications of Grignard’s reaction, 273. MACKENZIE (N. F.) on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. MAcKENZzIn (T. D.) and F. Soppy, pseudo-high vacua, 440. MACKINDER (H. J.) on the advancement of geographical science by local scien- tific societies, 33. MCLAREN (Lord) on meteorological obser- vations on Ben Nevis, 100. MACMAHON (Major P. A.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. *____ operational invariants, 449. Macrosty (H. W.), economic theory and the formation of trusts, 606. MACTURK (G. W. B.) on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- shire, &§c., 325. Magnetic observations at Falmouth Obser- vatory, report on, 93. MAGNus (Sir Philip) on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. —— Address to the Educational Section, 694. Mamwmailia, the thickness of the skull in, by Prof. R. J. Anderson, 546. Manchester, the hinterland of the port of, by J. McFarlane, 575. Mankind, the six races of, by T. H, Smurthwaite, 652. MANN (Amos), co-operative production from the labour co-partnership stand- point, 605. Maoris, the condition of the, in 1907, Miss B. Pullen-Burry on, 642. - Marine laboratory, Plymouth, report on the occupation of a table at the, 346. Marine peat, a, from the Union Dock, Liverpool, J. Lomas on, 516. Mare (Dr. J. E.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316, —— on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. 751 Marsh plants, the hairiness of certain, Prof, R. H. Yapp on, 691. Marsh vegetation, studies of, report on, 409. Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad- dress by Prof. A. E. H. Love to the, 427. MATLEY (Dr. C, A.) on the crystalline rocks of Anglesey, 317. MATTHEY (G.) on practical electrical standards, 73. Mechanics, elementary, the teaching of, report on, 97. Mediterranean basin, the oscillations of the level of the land in the, interim re- port on, 350. Megalithic remains in the British Isles, the best means of registering and classifying, interim report on, 391. MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. ——. on seismological investigations, 83. —— on the exploration of the ‘ red hills’ of the East Coast salt marshes, 373. MELVILLE (KE. H. V.) on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. Merismonedia g'auca, cell division in, by B. H. Bentley, 693. ‘ Metabolic balance sheet’ of the individual tissues, report on the, 401. Metabolism of Arwm spadices: enzyme action and electrical response, by Miss H. B. Kemp and Miss C. B. Sandars, 667. Meteorological observations made at Glossop Moor kite station during 1906-07, Margaret White, T. V. Pring, and J. H. Petavel on the, 467. Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, report on, 100. MEYRICK (H.) on the practical difficulties in obtaining measurements of growth in schoolboys, 705. MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the work of instruction in schools, 421. Miners (Prof. H. A.) on the study of isomorphous derivatives of benzene sul- phonic acid, 272. —— on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. —— the scholarship system at a resi- dential university, 715. Miuu (Dr. H. R.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. —— on the investigation of the upper atmosphere by means of kites, 99. —— on the oscillations of the level of the land in the Mediterranean basin, 350. — on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. ——on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. 702 Mruuts (C. T.) problems of trade educa- tion considered in relation to our school system, 723. MILNE (Dr. J.) on seismological investiga- tions, 83. a catalogue of destructive earth- quakes, 515. Mimicry, recent developments in the theory of, by Dr. F. A. Dixey, 736. Mrncuin (Prof. E. A.) on zoology organi- — sation, 350. Mrncuin (Prof. G. H.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. Mira Ceti, the variability in light of, and the temperature of sun-spots, by Rev. A. L, Cortie, 465. MircHELL (Sir A.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. MITCHELL (Dr. P.C.) on zoology organisa- | tion, 350. Moisture on solid surfaces, an electrical | experiment for illustrating the two | modes of condensation of, by Prof. T. Trouton, 453. MOLENGRAAFF (Dr.) on South African | strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclaturé, 328. MoznyNEUX (A. J. C.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. Money (L. G. C.), sweating and legisla- tion, 597. More (Prof. Leon), the secondary schol curriculum in France, with particular | reference to instruction in modern Jan- guages, 719. Morean (Prof. C. Lloyd) on the pre- Devonian beds of the Mendips, 315. —— on zoology organisation, 350. Morgan’s Malayan system of relation- ship, by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, 640. +Morris (J. T.) on oscillograph study of Duddell ares of low frequency, 622. Mortimer (J. R.), the cephalic indices and the computed stature of the Pagan Saxons in East Yorkshire, 657. Mountain building and seismology, by Prof. F. Frech, 515. *Mountain observatory in South India, a, by C. Michie Smith, 465. MuiruHEaD (Dr. A.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. *MULLER (Dr. F.), the study of sea climate, 666. Munro (Dr. R.) on the age of stone circles, 368. : on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. Murray (Dr. C. F. K.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. Murray (Sir John) on meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, 100. __— on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. INDEX. Murray (Sir John) on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. Myers (Dr. C. 8.) on anthropometric in- vestigation in the British Isles, 354. Myres (Prof. J. L.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Isles, 354. on the collection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. on excavations on Roman sites in Britain, 400. on registering and classifying mega- lithic remains in the British Isles, 391. on archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, 391. —— the Sigynnz of Herodotus, 644. —— a terminology of decorative art, 655 *Natural monuments, the preservation of, by Prof. Conwentz, 539. *NAVILLE (Prof. E.), the excavations at Deir-el-Bahari, 644. —— the origin of Egyptian civilisation, 650. Nervous impulse, the, by Prof. J. 8. Mac- donald, 667. *New Guinea, British, Dr. W. M. Strong on, 578. ——, ——, some new types of prehistoric objects in, by Dr. C. G. Seligmann and T. A. Joyce, 640. , the dances of, by Dr. C. G. Seligmann, 647. NEWBERY (F. H.), door-step art ; the art relations, 649. NEWTON (E. T.) on the fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §¢., 325. Niagara Falls, recession of the, by Dr. J. W. Spencer, 572. North .Derbyshire and Notts coalfield, the paleontology of the, by A. R. Hor- wood, 514. Nurrauu (G. H. F.) on the effect of the sera and antisera on the development of the sexual cells, 350. rE Observations, the modern methods of treating, examples of, by W. P. Elder- ton, 457. *Okapi, a living exhibition of photo- graphs of, by Sir E. Ray Lankester, 544 OLDHAM (R. D.) on seismological investi- gations, 83. on the duration of the first preli- minary tremor in the San Francisco and Colombian earthquakes, 93. Olenus. Salteri, Call., the development of, by F. Raw, 513. OLIVER (Prof. F. W.) on the structure of fossil plants, 408. INDEX. 753 OLIVER (Prof. F. W.) on the registration | Perry (Prof. J.) on the work of the Cor- of botanical photographs, 417. —— on the structure and affinities of | Physostoma elegans (Williamson), 690. OmoND (R. T.) on meteorological observa- tions on Ben Nevis, 100. *Operational invariants, by Major P. A. MacMahon, 449. Ophiothria fragilis, some points in the development of, Prof. E. W. MacBride on, 542. Optical pyrometry, by Dr. L. Holborn, 440, , by Prof. C. Féry, 442. ORTON (Prof. K. J.P.) on the transfor- mation of aromatic nitroamines and allied substances, and its relation to | substitution in benzene derivatives, 101. —— on the crystalline rocks of Anglesey, 317. Oscillations of the level of the land in the Mediterranean basin, interim report on the, 350. Oxides of carbon, by Dr. Boudouard, 485. Pagan Saxons in Kast Yorkshire, the cephalic indices and the computed | stature of the, by J. R. Mortimer, 657. PAGE (T.E.) on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. Paleontology of the North Derbyshire and Notts coalfield, or the southern part of the North Midland coalfield, the, by A. R. Horwood, 514. | PALGRAVE (R. H. Inglis) on the amount of gold coinage in circulation in the Onited Kingdom, 353. PEACH (Dr. B.N.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. PEARSON (Prof. H. H. W.), a botanical excursion in the welwitschia desert, 685. Peat moss deposits in the Cross Fell, Caithness, and Isle of Man districts, report on the, 410. Pellian terms (Tp, vp, &c.), factorisation of the, by Lieut.-Co]. A, Cunningham, | 462. | PENCK (Prof. A.) on the quantity and | composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. Pendulation theory, the, in relation to | geographical distribution, by Prof. H: Simroth, 544. *Perfusion experiments, discussion on the value of, 673. Periodicity, the determination of, from a broken series of maxima, Prof. H. H. | Turner on, 466, PERKIN (Prof. W. H.) on the study of hydro-aromatic substances, 104. 1907, responding Societies Committee, 29. —— on practical electrical standards, 73. on seismological investigations, 83. on the teaching of elementary me- chanics, 97. on the curricula of secondary schools, 422, PETAVEL (J. E.) and W. A. HARWOOD on the recent balloon ascents, 468. —— and Prof, E. RUTHERFORD, the effect of high temperature on the activity of the products of radium, 456. , MARGARET WHITE, and T. V. PRING on the meteorological observations made at Glossop Moor kite station during 1906-07, 467. PETRIE (Prof. W. M. Flinders) on the col- lection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. | +—— Egyptian soul-houses and other discoveries, 1907, 644. +Petrol and gas engines, the present con- dition of, by Dugald Clerk, 620. Photographic survey of ancient remains in the British Islands, Rev. Kh. A. Bullen on the advisability of appoint- ing a committee for the, 37. Phylogenetic connections of the recent addition to the thread bacteria (Spivo- phyllum ferrugineum [Ellis}), the, by David Ellis, 693. Physical and Mathematical Section, Address by Prof. A. E. H. Love to the, 427. Physical development in schools, types of, by Cecil Hawkins, 705. *Physics of the earth, results of recent researches on the, by Dr. J. T. T. See, 468. Physiological Section, Address by Dr. A. D. Waller to the, 658. Physiology of heredity, experimental studies in the, report on, 410. Phystostoma elegans (Williamson), the structure and affinities of, Prof. F. W. Oliver on, 690. PICKLES (A. R.), the scholarship system, 71. Pisolitic iron ores of Wales, W. G. Fearn- sides on the, 510. Plankton fishing off the Isle of Man, by Prof. W. A. Herdman, 550. PLATNAUER (H. M.) on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- shire, Se, 325. Play of forces in the normally dividing cell, by Prof. M. Hartog, 668. PLUMMER (W. HE.) on seismological in- vestigations, 83. *Poliination of flowers, the, by Prof. F. E. Weiss, 687. Polypterus, the systematic position of, E. 8. Goodrich on, 545, 3¢ Tod Porn (Prof. W.J.) on the study of isomor- phous derivatives of benzene sulphonic acid, 272. *____ the nature of valency, 480. PoRTER (Dr. C.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. PouLToN (Prof. E. B.) on zoology organi- sation, 350. PoynTING (Prof. J. H.) on seismological investigations, 83. PRATT (A. H.), calcium: its properties and possibilities, 487. Pre-Devonian beds of the Mendips, report on the investigation of the, 315. PREECE (Sir W.H.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. i on magnetic observations at Falmouth Observatory, 93. +——. Pupin’s compensated cable for tele- phone transmission, 620. Prehistoric objects in British New Guinea, some new types of, by Dr. C. G. Selig- mann and T, A. Joyce, 640. Primula sinensis, the inheritance of certain characters in, R. P. Gregory on, 691. Prine (T. V,), MARGARET WHITE, and J. E. PETAVEL on the meteorological observations made at Glossop Moor kite station during 1906-07, 467. *Protozoa, models of, by F. R. Rowley, 553. Pseudo-high vacua, by F. Soddy and T. D. Mackenzie, 440. Pteridophytes, the embryology of, by Prof. F. O. Bower, 686. PULLEN-BURRY (Miss B.) on the condi- tions of the Maoris in 1907, 642. *PUNNETT (R. C.), the experimental study of heredity, 555. {;Pupin’s compensated cable for tele- phone transmission, by Sir W. H. Preece, 620. *Pycnogonida (sea-spiders), Hodgson, 542. by T.. Vi Racial types in Connaught, by Prof. R. J. Anderson, 654. *Radio-activity, helium and, in common ores and minerals, by Hon. R. J. Strutt, 439. Radio-telegraphy, the arc and the spark in, by W. Duddell, 728. Radium, the effect of high temperature on the activity of the products of, by Prof. E. Rutherford and J. E. Petavel, 456. —— the production and origin of, by Prof. E. Rutherford, 456. *Radium emanation, on variability in the products resulting from changes in, by Sir W. Ramsay, 440, INDEX. - Radium emanation, the active deposit from, the transmission of, to the anode, by Sidney Russ, 451. Radium in the rocks of the Simplon tunnel, the distribution of, by Prof. J. Joly, 510. Rainfall, the quantity and composition of, and of lake and river discharge, interim report on, 353. *RAMSAY (Sir Wm.) on variability in the products resulting from changes in radium emanation, 440. RANDALL-MACIVER (D.) on anthropo- metric investigation in the British Isles, 354. RANKINE (A. 0.) on a theoretical method of attempting to detect relative mo- tion between the ether and the earth, 454. RAw (F.), the trilobite fauna of the Shineton shales, 511. —— the development of Olenus Salteri, Call., 513. RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical standards, 73. REA (Carleton), a@ plea that local societies should give greater attention to the investigation of the fungi of their districts, 40. READ (C. H.) on the work of the Corre- sponding Societies Committee, 29. —— on the age of stone cireles, 368. —— on the exploration of the ‘ved hills’ of the East Coast salt marshes, 373. — on the collection of photographs of anthropological interest, 374. —— on the lake village at Glastonbury, 392. Real variable, the theory of functions of a, some new results in, by Dr. W. H. Young, 445. ‘Red hills’ of the Hast Coast salt marshes, report on the exploration of the, 373. REID (Clement) on seismological inves- tigations, 82. —— on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, §¢., 325. on peat moss deposits in the Cross Fell and other districts, 410. Reinforced concrete, some new uses for, by W. N. Twelvetrees, 624. *Religion and custom in the South Seas, by O. Bainbridge, 647. RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical standards, 73. Resistance coils and comparisons, by C. V. Drysdale, 624. REYNOLDS, Prof. (8. H.) on the pre- Devonian beds of the Mendips, 315. RICHARDSON (L. F.) on a freehand potential method, 457. RICHARDSON (Nelson) on seismological investigations, 83. INDEX. RIDGHWAY (Prof. W.) on registering and classifying megalithic remains in the British Isles, 391. —— on archeological and ethnological researches in Crete, 391. —— on eucavations on Roman sites in Brit win, 400. —— the beginnings of iron, 644. —. the origin of the crescent as a Muhammadan badge, 649. RIVERS (Dr. W. H. R.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Isles, 354. Morgan’s Malayan system of rela- tionship, 640. —— some sociological definitions, 653. ROBINSON (G, Gidley), the scholarship system as affecting preparatory schools, 713. Rock analysis, methods of, by J. O. | Hughes, 323. RoGeErs (A. W.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform strati- graphical nomenclature, 328. *RoGuRsS (J. D.), explorers and colonists, 576. Roman sites in Britain, excavations on, interim report on, 400, Root tubercles in leguminous and other plants, the structure of, by Prof. W. B. Bottomley, 693. Roscoe (Sir H. HE.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and com- pounds, 116. ROTHSCHILD (Hon. Walter) on the com- pilation of an “index generum et specierum animalium, 347. Row (R. W. H.) on his occupation of the table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. *ROWLEY (FI. R.), models of protozoa, 553. RUCKER (Sir A. W.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. —— on magnetic observations at Fal- mouth Observatory, 93. RUDLER (F. W.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. —— on the exploration of the ‘ red hills’ of the East Coast salt marshes, 373. —— on registering and classifying mega- lithic remains in the British Isles, 391. RUHEMANN (Dr. 8.) on the transforma- tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied substances, and its relation to substitu- tion in benzene derivatives, 101. Russ (Sidney), the transmission of the active deposit from radium emanation to the anode, 451. RUTHERFORD (Prof. E.), the production and origin of radium, 456. —— and J. E. PETAVEL, the effect of high temperature on the activity of the products of radium, 456. Ruwenzori, an expedition to, by R. B. Woosnam, 576. 755 SADLER (Prof. M. E.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Isles, 354. —— onthe curricula of secondary schools, 422, ——and H. B. Smirn, the English scholarship system, 707. San Francisco and Colombian earth- quakes, on the duration of the first preliminary tremor in the, by R. D. Oldham, 93. SANDARS (Miss C. B.) and Miss H. B. KEMP, metabolism of Avwm spadices : enzyme action and electrical response, 667. *Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the, seventeenth report on, 541. Sardinia, the ethnography of, by Dr. T. Ashby, 650. ScHAFER (Prof. E. A.) on the ductless glands, 400. Scholarship system, the, by A. R. Pickles, Ali —— by Miss 8. Heron, 712. —— by Rev. A. A. David, 717. —— as affecting preparatory schools, by G. G. Robinson, 713. —— ata residential university, by Prof, H. A. Miers, 715. —— at Oxford and Cambridge, Dr. H. B. Baker on, 714. — the English, by Prof. M. E. Sadler and H. B. Smith, 707. Scholarships for girls from elementary to secondary schools, by Isabel Cleg- horn, 710. SCHOUTE (Prof.), models of three de- velopable surfaces, 461. SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. — on magnetic observations at Fal- mouth Observatory, 93. —on the teaching mechanics, 97. —— on the investigation of the wpper atmosphere by means of kites, 99. —— on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. ScHWARZ (EH. H. L.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. Science work in secondary schools, con- ditions of, by R. E. Thwaites, 720. SCLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the compilation of an index generum et specierum animaliwn, 347. Scotrr (Dr. D. H.) on the structure of fossil plants, 408. ——on South African cycads and on nelwitschia, 408. Scourging festival at Sparta, Artemis Orthia and the, by Prof. R. C. Bosan- quet, 648. *Sea climate, the study of, by Dr. F Miiller, 666. of elementary 3c2 756 INDEX. Secondary school curriculum in France, the, with particular reference to in- struction in modern languages, by Prof. Léon Morel, 719. Secondary schools, the curricula of, report on, 422. conditions of science work in, by R. E. Thwaites, 720. Secular stability, Prof. H. Lamb on, 439. SepG@wick (Prof. A.) on the occupation of a table at the marine laboratory, Plymouth, 346. on the occupation of a table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. on zoology organisation, 350. *SrE (Dr. T. J. J.), results of recent researches on the physics of the earth, 468. SEELEY (Prof. H. G.) on the structure of the mandible in a South African labyrinthodont, 505. Seismological investigations, twelfth re- port on, 83. Seismology and mountain building, by Prof. F. Frech, 515. *SELIGMANN (Dr. C. G.), the dances of British New Guinea, 647. and T. A. JOYCE on some new types of prehistoric objects in British New Guinea, 640. SEWARD (A. C.) on the fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. onthe fossil flora of the Transvaal,345, ——on the structure of fossil plants, 408. on South African cycads and on nelvitschia, 408. -—— on marsh vegetation, 409. Sex in the crustacea, with special reference to hermaphroditism, by Geofirey Smith, 543. Sexual cells, the effect of the sera and antisera on the development of the, - interim report on, 350. SHAND (A. F.) on anthropometric wm- vestigation in the British Isles, 354. SHARP (Dr. D.) on investigations in the Indian Ocean, 351. SHAw (Dr. W. N.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. on the investigation of the wpper atmosphere by means of kites, 99. —— on some recent developments of the method of forecasting by means of synoptic charts, 463. SHEPPARD (Thomas) on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- shire, §c., 325. and J. W. STATHER on a new section in the glacial gravels of Holderness, 515. SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on the conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the work of instruction in schools, 421, SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.), spinal re- flexes, 667. SHIPLEY (A. E.) on zoology organisa- tion, 350. —— on the curricula of secondary schools, 422, SHORE (Dr. L. E.) on the duetless glands, 400. SHRUBSALL (Dr. F.C.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Isles, 354. the aims and function of anthro- pometry in relation to the school, 705. Stppons (A. W.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. Sigynne of Herodotus, the, by Prof. J. L. Myres, 644. SIMPSON (Lieut.-Col.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. StmrotH (Prof. H.), the pendulation theory in relation to geographical distribution, 544. _— -skin varieties of Cricetus frwmen- tarius of Thuringia, 550. Sirrpr (Dr. W. de) on a remarkable periodic solution of the restricted problem of three bodies, 446. SJ6GREN (Hj.), the iron ore supply of the Scandinavian peninsula, 332. Skull, the thickness of the, in mammalia, by Prof. R. J. Anderson, 546. Small holdings of Worcestershire, Prof. Kirkaldy on the, 600. Small occupying ownerships, by Rt. Hon. J. Collings, 597. *SmiTH (C. Michie), a mountain obser- vatory in South India, 465. SmrirH (F. E.) on the present condition of the work on electric units at the National Physical Laboratory, 75. SmitH (Geoffrey), sex in the crustacea, with special reference to hermaphro- ditism, 543. SmitH (H. Bompas) and Prof. M. E. SADLER, the English scholarship system, 707. SmirH (W. G.) on the registration o botanical photographs, 4\7. SMITHELLS (Prof. A.), Address to the Chemical Section, 469. SMURTHWAITE (T. E.), the six races of mankind: their mental capabilities and political and commercial ten- dencies, 652. SmyTH (John), the application of water power, and how to secure the greatest efficiency in its working, 628. Sociological definitions, some, by Dr. W. #H. R. Rivers, 653. Soppy (F.) and T. D. MACKENZIE pseudo-high vacua, 440. Son~uas (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. — on the intimate structure of crystals, 481. INDEX. Sorghum, the cotyledon of, as a sense organ, F. Darwin on, 684. Souterrains in Ulster, an account of some, by Mrs. Mary Hobson, 645. South African cycads, interim report on, and on welwitschia, 408. South African labyrinthodont, the struc- ture of the mandible in a, Prof. H. G. Seeley on, 505. South African strata, the correlation and age of, interim report on, and on the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. *South Seas, religion and custom in the, by O. Bainbridge, 647. Sparta, excavations at, in 1907, by R. M. Dawkins, 647. Spectroscopy, the use of calcite in, Prof. W. M. Hicks on, 458. SPENCER (Dr. J. W.) recession of the Niagara Falls, 572. Spinal reflexes, by Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, 667. *Spiracle in sharks and rays, functions of the, by A. D. Darbishire, 540. Spirocheetes, the movements of, as seen in S. balbianii and 8. anodonta, by H. B. Fantham, 554. Spirophyllum ferruginewm (Ellis), the recent addition to the thread bacteria, the phylogenetic connexions of, by David Ellis, 693. Splash of a drop, an unrecorded and re- markable feature in the, Prof. A. M. Worthington on, 461. Stannon and Fernacre stone circles, Last Cornwall, on the survey of the, by A. St. G. Gray, 369. STANSFIELD (H.) on the echelon spec- troscope and the resolution of the green mercury line, 455. STARLING (Prof. EH. H.) on the ‘ metabolic balance sheet’ of the individual tissues, 401. STATHER (J. W.) on the fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, Se., 325. . on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. —— and T, SHEPPARD on a new section in the glacial gravels of Holderness, 515." Statistics and Economic Science, Address to the Section of, by Prof. W. J. Ashley, 579. STEBBING (Rey. T. R. R.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. on the occupation of a table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. —— on the compilation of an index generum et specierum animalium, 347, —— on zoology organisation, 350. 757 Stone circles, the age of, report on ex- plorations to ascertain, 368, —— the Lernacre and Stannon, East Cornwall, H. St. G. Gray onthe survey of, 369. Stoney (Dr. G. J.) on practical elee- trical standards, 73. Storr (Mrs. A. B.) on models of three- dimensional sections of regular hyper- solids in space of four dimensions, 460. STRACEY (Bernard), the north-west district of Charnwood Forest, 503. STRAHAN (A.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and river discharge, 353. STRANGWAYS (C. Fox) on the geology of Leicestershire, 503. Stratigraphical nomenclature, the ques- tion of a uniform, interim report on, 328. *STRONG (Dr. W. M.) on British New Guinea, 578. Strontia, boulders of, in the Upper Triassic marls of Abbots Leigh, near Bristol, Herbert Bolton and C. J. Water- fall on the occurrence of, 517. *STRUTT (Hon. R. J.) helium and radio- activity in common ores and minerals, 439. STUART (C. M.) on anthropometric inves- tigation in the British Isles, 354. on the curricula of secondary schools, 422. Subsistence farming and producing for a market, the importance of the dis- tinction between, in connection with small holdings, by Dr. W. Cunningham, 599. Substances which form three different liquid phases, Dr. F. M. Jaeger on, 486. Sun-spots, the temperature of, by Rev. A. L. Cortie, 465. Sweating and legislation, by L. G. C. Money, 597. Sykes (Mark), the Kurdish tribes of Asiatic Turkey, 574. a Tramian tribes of the Ottoman Em- pire, 644. SYMINGTON (Prof. J.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Tsles, 354. Syria, North, recent explorations in, by Prof, J. Garstang, 652. TANSLEY (A. G.) on marsh vegetation, 409. —— on the registration of botanical pho- tographs, 417. Technical training of the rank and file, by J. G. Legge, 726. THANE (Prof. G. D.) on anthropometric investigation in the British Isles, 354. 758 THOMPSON (Prof. 8. P.) on practical elec- trical standards, 73. —— Addressto the Engineering Section, 608. THomson (Prof. J. J.) on practical electrical standards, 73. Three bodies, the restricted problem of, on aremarkable periodic solution of, by Dr. W. de Sitter, 446. Three-dimensional sections of regular hypersolids in space of four dimensions, models of, Mrs. A. B. Stott on, 460. THWAITES (R. E.), conditions of science work in secondary schools, 720. TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks | of the British Isles, 329. Tims (Dr. W. H. M.) on the effect of the sera and antisera on the development of the seaual cells, 350. TocHER (J. F.) on anthropometric inves- tigation in the British Isles, 354. TorDAY (H.) and T. A. JOYCE on the ethnology of the South-west Congo Free State, 642. Totemism, on the origin of, by G. L. Gomme, 643. Tracheids of ferns, the so-called, the real nature of, by D. T. Gwynne Vaughan, 690. Trade education, problems of, considered in relation to our school system, by C. T. Millis, 723. }Tramway rails, corrugation of, the origin and production of, by W. W. Beaumont, 624. Transvaal, the fossil flora of the, report on, 345. Trias (Keuper only) in Leicestershire, the, the flora and fauna of, by A. R. Hor- wood, 306. bibliography of works referring to, by A. R. Horwood, 311. Trias of the British Isles, fifth report on the fuuna and flora of the, 298. — footprints from the, report on: Part V., by H. C. Beasley, 300. Trilobite fauna of the Shineton shales, the, by F. Raw, 511. *Triphenylmethyl, by Prof. Tschitschi- babin, 485. Trouton (Prof. F. T.), an electrical ex- periment for illustrating the two modes of condensation of moisture on solid surfaces, 453. Trusts, economic theory and the forma- tion of, by H. W. Macrosty, 606. the development of, by D. H. Mac- gregor, 607. *TSCHITSCHIBABIN (Prof.), methyl, 485. TUCKER (W. T.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 329. TucKEY (C. O.), the teaching of the elements of analysis, 459. triphenyl- INDEX. Tuning in wireless telegraphy, by Sir Oliver Lodge, 620. TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological investigations, 83. on a method of improving the con- stants of the plates for the astro- graphic catalogue, 465. on the determination of periodicity from a broken series of maxima, 466. TWEDDELL (T.), the co-operative organi- sation of consumers, 606. TWELVETREES (W. N.), some new uses for reinforced concrete, 624 Ulu Plus, Perak, the wild tribes of the, by F. W. Knocker, 641. Upper Keuper of Leicestershire, the origin * of the, by T. O. Bosworth, 505. Usener’s theories concerning Sonder- Gotter and Augenblick-Goétter in his *Goétternamen, by Dr. L. R. Farnell, 638. UssHER (W. A. E.) on the fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. Valency, discussion on, 480. *Variability in the products resulting from changes in radium emanation, Sir W. Ramsay on, 440. VAUGHAN (Dr. A.) on researches on the Saunal succession in the carboniferous limestone of the south-west of England, 313. — on life-zones in the British car- boniferous rocks, 316. VAUGHAN (D. T. Gwynne), the real nature of the so-called tracheids of ferns, 690. VESIAN (J. S. E. de), ferro-conecrete and examples of construction, 623. Viking period, some objects recently found in York attributable to the, by Dr. G. A. Auden, 646. Vincent (Prof. Swale) on the ductless glands, 400. Vines (Prof. 8. H.) on the occupation of a table at the marine laboratory, Plymouth, 346. Volcanoes, the ancient, of Basutoland, Rey. S. 8. Dornan on, 517. WAGER (Harold) on ewperimental studies in the physiology of heredity, 410. WALLER (Dr. A. D.), Address to the Physiological Section, 658. WALLIS (E. White) on the conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the mork of instruction in schools, 421, INDEX. WALSINGHAM (Lord) on the compilation of an indew generum et specierum animalium, 347. Water power, the application of, and how | to secure the greutest efficiency in its working, by John Smyth, 628. WATERFALL (C. J ) and HurBuRT BOL- | TON on the occurrence of boulders of strontia in the Upper Triassic marls of Abbots Leigh, near Bristol, 517. WATERSTON (Dr.) on anthropometric in- | vestigation in the British Isles, 354. Watson (D. M. S.) on the cone of Bothrodendron mundum, 690. WATSON (Dr. W.) on the investigation of the upper atmosphere by means of kites, 99. Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 116. WATTS (Prof.W. W.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 29. —— on the fauna and flora of the Trias | of the British Tsles, 298. on Dr. A. Vaughan’s researches on | faunal succession in the carboniferous limestone in the south-west af England, 313. * a the geology of Charnwood Forest, 503. Wave-length tables of the spectra of the coats and compounds, report on, 116. Wuiss (Prof. F. BE.) on the structure of fossil plants, 408. — on the registration of botanical photographs, 417. s on the pollination of flowers, 687. WELSFORD (E. J.), fertilisation in Asco- bolus furfuraceus (Pers.), 688. Welwitschia, interim report on, 408. Welwitschia desert, a botanical excur- sion in the, by Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, 685. 2 gla (Prof. A.) zur valenzfrage, 80. Weston (cadmium) standard cell, pre- paration of the, 80. Wheat and flour, the chemistry of, with special reference to strength, discus- sion on, 487. Wheaten flour, causes of the quality, strength in, by A. E. Humphries, 487. WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the Cor- responding Societies Committee, 29. on the quantity and composition of rainfall and of lake and viver dis- charge, 353. WHITE (Margaret), T. V. PRING, and Dr. J. E. PETAVEL on the meteoro- logical observations made at Glossop Moor kite station during 1906-07, 467. 759 WILLIAMS (Dr. Ethel) on the conditions of health essential to the carrying on of the work of instruction in schools, 421. WILLs (L. J.) on the fossils from the Lower Keuper of Bromsgrove, 312. Wincn (W. H.) on anthropometric in- vestigation in the British Isles, 354. Winwoop (Rev. H. H.) on the pre- Devonian beds of the Mendips, 315. Wireless telegraphy, tuning in, by Sir Oliver Lodge, 620. WoopHEAD (Prof. G. S.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. WoopHEAD(Dr.T. W.) on the registration of botanical photographs, 417. WooDLAND (Dr. W.N. F.) on his occu- pation of the table at the zoological station at Naples, 346. Woopwarp (Dr. A. Smith) on the fauna and flora of the Trias of the British Isles, 298. on a mandible of Labyrinthodon leptognathus, Owen, 298. WOODWARD (Dr. H.) on life-zones in the British carboniferous rocks, 316. —— on the compilation of an index generum et specierum animalium, 347. WoopWARD (H. B.) on the pre-Devonian beds of the Mendips, 315. Woosnam (R. B.), an expedition to Ruwenzori, 576. Worcestershire, the small holdings of, by Prof. Kirkaldy, 600. WoRTHINGTON (Prof. A.7 M.) on the teaching of elementary mechanics, 97. ———on an unrecorded and remarkable feature in the splash of a drop, 461. Wrigat (Sir A. E.) on the effect of climate upon health and disease, 403. Wynne (Prof. W. P.) on “the study of isomorphous derivatives of benzene sul- phonic acid, 272. Yapp (Prof. R. H.) on peat moss deposits in the Cross Fell and other districts, 410. —— onthe registration of botanical pho- tographs, 417. on the hairiness of certain marsh plants, 691. YERBURGH (R. A.), agricultural co- operation in Great Britain, 601. Youne (Prof. A.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. Youna (Prof. R. B.) on South African strata and the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, 328. Youna@ (Prof. Sydney) on dynamic iso- merism, 270. 760 Youne (Dr. W. H.), some new results in the theory of functions of a real variable, 445. —— the introduction of the idea of in- finity, 458. Zoological Section, Address by Dr. W. E. Hoyle to the, 520. INDEX. Zoological station at Naples, report on the occupation of a table at the, 346. *Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, seven- teenth report on the, 541. Zoology organisation, report on, 350. ZUNTZ (Prof.), the investigation of the effects of climate by means of labo- ratory experiments, 666. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices: Reports for 1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume; after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from 1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set. Associates for the Meeting in 1907 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds of the Publication Price. REPORT or tHe SEVENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at York, August 1906, Published at £1 4s. CONTENTS. Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, souk of the Council, List of Com- eg mittees, Grants of Money, &e. . . XXvVii-cxxiv. Address by the President, Prof. HE. Ray Tnakesten M. A. ia D., D.Sc., F.R.S. . 3 Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee . : 45 Report of the Conference of ee of CeEoo sae Bociefics held FA York. : : : . AT Report on Magnetic Obearvations at munionh Geeeatare ‘ F . 90 Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. ° : ; ‘ . Le OT Eleventh Report on Seismological Investigations : : : - A oa OF Report on Electrical Standards . : : . . . : : . 104 The Evolution of the Elements. By F. Soddy ; : , . 122 Preliminary Report on the Magnetic Survey of South Reen - * 131 Fifth Report on the Teneaneaioe of the Upper nceehere by means of Kites. < 138 The Distribution of Braet we in the Vegetable Kingdom. cs Dr. Wasivits Greshoff 2 138 The Chemical Aspects of Cyanorenesia’ in Hanae By Prof. Wyndham Danstan, F.R.S., and T. A. Henry, D.Sc. . : z 145 Report on Dynamic Isomerism . 167 Report on the Transformation of Aromatic Nibsianined aa Allied dapinnc 159 Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds 161 On the Present Position of the eanetty of. the Gums. ii H. H. Robinson, M.A., F.C.S., F.L.C. e : > 5 3 : 4 «227 762 The Present Position of the Chemistry of Rubber. By §S. 8S. Pickles, M.Sc. Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances . : . ; The Hydrolysis of Sugars. By Robert J. Caldwell, B.Sc. 2 2 : Interim Report on the Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone of jis South-west of England : é 5 = : 3 “ 4 Fourth Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles Report on the Composition and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey Interim Report on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks ; Report on the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c. Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium E 4 ; Report on the Probability of Ankylostoma becomjng a Permanent Inhabitant of our Coal Mines in the event of its Introduction ; E ; ; Sixteenth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands . 5 F q P Melanism in Yorkshire Lepidoptera. By G.T. Porritt, F.L.8. . s 2 4 Report on the Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands . : i “ Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth Report on the Colour-physiology of the Higher Crustacea . : A : Interim Report on the Freshwater Fishes of South Africa, with special reference to those of the Zambesi i ij 5 Report on Zoology Organisation . : ; : j 5 : Report on the Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the Development of the Frog. - 4 2 - % - : 5 : F : 2 Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples Interim Report on the Quantity and Composition of Rainfall and of Lake and River Discharge . y J 3 ¢ ; 4 } - A i First Report on Investigations in the Indian Ocean . 3 ; : 3 $ Third Report on International Trade Statistics . : : - ; ‘ Standardisation in British Engineering Practice. By Sir John Wolfe-Barry KOE; EES, te kta Pee aS eee : Report on Anthropometric Investigations among the Native Troops of the Egyptian Army ; : ; a ‘ : ; B 5 Report on Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles Interim Report on the Age of Stone Circles 5 . i : Report on the Registration of Anthropological Photographs. : Report on Excavations on Koman Sites in Britain . ; n \ Report on Archzological and Ethnological Researches in Crete Eighth Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury Second Interim Report on the Ductless Glands . 