BRAS Wyss bit noe Scie Zo ct 7 <2 : =2 ; = oor Fen OE is Seo ee a no — - ak : 2 - WW Per) fre fs . q o rpaet So = 3 ae ts - - ings = Se ne EPA, = “- st = 3 + ot he ¢ Ss = _ —— _ a 2 4-6. ES Se + _~ Pane, ; oS ew os Seah layne: . ~ : ae 7 on , : Page nn rage ‘ he meer 8 Sar a et res a tnd) en ae eae a eg eg a a I ea a ge On Ee SY TE Loe a el pate ae S . - ~~ i * a MP ay oe a we tae! - REPORT OF THE SEVENTY-NINTH MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE WINNIPEG: 1909 AUGUST 25—SEPTEMBER I LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET 1910 Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W. vs rs ant ws ba CONTENTS, ——— Page OtFicers ANd Councrr, 1909-1910......... Rese ee tony Be cit bs Dice seoeck Oa XXXUl Roses or tHe BRiTIsH ASsocraTION......... saaleohit sees Roane sanaee oe ies Tasies: Past ANNUAL Mesrines: Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local Secretaries xlix Trustees and General Officers .....seeessesseeseees SEoaeaANC Wate dsvicedcd LXV Sectional Presidents and Secretaries ..... soscdcpecanodc Sreeeantaeseenne Ixvi) Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates ............++ Ixxxviii Hyening Discourses.........0.sssseeseerseserseees GagsaeiNt ames sects cet ose .. Ixxxvili Lectures to the Operative Classes...... BoM ee sts iets (hua eteucdoasiness xcii Attendances and Receipts ............. ates gaceaee eee Sate cileasares, MCL Analysis of Attendances ............ » eBdocdooobac Mareeaansecers sees we Xevi Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes........... SABE cnen cBootogetion xevil Rerort or tHE Councit to THE GuneRaL Commitres, 08-1909 ... exviil GENERAL TREASURER’s Account, 1908-1909 ........eeee, esaneoniteeede seCKLY. eee MEETING, 1909: MMIII ETRE AE etna: Las sales. caiss-nevasseedshigaenisceven sdonareenass OXXVI Sectional 1h eT ale ete ic CXXVi Committee of Recommendations. ........cscscssesscsseseeeeteseeessecteuse CXXVIii Research Committees .........ss0e0se00s Padtatite dees ceeecaitnees tes dae eaantek on |OX SINS Communications ordered to be printed 27 ertenso0 viisissesssseesseeeee CXXXIX Resolutions referred to the Council .....cec.. Mapa Midise danecep store (CARRIE Recommendations referred to the Council .1.....sessseceseeeeereees seas CXL eres CREAT GE MONGY ccc nos:snsssnnensecssncesanctasdiossadesvsatas CXL Appress BY THE PRESIDENT, Proresson Stz J.J. Taomson, M.A., LL.D., REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIBNCE .1.....csscsssssccseteeetetevsstecseesscetene 33 MMMMOMUTIONS OF THE SECTIONS ....11...5:ssctie cetteceseteverse cossestesscsees OCD ITI SECRET Tais.fane thc iésa¢eaeesscsnediciaestceesssccisivabiccabisaegersscn 190 AppEnpIx A.—-PAPnks READ at ToH Discusston oN WHEAT......,..... 747 Apprennix B.—NARRATIVE OF THE WinnIrea Meeting AND ITINERARY OF THE WESTERN EXXOURSION. ss ...ccosccciteccerecsocces-sesctrecsssesassens 809 Invex POPP R deb eee men ee eb eed bi seseeset bse r debe rb bbb Seb ee deste be bbbed bat beteessess sree reee® 814 List or Mempurs, ERECTA GAR CLS UNG CO AERIS Moin No§ CHET was NBAalS Oss 96 pages Az CONTENTS. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Page The Further Tabulation of Bessel Functions.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hin (Chairman), Dr. L. N. G. Fiton (Secretary), Professor Atrrep Lopez, and Dr. J. W. INGO HOLSON ssc: avccecvcdu cosets sab lacedeUeccecslicsa res coos cesar n tia. Magnetic. Observations at Falmouth Observatory.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Sir W. H. Prescr (Chairman), Dr. R. T. Giazz- BROOK (Secretary), Professor W. G. Apams, Dr. CurEz, Captain Creax, Mr. W. L. Fox, Sir Artuur Ricker; and Professor Soeur re sssssceh iil teedaedee ccc ceedeces sede ccsutewes cues dont ee Geodetie Are in Africa.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Grorce Darwin (Chairman), Sir Davip Grit (Secretary), Colonel C. F. Cross, and Sir Grores Gotpre, appointed to carry out a further portion of the Geodetic Arc of Meridian North of Lake Tanganyika... Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites in co-operation with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.—Kighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman), Mr. W. H. Dies (Secretary), Mr. D. ArncHurpatp, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. R. T. Guazesroox, Dr. H. R. Mitt, Professor J. E. Prravet, Professor A. Schuster, and Dr. W. Warson. (Drawn up by the SECLOUATY,) | oddest ccesmagdes vaceu t= ccd suiek vine! sites svesiies ocesecesces«de ea Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord RayiercnH (Chairman), Dr. R. T. Guazrsroox (Secretary), Professors J. Perry, W. G. Apams, and G. Carry Foster, Sir OLIVER - Lopes, Dr. A. Mourrueap, Sir W. H. Preece, Professors A. ScHusTER, J. A. Firmine, and Sir J. J. Tomson, Dr. W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T. Bortomiry, Rev. T. C. Frrzparricx, Dr. G. JoHNSTONE STONEY, Professor 8. P. THomrson, Mr. J. Rennie, Principal E. H. 36 37 37 —— a a ee | poet Sees REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. iit ; Page Grirritus, Sir ArrHuR Ricker, Professor H. L. Carienpar, and Messrs. G. Marruey, A. P. Trorrer, T. Marner, and F. E. Smitn... 38 ApprenDIx.—Report of the International Conference on Electrical Units and Standards, London, 1908 ...............c.cecceeceeceeceee 41 Seismological Investigations.—Fourteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman), Dr. J. Mrtne (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Sir Grorce Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Dr. R. T. Guazesroox, Mr. M. H. GRay, Professor J. W. Jupp, Professor C. G. Knort, Professor R. MELpora, Mr. R. D. Oxpuam, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. Piummenr, Professor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. Crement Rerp, and Mr. Netson Ricuarpson. (Drawn up by the Secretary) .........0.0......0f.cccceeesees 48 LAS BG TASNET. | Sis rat SoM Gee elie 5 ue ea nN Bae OO 48 II. Sites of Stations: Eskdalemuir, Agincourt, Porto Rico, SUEDE, ST Je NSM eh oe a a elec i el aa el 49 IIT. The Large Earthquakes of 1908 .0....0..........cccseeeececeeeceess 51 IV. The Records of Small Earthquakes from Jamaica ......... “51 V. Quick Vibrators as applied to Seismometry .............0.000.4. 55 VI. On a possible Synchronism between Seismic Activity in [RTE TESSSy ctl 3] tao ea eee Se oR 56 VII. The Time of Maximum Motion as indicated by three differently installed Horizontal Pendulums ............... 58 VIII. The Number of Earthquake Records obtained at British : SUIS 8 ROO A TL Aa Er etch ier eee 59 IX. Luminous Effects obtained from Rock Surfaces............... 60 X. A Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes ........00000.00c000000. 61 XI. Developing, Fixing, and Copying a Film ..................00000. 61 XII. Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes, .1638-1891. By Pralessor 1, Jat Pama (0000. 38s ukcoucct doe Ea bed keds 62 Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Sir Davip Gru ( Chairman), Dr. W. G. Durrieip (Secretary), Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, Mr. F. McCrean, and Professors A. Schuster and H. H. Turner, appointed to aid the work of Esta- blishing a Solar Observatory in Australia ..0..0......0ccccccccccccsccceceee. 66 The Present State of our Knowledge of the Upper Atmosphere as obtained by the use of Kites, Balloons, and Pilot Balloons.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. E. Gorp and W. A. Harwoob...... 71 ee A ee ee ee re a a 71 ae eee veren es enttaniary tare ere ath PRE el otk oe 72 III. (a) Apparatus and Instruments .......................... omen 79 (db) Testing of Instruments ......... eebinacRpan antec hist tots aad shes a 84 lV CONTENTS. Page IV. Temperature: (a) Mean Temperatures and Gradients of Temperature ......cccseeeneseeeeeeennessareeenes 92 (b) Temperatures under Cyclonic and Anti- cyclonic Conditions .........cesessseseeeeseees 96 (c) The Advective and Convective Regions... 102 (d) Annual Variation of Temperature ......... 109 (e) Diurnal Variation of Temperature ......... 115 V. Wind: Changes in Velocity and Direction with Height ...... 116 Anode Rays and their Spectra. By Dr. Orro REICHENHEIM ...........+.-- 124 On Threefold Emission-Spectra of Solid Aromatic Compounds. By Professor EF. GOLDSTEIN ........0ccscceeeeceeseoceernsesssesaeeasenersepessecuacusenans 129 Some Properties of Light of very short Wave Lengths. By Professor LEMODORE MLUWMAN. S, dasecens osc veceseadeasslhiesaete 500 etait en peRet et eee 132 Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. Armstrrone (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry (Secretary), Pro- fessor SypNey Youne, Dr. C. H. Descu, Dr. J. J. Dossin, Dr. M. O. Forster, and Dr. A. Larwortu. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ...... 135 The Study of Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of Benzene.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Principal Miers (Chairman) and Professors H. HE. Anmstrrone (Secretary), W. J. Popr, and W. P. VVAVENINTES setts ccc Serra Pe Nh cpio utvicsategs rity Sole d sate au oreiactlclis oni 8 acta bites ay ola oe 141 Electroanalysis.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. 8. Kippine (Chairman), Dr. F. M. Perxin (Secretary), Dr. G. T. Britpy, Dr. T. M. Lowry, Professor W. J. Porn, and Dr. H. J. 8. SAND), <5 cee ec ast tease Gacinvte av eee gies st Se shh fa.e Ah oietdactastelaie onesie ed eae 144 The Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. EK. Dirvmrs (Chairman), Professor A. W. CrossiEy (Secretary), Professor W. H. Prrxry, Dr. M. O. Forsrmr, and DreVH sR. Ti SUBURB... sg eruenetcesssecuanes onelleiuens tenes cceedeee eee aes 145 The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Substances, and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. 8S. Krpprnc (Chairman), Professor K. J. P. Orvon (Secretary), Dr. S. Runemann, Dr. A LaPwortsH; and Dr, J.T. gam Wann’ .gs-g, scene Wien p eae aaia a eet eo oaiee 147 Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South Africa,— Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. Lampiucu (Chair- man), Dr. F. H. Harcu (Secretary), Dr. G. CorstorPHrnn, and Messrs. A. pu Torr, A. P. Hatz, G. Kynasron, F. P. Mrennett, and A. W. Rocgrs, appointed to determine the precise Significance of Topographical and meee Terms used is aa in South Africa, (Drawn up by the Seeretary) ......... Joc cntequecghs uch unas) canara SRO 149 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. P Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.— Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HerpMan (Chairman), Mr. H. C. Brastey (Acting Secretary), Mr. E. T. Newron, Professor A. C. Sewarp, Mr. W. A. E. Ussuer, Professor W. W. Warts, and Dr. A. SmiraH Woopwarp. (Drawn Mp ayithe: Acting Secretary.) \..0:.c.ccpccsecccceosssncesenrsscccnantnesycdeesesgbecens Report on Footprints from the Trias. Part VI. By H. C. [BuO HET eae Ch one coca nad ROc ee adap edad ou HE TCR CSeED hanidneinarcnodundh Ganhiecaenne On a Skull of Rhynchosaurus in the Manchester Museum. By Pe Mires Seq WI MTS ON? MES Co. cami terete oist facets Safuciele cna owenbie a anise ici Bibliographical Notes upon the Flora and Fauna of the British Keuper. ‘By A. BR. HOR WOOD | .0.c. cis. c0cceceensessenecesedeneaee Preliminary Notice of the Occurrence of Footprints in the Lower Keuper Sandstone of Leicestershire. By A. R. Horwooop ... Investigation of the Igneous and Associated Rocks of the Glensaul and Lough Nafooey Areas, Co. Galway.—-Report of the Committee, con- sisting of Professor W. W. Watts (Chairman), Professor 8. H. ReyNOLDs (Secretary), Mr. H. B. Maurs, and Mr. C. I. Garpiner. (Drawn up by Mr. C. I. Gardiner and the Secretary) .................664, Composition and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. Harker (Chairman), Mr. KE. Greenty (Secretary), Dr. C. A. Mariey, and Professor ede ORTON hl. Re RR Ea eA TS CG Ma heresy Od aee Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. Trpprman (Chairman), Dr. A. R. DweErryHouseE (Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. M. Burron, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Rey. 8. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Professor W. J. Sorts, and Messrs. J. W. SrarHer and W. T. TUCKER..................cccseeeee ees Investigation of the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lin- colnshire, and at various Localities in the East Riding of Yorkshire.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. Lampiucu (Chair- man), Mr. J. W. Sraruer (Secretary), Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Professor J. W. Carr, Mr. W. Lowsir Carrer, Dr. A. R. Dwerry- House, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H. Howarru, Rev. W. JoHnson; Professor P. F. Kenpatt, and Messrs. G. W. B. Macrurx, H. T. Newton, Crement Rerp, and THomAs Sseprarp. (Drawn up by the BeseraIe (elit? a) NAME oe ee hoe fe mth cee FRG cits sScciaveiag abit soeelenis pices The Excavation of Critical Sections in the Paleeozoic Rocks of Wales and the West of England.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro- fessor C. Lapwortu (Chairman), Mr. G. W. Frarnsrpes (Secretary), Vv age 150 151 155 158 162 163 164 169 Dr. J. E. Marr, Professor W. W. Warts, and Mr. G. W. WittiaMs... 181 On some further Excavations among the Cambrian Rocks of Comley, Shropshire, 1908, by E. S. Copsotp, F.G.S. «0.0... 181 Vi CONTENTS. Page Faunal Succession in the Lower Carboniferous Limestone (Avonian) of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. W. Grecory (Chairman), Dr. A. VaucHan (Secretary), Dr. WHEEL- ton Hrnp, and Professor W. W. Warts, appointed to enable Dr. A. Vaueuan to continue his Researches thereon. (Drawn up by the Secretary) viscewcssisctesadves Suovsecentsosavatwaedohslecbieeesealee kts thee aaa RE Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor 8. J. Hickson (Chairman), Rey. T. R. R. Stespine (Secretary), Sir E. Ray LankesterR, Professor A. Sepewick, Professor W. C. McInrosu, Dr. 8. F. Harmer, and Mie Gates? BUDGE ycrissasceneenae seth anseete: ose amcsane «ete seeecyeoememenmenuei Heporb of Mire Wi FDawen, Bie. elo iises.th acess Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Henry Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F, A. BarHer (Secretary), Dr. P. L. Scuater, Rev. T. R. R. Sressine, Dr. W. E. Hoyts, Hon. Watrer RotuscuHiip, and Lord WALSINGHAM ............. Experiments in Inheritance.—Second Report of the Committee, consist- ing of Professor W. A. HerpmMan (Chairman), Mr. Doveras Laurin (Secretary), Mr. R. C. Punnert, and Dr. H. W. Marertr Trims, on the Inheritance of Yellow-coat Colour in Mice. (Drawn up by the SECIOLAT Ys) es cscccecctsccevee se cescne-wsscnecetecrsceyiecuscieateas cree moun aueaematan wakes Feeding Habits of British Birds.—First Report of the Committee, con- sisting of Dr. A. EK. Surpiey (Chairman), Dr. C. Gorpon Hewirr (Secretary), and Messrs. J. N. Hatsert, Roperr Newsteap, CLEMENT Rerp, A. G. L. Rocrrs, and F. V. THEopaLp, appointed to investigate the Feeding Habits of British Birds by a study of the contents of the crops and gizzards of both adults and nestlings, and by collation of observational evidence, with the object of obtaining precise knowledge of the economic status of many of our commoner file affecting rural BCLONCO rs peaseevaatcesscts Ve vectees honk hack tee sts eta adres Satoa ttc she Rae a The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Nineteenth Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Dr. F. Du Cans Gopman (Chairman), Mr. D. Suarp (Secretary), Professor 8. J. H1cxson, Dr. P. L. Scuater, and Min ED GARY APIS MARE. stage << vapienatnecignneiecceeece seus tes sd eRe oe ce Re: ea Zoology Organisation.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir EK. Ray pe (Chairman), Professor 8. J. Hickson (Secre- tary), Professors G. C. Bourne, T. W. Brivex, J. Cossan Ewart, M. Hartoc, W. A. Herpman, and J. Grauam Kerr, Mr. O. H. Larter, Professor Mincutn, Dr. P. C. Mrrcuett, Professors C. Luoyp Morgan, EK. B. Povutron, and A. Sepewicx, Dr. A. E. Surpiey, and Rev. Te Ewa. (STEBBENG Bre game ate nas s52 3's ios oe a tea tedee es oat a eRe a aime Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Denpy (Chairman and Secre- tary), Sir E. Ray Lanxesrer, Professor A. Sep¢wick, and Professor Swipe H. Vane. .ccsdadeesh 06 beak olan cecal Mh eee ee vee 187 191 192 195 195 196 197 198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, Vil Page Investigations in the Indian Ocean.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jon Murray (Chairman), Mr. J. Stantey GARDINER (Secretary), Captain E. W. Creax, Professors W. A. Herpmay, 8. J. Hickson, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, Dr. H. R. Mrzt, and Dr. D. Suarp, appointed to carry on an Expedition to investigate the Indian Ocean between India and South Africa in view of a possible land connection, to examine the deep submerged banks, the Nayareth and Saya de Malha, and also the distribution of marine animals ...... 198 Mr. Fryer’s Preliminary Report ................0.000 lle ececeee een eecte 200 The Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom.— Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir R. H. Inerrs Paue@RAve (Chairman), Mr. H. Sraniny Jevons (Secretary), and Messrs. A. L. Bowzry and D. H. MacGregor ................cseeeeeeeeeeeeees 208 Agricultural Development in the North-West of Canada, 1905 until 1909. By Professor JAMES MAYOR ............:.5:cctgceceeeseeeeeeeneeeceeen ens The Development of Wheat Culture in North America. By Professor AMBER: ORREY BU GHAME! «sce <-5:-panenedecr iacter «+ “ndensbonetatdonosscaecstecereeve Gaseous Explosions.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. Preece (Chairman), Mr. Ducatp CrierK and Professor BERTRAM HopxKINson (Joint Secretaries), Professors Bonz, BURSTALL, CaLtENDAR, Coker, Datsy, and Drxon, Drs. GuazEBroox and HeEtrr- SHaw, Professors Prravet, Smrrnetis, and Watson, Dr. Harker, Lieut.-Colonel Hotpren, and Captain Sanxry, appointed for the In- vestigation of Gaseous Explosions, with special reference to Tem- 209 230 IEE REG tetrreca trrisis on Ve on gen Syawteisacied Seacteuepiicmcar ace aeenee savas aswerg shes cociswnee 247 Appenprx A.—Regnault’s Corrections ............cccccccecceececeeeseeens 264 ae B.—Deville’s Experiments on the Dissociation-of Gases. Byarig WA ME BRIN ce oe emstantenaee neds sohas +b <6 265 The Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawxrns (Secretary), Professor W. Ripceway, and Messrs. Artuur J. Evans, C. H. Reap, H. Batrour, and A. Burrern, ap- _ pointed to investigate the Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glas- tonbury in connection with a Committee of the Somerset Archzeo- logical and Natural History Society............ccccccccccssseeeeceeceeceeeneees 270 Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. L. Myrrs (Chairman), Professor R. C. Bosanovet (Secretary), Sir Epwarp Braproox, Dr. T. Asupy, Mr. D. G. Hocarrn, and Professors W. Rrncrway and W. Boyp DAWKINS, appointed to co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations on aerate seta ttd ES ERE ANT oss 22 ics so oo 26 on Fae sicccn doe gids dacdenses.caccc, 27] The Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), Lord AVEBURY, Professor W. Rrpcrwar, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Muvro, Professor Bovp Dawxrns, and Mr. A. L. Lewrs, appointed viii CONTENTS. Page io conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ..........:.0:s:eseseeeeeeeee eee 271 The Avebury Excavations, 1909. By H. Sr. Groner GRay ......... 2735 Notes and Queries in Anthropology.—Report of the Committee, consist- ing of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Professor J. L. Myrus (Secretary), Professor D. J. Cunnrnenam, Mr. E. N. Fatuarze, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. T. A. Joycr, and Drs. C. 8S. Myers, W. H. R. Rivers, C. G. SeLicMann, and F. 0, SHrussaL, appointed to prepare a New Edition of ‘ Notes and Queries in Anthropology ’ ....:.2..--::::sseeeseeeeeeeeen nese eres 285 Anthropological Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. 8. Kinesrorp (Secretary), Dr. T. Asupy, Dr. G. A. AupEN, Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. KE. N. Faxuarzx, Dr. H. O. Forses, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. E. Srpney Harrranp, Mr. E. Heawoop, Professor J. L. Myrrs, and Professor FLinpers Prtrin, appointed for the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registra- tion of Photographs of Anthropological Interest. (Drawn up by the ECLOLATY,)! haecncncagscsrs eaeiiig haan eeaswad lbuleos 05, te a0 doves v eo U EE RES 285 Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor D. J. CunnrincHam (Chairman), Mr. J. Gray (Secretary), and Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL ............. 5s saasbongeet ene 286 Archeological Investigations in British Kast Africa.-_Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. Hocartn (Chairman), Dr. A. C. Happon (Secretary), Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. C. T. Curretty, Dro. O: Forpus, and Professor J. 1. Miynns........s)ecic.00rs see 286 Archeological and Ethnographical Researches in Crete.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. Hocartu (Chairman), Pro- fessor J. IL. Myres (Secretary), Professor R. C. Bosanquer, Dr. W. L.. H. Duckworrn, Dr. A. J. Evans, Professor A, MACALIsTER, amd IP nafessor, W'.cRLDGBWAYS ii. 20.50.00 4..ccqde¢esas75+sevhendelduineso eee 287 Archeological and Ethnological Investigations in Sardinia.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. Hocarrn (Chairman), Pro- fessor R. C. Bosanquerr (Secretary), Dr. T. Asnsy, Dr. W. L. H. Duckwortu, Professor J. L. Myrus, and Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL......... 291 The Excavation of Neolithic Sites in Northern Greece.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Rrofessor W. Ripeeway (Chairman), Pro- fessor J. L. Myrnrs (Secretary), Mr. J. P. Droop, and Mr. D. G. BLOG MRT ap cpu anc disicvs nd slash Yond sacs Aldus scleactoscaapdeageatte mea 293 The Ductless Glands,--Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Scuirer (Chairman), Professor Swane Vincent (Secretary), Professor A. B. Macatium, Dr. L. FE. Suorr, and Mrs. W. H. Tuompson. (Dxawn up iby the Secretary).......:......).:....s0secdeere pee 293 Anesthetics.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. D. Water (Chairman), Dr. F. W. Hewrrt (Secretary), and Sir F. TrevEs, appointed to acquire further knowledge, Clinical and })xperi- REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 1x Page mental, concerning Ansesthetics—especially Chloroform, Ether, and . Alcohol—with Special Reference to Deaths by or during Anesthesia, and their possible Diminution ...... NOGA CS ASE solve tase aaa aes Minghes Meat aa 296 Appendix J. Report upon the Routine Use, by the Open Method, of a Mixture of Chloroform and Ether. By Dr. F. W. Hewirt, M.V.O., and Dr. J. BLUMER IB AGS hind vttannecteou le bee ieee 298 3 II. Description of the Chloroform Balance. By Dr. 1a DAN W\GEG CIN Sate ig] AALS Lee A Hel em de ag 503 », III. On the Physiological Effects of Mixed Anesthetics. Bey Dr As TL WALEER PRG. Se. sicdigectpenyase sch ve 305 », IV. The Comparative Power of Alcohol, Ether, and Chloroform as measured by their Action upon Muscular Contraction. By Dr. A. D. Watter, F.R.S. (Royal Society, June 24, 1909)............ 307 53 V. Quantitative Estimations of Chloroform in Blood. By J. A. GarpNner and Dr. Buckmaster ......... 307 » WI. The Comparative Physiological Power of Chloro- form, Ether, and Alcohol, gauged by Intra- venous Injection. By Dr, A. D. Water and VER WY oie SRM IN. euler ond deseo e ere tea etek so 312 The Electrical Phenomenon and Metabolism of Arwm Spadices.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. D. Water (Chairman), Miss Sanpers (Secretary), Professor Gorcn, and eae OTR PAR TATED ayy oc sy dice ta vi Seegustadeves. ch seed ddan i eeke Ub es denwdisdlcsccess 515 The Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Lauper Brunton (Chairman), Mr. J. Barcrorr and Lieut.-Colonel R. J. 8. Stmpson (Secretaries), Colonel Sir D. Bruce, Dr. 8. G. Campsetzt, Sir Kenpat Franks, Professor J. G. McKenprick, Sir A. Mitcuetz, Dr. C. F. K. Murray, Dr. C. Porter, Dr. J. L. Topp, Professor G. Sts Woopueap, Sir A. E. Watcut, and the Heads of the Schools of Tropical Medicine of Liver- roe om@on and Wdinbae his ect sien cot aces sent 725 XxXVili CONTENTS, FRIDAY, AUGUST 27. Page 1. The Aims of MacDonald College. By Principal J. W. Rosertson, : CEMLG, , HEIL SD siiaee cee seae absnee sea hn ree atte one etenes tates cae eee trees 725 2. *Practical Studies in Elementary Schools. By W. M. He tter, BiSe. Bo ceee aioe ace eect ga ae en dase treo Mes iiss te seins as Sere emer es 726 3. Manual Instruction in Elementary Schools. By Watrer Sarcent 726 4. London Trade Schools. By C. W. Kimmins, M.A., D.Sc. ..........+. 727 5. University Policy. By Dean F. F. Wesproox, M.A. ............-..+.. 729 6. The Activities of the State University. By Dr. W. A. McIntyre... 750 MONDAY, AUGUST 30. Joint Discussion with Section E on Geographical Teaching (p. 532) ... 731 1. Practical Work in Evening Schools. By W. Hewrrr, B.Sc. ...... 731 2. *Nature Study in Secondary Schools. By Miss Linian J. CLARKE, BES Gag Bee geestole- cone eotags ieee nans eh tho nicsie a Nuits t Luietan ciel SaaS MRL Rae 732 TUESDA Yes A UG US1 7 31. 1. Education and Experimental Psychology. By Professor Huso MEONSTERBER Glos. coe teet cence be dete a dete as 0 eer tl icra, 752 2. Discussion on Education as a Preparation for Agricultural Life in Canada, with special reference to Schoolboys from the Mother Country. Opened by the Rev. Dr.'H. B. Gray ............5.0.s00000 732 (i) Agricultural Courses in High Schools. By 8. E. Lane ... 732 (ii) Household Science Teaching in Canada, with particular reference to Advanced Work in Ontario. By Miss C. C. IBENSON:, “See aescgach soc. doncendhes shape host meth a Ruc cc atta nee ies aan 733 (iii) Colonisation of English Women in Western Canada. By Mins: SELOPKENSON, 3. decc ews saree atin veteaigs pte fan tame te ncen pees oe 734 (iv) Practical Work in Higher Education. By Miss H. D. ORR, Noes ecg vaste cacti ae ventas beat tore e ner Rt ea eet cad acres wma ee 734 3. *The Orgamisation of Education in Manitoba. By R. Fiercuer .:. 735 EVENING DISCOURSES. THURSDAY, AUGUST 26, The Seven Styles of Crystal Architecture. By Dr. A. E. H. Turtoy, BRAS, 66.. iacndcedlipe parte itn sucliaeateuee oe pamrensiatieyys sient: deb Tae a 736 TUESDAY, AUGUST 31. Our Food from the Waters. By Professor W. A. HervMan, F.R.S....... 738 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. XXIX APPENDIX A. PAPERS READ AT THE DISCUSSION ON WHEAT. MMMERTTANEC GL CUIIME Re ee oe ie celeste seine ocatmeniac he done oocN ce He oui bcamote Gaia nace aeancaes 747 1. On the General Economic Position of Wheat-growing and the Special Considerations affecting the North-West of Canada. By Major P. G. Crater, C.B., with réswmé of Papers by Professor J. Mavor and Professor A. P. BRIGHAM ............:0ccccceeceeneeeeeeen ees 750 2. The Factors determining the Yield of Wheat. By A, D. Hatt, M.A., F-R.S., and H. J. RUsSsELh, D.Sc. ...0....00..ceccseegsseeeeeveeoe 756 3. The Breeding of Wheat. By Professor R. H. Birrmn, M.A.......... 760 4. Wheat Breeding in Canada. By C. E. Saunprers, Ph.D. .............. 764 5. The Influence of Good Seed in Wheat Production. By Professor Ch EA GAC SHTEID GR: A co: AP aio tc declan Soe HEIRS oen ein SR RORGre CUO CHEOE HAE Casta nee 769 6. Individuality in Plants. By L. S. KLinck.............0.::ccccseseeeeeee es 773 7. Quality in Wheaten Flour. By A. KE. HuMPHRIBS...................50065 778 8. The Chemical Properties of Wheaten Flour. By E. Frankianp AMIS TRONGs PID) 5 HDESES.2 ii sh.citasiees «a cethatenectite eoaemeremtabecaatdesee 779 9. An Analysis of the Factors contributing to Strength in Wheaten Flour.) By aWi.ob. HARD. HORS. ws ainccvstlasapenscdssnstaeienueuce dase: 784 10. Chemical Work on Canadian Wheat and Flour. By F. T. Suutt, 1a ste ved fed 0k Os eras Bese asec ede eee ARB Renee carinite ec SORCReee senac Soc HoRRn eRe 787 11. A Comparison of the Baking Qualities of the Flour from some of the Grades of Wheat produced in the Western Provinces of Canada. Pave POLCSSGE Eu: EUARICOUIE one. Fede. eretiettaia x aicdie aa diRlga Uadnenietia «Weed 795 12. The History of the Wheats. By Dr. OTTO STAPP................ccsceeee 799 PEE MLC MRLEIS, (06: Pho sega torre aie same caghs duncan ewehsuntedine nt sweadens 807 APPENDIX B. Narrative of the Meeting of the British Association at Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Itinerary of the Party invited to take part in the Excursion through the Western Provinces after the Meeting...... 809 XxX CONTENTS. LIST OF PLATES. Puate I. Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations. Prate II. Illustrating the Report on the Present State of Our Knowledge ef the Upper Atmosphere. Puates IIT. anp IV. Illustrating the Seventh Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles. Piates V. vo VIII. Illustrating the Second Report on the Investigation of Gaseous Explosions. Pratrs IX. ro XIII. Illustrating the Interim Report. on Anesthetics. | OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1909-1910. PRESIDENT. PitoressoR Sim J. J. THOMSON, M.A., LL.D.,, D.Sc., F.R.S: PATRON. HIS MAJESTY THE KING. | ] VICE-PRESIDENTS.. The Right Hon. Lokp StRATHCONA AND MOUNT } Roya, G.O.M.G., G.0.V.0., LL.D., High Oom- missioner in London for thé Domiuiou of Canada. 4 The Right Hon. Sir WitFrip Laurier, G.O.M.G., | PC., D.L., Prittie Minister dnd President of Privy Council. The Hon. Sir DANIEL HunreR McMILLAN, K.C.M.G., Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba. The Hon. RupMOND PALEN ROBLIN, Premier of Manitoba. 2 | | | | The Hon. AMEDEE E. ForGEt, Lieuténant-Governdt of Saskatchewan. The Hon. WALTER Scort, Premier of Saskatchewan, The Hon. GEorGe H. V: Buyers; Lieutenant- Governor of Alberta. The Hon. Avex. 0. HurHEeRFOoRD, B.A., LL.D., Preniier of Alberta. ‘The Hon. JAMES DunsMurr, Lieutenant-Governor _of British Columbia; | The Hon. RicHARD McBripz, LL.B., K.C., Premier of British Columbia. Rev. Professor T. G. BONNEY, Se.D., LL.D., F.R.S. VICE=PRESIDENTS ELECT, The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of Sheffield, The _EARL Firzwi.iiaM, D.S.0. The Master Cutler of Sheffield, HERBERT BARBER. His Grace the LoRD ARCHBISHOP OF YORK: His Grace the Dukr oF NorRFOLK, E.M., K.G., G.C:V.0., LittD., Chancellor of Sheffield ‘University. The Right Hon. the EARL oF HAREWOOD, K.C.V.O., Lord-Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. Alderman GEORGE FRANELIN, Litt.D., Pro-Chan- cellor of Sheffield University. Sir CHARLES ELI01, K.C.M.G., 0.B.; Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. PRESIDENT ELECT. Alderman H. K. SrEPHENSON, Deputy Lord Mayor of Sheffield The Right Rev, J. N. Quirk, D.D., Lord Bishop of Sheffield. A. J. Hosson, President of the Sheffield-Chamber of Commerce. . Alderman Sir WILLIAM CLEGG, J.P., Chairman of © the Sheffield Education Committee. Colonel HkrBer't HUGHES, C.M.G. Professor W. M. Hicks, Se.D., F.R.S. Rev. E. H. TrrcuMarsH, M.A., President of the Sheffield Free Church Council. GENERAL TREASURER. Professor JoHN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F:R.S. GENERAL SECRETARIES, Major P. A. MAcManoy, R.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. | Professor W. A. HirDMAN, D.Se., F.R.S. ASSISTANT SECRETARY, O. J. R. HowART#H, M.A., Burlington House, London, W. CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER. H. O. STEWARDSON, Burlington House, London, W. LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT SHEFFIELD, Alderman H, K. STEPHENSON. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT SHEFFIELD. R. M. Prescorr. | W. M. Grppons, M.A. [P.T.0- xxxii OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Abney, Sir W., K.0.B., F.B.S. HAL, A. D., F'.R.S. ANDERSON, TEMPEST, M.D., D.Sc, HARTLAND, EK, SIDNEY, F.S.A,. ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. Hoaarra, D. G., M.A. BERKELEY, Rt. Hon, the Eant or, F.RS. MITcHELL, Dr, P. CHALMERS, F.R.S. BoWLEY, A. L.; MA. Mynxs, Professor J, L., M.A. BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, O.B. Pouuton, Professor E. B., F.R.S. Brown, Dr. Horace T,, F.R.S. PRAIN, Lieut.-Colonel D., 0.1.E., F.R.S. BRUNTON, Sir LAUDER, Bart., F.R.S. SHERRINGTON, Professor O. 8, F.R.S, CLosE, Colonel OC. F., R.E., O.M.G. SHIPLEY, Dr. A. E., F.R.S. ORAIGIE, Major P. G., C.B. TEALL, J. J. H., F.R.S. Dyson, Professor F. W., F.R.S. TuTTon, Dr, A. E. H., F.R.S. GLAZEBROOK, Dr. R, T., F.R.S. WOLFE-BARRY, Sir JOHN, K.C.B., F.R.S. Woopwakp, Dr. A. SMITH, F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL, The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past- Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). The Right Hon, Lord AvEBuRY, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS. The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Sir ARTHUR W. Rtcken, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S, PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, G.C.S.I. Sir A. Geikie, K.O.B., Pres. R.S. | Sir Norman Lockyer, K.O.B.,F.R.S. Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Lord Lister, D,O.L., F.R.S. Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir William Crookes, F.R.S. Sir George Darwin, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. Sir William Huggins, K.O0.B., Sir A. W. Riicker, D.&c., F.R.S. Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S. ERS. | Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S, | Dr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S. | PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. fir F. Galton, D.O.L., F.R.S. A, Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. Dr, D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S, P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S, Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. G, Carey Foster, F.R.S. Prof, T. G. Bonney, Se.D., F.R.8. | Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S. Dr, J. G. Garson, AUDITORS. Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. | Professor H. McLeod, F.R.8, Es RULES OF mak BRITISH ASSOCIATION. [Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907.] —_+- —— Cuaprer I. Objects and Constitution. 1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire with one another and with foreign philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground occupied by other Institutions. 2. The Association shall consist of Members, Associates, and Honorary Corresponding Members. The governing body of the Association shall be a General Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and its affairs shall’ be directed by a Council and conducted by General Officers appointed by that Committee. 3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or longer, and at such other times as the General Committee may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be determined by the General Committee not less than two years in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. Cuapter II. The General Committee. 1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the following persons : ‘ (i) Permanent Members— (a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past and present Presidents of the Sections. 1909. ; Objects. Constitution. Annual Meetings. Constitution. XXXIV RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (6) Members who, by the publication of works or papers, have furthered the advancement of know- ledge in any of those departments which are assigned to the Sections of the Association. (ii) Temporary Members— (a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections. (b) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre- sentatives, and other persons specially invited or nominated by the Council or General Officers. (c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies. (d) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in number—from Scientific Institutions established at the place of meeting. Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the General Committee shall be final. (i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Annual Meeting. (ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or during the Annual Meeting. Meetings, 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time to summon a meeting of the General Committee. Functions. 4, The General Committee shall (i) Receive and consider the report of the Council. (ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations. (iii) Receive and consider the report of the Committee of Recommendations. (iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less than two years in advance. (v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting. (vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea- surer and Local Secretaries for the next Annual Meeting. (vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council. (viii) Appoint General Officers. (ix) Appoint Auditors. (x) Elect the officers of the Conference of Delegates. (xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual Meeting. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. XXXV CuaptTer ITI. Committee of Recommendations. 1. * The ex officio Members of the Committee of Recom- mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the Association, the President of each Section at the Annual Meeting, the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates, the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of the Association in former years. An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section. If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com- mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such . appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary. 2, Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub- mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con- sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted. Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report to the General Committee not later than the next Annual Meeting. Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub- Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom- mendations for their consideration and report. 3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble, for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the last day of the Annual Meeting. * Amended by the General Committee at Winnipeg, 1909. b 2 Constitution. Functions. Procedure. Procedure. Constitution. Proposals by Sectional Committees. Tenure. Reports. XXXVi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CuaptTer IV. Research Committees. 1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of money in aid of special research, which is made in any Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ; and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations. In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com- mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research, and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the Committee of Recommendations may include such recom- mendation in their report to the General Committee. 