2 , : Report on the Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease : Ke F Report on the ‘ Metabolic Balance Sheet’ of the Individual Tissues Fourth Report on the State of Solution of Proteids Interim Report on Peat Moss Deposits 4 ; Interim Report on Research on South African Cycads. Second Interim Report on the Structure of Fossil Plants Report on the Registration of Botanical Photographs : ‘ : : Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of the Work of Instruction in Schools . i ° 4 5 5 c : F : Report on the Courses of Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools The Transactions of the Sections : ; Appendix : The South Africa Medal Fund . Index . * : : F List of Publication P a : F 7 = . A r i P List of Members, &c. . 5 : 5 . . 4 A . 1-89 763 Publications on sale at the Office of the Association. Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to, 4s. Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included). Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 4d.). Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s. Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s. On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin- ning, 2s.; Weaving, 1s. 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RicHARD DAGuiesu, J.P., D.L., High Sheriff of | The Right Rey, the Bisnop ov LricEster, D.D, Leicestershire. | Sir Orrver Loner, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal Sir EDwarD Woop, J.P., Mayor of Leicester, of the University of Birmingham. The Right Hon. the EARL or Dysarvr. HrrRBeRt ELwis, President of the Leicester The Right Hon, the Eart. Howe, G.C.V.0, | Literary and Philosophical Society. PRESIDENT ELECT. FRANCIS DARWIN, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT, The Right Hon. the Lornp Mayor oF DUBLIN, The PRESIDENT OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN The Right Hon. the LorRD CHANCELLOR OF The Right Hon. Viscount IvEAGH, K.P. IRELAND. The PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SocikETy. The Right Hon. the CHIEF SECRETARY TO THE , The PRESIDENT OF THE RoysL TRISH ACADEMY. Lorp LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND. | The Vick-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF His MasestTy’s LIEUTENANT FOR THE COUNTY OF DUBLIN. DUBLIN. The Vick CHANCELLOR OF 1HE Roya UNIVER- The CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN, | SITY OF IRELAND. The OHANCELLOR OF THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF The VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF IRELAND. AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. The Provost oF Trinity COLLEGE, DUBLIN. | GENERAL TREASURER. Professor JOHN Perky, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. GENERAL SECRETARIES. Major P. A, MACMAHON, R.A,, D.Sc., F.R.S. | Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sce., F.R.S. ASSISTANT SECRETARY. A, SILVA WHITE, Burlington House, London, W. CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER. H. 0, Srewarpson, Burlington House, London, W. LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT DUBLIN, The Hon. Mr. Justice Dopp. LAWRENCE A. WALDRON, M.P. Sir JAMES CREED MEREDITH, LL.D. WILLIAM M. Mureuy, J.P. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT DUBLIN. JoserH McGratuH, LL.D, Professor W. H. THOMPSON, M.D., D.Sc JOHN MULLIGAN, J.P. Professor W. E. THRIFT, M.A. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. ABNEY, Sir W., K.C.B., F.R.S. Hanppon, Dr. A. C., F.R.S. ANDERSON, TEMPEST, MD., D.&e. HARTLAND, E. SIDNEY, FS.A. Bourne, Professor G. C., D.Se. HAWKSLEY, O., M.Inst.C.B. Bow .kzy, A. L., M.A. ; HoGarrs, D. G., M.A, Boys, 0. VERNON, F.R.S. LANGLEY, Professor J. N., F.R.S. BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, C.B. McKENDRICK, Professer i G., F.R.S, Brown, Dr. Horace T., F.R.S. | MiTCHELL, Dr. P. CHAIMERS, I. B.S. CUNNINGHAM, Professor D, J., F.R.S. PouLton, Professor E. B., I’.R.S. DunsTAN, Professor WYNDHAM, F.R.S. PRAIN, Lieut.-Colonel Di; 0. i I. F.R.S. Dyson, Professor F, W., P.R.S. SHERRINGTON, Eroversar ©. S, FR. Forsyt, Professor A. R., F.RS. | SHIPLEY, A. E., F.R.S. GLAZEBROOK, Dr. R. T., F.R.S. WATTS, peer W. W., F.R.S. WoopwarbD, Dr. A. SMITH, F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Prcsidents for the year, the President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers ani General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting. e TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). The Right Hon. Lord Avresury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C. L., ct D., Pres, R. S., F.R.A.S. Sir AnrHuR W. RUckeER, M.A., D.Sc., F. B.S. PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOOIATION. Sir Joseph D. Elooker,G.C.S.I. {Sir Archibald Geikie, K.O.B.,) Sir A, W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. | See.R.S. Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Pres. R.S. | Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S. | Sir Norman Lockyer, K.O.B.,F.R.S. Sir H. B. Rosvoe, D.C. the F.R.S. | Sir John Evans, K.C.B.. F.R.S, Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., F.R.S Sir William Huggins, K.0.B., | Sir Williem Orookes, F.R.S. Sir George Darwin, K.C.B., F.R.S. F.R.S. Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. | Sir E.Ray Lankester, K.O.B.,F.R.S. PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION, F. Galton, D.O.L., F.R.S. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.5. Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. PL, Sclater, Ph, Di, E.R.S. Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. G, Carey Foster, F'.R.S. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S, | Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson. AUDITORS. Sir Edward Brabrook, ©.B. | Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S. eyes aN co he | ao, ny Be LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 1907. * indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report. § indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Anaual Report. { indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report. Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report. Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in SMALL CAPITALS. Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known are in ¢étalics. Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant Secretary, Year of Election 1905. 1887. 1898. 1881. 1885. 1885. 1873. 1905. 1905. 1882. 1869. 1877. 1894. 1877. Burlington House, London, W. *4 Ababrelton, Robert A. P.O. Box 322, Pietermaritzburg, Natal. *ApBE, Professor CLEVELAND. Weather Bureau, Department of Agriculture, Washington, U.S.A. eae George, M.R.C.S., F.G.8. 4 Rusthall Park, Tunbridge Wells. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton. Ss Pt The Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo House, Aber- een. {Aberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen. *ABNEY, Captain Sir W. pz W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1889 ; Pres. L, 1903; Council, 1884-89, 1902-05, 1906- .) Measham Hall, Leicestershire. tAbrahamson, Louis. Civil Service Club, Cape Town. §Aburrow, Charles. P.O. Box 534, Johannesburg. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W. tAcland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter. *Acland, Captain Francis FE. Dyke, R.A. Walwood, Banstead. Surrey. *Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. Lamorva, Falmouth. *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D. 19 Bryanston-square, W. 6 Year of Election 1904. 1898. 1901. 1887. 1901. 1871. 1904. 1869. 1898. 1890. 1899. 1905. 1902. 1906. 1871. 1890. 1895. 1891. 1871. 1901. 1884. 1886. 1905. 1907. 1900. 1896. 1905. 1888. 1891. 1883. 1883. 1901. 1904. 1879. 1898. 1888. 1907. 1882. 1887. 1883. 1883. 1884. 1905, 1905. 1908. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. §Acton, T. A. 3 Grove-road, Wrexham. jAcworth, W. M. The Albany, W. tAdam, J. Miller. 15 Walmer-crescent, Glasgow. tApam, J. G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in McGill University, Montreal, Canada. §Adams, John, M.A., Professor of Education in the University of London. 23 Tanza-road, Hampstead, N.W. _ {Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W. {Adams, W. G. S., M.A. Department of Agriculture, Upper Merrion-street, Dublin. *Apams, WiiniaAM GRytis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S. (Pres. A, 1880 ; Council, 1878-85). 1 Fortfield-terrace, Sid- mouth. {Addison, William L. T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada. tApengy, W. E., D.Sc., F.C.8. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsfort-terrace, Dublin. *Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 136 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge. tAdle, Henry. P.O. Box 1059, Johannesburg. tAgnew, Samuel, M.D. Bengal-place, Lurgan. §Aikman, J. A. 6 Glencairn-crescent, Edinburgh. * Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland. *ATREDALE, Lord. Gledhow Hall, Leeds. *Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk. *Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff. §ArrKEn, JouNn, LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B. §Aitken, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. County Buildings, Cupar-Fife. *Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange-road, Sutton, Surrey. *Albright, G.S. Broomsberrow Place, Ledbury. {Albright, Miss. Finstal Farm, Finstal, Bromsgrove, Worcester- shire. §Alcock, Dr. N. H. 22 Dowshire-hill, Hampstead, N.W. *Aldren, Francis J..M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link. §Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, West- minster, S.W. *Alexander, J. Abercromby, F.S.A. 50 Warwick-gardens, Kensing- ton, W. *Alexander, Patrick Y. 82 Victoria-street, S.W. *Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. 15 Great St. Helens, E.C. tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon. tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon. *Allan, James A. Westerton, Milngavie. *Allcock, William Burt. Emmanuel College, Cambridge. *Allen, Rev. A. J.C. 34 Lensfield-road, Cambridge. §AuiEn, Dr. E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth. {Auimn, F. J.. M.A. 103 Mawson-road, Cambridge. *Allorge, M. M., L. és Sc., F.G.S. University Museum, Oxford. *Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S. Hornton Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, W. {Alward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire. §Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon. §Amery, Peter-Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon. j{Amr, Henry, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. tAnderson, A. J., M.A., M.B. The Residency, Portswood-road, Green Point, Cape Colony. *Anderson, C. L. P.O. Box 2162, Johannesburg. §Anderson, Edgar. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin. Ee Year of Election 1885. 1901. 1892. 1899. 1888. 1887. 1905. 1880. 1902. 1901. 1908. 1907. 1895. 1880. 1886. 1877. 1900. 1896. 1886. 1890. 1901. 1900. 1894. 1884. 1883. 1903. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. ~] *AnDmERSON, HucH Kerr, F.R.S. Caius College, Cambridge. *Anderson, James. Ravelston, Kelvinside, Glasgow. tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh. *Anderson, Miss Mary Kerr. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh. *Anderson, R. Bruce. 5 Westminster-chambers, 8.W. tAnpeERson, Professor R. J., M.D., F.L.S. Queen’s College, and Atlantic Lodge, Salthill, Galway. tAnderson, T. J. P.O. Box 173, Cape Town. *ANDERSON, Tempust, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S. (Council, 1907— ; Local Sec. 1881.) 17 Stonegate, York. *Anderson, Thomas. Embleton, Osborne Park, Belfast. *Anderson, Dr. W. Carrick. 8 Windsor-quadrant, Glasgow. §Anderson, William. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin. §Andrews, A. W. Adela-avenue, West Barnes-lane, New Malden, Surrey. tAndrews, Charles W., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. British Museum (Natural History), S.W. *Andrews, Thornton, M,Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea. §Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry. §SANGELL, JoHN, F.C.S., F.I.C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road, Withington, Manchester. tAnnandale, Nelson. 34 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. tAnnett, R. C. F., Assoc.Inst.C.E. 4 Buckingham-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool. tAnsell, Joseph. 27 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham. §Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton. tArakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within, E.C. §Arber, E. A. Newell, M.A., F.L.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. tArchibald, A. Holmer, Court-road, Tunbridge Wells. *Archibald, E. Douglas. Constitutional Club, W.C. *Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton. *ArmsTRonG, E. Franxianp, D.Sc., Ph.D. 98 London-road, Reading. . *ArmsTronG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885; Pres. L, 1902 ; Council, 1899-1905), Professor of Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-road, 8.W. 55 Granville-park, Lewisham, S.E. . Armstrong, John. Kamfersdam Mine, near Kimberley, Cape Colony. - §ARNOLD, J. O., Professor of Metallurgy in the University of Shef- field. . *Arnold-Bemrose, H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Ash Tree House, Osmaston- road, Derby. . tArunachalam, P. Ceylon Civil Service, Colombo, Ceylon. . *Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon. . *Ashby, Thomas. ‘The British School, Rome. ’ . §AsHLEy, W. J., M.A. (Pres. F', 1907) Professor of Commerce in the University of Birmingham. 3 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton. - *Ashworth, J. H., D.Sc. 4 Cluny-terrace, Edinburgh. . {Ashworth, J. Reginald, D.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale. . {Askew, T. A. Main-road, Claremont, Cape Colony. . *Aspland, W. Gaskell. 50 Park Hill-road, N.W. . *Assheton, Richard, M.A., F.L.S. Grantchester, Cambridge. . [Assheton, Mrs. Grantchester, Cambridge. 8 Year BRITISH ASSOCIATION. of Election. 1903 1887. 1898. 1894. 1906. 1881. 1907. 1881. 1863. 1906. 1907. 1903. 1853. 1877. 1900. 1883. 1906. 1883. 1887. 1903. 1907. 1905. 1883. 1883. 1893. 1887. 1905. 1905. 1894. 1878. 1897. 1905. 1886. 1907. 1904. 1894. 1905. 1875. 1883. 1905. 1905. . tAtchison, Arthur F. T., B.Sc. Royal Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines. §Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, D.D. Ingestre, Ashton-on-Mersey. *Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent. *Atkinson, Harold W., M.A. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent. tAtkinson, J. J. Cosgrove Priory, Stony Stratford. tAtkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire. §Atkinson, Robert E. Morland-avenue, Knighton, Leicester. tArkrnson, Rosperr Wiiiam, F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1891.) 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff. . *ATTFIELD, J.. M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Ashlands, Watford, Herts. §Auden, Dr. G. A. 54 Bootham, York. §Auden, H. A., D.Sc. Westwood, Grassendale, Liverpool. tAusrry, Coartes E. 37 Cambridge-road, Southport. *AveBuRy, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. (PrusipEnt, 1881; TrustE, 1872- ; Pres. D, 1872 ; Council, 1865-71.) High Elms, Farnborough, Kent. *Ayrtron, W. E., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1898 ; Council 1889-96), Pro- fessor of Electrical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-road, S.W. 41 Norfolk-square, W. {Baccuus, RAMSDEN (Local Sec. 1900). 15 Welbury-drive, Bradford. *Bach, Madame Henri. 19 Avenue Bosquet, Paris. §Backhouse, James. Daleside, Scarborough. *Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.0., Durham. *Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex. tBaden-Powell, Major B. 22 Prince’s-gate, 8.W. §Badgley, Colonel W. F., Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Verecroft, Devizes. §Baikie, Robert. P.O. Box 36, Pretoria, South Africa. {Baildon, Dr. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport. *Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Atherstone House, North-drive, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, Lancashire. {Baruey, Colonel F., F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place, Edinburgh. *Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Marple Cottage, Marple, Cheshire. *Bailey, Harry Percy. 22 Clarendon-road, Margate. §Bailey, W. F., C.B. Land Commission, Dublin. *Barty, Francis Gipson, M.A. Newbury, Colinton, Midlothian. {tBatty, Wavrer. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W. §Batn, JAMES. Public Library, Toronto, Canada. §Baker, Sir Augustine. 56 Merrion-square, Dublin. §Baker, Harry, F.I.C. Epworth House, Moughland-lane, Runcorn. §Baldwin, Walter. 5 St. Alban’s-street, Rochdale. {Batrour, The Right Hon. A. J., D.C.L., LL.D., M.P., F.RB.S., Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. (PREsIDENT, 1904.) Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, N.B. {Batrour, Henry, M.A. (Pres. H, 1904). 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford. {Balfour, Mrs. H. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford. {Batrour, Isaac Baytry, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1894 ; K, 1901), Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith House, Edinburgh. {Balfour, Mrs. 1. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh. {Balfour, Mrs. J. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B. {Balfour, Lewis. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford. =e Toe LIST OF MEMBERS : 1907. 8) Year of Election. 1905. {Balfour, Miss Vera B. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B. 1878. *Ball, Sir Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin. 1866. *Batu, Sir Roperr Stawet, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1887 ; Council, 1884-90, 1892-94 ; Local Sec. 1878), Lown- dean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory, Cambridge. 1908. §Ball, T. Elrington. 6 Wilton-place, Dublin. 1883. *Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1905. {Ballantine, Rev. T. R. Tirmochree, Bloomfield, Belfast. 1869. {Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria- street, Westminster, S.W. 1890. {Bamford, Professor Harry, M.Sc. 30 Falkland-mansions, Glasgow. 1899. §Bampton, Mrs. 42 Marine-parade, Dover. 1905. §Banks, Miss Margaret Pierrepont. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh. 1898. {Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.8.A. The Lindens, Sydenham-road, Croydon. 1890. *Barber-Starkey, W. J. S. Aldenham-park, Bridgnorth, Salop. 1861. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester. 1860. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts. 1887. *Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester. 1902. {Barcroft, H., D.L. The Glen, Newry, Co. Down. 1902. {Barcroft, Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge. 1904. §Barker, B. T. P. Fenswood, Long Ashton, Bristol. 1906. *Barker, Geoffrey Palgrave. Henstead Hall, near Wrentham, Suffolk. 1899. §Barker, John H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills, Birmingham. 1882. *Barker, Miss J. M. The Fox Covers, Bebington, Cheshire. 1898. tBarker, W. R. 106 Redland-road, Bristol. 1889. {Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. The Park Hospital, Hither Green, S.E. 1883. {Barlow, J. J. 84 Cambridge-road, Southport. 1885. *BarLow, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Red House, Great Stanmore. 1905. §Barnard, Miss Annie T., M.D., B.Sc. 32 Chenies-street-chambers, Gower-street, W.C. 1902. §Barnard, J. E. Park View, Brondesbury Park, N.W. 1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. 1904. {Barnes, Rev. E. W., M.A., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1907. §Barnes, H. T. Heys Bungalow, Glan Conway, North Wales. 1881. {Barr, ArcHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineer- ‘ing in the University, Glasgow. 1902. *Barr, Mark. The Cedars, Cowley, Middlesex. 1904. {Barrett, Arthur. 6 Mortimer-road, Cambridge. 1872. *Barrett, W. F., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.1.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 1874. *Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. : Wicklow. 1874. *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester. 1893. *Barrow, Groran, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. 1896. §Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B. 1884. *Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York. 1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare. 1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare. 1892. {Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. Falcon Hall, Kdinburgh. 10 Year of Election. 1858. 1893. 1904. 1888. 1891. 1866. 1889. 1871. 1883. 1907. 1884. 1881. 1906. 1863. 1904. 1905. 1876. 1887. 1885. 1905. 1889. 1905. 1904. 1905. 1902. 1855. 1900. 1861. 1887. 1885. 1887. 1904. 1885. 1870. 1904. 1891. 1878. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. *Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway House, Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds. *Barton, Edwin H., D.Sc., F.R.S. E., Professor of Experimental Physics in University "College, Nottingham. *Bartrum, C. O., B.Sc. 12 Heath-mansions, Heath-street, Hamp- stead, NW. *Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle. *Basspt, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berk- shire. {Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff. *Bassert, HENRY. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N. {BastasBue, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1894). 6 Tre- velyan-terrace, Rathgar, Co. Dublin. tBastran, H. Cuaron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Emeritus Pro- fessor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College, London. 8a Manchester-square, W. {Bateman, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G. Woodhouse, Wimbledon Park, S.W. §Bateman, Harry. ‘Trinity College, Cambridge. {Barrson, Writi1aM, M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1904). St. John’s College, Cambridge. *Batoer, Francis ArtHur, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. British Museum (Natural History), S.W. §Batty, Mrs. Braithwaite. Ye Gabled House, The Parks, Oxford. §BauERMAN, H., F.G.8. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, 8.W. {Baugh, J. H. Agar. 92 Hatton-garden, H.C. {Baxter, W. Duncan. P.O. Box 103, Cape Town. *Baynues, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. *Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford. *Bazley, Gardner $8. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire. *Bazley, Miss J. M. A. Kilmorie, Ilsham-drive, Torquay, Devon. Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Kilmorie, Isham- drive, Torquay, Devon. §BEarE, Professor T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Edinburgh. §Beare, Mrs. T. Hudson. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh. §Beasley, H. C. 25a Prince Alfred-road, Wavertree, Liverpool. tBeattie, Professor J. C., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South African College, Cape Town. {Beatty, H. M., LL.D. Ballymena, Co. Antrim. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.AS., E.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., FSS. 18 Pic- eadilly, W. {Beaumont, Thaags Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. The University, Leeds. *Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington. *Beaumont, W. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth. *Braumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E. Outer Temple, 222 Strand, W.C. *BECKETT, JOHN HamppEN. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire. §Beckit, H. 0. The Schoolhouse, Whitchurch, Salop. {BepparD, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Prosector ‘to the Zoological Society of London, Regent’ 8 Park, N.W. {Breppor, Jonn, M.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1870-75). The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon. *Bedford, T. G., M.A. 9 Victoria-street, Cambridge. {Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare. {Bzepson, P. Putiires, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1889), Professor of Sater in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon- 'yne. LIST OF MEMBERS : 1907, 11 Year of Election. 1901. *Berpy, G. T., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1905.) 11 University-gardens, Glasgow. 1905. {Beilby, Hubert. 11 University-gardens, Glasgow. 1891. *Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist. Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W. 1894. 1900. 1875. 1871. 1883. 1905. 1888. 1904. 1905. 1883. 1901. 1905. 1905. 1903. 1901. 1887. 1898. 1904. 1905. 1905. 1896. 1894. 1905. 1906. 1898. 1894. 1904. 1905. 1862. 1880. 1904. 1906. 1884. 1903. 1888. 1885. 1904. 1882. 1898. 1901. 1887. 1884. {Betz, F. Jerrrzy, M.A., F.Z.S. British Museum, S.W. Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex. *Bell, H. Wilkinson. Holmehurst, Rawdon, near Leeds. {Buztt, Jamus, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 52 Cromwell-road, Hove, Brighton. *Bu wz, J. Canter, F.C.S. The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Manchester. *Bell, John Henry. 102 Leyland-road, Southport. {Bell, W. H.S. P.O. Box 4284, Johannesburg. *Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge. {Bellars, A. E. Magdalene College, Cambridge. {Bender, Rev. A. P., M.A. Synagogue House, Cape Town. *Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon. {Bennett, Professor Peter. 6 Kelvinhaugh-street, Sandyford, Glasgow. §Benson, Arthur H., M.A., F.R.C.S. 42 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. §Benson, Mrs. A. H. 42 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. §Benson, D. E. Queenwood, 12 Irton-road, Southport. *Benson, Miss Margaret J., D.Sc. Royal Holloway College, Egham. *Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Johannesburg Consolidated Invest- ment Co., P.O. Box 599, Johannesburg, Transvaal. *Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W. tBentley, B. H. The University, Sheffield. §Bentley, F. W. Rein Wood, Huddersfield. *Bentley, W. C. Rein Wood, Huddersfield. *Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Cork. §BERKELEY, The Earl of, F.G.S. Foxcombe, Boarshill, near Abingdon. *Bernacchi, L. C., F.R.G.S. Pound Farm, Surbiton, Surrey. *Bernays, Albert Evan. 3 Priory-road, Kew, Surrey. §Berridge, Miss C. E. 7 Albert-mansions, Lansdowne-road, Croydon. §Brerrings, Doveras, M.A., F.C.8. The College, Malvern. §Berry, R. A. West of Scotland Agricultural College, 6 Blyths- wood-square, Glasgow. §Bertrand, Captain Alfred. Champel, Geneva. {Brsant, WittiaM Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. *Brvan, Rev. JAMes Otiver, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. Chillenden Rectory, Dover. *Bevan, P. V., M.A. Garden-walk, Chesterton, Cambridge. §Bevan-Lewis, W., M.D. West Riding Asylum, Wakefield. *Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich. {Bickerdike, C. F. 1 Boverney-road, Honor Oak-park, S.E. *Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W. *BIDWELL, SHELFORD, Sec.D., LL.B., F.R.S. Beechmead, Oatland: Chase, Weybridge. §Bigg-Wither, Colonel A. C. Tilthams, Godalming, Surrey. §Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion-hill, S.E. {Billington, Charles. Heimath, Longport, Staffordshire. *Bilsland, William, J.P. 28 Park-circus, Glasgow. *Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Buxton. *Bingham, Colonel Sir John E., Bart. West Lea, Ranmoor, Shef- field. 12 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1881. 1887. 1904. 1906. 1894. 1886. 1905. 1881. 1901. 1903. 1902. 1894. 1900. 1905. 1904. 1884. 1887. 1887. 1884, 1902. 1888. 1885. 1901. 1887. 1900. 1887. 1898. 1894. 1898. 1871. 1888. 1893. 1890. 1883. 1908. 1876. 1883. 1901. 1882. 1901. 1876. 1903. {Boynig, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1900.) 77 Ladbroke-grove, W. *Birley, H. K.. Penrhyn, Ivlams o’ th’ Height, Manchester. §Bishop, A. W. Edwinstowe, Chaucer-road, Cambridge. §Bishop, J. L. Inland Revenue Office, York. {Bisset, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Greenhill-park, Edinburgh. *Bixby, Colonel W.H. Room 501, Federal-building, Chicoats U.S.A. tBlack, Alexander. 43 Castle-street, Cape Town. {Black, Surgeon-Major William Galt, FRCS. higco United Service Club, Edinburgh. §Black, W. P. M. 136 Wellington-street, Glasgow. *BLacKMAN, F.F.,M.A.,D.Sc.,F.R.S. St. John’ s College, Cambridge. {Blake, Robert F, HE C. 66 Malone-avenue, Belfast. tBlakiston, Rev. C.D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter. *Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield. {Blamires, Mrs. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield. {Blanc, Dr. Gian Alberto. Istituto Fisico, Rome. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading. *Bles, A. J. 8. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man- chester. *Bles, Edward J., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow. *Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A. tBlount, Bertram, F.I.C. 76 & 78 York-street, Westminster, S.W. {Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall Green, Manchester. Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh. {Bryru, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Anderson’s College, Glasgow. §BLiyruswoop, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Blythswood, Renfrew. - *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester. tBoprivneron, Principal N., Litt.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam. §Botron, H., F.R.S.E. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol. §Bouron, Joun. 15 Cranley- eg Highgate, N. *Bonar, JAMES, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1898 ; Council, 1899-1905.) The Mint, Ottawa, Canada. *BoNNEY, Rev. Tuomas GrorcE, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. (Secrerary, 1881-85; Pres. C, 1886.) 9 Scroope- terrace, Cambridge. {Boon, William. Coventry. {Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham. *Boorn, Right Hon. Carus, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.8. 24 Great Cumberland-place, W. {Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton. §Booth, Robert, J.P. Bartra Hall, Dalkey, Co. Dublin. tBooth, Rev. William H. St. Paul’s Rectory, Old Charlton, Kent. tBoothroyd, Benjamin. Weston-super-Mare. *Boothroyd, Herbert E., M.A., B.Sc. Sidney Sussex College, Cam- bridge. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 5 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick, W. {Borradaile, L. A., M. A. Selwyn College, Cambridge. *Bosanquet, R. HH. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Castillo Zamora, Realejo-Alto, Teneriffo. } §Bosanquet, Robert C., M.A., Professor of Classical Arches olog in the University of Liverpool. Institute of Archeology, 40 Bedford-street, Liverpool. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 15 ae of Hw Lection. 1896. {Bose, Professor J. C., C.I.E., M.A., D.Se. Calcutta, India. 1881. §Bormamiry, Cnarztes H., F.I.C., F.C.S., Director of Technical Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. 'Tangle- wood, Southside, Weston-super-Mare. 1872. {Bottle, Alexander. 4 Godwyne-road, Dover. 1871. *Borromtry, James Toomson, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow. 1884. *Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow. 1892. {Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany in King’s College, W.C. 1905. §Boutenenr, G. A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1905.) 8 Courtfield-road, S.W. 1905. §Boulenger, Mrs. 8 Courtfield-road, S.W. ‘ 1903. §Boulton, W. S., B.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, Cardiff. 26 Arches-road, Penarth. 1883. {Bourne, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the 1893. 1904. 1902. 1884. 1881. 1898. 1856. 1898. 1880. 1887. 1899. 1899. 1887. 1895. 1901. 1884. 1892. 1905. 1872. Presidency College, Madras. *Bournes, G. C., M.A., D.Se., F.L.S. (Council, 1903-— _; Local Sec., 1894), Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford. Savile House, Mansfield-road, Oxford. *Bousfield, E. G. P. Hungate Mills, York. {Bousfield, Sir William. 20 Hyde-park-gate, W. tBovny, Henry T., M.A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-avenue, Montreal, Canada. *Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E, F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1898 ; Council, 1900-06), Regius Professor of Botany in the Univer- sity of Glasgow. *Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Seal, Sevenoaks. *Bowlby, Miss F. EZ. 4 South Bailey, Durham. §Bowtzy, A. L., M.A. (Pres. F, 1906 ; Council, 1906- .) North- court-avenue, Reading. tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester. *Bowman, Herbert Lister, M.A., F.G.S. Greenham Common, New- bury. Sinan John Herbert. Greenham Common, Newbury. §Box, Alfred Marshall. Care of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Bank, Huddersfield. *Boycgr, Sir Rupert, M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the University of Liverpool. {Boyd, David T. Rhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark. *Boyle, R. Vicars, C.8.I. 3 Stanhope-terrace, Hyde Park, W. §Boys, CHARLES VERNON, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1903 ; Council, 1893-99, 1905- .) 27 The Grove, Boltons, S.W. §Boys, Mrs. C. Vernon. 27 The Grove, Boltons, S.W. *BRABROOK, Sir Epwarp, C.B., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1898; Pres. F, 1903 ; Council, 1903— .) 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, S.W. . *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex. . *Braby, Ivon. Helena, Alan-road, Wimbledon, 8.W. . {Bradford, Wager. P.O. Box 5, Johannesburg. . §Bradley, F. L. Ingleside, Malvern Wells. . *Bradley, Gustav. Town Hall, Leigh, Lancashire. . *Bradley, J. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Westminster City Hall, Charing Cross-road, W.C.* . *Bradley, O. Charnock, D.Sc.,° M.D., F.R.S.E.Z Royal Veterinary College, Edinburgh. . {Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham, 14 BRITISH. ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1863. {Brapy, Gzorer §., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland. 1880. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, §.0., Essex. 1888. §Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath. 1905. §Brakhan, A. P.O. Box 4249, Johannesburg. 1906. §Branfield, Wilfred. 5 Victoria-villas, Upperthorpe, Sheffield. 1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Lancaster Park, Harrogate. 1905 §Brausewetter, Miss. Roedean School, near Brighton. 1905. {Bremner, R. 8. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool. 1905. {Bremner, Stanley. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool. 1902. *Brereton, Cloudesley. Briningham House, Briningham, S%.O., Norfolk. 1898. §Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W. 1882. {Bretherton, C. E. 26 Palace-mansions, Addison Bridge, W. 1905. §Brewis, E. 27 Winchelsea-road, Tottenham, N. 1907. *Bridge, Henry Hamilton. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, S.W. 1886. §Bripan, T. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the University of Birmingham. 1870. *Bricc, Joan, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire. 1906. §Briggs, John, M.A., F.Z.S. 32 Red Lion-square, W.C. 1904. *Briggs, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Burlington House, Cam- bridge. 1905. {Brill, J., Litt.D. Grey College, Bloemfontein, South Africa. 1893. tBriscoe, Albert E., B.Sc., A.R.C.Sc. The Hoppet, Little Baddow, Chelmsford. 1904. {Briscoe, J. J. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridge. 1905. §Briscoe, Miss. Bourn Hall, Bourn, near Cambridge. 1898. {Bristot, The Right Rev. G. F. Browne, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol. 1879. *Brrrratn, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield. 1906. §Broad, John M. The Elms, 2 Nicoll-road, Harlesden, N.W. 1905. *Broadwood, Brigadier-General R. G. The Deodars, Bloemfontein, South Africa. 1905. §Brock, Dr. B. G. P.O. Box 216, Germiston, Transvaal. 1907. §Brockington, W. A., M.A. Leicestershire County Council, 38 Bowl- ing Green-street, Leicester. 1896. *Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool. 1883. *Brodie, David, M.D. Slingsby Villa, Regent’s Park-road, N. 1901. {Brodie, T. G., M.D., F.R.S. 4 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W 1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. 5 Devonshire-place, Eastbourne. 1905. tBrodigan, C. B. Brakpan Mines, Johannesburg. 1903. {Broprick, Harotp, M.A. (Local Sec., 1903.) 7 Aughton-road, Birkdale, Southport. 1904. {Bromwich, T. J. ’A., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College, Galway. 1906. {Brook, Stanley. 18 St. George’s-place, York. 1905. *Brooke, Geoffrey. Christ Church Vicarage, Mirfield, 8.O., York- shire. 1906. §Brooks, F. T. Caius College, Cambridge. 1883. *Brotherton, E. A., M.P. Arthington Hall, Wharfedale, via Leeds. 1901. §Brough, Bennett H., F.1.C., F.G.S. 28 Victoria-street, 8. W. 1883. *Brough, Mrs. Charles §. 4 Hastern Villas-road, Southsea. 1886. tBrough, Joseph, LLD., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in Uni- versity College, Aberystwyth. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 1: Loy | Election. 1905. 1863. 1883. 1905. 1903. 1870. 1870. 1905. 1876. 1881. 1895. 1905. 1905. 1882. 1898. 1886. 1905. 1901. 1906. 1900. 1895. 1879. 1905. 1891. 1862. 1883. 1905. 1905. 1893. 1902. 1900. 1896. 1868. 1905. 1897. 1886. 1894. 1884. 1901. 1902, {Brown, A. R. Trinity College, Cambridge. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.RS.E., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1874; Local Sec. 1871), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave- crescent, Edinburgh. {Brown, Mrs. Ellen I°. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liver- ool. eBiovie: Professor Ernest William, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Yale Uni- versity, New Haven, Conn., U.S.A. tBrown, F. W. 6 Rawlinson-road. Southport. §Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. B, 1899 ; Council, 1904- .) 52 Nevern-square, S.W. *Brown, J. CAMPBELL, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Liverpool. tBrown, J. Ellis. Durban, Natal. §Brown, Joun, F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1902.) Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast. *Brown, John, M.D. 2 Glebe-terrace, Rondebosch, Cape Colony. *Brown, John Charles, 39 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Notting- ham. {Brown, John 8. Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast. {Brown, L. Clifford. Beyer’s Kloof, Klapmuts, Cape Colony. *Brown, Mrs. Mary. 2 Glebe-terrace, Rondebosch, Cape Colony. §Brown, Nicol, F.G.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N. tBrown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth. tBrown, R. C. Strathyre, Troyville, Transvaal. {Brown, R. N. R., B.Sc. University College, Dundee. §Browne, Charles E., B.Sc. Christ’s Hospital, West Horsham. *Browne, Frank Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S. Larne Harbour, near Belfast. *Browne, H. T. Doughty. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W. {Browng, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Car- lisle-place-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W. *Browne, James Stark, F.R.A.S. The Red House, Mount-avenue, Ealing, {Browne, Monracu, F.G.S. Corporation Museum, Leicester. *Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne’s-hill, Carlow, Ireland. {Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge. §Bruce, Colonel Davin, C.B., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1905.) War Office, 68 Victoria-street, S.W. {Bruce, Mrs. 3p Artillery-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W. tBruce, William 8. 11 Mount Pleasant, Joppa, Edinburgh. {Bruce-Kingsmill, Major J., R.A. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. *Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor-road, Birkdale, Southport. *Brunner, Right Hon. Sir J. T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Waver- tree, Liverpool. {Brounton, Sir T. Laupzr, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place, Cavendish-square, W. {Brunton, Lady. 10 Stratford-place, Cavendish-square, W. *Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A. *Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in University College, Bangor. : {Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor. *Bryce, Rev. Professor Groner, DD., LL.D. Kilmadock, Winni- peg, Canada. {tBryce, Thomas H. 2 Granby-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. *Bubb, Miss E. Maude. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham. L6 Year of Election 1890. 1902. 1905. 1881. 1871. 1886. 1884. 1904. 1893.. 1903. 1905. 1905. 1886. 1907. 1881. 1905. 1894. 1884. 1905. 1904. 1883. 1885. 1905. 1866. 1892. 1904. 1906. 1887. 1899. 1895. 1906. 1884. 1884. 1905. 1905. 1887. 1899. 1861. 1905. 1901. 1907. 1897. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. §Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham. *Buchanan, Miss Florence, D.Sc. University Museum, Oxford. §Buchanan, Right Hon. Sir John. Clareinch, Claremont, Cape Town. *Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk. t+Bucnanan, Joun Youne, M.A., F.RS., F.RS.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.S. Christ’s College, Cambridge. *Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, W.C. *Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road, Mill Hill Park, W. §Buckwell, J. C. North Gate House, Pavilion, Brighton. §Butierp, ArrHur, F.8.A. The Old Vicarage, Midsomer Norton, Bath. *Bullen, Rev. RB. Ashington, F.L.S., F.G.S. Englemoor, Heathside- road, Woking, Surrey. tBurbury, Mrs. A. A. 17 Upper Phillimore-gardens, W. {Burbury, Miss A.D. 17 Upper Phillimore-gardens, W. §Bursury, S. H., M.A., F.R.S. _1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. §Burch, George J., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S. Norham Hall, Oxford. {Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Picca- dilly, W. {Burdon, E. R., M.A. Tkenhilde, Royston, Herts. {BurkE, JoHN B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge. *Burland, Lieut.-Colonel Jeffrey H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal, Canada. {Burmeister, H. A. P. 78 Hout-street, Cape Town. +Burn, R. H. 21 Stanley-crescent, Notting-hill, W. *Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.LE., K.C.S.1., F.R.G.S. 132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W. *Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. Migvie House, North Silver-street, Aberdeen. {Burroughes, James S., F.R.G.S. The Homestead, Seaford, Sussex. *Burron, Freperick M., F.LS., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 11 Union-crescent, Margate. +Burtt, Arthur H., D.Sc. 4 South View, Holgate, York. §Burtt, Philip. Swarthmore, St. George’s-place, York. *Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey. §Bush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham. {Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, 8. W. §Bushell, H. A. Melton House, Holgate Hill, York. *Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland- road, Ealing, W. *Butterworth, W. Verona, 10 Derbe-road, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, Lancashire. {Buxton, Miss F. M. 42 Grosvenor-gardens, S.W. §Buxton, F. W. 42 Grosvenor-gardens, S.W. *Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe. {Byles, Arthur R. ‘ Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire. *Caird, James Key, LL.D. 8 Roseangle, Dundee. {Calderwood, J. M. P.O. Box 2295, Johannesburg. {Caldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Monmouthshire. §Caldwell, K. 8. St. Bartholomew's Hospital, S.E. §CatLeNDAR, Huen L., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1900-06), Professor of Physics in the Royal College of Science, S.W. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 17 Year of Election. 1857. {CamERon, Sir CuaRuus A., C.B., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin. 1896. §Cameron, Irving H. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada. 1901. {Campbell, Archibald. Park Lodge, Albert-drive, Pollokshields, Glasgow. 1897. {Campbell, Colonel J. C. L. Achalader, Blairgowrie, N.B. 1902. {Campbell, Robert. 21 Great Victoria-street, Belfast. 1890. {Cannan, Epwin, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1902.) 46 Wel- lington-square, Oxford. 1905. {Cannan, Gilbert. King’s College, Cambridge. 1897. §Cannon, Herbert. Woodbank, Erith, Kent. 1904. {Capell, Rev. G. M. Passenham Rectory, Stony Stratford. 1905. *Caporn, Dr. A. W. Roeland-street Baths, Cape Town. 1894. {Caprmr, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s College, W.C. 1896. *Carden, H. Vandeleur. Fassaroe, Walmer. 1902. {Carpenter, G. H., B.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 1906. *Carpenter, H. C. H. 11 Oak-road, Withington, Manchester. 1905. §Carpmael, Edward, F.R.A.S., MInst.c.B. 24 Southampton- buildings, Chancery-lane, W.C. 1893. {Carr, J. Wustey, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in University College, Nottingham. 1906. *Carr, Richard E., British Vice-Consul, Cordoba, Spain. 1889. {Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick. 1905. tCarrick, Dr. P.O. Box 646, Johannesburg. 1867. {CarruTHeRs, Wiiuam, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1886.) 14 Vermont-road, Norwood, S.E. 1886. {Carstaxe, J. Barnam (Local Sec. 1886). 30 Westfield-road, Birmingham. 1899. {Carslaw, H. S., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. 1903. *Cart, Rev. Henry. 49 Albert-court, Kensington Gore, 8.W. 1868. *Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S., F.L.C. 180 New Bond-street, W. 1900. *Carter, Rev. W. Lower, M.A., F.G.S. Belfield, Oxton, Birkenhead. 1896. {Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street-chambers, Bryanston- square, W. 1878. *Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. Myskyns, Ticehurst, Sussex. 1870. §Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I. 21 Parsons-lane, Bury, Lancashire. 1862. {Carulla, F. J. R. 84 Rosehill-street, Derby. 1894. {Carus, Dr. Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A. 1884. *Carver, Rev. Canon Alfred J., D.D., F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, §.W. 1884. {Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, S.W. 1901. {Carver, Thomas A. B., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 118 Napiershall- street, Glasgow. 1899. *Case, J. Monckton. Town Office, Uitenhage, Cape Colony. 1897. *Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A. 1873 *Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax. 1904 {Caspair, W. A. National Physical Laboratory, Bushy House, Teddington, Middlesex. 1900. *Cassie, W., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Holloway College. Brantwood, Englefield Green. 1886. *Cave-Moyle, Mrs. Isabella. St. Paul’s Vicarage, Cheltenhaai, Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough. 1905. *Challenor, Bromley. The Firs, Abingdon. 1905. *Challenor, Miss K. M. The Firs, Abingdon. 1907. B 18 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1905. 1901. 1905. 1881. 1908. 1907. 1902. 1899. 1905. 19038. 1904, 1884. 1886. 1867. 1904. 1900. 1874. 1879. 1883. 1884. 1894. 1899. 1899. 1899. 1904. 1882. 1893, 1900. 1875. 1876. 1905. 1870. 1898. 1903. 1901. 1905. 1907. 1877. 1902. 1881. 1901. {Chamberlain, Miss H. H. Ingleneuk, Upper St. John’s-road, Sea Point, Cape Colony. §Chamen, W. A. South Wales Electrical Power Distribution Company, Royal-chambers, Queen-street, Cardiff. {Champion, G. A. Haraldene, Chelmsford-road, Durban, Natal. *Champney, John E. 27 Hans-place, 8.W. §Chance, Sir Arthur, M.D. 90 Merrion-square, Dublin. *Chapman, Alfred Chaston, F.I.C. 8 Duke-street, Aldgate, E.C. §Chapman, D. L. 10 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester. §Chapman, Professor Sydney John, M.A. Burnage Lodge, Levens- hulme, Manchester. {Chassigneux, E. 12 Tavistock-road, Westbourne-park, W. {Chaster, G. W. 42 Talbot-street, Southport. *Chattaway, F. D., M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Longfield, Kenton- road, Harrow. *CHATTERTON, GEORGE, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 The Sanctuary, Westminster, S.W. *Coarrock, A. P., M.A., Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Hawksmoor, Windermere. *Chaundy, Theodore William. 49 Broad-street, Oxford. §Cheesman, W. Norwood, J.P., F.L.S. The Crescent, Selby. *Chermside, Major-General Sir H. C., R.E., G.C.M.G., C.B. New- stead Abbey, Nottingham. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield. tChinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington. {Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada. {Cmsuotm, G. G., M.A. B.Sc, F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1907.) 59 Drakefield-road, Upper Tooting, 8.W. §Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover. {Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover. §Chitty, G. W. Brockhill Park, Hythe, Kent. {Chivers, John, J.P. Histon, Cambridgeshire. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex. *CHREE, CHaRLes, D.Sc., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey. *Christie, y J. Duke-street, Toronto, Canada. *Christopher, George. F.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting- common, S.W. *CurysTaL, GeorGH, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.H. (Pres. A, 1885.) Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh, 5 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburga. {Chudleigh, C. P.O. Box 743, Johannesburg. §Cuurca, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the {Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew. §Caurce, Colonel G. Earn, F.R.G.S. (Pres. HE, 1898.) 216 Crom- well-road, S.W. §Clapham, J. H., M.A., Professor of Economics in the University vf Leeds. §Clark, Archibald B., M.A. 16 Comely Bank-street, Edinburgh. *Clark, Cumberland, F.R.G.S. 29 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W. *Clark, Mrs. Cumberland. 29 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset. tClark, G. M. South African Museum, Cape Town. *Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. Asgarth, Riddlesdown-road, Purley, Surrey. *Clark, Robert M., B.Sc., F.L.S8. 27 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. LIST OF MEMBERS; 1907. 19 Year of Hlection, 1887. (Clarke, C. Goddard, J.P. South Lodge, Champion Hill, 8.E. 1907. *Clarke, E. Russell. 11 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C. 1875. {CrarKe, Joun Henry. (Local Sec. 1875.) 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 1902. §Clarke, ue Lilian J., B.Sc., F.L.8S. 43 Glasslyn-road, Crouch End, N. 1905. {Clarke, Rev. W. E. C., M.A. P.O. Box 1144, Pretoria. 1889. *CLaypeEn, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. 5 The Crescent, Mount Radford, wa] 4, 44 Exeter. 1890. *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds. 1861. {CLeLanD, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow. 1905. §Cleland, Mrs. 2 The University, Glasgow. 1905. §Cleland, J. R. 2 The University, Glasgow. 1902. {Clements, Olaf P. Tana, St. Bernard’s-road, Olton, Warwick. 1904. §Clerk, Dugald, M.Inst.C.E. 18 Southampton-buildings, W.C. 1861. *Crirton, R. Bexuamy, M.A., F.B.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi- mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell- road, Banbury-road, Oxford. 1906. §Close, Major C. F., R.E., C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 1883. *CLtowszs, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1893.) The Grange, College-road, Dulwich, 8.E. 1891. *Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth. 1903. *Coates, W. M. Queens’ College, Cambridge. 1884. §Cobb, John. Fitzherries, Abingdon. 1895. *Cospoxp, Fert T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk. 1864. *Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham. 1908. §Cochrane, Robert, 1.8.0., LL.D., F.S.A. 17 Highfield-road, Dublin. 1901. {Cockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone-road, Upper Norwood, 8.E. 1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport. 1861. *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road, Bournemouth. 1908. §Coffey Denis J..M.B. 2 Arkendale-road, Glenageary, Co. Dublin. 1898. {Coffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin. 1881. *Corrin, WALTER Harris, F.C.S. Passaic, Kew. 1896. *Coghill, Percy de G. 4 Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 1884. *Cohen, Sir Benjamin L., Bart. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, W. 1901. §Cohen, N. L. 11 Hyde Park-terrace, W. 1901. *Cohen, R. Waley, B.A. 11 Sussex-square, W. 1906. *Coker, Professor Ernest George, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. City and Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C. 1895. *Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire. 1895. *Colby, William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth. 1893. §Cole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 1903. {Cole, Otto B. 551 Boylston-street, Boston, U.S.A. 1897. §Conuman, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada. 1899. §Coleman, William, F.R.A.S. The Shrubbery, Buckland, Dover. 1899. {Collard, George. The Gables, Canterbury. 1892. {Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N. 1887. {Contre, J. Norman, Ph.D., E.B.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry in the University of London. 16 Campden-grove, W. 1893. {Collinge, Walter E. The University, Birmingham. 1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 trene-road, Parson’s Greea,S.W. B 2 20 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Election. 1876. 1865. 1905. 1902. 1907. 1905. 1871. 1902. 1903. 1898. 1876. 1888. 1899. 1902. 1903. 1901. 1907. 1878. 1904. 1904. 1905. 1901. 1887. 1894. 1883. 1901. 1893. 1889. 1905. 1884. 1888. 1909. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1874. 1905. 1904. 1896. 1905. 1872. 1903. 1900. 1905. 1895. {Cotuins, J. H., F.G.8. Crinnis House, Par Station, Cornwall. *Collins, James Tertius. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. {Collins, Rev. Spencer. The Rectory, Victoria West, Cape Colony. {Collins, T. R. Belfast Royal Academy, Belfast. §CoLson, ALFRED, M.Inst.C.E. (Local Sec. 1907.) Millstone-lane, Leicester. *Combs, Rev. Cyril W., M.A. Elverton, Castle-road, Newport, Isle of Wight. *Connor, Charles C. 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast. tConway, A. W. 100 Leinster-road, Rathmines, Dublin. {Conway, R. Seymour, Litt.D., Professor of Latin in Owens College, Manchester. §Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol. *CooKE, ConRAD W. 28 Victoria-street, S.W. {Cooley, George Parkin. Constitutional Club, Nottingham. *Coomaraswamy, A. K., D.Sc., F.L.8., F.G.S. Broad Campden, Gloucestershire. *Coomaraswamy, Mrs. A. K. Broad Campden, Gloucestershire. §Cooper, Miss A. J. 22 St. John-street, Oxford. *Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. §Cooper, William. Education Offices, Becket-street, Derby. tCope, Rev. S. W. Bramley, Leeds. *CoprmMan, S. Monckton, M.D., F.R.S. Local Government Board, Whitehall, 8. W. *Copland, Miss Louisa. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, W. Corben, J. H. Education Department, Klerksdorp, Transvaal. tCorbett, A. Cameron, M.P. Thornliebank House, Glasgow. *Corcoran, Bryan. Fairlight, 22 Oliver-grove, South Norwood, S.E. §Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton, Surrey. *Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Groombridge House, Withington, Manchester. | *Cormack, Professor J. D.,B.Sc. University College, Gower-street, W.C. *Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. Abbotsford House, Waverley- street, Nottingham. {Cornisu, VauGHan, D.Sc., F.R.G.S. 31 Kensington Gardens- square, W. {Cornish-Bowden, A. H. Surveyor-General’s Office, Cape Town. *Cornwallis, F.S. W., M.P., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone. tCorser, Rev. Richard K. 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon. §Cortie, Rev. A. L., S.J., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn. tCory, Professor G. E., M.A. Rhodes University College, Grahams Town, Cape Colony. tCotsworth, Moses B. Acomb, York. §Cotter, J. R. 21 Mayfield-road, Terenure Park, Dublin. *Correritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Braeside, Speldhurst, Kent {Cottrill, G. St. John, P.O. Box 4829, Johannesburg. {Coulter, G. G. 28 Pall Mall, S.W. tCourtNey, Right Hon. Lord (Pres. F, 1896). 15 Cheyne-walk, Chelsea, 8. W. {Cousens, R. L. P.O. Box 4261, Johannesburg. *Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.8. Upcott House, Taunton, Somersetshire. {Coward, H. Knowle Board School, Bristol. §Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Leigh, Lancashire. {Cowell, John Ray. P.O. Box 2141, Johannesburg. *CoweEwL, Pare H., M.A., F.R.S. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and 74 Vanbrugh-park, Blackheath, S.E. ee Year of lection 1899. 1867. 1906. 1905. 1902. 1884. 1906. 1906. 1905. 1906. 1887. 1905. 1905. 1871. 1905. 1871. 1846. 1890. 1883. 1870. 1885. 1876. 1887. 1904. 1880. 1905. 1890. 1878. 1885. 1903. 1901. 1887. 1898. 1865. 1879. 1897. 1905. 1894. 1870. 1904. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 21 {Cowper-Coles, Sherard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W. *Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B. §Cox, S. Herbert, Professor of Mining in the Royal College of Science, S.W. tCox, W. H. Royal Observatory, Cape Town. tCraig, H.C. Strandtown, Belfast. §Crarare, Major P. G., C.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1900.) West Weillow, Romsey, Hampshire. tCraik, Sir Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., M.P. 5a Dean’s-yard, West- minster, S.W. §Cramp, William. Redthorn, Whalley-road, Manchester. *Cranswick, Wm. Franceys. 34 Boshof-road, Kimberley. tCraven, Henry. (Local Sec. 1906.) Clifton Green, York. *Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes-park, Ashton-upon-Mersey. {Crawford, Mrs. A. M. Marchmont, Rosebank, near Cape Town. tCrawford, Professor Lawrence, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. South African College, Cape Town. *Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Coling- ton-road, Edinburgh. tCrawford, W. C., jun. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colington-road, Edinburgh. *CRAWFORD AND BaucaRREs, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 2 Cavendish-square, W.; and Haigh Hall, Wigan. *Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough. §Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury. *Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham-park, Reading. §Creak, Captain E. W., C.B., R.N., F.R.S. (Pres. E., 1903 ; Council, 1896-1903.) 9 Hervey-road, Blackheath, 8.E. *Crewdson, Rev. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere. *Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester. tCrilly, David. 7 Well-street, Paisley. *Crisp, Sir Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S., F.G.S. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, W. §Croft, Miss Mary. 17 Pelham-crescent, 8.W. *Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire. *Croke, John O'Byrne, M.A. Clouncagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, Co. Limerick. tCromprg, J. W., M.A., M.P. (Local Sec. 1885.) Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen. *Crompton, Holland. Binfield, Northwood, Middlesex. tCromrron, Colonel R. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1901.) Kensington-court, W. {Croox, Henry T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Albert-square, Manchester. §Crooke, William. Langton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham. §CrooxEs, Sir Witt1AM, D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (PRESIDENT, 1898 ; Pres. B, 1886; Council 1885-91.) 7 Kensington Park- gardens, W. tCrookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W. *CROOKSHANK, E. M., MB. Ashdown Forest, Forest Row, Sussex. {Crosfield, Hugh T. Walden, Coombe-road, Croydon. *Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate. *CROSFIELD, WILLIAM. 3 Fulwood-park, Liverpool. §Cross, Professor Charles R. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, U.S.A. 22 Year of Election 1890. 1905. 1904, 1887. 1894. 1897. 1882. 1890. 1883. 1883. 1898. 1861. 1861. 1905. 1882. 1905. 1877. 1885. 1869. 1883. 1892. 1900. 1892. 1905. 1905. 1902. 1883. 1881. 1907. 1905. 1905. 1898. 1889. 1906. 1907. 1870. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent, Scarborough. §Cross, Robert. 13 Moray-place, Edinburgh. *Crosstey, A. W., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 10 Crediton- road, West Hampstead, N.W. *Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sid- cup, Kent. *Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent. §Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire. *Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. 116 Manningham-lane, Bradford. *CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A., Professor of Education in Trinity College, Dublin. t{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol. {tCundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh. *Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Manchester. *Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester. §Cunningham, Miss A. 2 St. Paul’s-road, Cambridge. *CUNNINGHAM, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.I.C.E. 20 Essex- villas, Kensington, W. tCunningham, Andrew. Larlsferry, Campground-road, Mowbray, South Africa. *CunnincHaM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1901 ; Council, 1902- ), Professor of Anatomy in the Univer- sity of Edinburgh. tCunninenam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth. tCunnrncHam, Rosert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast. *CunnincHaM, Rev. W., D.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1891, 1905.) Trinity College, Cambridge. {tCunningham-Craig, E. H., B.A., F.G.S. 14a Dublin-street, Edinburgh. *Cunnington, William A., B.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S. 13 The Chase, Clapham Common, 8.W. *Currie, James, M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Wardie-road, Edin- burgh. §Currie, Dr. O. J. 24 Longmarket-street, Pietermaritzburg, Natal. tCurrie, W. P. P.O.Box 2010, Johannesburg. {Curry, Professor M., M.Inst.C.E. 5 King’s-gardens, Hove. {Cushing, Mrs. M. Allee-strasse 161, Hanover, Germany. §Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. Allee-strasse 161, Hanover, Germany. §Cushny, Arthur R., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pharmacology in University College, Gower-street, W.C. {Cuthbert, W. M. The Red House, Kenilworth, Cape Colony. {Cuthbert, Mrs. W. M. The Red House, Kenilworth, Cape Colony. §Dalby, W. E., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Exhibition-road, S.W. *Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Garth Cottage, Oxford-road, Cambridge. §Dale, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. The Lawn, Archer’s-road, South- ampton. §DateuiEsH, RicHarD, J.P., D.L. Ashfordby Place, near Melton Mowbray. {Datiincrr, Rev. W. H., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, Newstead-road, Lee, S.E. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 23 Year of Blection. 1904, 1862. 1905. 1901. 1896. 1849. 1897. 1903. 1861. 1904. 1899. 1882. 1881. 1905. 1878. 1894. 1880. 1898. 1884. 1904. 1902. 1887. 1904. 1906. 1893. 1896. 1870. 1873. 1905. 1896. 1905. 1885. 1905. 1905. 1860. 1864. 1885. 1901, *Daxron, J. H. C., M.D. The Plot, Adams-road, Cambridge. {Dansy, T. W., M. A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex, §Daniel, Miss M M. 3 St. John’s-terrace, Weston- -super-Mare. {Daniell, G. F., B.Sc. Woodberry, Oakleigh Park, N. §Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool. *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada. §Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D. South-Eastern Agricultura College, Wye, Kent. §Darbishire, Dr. Otto V. The University, Manchester. *DARBISHIRE, Ropert DuKinrretp, B.A. (Local Sec. 1861.) Victoria Park, Manchester. *Darwin, Charles Galton. Newnham Grange, Cambridge. *Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge. {Darwriy, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.RB.S., F.L.S. (PRESIDENT-ELECT ; Pres. D, 1891 ; Pres. K, 1904 ; Council, 1882-84, 1897-1901.) 13 Madingley- “road, Cambridge. *Darwin, Sir Georce Howarp, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (PRESIDENT, 1905 ; Pres. ’A, 1886 ; Council, 1886- 1892), .Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge. tDarwin, Lady. Newnham Grange, Cambridge. *Darwin, Horace, M.A., F.R.S. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge. *Darwin, Major Lronarp, Hon. Sec. R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1896 ; Council, 1899-1905.) 12 Egerton- place, South Kensington, S.W. *Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Parliament-chambers, Great Smith- street, Westminster, S.W. {tDavey, William John. 6 Water- street, Liverpool. {David, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C. §Davidge, H. T., B. Sc., Professor of Electricity in the Ordnance College, Woolwich. *Davidson, 8. C. Seacourt, Bangor, Co. Down. *Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales. §Davies, Henry N., F.G.S. St. Chad’s, Weston-super-Mare. tDavies, 8. H. White Cross Lodge, York. *Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Lan- guages in University College, Bangor, North Wales. *Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff. *Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds. ; *Davis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke-grove, W. at pal tDavis, C.R. 8. National Bank-buildings, Johannesburg. * © *Davis, John Henry Grant. Hillsborough, Wednesbury, Stafford- shire. §Davis, Luther. The Oaks, Malvern. *Davis, Rev. Rudolf. 23 Northfield, Bridgwater. {Davy, Mrs. Alice Burtt. P.O. Box 434, Pretoria. tDavy, Joseph Burtt, F.R.G.S., F.L.S. P.O. Box 434, Pretoria. *Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales. {Dawsxrns, W. Boyp, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ; Council, 1882- 88), Professor of Geology and Palxontology i in the University of Manchester. Fallowfield House, Fallow- field, Manchester. *Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington Hall, Burnsall, Skipton-in-Craven. = Fie con P. The Acre, “Maryhill, Glasgow. 24 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of VWlection. 1905. 1884. 1906. 1870. 1900. 1901. 1884, 1866. 1893. 1878. 1907. 1896. 1902. 1908. 1889. 1905. 1896. 1874. 1907. 1894. 1903. 1899. 1868. 1881. 1905. 1884. 1905. 1901. 1906. 1904. 1881. 1887. 1902. 1862. 1877. {Dawson, Mrs. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow. {Dawson, SamuEet. (Local Sec. 1884.) 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada. §Dawson, William C. Hessle, R.S.O., Fast Yorkshire. *Dracon, G. F., LL.D., M.Inst.C.E. ‘(Pres. G, 1897.) 19 Warwick- square, S.W. tDeacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield. *Deasy, Capt. H. H. P. Cavalry Club, Piccadilly, W. *Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’ s-avenue, N.W. {Drsvus, Hurvricn, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1869 ; Council, 1870-75.) 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen. *Deeley, R. M. 38 Charnwood-street, Derby. tDrtany, Very Rev. Witiram, LL.D. (Vicz-PrEsipEnt, 1908.) University College, Dublin. §$De Lisle, Mrs. Edwin. Charnwood Lodge, Coalville, Leicester- shire. §Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead. {Dendy, Arthur, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in King’s College, London, W.C. §Dennehy, W. F. 23 Leeson-park, Dublin. + §Denny, AuFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the University of Sheffield. tDenny, G. A. 603-4 Consolidated-buildings, Fox-street, Johannes- burg. *Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G., G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot, Lancashire, *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, W. *Desch, Cecil H., D.Se., Ph.D. 93 Mount Pleasant-road, South Tottenham, N. *Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, 8.E. tDevereux, Rev. FE. R. Price. Drachenfeld, Tenison-avenue, Cambridge. t{Drvonsuire, The Duke of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. Devonshire House, Piccadilly, W. *Drwar, Sir JaMss, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.CS., Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experi- mental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. (Prust- DENT, 1902; Pres. B, 1879 ; Council, 1883-88.) 1 Scroope- terrace, Cambridge. {Dewar, Lady. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge. {Dewar, W. R. Agricultural Department, Bloemfontein, South Africa. *Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby. {Dewhirst, Miss May. Pembroke House, Oxford-road, Colchester. {Dick, George Handasyde. 31 Hamilton- drive, Hillhead, Glasgow. §Dickinson, Miss F. A. Burton House, Clifton, York. {Dickson, Charles Scott, K.C., LL.D. Carlton Club, Pall Mall, S.W, {tDickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. Claughton House, Garstang, R.8.0., Lancashire. cig H. N., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. The Lawn, Upper Redlands- road, Reading. §Dickson, James D. Hamilton, M.A., F.R.S.E. 6 Graiemiedé road, Cambridge. *DILKE, The Right Hon. Sir Coartes Wrentwortu, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, S.W. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin. ee es — St Year of bo or LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. Wlection. 1901. 1900. 1898. 1905. 1899. 1874, 1900. 1905. 1888. 1900. 1879. 1902. 1907. 1902. 1896. 1890. 1885. 1860. 1902. 1905. 1908. 1876. 1905. 1889. 1904. 1896. 1901. 1905. 1908. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1863. 1905. 1884. 1903. 1884. 1865. 1881. 1883. 1892. 1905. §Dines, W. H., F.R.S. Oxshott, Leatherhead. §Drvers, Dr. Epwarp, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1902.) 3 Canning-place, Palace Gate, W. *Dix, John William 8. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Down, Clifton, Bristol. §Dixey, F. A., M.A., M.D. Wadham College, Oxford. *Drxon, A. C., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College, Belfast. Almora, Myrtlefield-park, Belfast. *Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork. {Dixon, A. Francis, Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Dublin. tDixon, Miss E. K. 16 Mount Pleasant, Darlington. §Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshire. *Dixon, Major George, M.A. St. Bees, Cumberland. *Drxon, Haroxp B., M.A., F.R.S., ¥.C.S. (Pres. B, 1894), Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University, Manchester. {Dixon, Henry H., D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of Dublin. Clevedon, Temple-road, Dublin. *Dixon, Professor Walter E. ‘The Museums, Cambridge. tDixon, W. V. Scotch Quarter, Carrickfergus. §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Eccleston Park, Prescot. {Dobbie, James J., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. §Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Fylde Cottage, Branksome- avenue, Bournemouth. {tDobbs, F. W. 2 Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor. tDobson, Professor J. H. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannes- burg. i §Dopp, Hon. Mr. Justice (Local Treasurer, 1998). 26 Fitzwilliam- square, Dublin. {Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. tDodds, Dr. W. J. Valkenberg, Mowbray, Cape Colony. tDodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge. §Doncaster, Leonard. The University, Birmingham. tDonnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland. §Donnan, F. G., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Physical Chemistry. The University, Liverpool. tDonnan, H. Allandale, Claremont, Cape Colony. §Donnelly, Most Rev. Dr. Nicholas, Bishop of Canea. St. Mary’s, Haddington-road, Dublin. {Donner, Arthur. Helsingfors, Finland. §Donovan, Surgeon-General William, C.B. Army Headquarters, §Dornan, Rev.S.8. Training Institution, Morija, Basutoland, South Africa. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. 26 Grange-road, Eastbourne. tDouglas-McMillan, Mrs. A. 31 Ford-street, Jeppestown, Transvaal. tDove, Miss Frances. Wycombe Abbey School, Buckinghamshire. tDow, Miss Agnes R. 81 Park-mansions, Knightsbridge, 8.W. *Dowling, D. J. Sycamore, Clive-avenue, Hastings. *Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk. *Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. Merry Hall, Ashtead, Surrey. {tDraper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York. *Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow. tDrew, H. W., M.B., M.R.C.S. Mocollup Castle, Ballyduff, S.0., Co. Waterford. 26 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of . Blection. 1906. 1906. 1893. 1905. 1905. 1907. 1892. 1905. 1905. 1856. 1870. 1900. 1895. 1906. 1904. 1890. 1891. 1896. 1876. 1884. 1893. 1891. ° 1885. 1905. 1895. 1885. 1895. 1905. 1905. 1899. 1871. 1893. 1906. 1905. 1903. 1870. 1884. *Drew, Joseph Webster, M.A., LL.M. Fashoda, Scarborough. *Drew, Mrs. Fashoda, Scarborough. §Druce, G. Ciariper, M.A., F.L.S. (Local Sec., 1894.) Yardley Lodge, 9 Crick-road, Oxford. {Drury, H. P.O. Box 2305, Johannesburg. {Drury, Mrs. H. P.O. Box 2305, Johannesburg. §Drysdale, Charles V. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C. {Du Bois, Professor Dr. H. Herwarthstrasse 4, Berlin, N.W. {Dubois, Raymond, B.Sc. Groot’, Constantia, Wynberg, Cape Colony. {Dubois, Mrs. Raymond. Groot Constantia, Wynberg, Cape Colony. *Ducir, The Right Hon. Henry JouHN Reynoitps Moreton, Earl of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.; and Tortworth Court, Falfield, Gloucestershire. {Duckyorth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. 7 Grey Friars, Chester. *Duckworth, W. L. H., M.D., Sc.D. Jesus College, Cambridge. *Duddell, William, F.R.S. 47 Hans-place, S.W. tDudgeon, Gerald C., Superintendent of Agriculture for British West Africa. Bathurst, Gambia, British West Africa. *Duffield, W. G. Physical Laboratory, The University, Manchester. {Dufton, S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge. *Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff. *DUNKERLEY, STANLEY, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineer- ing in the Victoria University, Manchester. {Dunnachie, James. 48 West Regent-street, Glasgow. §Dunnington, Professor F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottes- ville, Virginia, U.S.A. *Dunstan, M. J. R., Principal of the South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. {Dunstan, Mrs. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. *Dunstan, Professor WynpHAM, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1906 ; Council, 1905- ), Director of the Imperial Institute, S.W. §Dutton, C. L. O’Brien. High Commissioner’s Office, Johannesburg. *DWERRYHOUSE, ARTHUR R., D.Sc., F.G.S. Glyn Garth, Weet- wood-lane, Headingley, Leeds. *Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. §Dymond, Thomas §., F.C.S. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W. {Dyson, F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1905-_), Astronomer Royal for Scotland and Professor of Practical Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh. {Earp, E. J. P.O. Box 538, Cape Town. {tEast, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technology, Dover. *Haston, Epwarp (Pres. G, 1878 ; Council, 1879-81). 22 Vincent- square, Westminster, S.W. *Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C. §Ebbs, Mrs. A. B. Tuborg, Durham-avenue, Bromley, Kent. {Ebden, Hon. Alfred. Belmont, Rondebosch, Cape Colony. tEccles, W. H., D.Sc. 16 Worfield-street, Battersea, S.W. *Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds. *Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton. *Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. Sywell House, Llandudno. bo ~I LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. Year of Election. 1887. §Eparnworrs, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889 ; Council, 1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford. 1870. *Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C. 1883. {Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon. 1908. §Edmondson, Thomas. Creevagh, Orwell Park, Dublin. 1888. *Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W. 1884. *Edmunds, James, M.D. 4 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town, Brighton. 1901. *Epripan-Green, F. W., M.D., F.R.C.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon, N.W. 1905. t{Edwards, Bidewell. 80 St. George’s-street, Cape Town. 1899. §Edwards, E. J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 290 Trinity-road, Wandsworth, S.W. 1903. t{Edwards, Mrs. Emily. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, South- ort. 1903. fadeaton Francis. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport. 1903. {Edwards, Miss Marion K. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport. 1887. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford. 1901. tEggar, W. D. Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor. 1907. *Elderton, W. Palin. Allington, Telferd-avenue, S8.W. 1890. §Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford. 1885. *Encar, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,M.Inst.C.E. 18Cornwall- terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1904. §Eliot, Sir John, K.C.LE., M. A., F.R.S. 79 Alleyn-park, Dulwich, S.E 1901. *Elles, Miss Gertrude L. Newnham College, Cambridge. 1904. tElliot, Miss Agnes I. M. Newnham College, Cambridge. 1904. {Elliot, R. H. Clifton Park, Kelso, N.B. 1904. {Elliot, T. R. B. Holme Park, Rotherfield, Sussex. 1891. tElliott, A. C., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in University College, Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff. 1905. §Elliott, C.C., M.D. 5 Bureau-street, Cape Town. 1883. *Exitiottr, Epwin Barry, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S., Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford. 4 Bardwell-road, Oxford. Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham. 1906. *Ellis, David, D.Sc., Ph.D. Technical College, Glasgow. 1875. *Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W. 1906. §Exiis, HerBpert. 120 Regent-road, Leicester. 1880. *Exxis, Joun Henry (Local Sec. 1883). 3 Carlisle-terrace, The Hoe, Plymouth. 1891. §Ellis, Miss M. A. 129 Walton-street, Oxford. 1906. {Humurrst, CHarues E. (Local Sec. 1906.) 29 Mount-vale, York. 1884. {Emery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A. 1863. {Emery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire. 1869. *Enys, John Davies. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall. 1894. {Hrskine- Murray, James, D.Sc., F.R.S.L. University College, Not- tingham. 1862. *Esson, Witii1aAM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford. 1887. *Estcourt, Charles, F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man- chester. 1887 *Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Manchester. 28 Year of Hlection 1889. 1905. 1870. 1887. 1883. 1861. 1897. 1885. 1905. 1865. 1905. 1905. 1865. 1903. 1871. 1902. 1872. 1883. 1881. 1874. 1876. 1903. 1884. 1905. 1906. 1901. 1865. 1896. 1908. 1902. 1907. 1898. 1877. 1902. 1892. 1886. 1897. 1904. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. *Hvans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge. {Evans, Mrs. A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge. *Evans, Artour Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1896.) Youlbury, Abingdon. *Evans, Mrs. Isabel. Hoghton Hall, Hoghton, near Preston. *Evans, Mrs. James C. Casewell Lodge, Llanwrtyd Wells, South Wales. *Evans, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., FE.LS., F.G.S. (PREesipENT, 1897; Pres. C, 1878; Pres. H, 1890 ; Council, 1868-74, 1875-82, 1889-96.) Britwell, Berk- hamsted, Herts. *Evans, Lady. Britwell, Berkhamsted, Herts. *Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth. {tEvans, R. O. Ll. Broom Hall, Chwilog, R.S.O., Carnarvonshire. tEvans, Sepastran, M.A., LL.D. Abbot’s Barton, Canterbury. {Evans, T. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge. {Evans, Thomas H. P.O. Box 1276, Johannesburg. *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth. tEvatt, E. J.,M.B. 8 Kyveilog-street, Cardiff. tEve, H. Weston, M.A. 37 Gordon-square, W.C. *Everett, Perey W. Oaklands, Elstree, Hertfordshire. {Evrrstey, Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S. (Pres. F, 1879 ; Council, 1878-80.) 18 Bryanston-square, W. tEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge. tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. tEwart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. (Local Sec. 1874.) Glenmachan, Belfast. *EwIinG, JAMES ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.B. (Pres. G, 1906), Director of Naval Education. Admiralty, S.W. §Ewing, Peter, F.L.S. The Frond, Uddingston, Glasgow. *Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. tEyre, Dr. G. G. Claremont, Cape Colony. Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon. *Faber, George D., M.P. 14 Grosvenor-square, W. *Fairgrieve, M. McCallum. 115 Dalkeith-road, Edinburgh. *FarRLEY, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds. §Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Cheshire. §Falkiner, C. Litton. Mount Mapas, Killiney, Co. Dublin. §Fallaize, E. N., M.A. 25 Alexandra-mansions, Middle-lane, Hornsey, N. *Fantham, H. B. 30 Salisbury-road, West Ealing, W. {Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near Manchester. tFarapay, F. J., F.LS., F.S.S. (Local Sec. 1887.) College- chambers, 17 Brazennose-street, Manchester. §Faren, William. 11 Mount Charles, Belfast. *FarRMER, J. BRETLAND, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1907), Pro- fessor of Botany, Royal College of Science, 8.W. tFarncombe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Eastbourne. *Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver- hampton. {Farnworth, Miss Olive. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver- hampton. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 29 Wlection. 1885. 1905. 1904. 1903. 1890. 1906. 1900. 1902. 1906. 1901. 1905. 1900. 1904. 1906. 1902. 1871. 1896. 1901. 1883. 1905. 1905. 1873. 1882. 1897. 1907. 1906. 1883. 1905. 1878. 1905. 1904. 1902. 1895. 1902. 1869. 1875. 1887. 1871. 1883. 1885. *Farquharson, Mrs. R. F. O. Tillydrine, Kincardine O’Neil, N.B. {Farrar, Edward. P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg. §Farrer, Sir William. 18 Upper Brook-street, W. §Faulkner, Joseph M. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Man- chester. ’ *Fawceett, F. B. University College, Bristol. §Faweett, Henry Hargreaves. 20 Margaret-street, Cavendish- square, W. {Fawcert, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900.) Low Royd, Apperley Bridge, Bradford. *Fawsitt, C. E., Ph.D. 9 Foremount-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. *Fearnsides, Edwin G., B.A., B.Sc. Addingford Hill, Horbury, Wakefield. *Fearnsides, W. G., M.A., F.G.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cam- bridge. 5 §Feilden, Colonel H. W., C.B., F.G.S. Burwash, Sussex. *Fennell, William John. Deramore Drive, Belfast. {Fenton, H. J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 19 Brookside, Cambridge. {Ferguson, Allan. Cemetery Hotel, Newhall-lane, Preston. {FEercuson, Goprrey W. (Local Sec. 1902.) Cluan, Donegall Park, Belfast. *Ferquson, Jonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. *Ferguson, Hon. John, C.M.G. Calton Lodge, Cinnamon-gardens, Colombo, Ceylon. {Ferguson, R. W. Municipal Technical School, the Gamble Insti- tute, St. Helens, Lancashire. *Fernie, John. Box No. 2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A. *Ferrar, H. T. Survey Department, Cairo. §Ferrar, J. E. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. {Frerrmre, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro- Pathology in King’s College, London. 34 Cavendish-square, W. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School, Southampton. {Field, George Wilton, Ph.D. Room 158, State House, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. §ields, Professor J. C. The University, Toronto, Canada. §Filon, L. N. G., D.Sc. Vega, Blenheim Park-road, Croydon. *Finch, Gerard B,. M.A. Howes Close, Cambridge. {Fincham, G. H. Hopewell, Invami, Cape Colony. *Findlater, Sir William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. §Findlay, Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc., Lecturer on Physical Chemistry in the University of Birmingham. *Findlay, J. J., Ph.D., Professor of Education in the Victoria University, Manchester. Llwyn Celyn, 17 Oak-road, Withington, Manchester. {Finnegan, J., B.A., B.Sc. Kelvin House, Botanic-avenue, Belfast. §Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich. {Fisher, J. R. Cranfield, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast. {Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near Cambridge. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford. *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 47 Dartmouth-road, Willesden Green, N.W. *Fison, Sir Freprerick W., Bart., M.A., M.P., F.C.S. 64 Pont- street, S.W. : {Fitch, Rev. J. J. 5 Chambres-road, Southport. *FirzGeraLp, Professor Mauricg, B.A. (Local Sec. 1902.) 32 Eglantine-avenue, Belfast. 30 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1894. 1888. 1904. 1904. 1890. 1892. 1888. 1901. 1906. 1905. 1889. 1905. 1890. 1877. 1903. 1906. 1873. 1883. 1905. 1890. 1875. 1887. 1902. 1883. 1857. 1901. 1903. 1905. 1906. 1883. 1883. 1904. 1904. 1905. 1883. 1847. 1900. 1881. {Fitzmaurice, M., C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. London County Council, Spring-gardens, S.W. *FirzPaTRick, Rev. THomas C., President of Queens’ College, Cambridge. {Flather, J. H., M.A. Camden House, 90 Hills-road, Cambridge. §Fleming, Sir James. 21 Norse-road, Scotstoun, Glasgow. {Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, S.W. {Fletcher, George, F.G.S8. Dawson Court, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. *FLErcHEeR, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. (Pres. C, 1894), Keeper of Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, 8.W. 35 Woodville-gardens, Kaling, W. {Flett, J.S., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. §Fleury, H. J. University College, Aberystwyth. *Flint, Rev. W., D.D. Houses of Parliament, Cape Town. {Flower, Lady. 26 S@anhope-gardens, §.W. {Flowers, Frank. United Buildings, Foxburgh, Johannesburg. *Frux, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in McGill University, Montreal, Canada. {Foale, William. The Croft, Madeira Park, Tunbridge Wells. {Foord-Kelcey, W., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. The Shrubbery, Shooter’s Hill, 8.E. §Forbes, Charles Mansfeldt. 1 Oriel-crescent, Scarborough. *RorsEs, George, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great George-street, S.W. {Forsus, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Corporation of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool. §Forsss, Major W. Lacaxan, Sec.R.Scot.G.8. Queen-street, Edin- burgh. {Forp, J. Rawxinson (Local Sec. 1890). Quarry Dene, Weetwood- lane, Leeds, *HorpHAM, H. GuorGE. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts. {Forrusr, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, G.C.M.G., F.B.G.8., F.G.S., Perth, Western Australia. He 8g O., Ph.D., D.Sz., F.R.S. Royal College of Science, S.W. {Forsyra, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897, 1905; Council, 1907- ), Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. *Fosrmr, Georcr Carsy, b.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (GaNERAL TREASURER, 1898-1904; Pres. A, 1877; Council, 1871-76, 1877-82.) Ladywalk, Rickmansworth. §Foster, T. Gregory, Ph.D., Principal of University College, London. Chester-road, Northwood, Middlesex. {Fourcade, H. G, P.O., Storms River, Humansdorp, Cape Colony. §Fowlds, Hiram. Keighley, Yorkshire. §Fowler, Oliver H., M.R.C.S. Ashcroft House, Cirencester. *Fox, Charles. The Pynes, Warlingham-on-the-Hill, Surrey. §Fox, Sir Caartes Dovetas, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1896.) 28 Vie- toria-street, Westminster, S.W. *Fox, Charles J. J., B.Sc., Ph.D. 33 Ashley-road, Crouch Hill, N. §Fox, F. Douglas, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 19 The Square, Kensingtoa, W. §Fox, Mrs. F, Douglas. 19 The Squaré, Kensington, W. {Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth. *Fox, Joseph Hoyland. ».The Clive, Wellington, Somerset. *Fox, Thomas. ,Old Way House, Wellington, Somerset. *FoxweE., Herserr §., M.A., F.S.S. (Council, 1894-97), Professor of Political Economy in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907, ) : Os bad Election. 1907. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1887. 1895. 1882. 1885. 1906. 1865. 1871, 1884. 1877. 1884. 1906. 1905. 1886. 1901. 1887. 1906. 1892. 1882. 1887. 1898. 1905. 1875. 1905. 1898. 1872. 1859. 1869. 1863. 1906. 1885. 1875. §Fraine, Miss Ethel de. Whitelands College, King’s-road, Chelsea, 8.W: Frames, Henry J. Talana, St. Patrick’s-avenue, Parktown, Johannesburg. {Frames, Mrs. Talana, St. Patrick’s-avenue, Parktown, Johannes- burg. {Francke, M. P.O. Box 1156, Johannesburg. *FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1901), Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University of Birmingham. §Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness. *FRAsER, ALEXANDER, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin. {Frasrr, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1885.) 232 Union- street, Aberdeen. *Fraser, Miss Helen C. I., B.Sc., F.L.S. Royal Holloway College, Egham, Surrey. *Fraser, JOHN, M.A., M.D., F.G.S.__ Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton. {Fraser, Sir Tuomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. 13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh. *Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1082, Drexel-building, Philadelphia, U.S.A. §Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon. *FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C:B. (Pres. F, 1892 ; Council, 1897-1903.) 4 Lower Sloane-street, S.W. §French, Fleet-Surgeon A. M. Langley, Beaufort-road, Kingston- on-Thames. {French, Sir Somerset R., K.C.M.G. Erritt Lodge, Kenilworth, Cape Colony. {FrusarietpD, Doucias W., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1904.) 1 Airlie- gardens, Campden Hill, W. {Frew, William, Ph.D. King James-place, Perth. *Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A. §Fritsch, Dr. F. E. 7 Prout-grove, Neasden, N.W. *Frost, Edmund, M.D. Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne. §Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire. *Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 55 Kensington-court, W. {Fry, The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Failand House, Failand, near Bristol. {Fry, H. P.O. Box 46, Johannesburg. *Fry, Joseph Storrs. 16 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol. *Fry, William, jun., J.P., F.R.G.S. Wilton House, Merrion-road, Dublin. {Fryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol. *Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, 8.E. {Futter, Frepmrick, M.A. (Local Sec. 1859.) 9 Palace-road, Surbiton. {Futuur, G., M.Inst.C.E. (Local Sec. 1874.) 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington, W. *Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby §Gajjar, Professor T. K., M.A. Techno-Chemical Laboratory, near Girgaum Tram Terminus, Bombay. , *Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B. tGattoway, W. Cardiff. 32 Year of Election 1887. 1905. 1899. 1860. 1888. 1868. 1899. 1898. 1905. 1900. 1887. 1882. 1905. 1905. 1887. 1882. 1883. 1903. 1903. i894. 1874. 1905. 1889. 1870. 1905. 1905. 1896. 1906. 1905. 1906. 1905. 1867. 1871. 1898. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. *Galloway, W. J. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Manchester. tGalpin, Ernest E. Bank of Africa, Queenstown, Cape Colony. §Galton, Lady Douglas. Himbleton Manor, Droitwich. *Gauron, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Gun. Sec. 1863-68 ; Pres. E, 1862, 1872; Pres. H, 1885 ; Council, 1860-63.) 42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, 8.W. *GamBLE, J. Syxus, C.LE., M.A., F.RB.S., F.LS. Highfield, East Liss, Hants. tGamerz, Arruur, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1882 ; Council, 1888-90.) 5 Avenue du Kursaal, Montreux, Switzerland. *Garcke, E. Ditton House, near Maidenhead. {Garde, Rev. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth. {Gardiner, J. H. 59 Wroughton-road, Balham, S.W. tGardiner, J. Stanley, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cam- bridge. {Garprner, Water, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. Awdreys, Hills- road, Cambridge. *Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne. tGarlick, John. Thornibrac, Green Point, Cape Town. {Garlick, R. C. Thornibrae, Green Point, Cape Town. *Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton, Lancashire. {Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Victoria Em- bankment, W.C. tGarson, J. G., M.D. (Assist. Gen. Sxc. 1902-04.) Moorcote, Eversley, Winchfield. {Garstang, A. H. 20 Roe-lane, Southport. *Garstang, T. James, M.A. Bedale’s School, Petersfield, Hamp- . shire. *Garstana, WaLrEeR, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.8., Professor of Zoology, in the University of Leeds. *Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans- town, Castlebellingham, Ireland. {Garthwaite, E. H. B.S8.A.Co., Bulawayo, South Africa. t{Garwoop, Professor E. J., M.A., F.G.S. University College, Gower-street, W.C. *Gaskell, Holbrook. Erindale, Frodsham, Cheshire. {Gaskell, Miss C. J. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge. {Gaskell, Miss M. A. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge. *GASKELL, WALTER Hotproog, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1896 ; Council, 1898-1901.) The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge. §Gaster, Leon. 32 Victoria-street, S.W. tGaughren, Right Rev. Dr. M. Dutoitspan-road, Kimberley. tGavey, H. Myddelton, M.R.C.S. 16 Broadwater Down, Tun- bridge Wells. *Gearon, Miss Susan. 55 Buckleigh-road, Streatham Common, 8.W. {Grrzin, Sir ArcurpaLp. K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (PRESIDENT, 1892 ; Pres. C, 1867, 1871, 1899 ; Council, 1888-1891.) 3 Sloane-court, S.W. tGrris, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1889 ; Pres. E, 1892), Murchison Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colin- ton-road, Edinburgh. §Gemmill, James F., M.A., M.D. 21 Endsleigh-gardens, Partick- hill, Glasgow. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 33 Year of Election. 1882. 1905. 1875. 1902. 1899. 1884. 1905. 1902. 1901. 1876. 1904. 1896. 1889. 1893. 1887. 1898. 1883. 1884. 1895. 1896. 1878. 1871. 1902. 1892. 1907. 1893. 1904. 1900. 1884. 1886. 1850. 1883. 1871. 1880. 1881. 1881. 1878. 1880. *GmuNESE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University College, Aberystwyth. tGentleman, Miss A. A. 9 Abercromby-place, Stirling. *George, a Hereford Brooke, M.A., F.R.G.S. Holywell Lodge, Oxford. *Gepp, Antony, M.A., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, S.W. *Gepp, Mrs. A. 26 West Park-gardens, Kew. *Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford. §Gibbs, Miss Lilian S., F.L.S. 22 South-street, Thurloe-square, 8. W. {Gibson, Andrew. 14 Cliftonville-avenue, Belfast. §Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 8 Sandyford-place, Glasgow. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 3 Drums- heugh-gardens, Edinburgh. *Gibson, Mrs. Margaret D., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane, Cambridge. {tGreson, R. J. Harvny, M.A.,-F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the | University of Liverpool. *Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland. tGibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. *Gurren, Sir Ropert, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. (Pres. F, 1887, 1901.) Chanctonbury, Hayward’s Heath. *Gifford, J. William. Oaklands, Chard. §Gilbert, Lady. Park View, Englefield Green, Surrey. *Gilbert. Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada. {tGivcurist, J. D. F., M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.L.S. Marine Biologist’s Office, Department of Agriculture, Cape Town. *GitopRist, Percy C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Reform Club, Pall Mall, S.W. {Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromsgrove. *GILL, Sir Davin, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E. (PRESIDENT. ) 34 De Vere-gardens, Kensington, W. {Gill, James F, 72 Strand-road, Bootle, Liverpool. *Gilmour, Matthew A. B., F.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill- road, Hamilton, N.B. §Gilmour, 8. C. 3 Vernon-chambers, Southampton-row, W.C. *Gimingham, Edward. 21 Stamford Hill-mansions, Stamford Hill, N. {Gunn, S. R., D.L. (Local Sec. 1904.) Brookfield, Trumpington- road, Cambridge. tGinsburg, Benedict W., M.A., LL.D. Cookham, Berks. tGirdwood, G. P., M.D. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada. *Gisborne, Hartley, M.Can.S.C.E. Caragana Lodge, Ladysmith, Vancouver Island, Canada. *Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton. *Gladstone, Miss. 19 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W. *GLaAIsSHER, J. W. L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890 ; Council, 1878-86.) Trinity College, Cambridge. *GLANTAWE, Right Hon. Lord. The Grange, Swansea. *GLAZEBROOK, R. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1893 ; Council, 1890-94, 1905- ), Director of the National Physical Labora- tory. Bushy House, Teddington, Middlesex. *Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W. Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport. *Godlee, J. Lister. Wakes Colne Place, Essex. {tGopmay, F. Du Canz, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos- street, Cavendish-square, W. 1907. (9) 34 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1879. 1878. 1906. 1898. 1886. 1899. 1890. 1884. 1884. 1905, 1871. 1893. 1901. 1875. 1881. 1901. 1901. 1876. 1883. 1873. 1802. 1875. 1904. 1896. 1905. 1905. 1890. 1905. 1864. 1881. 1903. 1904. 1892. 1904. 1892. 1887. 1887. 1886. 1901. 1875. 1866. 1893. +Gopwin-AustEN, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., E.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.8. (Pres. E, 1883.) Nore, Godalming. +Gorr, James (Local Sec. 1878). 29 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin. tGotpre, Sir GzrorcEe D. T., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. E, 1906 ; Council, 1906-07.) 44 Rutland-gate, S.W. tGoldney, F. Bennett, F.S.A. Goodnestone Park, Dover. tGoLtpsmip, Major-General Sir He J. KGS Tet CiBs ae BiG: (Pres. E, 1886.) 29 Phoenix Lodge-mansions, Brook Green, W. +Gomme, G. L., F.S.A. 24 Dorset-square, N.W. *Gonner, E. C. K., M.A. (Pres. F, 1897), Professor of Political Economy in the University of Liverpool. *Goodridge, Richard E. W. Hibbing, Minnesota, U.S.A. +Goodwin, Professor W. L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. {+Gooup-Apams, Major Sir H. J., G.C.M.G., C.B. Government House, Bloemfontein, South Africa. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.8. Queen Anne’s-mansions, West- minster, 8.W. +Gordon, Mrs. M. M. Ogilvie, D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen. tGorst, Right Hon. Sir Jonn E., M.A., K.C., M.P., F.RS. (Pres. L, 1901.) 21 Victoria-square, S.W. *Gorcu, Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1906; Council, 1901-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Lawn, Banbury-road, Oxford. +Gough, Rev. Thomas, B.Se. King Edward’s School, Retford. {Gourtay, Ropert. Glasgow. §Gow, Leonard. Hayston, Kelvinside, Glasgow. tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow. tGoyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. *Graham, William, M.D. District Lunatic Asylum, Belfast. {GrauamE, JAMES (Local Sec. 1876). Care of Messrs. Grahame, Crums, & Connal, 34 West George-street, Glasgow. §Gramont, Comte Arnaud de. 179 rue de l Université, Paris. tGrant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada. §Grant-Dalton, Alan. Arundel, Rondebosch, Cape Colony. {Graumann, Harry. P.O. Box 2115, Johannesburg. tGray, AnpRew, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. tGray, C. J. P.O. Box 208, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. *Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford. {Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York. §Gray, Ernest, M.A. 99 Grosvenor-road, S.W. tGray, Rev. H. B., D.D. The College, Bradfield, Berkshire. aes re Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Crown Office-row, Temple, {Gray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbroke-crescent, W. §Gray, JoHN, B.Sc. § Park-hill, Clapham Park, 8.W. {Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. St. Elmo, Leckhampton-road, Cheltenham. {Gray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent. *Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent. tGray, R. W. 7 Orme-court, Bayswater, W. tGray, William, M.R.I.A. Glenburn Park, Belfast. *GRAyY, Colonel Wituiam. Farley Hall, near Reading. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby. *Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 86 flection. 1872. *Grece, Clair J., LL.D. 146 Station-road, Redhill, Surrey. 1905. {Green, A. F. Sea Point, Cape Colony. 1904. *Gireen, A. G. 2 Dartmouth-road, Brondesbury, N.W. 1904. 1906. 1888. 1903. 1882. 1905. 1905. 1898. 1906. 1894. 1896. 1904. 1881. 1836. 1894. 1884. 1884. 1847. 1903. 1888. 1894. 1894. 1896. 1904. 1869. 1897. 1887, 1842. 1905. 1866. 1894. 1880. 1904. 1902. 1904. 1905. 1881. §Green, F. W. St. John’s College, Cambridge. §Green, Professor J. A. The University, Sheffield. §GREEN, J. Reynowps, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1902), Professor of Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Downing College, Cambridge. tGreen, W. J. 76 Alexandra-road, N.W. {tGrepnuitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 1 Staple Inn, W.C. tGreenhill, Henry H. P.O. Box 172, Bloemfontein, South Africa. tGreenhill, William. 6a George-street, Edinburgh. *GREENLY, EDwARD. Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales. {Greenwood, Hamar, M.P. National Liberal Club, Whitehall- place, 8.W *Grecory, J. WALTER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8. (Pres. C, 1907), Pro- fessor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. *GrecoRY, Professor R. A., F.R.A.S. Dell Quay House, near Chichester. *Gregory, R. P. St. John’s College, Cambridge. {Gregson, William, F.G.S. 106 Victoria-road, Darlington. Griffin, 8. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N. *Griffith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E.. Cathedral-gardens, 'Trynam- pot, Madras. {Grirritas, E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1906), Principal of University College, Cardiff. {Griffiths, Mrs. University College, Cardiff. {Griffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. {Griffiths, Thomas, J.P. 101 Manchester-road, Southport. *Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. St. Stephen’s Club, West- minster, 8. W. {Groom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. Hollywood, Egham, Surrey. tGroom, T. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Birmingham. tGrossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool. {Grosvenor, G. H. New College, Oxford. {Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rockdale, Orwell-road, Rathgar, Dublin. {Griinbaum, A. 8., M.A., M.D. 45 Ladbroke-grove, W. {Gurttemarp, IF, H.H.,M.A.,M.D, The Mill House, Trumpington, Cambridge. Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin. *Gunn, Donald. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, $.W. {Gtnruer, Aubert C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.8. (Pres. D, 1880.) 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey. {Ginther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford. §Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea. §Gurney, Eustace. Sprowston Hall, Norwich. *Gurney, Robert. Ingham Old Hall. Stalham, Norfolk. §Guttmann, Leo F., Ph.D. 18 Aberdare-gardens, N.W. §Hacker, Rev. W. J. Edendale, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. *Happon, Aitrrep Cort, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. H, 1902, 1905 ; Council, 1902- .) Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge. c2 a6 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1905. 1888. 1905. 1906. 1899. 1903. 1879. 1883. 1854. 1839. 1834. 1891. 1873. 1888. 1905. 1904. 1904. 1883. 1906. 1906. 1885. 1902. 1905. 1905. 1881. 1899. 1905. 1890. 1886. 1906. 1904. 1902. 1859. 1886. 1902. 1903. 1892. 1905. 1877. 1894. 1883. 1881. 1890. {tHaddon, Miss. Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge. *Hadfield, R. A., M.Inst.C.E. Parkhead House, Sheffield. tHahn, Professor P. D., M.A., Ph.D. York House, Gardens, Cape Town. tHake, George W. Oxford, Ohio, U.S.A. tHaut, A. D., M.A., Director of the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts. {Haty, E. Marsuatr, K.C. 75 Cambridge-terrace, W. *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield. *Hall, Miss Emily. 63 Belmont-street, Southport. iT *Hatt, Hueu Ferciz, F.G.5. Cissbury Court, West Worthing, Sussex. {Hall, a M.D. National Bank of Scotland, 37 Nicholas-lane, C e tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada. *Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth. *Hatiett, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath. §Hatuipurton, W. D., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1902 ; Council, 1897-1903), Professor of Physiology in King’s College, London. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W. {Halliburton, Mrs. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W. *Hallidie, A. H.S. Avondale, Chesterfield-road, Kastbourne. *Hamel de Manin, Anna Countess de. 35 Circus-road, N.W. *Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth. {Hamill, John Molyneux, M.A., M.B. 14 South-parade, Chiswick. tHamilton, Charles 1. 88 Twyford-avenue, Acton. {Hamilton, David James. 35 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen. {Hamitton, Rev. T., D.D. Queen’s College, Belfast. {Hammersley-Heenan, R. H., M.Inst.C.E. Harbour Board Offices, Cape Town. tHammond, Miss Edith. High Dene, Woldingham, Surrey. *HamMmonbD, Ropert, M.Inst.C.E. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. *Hanbury, Daniel. Lenqua da Ca, Alassio, Italy. *Hancock, Strangman. Plas Uchaf, Abergele, North Wales. {Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge. §Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester. §Hanson, David. Salterlee, Halifax, Yorkshire. §Hanson, E. K. University College, Reading. {Harbison, Adam, B.A. 5 Ravenhill-terrace, Ravenhill-road, Belfast. *Harcourr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Gun. Suc. 1883-97; Pres. B, 1875; Council, 1881-83.) St. Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight. *Hardeastle, Colonel Basil W., F.8.8. 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead, N.W. *Harpcastie, Miss Frances. 25 Boundary-road, N.W. *Hardcastle, J. Alfred. The Dial House, Crowthorne, Berkshire. *Harpun, ARTHUR, Ph.D., M.Sc. Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, Grosvenor-road, S.W. {Hardie, Miss Mabel, M.B. High-lane, vid Stockport. tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol. {Hardman, 8. C. 120 Lord-street, Southport. tHargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York. *Harxer, AuFrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. St. John’s College, Cam- bridge. Year of Election 1896, 1875. 1905. 1877. 1883. 1862. 1868. 1881. 1906. 1884. 1842, 1889. 1903. 1904. 1904. 1892. 1870. 1892. 1901. 1886. 1885. 1876. 1903. 1907. 1893. 1905. 1871. 1886. 1887. 1905. 1885. 1862. 1893. 1903. 1903. 1904. 1875. 1903. 1889. 1903. 1904. 1904. LIST OF MEMBERS ; 1907. By {Harker, Dr. John Allen. National Physical Laboratory, Bushy House, Teddington. *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex. {Harland, H.C. P.O. Box 1024, Johannesburg. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton. *Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest-hill, S.E. *Hartey, Rev. Rosert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West- bourne-road, Forest-hill, S.E. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich. *Harmer, Srpney F., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. King’s College, Cam- bridge. tHarper, J. B. 16 St. George’s-place, York. {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. University- street, Montreal, Canada. *Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia. tHarris, H. Granam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West- minster, S.W. {Harris, Robert, M.B. 18 Duke-street, Southport. tHarrison, Frank L. 83 Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield. {Harrison, H. Spencer. The Horniman Museum, Forest-hill, S.E. {Harrison, JoHN (Local Sec. 1892). Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh. {Harrison, Rearaup, F.R.C.S. (Local Sec. 1870.) 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Portman-square, W. {Harrison, Rev. S. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man. *Harrison, W. E. 15 Lansdowne-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire. t{Harrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Science Laboratory, Icknield-street Council School, Birmingham. +Hart, Colonel C. J. (Local Sec. 1886.) Hightield Gate, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn. *Hart, Thomas Clifford. Brooklands, Blackburn. §Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry. *HarrLAND, E. Sipney, F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1906 ; Council, 1906- .) Highgarth, Gloucester. tHartland, Miss. Highgarth, Gloucester. *HARTLEY, WALTER Nogt, D.Sc., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1903), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 10 Elgin-road, Dublin. *Harroa, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork. tHarroe, P. J., B.Sc. University of London, South Kensington, S Re. . {Harvey-Hogan, J. P.O. Box 1277, Johannesburg. §Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B. *Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors. §Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, S.W. *Hastie, Miss J. A. Care of Messrs. Street & Co., 30 Cornhill, E.C. §Hastie, William. 20 Elswick-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. {Hastings, G. 15 Oak-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire. *Hastinas, G. W. (Pres. F, 1880.) Chapel House, Chipping Norton. §Hastings, W. G. W. 2 Halsey-street, Cadogan-gardens, S.W. tHarcu, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. Cowley Place, Cowley, Middlesex. tHathaway, Herbert G. 45 High-street, Bridgnorth, Salop. *Haughton, W. T. H. The Highlands, Great Barford, St. Neots. {Havilland, Hugh de. [ton College, Windsor. 38 BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Year of Election. 1887. 1872. 1864. 1897. 1887. 1861. _ 1885. 1900. 1903. 1903. 1896. 1879. 1883. 1882. 1902. 1902. 1883. 1892. 1889. 1888. 1888. 1906. *Hawkins, William. Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, §.W. *Hawxsnaw, JoHN CiarKe, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Council, pee 22 Down-street, W., and 33 Great George-street, §HAWESLEY, Caartezs, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1903 ; Council, 1902- .) 30 Great George-street, S.W. *Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., G.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S.W. *Hayorort, JoHN Berry, M.D.; B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology in University College, Cardiff. §Hayden, H. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Calcutta, India. *Haydock, Arthur. 197 Preston New-road, Blackburn. {Hayward, Joseph William, M.Sc. 29 Deodar-road, Putney, S.W. *Haywood, Lieut.-Colonel A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blun- dellsands. *Hazelhurst, George 8. The Grange, Rockferry. tHeape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale. *Heape, Walter, M.A., F.R.S. Greyfriars, Southwold, Suffolk. {Heath, J. W. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W. {Heathorn, Captain T. B.,R.A. 10 Wilton-place, Knightsbridge, S.W. {Heaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport. *Heaton, Witit1aM H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1893), Professor of Physics in University College, Nottingham. *Heaviside, Arthur West, 1.8.0. 12 Tring-avenue, Ealing, W. *Heawood, Edward, M.A. Briarfield, Church-hill, Merstham, Surrey. *Heawood, Percy J., Lecturer in Mathematics in Durham Univer- sity. 41 Old Elvet, Durham. . [Heoror, Sir Jamus, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand. *Hupers, Kinumeworra, M.Inst.C.E. 10 Cranley-place, South Kensington, S.W. *Hrxie-Suaw, H. S., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 64 Victoria- street, S.W. *Heller, W. M., B.Sc. 40 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin. {Hellman, Hugo. Rand Club, Johannesburg. §Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Langford, Sidcup, Kent. tHemsalech, G. A., D.Sc. The Owens College. Manchester. {Henderson, Rev. Andrew, LL.D. Castle Head, Paisley. *Henderson, Andrew. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow. *Henderson, Miss Catharine. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow. . *HenpDERsSON, G. G., D.Sc., M.A., F.1.C., Professor of Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow. §Henderson, H. F. 46 Clarendon Park-road, Leicester. . §Henderson, Mrs. Technical College, Glasgow. . [Henderson, J. B., D.Se., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E. . “Henderson, Vice-Admiral W. H., R.N. 12 Vicarage-gardens, Campden Hill, W. . *Hendrick, James. Marischal College, Aberdeen. . *HeEnrici, Otavs M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1883 ; Council, 1883-89), Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibi- tion-road. S.W. 34 Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W. . §Henry, Dr. T. A. Imperial Institute, S.W. Year LLST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 39 of Election. 1892 1904 . [Hursurn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Univer- sity College, Cardiff. . §Hepworth, Commander M. W. (., C.B., R.N.R. Meteorological Office, Victoria-street, S.W. 1892. *HEeRprertson, ANDREW J., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 4 Broad- 1902. 1887. 1893. 1875. 1908. 1874. 1900. 1905. 1903. 1895. 1905. 1894. 1894. 1896. 1903. 1903. 1882. 1883. 1866. 1901. 1886. 1898. 1877. 1886. 1887. 1864. 1891. 1907. 1885. 1903. 1906. 1881. 1886. 1885. street, Oxford. tHerdman, G. W., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Irrigation and Water Supply Department, Pretoria. *Hrrpman, Witi14M A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pres. L.S.(GENERAL SECRETARY, 1903- ; Pres. D, 1895; Council, 1894-1900 ; Local Sec. 1896), Professor of Natural History in the University of Liverpool. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool. *Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool. {HrrerorpD, The Right Rev. Joun Percivat, D.D., LL.D., Lord Bishop of. (Pres. L, 1904.) The Palace, Hereford. *Herring, Dr. Percy T., Physiological Department. The University, Edinburgh. §HeERscHEL, Colonel Joun, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks. *Herschel, Rev. J. C. W. Bracknell, Berkshire. tHervey, Miss Mary F. 8. 22 Morpeth-mansions, 8.W. *HeEskETH, CHARLES H. Ftrerwoop, M.A. The Rookery, North Meols, Southport. §Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 233 Lord-street, Southport. tHewat, M. L., M.D. Mowbray, near Cape Town, South Africa. {Hewerson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1896.) 39 Henley-road, Ipswich. {Hewins, W. A. S., M.A., F.S.8. The Rowans, Putney Lower Common, 8.W. §Hewitt, David Basil, M.D. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire. tHewitt, E.G. W. 87 Princess-road, Moss Side, Manchester. {Hewitt, John Theodore, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. 8 Montpelier-road, Twickenham. *Heycock, CHarzes T., M.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge. tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S. St. Barnabas Vicarage, Bolton. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. *Heys, Z. John. Stonehouse, Barrhead, N.B. t{Herywoop, Henry, J.P. Witla Court, near Cardiff. tHicks, Henry B. 44 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. §Hicxs, W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1895). Professor of Physics in the University of Sheffield. Leamhurst, Ivy Park- road, Sheffield. tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Leamhurst, Ivy Park-road, Sheffield. *Hicxson, SypnrEY J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1903), Pro- fessor of Zoology in Victoria University, Manchester. *Hirrn, W. P., M.A., F.R.S. The Castle, Barnstaple. tHices, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1899 ; Council, 1904-06). H.M. Treasury, Whitehall, $8. W. §Hitey, E. V. (Local Sec. 1907.) Town Hall, Leicester. *Hitt, ALExanDER, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge. *Hill, Arthur W. King’s College, Cambridge. §Hill, Charles A., M.A., M.B. 13 Rodney-street, Liverpool. *Hint, Rev. Epwriy, M.A. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury St. Edmunds. t{Hu1, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in University College, W.C. *Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol. 40 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1898. 1885. 1907. 1903. 1903. 1870. 1883. 1888. 1898. 1906. 1900. 1903. 1899. 1887. 1883. 1904. 1907. 1877. 1863. 1887. 1880. 1905. 1898. 1904. 1904. 1894. 1908. 1907. 1883. 1887. 1900. 1887. 1904. 1903. 1896. 1898. 1889. 1906. 1905. 1883. 1866. *Hill, Thomas Sidney. 80 Harvard-court, West End-lane, N.W. *HitLuovuse, WittiaM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Birmingham. 43 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Hills, Major K. H., C.M.G., R.E., F.R.G.S. 32 Prince’s-gardens, S.W. *Hilton, Harold, Glencairn, Platt’s-lane, Hampstead, N.W. *Hinp, WHEELTON, M.D., F.G.S. Roxeth House, Stoke-on-Trent. {Hinpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road, South Croydon, Surrey. *Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington. *Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick. §Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate. *Hingston, Miss A. Clarence Cottage, Clare-road, Cambridge. §Hinks, Arthur R., M.A. The Observatory, Cambridge. *Hinmers, Edward. Glentwood, South Downs-drive, Hale, Cheshire. +Hobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover. *Hobson, Bernard, M.Se., F.G.S. Thornton, Didsbury, near Manchester. {tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W. §Hobson, Ernest William, Sc.D., F.R.S. The Gables, Mount Pleasant, Cambridge. §Hobson, Mrs. Mary. 6 Hopefield-avenue, Belfast. tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistovk-place, Plymouth. *Hopexin, Toomas, B.A., D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon- Tyne. } *Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology in the Victoria University, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester. tHodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Wool- wich. 18 Glenluce-road, Blackheath, S.E. {Hodgson, Ven. Archdeacon R. The Rectory, Wolverhampton. Hodgson, T. V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth. §Hodson, F. Bedale’s School, Petersfield, Hampshire. tHoaarru, D. G., M.A. (Pres. H, 1907 ; Council, 1907- ) Chapel Meadow, Forest Row, Sussex. tHogg, A. F., M.A. 13 Victoria-road, Darlington. §Hogg, Right Hon. Jonathan. Stratford, Rathgar, Co. Dublin. §Holden, Colonel H. C. L., R.A., F.R.S. Gifford House, Black- heath, S.E. tHolden, John J. 73 Albert-road, Southport. *Holder, Henry William, M.A. Sheet, near Petersfield. {Ho.picx, Colonel Sir Tuomas H., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.1.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1902.) 41 Courtfield-road, 8.W. *Holdsworth, C. J. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. §Holland, Charles E. 9 Downing-place, Cambridge. §Holland, J. L., B.A. 72 Kingsley Park-terrace, Northampton. tHolland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton, Cheshire. tHolland, Thomas H., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Caleutta. tHollainder, Bernard, M.D. 35a Welbeck-street, W. *Hollingworth, Miss. Leithen, Newnham-road, Bedford. _ tHollway, H. C. Schunke. Plaisir de Merle, P.O. Simondium, via Paarl, South Africa. *Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 23 Corfton-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W. *Holmes, Charles. 36 Buckingham-mansions, West End-lane, N.W. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS; 1907. 4] Election. 1882. 1903. 1875. 1904. 1847. 1892. 1865. 1877. 1904. 1905. 1901. 1884. 1882. i871. 1905. 1898. 1885. 1903. 1902. 1905. 1884. 1887. 1893. 1884. 1899. 1906. 1859. 1896. 1905. 1905. 1883. 1904. 1887. 1901. 1903. 1907. 1905. 1901. 1865. 1863. *Hoimes, THOMAS VINCENT, F'.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E. *Holt, Alfred, jun. Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester. §Hooke, Rev. D. Burford. Bonchurch Lodge, Barnet. tHooxeEr, Sir Josrru Darton, G.C.S.I1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., E.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Presmprent, 1868 ; Pres. E, 1881; Council, 1866-67.) The Camp, Sunningdale, Berkshire. {Hooxer, Reemvatp H., M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C. *Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Streatham Common, 8.W. *Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster Newton, Dorset. tHopewell-Smith, A., M.R.C.S. 37 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, 8.W. *Hopkins, Charles Hadley. Junior Constitutional Club, 101 Picca- Seopkinan, Bertram, M.A., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge. | Adams-road, Cambridge. *Hopxinson, Cuarues (Local Sec. 1887). The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Ferns, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. *HOPKINSON, JOHN, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 84 New Bond-street, W. ; and Weetwood, Watford. {Hopkinson, Mrs. John. Holmwood, Wimbledon Common, 8.W. *Hornby, R., M.A. Haileybury College, Hertford. tHorne, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1901.) Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh. tHorne, William, F.G.S. Leyburn, Yorkshire. tHorner, John. Chelsea, Antrim-road, Belfast. *Horsburgh, E. M., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Technical Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. *Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax. tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield. *Horstey, Sir Vicror A. H., LL.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. (Council, 1893-98.) 25 Cavendish-square, W. *Hotblack, G.S. Brundall, Norwich. tHotblack, J. T., F.G.S8. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich. *Hough, Miss Ethel M. Codsall Wood, near Wolverhampton. tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton. *Hough, S. S., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., His Majesty’s Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope. Royal Observatory, Cape Town. §Houghting, A.G. L. Glenelg, Musgrave-road, Durban, Natal. tHouseman, C. L. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg. *Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road, West Dulwich, S.E. *Howard, Mrs. G. L. C. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, Bengal, India. *Howard, 8. S. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent. §Howarth, E., F.R.A.S. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield. *Howarth, James H., F.G.S. Somerley, Rawson-avenue, Halifax. §Howarth, 0. J. R., M.A. 25 St. Leonard’s-terrace, Chelsea, 8. W. tHowick, Dr. W. P.O. Box 503, Johannesburg. tHowie, Robert Y. 3 Greenlaw-avenue, Paisley. *How.ett, Rev. Freperick, F.R.A.S. 7 Prince’s-buildings, Clifton, Bristol. tHowokrr#, Sir H. H., K.C.I.E., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A. 30 Colling- ham-place, Cromwell-road, 8.W. 42 Year of Election 1887. 1903. 1898. 1898. 1867. 1858. 1871. 1868. 1867. 1903. 1905. 1901. 1904. 1907. 1877. 1891. 1881. 1889. 1901. 1903. 1882. 1861. 1905. 1894. 1903. 1864. 1887. 1901. 1883. 1871. 1900. 1883. 1884. 1906. 1885. 1888. 1907. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. §Hoyis, WittiaAM E., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. D, 1907.) Victoria Uni- versity, Manchester. tHtibner, Julius. Ash Villa, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire. §Hupieston, W. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1898.) 8 Stanhope-gardens, 8.W. {Hudson, Mrs. Sunny Bank, Egerton, Huddersfield. *Hupson, Wiitram H. H., M.A. 34 Birdhurst-road, Croydon. *Hucears, Sir Witi1aM, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A:S. (PRESIDENT, 1891 ; Council, 1868-74, 1876-84.) 90 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W. *Hughes, George Pringle, J.P., F.R.G.S. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northumberland. SHucues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Council, 1879-86), Wood- wardian Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge. Ravensworth, Brooklands-avenue, Cambridge. tHuit, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1874.) 14 Stanley-gardens, Notting Hill, W. tHulton, Campbell G. Palace Hotel, Southport. §Hume, D. G. W. P.O. Box 1132, Johannesburg. tHume, John H. Toronto, Canada ; and 63 Bridgegate, Irvine. *Humphreys, Alexander C., Sc.D., LL.D., President of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A. §Humphries, Albert E. Coxe’s Lock Mills, Weybridge. *Hunt, Arraur Roors, M.A., F.G.8S. Southwood, Torquay. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur, Southwood, Torquay. {Hunter, F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham. tHunter, Mrs. F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham. *Hunter, William. Evirallan, Stirling. tHurst, Charles C., F.L.8. Burbage, Hinckley. *Hurst, Walter, M.D., B.Sc. 210 Seventh-avenue, San Francisco, U.S.A. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down, Treland. Hutcheon, Duncan, M.R.C.V.S., Department of Agriculture, Cape Town. *Horonmson, A., M.A., Ph.D. (Local Sec. 1904.) Pembroke College, Cambridge. §Hutchinson, Rev. H. N. 17 St. John’s Wood Park, Finchley- road, N.W. Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire. *Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. *Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. *Hutton, R. S., M.Sc. The Victoria University, Manchester. tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport. *Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces- tershire. *Hyndman, H. H. Francis. 27 Pembroke-square, W. {Idris, T. H. W. 110 Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W. Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg. *Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada. {lliffe, J. W. Oak Tower, Upperthorpe, Sheffield. tim Thurn, Sir Everard F., C.B., K.C.M.G. Colombo, Ceylon. *Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley, Kent. §Ingham, Charles B. Moira House, Eastbourne. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 43 Election. 1905. {Ingham, W. Engineer’s Office, Sand River, Uitenhage. 1893. {Ingle, Herbert. Department of Agriculture, Pretoria. 1901. 1905. 1901. 1882. 1903. 1908. 1905. 1876. 1883. 1903. 1883. 1883. 1874. 1899. 1897. 1906. 1898, 1905. 1905. 1887. 1905. 1874. 1905. 1906. 1891. 1891. 1904. 1905. 1896. 1881. 1859. 1889. 1896. 1903. 1904. 1897. 1903. 1904. 1893. 1905. 1905. tiveuts, Joun, LL.D. 4 Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. §Innes, R. T. A., F.R.A.S. Meteorological Observatory, Johannes- burg. *Tonides, Stephen A. 37 Moscow-court, Bayswater, W. §Irvina, Rev. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort- ford, Herts. tIrving, W. B. 27 Park-road, Southport. §frwin, Alderman John. 33 Rutland-square, Dublin. {Iwasaki, Koyata. Pembroke College, Cambridge. *Jack, Winir1am, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow. 10 The University, Glasgow. *Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 349 Collins-street, Melbourne, Australia. §Jackson, C.S. 25 Nightingale-place, Woolwich, 8.E. *Jackson, F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport. tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport. *Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Somenos, Vancouver Island, B.C., Canada. {Jackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, S.W. §Jackson, James, F.R.Met.Soc. Seabank, Girvan, N.B. *Jackson, James Thomas, M.A. Engineering School, Trinity College, Dublin. *Jackson, Sir John. 51 Victoria-street, S.W. {Jacobsohn, Lewis B. Lloyd’s-buildings, 58 Burg-street, Cape Town. tJacobsohn, Sydney Samuel. Lloyd’s-buildings, 58 Burg-street, Cape Town. §Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Manchester. *Jaffé, Arthur, B.A. Strandtown, Belfast. *Jaffé, John. Villa Jaffé, 38 Promenade des Anglais, Nice, France. {Jagger, J. W. St. George’s-street, Cape Town. {Jalland, W. H. Museum-street, York. *James, Charles Henry, J.P. 64 Park-place, Cardiff. *James, Charles Russell. 5 Raymond-buildings, Gray’s Inn, W.C. tJames, Thomas Campbell. University College, Aberystwyth. {Jameson, Adam. Office of the Commissioner of Lands, Pretoria. *Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg. {Jamieson, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Principal of the College of Science and Arts, Glasgow. *Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire. *Japp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen. *Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire. {Jarrarr, J. Ernest. (Local Sec. 1903.) 10 Cambridge-road, Southport. *Jeans, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics in Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.A. jJeffrey, E.C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada. {Jenkinson, J. W. The Museum, Oxford. {Jenkinson, W. W. 6 Moorgate-street, E.C. §Jennings, G. E. Glen Helen, Narborough-road, Leicester. tJennings, Sydney. P.O. Box, 149 Johannesburg. {Jerome, Charles. P.O. Box 83, Johannesburg. 44 BRITISH ASSOCTATION, Year of Election. 1887. {JeRvis-Smiru, Rev. F. J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford. Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield. 1900. *Jevons, H. Stanley, M.A., B.Se. Llanishen, near Cardiff. 1907. *Jevons, Miss H. W. 19 Chesterford-gardens, Hampstead, N.W. 1905. §Jeyes, Miss Gertrude, B.A. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew Gardens. 1905. tJobson, J. B. P.O. Box 3341, Johannesburg. 1884. tJoHNson, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Montreal, Canada. 1865. *Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 1881. {Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham. 1890. *Jonnson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 1902, *Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Se. Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar School, York. 1898. *Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. Broadstone, Coleman’s Hatch, Sussex. 1899. §Johnston, Colonel Sir Duncan A., K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E. Ordnance Survey, Southampton. 1883. tJoHnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. 27 Chester- terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1884. *Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire. 1885. {Jounston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes, France. 1888. {Jory, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin. Geological Depart- ment, Trinity College, Dublin. 1887. iJones, D. E., B.Sc. Inglewood, Four Oaks, Sutton Coldfield. 1904. §Jones, Miss E. E. Constance. Girton College, Cambridge. 1890. §Jonrs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay, Skipton. 1896. {Jones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor. 1903. §Jones, Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare. 1887. {Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, Manchester. 1891. *Jonus, Rev. G..HartweE.1, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey. 1883. *Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road, Waterloo, Liverpool. 1903. *Jonus, H. O., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge. 1901. §Jones, R. E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury. 1902. {Jones, R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast. 1905. {Jones, Miss Parnell. The Rectory, Llanddewi Skirrid, Aberga- venny, Monmouthshire. 1860. {Jonzs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1891.) Pen- bryn, Chesham Bois-lane, Chesham, Bucks. 1875. *Jose, J. E. Ethersall, Tarbock-road, Huyton, Lancashire. 1872. tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, S.W. 1883. {Joyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester. 1886. {Joyce, Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester. 1905. {Judd, Miss Hilda M., B.Sc. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew. 1870. {Jupp, Jonn WESLEY, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1885 ; Council, 1886-92.) Orford Lodge, 30 Cumberland-road, Kew. 1903. §JuL1an, Henry Forpes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay. 1894. §Julian, Mrs. Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay. 1905. §Juritz, C. F., M.A., F.I.C. Government Analytical Laboratory, Parliament-street, Cape Town. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 45 Year of Election. 1888. 1904. 1892. 1878. 1884. 1902. 1885. 1877. 1887. 1898. 1884. 1891. 1875. 1906. 1897. 1906. 1905. 1893. 1901. 1857. 1892. 1889. 1869. 1869. 1903. 1883. 1905. 1902. 1906. 1886, 1901. 1885. 1896. 1890. 1905. 1905. 1875. 1872. {Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. Pen-y-Coed, Pritchatts- road, Birmingham. {Kayser, Professor H. The University, Bonn, Germany. {Keane, Cuartes A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Jewry-street, Aldgate, E.C. *Kelland, W. H. 80 Lothian-road, S.W. {Kellogg, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A. *Kelly, William J., J.P. 25 Oxford-street, Belfast. §Kexrie, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1897; Council, 1898-1904.) 1 Savile-row, W. *Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire ; and 15 Eaton-place, 8.W, {Kemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man- chester. *Kemp, John T., M.A. 4 Cotham-grove, Bristol. {Kemper, Andrew C., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, USA tKenpati, Percy F., M.Se., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Leeds. {Kennepy, Sir ALexanpER B. W., LL.D., F.R.S., MInst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1894.) 1 Queen Anne-street, Cavendish-square, W. {Kennedy, Alfred Joseph, F.R.G.S. Care of Williams Deacon’s Bank, Ltd., 2 Cockspur-street, S.W. §Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D., K.C. Crown Lands Department, Toronto, Canada. Kennedy, Robert Sinclair. Glengall Ironworks, Millwall, E. *Kennerley, W. R. P.O. Box 158, Pretoria. §Kenr, A. F. Stanuey, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Physiology in University College, Bristol. tKent, G. 16 Premier-road, Nottingham. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland. {Kerr, J. Granam, M.A., Professor of Natural History in the University, Glasgow. tKerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere. *Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Elysée Villa, Manchester-road, Altrincham, Cheshire. §Kewley, James. Balek Papan, Koltei, Dutch Borneo. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge. {Kidd, Professor A. Stanley. Rhodes University College, Grahams- town, Cape Colony. §Kidd, George. Greenhaven, Malone Park, Belfast. §Kidner, Henry, F.G.S. 78 Gladstone-road, Watford. §Kipsron, Ropert, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. 12 Clarendon-place, Stirling. *Kiep, J. N. 4 Hughenden-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow. *iilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen. *Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo, Liverpool. {Kmmns, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Dame Armstrong House, Harrow. §Kincaid, Major-General W. Care of Messrs, Alexander, Fletcher, & Co., 2 St. Helen’s-place, Bishopsgate-street, E.C. §Kincaid, Mrs. Care of Messrs. Alexander, Fletcher, & Co., 2 St. Helen’s-place, Bishopsgate-street, H.C. *Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. *King, Mrs. E. M. Melrose, Alachua, Co. Florida, U.S.A. 46 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Hlection. 1888. 1875. 1899. 1871. 1883. 1883. 1860. 1875. 1870. 1903. 1900. 1899. 1907. 1905. 1901. 1886. 1905. 1888. 1887. 1887. 1906. 1874. 1903. 1902. 1875. 1883. 1905. 1890. 1888 1905. 1885. 1904. 1904, 1889, 1887. 1903. 1893. 1905. 1898. 1905. 1886. *King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants. *King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. {Kine, Sir Gzorcz, K.C.LE., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1899.) Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street, 8.W. *King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath. *King, John Godwin. Stonelands, West Hoathly. *King, Joseph. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol. *King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol. {King, William, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Beach-lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool. §Kingsford, H. §., M.A. Royal Anthropological Institute, 3 Hanover-square, W. {Kreprne, Professor F. Srantey, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. University College, Nottingham. *Kirby, Miss C. F. 74 Kensington Park-road, W. §Kirby, William Forsell, F.L.8. Hilden, 18 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick, W. {Kirkby, Reginald G. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal. §Kitto, Edward. The Observatory, Falmouth. {Knight, Captain J. M., F.G.8. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex. §Knightley, Lady, of Fawsley. Fawsley Park, Daventry. tKyorr, Professor Carcitt G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray- street, Edinburgh. *Knott, Herbert. Sunnybank, Wilmslow, Cheshire. *Knott, John F. St. Martin’s, Hooton, near Chester. *Knowles, Arthur J., B.A., M.Inst.C.E. New Nile Bridge, Roda Island, Cairo, Egypt. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim. {Knowlson, J. F. 26 Part-street, Southport. {Kwox, R. Kytz, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast. *Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge. {Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge. {Koenig, J. P.O. Box 272, Cape Town. *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Stonycroft, Knutsford-road, Wilms- low, Cheshire. *Kunz, G. F., M.A., Ph.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union- square, New York City, U.S.A. tLacey, William. Champ d’Or Gold Mining Co., Luipaardsvlei, Transvaal. *Laing, J. Gerard. 5 Pump-court, Temple, E.C. {Lake, Philip. St. John’s College, Cambridge. {Lamb, C. G. Ely Villa, Glisson-road, Cambridge. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants. {Lams, Horacr, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 190-4), Pro- fessor of Pure Mathematics in the Victoria University, Man- chester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester. tLambert, Joseph. 9 Westmoreland-road, Southport. *Lampiuau, G. W., F.B.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1906.) 13 Beaconsfield- road, St. Albans. tLane, Rev. C. A. P.O. Box 326, Johannesburg. *Lane, WitttaM H. 61 Gibson-street, Hillhead, Glasgow. §Lange, John H. Judges’ Chambers, Kimberley. *Lanetey, J. N., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899; Council, 1904-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Cam- bridge. ‘Trinity College, Cambridge. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 47 Election. 1865. 1880. 1884, 1885. 1887. 1881. 1883. 1896. 1870. 1900. 1892. 1883. 1907. 1870. 1884. 1907. 1905. 1888. 1883. 1894. 1884. 1905. 1901. 1904. 1884. 1872. 1895. 1898. 1907. 1896. 1894. 1884. 1905. 1892. 1886. 1906. tLangester, Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1906; Pres. D, 1883 ; Council, 1889-90, 1894-95, 1900-02.) 29 Thurloe-place, S.W. *LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E. §Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, U.S.A. tLapworrs, Cuaries, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1892), Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University of Birmingham. 48 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birming- ham. tLarmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down. tLarmor, Josepy, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. St. John’s College, Cambridge. §Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Longridge, Harrow. *Last, William I. Victoria and Albert Museum, London, S.W. *LaTHAM, Batpwry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Parliament-mansions, Westminster, $.W. tLauder, Alexander, Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture, Edinburgh. {Lavriz, Matcorm, B.A., D.Sec., F.L.8. School of Medicine, Sur- geons’ Hall, Edinburgh. tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia, Canada. *Laurie, Robert Douglas. 16 James-street, Birkenhead. *Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay. tLaw, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax, Yorkshire. §LawrorD, JAMES. London City and Midland Bank, Leicester. §Lawrence, Miss M. Roedean School, near Brighton. §Layard, Miss Nina F. Rookwood, Tonnereau-road, Ipswich. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland. *Luany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield. *Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland. tLeake, E. O. 5 Harrison-street, Johannesburg. *Lean, George, B.Sc. 15 Park-terrace, Glasgow. *Leathem, J. G. St. John’s College, Cambridge. *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, U.S.A. {Lusour, G. A., M.A., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. *Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate. tLen, Arruur, J.P. (Local Sec. 1898.) 10 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol. §Lee, Mrs. Barton. 37 Derby-road, Heaton Moor, Stockport. §Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. The Limes, Derby-road, Heaton Moor, Stockport. *Lee, Mrs. W. Ashdown House, Forest Row, Sussex, *Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire. §Lees, Mrs. A. P. Care of Parr’s Bank, York-street, Manchester. *Lens, Cuartes H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the East London College, Mile End. Greenacres, Mayfield-avenue, Woodford Green, Essex. *Lees, Lawrence W. Old Ivy House, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton. tLees, Robert. Victoria-street, Fraserburgh. 48 BRITISH ASSOCBATION. Year of Election. 1905. 1889. 1906. 1881. 1905. 1892. 1891. 1903. 1906. 1905. 1882. 1903. 1902. 1887. 1901. 1905. 1904. 1890. 1904. 1900. 1896. 1905. 1887. 1893. 1905. 1904. 1870. 1891. 1905. 1904. 1884. 1903. 1906. 1908. 1904. 1898. 1895. 1888. 1861, 1876, tLees, R. Wilfrid. Pigg’s Peak Development Co., Swaziland, South Africa. *Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport. *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House, Twickenham, Middlesex. {Leetham, Sidney. Elm Bank, York. {Le Fevvre, J. KE. (Local Sec. 1882.) Southampton. tLegg, W. A. P.O. Box 1621, Cape Town. {Leuretpt, Ropert A. 56 Norfolk-square. W. {Leigh, W. W. Glyn Bargoed, Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire. {Leighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Pathology in the Royal Veterinary College, Edinburgh. {Leiper, Robert T., M.B., F.Z.S. London School of Tropical Medicine, Royal Albert Dock, E. §Leitch, Donald. P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg. §Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, South- ampton. *Lempfert, R. G. K., M.A. Meteorological Office, 63 Victoria- street, S.W. {Lennox, R. N. Rosebank, Hammersmith, W. *Leon, John T. Elmwood, Grove-road, Southsea. §LronarD, J. H., B.Sc. 28 Talgarth-road, West Kensington, W. {Leonard, Right Rev. Bishop John. St. Mary’s, Cape Town. tLepper, Alfred William. 6 Trinity College, Dublin. *Lester, Joseph Henry, Royal Exchange, Manchester. *Le Sueur, H. R., D.Sc. Chemical Laboratory, St. Thomas’s Hospital, 8.E. {Letts, Professor E. A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Queen’s College, Belfast. §Lever, W. H. Thornton Manor, Thornton Hough, Cheshire. tLevin, Benjamin. P.O. Box 74, Cape Town. *Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester. *Luwes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E. tLewin, J. B. Duncan’s-chambers, Shortmarket-street, Cape Town. *Lewis, Mrs. Agnes 8., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane, Cam- bridge. {Lewis, Atrrep LioneL. 35 Beddington-gardens, Wallington, Surrey. {Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth. tLewis, F.8., M.A. South African Public Library, Cape Town. {Lewis, Hugh. Glanafrau, Newtown, Montgomeryshire. *Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare. §Lewkowitsch, Dr. J. 71 Priory-road, N.W. §Liddiard, James Edward, F.R.G.S. Rodborough Grange, Bourne- mouth. §Lilly, W. E., M.A., Sc.D. 39 ‘Trinity College, Dublin. tLink, Charles W. 14 Chichester-road, Croydon. §Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol. *ListeR, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.C.S., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1896.) 12 Park-crescent, Portland-place, W. {Lisrer, J. J., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1906.) St. John’s College, Cambridge. ; *Livetne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882 ; Council 1888-95 ; Local Sec. 1862), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge. *LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. United University Club, Suffolk-street, Pall Mall, W. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 49 Election. 1902. 1903. 1891. 1865. 1854. 1892. 1905. 1904. 1865. 1902. 1900. - 1886. 1875. 1894. 1896. 1899. 1902. 1903. 1905. 1883. 1904. 1905. 1898. 1901. 1875. 1872. 1881. 1899. 1903. 1897. 1883. 1896. 1887. 1886. 1904. 1876. 1905. 1885. 1891. 1885. 1905. 1886. 1894. 1903. 1901. 1891. 1906. §Llewellyn, Evan. Working Men’s Institute and Hall, Blaenavon. §Lloyd, Godfrey I. H. 8 Claremont-place, Sheffield. *Lioyp, R. J., M.A., D.Litt., F.R.S.E. 49a Grove-street, Liverpool. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Park Lane House, Wednesbury. *Lostey, J. Logan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 36 Palace-street, Bucking- ham Gate, S.W. tLocnu, C.8., B.A. Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge-road, 8. W. tLochrane, Miss T. 8 Prince’s-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow. tLock, Rev. J. B. Herschel House, Cambridge. tLooxyenr, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1903 ; Council, 1871-76, 1901-02.) 16 Penywern-road, S.W. *Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road, S.W. §Lockyer, W. J.8., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, 8.W. *Loper, ALFRED, M.A. The Croft. Peperharow-road, Godalming. *Loper, Sir Oxiver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1891; Council, 1891-97, 1899-1903), Principal of the University of Birmingham. *Lodge, Oliver W. F. 17 Ruskin-buildings, Westminster, S.W. §Lomas, J., F.G.S. 13 Moss-grove, Birkenhead. §Loneq. Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France. {LonponpERRy, The Marquess of, K.G. Londonderry House, Park-lane, W. tLong, Frederick. The Close, Norwich. §Long, W. F. City Engineer’s Office, Cape Town. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington. *Longden, J. A., M.Inst.C.E. Stanton-by-Dale, Nottingham. §Longden, Mrs. J. B. Stanton-by-Dale, Nottingham. *Longfield, Miss Gertrude. Belmont, High Halstow, Rochester. *Longstaff, Frederick V., F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.8., F.S.S8. Highlands, Putney Heath, S.W. *Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, S.W. *Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, S.W. *Longstaff, Tom G., M.A., M.D. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, S.W. {Loton, John, M.A. 23 Hawkshead-street, Southport. tLovupon, James, LIL.D., President of the University of ‘Toronto, Canada. *Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, W. §Louis, Henry, M.A., Professor of Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. *Love, A. E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1907), Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 34 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford. *Love, E. F. J.. M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia. *Love, J. B. Outlands, Devonport. *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.8., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W. tLoveday, Professor T. South African College, Cape Town. §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex. §Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan. *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex. tLowe, E. C. Chamber of Trade, Johannesburg. *Lowe, John Landor, B.Se., M.Inst.C.E. Spondon, Derbyshire. {tLowenthal, Miss Nellie. Woodside, Egerton, Huddersfield. *Lowry, Dr. T. Martin. 130 Horseferry-road, S.W. *Lucas, Keith. Greenhall, Forest Row, Sussex. *Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-pare, Whitchurch, near Cardiff §Ludlam, Ernest Bowman. Ackworth School, Pontefract, Yorks. e| 1907. D 50 BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Year of Election. 1866. *Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire. 1850. *Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff. 1905. {Lunnon, F. J. P.O. Box 400, Pretoria. 1883. *Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8S. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds. 1874. *Lupton, Sypnry, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890.) 102 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, W. 1898. §Luxmoore, Dr. C. M. University College, Reading. _ 1903. tLyddon, Ernest H. Lisvane, near Cardiff. 1884. tLyman, H. H. 384 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada. 1907. *Lyons, Captain Henry George, R.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director- General of the Survey Department, Egypt. Gezira Gardens, Cairo, Egypt. 1905. {Maberly, Dr. John. Shirley House, Woodstock, Cape Colony. 1868. {MacaListEeR, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892; Council, 1901-06), Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge. 1878. {MacAuisteR, Donato, M.A., M.D., LL.D., B.Sc., Principal of the University of Glasgow. 1904. {Macalister, Miss M. A. M. Torrisdale, Cambridge. 1896. {Macatium, Professor A. B., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1897.) 59 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada. 1879. §MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon. 1883. {MacAndrew, Mrs. J.J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon. 1866. *M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W. 1896. *Macaulay, F. S., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W. 1904. *Macaulay, W. H. King’s College, Cambridge. 1896. {MacBripz, Professor E. W., M.A., F.R.S. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. 1902. *Maccall, W. T., M.Sc. 223 Burrage-road, Plumstead. 1884, *McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin. 1887. *McCarthy, James. Care of Sir Sherston Baker, Bart., 18 Caven- dish-road, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1904. §McClean, Frank Kennedy. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells. 1876. *M‘Cietianp, A. S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 1902. {McClelland, J. A., M.A., Professor of Physics in University College, Dublin. 1906. {McClure, Rev. E. 80 Eccleston-square, S.W. 1878. *M‘Comas, Henry. Pembroke House, Pembroke-road, Dublin. 1901. *MacConkey, Alfred. Queensberry Lodge, Elstree, Herts. 1905. {McConnell, D. E. Montrose-avenue, Orangezicht, Cape Town. 1901. {MacCormac, J. M., M.D. 31 Victoria-place, Belfast. 1892. *McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. Henderson-street, Bridge of Allan, N.B. 1901. {McCrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow. 1905. §McCulloch, Principal J. D. Free College, Edinburgh. 1904. {McCulloch, Major T., R.A. 68 Victoria-street, 8.W. 1904. {Macdonald, H. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Aberdeen. 1905. {McDonald, J. G. P.O. Box 67, Bulawayo. 1900. {MacDonald, J. Ramsay, M.P. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C. 1890. *MacDonald, Mrs. J. Ramsay. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C. 1905. §Macdonald, J. 8., B.A., Professor of Physiology in the University of Sheffield. 1884. *Macdonald, Sir W. C. 449 Sherbrooke-street West, Montreal, Canada. #2!» 1897. {McEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh. * Year of Election 1906. 1885. 1905. 1901, 1888. 1908. 1906. 1884. 1902. 1905. 1867. 1884, 1885. 1873. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1897. 1901. 1872. 1901. 1887. 1885. 1894. 1901. 1905. 1901. 1901. 1905. 1892. 1905. 1868. 1883. 1902. 1905. 1878. 1905. 1905. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. or _ * §McFarlane, John. 30 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester. t{Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn- sylvania, U.S.A. tMacfarlane, T. J. M. P.O. Box 1198, Johannesburg. tMacfee, John. 5 Greenlaw-terrace, Paisley. {MacGeorge, James. 7 Stonor-road, Kensington, W. §McGratu, Josepn, LL.D. (Local Sec. 1908.) Royal University of Ireland, Dublin. §Macgregor, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. *MacGrecor, JaMEs Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Udinburgh. t{Mcllroy, Archibald. Glenvale, Drumbo, Lisburn, Ireland. {Macindoe, Flowerdue. 23 Saratoga-avenue, Johannesburg. *McInrosn W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1885), Professor of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B. §MacKay, A H., B.Sc., LL.D., Superintendent of Education. Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. tMackay, Joun Yuts, M.D., LL.D., Principal of and Professor of Anatomy in University College, Dundee. tMcKernprick, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. I, 1901 ; Council, 1903- ), Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Maxieburn, Stonehaven, N.B. tMcKenzie, A. R. P.O. Box 214, Cape Town. §Mackenzie, Hector. Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape Town. tMackenzie, J. 13 Derwent-road, Kloof-road, Cape Town. tMcKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada. *Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. Netherby, Manse-road, Motherwell,N.B. *Mackey, J. A. United University Club, Pall Mall East, S.W. tMackie, William, M.D. 13 North-street, Elgin. {Mackrinper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895 ; Council, 1904- 1905.) London School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C. *M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place, Edinburgh. *McLaren, Mrs. E. L. Colby, M.B., Ch.B. 11 Leopold-place, Edin. burgh. ¢Maclaren, J. Malcolm. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber- land Avenue, W.C. {McLaren, Thomas. P.O. Box 1034, J ohannesburg. {Maclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glasgow. t{McLean, Angus, B.Sc. Ascog, Meikleriggs, Paisley. t MacLean, Lachlan. Greenhill, Kenilworth, Cape Colony. *Mactean, Macnvs, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901), Pro- fessor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow. *Maclear, Admiral J. P. Beaconscroft, Chiddingfold, Godalming. §McLxop, Hersert, F.R.S. (Pres. PB, 1892 ; Council, 1885-90.) 9 Coverdale, Richmond, Surrey. t{MacManon, Major Percy A., R.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (GENERAL Secretary, 1902- ; Pres. A, 1901 ; Council, 1898-1902.) 27 Evelyn-mansions, Carlisle-place, S.W. {McMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down. {MacNay, Arthur. Cape Government Railway Offices, De Aar, Cape Colony. {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin. §Macphail, Dr. S. Rutherford. Rowditch, Derby. tMacrae, Harold J. P.O. Box 817, Johannesburg. p2 52 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1907. 