2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary. Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to add to their numbers. 3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their reeommen- dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount required. All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. 4. Research Committees are appointed for one year only. If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed in that year, application may be made through a Sectional Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment, with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money. 5. Every Research Committee shall present a Report, whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub- mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXXVil appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of the Annual Meeting. 6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted as from time to time may be required. Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants. The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer a statement of the sums that have been received and ex- pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then either return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains unexpended, or, if further expenditure be contemplated, apply for leave to retain the balance. When application is made for a Committee to be re- appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount desired. In making grants of money to Research Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices of the Association, without special permission from the General Committee. 7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens’ thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct. Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap- paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or for other specific purposes. All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall be deposited at the Office of the Association. GRANTS, (a) Drawn by Chairman. (6) Expire on June 30. (c) Accounts, and balance in hand. (d) Addi- tional Grants (e) Caveat. Disposal of specimens, apparatus, &e. Constitution. Functions. XXXVIil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CHAPTER V. The Council. 1. The Council shall consist of ea oficio Members and of Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com- mittee. (i) The ex officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi- dents of the Association, the President and Vice- Presidents for the year, the President and Vice- Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting. (ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the previous year. 2, The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con- flict with the functions of the General Committee. In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next Annual Meeting. The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report, and to consider other matters to be brought before the General Committee. The Council shall nominate for lection by the General Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General Officers of the Association. Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in March, when the nomination shall be made from the names on the list. The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to time determine. THE COUNCIL. XXxX1X 3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same Elections. time as that of the Officers of the Association, (i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re- election in the ensuing year : (a) Three of the Members who have served for the longest consecutive period, and (6) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near London, have attended the least number of meet- ings during the past year. Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the order of retirement above set forth. (ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee, in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three Members of the Association whom they recommend for election as Members of Council. (iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com- mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the election of the other Members of the Council takes place. Any member of the General Committee may propose another member thereof for election as one of these two members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed, they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands, unless five members at least require it to be by ballot. Cuapter VI. The President, General Officers, and Staff: 1. The President assumes office on the first day of the The Presi- Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address. et: He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he inducts his successor into the Chair. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa- tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented by a Vice-President or past President of the Association. 2. The General Officers of the Association are the Genera] General Treasurer and the General Secretaries. anes a xl RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ; and they shall report such action to the Council at the next meeting. ‘The General 3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the Treasurer. General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs of the Association. The General 4. The General Secretaries shall control the general Secretaries. organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to the General Committee and the Council for conducting the correspondence and for the general routine of the work of the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance. The Assistant 5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the Eesebary pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre- sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his duties which relates to the finances of the Association. The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore- said: (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with the control and direction of the Office and of all persons therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com- mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations, and of the General Committee. Assistant 6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as Treasurer. Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the routine work of the duties of his office. The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other work as may be delegated to him. Cuaprer VII. Finance. 2 nea 1. The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall ‘receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after FINANCE. xli June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the General Committee a balance-sheet of the Funds of the Association. 2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited, annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee. 3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay- ments authorised by the General Committee or by the Council. 4. The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf, part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit of the Association in the books of the Bank of England, either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest- ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem- porary investment as may seem to him desirable. 5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable, from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of his office, the President of the Association for the time being and one of the General Secretaries shal] be jointly empowered to sign cheques on behalf of the Association. CuaptTer VIII. The Annual Meetings. 1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and shall have power to add to their number. 2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom- mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers shall be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to receive subscriptions. 3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under- take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of the Sections. Audit, Expenditure. Investments, Cheques. Local Offi- cers and Committees. Functions, THE SECTIONS. Sectional Officers. Roonis, SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Constitution. Privilege of Qld Members. Daily Co-optation. xlii RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CuapreR IX. The Work of the Sections. 1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans- acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time to time by the General Committee. It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the purpose of dealing separately with’ any group of communica- tiens addressed te that Section. 2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet- ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section from the date of their appointment until the appoint- ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual Meeting. Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section, and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual Meeting is held. 3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. 4. The work of each Section shall be conducted by a Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :— (i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office. (ii) All past Presidents of that Section. (iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee, thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the meeting : Provided always that— (a) Any Member of the Association who has served on the Committee of any Section in any previous year, and who has intimated his intention of being present at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of that Committee at their first meeting. (b) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting, and shall publish daily a revised list of the members. THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. xliii (c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the Section, in addition to those previously appointed by the Council. 5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com- mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional Committee at its next meeting. The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi- dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points of order that may arise. F The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans- : ~~ eo = s. © - mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the Sectional Committee. 6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own members to be members of an Organising Committee, with the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of the ensuing Annual Meeting. | Each Organising Committee shall hold such Meetings as are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation _ of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro- _visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the Sectional Committee. Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other- wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance- ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may arise out of the proceedings of the Section. No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been aecepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted on its Minutes. — Additional Vice-Presi- dents. EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS Of President And of Recorder. Organising Committee. Sectional Committee. Papers and Reports. Recommen- dations. Publication. Copyright. xliv RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read also in any other Section. No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close of the Annual Meeting. It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com- mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the Association, and the communications made to the Section at its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge ‘on the state and progress of which reports are required : to make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether, and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa- tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu- tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government.. The appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV. No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com- mittee. 7. Papers ordered to be printed in eatenso shall not be included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of the Council. 8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com- mittee to be printed im extenso in the Annual Report shall be vested in the authors ; and the copyright of the reports of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee sha]l be vested in the Association. ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. xly CHAPTER X. Admission of Members and Associates. 1. No technical qualification shall be required on the part of an applicant for admission as a Member or as an Associate of the British Association; but the Council is empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect. * Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association, any infringement of which on his part may render him liable to exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of admission already issued. It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ; and they shall report such action to the Council at the next Meeting. 2. All Members are eligible to any office in the Association. (i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual Reports of the Association. (ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admissign, the sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year the sum of One Pound. Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay, without intermission, their annual subscription. An Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any particular year shall lose for that and all future years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports of the Association gratis. He, however, may resume his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent Annual Meeting by paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. (iii) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission, the sum of One Pound. * Amended by the General Committee at Dublin 1908. Applications. Obligations. Conditions and Privileges of Member- ship. Correspond- ing Members. Annual Sub- scriptions, The Annual Report. AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. ASSOCIATED SociIETIES. xlvi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Associates shall not receive the Annual Report gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in the Association. (iv) Ladies may become Members or Associates on the same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady’s Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment of One Pound. 3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the General Committee, on the nomination of the Council. They - shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership. 4. Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may make payment at any time before the close of the financial year on June 30 of the following year. 5, The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded gratis to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it. Annual Members whose subscriptions have been inter- mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report at two-thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a year shall be entitled to purchase, at the same price, the volume for that year. Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can only be issued by direction of the Council. CuaprTer XI. Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates. Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows: . 1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves- tigation and publishes the results may become a Society affiliated to the British Association. Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate, who must be or become a Member of the Associa- tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference of Delegates. He shall be ea officio a Member of the General Committee. (ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging the study of Science, which has existed for three years and nuthbers not fewer than fifty members, may become a Society associated with the British Association. . CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. xlvii Each Associated Society shall have the right p to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con- ference. Such Delegates must be or become either Members or Associates of the British Association, and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed by the Aftiliated Societies, except that of member- ship of the General Committee. 2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must _ be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of _ June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended _ it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies _ desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society. 3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an- nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the _ General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie- ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the _ papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com- _ mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre- _ sponding Societies as they may consider desirable. (i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or E before June 1, such particulars in regard to the Society as may be required for the information of j the Corresponding Societies Committee. | (ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association a list of the papers published by the Corresponding Societies during the preceding twelve months which contain the results of local scientific work conducted by them—those papers only being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of one or other of the several Sections of the Association. 4. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti- te a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, d Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by e Council and appointed by the General Committee. The members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be officio members of the Conference. (i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during 4 Pet ie % hae Applications. CORRE- SPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE. Procedure. CONFERENCH OF DELE- GATES. Procedureand Functions. Alterations. xviii RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. each Annual Meeting of the Association, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take part in the discussions. (ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to submit Resolutions to the Committee of Recom- mendations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committce. (iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda- tions to be made to the General Committee bearing on matters in which the co-operation of Corre- sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com- petent for the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates to invite the authors of such recom- mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference in order to give verbal explanations of their objects and of the precise way in which they desire these to be carried into effect. (iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Conference, in order that they may be able to bring such recom- ° mendations adequately before their respective Societies. (v) The Conference may also discuss propositions regarding the promotion of more systematic ob- servation and plans of operation, and of greater uniformity in the method of publishing results. CuHaprer XII. Amendments and New Rules. Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com- mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at the last meeting of the General Committee. xlix PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS, ETC. “Ds ‘I91SO 99110. eeeee ee ee ee ee ee ewes suUvlIvJOVyy yedrourrg “AOY AIBA an C z ‘ 4 cf ‘ Pais hens eerare Saban 6E8T ‘9% SNsNY ‘NVWHONINUIG ‘SU “bsy ‘wosspoyH ydosor ‘S'dd “bsg “et109 ugor Q'C SUOSUIGOY "YL ACW OUT fF yay ceceage gy foqgere aed "CCW “bsg “WoystyeTg Uoyheg [tests ++ yqnOMNTeC Jo LUE OL -uoqydumeyjI0Ny Jo smbrvyy oy.) 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Date and Place | Presidents 1848, Swansea ... 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. . Dundee . Norwich . 9. Exeter . Liverpool... | . Edinburgh 2. Brighton .. . Belfast . Bristol . Dublin Birmingham Edinburgh Ipswich Belfast Hull Liverpool... eeeeeeeee Glasgow ... Cheltenham Dublin...... Leeds Aberdeen... seeeee Oxford seeeee . Manchester 2. Cambridge . Newcastle . Birming- ham. . Nottingham . Bradford ... seeeee . Plymouth... 79. Sheffield ... . Swansea ... eeeeneees 2, Southamp- ton. . Southport... . Montreal... |W. Froude, C.E., M.A., Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F. Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F. Rey. R. Robinson William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Walker, C.E., LL.D., E.RB.S. William Fairbairn, F.R.S. John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ... W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S. . George Rennie, F.R.S. ...... Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. William Fairbairn, F.R.S.... Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S. J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ... Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. |J. Hawkshaw, F.B.S. Sir W. G. Armstrong, Lili De F.R.S. Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst. C.E., F.G.S. Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.RB.S. .|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.. | Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.| ) Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S. .|F. J. Bramwell, C.E. IW; Barlow,chRoo.eesuswees Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.., | C.E., F.R.S.E. F.R.S. | ...|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ...... Edward Woods, C.E. eee eweres Edward Easton, C.E. ......... J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech. Eng. J. Abernethy, F.R.S.E.......... Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ... J. Brunlees, Pres.Inst.C.E. ... Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., V.P.Inst.C.E. Secretaries .|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé. .|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall. Dr. Lees, David Stephenson. John Head, Charles Manby. John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock, Charles Manby, James Thomson. ...|J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward. J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom- son. ..|L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson. ...|C. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery. Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate, James Thomson, Henry Wright. J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright. R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H. Wright. P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison, Henry Wright. P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H. Wright. W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster. |P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J. F. Spencer .|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt, P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P. Marshall, Walter May. P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M. O. Tarbotton. P. Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith, W. W. Urquhart. P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C. Manby, W. Smith. .|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman. H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T. King, J. N. Shoolbred. H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith. H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster, J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. C.Barlow,H.Bauerman.E.H.Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred. A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John Smyth, jun. W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar, J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith. A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N. Shoolbred. A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T. Wood. A. T, Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood. A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J, Kennedy, H. T. Wood. ———— PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Ixxxv Date and Place Aberdeen... 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893, 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899, 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909, 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887, Birming- ham. Manchester Newcastle- upon-Tyne. Leeds Cardiff ...... Edinburgh Nottingham Oxford...... Ipswich Liverpool... Toronto ... Bristol Bradford ! Glasgow ... Belfast Seuthport Cambridge SouthAfrica Leicester ... Dublin ...... Winnipeg... ...|Prof. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, “Prof. d.ePerry, HRS, ccsssesse .|Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. 'T. Maccall, Montreal... Aberdeen... Birming- ham, Manchester Presidents B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. ......... Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst. C.E Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A., | LL.D., F.R.S. . HH. Preece, M.Inst.C.F. W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ... WwW F.R.S., Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E. | Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. Secretaries ‘A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E. Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred. oD? iC. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg. C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg. C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg, P. K. Stothert. C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon. C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg. E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg. C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott, W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg. CG. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C. Popplewell, E. Rigg. C. W. Cooke, W. b. Rigg, H. Talbot. Marshall, E. Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E. G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E. ... Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B., E.R. | Sir W. White, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Alex. R. Binnie, M.Inst.| C.E. SECTION G.—ENGI R. E, Crompton, M.Inst.C.E. C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.H. Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S. ... Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff, G.C.8.I., K.C.M.G., R.E. J. A. Ewing, F.R.S. ...........- Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S. Dugald Clerk, F.R.S. ......... Sire Weert F.R.S. White, K.C.B.,| Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith. Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke. W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney, Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke, S. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall. Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof. Callen- dar, W. A. Price. Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro, H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price. Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A. Price, H. E. Stilgoe. Prof. T. H. Beare, C. F. Charnock, Prof. S. Dunkerley, W. A. Price. NEERING. H. Bamford, W.E. Dalby, W. A. Price. M. Barr, W. A. Price, J. Wylie. W.A. Price. J. B. Peace, W. T. Maccall, W. A Price. W. T. Maccall, W. B. Marshall, Prof. H. Payne, E. Williams. W. T. Maccall, W. A. Price, J. Triffit. Prof. E. G. Coker, A. C. Harris, W. A. Price, H. E. Wimperis. Prof. E. G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly, W. A. Price, H. EK. Wimperis. KE. E. Brydone-Jack, Prof. E. G.Coker, Prof. E. W. Marchant, W. A. Price. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.1L, M.P., D.C.L., F.B.G.S. Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ...... G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W. Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W, Hurst, Dr. R, Saundby. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr A. M. Paterson. 1 The title of Section @ was changed to Engineering. Ixxxvi 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897, 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1894. 1896. 1897. 1899. 1901. 1902. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Secretaries G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J. Harris Stone. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden. 'G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick, Dr. J. G. Garson. G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H. Ling Roth, E. Seward. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof. R. Howden, H. Ling Roth. |G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies, Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons, J. L. Myres. H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling Roth. J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H. | Ling Roth. Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres, Prof. A. M. Paterson. .|A. EF. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes, Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres. H. Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker. .|H. Balfour, W. H. East, Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres. Rev. E. Armitage, H. Balfour, W. Crooke, J. L. Myres. W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F. Gemmill, J. L. Myres. .|R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. L. Myres. E. N. Fallaize, H. 8. Kingsford, E. M. Littler, J. L. Myres. W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N. Fallaize, Hi. 8. Kingsford, J. L. Myres. ..|A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, E. S. Hartland. Dr. G. A. Auden, E. N. Fallaize, H.8. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. C. J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize, H. 8S. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. .|E. N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, L. E. Steele. H. 8. Kingsford, Prof. C. J. Patten, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane, M. 8. Pembrey. | Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C.S. Sherrington. Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C. 8, Sherring- | ton, Dr. L. E. Shore. Dr. Howden, Dr. L. E. Shore, Dr. E. H. Starling. . B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof. W. H. Thompson. J. Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne, Dr. Date and Place Presidents Batihsataseve Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers, D.C.L., F.R.S. Newcastle- | Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B., upon-Tyne| LL.D., F.R.S. Leeds ...... Dr. J. Evans, Treas. B:S., E.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. GCarditicc... Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ... Edinburgh |Prof. A, Macalister, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Nottingham | Dr. R. Munro, M.A. F.R.8.E. Oxfordis ees Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,| E.R.S. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L. | Liverpool...| Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A. ...... Toronto ...|Sir W. Turner, F.R.S. . Bristol...... Nie WBrabrook, GiB. ..aecses | Dover. cessed GC. Ha Reag vit-S-A0 teaecs Braéford ...| Prof. John Rhys, M.A.......... Glasgow ...|Prof. D. J. Cunningham, ¥.R.S. ¢ Belfast . - Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. Southport...) Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S. ... Cambridge |H. Balfour, M.A. ...........0+6+ SouthAfrica| Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.B.S. York......... |B. Sidney Hartland, F.S.A.... Leicester ...|D. G. Hogarth, M.A............. Dublin...... Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A. Winnipeg...|Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A. ...... SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExprrimentTaL PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsycHoLocy). Oxford... ‘Prof. E. A, Schiifer, F.R.S., MRCS. Liverpool ... Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S. ... Toronto ... Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. DOVET-... s+ J. N. Langley, F.R.S. ......... Glasgow ... Prof.J.G.McKendrick, F.R.S.| W Belfast ...|Prof. W. D. Halliburton, | FR.S. C. Shaw. Pee try = PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Ixxxvli Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries | 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1908. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1901. 1902. 1903. 904. 1905. 1906. Cambridge SouthAfrica Leicester .. Dublin Winnipeg... Ipswich Liverpool... Toronto . Bristol Dover Bradford ... Glasgow ... Belfast Southport Cambridge SouthAfrica Leicester... Dublin Winnipeg... Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, F.R.S. Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S. ... Prot. . Gotch, HRS. scccscexs .|Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ...... Dr. J. Scott Haldane, F.R.S. Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.... | SECTION K. Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. eevee .|Prof. Marshall Ward, F.RB.S. Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. Sir George King, F.R.S. ...... Prof. S. H. Vines, F.R.S....... Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ... .| Prof. J. R. Green, F.R.S....... A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ee eeeeeee Francis Darwin, F.R.S. . Sub-section of Agriculture— Dr. W. Somerville. Harold Wager, F.R.S. ......... Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ... Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ... Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.RB.S.... Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, C.I.E., E.RB.S. Sub-section of Agricultwre— Major P. G. Craigie, C.B. |\J. Barcroft, Prof. T. G. Brodie, Dr. | L. E. Shore. |J. Barcroft, Dr. Baumann, Dr. Mac- kenzie, Dr. G. W. Robertson, Dr. Stanwell. \J. Bareroft, Dr. J. M. Hamill, Prof. J. 8. Macdonald, Dr. D. 8. Long. |Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft, Prof. J.S. Macdonald, Dr. A. Warner. Prof. D J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring, Prof.J.S. Macdonald, Dr.H.E.Roaf, Dr. N. H. Alcock, Prof. P. T. Herring, Dr. W. Webster. BOTANY. ...|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S.|A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss. |Prof. Harvey Gibson, A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss. Prof. J. B, Farmer, E. C. Jeffrey, A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss. ...|A.C, Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White. G. Dowker, A. C. Seward, H. Wager. A. C. Seward, H. Wager, W. West. D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan, G. F. Scott- Elliot, A. C. Seward, H. Wager. A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell, H. Wager, R. H. Yapp. H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager, R. H. Yapp. .| Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager, T. B. Wood, R. H. Yapp. Rh. P. Gregory, Dr. Marloth, Prof. Pearson, Prof. R. H. Yapp. |Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp. W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp. Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory, A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp. Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof.R.H.Yapp. W. J. Black, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof. J. Wilson. SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. Glasgow ... Belfast ... Southport .. Cambridge SouthAfrica Vay Sea Sir John E. Gorst, F.R.S. | Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S. Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S. Bishop of Hereford, D.D. Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L., M.P. Prof. M. HE, Sadler, LL.D. ... 'R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y- Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof. | H.L. Withers. ‘Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Prof. H. L. Withers. Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H. L. Snape. ..|J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, Dr. C. W. Kimmins. A.D. Hall, Prof. Hele-Shaw, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, J. R. Whitton. Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, Hugh Richardson, Ixxxvili PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1907. 1908. 1909, Leicester ... Dublin Winnipeg... Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. ...... Prof. L. C. Miall, F.RB.S. ...... Rev. H. B. Gray, D.D.......... W. D. Eggar, Prof. R. A. Gregory, | J.8. Laver, Hugh Richardson. ‘Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar, George Fletcher, Prof. R. A. Gregory, Hugh Richardson. |W. D. Eggar, R. Fletcher, J. L. Holland, Hugh Richardson. CHAIRMEN anp SECRETARIES or tar CONFERENCES OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Date and Place Chairmen Secretaries 1885. Aberdeen... Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... Prof. Meldola. 1886. Birmingham Prof. A. W. Williamson,F.R.S8.| Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. 1887. Manchester Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins,F.R.S.| Prof. Meldola, F.R.8. 1888. Bath......... John Evans, F.R.S. .........005 Prof. Meldola, F.R.8. 1889. Newcastle- Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... Prof. G. A. Lebour. upon-Tyne 1890. Leeds ...... |G. J. Symons, F.R.S. ....00006 Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. 1891. Cardiff ...... |G. J. Symons, F.R.S. ......... Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. 1892. Edinburgh | Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. ......... T. V. Holmes. 1898. Nottingham) Dr. J. G. Garson ...,.......066+ T. V. Holmes. 1894. Oxford...... Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. ......... T. V. Holmes. 1895. Ipswich ...|G. J. Symons, F.R.S. .........|T. V. Holmes. 1896. Liverpool...| Dr. J. G. Garson ..eseesseeseeee T. V. Holmes. 1897. Toronto ...| Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. ........./J. Hopkinson. 