1906. 1908. 1902. 1902. 1908. 1905. 1902. 1875. 1902. 1907. 1857. 1905. 1897. 1903. 1905. 1894. 1905. 1887. 1902. 1898. 1900. 1864. 1905. 1905. 1881. 1903. 1884. 1892. 1883. 1887. 1889. 1904. 1905. 1892. 1901. 1886. 1907. 1899. 1891. 1905. 1884. 1889. §Macrosty, Henry W. 29 Hervey-road, Blackheath, 8.H. §Macturk, G. W. B. 15 Bowlalley-lane, Hull. §McWalter, J. C., M.D., M.A. 19 North Earl-street, Dublin. tMcWeeney, E..J., M.D. 84 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. MeWhirter, William. 9 Walworth-terrace, Glasgow. Madden, Rt. Hon. Mr. Justice. Nutley Booterstown, Dublin. Magenis, Lady Louisa. 34 Lennox-gardens, 8.W. Magill, R., M.A., Ph.D. The Manse, Maghera, Co. Derry. Maanvus, Sir Puitre, B.Sc., B.A., M.P. (Pres. L, 1907.) 16 Glouces- ter-terrace, Hyde Park, W. {Mahon, J. L. 2 May-street, Drumcondra, Dublin. *Mair, David. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-gardens, W. {Matxier, Jonn Wiiiam, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A. §Maltby, Lieutenant G. R., R.N. 54 St. George’s-square, S.W. {Mancg, Sir H. C. Old Woodbury, Sandy, Bedfordshire. tManifold, C. C. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W. {Manning, D. W., F.R.G.S. Roydon, Rosebank, Cape Town. {Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts. {Mansfield, J. D. 94 St. George’s-street, Cape Town. *March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S8.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorsetshire. *Marchant, Dr. E. W. The University. Liverpool. *Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol. tMargerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds. {Markuam, Sir Crements R., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.A. (Pres. E, 1879 ; Council, 1893-96.) 21 Eccleston-square, S.W. §Marks, Samuel. P.O. Box 379, Pretoria. tMarloth, R., M.A., Ph.D. P.O. Box 359, Cape Town. *Marr, J. E., M.A.,.D.Se., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1896 ; Council, 1896-1902.) St. John’s College, Cambridge. §Marriott, William. Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria- street, S.W. *Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leffingwell-avenue, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. *Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire. *Marsh, Henry Carpenter. 3 Lower James-street, Golden-square, W. tMarsh, J. E., M.A., F.R.S. University Museum, Oxford. *MARSHALL, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1890), Professor of Political Eeonomy i in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge. {Marshall, FH. A. University of Edinburgh. §Marshall, G. A. K. 6 Chester-place, Hyde Park-square, W. §Marsuatt, Huan, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 12 Lonsdale-terrace, Edinburgh. tMarshall, Robert. 97 Wellington-street, Glasgow. *MARSHALL, WILLIAM BayLEy, M.Inst.C.E. 21 St. John’s Wood- park, N.W. §Marston, Robert. 14 Ashleigh-road, Leicester. §Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks. ee Edward P., J.P. The Hill, Abergavenny, Monmouth- shire. tMartin, John. P.O. Box 217, Germiston, Transvaal. §Martin, N. H., J.P., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead. *Martin- Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New Barnet, Herts. Ki 92? -1-+- LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. ao Year of Election. 1871. ea Sir J. D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1871, 1876, 1901.) asgow. 1905. tMarwick, J.S. P.O. Box 1166, Johannesburg. 1905. ne, ee. Charles. Shabana, Robinson-street, Belgravia, South Tica. 1907. §Masefield, J. R. B., M.A. Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire. 1847. {Masketyner, Nevin Srory, M.A., D.Sc., F.RB.S., F.G.S. (Council, 1874-80). Basset Down House, Swindon. 1905. *Mason, Justice A. W. Supreme Court, Pretoria. 1893. *Mason, Thomas. Enderleigh, Alexandra-park, Nottingham. 1891. *Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire. 1905. §Massy, Miss Mary. York House, Teignmouth, Devon. 1898. {t{Masterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B. 1901. *Mather, G. R. Boxlea, Wellingborough. 1887. *Mather, Sir William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Man-chester. 1908. §Matheson, Sir R. E., LL.D. Charlemont House, Rutland-square, Dublin. 1905. {Mathew, Alfred Harfield. P.O. Box 242, Cape Town. 1894. {MarHews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 1902. tMatley, C. A., D.Sc. 7 Morningside-terrace, Edinburgh. 1904. {Matthews, D. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth. 1905. {Matthews, J. Wright, M.D. P.O. Box 437, Johannesburg. 1893. {Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada. 1865. *Maw, Gzoras, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey. 1894. §Maxim, Sir Hiram §. Thurlow Park, Norwood-road, West Norwood, S.E. 1903. {Maxwell, J. M. 37 Ash-street, Southport. 1901. *May, W. Page, M.D., B.Sc. University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1884, *Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 411 Fulham-road, 8.W. 1905. §Maylard, A. Ernest. 10 Blythswood-square, Glasgow. 1905. tMaylard, Mrs. 10 Blythswood-square, Glasgow. 1878. *Mayne, Thomas. 19 Lord Edward-street, Dublin. 1904. {Mayo, Rev. J., LL.D. 6 Warkworth-terrace, Cambridge. 1905. {Mearns, J. Herbert, M.D. Edenville, 10 Oxford-road, Observatory, Cape Town. 1879. §Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W. 1905. §Mein, W. W. P.O. Box 1024, Johannesburg. 1881. *Mrtpouia, Rapwakt, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC. (Pres. B, 1895 ; Council, 1892-99), Professor of Chemistry in the Fins- bury Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, W.C. 1883. {Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street, Southport. 1879. *Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop. 1866. {MxELLo, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S8. Cliff Hill, Warwick. 1896. §Mellor, G. H. Weston, Blundellsands, Liverpool. 1881. §Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York. 1905. *Melvill, E. H. V., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. P.O. Box 719, Johannesburg. 1901. {Mennell, F. P. 8 Addison-road, W. 1905. §Meredith, H.O. Dunwood House, Withington, Manchester. 1908. §MerepitTH, Sir Jamus, LL.D. (Local Treas. 1908.) Royal Uni- versity of Ireland, Dublin. 1879. {Merivatz, Joun Herman, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889.) Togston Hall, Acklington. 1899. *Merrett, William H., F.I.C. Hatherley, Grosvenor-road, Walling- ton, Surrey. 1905. {Merriman, Hon. John X. Schoongezicht, Stellenbosch, Cape Colony. a4 Year of Election 1899. 1889. 1905. 1896. 1869. 1903. 1881. 1904. 1894. 1885. 1905. 1889. 1895. 1902. 1904. 1905. 1868. 1902. 1907. 1882. 1903. 1898. 1907. 1880. 1901. 1901. 1905. 1885. 1905. 1908. 1905. 1895. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1883. 1908. 1900. 1905. 1905. 1887. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. {Merryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W. *Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. tMethven, Cathcart W. Club Arcade, Smith-street, Durban. §Metzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A. tMiatt, Louris C., F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1897; Local Sec. 1890.) 1 Richmond-mount, Headingley, Leeds. {Micklethwait, Miss F. G. Queen’s College, Galway. *Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of. Bishop’s House, Middlesbrough. {Middleton, T. H., M.A. South House, Barton-road, Cambridge. *Miers, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1905), Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford. §Mitt, HueH Ropert, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1901.) 62 Camden-square, N.W. §Mill, Mrs. H. R. 62 Camden-square, N.W. *MiitLar, RopeRtT CockBurn, 30 York-place, Edinburgh. Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth. {Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich. {Millin, 8. T. Sheridan Lodge, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down. §Millis, C. T. Hollydene, Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon. §Mills, Mrs. A. A. 36 St. Andrews-street, Cambridge. *Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 64 Twyford-avenue, West Acton, W. tMills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry. §Milne, A., M.A. University School, Hastings. *Mitnt, Joun, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. Shide, Newport, Isle of Wight. *Milne, R. M. Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, South Devon. *Milner, 8S. Roslington, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield. §Milton, J. H., F.G.S. Harrison House, Crosby, Liverpool. tMuvcutyn, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Indian Engineering College, Coopers Hill, Surrey. *Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow. *Mitchell, G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow. {Mitchell, John. Government School House, Jeppestown, Transvaal. {Mrrcneii, P. Cuatmers, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.Z.S8. (Council, 1906- .) 3 Hanover-square, W. *Mitchell, William Edward. Ferreira Deep, Johannesburg. §Mitchell, W: M. 2 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin. {Mitter, M. Care of J. Speak, Esq., The Grange, Kirton, near Boston. *Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire. §Moir, James, D.Sc. Mines Department, Johannesburg. {Moir, Dr. W. Ironside. Care of Dr. McAulay, Cleveland, Transvaal. §Molengraaff, Professor G. A. F. The Technical University of Delft, The Hague. tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge. §Molloy, W. R. J., J.P., M.R.I.A. 78 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Co. Dublin. *Moncxton, H. W., Treas.L.8., F.G.S. 3 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, H.C. *MoncrizrF, Colonel Sir C. Scort, G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., R.E. (Pres. G, 1905.) 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W. tMoncrieff, Lady Scott. 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W. *Monp, Lupwie, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1896.) 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, N.W. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 55 Year of Election. 1891. *Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1905. *Moore, Brian. Thornhill Villa, Marsh, Huddersfield. 1905. {Moore, Charles Elliott. P.O. Box 5382, Johannesburg. 1894. §Moore, Harold E. Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent. 1908. §Moore, Sir John W., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin. 1901. *Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 1905. §Moore, T. H. Thornhill Villa, Marsh, Huddersfield. 1896. *Mordey, W. M. 82 Victoria-street, 8.W. 1905. {More, T. E. Padern. Carlton Buildings, Parliament-street, Cape Town. 1901. *Moreno, Francisco P. Parana 915, Buenos Aires, 1905. *Morgan, Miss Annie. Friedrichstrasse No. 2, Vienna. ~ 1895. {Moreay, C. Lioyp, F.R.S., F.G.8., Principal of University College, Bristol. 1873. {Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South Kensington, §.W. 1896. {Morgan, George. 21 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpoo!. 1902. {Morcan, GitpeRr T., D.Sc., F.I.C. Royal College of Science, S.W. 1902. *Morgan, Septimus Vaughan. 37 Harrington-gardens, 8.W. 1901. *Morison, James. Perth. 1883. *Mortey, Henry Forsrer, M.A., D.Sc.. F.C.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W. 1906. {Morrell, H. R. Scarcroft-road, York. 1896. {Morrell, R. 8. Caius College, Cambridge. 1905. {Morris, F'., M.B., B.Sc. 18 Hope-street, Cape Town. 1896. *Morris, J.T. 13 Somers-place, W. 1880. §Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea. 1907. §Morris, Colonel Sir W. G., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Charing Cross, W.C. 1899. *Morrow, Joun, M.Sc., D.Eng. Armstrong College, Newcastle- upon-Tyne. 1865. {Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s Villas, Driffield. 1886. *Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W. 1896. *Morron, Wit114M B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. 1878. *Moss, Jonn Francis, F.R.G.S. (Local Sec. 1879.) Edgebrook Cottage, Brincliffe, Sheffield. 1876. §Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society, and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin. 1892. *Mostyn, 8. G., M.A., M.B. 1 Grange-avenue, Harton, near South Shields. 1866. {Morr, Frepurick T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester. 1878. *Movuuron, The Right Hon. Lord Justice, M.A., K.C., F.R.S, ; 57 Onslow-square, S.W. 1899. §Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover. 1905. §Moylan, Miss V. C. 3 Canning-place, Palace Gate, W. 1905. *Moysey, Miss E. L. Piteroft, Guildford, Surrey. 1899. *Muff, Herbert B., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 33 George- square, Edinburgh. 1902. §Muir, Arthur H. 2 Wellington-place, Belfast. 1907. *Muir, Professor James. 189 Renfrew-street, Glasgow. 1874. {Murr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cam- bridge. 1904. §Muir, William. Rowallan, Newton Stewart, N.B. 1872. *Murpunap, ALExanpeER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Carteret-street, Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W. 56 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1905. *Muirhead, James M. P., F.R.S.E. Markham’s-chambers, St. Georg2’s-street, Cape Town. : 1876. *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., D.Sc. 64 Great George-street, Hillhead, Glasgow. 1902. {Mullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry. 1884. *Mttiter, Hueco, Ph.D. F.RS., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East, 1905. 1904. 1898. 1901. 1906. 1904. 1883. 1890. 1884, 1905. 1905. 1891. 1905. 1905. 1884. 1903. 1870. 1902. 1902. 1906. 1890. 1886. 1892. 1890. 1905. 1872. 1883. 1898. 1866. 1889. 1889. 1901. 1889. 1892. 1887. Regent’s Park, N.W. {Mulligan, A. ‘ Natal Mercury’ Office, Durban, Natal. §Mullinger, J. Bass, M.A. 1 Bene’t-place, Cambridge. {Mumford, C. E. Cross Roads House, Bouverie-road, Folkestone. *Munby, Alan E. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, 8.W. Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig Tree-court, Temple, H.C. {Munby, Frederick J. Whixley, York. {Munro, A. Queens’ College, Cambridge. *Munro, Ropmrt, M.A., M.D., LL.D. (Pres. H, 1893.) Elmbank, Largs, Ayrshire, N.B. {Murphy, A. J. Springfield Mount, Leeds. §Murphy, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland. tMurray, Charles F. K., M.D. Kenilworth House, Kenilworth, Cape Colony. tMurray, Dr. F. lLondinium, London-road, Sea Point, Cape Town. tMurray, G. R. M., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. 8 Kerrison-road, Paling, W. §Murray, Dr. J. A. H. Sunnyside, Oxford. §Murray, Mrs. Sunnyside, Oxford. {Mourray, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Se., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.B.S.E. (Pres. E, 1899.) House of Falkland, Falkland, N.B. §Murray, Colonel J. D. Rowbottom-square, Wigan. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool. tMyddleton, Alfred. 62 Duncairn-street, Belfast. *Myers, Charles §., M.A., M.D. Melrose, Grange-road, Cambridge. tMyers, Jesse A. Glengarth, Walker-road, Harrogate. *Myres, JoHN L., M.A., F.S.A., Professor of Greek in the Uni- versity of Liverpool. 1 Norham-gardens, Oxford. tNacex, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894.) Trinity College, Oxford. *Nairn, Sir Michael B., Bart. Kirkcaldy, N.B. {Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, H.C. tNapier, Dr. Francis. 73 Jeppe-street, Von Brandis-square, Johan- nesburg. {Nares, Admiral Sir G.S., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 11 Clare- mont-road, Surbiton. *Neild, Theodore, B.A. The Vista, Leominster. *Nevill, Rev. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South Devon. *Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of Dunedin, New Zealand. {Nevitte, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge. *Newall, H. Frank, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Madingley Rise, Cam- bridge. t{Newman, F. H. Tullie House, Carlisle. tNewstead, A. H. L., B.A. 38 Green-street, Bethnal Green, N.E. tNewron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Florence House, Willow Bridge- road, Canonbury, N. *Nicholson, John Carr, J.P. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 57 Election. 1884 1863. 1863. 1908. 1888. 1883. 1894. 1903. 1908. 1898. 1883. 1858. 1908. 1894. 1902. 1876. 1885. 1905. 1905. 1892. 1893. 1863. 1887. 1883. 1889. 1882. 1880. 1908. 1902. 1902. 1905. 1884, {Nicuotson, Joseru §., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh. *Nos.e, Sir ANpDReEw, Bart., K.C.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. (Pres. G, 1890 ; Council, 1903-06 ; Local Sec. 1863). Elswick Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. §Norman, Rev. Canon ALFRED MrErxs, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.. F.R.S., F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted. §Norman, Conolly, M.D. St. Dymphna’s, North Circular-road, Dublin. {Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath. *Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shrop- shire. §Norcurr, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec. 1895.) Constitu- tion-hill, Ipswich. tNoton, John. 45 Part-street, Southport. §Nutting, Sir John, Bart. St. Helen’s, Co. Dublin. *O’ Brien, Neville Forth. Queen Anne’s-mansions, 8.W. {Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D., K.C. 15 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. *Opiine, Wit11aM, M.B., F.R.S., V-P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864 ; Council, 1865-70), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford. §O’Farrell, Thomas A. 30 Lansdowne-road, Dublin. ftOgden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale. tOgden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport. {Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk. {Ocitviz, F. Granr, C.B., M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1892.) Board of Education, S.W. *Oke, Alfred William, B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.L.S. 32 Denmark- villas, Hove, Brighton. §Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. {OLpHam, H. Yun, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge. *O_puaM, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 9 Pall Mall, S.W. {Outver, Dantet, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens- road, Kew, Surrey. {Oniver, F. W., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1906), Professor of Botany in University College, London. 2 The Vale, Chelsea, S.W. {Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire. {Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. §Olsen, O. T., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby. *Ommanney, Rev. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea, Hants. §O’Neill, Rev. G., M.A. University College, St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin. tO’Neill, Henry, M.D. 6 College-square East, Belfast. {O’Reilly, Patrick Joseph. 7 North Earl-street, Dublin. {O’Riley, J.C. 70 Barnet-street, Gardens, Cape Town. *Orpen, Rev. T. H.,M.A. The Vicarage, Great Shelford, Cambridge. 58 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1901. §Orr, Alexander Stewart. Care of Messrs. Marsland, Price, & Co., Nesbit-road, Mazagon, Bombay, India. 1905. {Orr, Professor John. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg. 1904. *Orton, K. J. P., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University College, Bangor. 1905. {Osborn, Philip B. P.O. Box. 4181, Johannesburg. 1901. {Osborne, W. A., D.Sc. University College, W.C. 1887. {O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield. 1865. *Osler, Henry F. Coppy-hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove, Bir- mingham. 1884. {OsLER, WriitAM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford. University Museum, Oxford. 1881. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby. 1896. tOulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool. 1906. tOwen, Rev. E. C. St. Peter’s School, York. 1903. *Owen, Edwin, M.A. ‘Terra Nova School, Birkdale, Lancashire. 1889. *Owen, Alderman, H. C. Compton, Wolverhampton. 1896. §Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester. 1906. §Page, Carl D. Wyoming House, Aylesbury, Bucks. 1903. *Page, Miss Ellen Iva. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex. 1870. *PaLGRAVE, Ropert Harry Ineus, F.R.S., F.8.8. (Pres. F, 1883.) Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk. 1896. {Pallis, Alexander. 'Tatoi, Argbarth-drive, Liverpool . 1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin. 1866. §Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham. 1880. *Parke, George Henry, F.L.8., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield, Yorkshire. 1904, {ParKxer, E. H., M.A. Thorneycreek, Herschel-road, Cambridge. 1905. {Parker, Hugh. P.O. Box 200, Pietermaritzburg, Natal. 1905. {Parker, John. 37 Hout-street, Cape Town. 1891. {ParKer, WILLIAM Newron, Ph.D., F.Z.8., Professor of Biology in University College, Cardiff. 1905. *Parkes, Tom E. P.O. Box 4580, Johannesburg. 1899. *Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle. 1905. *Parkin, Thomas. Blaithwaite, Carlisle. 1906. §Parkin, Thomas, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. Fairseat, High Wick- ‘ ham, Hastings. 1879. *Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield. 1903. §Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo, near Liverpool. 1908. §Parry, W. R., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Charlemont-terrace, Kingstown, Dublin. 1878. {Parsons, Hon. C. A., C.B., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1904.) Holeyn Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne. 1904. {Parsons, Professor F. G. St. Thomas’s Hospital, 8.E. 1905. *Parsons, Hon. Geoffrey L. Northern Counties Club, Newcastle-on- Tyne. 1898. *Partridge, Miss Josephine M. 15 Grosvenor-crescent, 8.W. 1887. {ParERson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Liverpool. 1897. {Paton, D. Noél, M.D. Physiological Laboratory, The University, Glasgow. 1883. *Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. 120 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh. 1884. *Paton, Hugh. Box 2400, Montreal, Canada. 1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast. 1879. *Patzer, F. R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire. 1883. {Paul, George. 32 Harlow Moor-drive, Harrogate. Year of Election 1863. 1887. 1887. 1877. 1881. 1888. 1876. 1906. 1885. 1886. 1905. 1883. 1893. 1898. 1905. 1883. 1906. 1904. 1855. 1888. 1884. 1878. 1901. 1905. 1905. 1887. 1894. 1896. 1898. 1898. 1905. 1894, 1902. 1884, 1864. 1898. 1874. 1904. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 59 {Pavy, Freperick WriiuiaM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor- street, W. *Paxman, James. Standard Iron Works, Colchester. ‘hie “ae Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s eath. *Payne, J. C. Charles, J.P. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast. {Payne, Mrs. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast. *Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor, Yeovil. {Peace, G. H., M.Inst.C.E. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Man- chester. tPeace, Miss Gertrude. 39 Westbourne-road, Sheffield. {Pracu, B. N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh. *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Collingwood, Manby-road, West Malvern. tPearse, S. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg. {Pearson, Arthur A., C.M.G. Hillsborough, Heath-road, Petersfield, Hampshire. *Pearson, Charles E. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire. §Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol. §Pearson, Professor H. H. W., M.A., I'.L.S. South African College, Cape Town. {Pearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport. §Pearson, Joseph. The University, Liverpool. {Pearson, Karl, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics in University College, London, W.C. Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire. *PrcKkover, Lord, LL.D., F.S.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. tPeckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridge- shire. {Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin. *Peek, William. Dorman’s Park, near East Grinstead. *Peel, Hon. William. 13 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C. §Peirson, J. Waldie. P.O. Box 561, Johannesburg. §Pemberton, Gustavus M. P.O. Box 93, Johannesburg. tPenpLEBuRY, Wituam H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1899.) Woodford House, Mountfields, Shrewsbury. {Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay. {Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph. +Pentecost, Rev. Harold, M.A. The School, Giggleswick, Yorkshire. {Percival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Chesham-street, S.W. {Péringuey, L., D.Se., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape Town. {Peren, A. G., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., F.1.C. 8 Montpelier- terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds. *Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. The Firs, Hengrave-road, Honor Oak Park, S.E. t{Perxis, Witt1am Henry, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. B, 1900; Council, 1901-07), Professor of Organic Chemistry in the Victoria University, Manchester. Fair- view, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester. *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. *Perman, E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff. *Pprry, Joun, M.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (GENERAL TREASURER, 1904- ; Pres. G, 1902; Council, 1901-04), Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, 8.W. *Pertz, Miss D. F. M. 2 Cranmer-road, Cambridge. 60 Year of Election 1900. 1901. 1895. 1871. 1863. 1903. 1905. 1853. 1853. 1877. 1905. 1899. 1894. 1902. 1890. 1905. 1883. 1901. 1885. 1884. 1907. 1888. 1865. 1896. 1905. 1896, 1905. 1893. 1900. 1898. 1907. 1900 1881. 1904. 1896. 1908. 1862. 1906. 1907. 1900. 1907. 1901. 1883. 1905. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. §Petavel, J. E., F.R.S. The University, Manchester. {Pethybridge, G. H. Royal College of Science, Dublin. {Prrrrm, W. M. Furpers, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor of Egyptology in University College, W.C. *Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Hove, Brighton. *PHENE, JOHN SAMUEL, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton- terrace, Oakley-street, 8.W. {Philip, James C. 20 Westfield-terrace, Aberdeen. tPhilip, John W. P.O. Box 215, Johannesburg. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire. *Philips, Herbert. ‘The Oak House, Macclesfield. §Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, Crescent-road, South Woodford, Essex. §Phillimore, Miss C. M. Shiplake House, Henley-on-Thames. *Phillips, Charles E. §. Castle House, Shooter’s Hill, Kent. {Phillips, Staff-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Har- greaves-buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool. tPhillips, J. St. J., B.E. 64 Royal-avenue, Belfast. {Phillips, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni- versity College, Bangor. 2 Snowdon-villas, Bangor. tPhillp, Miss M. E. de R., B.Sc. 12 Crescent-grove, Clapham, S.W. *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster. §Pickard, Robert H., D.Sc. Isca, Merlin-road, Blackburn. *PICKERING, SPENCER P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts. *Pickett, Thomas E.,M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A. §Pickles, A. R., M.A. Todmorden-road, Burnley. *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W. {Pixz, L. Ownn. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. *Pilkington, A. C. Rocklands, Rainhill, Lancashire. {Pilling, Arnold. Royal Observatory, Cape Town. *Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing. {Pim, Miss Gertrude. Charleville, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. *Prrr, WALTER, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath. *Platts, Walter. Fairmount, Bingley. §Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston, Birkenhead. *Plunkett, Right Hon. Sir Horace, K.C.V.0., M.A., F-.R.S. Kelteragh, Foxrock, Co. Dublin. *Pocklington, H. Cabourn, F.R.S. 11 Regent’s Park-terrace, Leeds. §Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds. §Pollard, William. 12 Aberdare-gardens, South Hampstead, N.W. *Pollex, Albert. Tenby House, Egerton Park, Rockferry. §Pollok, James H., D.Sc. 6 St. James’s-terrace, Clonshea, Dublin. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro, Cornwall. *Pontifex, Miss Catherine E. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton, Surrey. §Pope, Alfred, J.P. South Court, Dorchester. *Porz, W.J., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Corchester, Bramhall, Cheshire. *Poppleton, Mrs. A. G. 12 Hyde Park-gate, S.W. §Porter, Alfred W., B.Sc. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions, Lissenden- gardens, N.W. *Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D., D.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport. §Porter, J. B., Ph.D., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Mining Engineering in the McGill University, Montreal, Canada. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 61 Year of Election. 1905 1883 1906. 1907. 1886. 1905. 1898. 1905. 1905. 1873. 1887. 1894, 1887. 1883. 1907. 1884. 1906. 1869. 1888. 1904. 1892. 1906. 1889. 1905. 1903. 1888. 1875. 1897. 1905. 1889. 1876. 1881. 1884. 1879. 1907. 1872. 1871. tPorter, Mrs. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. {Porrrr, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Arm- strong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 13 Highbury, New- castle-upon-Tyne. {Potter-Kirby, Alderman George. Clifton Lawn, York. §Potts, F. A. University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. *PouLton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. D, 1896 ; Council, 1895-1901, 1905-_ ), Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. {Poulton, Mrs. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. *Poulton, Edward Palmer, M.A. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. {Poulton, Miss. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. tPoulton, Miss M. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. *Powell, Sir Francis §., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, W. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs, F.R.G.S. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolverhampton. *Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street, Cavendish-square, W. §Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, H.C. tPoyntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1899), Professor of Physics in the University of Birmingham. 10 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Prain, Lieut.-Col. Davin, C.J.E., M.B., F.R.S. (Council, 1907- .) Royal Gardens, Kew. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford. §Pratt, Miss Edith M., D.Sc. The Woodlands, Silverdale, Lancashire. *PREECE, Sir Wit~t1am Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1888 ; Council, 1888-95, 1896-1902.) Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon Common, 8.W. *Preece, W. Llewellyn. Bryn Helen, Woodborough-road, Putney, S.W. §Prentice, Mrs. Manning. Thelema, Undercliff-road, Felixstowe. {Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock. tPressly, D. L. Coney-street, York. §Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Bradford, Yorkshire. {Pretoria, The Right Rev. the Bishop of, D.D. Pretoria. §Price, Edward E. Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent. Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire. {Pricn, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1895 ; Council, 1898- 1904.) Oriel College, Oxford. *Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow. *Prior, W. A., M.A. Charlton, Headington, Oxford. {Prince, James Perrott, M.D. Durban, Natal. *Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South Hampstead, N.W. *PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W. §Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York. *Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 100 State-street, Chicago, U.S.A. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe. §Pryce, George Arthur. Care of Philip Harris & Co., Limited, 144 Edmund-street, Birmingham. *Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts. *Puckle, Rev. T. J. Chestnut House, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge} 62 3RITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1867 1883. 1903 1904. 1905. 1905. 1885. 1881. 1874. 1866. 1884. 1905. 1860. 1898. 1883. 1883. 1868. 1879. 1855. 1887. 1905. 1905. 1898. 1896. 1894. 1876. 1883. 1869. 1907. 1868. 1861. 1889. 1903. 1892. 1874. 1905. 1868. *Pullar, Sir Robert, M.P., F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth. *Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Braban, Perth. §Pullen-Burry, Miss. Care of Mrs. Kilvington, Coniston, Avondale- road, South Croydon. {Punnett, R. C. Caius College, Cambridge. tPurcell, W. F., M.A., Ph.D. South African Museum, Cape Town. {Purcell, Mrs. W. F. South African Museum, Cape Town. {Purpie, Tuomas, B.Se., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B. {Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The Deanery, York. {Purser, Freprerick, M.A. Rathmines Castle, Dublin. {Purser, Professor Jonny, M.A., LL.D., M.R.LA. (Pres. A, 1902.) Rathmines Castle, Dublin. *Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W. tPurvis, Mr. P.O. Box 744, Johannesburg. *Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon. *Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester. §Pye-Smith, Arnold. 27 Park-hill Rise, Croydon. {Pye-Smith, Mrs. 27 Park-hill Rise, Croydon. {Pyxr-Smrru, P. H., M.D., F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W. ; and Guy’s Hospital, 8.E. tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield. *Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, South- ampton. *Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester. {Raine, Miss. P.O. Box 788, Johannesburg. {Raine, Robert. P.O. Box 1091, Johannesburg. *Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc., Bedford College, York-place, Baker-street, W. *Ramace, Huau, M.A. The Technical Institute, Norwich. *Rampaut, ArtuurR A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.TA. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. *Ramsay, Sir Wiiu1aM, K.C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1897 ; Council, 1891-98), Professor of Chemistry in University College, London. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. {Ramsay, Lady. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. *Rance. H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, W. §Rankine, A. O. 21 Drayton-road, West Ealing, W. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford. {Ransome, Arruur, M.A.,M.D.,F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861.) Sunny- hurst, Deane Park, Bournemouth. Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster. {Rapkin, J. B. Thrale Hall, Streatham, S.W. §Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. §Rastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge. *Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire. {Ravenstey, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1891.) 2 York- mansions, Battersea Park, S.W. {Rawson, Colonel Herbert E., R.E. Army Headquarters, Pretoria. *RayLEicH, The Right Hon. Lord, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. (Presmpent, 1884 ; Truster, 1883- ; Pres. A, 1882; Council, 1878-83), Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 63 Year of Election, 1895. 1883. 1897. 1907. 1896. 1902. 1884. 1852. 1890. 1908. 1905. 1891. 1894, 1891. 1903. 1906. 1901. 1904. 1881. 1883. 1903. 1892. 1901. 1901. 1904. 1897. 1887. 1875. 1894. 1891. 1903. 1889. 1906. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1904. 1905. 1883. 1871. 1900. tRaynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing, Basingstoke. *Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster. *Rayner, Edwin Hartree, M.A. Elm Lodge, Queen’s-road, Ted- dington, Middlesex. §Rea, Carleton, B.C.L. 34 Fougate-street, Worcester. *READ, CHaRLeEs H., F.8.A. (Pres. H, 1899.) British Museum, W.C. {Reade, R. H. Wilmount, Dunmurry. §Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Staffield Hall, Kirkoswald, R.8.0., Cumberland. *REDFERN, Professor Perrer, M.D. (Pres. D, 1874.) 4 Lower- crescent, Belfast. *Redwood, Sir Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.8. Wadham Lodge, Wadham-gardens, N.W. §Reed, Sir Andrew, K.C.B., C.V.O., LL.D. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. §Reed, J. Howard., F.R.G.S. 16St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester. *Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff. *Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton. *Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E. Blaenypant, near Newport, Mon- mouthshire. §Reeves, E. A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W. *Reichel, Sir H. R., LL.D., Principal of University College, Bangor. Penrallt, Bangor, North Wales. *Reid, Andrew T. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow. §Reid, Arthur H. 30 Welbeck-street, W. §Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B. *Rerp, CLement, F.RB.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. *Reid, Mrs. E. M., B.Sc. 7 St. James’s-mansions, West End-lane, N.W. {Rewm, E. Waymours, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in University College, Dundee. *Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow. tReid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glasgow. {Reid, P. J. Moor Cottage, Nunthorpe, R.S.O., Yorkshire. tReid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury. *Reid, Walter Francis. TFieldside, Addlestone, Surrey. {Rervotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1890-95), Professor of Physics in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E. tRendall, Rev. G. H., M.A., Litt.D. Charterhouse, Godalming. *Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road, Accrington. §RenDLE, Dr. A. B., M.A., F.L.S. 47 Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon. *Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, 8. W. {Rennie, John, D.Sc. Natural History Department, University of Aberdeen. *Renton, James Hall. Rowfold Grange, Billinghurst, Sussex. {Reunert, Clive. Windybrow, Johannesburg. {Reunert, John. Windybrow, Johannesburg. §REUNERT, THEODORE, M.Inst.C.E. P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg. §Reyersbach, Louis. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg. *Reynolds, A. H. 271 Lord-street, Southport. {Reynotps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S M.R.I.A. (Pres. B, 1893 ; Council, 1893-99.) 29 Campd Hill-court, W. *Reynolds, Miss K. M. 8 Darnley-road, Notting Hill, W. 64 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1870. *Reynotps, Ossporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1887.) 19 Lady Barn-road, Fallowfield, Manchester. 1906. t{Reynolds, 8. H., M.A., Professor of Geology and Zoology in University College, Bristol. 1907. §Reynolds, W. Birstall Holt, near Leicester. 1877. *Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire. 1899. *Ruys, Professor Sir Joun, D.Sc. (Pres. H, 1900.) Jesus College, Oxford. 1877. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva Muro 14, Modena, Italy. 1905. §Rich, Miss Florence. Granville School, Granville-road, Leicester. 1906. {Richards, Rev. A. W. 12 Bootham-terrace, York. 1869. *Richardson, Charles. 3 Cholmley-villas, Long Ditton, Surrey. 1884. *Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W. 1889. {Richardson, Hugh, M.A. 12 St. Mary’s, York. 1884. *Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea. 1896. *Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell, near Weymouth. 1901. *Richardson, Owen Willans. ‘Trinity College, Cambridge. 1876. §Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow. 1891. §Riches, T. Hurry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff. 1883. *RipEaAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W. 1902. §Ridgeway, William, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Archeology in the University of Cambridge. Fen Ditton, Cambridge. 1894. {Riptey, E. P., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1895.) Burwood, Westerfield- road, Ipswich. 1881. *Rigg, Arthur. 150 Blomfield-crescent, W. 1883. *Riaa, Epwarp, I.8.0., M.A. Royal Mint, E. 1892. {Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol. *Rreon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.LE., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, S.W. 1905. {Ritchie, Professor W., M.A. South African College, Cape Town. 1903. *Rivers, W. H. R., M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 1898. §Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast. 1902. *Roberts, Bruno. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1887. *Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1881. {Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. University of London, South Kensington, 8.W. 1893. §Roberts, Thomas J. Ingleside, Park-road, Huyton, near Liverpool. 19-4. *Robertson, Miss Agnes, D.Sc. 9 Elsworthy-terrace, Primrose Hill, N.W. 1897. §RopeRtson, Sir Georcs S., K.C.S.I. (Pres. E, 1900.) 1 Pump- court, Temple, H.C. 1905. {Robertson, Dr. G. W. Office of the Medical Officer of Health, Cape Town. 1897. §Robertson, Professor J. W., C.M.G., LL.D. The Macdonald College, St. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada. 1901. *Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. 154 West George-street, Glasgow. 1905. {Robertson, Professor T. E. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg. 1898. §Robinson, Charles E., M.Inst.C.E. Holne Cross, Ashburton, South Devon. 1903. tRobinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport. 1905. §Robinson, Harry. Duncan’s-chambers, Shortmarket-street, Cape Town, LIST OF MEMBERS : 1907. 65 Year of Election. 1887. 1902. 1906. 1902. 1888. 1895. 1905. 1899. 1875. 1904. 1904. 1870. 1906. 1872. 1885. 1885. 1905. 1907. 1905. 1898. 1907. 1890. 1906. 1884. 1876. 1905. 1855. 1905. 1905. 1883. 1905. 1894, 1905. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1900. 1859. 1908. 1902. 1901. §Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Parliament-mansions, Victoria- street, S.W. tRobinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool. tRosison, H. H., M.A., F.I.C. 75 Finborough-road, S.W. tRobinson, James, M.A., F.R.G.S. Dulwich College, Dulwich, S.E. tRobinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal. *Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport. Robinson, Dr. Leland. 6 Victoria-walk, Woodstock, Cape Town. *Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Belsize-grove, N.W. *Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington, tRobinson, Theodore R. 25 Campden Hill-gardens, W. §Robinson, W. H. Kendrick House, Victoria-road, Penarth. *Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W. §Robson, J. Nalton. The Villa, Hull-road, York. *Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh. *Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow. *Rodriguez, Epifanio. New Adelphi Chambers, 6 Robert-street, Adelphi, W.C. tRoebuck, William Denison. 259 Hyde Park-road, Leeds. §Roechling, H. Alfred, M.Inst.C.E. 33 Highfield-street, Leicester. §Rogers, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. South African Museum, Cape Town. tRoerrs, Bertram, M.D. (Local Sec. 1898.) 11 York-place, Clifton, Bristol. §Rogers, John D. 85 St. George’s-square, S.W. *Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Leeds. 15 Regent Park-avenue, Leeds. §Rogers, Reginald A. P. 142 Leinster-road, Dublin. *Rogers, Walter. Lamorva, Falmouth. tRouurt, Sir A. K., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon. Fellow K.C.L. 45 Belgrave-square, 8.W. {Rooth, Edward. Pretoria. *Roscor, Sir HENRY ENFIELD, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1887; Pres. B, 1870, 1884 ; Council, 1874-81 ; Local Sec. 1861.) 10 Bramham-gardens, 8.W. tRose, Miss G. 45 De Pary’s-avenue, Bedford. tRose, Miss G. Mabel. Ashley Lodge, Oxford. *Rose, J. Holland, Litt.D. Ethandune, Parkside-gardens, Wim- bledon, 8.W. tRose, John G. Government Analytical Laboratory, Cape Town. *Rosz, T. K., D.Sc., Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint. 6 Royal Mint, E. *Rosedale, Rev. H. G., D.D., F.S.A. St. Peter’s Vicarage, 13 Lad- broke-gardens, W. *Rosedale, Rev. W. E., M.A. Willenhall, Staffordshire. tRosen, Jacob. 1 Hopkins-street, Yeoville, Transvaal. {Rosen, Julius. Clifton Grange, Jarvie-street, Jeppestown, Trans- vaal. {Rosenhain, Walter, B.A. 443 Gillott-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. *Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster. §Ross, Sir John, of Bladensburg, K.C.B. Rostrevor House, Rostrevor, Co. Down. tRoss, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden-hill, W. tRoss, Colonel Ronatp, C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology in the University of Liverpool. 36 Bentley- road, Liverpool. 1907. E 66 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1869. *Rossz, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D., 1891. 1865. 1905. 1901. 1899. 1884. 1905. 1883. 1903. 1890. 1906. 1881. 1875. 1869. 1901. 1905. 1905. 1904. 1896. 1904. 1875. 1883. 1852. 1852. 1886. 1907. 1905. 1898. 1906. 1903. 1883. 1871. 1903. 1873. 1904. 1861. 1901. 1907. 1907. F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.1.A. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland. *Roth, H. Ling. Briarfield, Shibden, Halifax, Yorkshire. *Rothera, George Bell. Hazlewood, Forest-grove, Nottingham. {Rothkugel, R. Care of Messrs. D. Isaacs & Co., Cape Town. *Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co., Glasgow. *Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, §.E. *Rouse, M. L. Hollybank, Hayne-road, Beckenham. §Rousselet, Charles ¥. 2 Pembridge-crescent, Bayswater, W. tRowan, Frederick John. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow. *Rowe, Arthur W., M.B., F.G.S. 2 Price’s-avenue, Margate. tRowley, Walter, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds. §Rowntree, B. Seebohm. The Homestead. Clifton. York. *Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York. *Ricker, Sir A. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University - of London (Prestpent, 1901 ; Truster, 1898- ; GENERAL TrEASURER, 1891-98; Pres. A, 1894; Council, 1888-91). 19 Gledhow-gardens, South Kensington, S.W. §Rupter, F. W., 1.8.0., F.G.8. 18 St. George’s-road, Kilburn, N.W *Rudorf, C. C. G., Ph.D., B.Sc. 26 Weston-park, Crouch End, N. *Ruffer, Marc Armand, C.M.G., M.A., M.D., B.Sc. Quarantine International Board, Alexandria. §Ruffer, Mrs. Alexandria. tRuhemann, Dr. 8. 3 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge. *Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. 25 Castle-street, Liverpool. tRussell, E. J., D.Sc., Rothamsted Experimental Station, Har- penden, Herts. *Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere. Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. *Russell, J. W. 28 Staverton-road, Oxford. *Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W. *RussELL, Writ1am J., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres B, 1873; Council, 1873-80.) 34 Upper Hamilton-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W. {Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester. §Rutherford, Ernest, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physies in the University of Manchester. tRyan, Pierce. Rosebank House, Rosebank, Cape Town. §Ryland, C. J. Southerndown House, Clifton, Bristol. *RyYMER, Sir JoSEPH SyKEsS. The Mount, York. {Sapter, M. E., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1906), Professor of Education in the Victoria University, Manchester. Eastwood, Weybridge. {Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport. tSadler, Samuel Champernowne. Church House, Westminster, S.W. tSagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax. “paloma Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge ells. §Saurer, A, E., D.Sc., F.G.S. 20Shell-road, Loampit Hill, Lewis- ham, 8.E *Samson. Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester. tSamuel, John 8., J.P., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow. *Sand, Dr. Henry J. 8. University College, Nottingham. §Sandars, Miss Cora B. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, S.W. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 67 Year of Hiection. 1883. 1896. 1896. 1892. 1903. 1886. 1905. 1896. 1905. 1907. 1886. 1900. 1903. 1901. 1887. 1906. 1883. 1903. 1903. 1879. 1888. 1880. 1905. 1885. 1905. 1908. 1873. 1905. 1847. 1883. 1905. 1881. 1878. 1889. 1857. 1884, 1902. 1895. ISanderson, Lady Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford. Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry. §Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich. tSaner, Mrs. Highfield, Northwich. A {Sang, William D. Tylehurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife. {Sankey, Captain H. R., R.E. Bawmore, Bilton, Rugby. {Sankey, Percy E. 44 Russell-square, W.C. {Sargant, E. B. Quarry Hill, Reigate. *Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate. tSargent, Miss Helen A., B.A. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Colony. §Sargent, H.C. Ambergate, near Derby. {Saundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund-street, Birmingham. *SaunDER, 8. A. Fir Holt, Crowthorne, Berks. *Saunders, Miss E. R. Newnham College, Cambridge. {Sawers, W. D. 1 Athole Gardens-place, Glasgow. §Saycr, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres..H, 1887), Professor of Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College, Oxford. §Sayer, Dr. Ettie. 35 Upper Brook-street, W. *Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire. §ScarisBrick, Sir CHaRLEs, J.P. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport. {Scarisbrick, Lady. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport. *Sonirer, E. A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.R.C.S. (Gun. Src. 1895- 1900; Pres. I, 1894; Council, 1887-93), Professor of Physiology in the University of Edinburgh. *Sonarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin. *Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt & Sons, Birmingham.) tScholer, W. Peter. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg. {Scholes, L. Ivy Cottage, Parade, Parkgate, Cheshire. tSchonland,S., Ph.D. Albany Museum, Grahamstown, Cape Colony. §Schradter, Dr. E. 3-5 Jacobistrasse, Diisseldorf, Germany. *ScuusteR, ArrHurR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1892; Council, 1887-93). Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester. {Sclander, J. E. P.Q. Box 465, Cape Town. *SotaTER, Pare Lutriey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.GS., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. (GpNERAL SECRETARY, 1876-81; Pres. D, 1875 ; Council, 1864-67, 1872-75.) Odiham Priory, Winch- field. *Sotater, W. Lutiey, M.A., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape Town. {Sclater, Mrs. W. L. Crossroads, Baker-road, Wynberg, Cape lony. *ScoTtT, Aiea M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S. Royal Institu- tion, Albemarle-street, W. *Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter. *Scort, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.B.S., F.L.S. (GenmRAL SECRETARY, 1900-03 ; Pres. K, 1896.) East Oakley House, Oakley, Hants. *Scort, RopeErt H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park- gardens, S.W. *Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, 8.E. {Scott, William R. The University, St. Andrews, Scotland. {Scott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. Newton, Dum- fries. E2 68 Year of Election 1883. 1895. 1890. 1880. 1905. 1906. 1861. 1904. 1904. 1907. 1888. 1888. 1870. 1905. 1901. 1895. 1892. 1904. 1899. 1891. 1905. 1904. 1902. 1901. 1906. 1878. 1904. 1889. 1883. 1883. 1904, 19038. 1905. 1905. 1865. 1881. 1° 00. 1905. 1883. 1883. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. tScrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover. §Scull, Miss E. M. L. St. Edmund’s, 10 Worsley-road, Hamp- stead, N.W. *Searle, G. F. C., M.A., F.R.S._ Wyncote, Hills-road, Cambridge. {Sepewick, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1899), Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. 4 Cranmer-road, Cambridge. tSedgwick, C. F. Strand-street, Cape Town. *See, T. J. J., A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics, U.S. Navy, in charge of the Naval Observatory, Mare Island, California. *SrrLey, Harry Govier, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.GS., F.Z.8., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. 3 Holland Park-court, Holland Park-gardens, W. {Sell, W. J. 19 Lensfield-road, Cambridge. tSella, Professor Alfonso. Instituto Fisico, Rome. §Seligman, Dr. C. G. 15 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. *Sunter, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Galway. *SENNETT, ALFRED R., A.M.Inst.C.E. 15 Heath-mansions, Hamp- stead, N.W. *Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. tSerrurier, Louis C. Ashley, Sea Point, Cape Town. {Service, Robert. Ji anefield Park, Maxwelltown, Dumfries. *Seton-Karr, H. W. 31 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey. *Smwarp, A. C., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. K, 1903 ; Council, 1901-07 ; Local Sec. 1904), Professor of Botany in the Univer- sity of Cambridge. Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge. {Sewell, R. B. Seymour. Christ’s College, Cambridge. §Seymour, Henry J., B.A., F.G.S. St. Peter’s, Ailesbury-road, ublin, {Shackell, F. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff. *Shackleford, W. C., M.Inst.M.E. County Club, Lancaster. {Shackleton, Ernest H., F.R.G.S. 14 South Learmonth-gardens, Edinburgh. {Suarrrspury, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.L. Belfast Castle, Belfast. *Shakespear, Mrs. G. A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfleld, Worcester- shire. tShann, Frederick. 6 St. Leonard’s, York. +Suarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.LS. Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. tSharples, George. 181 Great Cheetham-street West, Higher Broughton, Manchester. *Shaw, Mrs. M.S., B.Sc. Sydenham Damarel Rectory, Tavistock. *Suaw, W. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council, 1895-1900, 1904-07.) Meteorological Office, 63 Victoria-street, S.W. {Shaw, Mrs. W. N. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensington, $.W. {Shaw-Phillips, Miss. 19 Camden-crescent, Bath. {Shaw-Phillips, T., J.P. 19 Camden-crescent, Bath. {Shenstone, Miss A. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes. {Shenstone, Mrs. A. E. G. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes. {Shenstone, Frederick 8S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes. {Suenstonge, W. A., F.R.S. Clifton College, Bristol. §Sheppard, Thomas, F.G.S. The Municipal Museum, Hull. {Sheridan, Dr. Norman. 96 Francis-street, Bellevue, Johannesburg. {Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin. {Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin. Year of Election 1896. 1888. 1902. 1883. 1887. 1870. 1897. 1882. - 1901. 1904. 1889. 1902. 1883. 1877. 1873. 1905. 1903. 1871. 1863. 1901. 1907. 1894. 1896. 1874. 1907. 1905. 1902. 1906. 1883. 1898. 1905. 1905. 1889. 1887. 1887. 1903. 1904. 1889. 1902. 1905. 1892. 1897. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 69 §SHERRINGTON, C. S., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1904; Council, 1907— ), Professor of Physiology in the University of Liver- pool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath. *Shillington, T. Foulkes, J.P. Dromart, Antrim-road, Belfast. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C. *SuipLey, Artuur E., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1904- .) Christ’s College, Cambridge. *SHOOLBRED, J. N., B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W. {SHorz, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge. {Suorg, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 6 Kingswood-road, Upper Nor- wood, 8.E. {Short, Peter M., B.Sc. 1 Holmdene-avenue, Herne Hill, S.E. *Shrubsall, F. C., M.A., M.D. Brompton Hospital, S.W. {Sibley, Walter K., M.A., M.D. The Mansions, 70 Duke-street, W. {Siddons, A. W. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex. *Sidebothan, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire. Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. *SrmpmEns, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W. {Siemens, Mrs. A. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W. *Silberrad, Dr. Oswald. Buckhurst Hill, Essex. *Smeson, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.D., Emeritus Professor of Mid- wifery in the University of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh. tSimpson, J. B., F.G.S.__ Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne. *Simpson, Professor J. Y., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh. §Simpson, Lieut.-Colonel R. J. S., C.M.G. 1 Ambherst-avenue, Ealing, W. §Simpson, Thomas, F.R.G.S. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, W. *Simpson, W., F.G.S. Catteral Hall, Settle, Yorkshire. tSmyciamr, Right Hon. Tuomas (Local Sec. 1874). Dunedin, Belfast. *Sircar, Dr. Amrita Lal, L.M.S., F.C.S. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta. *SyocrEN, Professor H. Natural History Museum, Stockholm, Sweden. {Skeffington, J. B., M.A., LL.D. Waterford. {Skerry, H. A. St. Paul’s-square, York. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham. {Smrnner, Srpney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) South-Western Polytechnic, Manresa-road, Chelsea, S.W. §Skyrme, C.G. 28 Norman-road, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. {Slater, Dr. H. B. 75 Bree-street, Johannesburg. §Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire. {Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 48 Kedleston-road, Derby. §Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham. *Smallman, Raleigh S. Wressil Lodge, Wimbledon Common, 8.W. {Smart, Edward. Benview, Craigie, Perth, N.B. *§mart, Professor Wr11aM, LL.D. (Pres. F, 1904.) Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow. §Smedley, Miss Ida. 11 Mecklenburgh-square, W.C. {Smith, Miss Adelaide. Huguenot ae Wellington, Cape Colony. tSmith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. {Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto, Canada. 70 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Election. 1901. 1874. 1873. 1905. 1889. 1886. 1900. 1901. 1866. 1897. 1903. 1889. 1860. 1876. 1902. 1903. 1894. 1896. 1885. 1883. 1906. 1905. 1908. 1857. 1888. 1905. 1905. 1879. 1905. 1892, 1900. 1859. 1879, 1901. 1903. 1903. 1865. 1883. *Smith, Miss Annie Lorrain. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensing- ton, W. *Smith, pee ee F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club, Pall Mall, S.W {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge. {Smith, C. H. Fletcher’s-chambers, Cape Town. *Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Obser- vatory, Kodaikanal, South India, *Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham. §Smith, E. J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford. §Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq., Burlington House, Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, S.W. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham. tSmith, G. Elliot, M.D., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. *Smith, H. B. Lees. 16 Park-terrace, Oxford. *Smith, H. Llewellyn, C.B., B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. Board of Trade, S.W. *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 25 Welbeck-street, Cavendish- square, W. *Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow. {Smith, J. Lorrain, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the Victoria University, Manchester. *Smith, James. Pinewood, Crathes, Aberdeen. Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge, Shropshire. §Smith, T. Walrond. Care of Frank Henderson, Esq., Shirley, Station-road, Sidcup, Kent. *Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. Newquay, Cornwall. *Smith, Watson. 34 Upper Park-road, Haverstock Hill, N.W. {Smrrnecys, AnrHuR, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1907 ; Local Sec. 1890), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds. §Smurthwaite, Thomas E. 134 Mortimer-road, Kensal Rise, W. §Smuts, C. P.O. Box 1088, Johannesburg. §Smyly, Sir William J. 58 Merrion-square, Dublin. *SmytTH, JoHN, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown, Banbridge, Ireland. *Snapzt, H. Liuoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom-road, South- ort. §Soppy, F. The University, Glasgow. §Sollas, Miss I. B. J., B.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge. *Sottas, W. J., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1900 ; Council, 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the Univer- sity of Oxford. 173 Woodstock-road, Oxford. {Solomon, R. Stuart. Care of Messrs. R. M. Moss & Co., Cape Town. *SOMERVAIL, ALEXANDER. The Museum, Torquay. *SOMERVILLE, W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Sibthorpian Benceene of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford. 121 Banbury-road, Oxford. *Sorspy, H. Cumron, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1880 ; Council, 1879-86 ; Local Sec. 1879.) Broomfield, Sheffield. *Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield. {Sorley, Robert. The Firs, Partickhill, Glasgow. tSoulby, R. M. Sea Holm, Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire. {Southall, Henry T. The Graig, Ross, Herefordshire. *Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire. tSpanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley, Staffordshire. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS : 1907. 71 Election. 1893. 1905. 1889. 1864. 1894. 1864. 1864. 1854. 1905. 1888. 1903. 1883. 1905. 1881. 1883. 1894. 1900. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1905. 1899. 1899. 1898. 1907. 1900. 1881. 1892. 1896. 1905. 1905. 1884. 1902. 1906. 1880. 1900. 1890. 1885. 1905. 1905. 1875. 1901. 1901. *Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston. {Spencer, Charles Hugh. P.O. Box 2, Maraisburg, Transvaal. *Spencer, John W. Impney Hall, Droitwich, Worcester. *Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen-park, High- jury, IN. {Spiers, A. H. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk. *SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N. *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 91 Savoy-court, Strand, W.C. *SpRaGue, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham- terrace, Edinburgh. {Squire, Mrs. Clarendon House, 30 St. John’s Wood-park, N.W. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 164 Shoreditch, E.C. {Stallworthy, Rev. George B. The Manse, Hindhead, Haslemere, Surrey. *Stanford, eet F.R.G.8S. 12-14 Long-acre, W.C. {Stanley, Professor George H. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg. *Stanley, William Ford, J.P., F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Nor- wood, 8.E. {Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E. *STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. *Stansfield, H., B.Sc. 20 Every-street, Ancoats, Manchester. {Stanwell, H. B. South African College School, Cape Town. {Stanwell, Dr. St. John. P.O. Box 1050, Johannesburg. {Stapleton, Frederick. Control and Audit Office, Cape Town. *Starkey, A. H. 24 Greenhead-road, Huddersfield. {Sraruine, E. H., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Univer- sity College, London, W.C. §Statham, William. The Redings, Totteridge, Herts. {Stather, J. W., F.G.S. Brookside, Newland Park, Hull. Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire. §Staynes, Frank. 36-38 Silver-street, Leicester. *Stead, J. E., F.R.S. Laboratory and Assay Office, Middlesbrough. {Stead, W. H. Beech-road, Reigate. *Srmppinc, Rev. Tuomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The Common, Tunbridge Wells. *Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.8. 8 Playfair-mansions, Queen’s Club- gardens, W. {Stebbins, Miss Inez F., B.A. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Town. {Stephen, J. M. Invernegie, Sea Point, Cape Colony. *Stephens, W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A. {Stephenson, G. Cuilin, Glasnevin, Dublin. §Stevens, Miss C. O. The Red House, Bradfield, Reading. *Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpill, R.S.O. {Srrvens, Frepmrick (Local Sec. 1900). Town Clerk’s Office, Bradford. *Steward, Rev. Charles J., F.R.M.S. The Cedars, Anglesea-road, Ipswich. *Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Maurtle, Aberdeen. §Stewart, A. F. 127 Isabella-street, Toronto, Canada. {Stewart, Charles. Meteorological Commission, Cape Town. *Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near Clifton, Gloucestershire. *Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 35 Stow Park-avenue, N.w- port, Monmouthshire. *Stewart. Thomas. St. George’s-chambers, Cape Town. 42 Year of Election 1905. 1876. 1867. 1904. 1906. 1901. 1865. 1883. 1898. 1899. 1874. 1905. 1857. 1895. 1878. 1861. 1903. 1883. 1887. 1884. 1888. 1905. 1905. 1871. 1881. 1905. 1881. 1906. 1883. 1898. 1887. 1887. 1905. 1876. 1872. 1885. 1879. 1891. 1902. 1898. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. {Steyn, Dr. G. H. Kandahar, Salt River, Cape Colony. {Srrecine, WitiiaM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology in the Victoria University, Manchester. *Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. §Stobbs, J. T. Dunelm, Basford Park, Stoke-on-Trent. *Stobo, Mrs. Annie. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbarton- shire, N.B. *Stobo, Thomas. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbartonshire, N.B. *Stock, Joseph 8S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer. *StockEeR, W. N., M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford. *Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. 5 Fernhurst-villas, College- road, Cork. *Stone, Rev. F. J. Radley College, Abingdon. tStone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings, Temple, E.C. {Stoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Colony. tSronry, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.I1.A., Engineer of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin. *Stoney, Miss Edith A. 30 Ledbury-road, Bayswater, W. *Stoney, G. Gerald. Oakley, Heaton-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. *STONEY, GEORGE JOHNSTONE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.R.IA. (Pres.A, 1897.) 30 Ledbury-road, Bayswater, W. *Stopes, Miss Marie, Ph.D., B.Sc. 53 Stanley-gardens, Haver- stock Hill, N.W. {Stopes, Mrs. 53 Stanley-gardens, Haverstock Hill, N.W. *Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster. {Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge. *Stothert, Percy K. Woolley Grange, Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts. *Stott, Clement H., F.G.S. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal. §Stower, Miss Alice. 34 Palace Gardens-terrace, W. *STRACHEY, Lieut.-General Sir Ricwarp, R.E., G.C.S.I., LL.D., Sy F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. E, 1875; Council, 1871-75.) 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, W. {Srrawan, AuBRey, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1904.) Geo- logical Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W. §Strange, Harold F. P.O. Box 2527, Johannesburg. §Straneways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Kylemore, Hollycroft-avenue, West Hampstead, N.W. *Stromeyer, C. E. 9 Mount-street, Albert-square, Manchester. §Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing. *Strong, W. M., M.D. 3 Champion-park, Denmark Hill, S.E. *Stroud, H., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. *Stroup, Witi1aMm, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the University of Leeds. {Struben, Mrs. A. P.O. Box 1228, Pretoria. *Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, 8.E *Stuart, Rev. Edward A., M.A. 5 Prince’s-square, W. {Stump, Edward C. Malmesbury, Polefield, Blackley, Manchester. *Styring, Robert. Brinkcliffe Tower, Sheffield. *Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., D.Sc. University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. §Sully, H. T. Scottish Widows’-buildings, Bristol. §Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Queen’s-road, Weston-super-Mare. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. Ta Year of Election. 1905. 1887. 1903. 1905. 1881. 1905. 1897. 1908. 1882. 1887. 1870. 1887. 1895. 1902. 1887. 1906. 1896. 1902. 1906. 1905. 1903. 1885 1905. t{Summer, A. B. Ollersett Booyseux, Transvaal. *Sumpner, W. E., D.Sc. Technical School, Suffolk-street, Bir- mingham. {Swallow, Rev. R. D., M.A. Chigwell School, Essex. {Swan, Miss Hilda. 58 Holland Park, W. §Swan, Sir Joseru Witson, M.A., D.Sc.,F.R.S. 58 Holland Park,W. tSwan, Miss Mary E. 58 Holland-park, W. {Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast. §Swanzy, Sir Henry R., M.D. 23 Merrion-square, Dublin. *Swaythling, Lord. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W. §SwINBURNE, JAMES, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W. *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon- Tyne. *Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. 22 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport. {Sykes, E. R., B.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C. *Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire. *Sykes, George, H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elm- bourne-road, Tooting Common, S.W. *Sykes, Miss M. G. Girton College, Cambridge. *Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 10 Headingley-avenue, Leeds. *Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire. {Sykes, T. P., M.A. 4 Gathorne-street, Great Horton, Bradford. {Symington, C., M.B. Railway Medical Office, De Aar, Cape Colony. §Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough. {Symrneron, Jonnson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903), Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s College, Belfast. {Symmes, H.C. P.O. Box 3902, Johannesburg. . Tabor, J. M. Holmwood, Haringey Park, Crouch End, N. . §Tallack, H. T. Clovelly, Birdhurst-road, South Croydon. . *Tanner, Miss Ellen G. 48 Campden House-court, Gloucester- walk, W. . [Tanner, H. W. Lioyp, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local See. 1891), Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in University College, Cardiff. . *Tansley, Arthur G., M.A., F.L.S. Graatchester, near Cambridge. . *Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, F.R.A.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool. . §Tarleton, Francis A., LL.D. 24 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin. . *Tarratt, Henry W. 332 Marylebone-road, N.W. {Tate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast. . [Taylor, Benson. 22 Hayburn-crescent, Partick, Glasgow. . *Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge. . tTaylor, G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford. . }Taylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L. Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham. . tTaylor, H. Dennis. Stancliffe, Mount-villas, York. . *Tayzor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. . *Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham. . *Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 6 Queen Street-place, E.C. . §Taylor, Miss M. R. Newstead, Blundellsands. . *Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham. . tTaylor, . *Taylor, W. W., M.A. 66 St. John’s-road, Oxford . §Taylor, William. 57 Sparkenhoe-street, Leicester. . Taylor, William. 61 Cambridge-road, Southport. . *Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Kingsborough-gardens, Glasgow. W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. 3 East Mayfield, Edinburgh. 74 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Election. 1858. 1885. 1906. 1879. 1896. 1892. 1883. 1883. 1882. 1871. 1906. 1870. 1891. 1963. 1880. 1899. 1902. 1904. 1883. 1904. 189]. 1888. 1885. 1896. 1907. 1883. 1904. 1893. 1883. 1905. 1861. 1876. 1876. 1883. 1896. 1905. {Tuatz, THomas Pripam, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street, Leeds, tTratt, J. J.-H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893 ; Council, 1894-1900), Director of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. The Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W. *Teape, Rev. W. M., M.A. South Hylton Vicarage, Sunderland. {tTemple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Solheim, Cumberland Park, Acton, W. *Terry, Rev. T. R., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Rectory, East Isley, Newbury, Berkshire. *Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A. tTetley, C.F. The Brewery, Leeds. tTetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds. *THanez, George Dancer, LL.D., Professor of Anatomy in Uni- versity College, London, W. C. tTatseLton-Dysr, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.LE., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. K, 1895 ; Council, 1885-89, 1895-1900.) The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester. §Thoday, D. Trinity College, Cambridge. {Thom, Colonel Robert Wilson, J.P. Brooklands, Lord-street West, Southport. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Pencerrig, Builth. {Thomas, Miss Ethel N. 3 Downe-mansions, Gondar-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W. *Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent. *Thomas, Mrs. J. W. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent. *Thomas, Miss M. Beatrice. Girton College, Cambridge. {Thomas, Northcote W. 7 Coptic-street, W.C. tThomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff. *Thomas, William. Bryn-heulog, Merthyr Tydfil. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, North- ampton. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in University College, Cardiff. 38 Park-place, Cardiff. {THomeson, D’Arcy W., B.A., C.B., Professor of Zoology in Univer- sity College, Dundee. *Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop. *Thompson, Edwin, 1 Croxteth-grove, Liverpool. *Thompson, Francis. Eversley, Haling Park-road, Croydon. *Thompson, G. R., B.Sc., Professor of Mining in the University of Leeds. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of National Bank of India, 17 Bishopsgate-street Within, E *Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon. {Thompson, James. P.O. Box 312, Johannesburg. *THOMPSON, JOSEPH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Cheshire. *Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York. tTHompson, Sitvanus Puipiies, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS. (Pres. G, 1907 ; Council, 1897-99), Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Technical College, Leonard-street, Finsbury, E.C. *Thompson, T. H. Oldfield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Chehires. *THompson, W. H., M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1908), King’s Professor of Institutes of Medicine (Physiology) in Trinity College, Dublin. 14 Hatch-street, Dublin. {Thompson, William. Parkside, Doncaster-road, Rotherham. ee LIST OF MEMBERS : 1907. | gr Year of Election. 1894, {THomson, Arruur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford. 1906. §Thomson, F. Ross, F.G.S. Hensill, Hawkhurst, Kent. 1890, *Taomson, Professor J. ARTHUR, M.A. F.R.S.E. Castleton House, Old Aberdeen. 1883. {TuHomson, J. J.. M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1896; Council 1893-95), Professor of Experimental Physics in the University ; of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1901, tThomson, Dr. J. T. Kilpatrick. 148 Norfolk-street, Glasgow. 1889, *Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon- Tyne. 1891, ions John. Westover, Mount Ephraim-road, Streatham, 1871. *Tuomson, Joun Mruxar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1895-1901), Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. 9 Camp- den Hill-gardens, W. 1874. §THomson, Wixutam, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man- chester. 1880. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens. 1905. *Thorneley, Miss L. R. Nunclose, Grassendale, Liverpool. 1906. §Thornely, Miss A. M. M. Oaklands, Bowdon, Cheshire. 1898. *THornTON, W. M., D.Sc., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 1902. {Thornycroft, Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Eyot Villa, Chis- wick Mall, W. 1903. {Thorp, Edward. 87 Southbank- road, Southport. 1881. {Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York. 1881. *Thorp, Josiah. 37 Pleasant-street, New Brighton, Cheshire. 1898. §Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester. 1898. {Thorpe, Jocelyn Field, Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester. 1871. {THorrn, T. E., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S. : (Pres. B, 1890; Council, 1886-92), Principal of the Government Laboratories, Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C. 1883. §Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 1 London-street, Southport. 1899. §THRELFaLL, RicuarD, M.A., F.R.S. 30 George-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1896. §THRirt, WitL1amM Epwarp, M.A. (Local Sec. 1908), Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Dublin. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Dublin. 1904, §Thurston, Edgar. Government Museum, Madras. 1907. §Thwaites, R. E. 138 Kimberley-road, Leicester. 1889. {Thys, Colonel Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels. 1873. *TippEeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 175 Banbury-road, Oxford. 