1898. Bristol...... W. Whitaker, WORS. iaeccsees T. V. Holmes. 1899. Dover ...... Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S./T. V. Holmes. 1900. Bradford ...| Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.B.S. ...|T. V. Holmes. 1901. Glasgow ...| F. W. Rudler, F.G.8. .........|Dr. J. G. Garson, A. Somerville, 1902 Belfast...... Prof. W. W. Watts, F.G.S. ...|E. J. Bles. 1903. Southport ..)W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ......... F. W. Rudler. 1904. Cambridge | Prof. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. |F. W. Rudler. 1905. London ...)Dr. A. Smith Woodward,|F. W. Rudler. F.R.S. 1906: oY orko ie. .cne Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B....|F. W. Rudler. 1907. Leicester ...| H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... F. W. Rudler, 1.8.0, 1908. Dublin...... Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S....... W. P. D. Stebbing. 1909. London .,,.| Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...|W. P. D. Stebbing. EVENING DISCOURSES. Date and Place Lecturers Subject of Discourse 1842. Manchester 1843. Cork 1844, York we eeeoeee Charles Vignoles, F.R.S...... Sir M. I. Brunel R.. TL. Murebisontrcccscsesscvwasnc Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S....... Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S.......... Dr. Robinsomtenescacs: vesscsse 4 The Principles and Construction of Atmospheric Railways. The Thames Tunnel. The Geology of Russia. The Dinornis of New Zealand. The Distribution of Animal Life in the Aigean Sea. The Harl of Rosse’s Telescope. Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .....++ Dr, Falconer, FLR.S...scssceeees Geology of North America. |The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik | Hills in India, —— a OEE EE = Date and Place 1845. Cambridge 1846. Southamp- ton. 1847. Oxford...... 1848. Swansea ... 1849. Birming- ham. 1850. Edinburgh 1851. Ipswich ... 1852. Belfast...... 1853. Hull......... 1854. Liverpool... 1855. Glasgow ... 1856. Cheltenham 1857. Dublin...... 1858. Leeds ...... 1859. Aberdeen... 1860. Oxford...... 1861. Manchester 1862, Cambridge EVENING DISCOURSES. lxxxix Lecturers G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ..... Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ... Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ....... Weak. GYrove, BURBS. cssccccccnss Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. Prof, M. Faraday, F.RB.S....... Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S.... John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S.... Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. .........08- Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., F.B.S.E. Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. .........008 Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. Subject of Discourse Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism. .|Geology of Russia. Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles, -.| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi. Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also some Researches of his own on the Decomposition of Water by Heat. Shooting Stars. Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno- mena. The Dodo (Didus ineptus). Metallurgical Operations of Swansea and its Neighbourhood. Recent Microscopical Discoveries. Mr. Gassiot’s Battery. Transit of different Weights with varying Velocities on Railways. Passage of the Blood through the minute vesselsof Animals in con- nection with Nutrition. Extinet Birds of New Zealand. Distinction between Plants and Ani- mals, and their Changes of Form. G. B. Airy, F.R.S.,Astronomer|Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, Royal Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.B.S. Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Robert Hunt, F.B.S.........02.. Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. Col, E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson Col, Sir H. Rawlinson ......... W. R. Grove, F.R.S. ........008. Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ... Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S. Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.... Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ... Rey. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ... Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. Prof,W.A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S. G.B.Airy,F.R.S,,Astron. Royal Prof, Tyndall, LL.D., ¥.R.8. Prof, Odling, FVB.S........00 “6 1851. Recent Discoveries in the properties of Light. Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at Carrickfergus, and geological and practical considerations connected with it. Some peculiar Phenomena in the Geology and Physical Geography of Yorkshire. The present state of Photography. Anthropomorphous Apes. Progress of Researches in Terrestrial Magnetism. Characters of Species. .| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities and Ethnology. Recent Discoveries in Assyria and Babylonia, with the results of Cuneiform Research up to the present time. Correlation of Physical Forces. The Atlantic Telegraph. Recent Discoveries in Africa. The Ironstones of Yorkshire. The Fossil Mammalia, of Australia. Geology of the Northern Highlands, Electrical Discharges in highly rarefied Media. Physical Constitution of the Sun, Arctic Discovery. Spectrum Analysis. The late Eclipse of the Sun. The Forms and Action of Water, Organic Chemistry, xC EVENING DISCOURSES. Date and Place Lecturers Subject of Discourse 1863. 1864. 1865. Newcastle Bath Birming- han. 1866. Nottingham 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878, 1879. 1880. 1881. Dundee...... Norwich ... Exeter seeeee Liverpool... Edinburgh Brighton .., Bradford ... Belfastinwess ISTISHOM eenete Glasgow Plymouth... Dublin seeee Sheffield .., Swansea ... BY OY Kage oe 328 Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P., |F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.......... «es | Prot. Tait, F.RS.E. | Prot. Odlinew HR Nocstsora.s ace Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.... James Glaisher, F.R.S......... Prof.dRoscoe; i. His. scc..cvesee Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ..... |J, Beete Jukes, F.R.S....... | Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S....... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S....... | Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S. lads Fergusson, F'.R.S........-.00. Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S.. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D. F. R. Ss. |J. Norman Lockyer, F. RS. ‘Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S. | Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, | |. Ui. DE wens: |B. A. Abel, ALAS Pane ner eee re Seer eseesees |E. B. Tylor, F.R.S. ' Prof, P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S. Prof. Work: Clifford ..2cccsccoe Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S. | Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S. F.R.S. Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S Sir Wyville Thomson, ¥. R. 8. W. Warington Smyth, M.A., F.B.S. " G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.......... Prof. Dewan; HAR O. cesse.cs-- on] W.. Crookes, sHuRES: covsccapers.'| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R. Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. | Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... | Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S. ‘William Huggins, F.R.S.......) W. Spottiswoode, Pres. B.S... The Electric Discharge : ..| The Cheeta of ee Catanic Battery considered in relation to Dynamics. The Balloon Ascents made for the British Association. .| The Chemical Action of .Light. .| Recent Travels in Africa. .| Probabilities as to the position and extent of the Coal-measures be- neath the red rocks of the Mid- land Counties. The Results of Spectrum Analysis applied to Heavenly Bodies, Insular Floras. The Geological Origin of the present Scenery of Scotland. The present state of Knowledge re- garding Meteors and Meteorites. Archeology of the early Buddhist Monuments. .| Reverse Chemical Actions. Vesuvius. .|The Physical Constitution of the Stars and Nebule. |The Scientific Use of the Imagi- nation. Stream-lines and Waves, in connec- tion with Naval Architecture. Some Recent Investigations and Ap- plications of Explosive Agents. The Relation of Primitive tu Modern Civilisation. Insect Metamorphosis, The Aims and Instruments of Scien- tific Thought. Coal and Coal Plants, Molecules. Common Wild Flowers considered in relation to Insects. The Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History. S.| The Colours of Polarised Light. Railway Safety Appliances. .| Force. The ‘ Challenger’ Expedition. Physical Phenomena connected with the Mines of Cornwall and Devon. The New Element, Gallium. Animal Intelligence. Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of Chemical Action. Radiant Matter. $8. Degeneration. Primeval Man. Mental Imagery. The Rise and Progress of Palzeon- tology its Forms and its Functions. : i i i il Date and Place EVENING DISCOURSES. Lecturers xcl Subject of Discourse 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894, 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. _ 1903. Southport... Southamp- ton. Southport... Montreal... Aberdeen... Birming- ham. Manchester se eeeeeee Newcastle- upon-Tyne aeeeee Edinburgh Nottingham Ipswich Liverpool... Toronto ... Bristol...... Dover Bradford ... Glasgow ... Belfast... se eeee) | Prof. W. Stroud. Francis Darwin, F.R.S. Prof.Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S. Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S. Rrotriass ball WORD. .cses. Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ...... Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ...... Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S. Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S.... John Murray, F.R.S.E.......... A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.... Prof. H. B. Dixon, F'.R.S. Col. Sir F. de Winton Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ... Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., F.RS. Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, | F.R.S. Walter Gardiner, M.A......... KE. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S.... | Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. Prof. L. C. Miall, ¥.L.8., F.G.S. Prof. A. W.Riicker,M.A.,F.R.S. Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S. Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S. (Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc. 'Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S. J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S. Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A. ..| Prof. §. P. Thompson, F.R.S. |Prof. Percy F. Frankland, F-.R.S. Dri-Hgar, PRS. sive Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L. | Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, F.RB.S. Je Milnes WARES. ck oth ek Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ..... Herbert Jackson .............65 Prof, J. Fleming, F.R.S. ......| Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S.......... seeeee Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.... Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S. Dr. R. Munro Tides. Pelagic Life. Recent Researches on the Distance of the Sun. Galvanic and Animal Electricity. Dust. The Modern Microscope in Re- searches on the Least and Lowest Forms of Life. The Electric Light and Atmospheric Absorption. The Great Ocean Basins. Soap Bubbles. The Sense of Hearing. .| The Rate of Explosions in Gases. Explorations in Central Africa. The Electrical Transmission of Power. The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s Crust. ; The Hardening and Tempering of Steel. How Plants maintain themselves in the Struggle for Existence. Mimicry. Quartz Fibres and their Applications. Some Difficulties in the Life of Aquatic Insects. Electrical Stress. Pedigrees. Magnetic Induction. Flame. The Discovery of the Physiology of the Nervous System. Experiences and _ Prospects African Exploration. Historical Progress and Ideal So- cialism. Magnetism in Rotation. The Work of Pasteur and its various Developments. Safety in Ships. Man before Writing. Canada’s Metals. of Earthquakes and Volcanoes. Funafuti: the Study of a Coral Island. Phosphorescence. La vibration nerveuse. TheCentenary of the ElectricCurrent. Animal Electricity. Range Finders. The Inert Constituents Atmosphere. The Movements of Plants. Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity. Inheritance. Man as Artist and Sportsman in the Palzolithic Period. The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its Teachings. E of the XCil EVENING DISCOURSES. Date and Place | Lecturers | Subject of Discourse 1904. 1905. Cape Town Durban Cambridge South Africa: Pietermaritz- burg. Johannesburg Pretoria Bloemfontein... Kimberley Bulawayo 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. Mork aie Leicester ... Dablin v.20 Winnipeg... ...|D. Randall-MacIver Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S.... Prof. H. F. Osborn se eeeereeree .| Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ... C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. ... .| Douglas W. Freshfield......... Prof, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S.... H. T. Ferrar Prof, W. H. Ayrton, F.R.S.... Prot. Os-AtTH Olds. ciccsvceschen A. R. Hinks Oe ee .|Sir Wm. Crookes, F'.R.S....... Prof. J. B. Porter ween e ee ew ne eeee Dr. Tempest Anderson......... Dr, A. D. Waller, F.R.S IW Duddell PE URS. sttsenvess Dr Sha IRCY ccs scoance sous Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ... Prof. W. M. Davis. Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, ¥.B.S.... ee eeeeeenee Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. 1 Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.... 1 Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S. Ripple- Marks and Sand-Dunes. Paleontological Discoveries in the Rocky Mountains. W. J. Burchell’s Discoveries in South Africa. .|Some Surface Actions of Fluids. The Mountains of the Old World. Marine Biology. Sleeping Sickness. The Cruise of the ‘ Discovery.’ The Distribution of Power. Steel as an Igneous Rock. Fly-borne Diseases: Malaria, Sleep- ing Sickness, &c. The Milky Way and the Clouds of Magellan. Diamonds. 'The Bearing of Engineering on Mining. The Ruins of Rhodesia. Volcanoes. .....|The Electrical Signs of Life, and their Abolition by Chloroform. .| The Ark and the Spark in Radio-tele- graphy. Recent Developments in the Theory of Mimicry. Halley’s Comet. The Lessons of the Colorado Canyon. The Seven Styles of Crystal Archi- tecture. Our Food from the Waters. The Chemistry of Flame. The Pressure of Light. LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. Date and Place Lecturers Subject of Lecture 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1872. 1873. 1874, 1875. 1876. 1877. 1879. 1880. Norwich ...) Exeter eeeree Liverpool... Brighton ... Bradford ... Belfast Bristol ...... Glasgow ... Plymouth... Sheffield ... Swansea. ... Prof. ss Tyndall, aa Ds Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F. | Prof, Miller, M.D., F.R. SirJohn Lubbock, Bart. W.Spottiswoode,LL.D. C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., : Prot(Odling) Ris c.:seenee Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. Commander Cameron, C.B.... W. H. Preece W,. He Ayrton™ vj. ansmccesesceten H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ..........6- ,F.R.S E.R.S. . RS .| Matter and Force. A Piece of Chalk. .|The modes of detecting the Com- position of the Sun and other Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum, .| Savages. Sunshine, Sea, and Sky .| Fuel. The Discovery of Oxygen. A Piece of Limestone. A Journey through Africa. Telegraphy and the Telephone. Electricity as a Motive Power The North-East Passage. 1 «Popular Lectures,’ delivered to the citizens of Winnipeg. : —- =“ -_ LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. xcill Caaencc UT UnEEEEEISEEE EEE Date and Place 1881. Lecturers York seeeeeene 1882. Southamp- 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. ton. Southpo t... Montreal ... Aberdcen... Birmingham Manchester Bath......... Newcastle- saneee Edinburgh.. 1893. Nottingham 1894. Oxford 1895. 1896. seeeee Ipswich ... Liverpool... 1897. Toronto ... 1898. Bristol 1900. Bradford ... 1901. Glasgow ... 1902 1903. 1904. 1906. . Belfast...... Southport... Cambridge.. Work: ....%0 1907. Leicester ... 1908. Dublin Prof. Osborne Reynolds, F.R.S. John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ... Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S.......... H. B. Dixon, M.A. Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, | F.R.S. Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ...... SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S. B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........| Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S. Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.B.S. Prof. Vivian B. Lewes......... Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. Dr. A. H. Fison Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S.... Dr. H. O. Forbes Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ... eee teres seenee Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S. H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ...... Drs MICE, Caccescesiecssespss Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S. ......... Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S....... Dr, A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S. Subject of Lecture Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow- flakes. Unwritten History, and how to read it. Talking by Electricity—Telephones, Comets. The Nature of Explosions. The Colours of Metals and their Alloys. | Electric Lighting. The Customs of Savage Races. The Forth Bridge. | Spinning Tops. Electricity in Mining. Electric Spark Photographs. Spontaneous Combustion. ..|Geologies and Deluges. Colour, The Earth a Great Magnet. New Guinea. The ways in which Animals Warn their Enemies and Signal to their Friends. Electricity in the Industries, The Movements of Men by Land and Sea. Gnats and Mosquitoes. Martinique and St. Vincent: tke Eruptions of 1902. The Forms of Mountains. The Manufacture of Light. The Growth of a Crystal. The Crystallisation of Water. xXclv ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. Table showing the Attendances and Receipts Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Ll ae pew ute (SISBIS Sept. 27 :.1.: Rone. Sos. ....| Viscount Milton, D.O.L.. F.R.S. = nl 1832, June 19 Oxford ...... .| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. . — — 1833, June 25. Cambridge .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, E.R.S. ss — — 1834, Sept. 8 .. Edinburgh .| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F. RS. ve: _ 1835, Aug. 10......| Dublin .., .| The Rev. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F.R. s. — _ 1836, Aug. 22......| Bristol ... .| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S.... — —_ 1837, Sept. 11......] Liverpool .............-. The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... _ 7s 1838, Aug. 10......| Newcastle-on-Tyne...| The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S. — — 1839, Aug. 26......| Birmingham ..,...... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, FE.RS. — _— 1840, Sept. 17......| Glasgow...... .| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F. R.S. ~ — 1841, July 20 ......| Plymouth... ....| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ........ 169 65 1842, June 23.,.....) Manchester .. The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G.S. ... 303 169 1843, Aug. 17......| Cork . .| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .. . 109 28 1844, Sept. 26 ......) York . .| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F. : 4 226 150 1845, June 19 Cambri ....| Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., FERS. 313 36 1846, Sept. 10 . ... Southampton — .| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. »F.R.S. | 241 10 1847, June 23 ..,... Oxtordets 74 ....| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F. R. 13 Aes 314 18 1848, Aug.9 ..,...| Swansea......... .| TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.8. 149 3 1849, Sept. 12...... birmingham ..., The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. F.R.8. 227 12 1850, July 21 ...... Edinburgh .| Sir David Brewster, K. HL, URS ae: 235 9 1861, July 2!........ Ipswich ,..... .| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, ERS. 172 8 1852, Sept.1 ......| Belfast . .| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. .. : 164 10 1853, Sept.3 ......| Hull ..,. William Hopkins, F. R. S..5 141 13 1854, Sept. 20 Liverpoo .| The Earl of Harrowby, FR, 238 23 1855, Sept. 12...... Glasgow...... .| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ........ 5 194 33 1856, Aug.6 ...... Cheltenham .| Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S....| 182 14 | 1857, Aug. 26 ...... Dublin .... ...| The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D., F. RS. 236 15 1858, Sept. 22 ...... Leeds |e ‘| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L. , FR. ie 222 42 1859, Sept. 14...... Aberdeen , "| HLR.H. The Prince Consort... ....... 184 27 | 1860, June 27 ...... Oxford ....... .| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. .., 286 21 1861, Sept.4 ...... Manchester . .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., FR. Si es 321 113 1862, Oct. 1 ...... Cambridge .. ‘| The Rey. Professor Willis, M.A. sF. RS. 239 15 1863, Aug. 26...... Newcastle-on-Tyne,,.| SirWilliam G. ‘Armstrong, O.B., F.R.S. 203 36 1864, Sept.13...... Bath. ,..o1..ceeeeeeesvens Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart., M. A. F.R.S. 287 40 1865, Sept.6 ...... Birmingham ...| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., UD: 5 "RRS. 292 44 1866, Aug. 22......) Nottingham. .| William R. Grove, Q. 0. F.R.S. . * 207 31 1867, Sept. 4 | Dundee ....... .| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O.B. a RS. 167 25 1868, Aug. Norwich . Hab hye Joseph D. Hooker, FBS... “ec 196 18 1869, Aug. Exeter .... .| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.R.S....... 204° 21 1870, Sept. ., Liverpool . .| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.RB.S. 314 39 1871, Aug.2 ......| Edinburgh Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL. an) bel ot RS. 246 28 1872, Aug. 14 Brighton ..,, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. o 245 36 1873, Sept. | Bradford , ...| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R. ou 212 27 1874, Aug. 1§ Belfast .... .| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 162 13 | 1875, Aug. Bristol .... Sir John Haw kshaw, F. R.S. 239 36 1876, Sept. 6 Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, M.D. , E.R cs 221 35 1877, Aug. 15......) Plymouth, oa] Exot, A. Thomson, M.D., F. 173 19 1878, Aug. 1¢ .| Dublin . ...| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., FR. 201 18 1879, Aug. 2 .| Sheffield. Prof. G. J. Allman, M. D. ages 184 16 1880, Aug. ¢ .| Swansea, A. O. Ramsay, LL. D., F.R.$ 144 11 1881, Aug. Mork. ee Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Fl 272 28 1882, Aug. Southampton . Dr. C. W. Siemens ERS. 178 17 1883, Sept. Southport .... .| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., F. Rs 203 60 1884, Aug. Montreal .... Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F. RS. 235 20 1885, Sept. Aberdeen ..., Sir Lyon Playfair. K.C.B., 225 18 1886, Sept. Birmingham Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., 314 25 1887, Aug. Manchester .... Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L. ea Ms 428 86 TRBB Sapte Osc 2) abn eee eee ...| Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. . 266 36 1889, Sept. .| Neweastle-on-Tyne.,.,| Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., Fil 277 20 1890, Sept. 3 Leeds ..| Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S. op 259 21 1891, Aug. ....| Cardiff Jal aes RVR Huggins, ERS. on 189 24 1892, Aug. ol Edinburgh 5 _.| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.B.S. oe 280 14 1893, Sept. . Nottingham. ..| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson. n, FERS 201 17 1894, Aug. | (Oxfords s ..| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F.R.S 327 21 1895, Sept. .| Ipswich .. ..| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F. RS. 214 13 1896, Sept. .| Liverpool ..| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R. is 330 31 1897, Aug. Toronto ..... ..| Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.RB.S. . 120 8 1898, Sept. Bristol ..| Sir W. Crookes, B R.S. ; 281 19 1899, Sept. | Dover .. ..| Sir Michael Foster, K, ree 296 20 1900, Sept. | Bradfor: .., Sir William Turner, D. 0. ea F. R. Ss. 267 13 1901, Sept. Glasgow.. ..| Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., SecR. s.. 310 37 1902, Sept. Belfast .. ..| Prof. J. Dewar, LLD., Lt See 243 21 1903, Sept. 9 ......| Southport ., ..| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 250 21 1904, Aug. 17..,,.,) Cambridge..,.... ...| Rt. Hon, A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. 419 32 1905, Aug. 15... South Africa .| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.§ 115 40 (Dome ye ec! NOLK ._.oc..secees .| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, ie D., F. 322 10 1907, July 31 ...,... Leicester Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S. 276 19 1908, Sept. 2 ..... .| Dublin Dr. Francis Darwin, ERS. ; 294 24 1909, Aug. 25,.....| '0rh 2 2): de Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, F.RB.S. 117 13 = Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. ¥ Including 848 Members of the South African Association. + Tickets of Admission to Sections only, at Annual Meetings of the Association. ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. XCV | Amount Old New i enei td Grants Annual | Annual baer Ladies |Foreigners Total Beep 5 for Scientific! Year Members | Members is Matic Purposes | = "7 — = | — - -- _ — 353 — | 1831 ae = = — = =: = = | 1832 — — _— = — _|-° &o0 — = | 1833 — — — = = 1298 = £20 0 0! 1834 = = = = a = = 167 0 0} 1835 a a4 = = = 1350 a 435 0 0) 1836 Sy mn a er we 1840 = 929719 ‘6 | _ 1837 _— — = EL OO Rater 2400 = 932 2 2/| 1838 -- — — — Bae oY ApaBee = 1595 11 0 1839 — — = _ 40 1353 2 | 1546 16 4 1840 46 317 | 60* = 891 | — | 1235 10 11 1841 75 376 33+ 381% =| > 1.98 1315 | a | 144917 8 1842 71 185 = 160 == = oi re 1565 10 2 1843 45 190 oF 260 — = = 98112 8) 1844 94 22 407 172 35 1079 _ 831 9 9 1845 65 39 270 196 36 857 = 68516 0 1846 197 40 495 203 53 1320 | = 208 5 4 1847 54 25 376 197 15 819 |£707 0 0} 275 1 8} 1848 93 33 447 237 22 | 1071 | 963 0 0! 15919 6! 1849 128 42 510 273 44 | 1241 1085 0° 0| 34518 0} 1850 61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0/ 391 9 7) 1851 63 60 510 292 9 1108 «=| 1085 0 0} 304 6 7 1852 56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0] 205 0 0| 1853 121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0| 38019 7| 1854 142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0} 48016 4) 1855 104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0| 73413 9) 1856 156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015, 0 0} 50715 4) 1857 111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0| 61818 2 1858 125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0| 68411 1 1859 177 59 636 463 47 1689 | 1604 0 0| 76619 6 1860 184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0} 1111 510 1861 150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0| 129316 6, 1862 154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0/1608 310) 1863 , ies 103 1119 1058 13 2302 | 2965 0 0| 128915 8 1864 215 149 766 508 23 1997 | 2227 0 0/1591 710| 1865 218 105 960 771 11 2303 | 2469 0 0|'175013 4) 1866 193 118 1163 771 a 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0! 1867 226 117 720 682 45 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0) 1868 229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0| 1622 0 0] 1869 303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0| 1572 0 0} 1870 311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0| 1472 2 6 1871 280 80 937 S19) Fel #48 2533 2649 0 0/| 1285 0 0 1872 237 99 796 601 11 1983 | 2120 0 0|168 0 0] 1873 232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0/ 115116 0| 1874 307 93 884 672 17 2248 =| 2397 0 0| 960 0 0| 1875 331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0| 1092 4 2| 1876 238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0| 1128 9 7 1877 290 93 1285 674 17 2578 | 2615 0 0| 72516 6 1878 239 74 529 349 13 1404 | 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11 1879 171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0] 731 7 7| 1889 313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0| 476 8 1) 1881 253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0| 1126 111) 1882 330 323 952 841 5 2714 .| 3369 0 0| 1083 3 3 1883 317 219 826 74 (|26&60H.§) 1777 1855 0 01173 4 0 188t 332 122 1053 447 6 | 2203 2256 0 0| 1385 0 0 1885 428 179 1067 429 11 2453 | 2532 0 0| 995 0 6 1886 510 244 1985 493 92 3838 | 4336 0 0 | 118618 0 1887 399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0| 16511 0 5} 1888 412 113 1024 579 21 2437 | 2441 0 0] 1417 011] 1889 368 92 680 334 12 1775 | 1776 0 0| 78916 8 1890 341 152 672 107 35 | 1497 | 1664 0 UO | 102910 0 1891 413 141 733 439 50 | 2070 2007 0 0) 86410 0 1892 328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0) 90715 6 1893 435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0| 583 i6 6| 1994 290 31 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0| 97715 5| 1895 383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0|110t 6 1] 1896 286 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0/ 105910 8 1897 327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0/| 1212 9 0 1898 324 68 548 120 27 1403 | 1328 0 0 | 1430 14 2 1899 297 45 801 492 | 9 } 1915 | 1801 0 0! 107210 0; 1900 374 131 794 246 90 | 1912 | 2046 0 0| 945 0 0] 1901 314 86 647 305 @ | 1620 | 1644 0,0 | 947.0 0) . 1902 ? 319 90 688 365 21 | 1754 1|1762 0 0| 814 13 2 1903 449 113 1338 317 121 | 2789 2650 0 0} 8871811 1904 9374 411 430 181 16 e(ehexs0F {| 2422) -0:00).928 aaa 1905 356 93 817 352 22 1972 1811 0 0| 882 0 9, 1906 339 61 659 261). |. 42 1647 1561 0 0| 7571210{| 1907 465 12 1166 222 14 2297 2317 0 0| 115718 8 1908 2909% 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 0| 1014 9 9 1909 ** Including 137 Members of the American Association, f Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association wereadmitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting. Xcvi ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES AT THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1906. [The total attendances for the years 1832, 1835, 1843, and 1844 are wnknown. | Average attendance at 72 Meetings : 1855. Average Attendance Average attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during June, between 1833 and 1860 . : - 1260 Average attendance at 3 Meetings beginning during July Ys between 1841 and 1851 . : 947 Average attendance at 28 Meetings beginning during ‘August, betmeen 1836 and 1906 . : 1978! Average attendance at 34 Meetings "beginning during September between 1831 and 1903 : : 1933 Attendance at 1 Meeting held in October, Cambridge, 1862 . 3 Ley + 4 Meetings beginning during August and September. Average attendance at— 4 Meetings beginning during the 1st week in August ( 1st- 7th) . 1905 5 ” ” ” ” 2nd ” ” ” ¢ 8th-14th) . 2130 8 od ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” (15th—21sr) . 1761 iL ” ” ” ” 4th ” ” ” (22nd-31st) . 2094 Average attendance at— 11 Meetings beginning during the Ist weekin September( 1st— 7th). 2082 16 » ” ” 5p Al » ( 8th-14th). 1860 5 ” ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” (15th-21st). 2206 Bie cs yy Ath’ Nand aac Meetings beginning during June, July, and October. Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd week in June (15th-21st) . ; 1079 Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week i in June (22nd-80th) ; 1306 Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning» during the Ist week in July (Ist-7th) . 710 Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in July (15th-21st) : 1066 Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October moo beginning: ‘during the Ist week in October (1st-7th) . ° >» S61 ‘ Average attendance at 29 Meetings, including South Africa, 1905 (August 15—= September 1): 1985. * Average attendance at 9 Meetings, including South Africa, 1905 (August 15= . september 1): 1802. GRANTS OF MONEY, xcvii General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for Scientific Purposes. 1834. £ 3s. d. Tide Discussions .............. 20 0 0 1835. Tide Discussions ..........s0008 62 0 0 British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 #167 O O 1836 Tide Discussions .......... tases, LOoe 0; 0 British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 Thermometric Observations, OS ae aacsntees Ciesinacesnp 50 0 0 Experiments on Long-con- tinued Heat .........eseceeees Ii le 0 FRAIN-PAUSES: ..pcnsceces-arencene 913 0 Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0 rman, NUtabiON......0ccc>ecesese 60 0 0 Thermometers ......cccceeeeseee 15 6 0 £435 0 0 1837. Tide Discussions ....cc.s.csse0e 284 1 0 Chemical Constants ........... . 2413 6 Lunar Nutation..............0665 70 0 0 Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0 Mides' ab Bristol’ c..;..-.cceseseess 150 0 O Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature............ 93 3 0 Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0 Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6 Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0 PBALOMETOTS care scnneoceess seccetons 1118 6 £922 12 6 1838. Tide Discussions ........ssesese 29 9 0 British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0 Meteorological Observations and Anemometer Construc- BRM sors cescaeevcevactets arses 100 0 0 Strength of Cast Iron ......... 60 0 0 Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ...... 19 110 Railway Constants ..........6: 41 12 10 TIStOL Tides”........:0escecs terse, 100, OaO Growth of Plants .............68 75 0 0 Mud in Rivers ..........cese0ee es Die Os O, Education Committée ......... 50 0 O Heart Experiments ........... 5 3 0 Land and Sea Level......... Sey Ode a Steam-vessels............c0ccse0e0 100 0 O Meteorological Committee 31.9 5 £932 2 2 1909 1839. £ 8. da. Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth, &c. .........00. 63 10 0 Mechanism of Waves ... 144 2 0 Bristol Tides ..........ccsscesseee 85 18 6 Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature........,... 2111 O Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 0 Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 7 Railway Constants ............ 28 7 O Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 2 Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4 Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 0 Stars (Lacaille) ..............2086 LEO -6 Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0 Animal Secretions............... 10 10 6 Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0 Atmospheric Air ..........0s00e 161° "0 Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 0 Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0 Hourly Meteorological Ob- servations, Inverness and KOMPTISSIC Racccsssetanersascses Orme NS Fossil Reptiles’ <2.sccccsccecas coe 118 2 9 Mining Statistics ............00 50 0 0 £1595 11 0 1840. Bristol Tides ...........s006 sivas? LOO O00. O Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6 Heart Experiments ......... ase lBe LOT; O Lungs Experiments ....... wae 813 0 Tide Discussions ......... aeladals 50 0 O Land and Sea Level...... Medeeel gn Gil, +I Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O Stars (Lacaille) .........sssesssee 415 0 Stars (Catalogue) ......cce.seees 264 0 0 Atmospheric Air .........20008 . 1615 O Water on Iron ...........seceeee 10 0 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 70 0 Meteorological Observations. 5217 6 Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6 Working Population 100 0 O School Statistics ....... 50s 1091.0 Forms of Vessels .........00+008 184 7 0 Chemical and Electrical Phe- MOWMICH AN nskecsowssnecmaey tas im 4020/4 0 Meteorological Observations ab PlyMOuth., :ox.saccccapesces a) FSO010. 0 Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9 £1546 16 4 f xevili 1841. Observations on Waves Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature ACtiINOMETETS ......sseeeererreceee Earthquake Shocks ..... ago Acrid POisONS.......seseeseeeeeere Veins and Absorbents Mud in Rivers ....s.scoesceceees Marine Zoology Skeleton Maps ....cs-esseeeeeers Mountain Barometers . Stars (Histoire Céleste) Stars (Lacaille)...........+0+ eos Stars (Nomenclature of) Stars (Catalogue Of) .........-++ Water on Iron ...scseeceseceeees Meteorological Observations at IMVernessS ........++.cen000” Meteorological Observations (reduction of) Fossil Reptiles Foreign Memoirs Railway Sections .......s0.e Forms of Vessels ........ scooter Meteorological Observations ab Plymouth \ic.nasseterrnatne Magnetical Observations..... Fishes of the Old Red Sand- SCONE | cocecsesecrecssocsssnuvelal Tides at Leith ea Anemometer at Edinburgh... Tabulating Observations ...... Races of Men............. AS ocaa0 Radiate Animals worsereecce 1842. Dynamometric Instruments. . Anoplura Britanniz Tides at Bristol Gases on Light Chronometers.............ss0ce ra Marine Zoology........sssceecses British Fossil Mammalia Statistics of Education ee ererees PINGS) vaspsveccecstetuel meaere oe Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ... Railway Sections .............6. British Belemnites ............ Fossil Reptiles (publication of Repoutiy, wecestea ss. Fits Forms of Vessels Galvanic ROCESS seta .sespen-nessons cae Meteorological MUSELYIMOULD) \.os.v0.c-ccse0d08 Constant Indicator and Dyna- mometric Instruments ..... £ 30 5 2 8. o- ooo Oo counronwonwnooonceon _ oOoarcoeo ane ore como O OC COM DOMOMOSCSCOSOS Of _ cowooo ano 235 10 11 — 90 i o o oo co sooooo oon (==) ooooo oooanoow aD GENERAL STATEMENT. 36 ane Force Of Wand, sis.snsacataneor 10, 0100 Light on Growth of Seeds Ae at penal Uji 0) Vital Statisties 'F .cccccerssss0'e ae 00) 10), 0 Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11 Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O sas 9: 17/38 1843. Revision of the Nomenclature Ol bAESeoresusstavecs-naeee eae 2 02-0 Reduction of Stars, British Association Catalogue ...... 2beOl 0 Anomalous Tides, Firth of WOYEH geyser creseess esas eepeaner 120 00 Hourly Meteorological Obser- vations at Kingussie and FRVEIneSS! wecdacetessccesvescanm an amie ag O Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ..scsessvessseesee 55 0 0 Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- mometer at Plymouth ...... TU Gb Maen Meteorological Observations, Osler’s Anemometer at Ply- INOW dea cossveeescsserecetctgeee 20 0 0 Reduction of Meteorological Observations ..5:............ 30 0 0 Meteorological Instruments and Gratuities ..... EisGar Oe, OO Construction of Anemometer at) Inyerhess Wve. ecesercas a 56 12° 2 Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory ......... DUO 0 Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1 Establishment at Kew Ob- servatory, Wages, Repairs, Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7 Experiments by Captive Bal- ROOMS ees anes cee dee daateenes eine Ole Sin O. Oxidation of the Rails of Railways... .<1scuseotoeses tevna, 20) “O40 Publication of Report on re Fossil Reptiles .........se0e0 40 0.0 Coloured Drawings of Rail- way Sections ........s.ssse0s . 14718 3 Registration of Earthquake BHOCKS.., cesrsseegeaeeeaae ae a Oi O Report on Zoological N omen- CIAUMITC....5sasncenagenesh ene 10 0 0 Uncovering Lower Red Sand- stone near Manchester ..... . 4 4 6 Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8 Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0 Marine Zoology ...........0.+00. oO OO Marine Zoology :...........06e. 2 14 F1 Preparation of Report on Bri- tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0 Physiological Operations of Medicinal Agents ......... weer Ole ~ Vital Statistics ..........0....+0 5 8 GRANTS OF MONEY, Eat Hae Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0 Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0 Reduction of Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0} Morin’s Instrument and Con- stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10 Experiments on the Strength Of Materials 2.00.05. os.08.2 63. 60 0 0 £1565 10 2 LE 1844. Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0 Completing Observations at IPEVIMOUGN | suecdecwcasscmsae 35 0 0 Magnetic and Meteorological Co-operation ................4. 25 8 4 Publication of the British Association Catalogue of PIDAER EM naa A tates sdetec Sess setae 35 0 0 Observations on Tides on the East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0 Revision of the Nomenclature GEIRGATS | acne 50 0 O | Spectral! Rays. cbucsss deeessiacps. 45 0 0 | Luminous Meteors ..........++ 20 0 0 £1289 15 8 1865. Maintaining the Establish- | ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 | Balloon Committee ............ 100 HIGGTOW A wan. sve vensasraseessqreers 13 | RaIN-GaUeES: .....0ccesecceceseses 30 Tidal Observations in the Humber sees ste iaee~ teehee 6 | Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 | Amyl Compounds .........-...+4 20 PERISH NRO IA lencasamcnaees ces reaeue 25 American Mollusca .........60 3 | @rganie! AcidS., ...,..sede 15 0 0 Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0 Electrical Standards ............ 50 0 0 Silent Discharge of Electricity 20 0 0 Absorption Spectra ............ 40 0 0 Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 O Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- WINS cc svoesoce eet es xaceente he «i « 20 0-0 Volcanic Phenomena of Japan (1886 prant) hr racbtts os cteanie 50 0 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Japan USSiieranh)) ceseessceecan ses 50 0 0 Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20 0 0 HrraticiBlOcCksS {.j..sscsecsesncess 10.0) 90 Fossil Phyllopoda .............. 20 0 0 Coal Plants of Halifax........ - 25 .0 0 Microscopic Structure of the Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0 Exploration of the Eocene Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0 Underground Waters ......... 5 0 0 ‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0 Provincial Museums Reports 5 0 0 Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0 Naples Biological Station 100 0 0 Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0 Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0 Zoological Record ..........06.65 100 0 0 Hlora Of Ching uncvivecndeces soe 75 0 0 Flora and Fauna of the CAaMETOONS \atcoavete es cavesoas WB 00 Migration of Birds 30 0 0 Bathy-hypsographical Map of British Islesiasoesds socaccsnaey 7 6 0 Regulation of Wages ......... 10 0 0 Prehistoric Race of Greek Islands...... Sas MeioRy si beyeened 2. 200; 0 Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 0 £1186 18 0 = 1888. £ 8. Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 0 Hlectrical Standards............ 2 6 Magnetic Observations......... 15 0 Standards of Light ............ fo e2 Mlectrolysis ..........seccecseees 30 0 Uniform Nomenclature in Mechanics ...........0ccesese0e 10 0 _ §ilent Discharge of Hlec- ‘ BU Vaedec cswecicuiens @ascseesnaes 9 11 Properties of Solutions ...... 25 0 Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 0 Methods of Teaching Chemis- I ee ans, Se 10 0 Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva- DRE Wate cis caiteyaasclasisieinicinacaain 25 0 Action of Light om Hydracids 20 0 Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20 0 Geological Record ...........+... 50 0 Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10 0 Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10 0 Underground Waters ......... 5 0 Palzontographical Society ... 50 0 Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.,. 50 0 Carboniferous Flora of Lan- cashire and West Yorkshire 25 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- UNIS pclae sadoesnomancae bach ss 20 0 Zoology and Botany of West CDOTS Papeeee Gor COSC EP eae Ee 100 0 Flora of Bahamas....... Bes hea 100 0 Development of Fishes—St. PAH NOG WSiacciddee «oisleela scieleclecisads 50 0 Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 0 Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 _ Flora of China ...........-.0000 75 0 _ Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 _ Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 Biological Station at Granton 50 0 1 Peradeniya Botanical Station 50 0 Development of Teleostei 15 0 Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar 7 USTOMIG) -AScqp pep pegpnc ta PeBCee 5 0 Precious Metals in Circulation 20 0 Value of Monetary Standard 10 0 Effect of Occupations on Phy- sical Development............ 25 0 North-Western ‘Tribes of EOL COS ROG COL SOAUEE 100 0 Prehistoric Race in Greek Weoiea Wiigedsisvsecsceesses, LOMO £1511 0 1889. n Nevis Observatory......... 50 0 O lectrical Standards............ 75 0 0 MEPCUCOLYEIS. ....cavecscracaccsceees 20 0 0 surface Water Temperature... 30 0 0 ent Discharge of Electricity 4 8 MMTBYEED occ ceccsceassecersne GRANTS OF MONEY. i alo i) (= faye tS coooooococo oo oS cooocooco jo) ooo o owono C1X £ 8. ad. Methods of teaching Chemis- GV pach ecconsitaaeeusskocseasnns 10 0 O Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0 Geological Record..........6000. 80 0 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25 0 O Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- WU ies watcce selanibas Weick felsic aaariee 20 0 0 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20/040. 0 Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of Waohititecscesesurndecdaeccsteauess Ties On, O West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0 Plora of China ........c:.ccoear 255.0, 0 Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 O Physiology of Lymphatic SOUS C LU Manta leapmtnica os cuenens 25 0 O Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3 Natural History of Friendly SIAMGSt se saestescaeapasnqaseane se 100 0 0 Geology and Geography of Atlas” Ranee® 15:3 2..inen teense 100 0 O Action of Waves and Currents in Estuaries ........scsecesees 100 0 0 North-Western Tribes of Canadas e252. stiitees wet vcee 150 0 0 Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30 0 0 Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0 Marine Biological Association 200 0 0 ‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath.. ... 100 0 0 £1417 0 11 1890. Electrical Standards............ 1217 0 WIEGHOLYSISWN. «1 cveseetaennnen es 5 0 0 Electro-optics.........ccpsceseeeee 50 0 0 Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0 Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena of Japan ..,.... 7). 40500 Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0 Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 O International Standard forthe Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0 Influence of the Silent Dis- charge of Electricity on ORY ON ewes werhvns eb ae.c 5 0 0 Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0 Recording Results of Water Analysis* 32a. rier aie das 0 Oxidation of Hydracids in Sunlieht Wee Shae oof 20 0 0 Exploration of Karakoram Mountains ...........,ceeseeeee 50 0 0 Scottish Place-names ......... 7 0 0 Climatology and MHydro- graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0 Economic Training ............ Syeidne iO Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 O 0 _Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25 0 0 North-Western ‘Tribes. of EUTCITE. gmt degsee dee cegeccucds 100 0 O Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0 £907 15 6 1894. Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0 Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena...........2..0--0-0- 10 0 0 Tables of Mathematical Func- NOU SUR tomees cop > b OFA0 Pleistocene Fauna and Flora In Canada .....cserccoese-ssees 10 0 0 Movements of Underground Waters of Craven .........+4+ 40 0 0 Table at the Zoological Sta- tion, Naples ......scecseeees , 100 0 0 Table at the Biological La- boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 O Index Generum et Specierum Amimaliuim ........-sseccssscess 50 0 0 Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0 Plankton and Physical Con- ditions of the English Channel so. swasseiseveresieeess 40 0 0 Zoology of the Sandwich Islands. 9: .cedewancaneesiisy eseees 100 0 0 Coral Reefs of the Indian Region ssnccebenercseawernenins 30 0 0 Physical and Chemical Con- stants of Sea-Water......... 100 0 0 Future Dealings in Raw Produce. ..csscececdscasenanese® 210 0 Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0 O Ethnological Survey of Canada socscccsesassssaeueenre 50 0 0 New Hdition of ‘Anthropo- logical Notes and Queries’ 40 0 0O Photographs of Anthropo- logical Interest .............0 10 0 0 Mental and Physical Condi- tion of Children in Schools 5 O O Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula), ceccsuctitssaetverees 25 0 0 Physiological Effects of Pep- CONC onsale i esaeese se ceeeeneneet 20 0 0 Comparative Histology of Suprarenal Capsules......... 20 0 0 Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cortez... ...csscenres 5 0 0 Electrical Changes in Mam- Malian Nerves ...cccscsseceee 20 0 0 Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands. .......: pion Oy Anthropometric Investiga- tions of Egyptian Troops... 10 0 0 Excavations on Roman Sites Thal Lu EEO. Aaanaotingngoganoute 10 0 0 AnthropometricInvestigations 10 0 0 Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0 The State of Solution of Pro- UHC EI 5 snp Sennoniodoougstisdoslocanee 20) 0 0 Metabolism of Individual BRISSUCS icewsc toes ccgeaossaceiars 30 0 0 Ductless Glands.......00...ss200e 40 0 0 Botanical Photographs......... 3) Li Physiology of Heredity......... 35 0 O Structure of Fossil Plants ... 50 0 0 Corresponding Societies Com- mittee........ SACS oR GEOrEERCOOI 20 0 0 £928 2 2 1906. Electrical Standards..,......... 25 0 0 Seismological Observations... 40 0 0 Magnetic Observations at Fal- MOULD... uexceosngtesoneats eicess 50 0 0 Magnetic Survey of South ATTICA. ccsniantadecomeaeswoesies ce 99 12 6 Wave-length TablesofSpectra 5 0 O Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub- SUALICES Scwenscrceansscns ssetere cs 25 0 0 Aromatic Nitramines ......... 10 0 0 Faunaand Flora of the British PREIAS) peavsa-ssscanecneassueepptives 7-811 Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 30 0 0 Table at the Zoological Sta- ena Dleseete cre.) yeas 100 0 0 MniGex ANIMAL TIM wees sces cesses Ge LOW) Development of the Frog....., 10 0 0 Higher Crustacea .,.....6.... Pe ay OP a8) GENERAL STATEMENT, oe. a: Freshwater Fishes of South ATR Caneae eaapesaarinenecspasaseran 50 0 O Rainfall and Lake and River Discharge .....scssesceserseees 10 0 0 Excavations in Crete ......+.. 100 0 O Lake Village at Glastonbury 40 0 0 Excavations on Roman Sites ANVBTICAID ceccnvseceteinap pasate 30 0 0 AnthropometricInvestigations in the British Isles ......... 30) -O>.-O State of Solution of Proteids 20 0 0 Metabolism of Individual TISSUES © jeacctaues Can cones stoenae 20 0 0 Effect of Climate upon Health and" DISCASE: . scenes ten s 20 0 G Research on South African CYCAGS\..cc.cvdeseescesdsccounteen 1419 4 Peat Moss Deposits .,......++++ 25 0 0 Studies suitable for Elemen- tary SChOOIS ........0.ssecs00 5 0 0 Corresponding Societies Com- MILO! scceceneccshess\ccesecckasss 25 0 0 £882 0 9 1907. Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 O Seismological Observations... 40 0 O Magnetic Observations at Mal MmOnth: .jiscsscecstaspaneens 40 0 0 Magnetic Survey of South ATTICA. cone ches vesmai aap eantesien 25) Tt 36 Wave-length Tables of SPChrA.” j.csicesngteeeceesessans 10 0 0 Study of Hydro-aromatic Substancess..crsccevececensate 30 0 0 Dynamic Isomerism............ 30 0 0 Life Zones in British Car- boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 O Erratic Blocks ‘<.isccccsusscceres Lov 0-0 Fauna and Flora of British YriAS!* Joeschuscecaneesssaneoeeene 10 0 0 Faunal Succession in the Car- boniferous Limestone of South-West England ...... 15 0 0 Correlation and Age of South African Strata, &c. ......... 10 0 0 Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ...........+... 100 0 0 Index Animalium ............005 75~0' 0 Development of the Sexual Cells: 25. dictarttee cece ee ease iL LG yas) Oscillations of the Land Level in the Mediterranean Basin 50 0 0O Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom ... 819 7 Anthropometric Investiga- tions in the British Isles... 10 0 O Metabolism of Individual TISSUCSS fecce ete seneeneath er cece 45 0 0 The Ductless Glands ......... 2b= 0 0 Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease .....5 seers 55 0 0 GRANTS OF MONEY, £ s. da. Physiology of Heredity ...... 30 0 UO Research on South African IP GADG isc dasssconsesccaaccestoone 35 0 0 Botanical Photographs......... 5 0 0 Structure of Fossil Plants ... 5 O O Marsh Vegetation............0+8 15 0 0 Corresponding Societies Com- | WSEEIUCE esa e secure eossles cs cesteisss cen ae £757 12 1 10 | 1908. Seismological Observations... 40 0 0 | Further Tabulation of Bessel Functions .........:c.se0ceeee 145 0 0 Investigation of Upper Atmo- sphere by means of Kites... 25 0 0 Meteorological Observations | on Ben Nevis.........000 seve 25 0 0} Geodetic Arc in Africa......... 200 0 0 Wave-lengthTablesof Spectra 10 0 0 Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub- BUATICES. cccsecveccscucesvecscsares 30 0 O Dynamic Isomerism ............ 40 0 0 Transformation of Aromatic NitrTamines »..........secessesee 30 0 O Erratic Blocks ...........seeees 17 16 6 Fauna and Flora of British Taint ee eee ee 10 0 0 Faunal Succession in the Car- boniferous Limestone in the British Isles ..........seseeeee 10 0 0 Pre-Devonian Rocks............ 10 0 0 Exact Significance of Local IDG TLGY GBs paren ssrnonocene one 5 0 0 Composition of Charnwood PROCES) canaccwseccniverccessesvene 10 0 0 Table at the Zoological Station at Naples........... Sppneantone 100 0 O Index Animalium ............... Ta) OOO Hereditary Experiments ...... 10 0 0 Fauna of Lakes of Central SP ASINATNA eR csnscvkssessenpenenes 40 0 0 Investigations in the Indian PIREAT yi dadssondsceanunnonuneeses 50 0 0 Exploration in Spitsbergen... 30 0 0 Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom...... 3.7 «6 Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 O Glastonbury Lake Village ... 30 0 0 Excavations on Roman Sites PIGDVICAMY “c.csesesvbensevsease 15 0 0 Age of Stone Circles............ 60 0 0 Anthropological Notes and MUTCTIES) 4 accucneoncnaeceesvaseccs 40 0 0 Metabolism of Individual PISSUCS esssteststes Members of Committee Chairman.— Professor W. A. Herdman. Secretary.—Mr. Douglas Laurie. Mr. R. C. Punnett and Dr. H. W. Marett Tims. Chairman.—Dr. A. E. Shipley. Secretary.—Mr. H, 8. Leigh. Messrs. J. N. Halbert, Robert Newstead, Clement Reid, A. G. L. Rogers, F. V. Theobald, Prof. F, E. Weiss, and Mr. C, Gordon | Hewitt. Y Chairman.—Prof, Swale Vincent. Seerctary.—Mr. G. KE, Atkinson. Prof. McBride, Mr. J. C. Simp- son, Rev. Dr. G. Bryce, and Dr. H. W. Marett Tims. Chairman.—Sir R. H. Inglis Pal- grave, Secretary.—My. H. Stanley Jevons. Professor Edgeworth and Messrs. A.L. Bowley and D.H.Macgregor, Chairman.—Professor E. Cannan, Secretary.—Professor A. L. Bow- ley. Mr. W.G. 8. Adams, Dr. W. R. Scott, and Professors F.Y. Edge- worth and H. B. Lees Smith. Srction G.—ENGINEERING. The Investigation of Gaseous Ex- plosions, with special reference to ‘Temperature. Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece. Seeretaries—Mr. Dugald Clerk and Professor B. Hopkinson. Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Bur- stall, H. L. Callendar, E. G. Coker, W. E. Dalby, and H. B. Dixon, Drs. R. T. Glazebrook, J. A. Harker, and H. S. Hele- Shaw, Colonel H. C. L. Holden, Mr. J. E. Petavel, Captain I. Riall Sankey, and Professors’ A. Smithells and W. Watson. Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To investigate the Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glas- tonbury in connection with a Committee of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society. Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro. Secretary.—Professor W. Boyd Dawkins. Professor W. Ridgeway and Messrs. Arthur J. Evans, C. H. Read, H, Balfour, and A. Bulleid. Grants £ 5 1 15 TICS. 6 ~ cr S50. 00 00 00 00 00 00 ete | | | | | | | | RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. ~ had exxxili Subjett for Investigation, or Purpose | To cb-operate with Local Com- mittees in Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain. To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles. | To prepare a New Edition of Notes and (Queries in Anthropology. To conduct Archeological and | Ethnological Researches in Crete. To excavate Neolithic Sites in | Northern Greece. Members of Committee Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres. | Secretary.—Professor R. C. Bosan- quet. Dr. Ridgeway. Chairman.—Mr. U. H. Read. Secretary:—Mr. H. Balfour. Lord Avebury, Professor W. Ridge way, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. A. bL. Lewis. Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read. Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres. Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Dr. A. C. Had- don, Mr. T. A. Joyce, and Drs, C. 8. Myers, W. H. BR. Rivers, C. G. Seligmann, and F. C. Shrubsall. Chairman.—Mr. D. G. Hogarth. Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres. / Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Dr. A. J. Evans, Professor A. Macalister, Professor W. Ridgeway, and | Dr. ¥. C. Shrubsall. Chairmen.—Professor W. Ridge- way. Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres. | Mr. J. P. Droop and Mr. D. G. Hogarth. Section I.—PHYSiIOLOGY. The Ductless Glands, Body Metabolism in Cancer. To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples, Chaiyman.—Professor Schifer. Secretary.—Professor Swale Vin- cent. Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. B, Shore, and Mrs. W. H. Thompson. Chairman.—Professor C. 8. Sher- | rington. Secretary.— Dr. 8. M. Copeman, Chairman.—Professcr 8. J. Hick- son. Secretary.—Rev.T. R. R. Stebbing. Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor A. Sedgwick, Professor W. C. McIntosh, Dr. S. F. Harmer, Mr, G. P. Bidder, and Dr. W. B. Hardy. '!. Ashby and Professor W, | 30 40 79 40 20 25 00 00 | 00) 00. 00) 0 9 | 00 CXXXx1V RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee To acquire further knowledge, Clinical and Experimental, con- cerning Anesthetics—especially Chloroform, Ether, and Alco- hol—with Special Reference to Deaths by or during Anzesthesia, and their possible Diminution. | Tissue Metabolism, for the Inves- tigation of the Metabolism of Special Organs. Mental and Muscular Fatigue. | Electromotive Phenomena in Plants. globin at High Altitudes. SECTION The Structure of Fossil Plants. The Experimental Study Heredity. of The Investigation of Symbiosis between Turbellarian Worms and Alge., A Botanical, Zoological, and Geo- logical Survey of Clare Island. The Dissociation of Oxy-Hzmo- | Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. Secretary.—Dr. F. W. Hewitt. Dr. Blumfeld, Mr. J. A. Gardner, and Dr. G, A. Buckmaster. Chairman.—Professor E. H. Star- ling. Secretary.—Professor T. G. Brodie. Dr. J. S. Haldane. Chairman.—Professor C. 8. Sher- rington. Secretary.—Dr. W. MacDougall. Professor J. 5. MacDonald and Mr. H. Sackville Lawson. Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. Secretary.—Mrs. Waller. Professors F. Gotch, J. B. Farmer and Veley, and Dr. F. O’B. Ellison. Chairman.—PYrofessor E. H. Star- ling. Secretary.—Dr. J. Barcroft. | Dr. W. B. Hardy. K.—BOTANY. Chairman.—Dr. D. H, Scott. Secretary.—Professor F.W. Oliver. Mr. E. Newell Arber and Professors A. C. Seward and F. E. Weiss. Chairman.—Mr. Francis Darwin Secretary.—My. A. G. Tansley. Professors Bateson and Keeble. Chairman.—Dr. F. F. Blackman. Secretary.— Professor F. E. Weiss. Professors Keeble and Nuttall. Chairman.—Professor T. Johnson. Secretary.—Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger. Professor Grenville Cole, Dr. Scharff, and Mr. A. G. Tansley. 25 20 10 15 10 30 30 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continted. Subject for Investigation, or Purpése Members of Committee CXXXV Grants Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. To report upon the Course of Ex- perimental, Observational, and Practical Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools. Chairman.—Sir Philip Magnus. Secretary.—Mr. W. M. Heller. Sir W. de W. Abney, Mr. R. H. Adie, Professor H. E. Arm- strong, Miss L. J. Clarke, Miss A. J. Cooper, Mr. George Flet- cher, Professor R. A. Gregory, Principal Griffiths, Mr. A. D. Hall, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Professor L. C. Miall, Professor J. Perry, Mrs. W.N. Shaw, Professor A. Smith- ells, Dr. Lloyd Snape, Sir H. R. Reichel, Mr. H. Richardson, and Professor W. W. Watts. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Corresponding Societies Com- mittee for the preparation of their Report. Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker. Secretary.—Mr. W.P. D. Stebbing. Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H. Griffiths, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. A. L. Lewis, Professor R. Meldola, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and the President and General Officers of the Association. 20 00) CXxxvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES, 2, Not receiving Grants of Money. Se -—- OOo I ! Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Section A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Making Experiments for improving | Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh. the Construction of Practical Stan- | Secretary.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook. dards for use in Electrical Measure- | Professors J. Perry and W. G. Adams, Dr. | ments. G. Carey Foster, Sir Oliver Lodge, Dr. A. Muirhead, Sir W. H. Preece, Pro- fessor A. Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming, Professor Sir J. J. Thomson, Dr, W.N. Shaw, Dr. J. T. Bottomley, Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick, Dr, G. Johnstone Stoney, Professor 8. P. Thompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Principal EH. H. Griffiths, Sir Arthur Riicker, Professor H. L, Cal- lendar, and Messrs. G. Matthey, A. P. Trotter, Tf. Mather, and F. E. Smith. To continue the Magnetic Survey of | Chairman. —Sir David Gill. South Africa commenced by Pro- | Seevetary.—Professor J. C. Beattie. fessors Beattie and Morrison, Mr. 8. 8. Hough, Professor Morrison, and Professor A. Schuster. The further Tabulation of Bessel Func- | Chairman.—Professor M. J. M. Hill, tions. | Seeretary.—Dr. L. N. G. Filon. | Professor Alfred Lodge and Mr. J. W. | Nicholson, To report upon the provision for the | Chairman.—Sir Arthur Riicker. Study of Astronomy, Meteorology | Sceretary.—Professor A. BE. H. Love. (including Atmospheric Electricity), | Sir Oliver Lodge, Professors C. G. Knott, and Geophysics in the Universities E. Rutherford, A. Schuster, Sir J. J. of the British Empire, Thomson, and EK. T. Whittaker, Drs. W, G. Duffield and G, T. Walker, and Mr. R. T. A. Ynnes. Section B.—CHEMISTRY., The Study of Isomorpl.ous Sulphonic study Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers. Derivatives of Benzene, | | Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong. | Professors W. P. Wynne and W. J. Pope. Section C,—_GEOLOGY. To determine the precise Significance | Chairman.—Mr. G. W. Lamplugh. of Topographical and Geological | Secretary.—Dr. F. H. Hatch. ‘Terms used locally in South Africa, | Dr. G. Corstorphine and Messrs, A. Du Toit, A. P. Hall, G. Kynaston, ¥.. P. Mennell, and A, W. Rogers, RESEARCH COMMITTEES, 2, Not receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Section D.—ZOOLOGY. To continue the Investigation of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, with power to co-operate with the Committee appointed for the purpose by the Royal Society, and to avail themselves of such assistance in their investigations as may be offered by the Hawaiian Government or the Trustees of the Museum at Honolulu. The Committee to have power to dis- pose of specimens where advisable. To summon meetings in London or else- where for the consideration of mat- ters affecting the interests of Zoology or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre- spondence the opinion of Zoologists on matters of a similar kind, with power to raise by subscription from each Zoologist a sum of money for defraying current expenses of the Organisation. To nominate competent naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, To enable Dr. J. W. Jenkinson to con- tinue his Researches on the Influence of Salt and other Solutions on the Development of the Frog. To investigate the biological problems incidental to the Inniskea Whaling Station. Chairman.—Dr. F. Du Cane Godman. Seeretary.—Dr. David Sharp. Professor 8. J. Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sclater, and Mr. Edgar A. Smith. Chairman.—Sir E. Ray Lankester. Secretary.—Professor S. J. Hickson. Professors G. C. Bourne, J, Cossar Ewart, M. Hartog, W. A. Herdman, and J. Graham Kerr, Mr. O. H. Latter, Pro- fessor Minchin, Dr. P. C, Mitchell, OXXXVil Professors C. Lloyd Morgan, E. B. | Poulton, and A. Sedgwick, Mr. A. E. Shipley, and Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing. Chairman and Secretary.—Professor A. Dendy. Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor A. Sedg- wick, Professor Sydney H. Vines, and Mr. H. 8. Goodrich. Chairman.—Professor G. C. Bourne. Seeretary.—Dr. J. W. Jenkinson. Professor S. J. Hickson and Mr, E. 8S. Goodrich. Chairman.—Dr, A. K. Shipley. Secretary.—Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner. Professor W. A. Herdman, Rev. W. Spots- wood Green, Mr. E. 8. Goodrich, Dr. H. W. Marett Tims, and Mr. R. M. | Barrington. Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photo- graphs of Anthropological Interest. To organise Anthropometric Investiga- tion in the British Isles. To conduct Archeological and Ethno- logical Investigations in Sardinia. Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read. Seeretary.—Mr. H. 8. Kingsford. Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. E, Heawood, and Professor J. L. Myres. Chairman.—Professor A. Thomson. Secretary.—Mr. J. Gray. Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Chairman.—Mr, D. G. Hogarth, Secretary.—Professor R, C. Bosanquet. Dr. T. Ashby, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Professor J. L. Myres, and. Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.. (CXXXVIl1 RESEARCH COMMITTEES, 2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued. | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee | To report upon Archeological Investi- gations in British East Africa. | To establish a system of measuring Mental Characters. | Ethnographic Survey of Canada. and Disease. Section K. To carry out the scheme for the Regis- tration of Negatives of Botanical Photographs. Chairman.—Mx. D. G. Hogarth. Secretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon. Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. C. T. Currelly, Dr. | H. O. Forbes, and Professor J. L.Myres. Chairman.—Dr. W. McDougall. Secretary.—Mr. J. Gray. Miss Cooper, Dr. Spearman, Dr. C. 8. Myers, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. W. G. Smith, and Dr. C. W. Kimmins. Chairman.—Rev. Dr. G. Bryce. Seeretary.—Mr. EK. S. Hartland. Dr. P. H. Bryce, Mr. C. Hill-Tout, Mr. B. Sulter, Professor J. L. Myres, Dr. | A. C. Haddon, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, | Professor H. Montgomery, Mr. A. F. | Hunter, Dr. J. Maclean, and the Hon. | David Laird. Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY. The Effect of Climate upon Health | hairman.—Sir T. Lander Brunton. Secretaries.—Mr. J. Barcroft and Lieut.- | Col. Simpson. Colonel Sir D. Bruce, Dr. 8. G. Camp- bell, Sir Kendal Franks, J. G. McKendrick, Sir A. Mitchell, Dr. C. F. K. Murray, Dr. Porter, Dr. J. L. Todd, Professor Sims Woodhead, and the Heads of the Tropical Schools of Liverpool, London, and Edinburgh. —BOTANY. Chairman.— Professor F, W. Oliver. Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss. Dr. W. G. Smith, Mr, A. G. Tansley, Dr. T. W. Woodhead, and Professor R. H. | Yapp. Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. To take notice of, and report upon changes in, Regulations—whether Legislative, Administrative, or made by Local Secondary Education. involved in Education. reference to Day Industrial Schools. Authorities — affecting To inquire into and report upon the methods and results of research into the Mental and Physical Factors To inquire into the Curricula and Edu- cational Organisation of Industrial and Poor Law Schools with special Chairman.—Sir Philip Magnus. Secretary.—Professor H. KE. Armstrong. Sir William Bousfield, Mr. $. H. Butcher, Sir Henry Craik, Principal Griftiths, Sir Horace Plunkett, and Professor M. E. Sadler. Chairman.—Professor J. J. Findlay. Secretary.—Professor J. A. Green. Professors J. Adams and E. P. Culver- well, Mr. G. F. Daniell, Miss B. Foxley, Professor R. A, Gregory, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. T. P. Nunn, Dr. Spear- | man, Miss L. Edna Walter, and Dr. F. Warner. Chairman.—Mr, W. D. Eggar. Secretary.—Mrs. W. N. Shaw. Mr. J. L. Holland and Dr. C. W. Kim- mins. Professor | RESEARCH COMMITTEES. OXxx1X Communications ordered to be printed in extetis6. Anode Rays and their Spectra, by Dr. O. Reichenheim. _ On Threefold-emission Spectra of Solid Aromatic Compounds, by Dr. E. Goldstein. Some Properties of Light of very short Wave-lengths, by Professor T. Lyman. Report on Combustion, by Professor W. A. Bone. Discussion on Wheat (Joint Meeting, Sections B and K and Sub-Section K). _ The Development of Wheat Culture in North America, by Professor A. P. righam. Agricultural Development in North-West Canada, by Professor J. Mavor. The Engineering Works of the Panama Canal, by Colonel Goethals. Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action. From the General Committee. (i) That the Council be asked to consider the relationship of the Sections generally, and the possible desirability of a new subdivision and the incorporation of new subjects. (ii) That, in any revision of the organisation of the Association, full recog- nition be given to the importance of Agricultural Science. From Section H. Te That the Council be recommended to represent to the Dominion Govern- ment :— 1, That it is essential to scientific knowledge of the early history of Canada that full and accurate records should be obtained of the physical character, geographical distribution and migrations, languages, social and political institu- tions, native arts, industries, and economic systems of the aboriginal peoples of the country ; 2. That scientific knowledge of the principles of native design and handicraft is an essential preliminary to any development of native industries such as has already been found practicable, especially in the United States, in Mexico, and in India, and that such knowledge has also proved to be of material assistance in the creation of national schools of design among the white population; 3. That, in the rapid development of the country, the native population is inevitably losing its separate existence and characteristics ; 4. That it is therefore ot urgent importance to initiate, without delay, systematic observations and records of native physical types, languages, beliefs, and customs, and to provide for the preservation of a complete collection of examples of native arts and industries in some central institution. and for public guardianship of prehistoric monuments such as village sites, burial grounds, mounds, and rock-carvings ; 5: That the organisation necessary to secure these objects, and to render the results of these inquiries accessible to students and to the public, is such as might easily be provided in connection with the National Museum at Ottawa, which already includes many fine examples of aboriginal arts and manufactures, and might easily be made a centre for the scientific study of the physical types, languages, beliefs, and customs of the aboriginal peoples. II. To recommend the Council to urge the Dominion Government to include, in the schedules of the next Canadian Census, full inquiries as to precise place of origin, native language, previous status and occupation, year of immigration, and such other information as may be deemed of scientific value for the study of the effects of the Canadian environment upon immigrants of European origin. ex RESEARCH COMMITTEES. Recommendations referred to the Council for consideralion, and, if desirable, for action. 1. That the following Committee be authorised to receive contributions from sources other than the Association :-~ ‘To condttct Explorations with a view to ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.’ (Section H.) 2. That the collection of the Anthropological Photographs printed by the Anthropological Photograph Committee, and all further Photographs received by them, be handed over to the custody of the Royal Anthropological Institute. (Section H.) SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. exli Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated for Scientific Purposes by the General Committee at the Winnipeg Meeting, 1909. The Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the Grants are prefived to the respective Research Committees. Recommended by Council. £ Gill, Sir D,—Measurement of Geodetic Arc in South Africa 100 Glazebrook, De. Re. Poncuahh duane of Electrical Standards Reports a . 100 Mathematical and Physical Science. *Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Observations ......... 60 *Preece, Sir W. H.— Magnetic Observations at Falmouth 25 *Gill, Sir David—Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia ........ “¢ Snr ee 50 Shaw, Dr. W. N. —Upper “Atmosphere . she he ZMere Emit an ad 25 Chemistry. *Divers, Dr. E.—-Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances ...... 25 *Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ............ 30 *Kipping, Professor F. S.—Transformation of Aromatic Nitro- REMC ee eee cos co = os cosa sum sidopiae aatcnaucendue-ab sxcee ates 15 *Kipping, Professor F. S.—Electroanalysis..........secseeseese ces 10 Geology. *Tiddeman, R. H.—Erratic Blocks ........ me 0 *Harker, Dr. A.—Crysialline Rocks of ‘Anglesey .. 1 *Gregory, Professor J. W.—Faunal Succession in “the Car- boniferous Limestone in the British Isles .................. 10 *Lapworth, Professor C.—Palzozoic Rocks of Wales and the West of England... 10 *Watts, Professor W. wW. —Composition of Charnwood ‘Rocks 2 *Watts, Professor W. W.—Igneous and Associated Rocks of Glensaul, dc. ...... Rs 15 *Gregory, Professor J. W.—South African Strata............... 5 *Geikie, Professor J.—Geological Photographs ......... 10 Strahan, Dr. A.—Fossils of | Midland Coalfields 25 Zoology. *Hickson, Professor S. J.—Table at the Zoological Station at Naples. ......... aan ciancesnadas I BOT 30] 66 go, | OT £9 s 9 og | vr - 30 SEE hy 30 36 g & SI ¢ ft i oN Fay ist ai org peeked aaa Oo] a4 30] ie So] var SO] | (5) So} feu (2xg—) Soy Zz : > Seda i r= y=u fg=u =u f=u 7 Fl=u / [=u o=u © if [agmuacosddy aunbyf yen] +! as bo, fo sanjny ‘A WIEV], pd2 36 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. of 3, and for values of « greater than 10, can be computed to six places without sensible error. It is to be noted that the Neumann function Y,(x) can be calculated from the same data, for log LY,,(x)—(log, 2—y) J,(x)} ome 2 1 . Tv T. =log { Ra/=} —4} log x+log sin (2ta—7—n5), y being Euler’s constant. {log, 2—y=0°1159315.. .] The Committee are at present engaged on the tabulation of K,,(x), and hope to make some additions to the British Association Tables of I,(x) which are to be found in the Reports for 1889, 1893, and 1896. They are also considering the advisability of collecting all existing tables of Bessel functions and publishing them as a single set of tables ina form easily accessible to all students. The Committee desire reappointment without a grant. Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. PReEcE (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GuazEBRooK (Secretary), Professor W. G. ApAms, Dr. CHREE, Captain Creax, Mr. W. L. Fox, Sir ARTHUR RUCKER, and Professor SCHUSTER. Tue results of the magnetic observations at Falmouth Observatory for 1908 have been published in the Annual Report of the National Physical Laboratory as well as in that of the Royal Cornwall Poly- technic Society. The mean values of the magnetic elements for 1908 were :— Declination . ; " : E 17° 54"7 W. Inclination P ‘ : F ‘ 66° 314 N. Horizontal Force. : ; 4 0°18798 C.G.S. Vertical Force . A ; F : 0°43279 C.G.S. The accuracy of the work seems to be satisfactorily maintained. Throughout the year Mr. Kitto has been regularly contributing par- ticulars of the daily magnetic condition as regards disturbance to the international tables which are at present prepared at de Bilt, Holland. Dr. Chree has recently been engaged on a comparison of the mag- netic disturbances recorded at the winter quarters of the National Ant- arctic Expedition of 1902-4 with those recorded simultaneously else- where, and has found the Falmouth curves very useful for this purpose. It is found that for purposes of intercomparison, disturbances of com- paratively small size when of short duration are in many respects simpler to deal with than the larger disturbances during which rapid oscillatory movements take place. But in handling the smaller dis- turbances, and in settling the exact times of their occurrence, it is of special importance to have curves whose edges are sharp and which are not blurred and indistinct through the disturbing effect of electric trams. Thus the undisturbed position of Falmouth proved of very material assistance. The comparison of magnetic disturbances is a subject to which in- creased attention is being given, as evidenced, for instance, by Prof. Birkeland’s recent important work on the subject. MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS AT FALMOUTH OBSERVATORY. 37 The Committee learn that the progress of the magnetic work at Eskdalemuir has been further delayed owing to troubles with the under- ground chamber and the magnetographs, so that no opportunity has yet arisen for comparing the regular diurnal inequalities of the magnetic elements obtained at that station with those obtained in the South of England. For such a comparison records from Falmouth are iikely to be of especial importance. Believing that the continued mainten- ance of magnetic work at Falmouth in full efficiency is highly desirable, the Committee ask for reappointment with a grant of 501. Geodetic Arc in Africa.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir GEORGE DaRwIn (Chairman), Sir Davip Ginn (Secretary), Colonel C. F. CLosk, and Sir GrorGE GOLDIE, appointed to carry out a further portion of the Geodetic Are of Meridian North of Lake Tanganyika. 1. The measurement was commenced in March 1908 and completed in February 1909. The arc extends from 1° 10’ N. to 1° 10’ S., i.e., the length is 24 degrees, or about 165 miles. 2. One base, length eleven miles, was measured in the northern por- tion, in the Semliki Valley. The chain consists of one complex figure, three quadrilaterals, and one tetragon. 3. All the stations have been marked in a permanent manner, and the Government of Uganda has been notified of their positions. 4. The probable error of an observed angle is about 0.4”. 5. Three azimuths and fourteen latitudes were observed. - 6. Magnetic observations for declination and dip were made at twenty stations. 7. The work was organised by Major Bright, C.M.G., and carried out by a British party consisting of Captain Jack, R.E., Mr. McCaw, Mr. C. Chevallier, Lance-Corporal Jones, R.E., Lance-Corporal Page, R.E., and for a portion of the time Captain S. Iredell, 4th Battalion King’s African Rifles, who also commanded the escort. The Belgian party consisted of Captain Wangermée and Dr. Dehalu. Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites in co- operation with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.—Highth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman), Mr. W. H. Dines (Secretary), Mr. D, ArcuipaLp, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. R. T. Guaze- BROOK, Dr. H. R. Mutu, Professor J. E. Peravet, Professor A. ScuusTer, and Dr. W. Warson. (Drawn up by the Secretary). A MEETING was held in the rooms of the Royal Meteorological Society in November, at which it was decided that observations with pilot balloons should be made in Barbados, and Mr. Cave, who stated that he was going to Barbados, was asked to make the necessary arrange- ments, which he agreed to do. Mr. Cave was prevented from going as he had intended, and in con- Sequence the observations were not inaugurated, but the necessary 38 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. instruments have been obtained, and it is hoped that the observations will be made at some future date. The grant of 107. made at Dublin has been allotted to Professor Petavel to aid in meeting the expenses of a special inquiry as to the daily variation of temperature at great heights. Professor Petavel arranged for sending up twenty-five registering balloons at Man- chester on June 2-3, 1909, at hourly intervals; and a very fair number of the balloons, well distributed over the twenty-four hours, have been found. It is hoped that when the traces have been worked up some interesting information will be available. Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Lord RayLEIGH (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK (Secretary), Professors J. Perry, W. G. ADAMS, and G. CAREY Foster, Sir OLIVER LopGgE, Dr. A. MuImRHEAD, Sir W. H. Presce, Professors A. ScHuUSTER, J. A. FLEMING, and Sir J. J. THomson, Dr. W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T. Borromuey, Rev. T. C. Firzpatrrick, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE Stoney, Professor S. P. THompson, Mr. J. Renniz, Principal E. H. Grirritus, Sir ArTHUR RtcKer, Professor H. L. CALLENDAR, and Messrs. G. Matruey, A. P. TROTTER, T. MatTHer, and F. E. SMITH. PAGE APPENDIX.—-Report of the International Conference on Electrical Units and Standards, London, 1908 . : i F $ : i - - : 41 Tur Committee desire in the first place to record their sense of the great loss electrical science has sustained since their last meeting by the death of Professor Ayrton, F.R.S. The revival of the Electrical Standards Committee was proposed by him at the Swansea Meeting in 1880. He had been a member since that date, and much of the work of the Committee owes its initiation to his inspiration. He contributed greatly to the success of the Ayrton-Jones ampere balance, and was deeply interested in the preparations for the Lorenz apparatus now being erected at the National Physical Laboratory as the gift of the Drapers’ Company in memory of Professor Viriamu Jones. The Committee will miss in no small degree his keen criticism and his active help. The International Conference on Electrical Units and Standards, referred to in previous Reports, met, on the invitation of H.M. Govern- ment, in the rooms of the Royal Society, from October 12 to October 22, 1908. It was attended by forty-six delegates, representing twenty-two countries and four British dependencies. The Report of the Confer- ence is printed as an Appendix to this Report. In accordance with one of the resolutions passed by the Conference, Lord Rayleigh, as Chairman, appointed a committee of fifteen to advise as to the organisation of a permanent Commission, to formulate a plan for and to direct such work as may be necessary in connection with the maintenance of standards, fixing of values and intercomparisons of standards, and to complete the work of the Conference. ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 89 The work of this Committee is now in progress, and it is proposed that representatives of the National Physical Laboratory and of the Reichsanstalt should visit Washington this autumn. In their last Report the Committee suggested the republication of the Reports of the original Committee from 1862 to 1871, and of the present Committee from 1881, as a memorial to the connection of Lord Kelvin with their work. They are glad to learn that the recommenda- tion from the Committee of Section A in favour of this course has been accepted by the Council, and that a proposal to undertake the projected republication will be made to the General Committee at Winnipeg. : The Committee are greatly indebted to Mr. R. K. Gray for a generous donation of 100]. towards the expenses of this work. In the Appendix to the Report of the Committee for 1905 it is stated that slight variations in the electromotive force of the Weston normal cell can be produced by. 12% per cent. cadmium amalgam. A pre- liminary investigation showed that the variations were generally very small and not easily reproduced. In general the electromotive force was normal at 0° C. A more exhaustive investigation has now been completed at the National Physical Laboratory, and the results show that in general the 123 per cent. amalgam may be used from 0° C. to above 60° without any appreciable error, but the E.m.F. of a standard cell containing such an amalgam may be very normal at all tempera. tures below 129° C. The limits of temperature for the general use of a 122 per cent. amalgam are very nearly 12° C. to 629 C. A 10 per cent. amalgam may be used between 0° C. and 51° C. Progress with the Lorenz apparatus has been slow but satisfactory. The difficulties attending the driving have been overcome to a consider- able extent: an electric motor will be installed. The iron of the motor has been demonstrated to have no appreciable effect on the mutual induction of the Lorenz system’when a small addition to the electrical system is introduced. A comparison between the standards of resistance used at the National Physical Laboratory, the National Bureau of Standards, and the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt has been made by the use of some hermetically sealed standards belonging to the Bureau of Standards. The following tables give the results obtained :— TaBLE I.—Giving the Results of Comparisons made February-March 1908. Values at 20° C. | Resistance as determined at | ba ninton No. of Coil laaD ONE SO eErS ER Mare re TFSi Meee | ees aa t SNRB Se N.P.L, P.T.R. N.P.L.-| N.P.L- (Jan.) (Feb.) (Mar.) N.B.S. | P.T.R, 1. (B.S. 11024) 0:99980, 0'99982, 0:99981, 2°8 i [03 2. (B.S. 11028) 0:99975, 0:99977, 0:99975, 2°6 His f 3. (B.S. 1102c) 1:00000, 1:00002, 1:00001, 2:2 1-2 12. (B.S. 2415p) 099998, 0:99999, 0:99997, 15 | 2:2 1. (B.S. 39468) 99-990, 99991, 99-991, BeBe — Ord 2. (B.S. 3946F) 99°985, 99-987, 99:987, 1:3 —01 1. (B.S. 39461 . | 999°90, 999-92, — 1:8 — 2. (BS. 39463). , 1000°01, 1000-03, —_ 16 | — Mean ae ae 40 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TaBLE II.—Giving the Results of Comparisons made November 1908 to March 1909. Values at 20° C. | Resistance as determined at | Sstelae Ipc 00 No. of Coil | } P.T.R. N.P.L. | NBS: |) N- PIs (Nov.1908 |(Feb.-Mar. N.P.L.- N.P.L- | (Sep. 1908) (Nov. 1908) 7... 1909) | 1909) N.B.S. PTR. | | elead See 1. (8.5.1102a) . | 0-99999,; 1:00002,; — = 2°6 t= | 2. (B.5.1102B) . | 0°99999,| 1:00002, — — 25e hiwiee. | 3. (B.S. 1102c) . | 1:00000,| 1-00001, — — 16 — | 4. (B.S.1102pD) . | 0:99999,| 1°00U01, | 0°99995, | 1:00001, 2-1 | 16 11. (B.>. 5315c) . 0°99999,| 1:00001,/ 1:0000u, | 1-00002, 2:9) ese? 12. (B.S 5315D) . | 0°99998,; 1:00000,| 1:99998, | 1:00001, | 2°6 | 18 | 1. (B.S. 3946E) . | 99°991, | 99°994, -— ob ope eae) Meant | 2, (B.S. 3946F) . |99987, | 99°990, _ =) fh hyo a | | a a eee | Mean.| 25 | 1% | The unit coils Nos. 1 and 2 were adjusted at Washington on September 23, 1908, so as to give values more nearly equal to the nominal, The changes made were +0°00019. ohm and +0°00024 ohm respectively. Analysis of all the data relating to the comparisons indicates that the coil No. 11 (Table II.) changed by about 0°00001 ohm during trans- portation from Teddington to Charlottenburg. No, 12 is a comparatively new coil, having been sealed in January 1908. At the Bureau of Standards (Washington) wire coils were employed as standards in all the comparisons. The values given by the N.P.L. in Table I. are in terms of the N.P.L. mercury standards of resistance, which were set up in Novem- ber to December 1907. The N.P.L. values in Table II. are in terms of the mercury standards of resistance which were erected in February 1909. With respect to the values given by the Reichsanstalt, in Table I., Dr. Lindeck states, ‘The last complete series of measurements on the standards of the Reichsanstalt was carried out at the end of January and the beginning of February. The values given in the Table (I.) are based upon this series.’ In Table II. the P.T.R. values depend upon the values assigned to a wire standard of the Reichsanstalt which had been kept for about a year in an atmosphere of constant humidity, and frequently compared with other standards of resistance. In conclusion the Committee recommend that they be reappointed for the purpose of continuing their researches on the standards and carrying out the republications of the Reports if sanctioned by the General Committee, and that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman and Dr. R. T. Glazebrook Secretary. ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 41 APPENDIX. International Conference on Electrical Units and Standards, 1908. REPORT. The Conference on Electrical Units and Standards, for which invi- tations were issued by the British Government, was opened by the President of the Board of Trade, the Right Hon. Winston 8. Churchill, M.P., on Monday, October 12, 1908, at Burlington House, London, W. Delegates were present from twenty-two countries, and also from the following British Dependencies—namely, Australia, Canada, India, and the Crown Colonies. It was decided by the Conference that a vote each should be allowed to Australia, Canada, and India, but a vote was not claimed or allowed for the Crown Colonies. The total number of Delegates to the Conference was forty-six, and their names are set out in Schedule A to this Report. The officers of the Conference were :— President. The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, O.M., President of the Royal Society. : Vice-Presidents. Professor S. A. Arrhenius. M. Lippmann. Dr. N. Egoroff. Dr. 8. W. Stratton. Dr. Viktor Edler von Lang. Dr. E. Warburg. Secretaries. Mr. M. J. Collins. Mr. C. W. S. Crawley. Mr. W. Duddell, F.R.S. Mr. F. E. Smith. The Conference elected a Technical Committee to draft specifica- tions and to consider any matter which might be referred to the Com- mittee and to report to the Conference. The Conference and its Technical Committee each held five sittings. As a result of its deliberation the Conference adopted the resolu- tions and specifications attached to this Report and set out in Schedule B, and requested the Delegates to lay them before their respec- tive Governments with a view to obtaining uniformity in the legislation with regard to Electrical Units and Standards. The Conference recommends the use of the Weston normal cell as a convenient means of measuring both electromotive force and current When set up under the conditions specified in Schedule C. _ In cases in which it is not desired to set up the standards provided in the resolutions Schedule B, the Conference recommends the follow- ing as working methods for the realisation of the international ohm, the ampere, and the volt :— 42 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 1. For the International Ohm. The use of copies, constructed of suitable material and of suit- able form verified from time to time, of the international ohm, its multiples and submultiples. 2. For the International Ampere. (a) The measurement of current by the aid of a current balance standardised by comparison with a silver voltameter ; or (b) The use of a Weston normal cell whose electromotive force has been determined in terms of the international ohm and international ampere, and of a resistance of known value in international ohms. 3. For the International Volt. (a) A comparison with the difference of electrical potential between the ends of a coil of resistance of known value in international ohms, when carrying a current of known value in international amperes; or (b) The use of a Weston normal cell whose electromotive force has been determined in terms of the international ohm and the international ampere. The duties of specifying more particularly the conditions under which these methods are to be applied has been assigned to the Perma- nent Commission, and, pending its appointment, to the Scientific Com- mittee to be nominated by the President (see Schedule D), who will issue a series of Notes as Appendix to this Report. The Conference has considered the methods that should be recom- mended to the Governments for securing uniform administration in relation to electrical units and standards, and expresses the opinion that the best method of securing uniformity for the future would be by the establishment of an international electrical laboratory with the duties of keeping and maintaining international electrical standards. This laboratory to be equipped entirely independently of any national labora- tory. The Conference further recommends that action be taken in accord- ance with the scheme set out in Schedule D. Signed at London on October 21, 1908, by the Delegates of the Countries above written. For the United States of America.—S. W. Stratton, Henry S. Car- hart, and Edward B. Rosa. For Austria.—Victor Von Lang and Ludwig Kusminsky. For Belgium.—P. Clément. For Brazil.—Leopold J. Weiss. For Chile.—Victor Eastman. - For Colombia.—Jorge Roa. For Denmark and Sweden.—Svante Arrhenius. For Ecuador.—C. Nevares. For France.—G. Lippmann, J. René Benoit, and T. De Nerville. For Germany.—E. Warburg, W. Jaeger, and $t. Lindeck. For Great Britain.—Rayleigh, J. Gavey, R. T. Glazebrook, W. A. J. O'Meara, A. P. Trotter, and J. J. Thomson. ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 43 For Guatemala.—Francisco de Arce. For Hungary.—Harsanyi Desiré and Vater Joisef. For Italy.—Antonio Roiti. For Japan.—Osuke Asano and Shigeru Kondo. For Meaico.—Alfonso Castelld. For Netherlands.—Dr. H. Haga. For Paraguay.—Max. F. Croskey. For Russia.—N. Egoroff and L. Swentorzetzky. For Spain.—Jose Ma. de Madariaga and A. Montenegro. For Switzerland.—Dr. H. F. Weber, P. Chappuis, and Jean Landry. For Australia.—C. W. Darley and — Threlfall. For Canada.—Ormond Higman. For Crown Colonies. —P. Cardew. For India.—M. G. Simpson. In the presence of—M. J. Collins, W. Duddell, C. W. 8. Crawley, and F. E. Smith, Secretaries. SCHEDULE A. List oF CouNTRIES AND DELEGATES. America (United States)—Dr. 8. W. Stratton, Director Bureau of Standards, Washington; Dr. Henry 8S. Carhart, Professor of Physics at the University of Michigan; and Dr. E. B. Rosa, Physicist, Bureau of Standards, Washington. Austria.—Dr. Viktor Edler von Lang, President of the Commission of Weights and Measures, Vienna; and Dr. Ludwig Kusminsky, In- spector of above Commission. Belgium.—Professor Eric Gérard, Director of the Montefiore Electro-Technical Institution and President of the Consultative Com- mission on Electricity ; and Monsieur Clément, Secretary of the Con- - sultative Commission on Electricity. Brazil.—Mr. Ll. Weiss, Chef de la Section Technique des Tele- graphes, Brésil. Chile.—Don Victor Eastman, First Secretary to the Legation of Chile, London. Colombia.—Don Jorge Roa. Denmark and Sweden.—Professor S. A. Arrhenius, Nobel Insti- tute, Stockholm. Ecuador.—Sefior Don Celso Nevares, Consul-General. France.—Professor Lippmann, Member of the Institute and Pro- fessor at the Sorbonne; M. R. Benoit, Directeur du Bureau Interna- tional des Poids et Mesures; and M. de Nerville, Ingénieur en Chef des Télégraphes. Germany.—Professor Warburg, President of the Imperial Physico- Technical Institute ; Professor Jaeger, Member of the Imperial Physico- Technical Institute; and Professor Lindeck, Member of the Imperial Physico-Technical Institute. Great Britain.—The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, President of the Royal Society; Professor J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., Cambridge; Sir 44 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. John Gavey, C.B.; Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., Director of the National Physical Laboratory; Major W. A. J. O'Meara, C.M.G., Engineer-in-Chief General Post Office; and Mr. A. P. Trotter, Elec- trical Adviser to the Board of Trade. Guatemala.—Dr. Francisco de Arce, Diplomatic Representative, London and Paris. Hungary.—Joseph Vater, Director Technique des Postes and des Telegraphes, Budapest; and Dr. Desiré Harsanyi, Director of the Hun- garian Royal Commission for Weights and Measures. Ttaly.—Professor Antonio Roiti, of Florence. Japan.—Dr. Osuke Asano, Doctor of Engineering, Official Expert of the Department of Communications, Tokyo; and Mr. Shigeru Kondo, Official Expert of the Department of Communications, Tokyo, Mezico.—Don Alfonso Castellé and Don José Maria Perez. Netherlands.—Dr. H. Haga, Professor at the University of Groningen. Paraguay.—M. Maximo Croskey. Russia.—Dr. N. Egoroff, D.Sc., Director of the General Chamber of Weights and Measures; and Col. L. Swentorzetzky, Ingénieur Mili- taire, Prof. de l’Academie Militaire Nicolas des Ingénieurs, St. Peters- burg. Spain.—Don José Maria Madariaga, Professor of Electricity and Physics at the School of Mines, Madrid; and Don. A. Montenegro, Ingénieur Professor du Laboratoire de 1’Ecole de Mines, Madrid. Switzerland.—Dr. Fr. Weber, Professor at the Swiss Polytechnic School at Zurich; Dr. Pierre Chappuis, Membre Honoraire du Bureau International des Poids et Mesures; and Dr. J. Landry, Professor of Industrial Electricity in the University, Lausanne. British Colonies.—Australia: Mr. Cecil W. Darley, 1.8.0., late Inspecting and Consulting Engineer New South Wales Government ; and Professor Threlfall, M.A., F.R.S. Canada: Mr. Ormond Higman, Chief Electrical Engineer Electric Standards Laboratory, Ottawa. Crown Colonies: Major P. Cardew, Electrical Adviser. India: Mr. M. G. Simpson, Electrician of the Indian Telegraph Department. Secretaries: Mr. M. J. Collins, Mr. W. Duddell, F.R.S., Mr. C. W. S. Crawley, and Mr. F. E. Smith. SCHEDULE B. RESOLUTIONS. I. The Conference agrees that, as heretofore, the magnitudes of the fundamental electric units shall be determined on the electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference to the centimetre as the unit of length, the gramme as the unit of mass, and the second as the unit of time. These fundamental units are (1) the ohm, the unit of electric resist- ance which has the value of 1,000,000,000 in terms of the centimetre and second; (2) the ampere, the unit of electric current which has the value of one-tenth (0°1) in terms of the centimetre, gramme, and the second; (3) the volt, the unit of electromotive force which has the value 100,000,000 in terms of the centimetre, the gramme, and the ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 45 second ; (4) the watt, the unit of power which has the value 10,000,000 in terms of the centimetre, the gramme, and the second. II. As a system of units representing the above, and sufficiently near to them to be adopted for the purpose of electrical measurements and as a basis for legislation, the Conference recommends the adoption of the international ohm, the international ampere, and the inter- national volt defined according to the following definitions : — III. The ohm is the first primary unit. IV. The international ohm is defined as the resistance of a specified column of mercury. V. The international ohm is the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice, 14°4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area and of a length of 106°300 centimetres. To determine the resistance of a column of mercury in terms of the international ohm, the procedure to be followed shall be that set out in Specification I. attached to these Resolutions. VI. The ampere is the second primary unit. VII. The international ampere is the unvarying electric current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with Specification II. attached to these Resolutions, deposits silver at the rate of 0°00111800 of a gramme per second. VIII. The international volt is the electrical pressure which, when steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one international ohm, will produce a current of one international ampere. IX. The international watt is the energy expended per second by an unvarying electric current of one international ampere under an electric pressure of one international volt. Specirication I. Specification relating to Mercury Standards of Resistance. The glass tubes used for mercury standards of resistance must be made of a glass such that the dimensions may remain as constant as possible. The tubes must be well annealed and straight. The bore must be as nearly as possible uniform and circular, and the area of cross-section of the bore must be approximately one square millimetre. The mercury must have a resistance of approximately one ohm. Each of the tubes must be accurately calibrated. The correction to be applied to allow for the area of the cross-section of the bore not being exactly the same at all parts of the tube must not exceed 5 parts in 10,000. The mercury filling the tube must be considered as bounded by plane surfaces placed in contact with the ends of the tube. The length of the axis of the tube, the mass of mercury the tube contains, and the electrical resistance of the mercury are to be deter- mined at a temperature as near to 0° C. as possible. The measure- ments are to be corrected to 0° C. _ For the purpose of the electrical measurements, end vessels carry- ing connections for the current and potential terminals are to be fitted on to the tube. These end vessels are to be spherical in shape (of a diameter of approximately fon centimetres) and should haye cylindrical 46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. pieces attached to make connections with the tubes. The outside edge of each end of the tube is to be coincident with the inner surface of the corresponding spherical end vessel. The leads which make contact with the mercury are to be of thin platinum wire fused into glass. The point of entry of the current lead and the end of the tube are to be at opposite ends of a diameter of the bulb; the potential lead is to be midway between these two points. All the leads must be so thin that no error in the resistance is introduced through conduction of heat to the mercury. The filling of the tube with mercury for the purpose of the resistance measurements must be carried out under the same con- ditions as the filling for the determination of the mass. The resistance which has to be added to the resistance of the tube to allow for the effect of the end vessels is to be calculated by the formula— 0:80 /1 ,1 cal fay A ro8ge(ertp) ° a where 7: and r. are the radii in millimetres of the end sections of the bore of the tube. The mean of the calculated resistances of at least five tubes shall be taken to determine the value of the unit of resistance. For the purpose of the comparison of resistances with a mercury tube the measurements shall be made with at least three separate fillings of the tube. SPECIFICATION II. Specification relating to the Deposition of Silver. The electrolyte shall consist of a solution of from 15 to 20 parts by weight of silver nitrate in 100 parts of distilled water. The solution must only be used once, and only for so long that not more than 30 per cent. of the silver in the solution is deposited. The anode shall be of silver, and the kathode of platinum. The current density at the anode shall not exceed 1/5 ampere per square centimetre and at the kathode 1/50 ampere per square centimetre. Not less than 100 cubic centimetres of electrolyte shall be used in a voltameter. Care must be taken that no particles which may become mechani- cally detached from the anode shall reach the kathode. Before weighing, any traces of solution adhering to the kathode must be removed, and the kathode dried. SCHEDULE C. Weston Normat CEuu. The Weston normal cell may be conveniently employed as a standard of electric pressure for the measurement both of 5.m.F. and of current, and, when set up in accordance with the following specification, may be taken, provisionally,’ as having, at a femperature of 20° C., an E.M.F. of 1:0184 volt. * See duties of the Scientific Committee, Schedule D. ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 47 The Weston normal cell is a voltaic cell which has a saturated aqueous solution of cadmium sulphate (CdSO,.8/3 HO) as its electro- lyte. The electrolyte must be neutral to congo red. The positive electrode of the cell is mercury. The negative electrode of the cell is cadmium amalgam consisting of 12°5 parts by weight of cadmium in 100 parts of amalgam. The depolariser, which is placed in contact with the positive elec- trode, is a paste made by mixing mercurous sulphate with powdered crystals of cadmium sulphate and a saturated aqueous solution of cadmium sulphate. _ The different methods of preparing the mercurous sulphate paste are described in the notes.1. One of the methods there specified must be carried out. For setting up the cell, the H form is the most suitable. The leads passing through the glass to the electrodes must be of platinum wire, which must not be allowed to come into contact with the electrolyte. The amalgam is placed in one limb, the mercury in the other. The depolariser is placed above the mercury and a layer of cadmium sulphate crystals is introduced into each limb. The entire cell is filled with a saturated solution of cadmium sulphate and then hermetically sealed. The following formula is recommended for the u.m.¥F. of the cell in terms of the temperature between the limits O° C. and 40° C. :— E,=E,)—0-0000406(¢—20°)—0-00000095(t—20°)?-+ 0:00000001(¢—20°)’. SCHEDULE D. 1. The Conference recommends that the various Governments interested establish a permanent International Commission for Elec- trical Standards. _ 2. Pending the appointment of the Permanent International Commis- sion, the Conference recommends? that the President, Lord Rayleigh, nominate for appointment by the Conference a Scientific Committee of fifteen to advise as to the organisation of the Permanent Commis- sion, to formulate a plan for and to direct such work as may be neces- Sary in connection with the maintenance of standards, fixing of values *, inter-comparison of standards, and to complete the work : Notes on methods pursued at various standardising laboratories will be issued ee etic Committee or the Permanent Commission, as an Appendix to this port. 2 In accordance with the above, Lord Rayleigh has nominated the following Committee, which has been approved by the Conference, viz. :— Dr. Osuke Asano. Dr. H. Haga. Dr. E. B. Rosa. M. R. Benoit. D. L. Kusminsky. Dr. S. W. Stratton. Dr. N. Egoroff. Prof. St. Lindeck. Mr. A. P. Trotter. Prof. Eric Gérard. Prof. G. Lippmann. Prof. E. Warburg. Dr. R. T. Glazebrook. Prof. A. Roiti. Prof. Fr. Weber. * This will include the reconsideration from time to time of the E.M.F. of the Weston normal cell. 48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. of the Conference.t Vacancies on the Committee to be filled by co- optation. 3. That laboratories equipped with facilities for precise electrical measurements and investigations should be asked to co-operate with this Committee and to carry out, if possible, such work as it may desire. 4. The Committee should take the proper steps forthwith for establishing the Permanent Commission, and are empowered to arrange for the meeting of the next Conference on Electrical Units and Stan- dards, and the time and place of such meeting should this action appear to them to be desirable. 5. The Committee or the Permanent International Commission shall consider the question of enlarging the functions of the International Commission on Weights and Measures, with a view to determining if it is possible or desirable to combine future Conferences on Electrical Units and Standards with the International Commission on Weights and Measures, in place of holding in the future Conferences on Elec- trical Units and Standards. At the same time it is the opinion of the Conference that the Permanent Commission should be retained as a distinct body, which should meet at different places in succession. Seismological Investigations.—Fourteenth Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman), Dr. J. Minne (Secretary), Mr. C. VERNON Boys, Sir GEORGE Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK, Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor J. W. Jupp, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor R. Mrenpona, Mr. R. D. OLDHAM, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. PrumMer, Professor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. CuemMent Rep, and Mr. NELson RicHarpson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) [Puare I.) Contents. PAGE. I. General Notes : i : 48 Il. Sites of Stations: Lskdalemuir, Agincourt, Porto Rico, Stonyhuret 49 Ill. Vhe Large Harthquakes of 1908 . : 51 IV. Lhe Records of Small Larthquakes from Jamaica . : : $ Quel V. Quick Vibrators as applied to Seismometry . 55 VI. On a possible Synchronism between Seismic Activity in ” Different Districts 56 VII. Zhe Time of Maximum Motion as indicated by three ‘differently installed Horizontal Pendulums . . 58 VIL. he Number of Earthquake Records obtained at British Stations SES IX. Luminous Effects obtained from Rock Surfaces . - - 60 X. A Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes . 2 : ; F Js 61 XI. Developing, Fixing, and Copying a Film . : : . : ey teil XII. Catalogue of Chinese Porthgeeteen 1638-1891. By Professor E. H. PARKER 4 : 2 - 62 I. General Notes. Last year, early in November, my assistant, Mr. H. C. O’Neill, left me for an appointment in London. The last work on which he was ! With this object the Committee are authorised to issue as an Appendix to the Report of the Conference, Notes detailing the methods which have been adopted ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 49 engaged when in the Isle of Wight was a catalogue of the Shide collec- tion of papers bearing upon seismology written in foreign languages. Although he continued this compilation while in London, I regret to say that the completion of the same has for the time being been inter- fered with by ordinary routine work. As illustrative of this latter I may take the map which accompanies each report and shows the distribution of earthquake centres for the previous twelve months. Inasmuch as the production of this sheet involves the consideration and usually a cal- culation based upon each of the entries of all co-operating stations, it will be understood that much time is spent in the production of what is shown as a single plate. Correspondence with stations and those interested in our work occasionally occupies a morning. Hach day films and other record-receiving surfaces have to be renewed. Films have to be developed, measured, and records reduced to a form suitable for publi- cation. The registers from all co-operating stations have to be recopied and classified. Accurate time has to be kept, and attention has to be given to the ordinary meteorological instruments found in most observa- tories. Between the hours of 8 a.m. and 10 p.m. we are usually able to give information bearing upon our work. My assistants work in the morning and again in the evening, and, when occasion requires, also in the afternoon. The amount of original work done in the laboratory is out- lined in the Reports. Registers.—During the past year the registers issued are contained in Circulars Nos. 18 and 19. These refer to Shide, Kew, Bidston, Edin- burgh, Paisley, Haslemere, San Fernando (Spain), Valetta (Malta), Cairo, Beirit, Ponta Delgada, Cape of Good Hope, Calcutta, Bombay, Kodikaénal, Irkutsk, Batavia, Trinidad, Lima, Baltimore, Toronto, Victoria, B.C., Honolulu, Perth, Sydney, Christchurch, and Mauritius. High-speed (24 cm. per hour) record-receiving apparatus has been sent to Edinburgh and to Lima. Similar apparatus will be sent to San Fernando (Spain). It is expected that the Naturalists’ Society of Cardiff will shortly put up a seismograph. For a continuation of financial support I again thank the Royal Society, the British Association, the administrators of the Gray Pund, and Mr. Richard Cooke. I regret to say the support I received from the ‘ Daily Mail’ has ceased. The chief expenditure relates to Salaries and material. With the latter there is included the cost of photographic films required at Bidston. The Committee ask for reappointment and a grant of 601. IL. Sites of Stations. Eskdalemuir Magnetic Observatory, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Main Building, Latitude . : : - 55° 18’ 42:2” N. 3 Longitude : : ; 3° 12’ 19-7” W. 7 Height . - 775°29 feet. Level of Davington Burn about 700 feet. Geological formation consists of rocks of the Tarannon Llandovery Series transversed by igneous dykes. in the Standardising Laboratories of the various countries to realise the Inter- national Ohm and fhe International Ampere, and to set up the Weston normal cell. . E 50 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The seismograph room is situated on the ground floor of the main office building. The principal pier is built of solid cubes of sandstone, and passes directly to the rock at a depth of 21 feet. The pier is enclosed in a brick well to isolate it from local surface movements. The Milne twin-boom instrument is mounted on this pier, so as to give N.S. and E.W. components. The period of the booms is about 18 seconds, and at this period the scale is 1 mm. =0°’391. A spare pier is also situated in the room, and will be used for research work on the behaviour of other forms of seismographs. Toronto, Canada.—When the magnetometers, on account of inter- ference with electric trains, were moved from Toronto to Agincourt the seismograph was moved also. The underlying rocks at Agincourt are the same as those at Toronto, about nine miles distant. These are Hudson River shales, covered with a thick deposit of alluvium. These latter drift deposits no doubt differ to a certain degree, but there are no sections at Agincourt which can be compared with those at Toronto. It may be mentioned that when the magnetometers were in Toronto they did not appear to have been disturbed at the time of large earth- quakes. Now that these instruments are removed to Agincourt from time to time they show irregularities which may be due to teleseismic movement (see ‘ B. A. Reports,’ 1898, p. 237; 1899, p. 170). Porto Rico, W. Indies.—The instrument at this station is of the Bosch-Omori type and forms part of the equipment of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. It is established at the Magnetic Observa- tory situated on Vieques Island, east of the island of Porto Rico. It is mounted in the north-east. corner room on the ground floor of the old Spanish fort ‘ Isabel.’ The floor of the room consists of 3 inches of cement underlaid with 3 inches of hard clay, which in turn is under- laid by stone. The piers, four in number, on which the seismograph parts are mounted are each 20 inches square by 324 inches deep. Each consists of three pieces of dressed stone. These are laid in cement and extend 30 inches below floor-level; the space round each pier is filled with cement within 4 inches of the floor. The instrument consists of two pendulums recording north-south and east-west motion. It is possible to obtain the time of any effect within one or two seconds. The paper moves 15 mm. to the minute. The period of north-south pendulum is 26°36 seconds; east-west pendulum 24°7 seconds. The multiplication of the tracing points is 10. Stonyhurst, near Blackburn, North Lancashire, England.—The lati- tude of the observatory is 538° 50/ 40” N; longitude, 0° 52’ 68” W of Greenwich. The seismograph is the one which was used for two years in the Antarctic regions by the officers of the s.s. Discovery. The standard and other parts of the instrument are made of gunmetal and non-magnetic materials. At Stonyhurst it is installed in the under- ground magnetic chamber, which is dry and does not suffer from varia- tions of temperature. It is placed on a pillar composed of two cut stones firmly cemented together. On the top of these there is a slate slab also cemented to the uppermost stone. The pillar is embedded in and rests upon 12 inches of concrete below the stone floor of the chamber. The concrete rests on hard clayey soil. The height of the top of the slab from the floor is 34 feet, and its height above sea-level is 364 feet. ee ’ } 4 4 ‘ ‘ e 6-22 ? British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg.1909. The Large Earthquakes of 1908. Origins for 1908 are indicated by their BA Shide riots i Register number. Earthquake districts are indicated A, B, 0, cand the number of E: . ir of Earthquakes since 1899 which originated from theso is expressed in large numerals. (Puare I THE WORLD =e ON MERCATORS PROJECTION. L = _ Aotecelit Crete Illustrating the Report on Sciemological Investigations oN s it [ho distribution c imilar to that of 190 ricts B and F BF overlap have bee quake No. 1603 is in fithose for K. 1 jon as districts of id the world, wl on a band which fr ® The total numb ithe east side of the im 1907. Asimilor ‘A table publish the years 1899 s prevailed in the Boast of South An Marge districts whic by the letters A, | fuakes which hav Archipelago and towards Formosa pronounced lines IV. After-shoc Tn the Report hich in 1907 we pinety-two of the Wight, o distance ‘at this inters ickenings and ge number < it localities sev: ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 51 ; Il. The Large Harthquakes of 1908. The distribution of origins for the large earthquakes of 1908 is very similar to that of 1907. The greatest activity has been at the overlap of districts EK and F. In the totals for districts the earthquakes for the BF overlap have been regarded as belonging to K and not to F. Harth- quake No. 1603 is included in the total for H, and Nos. 1568 and 1602 in those for K. The correct number of District C for 1906 is 27 and not 29 (see map and Report for 1907). In studying these districts it must be remembered that they merge _ one into the other, and cannot be regarded as so many strictly defined isolated elliptical areas. C, H, K, and F may, for example, be looked upon as districts of marked activity along a band which extends nearly round the world, while D, B, A, E represent areas of marked intensity on a band which fringes a great part of the Pacific Ocean. The total number of earthquakes which have occurred in 1908 on the east side of the Pacific is slightly greater than those which occurred ‘in 1907. A similar increase is noted for the west side of the same ocean. A table published in the ‘-B. A. Reports,’ 1908, p. 63, shows that for the years 1899 to 1907 inclusive the greatest megaseismic activity has prevailed in the East Indian Archipelago, and the least on the West Coast of South America. If, instead of comparing the activity in the large districts which are indicated on the accompanying map (Plate I.) _ by the letters A, B, OC, &c., we compare the number of large earth- ~ quakes which have originated during the last ten years within areas _ each about five degrees radius, the results arrived at are as follow :— Centre 120° E. 5° N. gave 75 large earthquakes. » 140° ER. 40°N. ,, 68 ,, As 4 70° HE. 25° N. ,, 40 ,, ” » =145° W.45°N. ,, 33> ,, 5 These figures indicate that at the present time the most pronounced centres of seismic activity are to be found in the centre of the Kast Indian chipelago and from the Kast Coast of Central Japan south-westwards wards Formosa. ‘The first of these is near to the junction of two _ pronounced lines of folding in the earth’s crust, __ In the Report for 1908, p. 64, reference is made to 148 after-shocks vhich in 1907 were recorded between January 14 and July 5, in Jamaica; inety-two of these appear to have been recorded in the Isle of Wight. he time taken for earth waves to travel from Jamaica to the Isle of ht, a distance of 67 degrees, would be about forty-three minutes, and at this interval of time subsequent to shocks in Jamaica that we find hickenings and sinuosities in seismograms obtained in Britain. A number of these records are also to be found on seismo- hic traces obtained at Bidston, Kew, Paisley, and Edinburgh. This rrence of records from different stations and the particular imes ai which they occur in reference to the times of origin f shocks in Jamaica lead us to the conclusion that com- tively small shocks may with suitable instruments be recorded at localities several thousands of miles distant from their origin. The q wy a £2 52 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. particular group of records to which we refer are given-in the accom- panying table. The entry of July 5 may have been recorded at Gottingen, but with this exception the remaining disturbances do not appear in registers from Gottingen, Strassburg, or Laibach. The difference in the number of records obtained at different stations where the instruments are of one type, viz., that adopted by the British Association, partly finds an explanation in differences in foundation, see p. 60. The reasons that stations provided with apparatus of the Reuber-Ehlert type do not appear to pick up very small movements is possibly due to a want of definition in the photographic trace; but here again the question of foundation cannot be overlooked. Directly we come to apparatus where the record is obtained upon a smoked surface, which is the case at many European and American stations, a new factor has to be con- sidered. The slight freedom in the connections between the joints of multiplying indices, and the elasticity of the same, suggests a loss of motion, the result being that the writing pointers do not move until a certain amplitude of earth movement has been reached. Whether this explanation be correct or not, my own experience is that instruments writing on a smoked surface, although they may yield excellent seismo- grams of a large earthquake, are very unsatisfactory as recorders of very slight disturbances. Records of large earthquakes may be obtained by many types of instruments, but directly we wish to record feeble move- ments at considerable distances from their origin, the best results appear to come from the instrument adopted by the British Association with the photographic surface moving at the rate of about 240 mm. per hour. As illustrative of this we find that the number of records obtained at Shide, Hamburg, Gottingen, and Laibach between January 1 and April 30 of this year were respectively 98, 65, 61, and 33. At the first of these stations the instrument employed is of the B.A. type, whilst at the three latter stations records are obtained on smoked paper or by photographic arrangements with a high multiplication. All the records referred to were noted at more than one station, and therefore their reality as repre- senting widespread-earth disturbances cannot be doubted. The number of records obtained at Bidston, Kew, and Edinburgh, where the photo- receiving surface only moves at the rate of 60 mm. per minute, were not so numerous as those obtained at Shide. After-shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake apparently recorded in Great Britain. | Date ah land Shide Kew Bidston Paisley | Edinburgh 1907 | | : | Jan.15.. 0.55 — — _ —_ 0.48? ‘5 : 1.53 1.52 a 1.52 — — i 2.52 2.53 —_ 2.52 2.52 | 2.48 *) 3.50 3.51 _ 3.51 esol nS 5.5 5.4 ~ 4.587? _— ~ ” 7.30 7.40 — 7.27 7.25 7.25 ” 8.50 8.50 8.44 8.52 8.50 — 8 9.20 9.19 9.29 9.19 — 9.21 5 11.50 11.45 — 11.43 11.45 — ” 15.50 15.45 —- | = 15.45 — ” 17.15 17.14 _ 17.14 17.15 _ ” 17.48 18.12 17.48 18.16 18.12 o- ” -| 21,52 — _ — = — ——— ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. After-shocks of the Jamaica Harthquake— continued. Due in | England 22.31 5.19 8.45 17.24 22.24 2.50 6.5 13.40 17.20 22.47 3.25 7.20 11.50 12.24 14.20 17.20 18.20 19.50 Shide Kew Bidston 53 | abc LET sti el Fi ll og tio a a | io 2S aoe wo @ rs for} hal Alka tisk tel heh baht thle ih al desk 4 Praga dsl daa aes Paisley | Edinburgh / 54 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. After-shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake—continued. A { | Date netee Shide Kew Bidston Paisley | Edinburgh | 1907 Jan. 30 3.30 3.38 — — ee = a 4.10 _— — 2 — — Ry 13.11 13.11 —- _ 13.10 — = 14.10 14,11 _- 14.9 14.10 14.134] Feb. 1 1.50 — a —_ _ —_— Feb. 2 5.50 — — ? —_ —_— Feb. 3 5.45 5.44 _ — — -- p 5.55 6.7 — — — — 3 8.2 8.0 — — —_ _— Feb. 4 9.50 9.45 — — 9.45 — ay 11.50 — — 2 —_— — 7 12.50 12.55 12.44 _ 12.53 12.52 Feb. 5 7.20 Al 7.25 - 7.10 — '- 11.5 ah Fas — — 11.14 11.5 Feb. 6 4.49 4.48 — 4.48 4.48 _ ch 8.45 8 to 9 8.0 —- 8 to 9 — | iz 21.15 21.17 = ? = ke) Feb. 7 4.50 4.52 — 4.54 — — | Feb. 10 6.10 6.10 _— 6.15 6.10 6.10 | 19.50 19.48 19.45 19.56 19.47 19.49 Feb. 11 6.20 a — ? _— _— is 23.20 23.22 23.24 23.20? 23.21 23:23 Feb, 18 3.40 3.41 — — _— Feb. 19 5.45 5.44 -- _ — — Feb. 22 14.33 — —_ 14,22 —_ — Feb. 23 0.5 0.5 ~ 0.8 0.5 0.5 Feb. 26 23.30 — — a -— — Feb. 27 2.35 — — 2.30 — — Feb, 28 5.30 — — 5.25 — — - 13.30 13.35 = — 13.31 a Mar. 1 10.5 10.7 — 10.7 10.6 — 5; 11.45 = ale 11.40 ae os Mar. 2 6.35 — — — _ — a 5.35 — — —- — a Mar. 6 3.45 3.42 —_— 3.43 — -— Mar. 7 12.2 12.3 — 2 — — iy 13.50 13.58 = —_ —_— — Mar. 8 10.5 10.4 10.9 = = = Mar. 9 11.35 11.30 11.23 — 11.29 — | Mar. 11 7.40 7.42 — — 7.43 — Mar. 15 4.50 4.53 — — 4.53 — Mar. 17 12.20 12.15 12.16 — 12.17 —_— Mar. 18 1.35 1.20 — 1.35 TLS: 1.30 Mar. 19 12.0 12.7 12.4 _— — = Mar. 21 5.49 — — — — — Mar. 23 0.32 —_ — —_— — — a5 19.27 19.20 — —_ — Mar. 24 4.25 — _ — — — Mar. 25 6.0 — — — — — Mar. 27 14.45 14.40 14.41 —_— 14.40 -- Mar. 28 14.20 14.25 14.25 -- 14.25 — Mar. 31 13.0 —_— 13.4 _ _— April 2 10.50 — a 2 = aa April 9 8.35 — — 8.30 — — April 10 3.20 _— | = —_ —— _— April 11 12.4 12.4 —- 12.1 _ _— April 13 4.50 --- — — _— a ” 12.58 12.58 — 12.50 — = April 16 12.50 12.52 12.49 _— 12.55 — rt cr ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. After-shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake—continued. | Date nelond Shide Kew Bidston Paisley | Edinburgh 1907 April 25 . 1.15 _ _ 0.35 — 59 : 9.50 — | — 2 April 28 . 2.53 — — _ — _ “5 : 23.0 — _— 2 — _- April 29. 1.30 _ _— q | = = May 1 .| 21.35 21.25 — — | 21.31 21.30 May 2 .| 2.20 2.20 — 2.22 2.21 — May 3 allie ly 6 17.2 16.54 _ 17.3 — May 4 : 2.42 2.43 _ _ — — May ll. 1.30 _— — 1.25 — _— Junel3_. | 7.8 71 7.8 — = — Junel4 . 7.20 7.24 — _— — — Junel6 . 16.15 16.56 16.57 16.55 — — Junel8 . 13.20 13.30 — _— — June 29. 20.4 —_ — _— — — July 1 : 11.0 11.1 — — — — July 5 < 20.0 20.3 — 20.0? — — Total. , 148 92 22 58 39 18 ‘The movements recorded at Kew are referred to as being very small and ill- defined, and in the ordinary way would have been passed over as being due either to air tremors or some other non-seismic cause. The records from Bidston are spoken of as ‘doubtful,’ ‘ possible,’ ‘ very evident,’ ‘very pronounced,’ and ‘ clearly marked.’ Paisley records were much interfered with by air tremors; it is therefore possible that some of the entries are non-seismic in character. The Edinburgh records are spoken of as ‘slight thickenings,’ ‘small notches,’ ‘ roughness of line,’ ‘ slight tremors.’ In the Report for this year the Shide list has been increased by 41 entries. These have been added because they have been confirmed by records from other stations. V. Quick Vibrators as applied to Seismometry. In a paper on ‘A Neglected Principle that may be employed in Earthquake Measurements,’ by Professors J. Perry and W. H. Ayrton (see ‘ Trans. Asiatic Soc. of Japan,’ May 23, 1877), it is suggested that the essential feature in a seismograph should be a heavy mass so sus- pended by stiff springs that its own free period would be about five times as fast as that of an earthquake. This was to take the place of the steady point in modern seismographs. Inasmuch as this instrument was never constructed, we can only surmise about the character of the record it would furnish. In a paper on ‘ Experiments in Observational Seismology ’ (see ‘Trans, Seis. Soc.,’ vol. iii. 1881) I make reference to pendulums the periods of which were a small fraction of a second. They were only used as tremor-indicators. Notes on these and on other quick vibrators are referred to in the chapter on ‘ Seismometry ’ in a small volume on ‘ Earthquakes ’ pub- lished in the ‘ International Science Series,’ 1883. All these instruments were intended to record earthquakes which could be felt, the periods of which varied between one and three or four seconds. As they merely 56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. acted as seismoscopes, they quickly fell into disuse. To record unfelt teleseismic motion where the periods varied from about five to thirty seconds, I last year made the following experiment :— A cylinder of lead 10 inches in length and % inch in diameter, weighing 45 lb., Was suspended as shown in the accompanying sketch. From one end of the cylinder a light deal rod projected upwards. At its ; “ely RE IR eee aS upper end this engaged a light aluminium lever carrying a glass style resting on a drum covered with smoked paper. This multiplied the motion of the rod, which was 8 feet 2 inches in length, 83 times. By this arrangement the equivalent of a rod 27 feet in length was obtained. The period of this pendulum with the style resting on the smoked paper was 0°6 second, or from eight to thirty times the period of the ground. During twenty-two days commencing November 26, although there were several earthquakes, two of which were distinctly large, no record was obtained. Possibly the multiplication was too small. VI. On a possible Synchronism between Seismic Activity in Different Districts. In the Report for 1908, p. 64, I pointed out that since 1902 seismic activity on the two sides of the North Pacific had fluctuated similarly. For example, registers show that when large earthquakes had been numerous on the East side of the Pacific they had also been numerous on the West side. To extend this inquiry, | have drawn up the following table giving the number of destructive earthquakes which have occurred between 4.p. 1000 and a.p. 1650. They are grouped in periods of fifty years. Columns A, B, C, and D respectively refer to Japanese, Chinese, European, and Italian records. The letter ‘ a ’ indi- Set tae ) ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 57 cates that in two given districts seismic activity has been constant or has varied similarly, z.e., there has been an agreement. The letter ‘d’ indicates that there has been disagreement. For example, seismic activity may have increased in one district while it has decreased in another. As to whether an entry should be ‘a’ or ‘d,’ no account has been taken of the greatness of increase or decrease in the number of earthquakes in the given period, but only whether it was a marked increase, decrease, or a period of quiescence. The columns in which the letters ‘a’ and‘ d’ occur are headed A to B, Ato ©, &c. If written more fully these would become A compared with B, A compared with GC, &c. Inasmuch as the Italian records are included in and form a large por- tion of those which refer to Europe generally, the comparison of C to D is of slight value. The general result indicates that in a period of 650 years we have had forty-four instances of agreements against twenty-eight instances of disagreements in the fluctuations in seismic activity im widely separated districts. This suggests that for the most part periods | i | | wan Vo aechreclyi we il. fens | Date | A B Cc D to to to to to | to | Totals. | Ba Gy Do Ge | Dr | 1000 | TST to | 8 | 28 7 1 1050 ) | | 1100 8 Olver inva O 2 a a a@|@i\a a 6 0 1150 BA Uh iy 8 Betas ae nies (ad che tee | me LB | 1200 | 12 Dope 13 7 ED he Cael ata Bet Ole he A I diane A Gil ae ae | asst at sl) ai flies Ti o6" 40" | 1300.4 Bibi inh tO, teal lida ce? itdyo | bd stn bh ahesk yA 1350 8 | 64 | 12 3 a@j}a a@\;ajsda d 3 BP 14009 37 le | ela Pao aol ge | ek 1450 |. 13 | 16 | 18 TA iP ML Gk Ma HA li a ea 1500 16 50'"} 14) 9 aoniaa: a d a d 3) 8 1550 GA | AG op ao @ijod fas) aa | 88 1600 Dies POA lsh Oe el Oue in a ad a | @ CaN ay ea | 1660 | 10 | 60 | 2% | 18 | a) a@|/a)aj|a|a!6o | | 9@ | 8a | Ga | Ta | 8a | Ga | 44a | | | (Bd 4d | bd Bd Ad dd i | | ‘ { of seismic quiescence or of activity in various parts of the globe occur about the same time. This result does not, however, appear to be shown if we take eleven or thirty-three year periods. Of fifty-three periods of eleven years, A.D. 1000 to a.p. 1583, a comparison of the earthquakes of Europe with those of China and Japan respectively indicate that agree- ments and disagreements are about equally divided. A similar result is obtained when thirty-three year periods were taken for comparison of Buropean and Japanese and Chinese and Japanese earthquakes. Another method of determining whether there has been a time agreement in seismic activity in distant districts has been to plot year by year the large earthquakes of Japan and Italy on squared paper. The interval considered for each of these countries has been the last three hundred years. England and many other countries have been excluded because their records are few in number and only refer to comparatively feeble shocks. The two Americas have been omitted because their 58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. registers are incomplete; Australia and New Zealand, because prior to 1850 we were without knowledge; and China, because its accessible registers end about 1644. All materials prior to a.p. 1600 have been discarded on account of their fragmentary character, and it is often impossible to say whether certain entries refer to destructive earthquakes or only to comparatively small tremors. The only earthquakes considered are those which have been destructive, and these are divided into the following three classes : (I.) shocks which have cracked walls or damaged chimneys ; (II.) shocks which have destroyed a few buildings; (III.) shocks which have caused widespread disaster. For Italy and for Japan these three classes have been taken separately, in pairs, and en bloc. Which ever way we have plotted them one result is clear, viz., in each of these two widely separated districts during the last three hundred years there have been periods of activity and periods of comparative rest. When the zigzag lines which show frequency from year to year are smoothed to curves you obtain a series of undulations the crests of which are separated from each other by periods varying between five and twenty years. There is no indication of a recurrence of activity after regular or equal intervals of time. The following table gives dates for the crests of these waves. In comparing any two of these dates it must be remembered that either of them might be increased or decreased by a year. The reason for this is twofold. First, an earthquake or earthquakes which occurred at the end of a year might, for the purposes of this investigation, have been assigned to the year following. Similarly, those which occurred in January of a given year might have been referred to the previous year. Also, it is difficult to determine the exact position for the crest of a wave. An inspection of the table shows for Italy eighteen dates for wave-crests, and fourteen of these agree very closely with dates indicating periods of seismic activity in Japan. These coincidences suggest that a relief of seismic strain in one part of the world either brings about a relief in some other part, or that relief is governed by some general internal or external agency. Periods of Seismic Activity. Japan Italy | Differences | Japan Italy | Differences Year Year 1613 1612 1 1751 1755 4 — 1626 — 1765 1767 2 1644 1642 2 1782 1784 2 1663 1660 3 — 1798 — 1697 1693 4 I 1803 1806 3 1704 1703 1 | 1834 | 1833 1 |. Samay 1717 o | 1856 1856 0 | 1728 1728 0 i — 1873 —_ | = Slee | 1898 1896 2 VII. The Time of Maximum Motion as indicated by Three differently installed Horizontal Pendulums. The three pendulums are the Milne type (see ‘ B.A. Report,’ 1902, p. 60). Pendulum A records east-west motion; it stands on a brick column, the cross-section of which is 18 inches by 18 inches. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 59 Pendulum B also records east-west motion; it stands near to A on another brick column. ‘The cross-section of this is 18 inches by’ 37 inches. Pendulum C records north-south motion ; it is installed on the same column as B. The stiffness of these two piers, as might be inferred from their dimensions, are very different. In an east and west direction the B-C column is approximately four times as stiff as A column (see ‘B.A. Report,’ 1902, p. 60). For certain intervals of time, each of several months’ duration, these pendulums have been adjusted to have the same or different periods. When A and B had the same period, had they been loaded equally and installed on the same support we should expect that they would have attained a maximum swing at the same time. The following analyses show how far this was the case, notwithstanding the absence of this equality of conditions. With the object of comparing similar phases of motion, in all instances where time measures are concerned, reference has been made to the original seismograms. The earthquakes considered are indicated in the Shide Registers by the following numbers :— 666, 671, 672, 674, 676, 679, 686, 690, 694, 704, 705, 794, 806, 876, 832, 839, 859, 860, 861, 863, 872, 877, 884, 886, 900, 903, 904, 924, 952, 975, 977, 982, 990, 994, 1001, 1020, 1021, 1031, 1038, 1045, 1046, 1048, 1057, 1064, 1065, 1070, 1074, 1087, 1111, 1118, 1135, 1145, 1164, 1182, 1190, 1208, 1225, 1242, 1257, 1266, 1281, 1284, 1293, 1303, 1319, 1820, 1322, 1323, 1362, 1363, 1375, 1387, 1390, _ 1398, 1408, 1412, 1419, 1422, 1425, 1428, 1431, 1433, 1439, 1450, 1460, 1463, 1468, 1471, 1475, 1495, 1496, 1515, 1522, 1526, 1532, 1540, 1544, 1549, 1563, 1564, 1568, 1575, 1577, 1585, 1591. No. 1.—For thirty-seven earthquakes A and B have had the same periods. For twenty-five of these a maximum motion was recorded at the same time; for the remaining twelve earthquakes the difference in time for the maximum swing was two minutes or over. No. 2.—For twenty earthquakes A or B had the same period as C. For eleven of these maximum for north and south motion occurred at the same time as the maximum for east and west motion; for the remaining nine earthquakes there was a difference in time for the maximum motion of two or more minutes. No. 3.—Out of 103 earthquakes A and B have had the same period for thirty-seven earthquakes; for the remainder they had different periods. Taking these en bloc, A and B have recorded maximum swing at the same time in fifty-one cases; in the remaining fifty-two cases the times for this movement have differed by two or more minutes. No. 4.—Pendulum C (north-south motion) indicates a maximum — very frequently before a maximum motion is recorded by A and B. I do not see that the district from which an earthquake originates has any relationship to the pendulum which first records its apparent maximum motion. VIII. The Number of Earthquake Records obtained at British Stations. In the ‘ British Association Report,’ 1901, pp. 44-50; 1902, p. 73; and 1903, p. 82, references are made to the number of records obtained at 60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Bidston, Shide, Kew, and Edinburgh. These stations are respectively situated on sandstone, chalk, alluvium, and volcanic rock. In the follow- ing table we reproduce records of frequency as given in the Report for 1902 and 1903, together with records for 1908 :— Year Bidston Shide Kew | Edinburgh 1901 (11 months)... 133 107 7 rt 94 Set a 228 168 0 re i | 44 | 1908. : : : 105 114 49 We may add that in 1908 Paisley recorded forty-eight shocks—i.e., its number of records closely accorded with those obtained at Kew and. Edinburgh. The subsoil at Paisley is clay (‘ B.A. Report,’ 1905, p. 89). At all these stations similar horizontal Milne pendulums are in use, but the adjustment of these have from time to time only been approxi- mately similar. In 1908 at Shide 1 mm. displacement of the outer end of the boom corresponded to a tilt of 0”-44. The corresponding values at Kew, Bidston, and Edinburgh were 0”°56, 0°53, and 0”°53, or 0”54. The table shows that the Shide instrument, with the greatest sensitiveness in 1908, gave the greatest number of records. The differ- ence between it and Bidston, however, is only nine. If we consider the latter half of 1908 only, we find that Bidston had sixty-one records and Shide had fifty-seven—i.e., the result is reversed. In 1901 and 1902, when the Bidston instrument had for twelve months greater sensi- tiveness than the one at Shide, the number of records at the former place greatly exceeded that at the latter. The very marked difference in the number of records obtained at Bidston and Kew, Edinburgh and Paisley, does not seem to depend upon differences in sensitiveness of the instrument, inasmuch as these differ- ences are very slight. If we except Edinburgh and Bidston, which are founded on hard rock, there is a great difference between this and the softer materials which act as foundations for other stations. IX. Luminous Effects obtained from Rock Surfaces. In the ‘ British Association Report ’ for 1907, pp. 87-91, a long series of experiments are described which apparently show that from time to time surfaces of chalk and killas affect a photographic surface in the same way it is affected when exposed to light. Several control experi- ments are described, and the conclusion arrived at was that the markings on the photographic films were not due to radio-activity, but they might be due to a very feeble brush or glowlike electrical discharge. Since the publication of the above an attempt has been made to determine whether micro-organisms play any part in the phenomena observed. With the assistance of my friend, Dr. R. C. Brown, M.D., of Parkhurst, cultures were made from scrapings from the surface of the chalk, in front of which the cylinder, covered with bromide, had been placed. This was underground. Cultures were also made from scrapings taken from the chalk outside. Micro-organisms were found in both. These have been exposed to a moving photographic surface similar to that used in the pit, but they gave no evidence of luminosity. Dr. M. H. Gordon, M.D., suggests that before excluding a biological factor special media should be tried. This we hope to do. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 61 X. A Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes. (Still in preparation; see ‘ B.A. Report,’ 1908, p. 78.) During the last twelve months, as opportunity presented itself, additions have been made to a catalogue of destructive earthquakes com- menced in 1907. Very many entries have been made from ‘ I Terremoti d'Italia,’ by Mario Barata. The catalogues of C. W. C. Fuchs pub- lished in the ‘ Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen ’ have been an assistance in extending those of Alex. Perrey; while transla- tions from Tung-Hwa-Lu, by Professor E. H. Parker (see p. 62), have extended the catalogue of Chinese earthquakes contained in the ‘ British Association Report,’ 1908, p. 82. With these additions the compilation is at present represented by about 250 typed folios. One result towards which its analysis points relates to the syn- chronism of seismic activity (see p. 56). With the expectation of finding much material which might be used in this catalogue, I wrote to Comte F. de Montessus de Ballore, at the present time in Chile, asking whether it would be permissible to use his compilation of earthquake registers now stored at the Société de Géographie, 184 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris. He most willingly put this at my disposition. The catalogue is composed of about six hundred parts, which are in MSS. and in the language of the country to which they refer. They occupy a length of 26 metres of bookshelves, and for the convenience of those who wish to make researches a cata- logue is provided. I understand from Comte Montessus that a number of destructive earthquakes which are recorded are but little known and difficult of access. Dr. F. Du Bois, who takes a practical interest in seismology, suggests that when using the Montessus catalogue it may often be necessary for the particular purpose in view to seek for details in the original works on which it is founded. The following are a few examples of the entries :— 1597, July 23, Perth and other parts of Scotland, Thompson’s * Annals of Philosophy,’ vol. viii. p. 365; Mallet, 1852, p. 66. 1845, August 7, 14h. 15m., A. Comrie (Ecosse), 1 secousse violente ; MacFarlane ; Perrey Cat. 1845-46, p. 407, 18h. 15m., &c. 1880, November 28, 17h. 30m., Scotland Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. XI., pp. 176-187, followed by observations . . . at different places. Remarks extend over twelve pages of MS. XI. Developing, Fixing, and Copying a Film. The developer is made up as follows :— Metol-hydroquinone Developer. Metol : 30 grains or 7:0 grammes. Hydroquinone : ‘ GOW van oe ‘0 =" Sodium Sulphite (cryst.) 1Oze o.55100°0 % Sodium Carbonate (cryst.) ie » 1000 iy Water ~. . A 3 20.35 », 2000 c.c. For use, dilute with an equal volume of water. __ The bromide paper after removal from the drum is rolled up film side inwards. A small quantity of dilute developer is put into a half- plate dish, then commence to unroll the film in the dish and at the same 62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. time roll up the portion that has passed through the developer. Repeat this rolling and unrolling until development is complete. It is then trans- ferred to a solution of hyposulphite of soda (1 hypo to 4 water) for about ten to fifteen minutes. The record is then washed, &c. Any particular portion of a film may be reproduced by photographic printing. For the latter process place the film with its back on a piece of glass or the glass face of a printing frame. A piece of bromide paper is placed with its sensitive surface in contact with the film, and over this a strip of wood or the back of the printing frame, when the whole four are clamped together with spring clips. This is held up to the light of an oil lamp or an ordinary gas-burner at a distance of 18 inches for about 10 seconds. Next it is developed in a little fresh but dilute developer. If the developer appears too strong, add water and a few drops of a 10-per-cent. solution of bromide of potas- sium. ‘Too long exposure causes the parts which should be white to become grey. A weak acid bath (citric acid 1 part in 40 of water) tends to remove stains. In warm climates a saturated alum bath may be used. If blisters appear, weaken the hypo-bath. XII. Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes, a.p. 1638-1891. By Professor EH. H. Parker. The facts contained in the following Register are extracted, and in most cases are word for word translations, from the * Tung-Hwa- Lu,’ a well-known work which gives textually an account of most of the important disasters, prodigies, decrees, and memorials, &c., as news arrives day by day at the Peking Court of the reigning Manchu Dynasty. The list may be regarded as a continuation of the catalogue published in the Reports of the British Association for 1908. Neither of these lists is to be looked upon as complete, but if it were possible to refer to the local records of the various provincial cities each list might be consider- ably extended. The rendering of Chinese names follows pretty closely the system of Sir Thomas Wade, but without such extreme localisms (e.g. , hsi, hii, chi, chii, instead of si, hi, tsi, tsii, kt, kii) as would render these groups of initials, whether used alone or followed by a nasal final, un- intelligible to persons only conversant with more southerly dialects. Mr. Parker supplies only Chinese dates, but these have been replaced by English dates, and, it is hoped, correctly. Catalogue. 1639 Jan. 4. ‘Harthquake’ (evidently in the Mukden region). 1643 Mar. 24. ‘Earthquake from N.W. corner to §.E. with sound’ (evidently S. Manchuria_N. Corea region). 1643 Nov.12. ‘Earthquake between 9 and 11 A.M. from N.W. to S. with sound’ (evidently in S. Manchuria region). 1644 April14. ‘Earthquake at Mukden.’ 1644 April16. ‘Again quaked’ (i.e., two days later; evidently Mukden). 1649 Nov.10. ‘Earthquake at the Metropolis’ (evidently Peking, probably end of December). 1652-3 Ditto (probably end of January or beginning of February, 1653, the ninth year of the reign covering the greater part of 1652). 1653-4 ‘Relief,! ‘When his Majesty returned to the Palace: this night there was an earthquake with sound’ (probably January 1654. I cannot think why ‘ relief’ or ‘alms’ should precede statement). . 1696 1696 1696 1696 1697 June 6. July 21. between Sept. 10 and 15, June 9, June 22. Aug. 1. Mar. 2. dune 11. April 16. June 11. Sept. 27. Oct. 18. Aug. 11 or 22. Oct. 11. Oct. 10. Oct. 17. Oct. 3. June 12. Jan, 21. Feb. 3. Oct, 23. Dec. 10. Dec, 29. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 63 ‘ Earthquake at the Metropolis’ (i,¢., Peking). ‘There were earthquakes at the Fu (cities) of Si-an, Yen-an, Ping-liang, K’ing-yang, and Han-chung in Shen Si’ (province ; possibly this means ‘we heard this day at Peking about it ’). ‘ Earthquake with sound, at the hien (cities) of Kwan-ch’eng, Fan, Ch’ao-ch’eng, Yang-kuh, and at the chou (city of) P'uh in Shan Tung (province of).’ ‘Exemption of the fixed taxes granted to the five Shen Si, fu of Yen-an, &c. (see above) on account of damage done by the earth- uake,’ natn. with sound at Ling-k’iu hien in Shan Si’ (province). ‘ Earthquake with sound at Kii-chou in Shan Tung (province), ‘ Earthquake at Yiin-chén in Shan Si (province), with sound.’ ‘ Big earthquake at the two chou of Wei and Mao belonging to the fu of Pao-ning in Sz-ch’wan (province),’ ‘Noon (i.¢., 11-1), earthquake with noise at the Metropolis.’ ‘Earthquake at the Metropolis.’ ‘ Earthquake at the Metropolis with noise.’ Ditto. ‘ Earthquake at the Metropolis; commands to the Ministers, &c., to examine their consciences, as also the provincial high authorities, &c., stating what they may consider to be defects, or the reverse, in Government.’ ‘His Majesty, on account of the earthquake, goes at the head of his princes and ministers to pray at the Altar of Heaven’ (out- side gates, where British troops encamped, 1900). ‘ Harthquake at the Metropolis.’ Ditto. ‘ Earthquakes at places in Hoh-k’ing and Kien-ch’uan in Yiin Nan. His Majesty orders quick relief in rice and money to be sent.’ ‘Kalends. The President, Ma Ta’i, charged with the duty of conveying relief to P’ing-yang, &c., in Shan Si, asks instractions. His Majesty orders: “You may command Governor Galdu in view of the fact that houses have been destroyed by an earth- quake, and people crushed to death, that he ought personally to have repaired to the places concerned and established a compound for residences in succour of the people who are victims to the disaster, awaiting my further orders. Instead of that he takes upon himself to go back to his capital—an exceedingly improper proceeding. Apart from what Galdu says in his own report, you must make careful inquiry and compare notes yourself, distributing our gracious relief. The land tax for this year will not be collected there at present. When you get there, at once issue a proclamation explaining to the people how deeply bis Majesty the Emperor feels for them, and stating that he has specially sent a high officer to relieve them ; also that they must not foolishly think of migrating and thus losing their homes. Further, as evil-disposed persons and the Brigadier’s troops may take advantage of the earthquake to rob and harass the people under this or that pretext, you must order the Brigadier-General, Chou Fu-hing, to proceed in person with the Government troops under his command to take good precautionary measures in the whole region concerned. As to the victims of the disaster in Hung-tung hien under Ping-yang fu, you must go thither in person in company with the Governor Galdu, and administer relief, seeing that all share in bond-fide kindness.”’ ‘In view of the (last mentioned) Shan Si Ping-yang fu earth- quake, the following manifesto to the Empire is given out :— (A. long philosophical discussion on ‘ destiny,’ &c.,.and relief from land tax, &c.) ‘Slight earthquake at the Metropolis.’ Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. 64 1700 1702 1705 1706 1713 1718 1718 1720 1730 1730 1730 1738 1739 1744 1746 1755 1764 1765 1765 1765 1785 1786 Mar. 12. Dec. 7. Oct. 19. March 24. Aug. 13. July 31. Sept. 22. July 25. Jan, 14, Oct. 12. Oct. 23. Nov. 15. Dec. 13. April 13. July 30. April 17. Jan. 1? April 42 June 7. Aug. 6. May 30. Aug. 7? REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ‘ Harthquake at the capital of Kwei Chow (province). ‘Slight earthquake at the Metropolis.’ Ditto. Ditto. ‘Earthquakes at Mao chow and at the P’ing-fan Camp in Sz-Ch’wan. Relief distributed.’ ‘ Earthquakes at places belonging to the fu (cities) of P’ing-liang and Kung-ch’ang in Shen Si. Two high officers (named) sent to distribute relief.’ ‘Emperor alludes to (?same) earthquake in Chwang-liang and other places, and lets off the land taxes, &c., for next year in Shen $i and Kan Suh provinces.’ ‘Emperor says that having heard of the earthquakes at Pao-an (fu in Chih Li) Hwai-lai (N.W. of Peking), &c., he now sends high officer (named) to these parts to examine with a view to relief.’ ‘ Alludes in decree to last year’s earthquake in Shen Si province, and damage to people ; agso to this year’s earthquake at Sha-ch’éng (N. of Peking, where commissioners sent as above), and even slight earthquakes at Peking.’ ‘On account of the earthquake, the soldiers of the eight banner corps were given 30,000 ounces of silver each banner for house repairs, and each banner detachment in the Yiian-ming-yiian (park N.W. of Peking) 1,000 ounces.’ ‘ Half a year’s extra official salary given to various other officials’ (on the same ground as the above). (‘Long heart-searching decree. Theory of Heaven’s warning, &c. Emperor did not feel it because he happened to be in a boat. Evidently protected by Heaven. ‘I'he earth is still ill at ease. “My late Father” used to say small shocks always followed a big shock. In 1679(18th K H.) theshocks lasted over a month, and history says that in 1465-1487 the shocks lasted 23 days. We must all try to be good, I showing example.’) (Possibly Jan. 1739.) The Tartar General of Ning-hia (in Kan Suh) reports an earthquake, and that water rushes in the New Cut (a well-known ancient irrigation canal); the hien city of Pao-féng has sunk away. Two hundred thousand taels given in relief from the Lan-chou (provincial capital) treasury, and a high officer despatched from Peking to superintend relief operations. ‘ The above-mentioned high officer reports that the New Cut and Pao-féng belonging to Ning-hia (fw) have become a vast icy marsh, and that it is not possible to build thereon in the old style. He suggests that the two hien (cities) be abolished (.*, at that time there was also a “ New Cut hien”), and that liberal relief be administered. Approved.’ (Pao-féng also no longer exists there.) (Seems to have been an earthquake, but my notes are defec- tive.—H. H. P.). ‘Slight earthquake at the Metropolis. Orders issued for cor- rective advice.’ ‘Orders given that extra liberal relief be administered to the families crushed during the earthquake last year in the two districts of Yih-mén (hien) and another chow (not mentioned by name) in Yiin Nan (province).’ ‘Earthquake in the five chow and hien districts of Kiang- ch’wan, &c.’ (presumably Yiin Nan). ‘ Earthquake at Tih-tao chow in Kan Suh.’ ‘Slight earthquake at the Metropolis.’ ‘Earthquakes (? when) at the twelve chow and hien districts of Lung-si, &c., in Kan Suh,’ ‘Earthquake at the Hwei-hwei township and the Peh-yang Ho (River [? or township]) belonging to Suh chow and Yiih-mén hien.’ ‘Earthquake at Ili’ (near Kuldja). on te ——————————— 1815 1820 1823! 1831! 1839! 1842 1849 1850? 1850 1852 ° 18725 18915 Noy. 11. Sept. Feb. May. June. Aug. (probably). Mar. 28. Oct, 16. Nov. 28. Aug. 17. Nov. 13. Dec. 2. June 8. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 65 ‘Earthquakes at places belonging to Shen chow and other places in Ho Nan (province). Fang Shou-ch’ou (? the Governor) ordered to show his sympathy.’ ‘During this month relief was administered ve the earthquake damage done in Hii chow of Ho Nan (province).’ ‘During this month relief to (&c., &c., and) ve the earthquake in seventeen chou and hien districts, Tsing-ning, &c., of Kan Suh (province).’ ‘During this month grace granted to the land-tax payments due from three chou and hien districts of Ts’z chou, &c., in Chih Li, and the hien of Ngan-yang and Lin-chang in Ho Nan ve damage done by earthquakes.’ ‘During this month relief on account of earthquake damage to the two chow and hien districts of Lang-k’iung and Téng-ch’wan in Yin Nan, besides grace 7¢ payment of this year’s taxes.’ ‘During this month relief to (&c., &c., and) Barkul on the High Road West, on account of earthquake damage.’ ‘Liu Yiin-k’o (? Governor of Fuh Kien or ? taotai of Formosa) ordered to institute inquiry and administer relief re the damage done by flooding (? tidal wave) and earthquake in the various ting and hien (sub-prefectures and districts) in the Northern parts of Formosa.’ Long decree re great earthquake on the 17th day of the 8th month within the walls of Si-ch’ang hien city in Sz-Ch’wan province. Public buildings, prisons, &c., all down. Many people crushed to death, including two Mandarins. Viceroy ordered to despatch a virtuous man to make inquiry and give relief. (Fund indicated.) Decree. Sii Tséh-ch’én (the Viceroy) reports all public buildings down, and over 20,600 persons of both sexes crushed to death. ‘Tt is all my fault as Lord of the World. Let the Viceroy make strict inquiry, &c., &c.’ Long decree re great earthquake on the 8th day of the 4th moon in the city of Chung-wei hien of Kan Suh. There were con- tinuous successive shocks up to the 23rd day. The Viceroy reports over 20,000 dwellings destroyed, and over 300 killed of both sexes, besides over 400 injured. Most of the public buildings down, and much of the people’s food, clothing, domestic animals, &c., crushed out of sight, so that there is great destitution. Orders for inquiry, relief, &c., &c. Decree re Chung-wei earthquake. Emperor feels it. Viceroy’s report received. ‘Let him act in accordance with my sympathetic feelings, &c.’ Relief (? sent) to the injured and distressed people who have suffered from the earthquake at Kai-chou and New-chwang in Féng-t’ien (S. Manchuria). Decree. ‘Then, again, Wu T’ang (Viceroy of Sz Ch’wan) repre- sents that there has been an earthquake at Bathang, and that he is taking relief measures, &c. During the earthquake which took place this year during the 3rd moon, at and around Bathang, the flames shot forth, and numbers of the people’s dwellings were crushed and destroyed. That the place in question should have suffered this disaster, indeed gives him pain,’ &c., &c. (Relief steps.) Earthquake in Shanghai (? summer). Long description of the great earthquake in Japan. 1 These are the probable months. ? *17th day of 8th month’ =September 22. * The earthquake was probably on May 28. ‘ The earthquake was probably in April. 5 These last two taken from Mr. Parker’s private notes. 1909. f F 66 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Davip GiLL (Chairman), Dr. W. G. Durrietp (Secretary), Dr. W. J. S. Lockysr, Mr. F. McCuean, and Professors A. ScHUSTER and H. H. Turner, appointed to aid the work of Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia. Tue Secretary is at present in Australia endeavouring to obtain the necessary funds to enable a Solar Observatory to be erected. At the Brisbane Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science the following resolution was passed by the Council appreciative of the support of the British Association :— “That in view of the generous attitude of the British Association in granting 501. towards the establishment of the Observatory a similar sum be granted by the Australasian Association.’ It was quickly discovered that solar observations could not be well made at any of the existing State Observatories, and so an attempt is being made to establish a special observatory for the work, which shall be affiliated with all the Universities in the Commonwealth. For this purpose the Australian Solar Physics Committee of the Australasian Association has been formed, consisting of the Professors of Physics of each University and the Government Astronomer of each State, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, Commonwealth Statistician, being President, and Dr. Duffield, Hon. Secretary. This Committee formed a deputation which waited upon the Com- monwealth Government (Fisher Ministry) and asked for funds. The Minister replied that ‘ he thought Parliament would not be less public- spirited than private citizens, and would probably give pound for pound to the erection and equipment fund, and might maintain the observatory after its establishment.” The Fisher Government went out of office before the official reply was received, but the Deakin Ministry is now considering the matter and a reply is expected in the course of a few weeks. The Australian Solar Physics Committee has written to the British Association Committee offering to undertake the responsibility of spend- ing the grant-in-aid of 50l., which it is proposed to devote towards finding a suitable site for the proposed observatory. The enclosed memorandum has been prepared for the benefit of the Federal Government by the Australian Solar Physics Committee, setting forth the aims of the proposed Observatory, the history of the movement, and the support that has been accorded. Up to the present time 9501. has been promised towards the equipment of the Observatory, in addition to the ‘ Farnham’ Telescope 6-inch Grubb Refractor, and the ‘ Oddie’ Bequest of a 26-inch Reflector and a 9-inch Grubb Re- fractor. The Government have been asked to give 10,0001. towards the equip- ment and erection, and 1,5001. per annum for maintenance. Solar Research.—The proposed Australian Solar Observatory. That this work is of national importance is shown by the attendance at the last Congress of the International Solar Research Union of ESTABLISHING A SOLAR OBSERVATORY IN AUSTRALIA. 67 representatives from the observatories and scientific bodies of Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Hungary, India, Italy, Russia, Servia, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States. _ Australia is not represented upon the International Committee, though her co-operation is earnestly desired for the following reasons :— The Establishment of a Solar Observatory in Australia is essential for the completion of the International Scheme. (a) Because it would fill a gap at present existing in the chain of Observatories round the Earth.—The existence of the International Union for Solar Research is due to the fact that several problems connected with the sun depend for their solution upon a continuous series of observations made through the twenty-four hours, during which period the earth rotates once about her axis, and presents different parts of her surface in succession to the sun. It has thus passed out of the scope of two or even three stations to deal with such ques- tions; what are required are Observatories B spaced regularly round the earth so that the sun may be observed at one of them when observations are unfavourable or impossible at the others. At present the stations are concentrated in three well- defined areas, which are marked A, B, C a A in the sketch, and which are separated by approximately 90° of longitude. The great gap between. India and America, at D, could be filled by an Australian 4 Observatory, whose erection would enable he circle represents the the changes in the form of sun-spots, Equator. their numbers and areas, and the variations A—India. in the prominences and in the distribution Ge NN a Ger- of metallic vapours over the solar disc to Gish den (Mt, "Wilson, ‘be kept under continual observation Washington, &c.) D—Australia. throughout the whole twenty-four hours. (b) Because a Solar Observatory is required South of the Equator.— If we neglect Mauritius, where solar work is confined to direct photo- graphs of the sun’s disc, no station south of the Equator contributes towards the International Scheme, though work with the spectro- heliograph is required in south latitudes, and that most important branch of study—solar radiation—must eventually be undertaken in the same part of the world. For this work a fully-equipped observatory exists at Washington, and though the Smithsonian Institution has repeatedly urged the necessity of an additional station in south latitudes, and has pointed out the benefits that may reasonably be expected from a full study of this subject, the problem is not attacked elsewhere. (c) Because Australia’s Climatic Conditions are uniquely Favour- able.—With her almost perpetual sunshine Australia is particularly suitable for this work, and besides the promise that her clear skies give of excellent photographic results, the feature that makes Australian co-operation especially desirable is that observations would be possible F2 68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. in Australia at the time of year when they can be least successfully made at other great observatories—Kodaikanal (India), Mt. Wilson (U.S.A.), South Kensington, &c. At the first of these the rainy season lasts from November till February, at the second from December till May, and at South Kensington work is out of the question during the English winter; consequently an observatory in Australia, where the sunshine is practically unfailing from November till March, is essential for supplying the solar ‘observations for this season of the year, and is necessary for the fulfilment of the scheme of international co-operation. The comment of Sir John Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.R.S. (late Astro- nomer and Meteorologist to the Indian Government), when this was pointed out to him, was: ‘ Sir, this observatory is not only advisable, it is essential.’ Besides the above reasons, which are of International Significance, there are others which may be classified as (d) Purely Scientific Reasons.—Apart from the educational value of astronomical research, the doctrine that all work should be relegated to the country most suitable for it requires that advantage should be taken of the unique climatic conditions of Australia, which is un- rivalled in the abundance of her sunshine and the clearness of her atmosphere. Such problems as the nature and cause of sun-spots, to which the recent discovery in America of vast vortices and intense magnetic fields has added so much importance—the nature of the corona and other solar appendages, the distribution of the elements over the solar disc, the pressure of the sun’s atmosphere, solar rota- tion, the cause of the remarkable differences between the spectra from the centre of the disc and from the limb, the connection betwen solar disturbances and terrestrial phenomena are all questions of world-wide interest, and it may be hoped that Ausfralia will share in the task of elucidating them. (e) Practical Reasons.—It would be to Australia’s advantage to undertake the work. Much has been written about the connection between solar and terrestrial phenomena, and it is the earnest hope of solar investigators that this subject may be fully dealt with at observa- tories well equipped for the purpose. The Council of the Royal Society of London urges the establishment of an observatory in Australia, ‘ especially as the subject includes the connection between solar changes and meteorological and magnetic phenomena.” Moreover, the great work on solar radiation carried out in Washington by the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution ‘ was deliberately under- taken in the hope of improving weather forecasts,’ and it is well known that the Indian Solar Observatory was erected in the belief that it would ultimately furnish results of direct value in famine prediction, the action taken by the India Office being based upon the Famine Commission Report of 1880. The arguments for the establishment in Australia of an observatory devoted to solar physics are summarised below :— National Reasons.-—(a) ‘ The advancement of science.’ (b) ‘ The educational advantages accruing from the study of an intellectual sub- ject.” (c) The practical advantages which meteorology may fairly Tbid., vol. xx. p. 58. 6 Thid., vol. xxiv. 225. * Tbid., vol. xxv. p. 158, 8 Tbid., vol. xlv. p. 168; vol. xliv. p. 512. Be a PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 75 which observations had been made,' and later (in 1901) Berson and Siiring rose to 10,800 m.? On the latter occasion both aeronauts were uncon- scious at the maximum height, and revived only after the balloon had descended about 4,000m. In Glaisher’s famous ascent from Wolver- hampton, September 5, 1862, the last observation was made at 8,900 m., although the balloon was supposed subsequently to have risen 2,000 m. higher.’ Special precautions were taken to make the two series of ascents comparable, Berson going so far as to make an ascent from the Crystal Palace in September 1898, a simultaneous ascent being made from Berlin. The final results showed that Glaisher’s results for temperature were faulty, the error probably arising through insufficient ventilation. In the ascent of December 1894 the temperature at the maximum height was —54° C. by the aspirated thermometer and —11° C. by the exposed thermometer. The results, together with those of Berson and Siiring, and of a simultaneous ballon-sonde ascent, are shown for comparison in the table 4 :— Fall of Temperature ° C. per 1,000 metres : July 31, 1901 Height, metres Glaisher Berson Bevan ’ Ballon- & Siirmg sonde 0-1,060 T5 5:0 72 8:3 1,000-2,000 6°5 5:0 ected Lhe Gal 2,000-3,000 5:0 5-4 lat Gah 8 tage 77 3,000-4,000 4-2 5:3 eee Chen 61 4,000-5,000 38 64 | TA 57 5,000-6,000 3:2 6:9 | | 5b 63 6,000_-7,000 3:0 6°6 aint ce? 4:7 7,000-8,000 2:0 70 eae, 76 8,060-9,000 1:8 9:0 | 3°6 (ell It will be noted that in Berson’s observations there was no indication of the isothermal zone discovered by Teisserenc de Bort and Assmann.” Later experiments with free manned balloons have been in most cases confined to lower altitudes and have been made principally for comparison with, and verification of, observations made by other means. Captive Balloons—Atter Glaisher’s work in 1869, captive balloons were little used for scientific purposes until 1890. In 1876 Mendeléef proposed to construct a large captive balloon and to fit it with apparatus of his own design,’ and in September 1889 tests of barometer-height formule were made by means of a captive balloon in Russia; but in ‘general the shocks and jars sustained by these balloons owing to gusts of wind, together with their violent oscillations and frequent rapid rotation, rendered them extremely unsuitable for mercury barometers, while in winds of only moderate strength they refused to rise to any considerable height and drifted along close to the ground. E. D. Archibald in 1885 proposed to employ a captive kite-balloon to get rid of the captive balloon’s defects, and in 1887 claimed to have obtained satisfactory results.’ The 1 Nature, vol, liii. p. 136. 2 Ergebnisse der Arbeiten am Aéron. Obs. Berlin, 1900-1901, pp. 224-233. * § Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1863; Travels in the Air, Glaisher. * Nature, vol. lxv. p. 224. 5 The ballon-sonde record indicated that it was reached at 12 km. § Nature, vol. xiv. p. 517. 7 Tbid., vol. xxxvi. p. 278. 76 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. introduction of sufficiently rigid self-recording barometers and reliable recording thermometers and hygrometers, however, rendered captive balloon observations far more practicable.' The kite-balloon of Siegsfeld and Parseval, a more elaborate apparatus than that of Archibald, was first used to raise meteorological instruments in 1898 at Strassburg, and has since been used regularly at the Prussian Meteorological Institute, Lindenberg, to obtain observations in calm or nearly calm weather. At most other stations ordinary captive balloons have been used, and in weather when both kites and captive balloons are useless, small pilot balloons have been employed to determine the direction and velocity of the wind. Pilot Balloons—The use of small free balloons was first suggested by Le Verrier in 1874.2 In 1877 M. Secretan of Paris, under the direction of M. W. de Fonvielle, sent up a series of small indiarubber balloons in order to investigate the changes of wind direction with altitude and to determine the heights of clouds.* The method was quickly adopted in America, and before the end of 1877 it was decided to use these small pilot balloons regularly in Arctic work.! They were also employed in 1879 by the French Academy in preliminary ascents to determine the paths which manned balloons would take.° In continuation of the investigation of the variation of wind with height, M. Bonvallet in 1891 despatched ninety-seven paper balloons from Amiens, and sixty of the cards attached to the balloons were returned. The experiments were continued by Hermite during the period 1893-1898, and about half of the balloons sent up from Paris were returned from within a radius of 100 miles. Subsequently these pilot balloons have been employed regularly with theodolites in determining the direction and velocity of the wind at various heights, and to continue the observations when kites could not be flown owing to calm weather, or when an opposing current prevented the further rise of the kite.* They have, too, the advantage of reaching greater heights than kites. Kites —The first use of kites for scientific purposes was made by Alexander Wilson and his pupil Thomas Melville at Glasgow in 1749.’ In these experiments thermometers were raised to considerable heights. Three years later Franklin performed his famous experiment of collecting electricity with kites.‘ In 1822-23 the Rev. George Fisher and Captain Sir Edward Parry, using self-registering thermometers, obtained tem- peratures by means of kites at different heights in Arctic regions.° Some time later, in 1840, Espy, an American meteorologist, employed kites to verify his calculations of the heights of clouds from measurements of humidity.'° The experiments also extended to England, for W. R. Birt of the Kew Observatory flew kites in 1847 with the hope of obtaining the changes of temperature, humidity, and wind with height. In 1883-85 KE. D. Archibald used kites with steel piano-wire to obtain the wind * Nature, vol. xlv. p. 168. ? Ibid., vol. xlviii. p. 160. 8 Tbid., vol. xv. p. 458. 4 Tbid., vol, xvii. p. 171. 5 Thid., vol. xx. p. 401. ° P. 244; Compt. rend., 141, pp. 605-608, October 9, 1905; 142, pp. 918-921, April 9, 1906. " Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. x., part ii. pp. 284-286. ® Sparks’ Works of Franklin, vol. v. p. 295. LE: ® Symon’s Meteorolog. Mag., April 1897. %° Espy, Philosophy of Storms, 1841, p. 75. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 77 velocity, employing a Biram’s anemometer, which registered the total amount of wind from beginning to end of the flight.! In 1885 Alexander McAdie repeated Franklin’s experiments on Blue Hill, U.S.A., using an electrometer,” and in 1891 and 1892 he measured the electric potential simultaneously at the base, on the slopes, and with kites above the summit of Blue Hill. About the same time L. Weber was making more extensive use of kites at Breslau, Germany, to collect electricity.* About 1890 Wm. A. Eddy, after making experiments with various forms of kites, devised a modified form of the Malay tailless kite, and in 1891 used several of these to raise a minimum thermometer, pro- posing thus to obtain additional data for weather-forecasting. The ex- periments were continued at the Blue Hill Observatory, and in 1894 the first continuously recording instrument was sent up.’ Later, the weight of the instruments was reduced and more efficient kites were devised. A report on the work being carried out at Blue Hill was presented to the International Meteorological Conference at Paris, September 1896,° and in 1898 the International Aeronautical Committee recommended the inclu- sion of the kite and kite-balloon among the apparatus of all the principal observatories.° In the same year M. L. Teisserenc de Bort equipped a kite station at the Observatory of Trappes near Paris, and kites were used by M. Rykatcheff at St. Petersburg. In 1901 Rotch made expeti- ments with kites flown over the sea from steamships.’ In 1902 kite experi- ments were made by W. H. Dines on land and also over the sea from a small steam-vessel, on the west coast of Scotland. The experiments were continued at Oxshott and subsequently at Pyrton Hill for the Meteorological Office. In the same year successful kite experiments were made by Berson and Elias in a cruise to Spitsbergen, by Képpen in the Baltic,® and by Fassig, for the American Weather Bureau, in the Bahamas.'° Teisserenc de Bort extended his experiments to Scandinavia in 1902-03, and under his direction kites were flown day and night when possible at Hald in Jutland during nine months. The apparatus was then transferred to a Danish gunboat and ascents were made over the Baltic. During this cruise the highest kite ascent up to that date was made, the height recorded being 5,900 m.'' During the autumn of 1904 Professor Hergesell made a series of ascents from the yacht of the Prince of Monaco over the Atlantic, in the neighbourhood of the Canary Islands, and the Azores.'? These experiments were followed in 1905 by a similar expedition, organised by Teisserenc de Bort and Rotch, to the neighbourhood of Madeira, Teneriffe, and Cape Verde,'* and the expedition was repeated in 1905 and 1906.1! The experiments were extended at the desire of the International Committee to India in 1905, observations being made at - Karachi in 1905 and subsequently at Belgaum.'? In 1907 a similar station 1 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1884, p. 639, and 1885. 2 Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. xxi. pp. 129-134. % Electrotechnische Zeitschrift., November 1886 and August 1889. * Quarterly Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., 1897. The observatory was established and oe’ by Rotch. Much of the experimental work was carried out by H. H. ayton. _ § Nature, vol. lvi. p. 602. 6 Tbid., vol. lviii. p. 380. * Thid., vol. \xvii. p. 137. 8 Thid., vol. xvii. p. 311. ® Ergeb. der Arbeit. am Aér. Obs. Lindenberg, pp. 1-20, 1901-1902. 10 Nature, vol. 1xx. p. 228. " Travaux de la Station Franco Scandinave & Hald, 1902-03, p. 40. 2 Compt. rend.140, pp. 331-333, January 30, 1905 ; ibid., pp. 1569-1572, June 5, 1905. ‘8 Thid., 141, pp. 605-608, October 9, 1905; 142, pp. 918-921,-April 9, 1906. "Nature, vol. \xxiv. p. 40; Ixxv. p. 211. 8 Thid., vol. Ixxvili. p. 280. 78 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. was established in Egypt,! and about the same time a station, at which daily ascents were to be made, was equipped at Glossop in England.’ The upper air observations obtained at the English stations, viz., Pyrton Hill, Glossop, Ditcham Park, and Brighton, are published in the Weekly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office. Ballons-Sondes.—The use of small free balloons to raise self-recording meteorological instruments was proposed in Copenhagen as far back as 1809.3 At that time, however, no satisfactory self-recording instruments were available and the idea was not taken up. It was revived in 1873 and 1874 by Jobert and Le Verrier, who proposed in this way to test barometer-height formule,‘ and again by Mendeléef at the International Meteorological Congress at Rome, 1879.° It was not until self-recording instruments had been considerably improved, however, that satisfactory observations became possible, and Hermite in 1893 was the first to put the idea into practical form. Satisfactory ascents were made by means of a varnished paper balloon, ‘ L’Aérophile,’ filled with coal-gas, but on the bursting of this it was resolved to construct a balloon of goldbeater’s skin. With this second ‘ aérophile,’ whose capacity was 113 cubic metres and weight 14 kgm., ten ascents were made by MM. Hermite and Besangon between 1893 and 1898.° In 1893 also Prof. Hazen attempted similar experiments in America.’? The objection was raised that the results obtained in this way were subject to the same errors due to insola- tion as those of Glaisher m 1861-69. Consequently a silk balloon, the ‘Cirrus,’ capacity 250 cubic metres and weight 42 kem., was constructed and made eight ascents from Berlin between July 1894 and June 1897. All the instruments were enclosed in an aspirated tube (a ‘ Urania Pillar’), designed by Assmann. The highest ascent of the ‘Cirrus’ was made in September 1894, when the pressure fell to 50 mm. at 18,500 m. and the minimum temperature was —67° C. During the progress of the German experiments negotiations were carried on to obtain the general acceptance of uniform methods of ob- servation and the interchange of instruments with a view to evolving the best possible type. In consequence the International Meteorological Conference at Paris, September 1896, appointed a committee, consisting of de Fonvielle, Hermite, Assmann, Erk, Hergesell, Pomortzeff, and Rotch, to organise a series of simultaneous international ascents.'° These ascents extended rapidly, and already in 1896 four manned and four registering balloons were sent up on the same dates from France, Germany, and Russia.'! In 1898 the ascents were extended to Austria and Italy, in 1899 to Belgium, and in 1901 to England. Besides the work done in connection with the International Com- mittee, extended series of ballons-sondes ascents were undertaken inde- pendently. Between April 1898 and 1902 Teisserenc de Bort sent up 258 ballons-sondes, which attained heights of 11 km.,!? and similar ' Quart. Jowrn. BR. Met. Soc., 1908, p. 259. * Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1907. 8 Ann. Harvard Obs., \xviii. part I, p.1; History and Practice of Aéronautics, John Wise, 1850. : * Nature, x\viii. p. 160; Ann. Harvard Obs., \xviii. part I, p. 1. 5 Quart. Jowrn. R. Met. Soc., 1897. ° Compt. rend., 1896, p. 961; 1897, pp. 424, 1180; Acad. des Sciences, April 15, 1896; 7 Aérophile, vol. i., No. 1 et seg. 1893. 7 Ann. Harvard Obs., \xviii. part I, p. 2. 8 Nature, vol. li. ® Thbid., vol. lvi. p. 602. 10 Thid. 1 Thid. Compt. rend., 129, pp. 417-420; 141, pp. 153-155 ; Suc. Franc. Phys. Séances, 8, 1899, pp. 126-135. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 79 _ apparatus was employed in the Atlantic expeditions of Rotch and Teisserenc de Bort, and of Hergesell in 1902-05.' Rotch made the first series of registering balloon ascents in America at St. Louis in 1904.2 In 1907 the International Committee at Milan, adopting the suggestion of Teisserenc de Bort, determined to carry out the observations on a much more extended scale in the northern hemisphere. The work was extended to Africa and India, and several stations in Great Britain began to take part regularly in the ascents. Almost all the countries of Europe had previously taken part in the monthly international ascents, made since 1901 on the first Thursday in each month, and these countries continued to participate in the extended series, which included ascents of several balloons on successive days at stated periods. The results are collected and published by the International Committee. In addition, special ascents have occasionally been made, such as those at Milan during the month of September 1906 and at Manchester, June 2 and 3, 1909. On the last occasion twenty-five balloons were liberated in twenty-four hours, and during the same period four balloons were sent up at intervals of six hours from most of the Continental stations. III. (a2) Apparatus and Instruments employed in ascents of Balloons and Kites. The increasing use of captive balloons, which were subject to sudden shocks and jars, of ballons-sondes, and of kites, gave a strong impetus to the work of designing really satisfactory self-recording instruments. The light self-recording aneroid barometers, Bourdon tube thermometers and hair hygrometers of Richards Fréres, came to be considerably used with kites and ballons-sondes. They recorded through levers and metal styles on smoked paper, wrapped round a revolving clockwork drum. They were used with kites at the Blue Hill Observatory, U.S.A., alongside a meteorograph designed by Fergusson, which included also an anemo- meter, and by Hermite and Besancon with ballons-sondes in 1893-98. In 1891* Assmann described a new form of aspirated psychrometer, which was so far independent of shocks and jars as to be suitable for use with captive balloons.‘ In the following year, in a review of the results of tests and observations made in Germany by balloons and captive balloons, he stated that the aneroid barometers and aspirated thermo- meters which had been employed were satisfactory, the aspiration being absolutely necessary in order to obtain consistent and comparable results. The self-recording instruments used registered temperature by means of a bent Bourdon tube filled with alcohol, humidity by means of a bundle of hairs, and pressure by an aneroid barometer, the whole being enclosed in an aspirated space.> At the second meeting of the International Committee in 1898° Teisserenc de Bort exhibited a self- recording thermometer consisting of a blade of German silver fixed in a frame of Guillaume steel, which had small thermal inertia (requiring only 15 seconds to indicate a sudden change of temperature of 9° C.),and which was not affected by shocks. Cailletet showed an instrument for photo- graphing simultaneously the face of the aneroid and the ground in order ' See above, p. 77. 2 Ann. Harvard Obs. vol. \xviii. part 1. : Nature, vol. xliv. p. 502. ‘ Ibid. ai > Ibid., vol. xlv. p. 168. ® Ibid., vol. lviii. p. 380. 80 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. to verify barometer-height formule.' The ‘dromograph’ of Hermite and Besancon, a theodolite registering automatically the azimuths and angular altitudes of a balloon viewed from the ground, was also ex- hibited, as well as a heliometer employed by Kremser of Berlin for measuring the apparent diameter of balloons, and used since with pilot balloons. At this meeting it was resolved that— (1) Thermometers of less thermal inertia than those previously employed were necessary. (2) Efficient ventilation was indispensable. (3) Instruments should be tested before the ascents under circum- stances similar to those encountered during the ascents. (4) An aspiration psychrometer suspended at least five feet below the car was the only instrument suitable for manned ascents. At the third meeting of the Committee at Berlin, May 1902,? Assmann showed a compact apparatus for use with ballons-sondes, weighing only 500 gm. The instrument registered through a pen filled with saltpetre on a sheet coated with lampblack which had been treated with a solution of ‘ Tonsol,’ and the resulting red trace could not be obliterated either by handling or by immersion in water. Hergesell and Teisserenc de Bort also exhibited self-recording thermometers. The type of instrument finally evolved for use with ballons-sondes had (1) a completely exhausted Bourdon tube barometer, which was found to show less fatigue effect than the aneroid barometer ; (2) Teisserenc de Bort’s bimetallic thermometer and Hergesell’s German-silver tube ther- mometer ; (3) a hair hygrometer.. The working parts of the instrument were enclosed in an aspiration tube. Similar mstruments were designed for use with kites. The principal self-recording instruments which have at various times been used have been designed by Richards Fréres, C. F. Marvin, Fergusson, L. Teisserenc de Bort, R. Assmann, H. Hergesell, and W. H. Dines.* Richards, Marvin, Hergesell, and Dines designed instruments for use with kites; and Richards, Teisserenc de Bort, Assmann, Hergesell, and Dines ballons-sondes instruments. Kite Meteorographs.—The Richard kite meteorograph is a_baro- thermo-hygro-anemograph. The barometer is a double aneroid, and the thermometer a Bourdon tube filled with alcohol. The hygrometer con- sists of a bundle of hairs, and the anemometer is of the Robinson cup type, operating through cogwheels and pulleys. The cups are mounted on a vertical spindle, projecting below the instrument, and thus work in an inverted position. The records are traced side by side on a smoked sheet fixed round a clockwork rotating drum, by styles connected through systems of levers to the various parts of the instru- ment. The whole instrument, with the exception of the anemometer cups, is enclosed in a protecting case. Ventilation is obtained by an opening in the front of the case and perforations in the back. The instrument is kept head to wind by means of a vane. Its total weight is 1,820 gm. The Marvin kite instrument is similar to the Richard instrument. The barometer is a large double aneroid with steel boxes. The ther- 1 Compt. rend., 125, 1897, pp. 587-589. 2 Nature, vol, lxvii. p. 137. % A detailed account of Dines’ instruments and methods is contained in The Free Atmosphere in the Region of the British Isles, M.O., No. 202. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 81 - mometer consists of two annular Bourdon tubes of very thin steel filled with alcohol, and the hygrometer consists of two bundles of hairs. The anemometer originally used was a small instrument of the Robinson cup pattern operating through an electro-magnet on a small hammer and recording on the drum in steps, each step corresponding to 2°8 km. of wind. The anemometer cups were originally fixed to the upper end of the kite, but later were placed on a vertical spindle above the hinder end of the vane, so as to be away from the disturbing influence of the _ remainder of the apparatus. The thermometer tubes and hygrometer hairs are enclosed in a polished tube open at both ends, which is kept always end on to the wind by means of the vane. The rest of the instru- ment is enclosed in a light protecting case. In later patterns of the instru- ment used at the Lindenberg Observatory, Germany, the anemometer was replaced by an Assmann anemometer. As the Robinson cups were very liable to damage in falling, Assmann’s instrument was designed on the Woltmann flywheel anemometer principle. It took the form of an eight-bladed fan fitting into the end of the aspiration tube and operating through a train of cogwheels on the marking pen. The instrument, when used with the anemometer, is suspended from the wire some distance below the kite, to avoid any disturbing effect due to the latter. The weight of the instrument is about 1:06 kgm. The Bosch-Hergesell kite meteorograph differs in having a Bourdon tube barometer and an annular Bourdon tube filled with alcohol for ther- _ mometer. The anemometer is of the Robinson type, operating through a _ train of cogwheels and pressing the style on the record sheet once per _ minute in a wind of 6 m.p.s.—i.e., one contact per 360 metres of wind. _ The thermometer and hygrometer are enclosed in an aspiration tube, _ and the anemometer cups are mounted on a vertical spindle’ projecting _ through the instrument case. The protecting case is of aluminium and the frame of the instrument of magnalium. The total weight is 750 gm. The Dines instrument is of quite different design.!_ The frame consists of a wooden tray with raised sides for protecting the instrument from injury. In the middle of the frame a flat circular disc of white cardboard is caused to rotate by a small clock. The separate parts are mounted on the wooden frame and register through pen levers by means of special ink on the cardboard disc. The pressure and humidity are recorded side by side on one half of the disc and the temperature and wind velocity diametrically opposite on the other half of the disc. The barometer con- sists of a single aneroid, to the centre of which is soldered a projecting ‘piece, which operates directly on the short arm of the pen lever. The thermometer consists of a long spiral copper tube filled with alcohol, and carrying at one end a small thin-walled box similar in shape to an aneroid box. The tube is fixed to the under side of the frame, but the box projects through to the upper side. A projecting piece soldered to the middle of the free side of the box operates directly on the short arm of the pen lever. The hygrometer consists of a bundle of hairs enclosed in a ventilation tube situated in the under side of the frame, and the movement is transmitted to the pen by levers fixed to a spindle passing through the frame. The anemometer is actuated by the pressure of the wind on one or several light Spherical balls suspended by about 40 feet of thread attached to the end _ of a lever pivoted on the instrument frame. The pull is balanced by a spiral spring, so arranged that the deflection of the recording pen 18 _ proportional to the wind velocity. } Symons, Met. May., vol, xxxix, 1904, p, 109. 1909. G 82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The Marvin and Hergesell instruments are in general suspended from the wire some distance below the kite, so that the indications of the anemometer shall not be influenced by disturbances due to the kite. The Dines instrument is suspended in the centre of the kite, the anemometer thread being so long that the ball is out of range of the disturbances due to the kite. The method of attachment within the kite possesses consider- able advantages in protecting the instrument from injury. Ballons-sondes Meteorographs.—Of the different types of ballons- sondes meteorographs the first put into actual use was constructed by Richard. It was a baro-thermograph, having a multiple-cell aneroid barometer and a Bourdon tube thermometer filled with alcohol. The record was traced on a smoked sheet fixed to a clockwork drum. It was employed by Hermite and Besangon and by Hazen in 1893, and later, with various modifications, by Rotch at St. Louis, and in Russia. The first instrument employed by Teisserenc de Bort was a baro- thermograph consisting of an aneroid barometer and a small, slightly bent Bourdon tube alcohol thermometer. He found, however, that the aneroids showed considerable elastic after-effect,! and replaced them by a Bourdon tube barometer, which proved more consistent. The lag of the reservoir thermometer also led him to construct a metal thermometer whose thermal inertia was much smaller. This consisted of a strip of German silver 0-1 mm. thick, 250 mm. long, and 9 mm. broad, mounted in a nickel-steel frame, the expansion of the strip being multiplied two hun- dred times by a lever. In its final form his instrument consists of a Bourdon tube barometer, a bimetallic thermometer, and a_ hair hygrometer. The th rmometer is a compound strip of brass and steel soldered together. This strip has the form of a nearly closed ring, one end of which is fixed to the frame of the instrument, but insulated from it by a block of rubber, and the other is connected through levers to the recording pen. The block of rubber serves to prevent conduction of heat from the frame of the instrument, a source of error in previous instruments amounting to several degrees ©. The scale of the instrument is :— 1 mm. of mercury = about 0°08 mm. deflection. Ibe (Op = ,, 04mm. deflection. During an ascent the thermometer tube and the hygrometer hairs are exposed, but the rest of the instrument is enclosed in a cork case. The whole is slung by springs, inside a basket open at top and bottom, but lined round the sides with nickel paper. Hergesell designed a similar compound strip metal thermometer, but abandoned it owing to changes of zero produced by the straining of the soldered joint when the strip was distorted at low temperatures during the ascent. His final design included a Bourdon tube barometer, a hair hygrometer, and two thermometers. One of these latter is a bimetallic thermometer of the type used by Teisserenc de Bort. The other consists of a long, thin German-silver tube supported from its upper end by three nickel-steel uprights screwed into the base plate. The lever which operates the recording pen is fixed to the lower end of the tube, and is moved by the expansion or contraction of the tube. The tube projects through the base plate of the instrument, so that during the ascent a continuous current of air passes through it. The pressure, humidity, two temperature traces, 1 Vide Compt. rend., July 11, 1898. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 83 and the zero trace are marked side by side on the usual smoked aluminium sheet fixed to a revolving drum. The scale of the instrument is :— 1 mm. mercury = 0°1 mm. deflection. 1°C. == 0°7 mm. deflection. The clock is of invar and is guaranteed not to stop even at —80° C. The instrument is provided with a protecting case and weighs 750 gm. There is no forced ventilation, the rate of rise and fall of the balloon being deemed sufficient protection against solar radiation. In an ascent the instrument is suspended by springs in a basket lined at the sides with nickel paper. In order to reduce the weight of the instrument for use with small tubber balloons Assmann abandoned the heavy clockwork, and, after various modifications, devised the following instrument. Two cylinders free to rotate and with their axes parallel are mounted one above the other in the frame, and the record sheet forms an endless belt round them. One of the cylinders is turned on its axis by the expansion or contraction of the multicellular aneroid barometer, and the other cylinder and the record sheet move with it. The thermometer pen is carried across the sheet, parallel to the axes of the cylinders, by an endless thread passing round two pulleys, which are caused to turn by levers connected with a bimetallic thermometer consisting of copper and invar strips soldered together. The pressure is thus indicated by the movement of the record sheet, and the temperature by the movement of the pen across the sheet, the two motions being exactly at right angles to each other. The humidity is indicated in the same way as the temperature, a double-span hair hygro- meter being used. A small clock draws a pen across the record sheet to indicate the duration of the ascent, and to show if the balloon burst instantaneously on reaching the maximum height. Stoppage of the clock does not materially affect the results. The thermometer strip and the hygrometer hairs are enclosed in a ventilation tube, and in some of the instruments are aspirated by means of an electrically driven ‘ Scirocco ’ fan fixed into the ends of the ventilationtube. The total weight of instru- ment and case is 620 gm. The Dines meteorograph is of quite different design.' It is a baro- thermograph, no measurements of humidity being attempted. The barometer 1s in general a partially exhausted German-silver aneroid, and the thermometer is bimetallic, consisting of a strip of aluminium or German silver and arod ofinvar. The partially exhausted aneroid is used because it gives a larger scale than the totally exhausted box.? In the Assmann instrument the record sheet moves bodily, while the barometer and thermometer elements are fixed; in the Dines instrument the same effect is obtained by making the barometer and the record sheet fixed, while the thermometer moves bodily. The aneroid is fixed on one side to the frame of the instrument, and on its other side carries the thermometer. When the aneroid expands or contracts the thermometer is moved laterally asa whole, and the two pens, being attached tothethermometer, are carried across the record sheet and mark two similar and parallel pressure traces. The German-silver strip and the invar rod of the thermometer are approximately of equal length, straight and parallel to each other, and are separated slightly. They are fixed together at one end, and the ' Symons, Met. Mag., July 1906, p. 101. * The original and perhaps more important reason was to utilise, as far as possible, the more perfect elasticity of a gas instead of that of a metal. The boxes containing air have very little lag. G2 84 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. thermometer pen lever is pivoted to the two free ends. The expansion or contraction of the German-silver strip causes the thermometer pen to move at right angles to the pressure traces. The traces are marked by two sharp steel styles on a roughly silvered metal plate. The scale of the instrument is :— 1 mm. mercury = about 0°04 mm. deflection. 11°C. = ,, 0:02 mm. deflection. The instrument with its case of polished aluminium, open at both ends, weighs only 55 gms. III. (6)—Testing of Instruments. Kite Instruments —The barometer of the Richard, Marvin, and Hergesell-Bosch kite instruments is tested under the receiver of an air- pump, by exhausting in steps. The pressure at each step is indicated by a mercury manometer. The barometer error due to temperature change is inappreciable at the heights reached by kites for the majority of the instruments. In those for which this is not the case, either a correction is applied as subsequently described for ballons-sondes instru- ments, or the aneroid or tube is replaced. In the case of the Dines instru- ment, however, the effect of temperature changes on the partially exhausted aneroids is considerable, owing to the contraction of the enclosed air and the comparatively thin German-silver walls of the box. The temperature correction is determined by placing the instrument in an alcohol bath, which may be cooled by carbonic-acid snow, and exhausting in steps at various temperatures. The method is rendered clear by the following table :— Temperature | Height Indicated Corrected Height Correction HOF Metres Metres Metres 51 0 0 0 610 610 0 1220 1235 15 1830 1845 15 2440 2470 30 3050 3080 30 0 — 490 0 490 0 490 490 610 1110 500 1220 1720 500 1830 2350 520 2440 2960 520 3050 3580 530 10 — 820 0 820 i 0 820 820 610 1450 840 1220 2060 840 1830 2680 850 | 2440 3290 850 3050 3900 850 —20 —1170 0 1170 0 1170 1170 610 1780 1170 1220 2410 1190 1830 3020 1190 2440 3640 1200 3050 4250 ; 1200 | a i PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 85 The correction is thus :— Ah=0:01h + 32-4(T, —T,). Ah=correction in metres. h=height indicated. T,=temperature at ground level in °C. T, =temperature at height h+0-01h. The thermometers are tested by immersing them in a bath of alcohol cooled by carbonic-acid snow, the temperature being indicated by a standard pentane thermometer. The hair hygrometers are compared on the Continent with the aspiration psychrometer, and in England with the ordinary wet and dry bulb, the humidity being varied by means of sulphuric acid of different degrees of concentration or by other like means. 100 per cent. is obtained by wetting the walls of the enclosure. The Robinson and Assmann anemometers are compared with the indications of a standard instrument, the two being exposed together, or are placed in an artificial air-current of known velocity produced by a Scirocco fan. The Dines’ anemometer is calibrated by hanging various weights on the thread of the instrument, each weight corresponding to the pressure of a definite wind-velocity on the spherical balls, prede- termined by Mr. Dines. For example :— Test of Dines’ Anemometer. Weight Deflection | wind Velocity ae gm. grs. | 8 123 | 14 / £5 10 154 LF 70 20 308 22 112 30 463 27 13:9 50 772 37 18:2 70 1080 47 215 80 1235 52 23°1 90 1389 57 247 Ballons-sondes Instruments.—The second meeting of the International Committee at Strassburg (April 1898) recommended that the ballons- sondes instruments should be tested as nearly as possible under the same conditions as those encountered during the ascent, and, if possible, to temperatures and pressures lower than those actually experienced. In the method of testing adopted by Teisserenc de Bort, the whole instrument was placed under the receiver of an air-pump and the pressure was lowered in stages down to about 50 mm. of mercury. The indications of the instrument at various pressures and atmospheric temperatures were thus obtained. To test the thermometer the Bourdon tube, or compound strip, was immersed in a bath of alcohol, the rest of the instrument being above the level of the liquid. The alcohol was then cooled by means of carbonic- acid snow to various temperatures down to —75° C. Teisserenc de Bort found that the Bourdon tube alcohol thermometers were satisfactory. The aneroid barometers were less accurate, the elasticity of the boxes _ being imperfect and giving rise to a considerable lag and to changes of zero after being subjected to low pressures.' The effect of temperature 1 Compt. rend., July 11, 1898. 86 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. on the indications of the aneroids was not examined, and it was assumed that errors due to this cause would be negligible in comparison with the general accuracy of the observations. With this method of testing, Teisserenc de Bort found that his maximum barometric heights in ascents from 1899-1903 agreed on the average with trigonometrical observations to nearly +1 per cent. up to heights of 10 kms., and at 4 kms. the difference was negligible! The error was not wholly due to the temperature coefficient of the barometer, but partly also to the lag of the instrument. Later observations indicated an average error of + 2 per cent. at the maximum height and a very considerable lag at the lower altitudes.” After the work of Hergesell and Kleinschmidt on the temperature coefficients of the barometers*® Teisserenc de Bort began to test this effect, but instead of applying corrections for the temperature he replaced all tubes having too large a coefficient by new ones whose temperature coefficient was negligible. During the past two years, in accordance with the suggestions of Hergesell, certain of the barometers have been tested at various tem- peratures down to —50°C., and it has been found that the majority of the barometric heights above 13 to 14 km. are too low by at least 0°5 km. At 20 km. the correction is often 2 km. and even more. Many attempts have been made to eliminate this effect of temperature, but they have not been altogether successful. When the temperature correction is applied it is specially noted in publication. It may be pointed out that the application of the temperature correction to the Teisserenc de Bort barometer is not easy, as the Bourdon tube is enclosed in a cork case and its temperature in an ascent is not accurately known. The thermometers are compared every two or three months with a standard thermometer in an alcohol or petrol bath cooled to —70° C. with carbonic-acid snow, the alcohol being continually agitated. The methods of testing the instruments employed in the ascents from St. Louis, U.S.A., in 1904-07 were similar to those of Teisserenc de Bort. The barometer was tested under the receiver of an air-pump, and the thermometer by means of a mixture of alcohol and carbonic-acid snow down to a temperature of —83°C. No correction was applied for the temperature coefficient of the barometer. A similar method of testing is adopted at the Observatoire Constantin, Russia. In Germany the usual method of testing is different, and correction is made for the temperature coefficient of the barometer. At the Lindenberg Observatory the barometer is tested by placing it under the receiver of an air-pump and exhausting to various pressures. The air-pump receiver, which is of metal, has triple cavity walls through which carbonic-acid gas is allowed to circulate. The temperature is thus reduced to various values and the temperature correction of the barometer determined for different pressures. The air inside the receiver is kept in vigorous circulation by an electrically driven fan, and the temperature is indicated by a standard thermometer viewed through a double-glass window designed to be free from condensation of moisture on its faces. The thermometer of the instrument is calibrated at the same time. The exhaustion is carried down to about 50 mm. and the temperature to 1 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1903, p. 561. 2 Compt. rend., 141, pp. 153-155, July 10, 1905. 3 Bettrdge z. Physik der Freien Atmosphdare, 1, 1905, pp. 108, 208. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 87 —60° C. The hygrometer is compared with an aspiration psychrometer in an enclosed space. This method of testing necessitates somewhat elaborate apparatus, and in the German ascents, other than those made at the Lindenberg Observatory, the method employed is similar to that of Teisserenc de Bort.: The temperature coefficient of the barometer is determined by immersing the instrument (the clock having been removed) in the alcohol bath, and reducing the temperature. In some cases, instead of alcohol, acetone or petrol is employed. Any Bourdon tube or aneroid which has too large a temperature coefficient is replaced by a new one. The temperature correction of the barometer is applied in the form proposed by Hergesell and Kleinschmidt,” viz. :-— Ap=-—AT(A—ayp), where A p is the pressure correction to be found, A T the fall of temperature, A, a constant varying with different instruments, a, a constant for a given type of instrument, p, the pressure uncorrected. The constant a, according to Hergesell and Kleinschmidt, is 0°00046 for the Bosch-Bourdon tube and 6*°00064 for that of Richard. For a typical Bosch-Hergesell instrument the correction was given by the equation :— Sp = — AT (048 — 0:00046 p). In Germany, Kleinschmidt also tests the hygrometers at different tem- peratures. He found * that the length of the hairs was independent of the pressure and almost independent of the velocity of the ventilating air-current. The hygrometer was affected little by variations of tem- perature between +20°C. and +5°C., but became very sluggish below —10°C. It recorded slow variations fairly well at —30° C., but was not even qualitatively suitable at — 40° C. Test of Dines’ Ballon-sonde Barograph. Temperature Deflection | Pressure Deflection °C”. mm. | mm. mm 15 +0°30 760 0°60 | 600 3°35 300 10 78 50 15°85 0 0:00 760 0:0 600 2°76 300 10:00 50 15°28 — 30 — 0°60 760 —1-20 600 +1:58 300 8°72 | 50 14 75 —60 —1:20 760 — 2°30 600 +0°38 300 7:58 50 14:24 t ’ At Munich, Schmauss places the instrument in an air chamber surrounded by an alcohol bath. The air is thoroughly mixed by means of two fans. 2 Beitrage z. Physik der Freien Atmosphdare, 1, 1905, pp. 108-119, 208-210, 3 Thid, 2; 1906-07, p. 99. 88 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. He standardises the instruments (1) at normal pressure in moist and dry atmosphere ; (2) at reduced pressure and temperature in moist and dry atmosphere. In testing the Dines instrument the whole instrument is placed in an alcohol bath under the glass receiver of an air-pump. In this way the temperature correction of the barometer is found, at the same time as the thermometer is tested, by cooling the bath to various tempera- tures with carbonic-acid snow and exhausting the receiver in steps down to about 50 mm. at each temperature. Allowance is made for the pressure due to the depth of submersion of the aneroid in the alcohol. The alcohol is kept in circulation by the vigorous boiling off of the carbonic acid. (This is sufficient at times to make the liquid boil over the sides of the reservoir.) The temperature correction is more complicated than that of other instruments owing to the aneroid being only partially exhausted. It cannot be represented by a simple mathematical formula. A separate calibration curve is therefore drawn for each temperature, and the corrected pressures are read off from the curves. The temperature scales of all the different types of instruments are found to be linear, and the temperatures are calculated by means of a coefficient. The hygrometer scale is not quite uniform, and a correction is applied to the humidity indicated. Accuracy of Results.—The possible errors which may arise in observa- tions by means of kites have been practically eliminated by the con- struction of instruments almost completely unaffected by the shocks which occur during an ordinary ascent. No appreciable error can arise from solar radiation, because the wind which is necessary to raise the kite provides sufficient ventila- tion. The lag of the Marvin instrument is 1° F. when the temperature changes at the rate of 1°°5 F. per minute, corresponding to the ordinary rise or fall of the kite at the rate of 500 feet perminute.' The lag of other instruments is less. The effects of solar radiation in manned and captive balloon observa- tions on the Continent have been minimised by the use of aspirated instruments, while in England such ascents are made either near sunset or before sunrise, except when the sky is completely overcast. The chief errors in the observations arise in the ballons-sondes results. At the extreme heights reached by free balloons solar radiation is very intense, and may raise the temperature of an unventilated thermo- meter as much as 50° C. above that of the air.” This effect has been largely eliminated by the use of rubber balloons and instruments enclosed in highly polished ventilation tubes, and in many of the Assmann instruments by the additional precaution of as- piration by means of an electrically driven fan giving a current of 4 to 5 m.p.s. The lag of the instrument has been diminished by the use of Bourdon tube barometers, the bimetallic thermometers of Teisserenc i and Dines, the tube thermometer of Hergesell, and ventilation tubes. The ventilation produced by the ascent of the balloon is now generally 1 Frank. Instit. Journ., 148, pp. 241-259, October 1899. ? Assmann, Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Sits. Ber, 24, pp. 495-504, and Inter- national Ascents Pavlovsk, November 8, 1906. | PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 89 accepted by observers as sufiicient. Experiments have been made in which the barometer, by completing an electric circuit at a given low pressure, set into motion a ventilating fan, producing a current of 3-4 m.p.s. No discontinuity in the temperature trace was produced, showing that the effect of radiation in the isothermal zone was negligible under the conditions of the ascent.' It is also found that instruments of different types sent up together give results which are in good agree- ment. Thus in comparisons of the bimetallic thermometer of Teisserenc de Bort with the tube thermometer of Hergesell, the maximum difference between the temperatures indicated was 7°°3C., and the average difference was about 2° C. Comparisons of the Hergesell-Bosch with the Assmann instrument gave a maximum difference of temperature of 4°71 C. and a mean difference of 1°°7 C. The maximum difference between the temperatures indicated by two sa instruments sent up from Manchester was only 4° C. and the average only 1°C. Tables typical of the comparisons of various instruments are given. Comparison of Hergesell and Teisserenc de Bort Thermographs.* Temperature Temperature Height , _|| Height Hergesell L. T. de Bort Hergesell L, T. de Bort Km. Km. 1 + 1:2 + 1:2 C — 33:0 — 33-4 2 — 25 — 27 8 —39°8 —40°2 3 — 49 — 49 9 —47°5 — 48-0 4 —115 —11'8 10 —54:5 —55°5 5 —18°5 —19:0 11 » = 59-4 —612 6 —26°3 -—27-1 12 — 60-9 — 62:9 Comparison of Hergesell and Assmann Thermographs. Temperature Temperature ee ee erony - Hergesell Assmann Hergesell § Assmann Km. Km. 1 99 7-0 10 — 53:3 —52°8 2 38 - 0:0 11 —51:3 — 52:1 3 — 2-4 — 66 12 —50°8 —52°0 4 — 9:2 —12°8 136" | —50°6 | —52°5 5 —16°8 —19°9 14 —514 | —51°9 6 —25°7 —29°8 15 —54:7 | —517 ul —35:0 —38°6 16 —53°3 —517 8 —44:5 — 48:2 17 —52°4 —518 9 —54:5 —53°9 {| 1 Ergeb. der Arbeit. am Aér. Obs. Lindenberg, 1907, p. xiii. 2 Tbid., 1906, p. 103. 3 Lbid., 1905, p. 99. 90 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Comparison of two Dines’ Thermographs.' Temperature | Temperature Height = ——|| Height No. 90 | No. 94 No. 90 No. 94 Km. | Km. 1 —1 — 38 eel ice | —56 —54 2 —7 | -—9 (arnt os —56 —54 3 -13 —15 | 1d —55 —54 4 —19 —22 Lp ied —55 —54 5 — 24 / —26 | 16 —5b5 —56 | 6 — 30 —32 lol ee —55 — 56 | 7 —34 -- 37 18 —56 —57 8 — 40 | — 43 he eis —57 —57 9 _ —46 | — 50 i 20 —58 —59 10 -- 52 — 54 ee ee a —59 —60 11 —56 — 54 | 22 | — 60 — 60 A. de Quervain in 1906 estimated from the results of his own and Hergesell’s experiments the probable maximum and mean errors of the various thermometers: due to lag.? His results may be tabulated as follows :— | Maximum error for fall | Probable mean error Assmann Copper-Invar Bosch New Bimetallic : : Kusnetzow (ring-shape bimetallic) . Instrument of 4° C. per min. with | under ordinary work- ordinary ventilation ing conditions Hergesell-Bosch Tube : ; 0:95° C 00°C Teisserenc De Bort New Bimetallic. 10 05 x 4 Old 5) 2°5 0-7 Bourdon Tube . ; : 2°5 _ 3°8 14 2°4 2°2 In continuation of the work of Hergesell and Maurer he examined (1) the small Bourdon tube thermograph of Teisserenc de Bort : German- silver tube slightly curved and filled with alcohol; (2) the bimetallic lamellar thermograph of Teisserenc de Bort: strips of brass and steel soldered together and bent into a circle; (3) the tube thermograph of Hergesell : German-silver tubes on supports of nickel-steel ; (4) the bi- metallic thermograph of Assmann: copper and nickel-steel; (5) the Kusnetzow bimetallic thermograph : brass and nickel-steel bent into an S curve. The first three had often been used simultaneously. He concluded that (1) and (2) were in good agreement, (3) generally marked 0°6 C. less than (2), and indicated lower amplitudes at sudden changes, though on the whole more sensitive than (2). He concluded that the mean error for the pressure records was +2 mm. and for the temperatures +2°C., so that the temperature gradients for 1000 m. intervals are reliable to a few tenths of a degree C. A slight error is introduced into the bimetallic thermometer calibrations through change of zero by straining of the soldered joint. The Hergesell- ' Weekly Weather Report, February 28-March 6, 1909, p. 76. * Beitr. z. Physik der Fr. Atmos. i. p. 163, 1906; Zeitschr. SF. Instrumentenk., 27, pp. 127, 128; April, 1907. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 91 Bosch tube thermometer is free from this defect, but has other faults, pointed out by Schmidt and Gold, which prevent the possibility of its giving quite accurate results.' The possible calibration errors of the Dines instrument are somewhat larger, as the scale is microscopic, the calibration curves of the barograph are not linear, and the temperature correction is not a simple function. The average error found from independent calibrations is 0°1 C. for Continental instruments and 0°°8 C. for the Dines instrument at the lowest temperatures. For higher temperatures the possible error is of the same order of magnitude. The principal error in the temperature traces probably arises purely from faults of construction in the instrument, such as in- sufficient rigidity and sticking of the pens. The best way of eliminating these defects is probably to increase the rigidity by simplifying the con- struction and diminishing as far as possible the number of levers, joints, and bearings, so that the working parts operate as directly as possible on the recording pens. The heights indicated by the barometers have many times been com- pared with the heights calculated from trigonometrical observations, and the maximum heights have been found correct to +2 per cent. up to 10km.? The intermediate heights show greater errors with some instruments, owing to lag. An example given by Teisserenc de Bort showed large differences *, e.g. :— 7 ‘ | Ascent. | Height Difference kms. between Barometric Wee | and Trigonometric Heights | pone | Km. Km, Km. : —0°6 | 8 0-4 —(°4 Max. height 0.1 01 | This instrument was specially chosen to show the effect. The average error in pressure of the Continental instruments amounts to 5 mm. of mercury and that of the Dines instrument to8mm. The errors to which these give rise in the final results are as follows :— Heights, km. 5 10 15 20 | Difference corresponding to : Km. Km. Km. Km. | 5 mms. 01 0-2 0-4 0°6 0-2 03 05 1:0 8 mms. | | The errors introduced in working up the traces are very small in Continental instruments owing to their large scale, and for the Dines instrument are of the same order as those occurring in the calibration. The principal error in the final results arises from the uncertainty of the temperature correction of the barometer. Teisserenc de Bort estimates the correction due to this cause to be 0:5 km. at 14 km., and 2 km. or even more at 20km. Hergesell, however, claims to have shown that 1 Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., 1909, Met. Zeit., 1909. 2 L. T. de Bort, and Etude de lV Atmosphére, Observatoire Constantin, Fascicule ii. p. 76. ® Compt. rend., July 10, 1905, p. 153. 92, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the correction is considerably larger, amounting for some instruments to as much as 5 or 6 km. at 25 km.' The indications of the thermometers are open to no such objections, and from the inter-comparison of different types of instruments it may be stated that the temperature 1s known to within +1° C. The indications of the hair hygrometer are considerably less accurate, as was shown by Kleinschmidt.” The instrument is quite unsatisfactory for work at high altitudes, and is unreliable at heights where the tem-— perature is below —5° C., 2.e., at heights greater than about 5 kms. IV.—(a) Mean Temperatures and Gradients of Temperature. The most important meteorological element of which observations can be made in the free atmosphere is temperature. Observations of pressure furnish practically the only means of estimating heights, and they cannot therefore be used to determine directly the distribution of pressure. The latter can only be determined indirectly by calculation from the observations of temperature and the pressure at the surface. Thus, while dynamical meteorology must necessarily be based on a knowledge of the pressure and density distributions, it rests ultimately on the distri- bution of temperature, and in a lesser degree on that of humidity, in the free atmosphere. The calculations are obviously laborious even when sufficient observations are obtained ; the difficulty and expense of obtain- ing the observations make the task appear almost hopeless. Thus no really serious attempt has been made to calculate from observational data the actual synchronous distribution of pressure in the upper atmosphere at 5-10 km. altitude at times when the surface distribution 1s meteorologically most interesting. Our knowledge is confined practically to mean values. In order to avoid as far as possible negative quantities and to facilitate calculation and comparison, temperatures have been usually expressed in degrees C. above the absolute zero—273° C. on the ordinary scale. Atmospheric temperatures in temperate latitudes lie almost invariably between 200° and 300° on this scale, and the initial 2 may be generally omitted without risk of confusion. The letter A is used in connection with this scale; thus (2)73° Ais 0°C. Further, the vertical gradient of temperature is expressed in degrees C. per kilometre and is reckoned positive when temperature diminishes with increasing height. The most complete contribution hitherto made to the discussion of upper air observations is that of Von Bezold, Assmann, Berson, and Siiring * who dealt with the observations obtained from manned balloons. The following table gives the values they found for the gradient of temperature for each kilometre up to 9 km. :— Height . F ; 3 © SOS) 6 1=9 223) 4324 426) (5=6' 1 6-So THe sas km Gradient , F 5 ~ BON. SiO 2 16°4. . 6:3: — 642.169)... GB 7-2 Number of Cases . : SIMOOM Oar, AD cea. LO heed 5 2 Probable Hrrorin Gradient .ae—— 9 — Ie Oe) Oe In the surface layer the gradient is affected by inversions, 7.e., exceptional cases where the temperature increases with the height. Such cases occur most frequently in winter, and as the number of winter ascents in the ) Ergeb, der Arb. am Aér. Obs. Lindenberg, 1906, p. iii. 2 Beitr. z. Physik der F'r. Atmos., Bd. ii., Heft i. p. 99, 1906-1907. 8 Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten, Braunschweig 1899, 2 vols. a te lia sat PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 93 series was considerably less than that for other seasons, the actual mean annual gradient in the lower layer is less than that deduced from these results. The values of the gradient for the first two layers when cases of inversion are excluded are 6°4, 5:4, respectively. The following values have been deduced from the later manned balloon observations, 1901-07 :— Height . , . . O-L 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 km. Gradient . 3 , ool bl ors) oe, OO. Tp) Ore ot Ore Number of Cases . PDO. BO) 446" 40. 934" ©2210) 83 1 1 Probable Errorin Gradient— — 02 02 02°02 04 06 — — The feature to which Berson drew particular attention was the com- parative constancy of the gradient up to a height of 4 km. and the very considerable increase in its value in the next layer. The more recent observations do not show the peculiarity so markedly and indicate a lower level for the discontinuity. Berson attributed the change to the fact that the upper limit of the lower clouds is nearly at 4 km. altitude, and near this height inversions are more frequent than in the layer above and below it. From actual observations in the clouds themselves he deduced that the gradient there agreed remarkably well with the theoretical gradient for saturated air rising adiabatically, which we may call g,. Just beneath the upper limit of the cloud an increase in the gradient was usually observed, and just above the upper limit the gradient vanished and the air imme- diately above the cloud was generally found to be warmer than that beneath its upper surface. It may be noted that the value of g, between 5 and 7 km. is approximately 7° C. per km., agreeing closely with the value found for this region. The mean values for the gradient for each 500 m. up to 3,000 m., deduced from the monthly mean temperatures found from ‘the kite and kite-balloon ascents made at Berlin and Lindenberg, 1903-07,! are as follows :— Height . 3 . 0-05 0°5-1°0 1:0-1°5 1°5-2°0 2°0-2°5 2°5-3°0 Gradient . . ey oro 4°6 4-4 48 4:0 5-0 These values differ considerably from the corresponding values for the manned balloon ascents. This may be due to the fact that the kite ascents are distributed throughout the year, and are made under a greater variety of weather conditions. The large surface value is to be attributed partly to the fact that most of the ascents are made between 8 and 10 a.m., and the temperature gradient to 500 m. at that time is above the mean temperature gradient for the day. . Gold? showed that the gradient up to 2 km. depended very considerably on the wind direction as well as on the time of the year. He found that inversions were most frequent in winter and with easterly winds ; that they occur very rarely indeed with N.W. winds, and then in summer, a season when they are not found with winds from other directions. Field * made kite ascents in India and over the Arabian Sea during the S.W. monsoon, and found a very rapid decrease of temperature up to 300-400 m. At greater heights up to 3,000 m. the gradient was very close to that for saturated air rising adiabatically, 2.e., about 5° C. per km. Hann ‘ deduced from mountain observations that the mean tempera- ture gradient up to 3 km. is 5°7 to 5°8 per km. The earlier balloon 1 Ergebnisse Aeronautischen Observatoriums, Berlin and Lindenberg. 2 Barometric Gradient and Wind Force, M.O., No. 190. * Indian Met. Memoirs, vol. xx. part 7. 4 Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, p. 104. 94 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ascents give for the mean value 5:1, the later 4:8, while the kite ascents © give 4:7. It is therefore to be expected that the mean temperature of the air in contact with a mountain 3,000 m. high will be 2° to 3° C. below that at the same height in the free atmosphere. The elevated parts of the earth’s surface exercise a cooling influence on the upper air, 7.e., the moun- tains are not cool because the upper air is cooled by adiabatic convection, but they are cool because of radiation to space. It follows from this that convection does actually raise the temperature of the atmosphere up to 3 km. altitude above what it otherwise would be, a fact poimted out from theoretical considerations by Gold.' The results of direct comparison of simultaneous observations are in agreement. Berson? found from a comparison of the temperature observed in balloons with that observed on the Brocken (1,140 m.) that the mountain was 0°'9 C. colder than the free atmosphere. Shaw and Dines* found from twenty-eight kite ascents made in July, August, 1902, that the temperature on Ben Nevis (1,343 m.) was in all cases lower than that in the free atmosphere at the same height over the sea to the west of the mountain, the mean difference being 2°°6 C. Additional evidence in support of their result was furnished by the fact that the height at which the kite reached the clouds was invariably greater than the height at which the clouds were observed over the neighbouring hills. They suggested that the difference might be due to the westerly stream of air rising to cross the mountains and producing an approximately adiabatic gradient of temperature. Schmauss ‘ has recently considered the simultaneous values observed on Zugspitze (2,965 m.) and recorded at the same height in balloon ascents from Munich, 90 km. distant. He found a mean difference of 1°6 C. between the synchronous temperatures, and 1°1 C. between the tem- perature recorded in the free atmosphere and the mean temperature of the day at Zugspitze. In both cases the free atmosphere had the higher temperature. Schmauss deduced also from a comparison of the tem- peratures on Zugspitze and Sonnblick that the latter was 0°-6 C. colder than the former at the same height, and consequently a mountain in the middle of a mountainous district is colder than one on the edge of such a district. This may be taken as further evidence that the atmosphere is cooled by the mountain. In dealing with the registering-balloon results, the mean temperatures at each kilometre for each month of the year have been formed for ten stations: Berlin, England (Pyrton Hill, Ditcham Park, and Manchester), Koutchino by Moscow, Munich, Paris, Pavlovsk (near St. Petersburg), Strassburg, Uccle, Vienna, Zurich. From these means the mean yearly temperature at each height has been calculated for individual stations, and the mean monthly temperature at each height for the stations taken collectively. The following table gives the mean gradient of temperature determined from the general mean values :— Height . ~ 7021 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 Gradient . =9a'0 4:3 52 58 63 68 72 74 Height . . 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 Gradient . se 50 3:3 O7 -08 00 -01 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 1xxxii., 1909, pp. 47, 67. 2 Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten. 3 Phil. Trans. A., vol. ccii. * Registrierballonfahrten, Miinchen, 1908. : i t _ 4 | ——ea PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 95 The values agree on the whole with those obtained from kites and manned balloons, but they do not show the constancy of the gradient in the region 1-4 km. The maximum value occurs in the layer 7-8 km. and indicates that in that region the effect of radiation is to leave practically unchanged the natural gradient in air in adiabatic vertical motion. This result is in- teresting in connection with Gold’s! deduction that in the upper layers the absorption, being in excess of the radiation, tended to diminish the gradient by raising the temperature, while in the lower layers radiation, being in excess of absorption, tended to diminish the gradient by cooling. There must therefore be an intermediate height at which radiation and absorption exactly balance, and the results indicate that this is between 7 and 8 km. in temperate latitudes. The values of the temperature at different heights deduced from the two series of manned-balloon ascents and by C. Abbe ? from Teisserenc de Bort’s registering-balloon ascents are given in the table :— | Height oft[ a} e)4] 5] 6] 7] 2 | ® |rom| . cae pe oes i First Series . | 83°4_ 734 73-4| 68:0| 62-7| 563| 49-4| 42-8) 35-6 266) — Second Series | 816 773) 72-2) 67-1| 61°3| 55-1, 48:2 40-7) 34:5 B08) 29-5 Abbe . ./ 82 78 | 73 | 69 | 64 | 57 | 52 | 44 | 85 | 31 | 22 The results agree sufficiently to prove that they represent with fair accuracy the temperature of the air. The following table gives the results for the ten stations, already enumerated, deduced from the registering-balloon ascents for 1904-08, or shorter periods where results for the full five years were not available. Stations from which the observations were obtained to the end of 1908 are marked with anasterisk.? Observations for England 4 from November 1907 up to May 1909 are included :— | | Station |Munich* pba Paris | Uccle* |Vienna*) er ne Zurich ee Mean Approxi- 100 . (40 | | mate 516 m./140 m. 4 |179 m.| 100m. | 190m. | 30m. | 140m. | 480m./:170 120m. Height (i50 | | Surface | 79:2 81-0 813 80:2 80°4 753 | ~=780 82°7 83°4 79'4 | 80°0 | 1 78°6 778 78°4 77-2