1905, {Tietz, Heinrich, B.A., Ph.D. South African lege, Cape Town. 1874, {TiLpEN, WILitaM A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1888 ; Council, 1898-1904), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, London. The Oaks, Northwood, Middlesex. , 1896. §Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton, ‘Liverpool. 1899. ¢{Tims, H. W. Marett, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Deepdene, Cavendish- avenue, Cambridge. 1902. §Tipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 21 Greenside, Kendal. 1905. {Tippett, A. M., M. Inst.C.E. Cape Government Railways, Cape Town. 1900. §Tocher, J. F., F.I.C. 5 Chapel-street, Peterhead, N.B. 1907. §Todd, Professor J. L. McGill University, Montreal. 1889. §Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool. 1905. {Tonkin, Samuel. Rosebank, near Cape Town. i 76 Year of Election 1875. 1884. 1901. 1876. 1883. 1870. 1868. 1902. 1884. 1887. 1903. 1905. 1871. 1902. 1884, 1887. 1898. 1885. 1847. 1905. 1901. 1893. 1905. 1894. 1905. 1886. 1863. 1890. 1907. 1886. 1899. 1907. 1865. 1883. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. {tTorr, Charles Hawley. 35 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Not- tingham. *Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada. {Townsend, J. 8. E., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the University of Oxford. New College, Oxford. *TraiL, J. W. H., M.A., M._D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Aberdeen. {Trams A., M.D., LL.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland. {TRartt, Wittiam A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway, Portrush, Ireland. tTraquarr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1900.) The Bush, Colinton, Midlothian. tTravers, Ernest J. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim. {Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool. *Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber- ford, Leeds. {Trenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield. §Trevor-Battysr, A., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Chilbolton, Stock- bridge, R.S.O. {Trmen, Roxanp, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S. Ovingdean, King Charles-road, Surbiton Hill. §Tristram, Rev. J. F., M.A., B.Sc. 20 Chandos-road, Chorlton- cum-Hardy, Manchester. *Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond-terrace, Whitehall, S.W. *TROUTON, FREDERICK T., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in University College, W.C. §Trow, Albert Howard, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni - versity College, Cardiff. 50 Clive-road, Penarth. *Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 68 Harley-street, W. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristoi. §Turmeau, Charles. Claremont, Victoria Park, Wavertree, Liver- pool. §Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, Dublin. {tTurner, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh. {Turner, Dr. G. 54 Government-buildings, Pretoria. *TURNER, H. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford. {Turner, Rev. Thomas. St. Saviour’s Vicarage, 50 Fitzroy-street, W. *TURNER, THomas, M.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.I.C., Professor of Metallurgy in the University of Birmingham. Springfields, Tipland-road, Selly Hill, Birmingham. *TuRNER, Sir Witiiam, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (PRESIDENT, 1900; Pres, H, 1889, 1897), Principal of the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh. *Turpin, G. §., M.A., D.Sc. High School, Nottingham. §Tutton, A. E. H., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 41 Ladbroke-square, W. *Twigg, G. H. Ludgate-hill, Birmingham. {Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C. §Twyman, F. 754 Camden-road, N.W. §TyLor, Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1884 : Council, 1896-1902), Professor of Anthropology in the Univer- sity of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford. {Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane, Stratford, E. LIST OF MEMBERS : 1907. 77 Year of Election, 1884, *Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. 1903. {Underwood, Captain J. C. 60 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport. 1885. §Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W. 1883. §Unwin, John. LEastcliffe Lodge, Southport. 1876. *Unwiy, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council, 1892-99.) 7 Palace Gate-mansions, Kensington, W. 1902. §Ussher, R. J. Cappagh House, Cappagh, Co. Waterford. 1880. {Ussumr, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. 1905. {Uttley, E. A., Electrical Inspector to the Rhodesian Government, Bulawayo. 1887. *Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham. 1905. {Van der Byl, J. A. P.O., Irene, Transvaal. 1883. *Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent. 1865. *Vartey, S. AtrreD. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N. 1907. §Varley, W. Mansergh. 21 St. Clair-terrace, Edinburgh. : 1903. {Varwell, H. B. 2 Pennsylvania-park, Exeter. 1907, §Vaughan, Arthur, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 9 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol. 1895. §Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Botanical Laboratory, The University, Glasgow. 1905. {Vaughan, E. L. Eton College, Windsor. 1881. §VuLny, V. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 20 Bradmore-road, Oxford. 1873. *VeRNeEy, Sir Epmunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Wins- low, Bucks. 1883. *Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks. 1904, *Vernon, H. M.. M.A., M.D. 22 Norham-road, Oxford. 1896. *Vernon, Thomas T. Shotwick Park, Chester. 1896, *Vernon, William. Shotwick Park, Chester. 1890. *Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. Carlisle Lodge, Rickmans- worth. 1906. *Vuncent, J. H., M.A., D.Sc. L.C.C. Paddington Technical Institute, Saltram-crescent, W. 1899. *VincENT, Professor SwaLz, M.B. Physiological Laboratory, Uni- versity of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. 1883. *Vinzs, SypNEyY Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1900 ; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford. 1902. §Vinycomb, T. B. Riverside, Holywood, Co. Down. 1904. §Volterra, Professor Vito. Regia Universita, Rome. 1904. §Wace, A. J. B. Pembroke College, Cambridge. 1902. {Waddell, Rev. C. H. The Vicarage, Saintfield. 1888, {Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford. 1890. §WaczrR, Harotp W. T., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1905.) Hendre, Horsforth-lane, Far Headingley, Leeds. 1900. {Wagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. Grafton House, Oundle. 1902, {Wainwright, Joel. Finchwood, Marple Bridge, Stockport. 1906. {Wakefield, Charles. Heslington House, York. 1905. §Wakefield, Captain E. W. Stricklandgate House, Kendal. 1894, {Waxrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. 21 West Bar, Banbury. 1882. *Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. The Cottage, Whitchurch, Tavis- tock. 1893. §Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe-place, Maidstone, Kent. 78 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1890. 1901. 1897. 1904. 1891. 1905. 1894. 1897. 1906. 1894. 1906. 1907. 1888. 1898. 1883. 1863. 1905. 1901. 1887. Fee 4 1905. 1889. 1895. 1894. 1891. 1903. 1895. 1902. 1904. 1904. 1887. 1881. 1880. 1874. 1858. 1905. 1884. 1896. 1887. 1875. 1905. 1904. 1900. 1875. 1884. {Walker, A. Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds. *Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.1.C. 7 Crown-terrace, Glasgow. *WALKER, B. E., D.C.L., F.GS. (Local Sec. 1897.) Canadian Bank of Commerce, Totonte,; Canada. §Walker, E. R. Nightingales, Adlington, Lancashire. {Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leeds {Walker, G. M. Lloyd’s-buildings, Burg-street, Cape Town. *WaLkerR, G. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., FLR.A.S. Meteorological Office, Simla, India. tWalker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley. {Walker, J. F. E. Gelson, B.A. 45 Bootham, York. *WaLKER, JAMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford. §Walker, Dr. Jamieson. 61 Mill Hill-lane, Derby. §Walker, Philip F., F.R.G.S. 36 Prince’s-gardens, 8. W. {Walker, Sydney F. 1 Bloomfield-crescent, Bath. §Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool. {tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport. {Wattacr, AtFREeD Russet, D.C.L., F.RBS., F.LS., F.R.GS. (Pres. D, 1876 ; Council, 1870-72.) Broadstone, Wimborne, Dorset. : {Wallace, R. W. 2 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, H.C. {Wallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-place, Glasgow. *Watter, Aucustus D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1907.) 32 Grove End-road, N.W. §Waller, Mrs. 32 Grove End-road, N.W. *Wallis, Arnold J., M.A., 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge. tWatuiis, E. Wurrsz, F.S.8. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum, Margaret-street, W. *Watmistey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. sWolmsley: R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C. tWalsh, W. T. H. Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, E. tWatsrneuaM, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall, ‘Thetford. . *Walter, Miss L. Edna. 38 Woodberry-grove, Finsbury Park, N. *Walters, William, jun. Etheldreda House, Exning, Newmarket. tWard, A. H. M., B.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast. tWapp, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. §Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds. *Ward, J. Wesney. 19 Beechfield-road, Catford, 8.E. tWard, John, J.P., F.S.A. Beesfield, Farningham, Kent. {Wardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.S. St. Edward-street, Leek, Stafiord- shire. {Warlow, Dr. G. P. 15 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. *Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A. tWarrand, Major-General, R.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex. tWarrReN, Lieut.-General Sir Caaruus, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1887.) Athenzum Club, 8.W. *WatTERHOUSE, Major-General J. Hurstmead, Eltham, Kent. §Watermeyer, F. S.,. Government Land Surveyor, P.O. Box 973, Pretoria, South Africa. tWaters, A. H., B.A. 48 Devonshire-road, Cambridge. tWaterston, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. 23 Colinton-road, Edinburgh. {Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law; M.A., F.R.A.S. 2 Countess- » road, Nuneaton. tWatson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sacton! Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 79 Election. 1901. 1886. 1906. 1892. 1885. 1906. 1889. 1905. 1894. 1879. 1901. *Warson, ARNOLD Tuomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent- road, Shefiield. - *Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green, Birmingham. §Watson, D. M.S. 466 Moss-lane East, Manchester. §Watson, G., M.Inst.C.E. Stonegate, Pool, near Leeds. tWatson, Deputy Surgeon-General G.A. Hendre, Overton Park, Cheltenham. *Watson, Henry Angus. 3 Museum-street, York. ila cr John, F.1.C. P.O. Box 1026, Johannesburg, South ca. {Watson, Dr. R. W. Ladysmith, Cape Colony. *Watson, Professor W., D.Sc., F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, S.W. *Watson, Witu1am Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones House, Beckermet, Cumberland. §Watt, Harry Anderson. Ardenslate House, Hunter’s Quay, Argyll- shire. , . *Warrs, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford. . *Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. The Red House, Bemerton, Salis- bury. . *Warrs, W. MarsHaty, D.Sc. Shirley, Venner-road, Sydenham, S.E. . *Warts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903 ; Council, 1902- ), Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science, London, 8.W. . §Watts, William, F.G.S. Kenmore, Wilmslow, Cheshire. . tWay, E. J. Post Office, Benoni, Transvaal. §Way, W. A., M.A. The College, Graaf Reinet, South Africa. . [Webb, Miss Dora. Gezina School, Pretoria. . §Webb. Wilfred Mark. Odstock, Hanwell, W. . [Webber, Thomas. 12 Southey-terrace, Wordsworth-avenue, Roath, Cardiff. . *Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe. Jahnstrasse 5, Karlsruhe. . [Weekes, R. W., A.M.Inst.C.E. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent. . *Weiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Victoria University, Manchester. . tWelby, Miss F. A. Hamilton House, Hall-road, N.W. . TWelch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast. . tWeld, Miss. 119 Iffley-road, Oxford. . *Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford. . §Wellcome, Henry S. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C. . Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury. . *WeENLOocK, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.S.I., G.C.LE., K.C.B., LL.D. Escrick Park, Yorkshire. Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. . *Were, Anthony Berwick. Roslyn, Walland’s Park, Lewes. . *Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor of Chemistry in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol. . §West, Wriiiam, F.LS. 26 Woodville-terrace, Horton-lane, Bradford. . §Westaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford. . *Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Fordingbridge, Salisbury. . {Wethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham, Bradford. 80 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1904. 1878. 1888. 1893. 1888. 1879. 1898. 1883. 1859. 1884. 1886. 1897. 1886. 1904. 1885. 1905. 1897. 1877. 1904. 1883. 1905. 1893. 1907. 1905. 1891. 1896. 1897. 1901. 1857. 1905. 1905. 1881. 1878. 1889. 1887. 1905. 1905. 1904, 1900. 1903. 1904. 1861. §Weymouth, E.S., M.A. 27 Southampton-street, Strand, W.C. *Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire. §Whelen, John Leman. 18 Frognal, Hampstead, N.W. *Wuetuam, W. C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cam- bridge. *Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay. *WHIDBORNE, Rev. Grorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. Hammerwood Lodge, East Grinstead, Sussex. *Whipple, Robert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge. *Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in-Wharfedaie. *WHITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895 ; Council, 1890-96.) ‘3 Campden-road, Croydon. {Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg, Canada. {Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham. {Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester. {Warrs, A. Srnva. (Assistant-SECRETARY.) Burlington House, W. tWhite, H. Lawrence, B.A. 2 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Cheltenham. *White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee. tWhite, Miss J. R. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Colony. *Wuitr, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S. (Pres. G, 1899 ; Council, 1897- 1900.) Cedarcroft, Putney Heath, 8.W. *White, William. 20 Hillersdon-avenue, Church-road, Barnes, S.W. {Wuirenead, J. E. L., M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) Guildhall, Cam- bridge. tWhitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport. §Whiteley, Miss M. A., D.Sc. Royal College of Science, S.W. §Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.I.C. 5 Bagnall-street, West Brom- wich. *Whitley, E. Clovelly, Sefton Park, Liverpool. *Whitmee, Harold Babington. Care of India Rubber Co., Ltd., 213 West-street, Durban, Natal. §Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Hyde Park, Leeds. §Whitney, Colonel C. A., J.P. 28 Croxteth-road, Liverpool. {Warrraker, E. T., M.A., F.R.S., Royal Astronomer of Ireland and Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin. {Whitton, James. City-chambers, Glasgow. *Wuitty, Rev. Joun Inwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Alpha Villa, Southwood, Ramsgate. t{Whyte, B. M. Simon’s Town, Cape Colony. {Wibberley, C. Beira and Mashonaland Railways, Umtali, South Africa. *Wigglesworth, Robert. Ashtead Lodge, Surrey. t{Wigham, John R. Albany House, Mankstown, Dublin. *WILBERFORCE, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University of Liverpool. *Witpz, Henry, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. tWiley, J. R. Kingsfold, Mill-street, Cape Town. {Wilkins, R. F. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street, S.W. §Wilkinson, Hon. Mrs. Dringhouses Manor, York. {Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill, Bradford. tWillett, John E, 3 Park-road, Southport. *Williams, Miss Antonia. 6 Sloane-gardens, 8.W. -*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.V.O., M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook- street, Grosvenor-square, W. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 81 Year of Election. 1905. 1883. 1861. 1875. 1891. 1883. 1888. 1901. 1891. 1883. 1877. 1906. 1857. 1894, 1895. 1895. 1896. 1859. 1899. 1899. 1901. 1886. 1878. 1905. 1907. 1903. 1894. 1904. 1904. 1900. 1847. 1903. 1895. 1901. 1902. 1879. 1885. 1905. 1865. 1884. 1879. 1901. 1905. §Williams, Gardner F. 2201 R-street, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. {Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Sheering Rectory, Harlow, Essex. *Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea. *Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New- port, Monmouthshire. §Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. The Hurst, Branksome Park, Bournemouth. *Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W, *Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol. *Williams, Miss Mary. 6 Sloane-gardens, 8.W. tWilliams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff. {Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool. *Witiiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Broomgrove, Goring-on-Thames. tWilliams, W. F. Lobb. 32 Lowndes-street, S.W. {Witt1amson, Bensamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin. ‘ Sa lai Mrs. Janora. Ardoyne, Birkbeck-road, Muswell Hill, tWitting, W. (Local Sec. 1896.) 14 Castle-street, Liverpool. {Willis, John C., M.A., F.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon. tWixuison, J. S. (Local Sec. 1897.) Toronto, Canada. *Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Saxholm, Basset, Southampton. §Willson, George. Ivanhoe, Combermere-road, St. Leonards-on- Sea. §Willson, Mrs. George. Ivanhoe, Combermere-road, St. Leonards- on-Sea. {Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down. {Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast. {Wilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. United Free Church Manse, North Queensferry. §Wilson, A. W. P.O. Box 24, Langlaagte, South Africa. §Wilson, A. W. 20 Westcott-street, Hull. {Wilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. *Wilson, Charles J., F.I.C., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, West- minster, §.W. §Wilson, Charles John, F'.R.G.S. Deanfield, Hawick, Scotland. §Wilson, David, M.D. Grove House, Paddock, Huddersfield. *Wilson, Duncan R. Menethorpe, Malton. *Wilson, F. Linford. 99 Albany-street, N.W. {Wilson, George. The University, Leeds. {Wilson, Dr. Gregg. Queen’s College, Belfast. {Wilson, Harold A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in King’s College, London. 3 & 4 Clement’s Inn, Strand, W.C. *Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 32 Westwood-road, Southampton. {Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmore-road, Sheffield. tWilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen. {Wilson, J. F. H.M. Dockyard Extension, Simon's Town, Cape Colony. {Wixson, Ven. Archdeacon Jamzs M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Rochdale. {Wilson, James S. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court- buildings, Edinburgh. {Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield. *Wilson, Joseph. Hillside, Avon-road, Walthamstow, N.E. {Wilson, Dr. R. Arderne. Saasveld House, Kloof-street, Cape Town, 1907. F 82 Yeat BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election 1847. 1883. 1892. 1887. 1871. 1907. 1886. 1863. 1905. 1875. 1905. 1863. 1875. 1878. 1883. 1904. 1899. 1901. 1899. 1896. 1888. 1906. 1904. 1904. 1887. 1869. 1886. 1866. 1870. 1894. 1884. 1890. 1883. 1863. 1901. 1904. 1855. *Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke. tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. §Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. §Wilson, W., jun. Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire. *Witson, WiLtr1am E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Daramona, Streete, Rath- owen, Ireland. §Wimperis, H. E. 28 Rossetti Garden-mansions, 8.W. {WinpDiz, Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of Queen’s College, Cork. *Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864.) 11 Caven- dish-crescent, Bath. §Wiseman, J. G., F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. Stranraer, St. Peter’s-road, St. Margaret’s-on-Thames. {Wotrer-Barry, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1898 ; Council, 1899-1903.) 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. tWood, A., jun. Emmanuel College, Cambridge. *Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B. *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, Manchester. tWoop, Sir H. Trurman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street, Adelphi, W.C. ; and 16 Leinster-square, Bayswater, W. *Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire. *Wood, T. B., M.A., Professor of Agriculture in the University of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge. *Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire. *Wood, William James. 266 George-street, Glasgow. *Woodcock, Mrs. E. M. Pahargoomiah Tea Association, Bag- doora P.O., vid Sillguri, North Bengal, India. *WoopuHEaD, Professor G. Sums, M.D. Pathological Laboratory, Cambridge. *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. 121 Castlenau, Barnes, 8.W. §Woodland, W. N. F. University College, Gower-street, W.C. §Woodrow, John. Berryknowe, Meikleriggs, Paisley. tWoods, Henry, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge. Woops, Samuet. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C. *Woopwarkp, Arruur Smits, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Council, 1903- ), Keeper of the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, 8.W. *Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road, Harborne, Birmingham. tWoodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W. tWoopwarpD, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1887; Council, 1887-94.) 13 Arundel-gardens, Notting Hill, W. {Woopwaprp, Horacr B., F.R.S., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street, S.W. *Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s gate, Westminster, S.W. *Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees. *Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.1.Inst., F.S.S., M.R.1A., F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin. *Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester. *Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol. {Worth, J. T. Oakenrod Mount, Rochdale. §Wortuineton, A. M., C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal Naval Engineering College, Devonport. Mohuns, Tavistock. *Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford, Stourbridge Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1907. 83 Election. 1906. 1896. 1905. 1906. 1905. 1883. tWracas, R. H. Vernon. York. t{Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Baslow, Derbyshire. bio ie G. G. Marva, Silwood-road, Rondebosch, Cape olony. {Wright, Sir A. E., M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. 7.Lower Seymour-street, W. tWright, Allan. Struan Villa, Gardens, Cape Town. *Wright, Rev. Arthur, D.D. Queens’ College, Cambridge. 1883. ,*Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford. 1905. *Wright, FitzHerbert. The Hayes, Alfreton. 1874. 1884. 1904. 1903. 1871. 1902. 1901. 1902. 1899. 1905. 1901. 1894. 1905. 1886. 1904. 1891. 1905. 1894. 1876. 1905. 1885. 1901. 1883. 1907. 1887. 1903. {Wright, Joseph, F.G.S. 4 Alfred-street, Belfast. tWricut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College, Toronto, Canada. t{Wright, R. T. Goldieslie, Trumpington, Cambridge. tWright, William. The University, Birmingham. {Wricutson, Sir Toomas, Bart., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Neasham Hall, Darlington. tWyatt, G. H. 1 Maurice-road, St. Andrew’s Park, Bristol. tWylie, Alexander, Kirkfield, Johnstone, N.B. {Wylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast. tWynne, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- versity of Sheffield. 106 Whitham-road, Sheffield. tYallop, J. Allan. Alandale, London-road, Sea Point, Cape Colony. *Yapp, R. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in University College, Aberystwyth. *Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster. *Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, E. tYerbury, Colonel. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W. *Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S. (Local Sec. 1887), Professor of Anatomy in the Victoria University, Manchester. {Young, Alfred. Selwyn College, Cambridge. §Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 17 Vicar’s-hill, Lewisham, S.E. §Young, Professor Andrew, M.A., B.Sc. South African College, Cape Town. *Young, George, Ph.D. Lauraville, Bradda, Port Erin, Isle of Man. *Young, John. 2 Montague-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow. {Young, Professor R. B. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannes- urg. tYoune, eR. Bruce, M.A., M.B. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow. {Young, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna, Belfast. *Youna, Sypney, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1904), Professor of Chemistry in ths University of Dublin. 12 Raglan-road Dublin. *Young, W. H., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S. 44a Wilhelm-Weberstrasse Gottingen, Germany. tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C. §Yoxall, J. H., M.P. 67 Russell-square, W.C. F2 84 Year of Election 1887. 1892. 1881. 1897. 1894. 1887. 1892. 1894. 1893. 1887. 1884, 1890. 1893. 1887. 1884. 1894. 1897. 1887. 1887. 1894. 1901. 1894. 1887. 1873. 1889. 1901. 1872. 1870. 1890. 1876. 1894. 1892. 1801. BRITISH ASSOCIATION, CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs- gatan 18.) Professor G. F. Barker. 3909 Locust-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A. Professor E. van Beneden, D.C.L. 50 quai des Pécheurs, Lidge, Belgium. Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany. Professor M. Bertrand. 75 rue de Vaugirard, Paris. Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. 40 Lafayette-place, New York, U.S.A. Professor Christian Bohr. Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark. Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York, U.S.A. Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D., LL.D. Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen. Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute, Christiania, Norway. Professor J. W. Briihl. Heidelberg. Professor George J. Brush. Yale University, New Haven, Conn., A U.S.A. Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali- fornia, U.S.A. M. C. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland. Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy. Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. C. 8, No. 9, Mannheim, Germany. Emile Cartailhac. 5 rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France. Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A. Dr. A. Chauveau. 7 rue Cuvier, Paris. F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Professor Guido Cora. Via Goito 2, Rome. W. H. Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Dr. Yves Delage. Paris. Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium. Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples. Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. 4 quai Marcellis, Liége, Belgium. Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence. Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands. Professor F. Eliving. Helsingfors, Finland. Professor H. Elster. Wolfenbiittel, Germany. CO or CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1907. Year of Hlection. 1894. 1901. 1874. 1886. 1887. 1894. 1872. 1901. 1894. 1887. 1892. 1881. 1866. 1901. 1884. 1892. 1889. 1889. 1884. 1892. 1876. 1881. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1893. 1893. 1897. 1881. 1887. 1884. 1876. 1881. 1887. 1876. 1884. 1873. 1894. 1896. 1894. 1894. 1887. 1877. 1887. 1887. 1872 Professor T. W. W. Engelmann, D.C.L. Neue Wilhelmstrasse 15, Berlin, N.W. Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A. Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig. Dr. Otto Finsch, Altewiekring, No. 19b, Braunschweig, Germany. Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg. Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 3a, Berlin, 8.W. 48. W. de Fonvielle. 50 rue des Abbesses, Paris. Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden, Netherlands. Professor Léon Fredericq. 20 rue de Pitteurs, Liége, Belgium. Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague, Bohemia. Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Dorotheenstrasse 35, Berlin. Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris. Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis rue des Saints Péres, Paris. Professor Dr. H. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel, Germany. Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A. Daniel C. Gilman. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A. Professor Gustave Gilson. |’ Université, Louvain, Belgium. A. Gobert, 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels. General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, U.S.A. Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres. . Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena. Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 37 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass, U.S.A Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen- hagen, Denmark. Professor Paul Heger. 23 rue de Drapiers, Brussels. Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitat, Kénigsberg, Prussia. Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie, Munich. Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm. Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, New York, U.S.A. Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. The University, Utrecht, Netherlands. Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R.I., U.S.A. Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas- sachusetts, U.S.A. Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Polar, Massagno, Lugano, Switzerland. W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A. Professor C. Julin. 153 rue de Fragnée, Lidge. Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Bastions Vittoria 41, Milan. Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan. Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Géttingen. Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin. Professor F. Kohlrausch. Marburg, Germany. Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland. Maxime Kovalevsky. 13 Avenue de |’Observatoire, Paris, France. Professor W. Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, 17/1, Charlottenburg, bei Berlin. Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. Universitat, Bern, Switzerland. Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 108, Breslau. Professor J. W. Langley. 2037 Geddes-avenue, Ann Arbor, Michi- gan, U.S.A. M. Georges Lemoine. 76 rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris. F3 86 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1901. 1887. 1883. 1877. 1887. 1871. 1894. 1887. 1867. 1887 1890. 1884. 1887. 1894. 1897. 1897. 1887. 1889. 1894. 1864. 1887. 1894. 1890. 1890. 1895. 1887. 1901. 1890. 1894. 1870. 1886. 1887. 1868. 1895. 1897. 1896. 1892. 1890. 1895. 1901. 1894. 1874. 1897. 1892. 1887. 1887. 1888. Professor Philipp Lenard. Schlossstrasse 7, Heidelberg. Professor A. Lieben. IX. Wasagasse 9, Vienna. Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich. Dr. M. Lindemann. Sennorrstrasse 62, II, Dresden. Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Ramistrasse 56, Zurich, V. Professor Jacob Liiroth. Mozartstrasse 10, and Universitat, Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Germany. Professor Dr. Otto Maas. Universitat, Munich. Henry C. McCook, D.D., Se.D., LL.D. 3700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Professor Mannheim. 1 Boulevard Beauséjour, Paris. Dr. C. A. von Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 rue del’ Université, Paris. Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A. Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djursholm. Stockholm. Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden. Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. West Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A. E. S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A. Dr. F. Nansen. lLysaker, Norway. Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico, Via S. Maria, Pisa, Italy. Dr. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg. Professor Emilio Noelting. Mihlhausen, Elsass, Germany. Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A. Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig. Maffeo Pantaleoni. 13 Cola di Rienzo, Rome. Professor F. Paschen. Universitat, Tubingen. Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany. Hofrath Professor A. Penck. Georgenstrasse 34-36, Berlin, N.W. 7. Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholms Hogskola, Stockholm. Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig. Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium. Professor F. W. Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, U.S.A. 3 Professor Georg Quincke. Hauptstrasse 47, Friederichsbau, Heidel- berg. L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich. Sonnenstrasse 7. Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A. Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 rue de l Université, Paris, France. Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands. Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria. A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massa- chusetts, U.S.A. Professor Karl Runge. Goldgraben 20, Gottingen, Germany. Gen.-Major Rykatchew. Central Physical Observatory, St. Peters- burg. Teiaeae P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Netherlands. Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 75a, Berlin. Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A. Dr. Maurits Snellen. Apeldoorn, Pays-Bas, Holland. Professor H. Graf Solms. Botanischer Garten, Strassburg. Ernest Solvay. 25 rue du Prince Albert, Brussels. Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1907. 87 lection. 1889. Professor G. Stefanescu. Strada Verde 8, Bucharest, Roumania. 1881. Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. The University, Athens. 1894. Professor E. Strasburger. The University, Bonn. 1881. Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. Weyderstrasse 9, Breslau. 1887. Dr. T. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java. 1887. 1890. 1889. 1886. 1887. 1887. 1887. 1887. 1881. 1887. 1887. 1887. 1876. 1887. 1896. 1887. Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Orienta] Languages in the University of Pesth, Hungary. Professor Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff. Uhlandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg, Berlin. Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow. Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium. Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich. Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltkestrasse 60, Kiel. Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden. Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A. Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A, Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im- Breisgau, Baden. Dr. Otto N. Witt. Ebereschen-Allée 10, Westend bei Berlin, N.W. 23. Professor Adolph Willner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen. Professor C. A. Young. Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A. Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg. Professor F. Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig. 88 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Belfast, Queen’s College. Birmingham, Midland Institute. Bradford Philosophical Society. Brighton Public Library. Bristol Naturalists’ Society. ——, The Museum. Cambridge Philosophical Society. Cardiff, University College. Chatham, Royal Engineers’ Institute. Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of. Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland. ——, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. ——, Royal Geological Society of Ireland. ——, Royal Irish Academy. ——, Royal Society of. Dundee, University College. Edinburgh, Royal Society of. ——, Royal Medical Society of. ——, Scottish Society of Arts. Exeter, Royal Albert Memorial College Museum. Glasgow, Royal Philosophical Society of. ——, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Leeds, Institute of Science. ——, Philosophical and Literary Society of. Liverpool, Free Public Library. ——, Royal Institution. ——, The University. London, Admiralty, Library of the. ——., RoyalAnthropological Institute. ——.,, Arts, Society of. ——, Chemical Society. ——,, Civil Engineers, Institution of. ——., Geological Society. —., Geology, Museum of Practical. ——, Greenwich, Royal Observatory. —., Guildhall, Library, ——, King’s College. — —, Linnean Society. London, London Institution. ——, Mechanical Engineers, Institu- tion of. ——, Meteorological Office. ——, Physical Society. ——, Royal Asiatic Society. ——, Royal Astronomical Society. ——, Royal College of Physicians. ——, Royal College of Surgeons. ——, Royal Geographical Society. ——, Royal Institution. ——, Royal Meteorological Society. ——, Royal Society. ——, Royal Statistical Society. ——., Sanitary Institute. ——, United Service Institution. ——, University College. ——, War Office, Library. ——, Zoological Society. Manchester Literary and Philosophi- cal Society. ——, Municipal School of Technology. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and Philosophical Society. ——, Public Library. Norwich, The Free Library. Nottingham, The Free Library. Oxford, Ashmolean Natural History Society. ——, Radcliffe Observatory. Plymouth Institution. ——, Marine Biological Association. Salford, Royal Museum and Library. Sheffield, University College. Southampton, Hartley Institution. Stonyhurst College Observatory. Surrey, Royal Gardens, Kew. ——, National Physical Laboratory (Observatory Department). | Swansea, Royal Institution of South Wales. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. The Corresponding Societies. SOCIETIES, &c., RECEIVING REPORT: 1907. 89 EUROPE. Berlin: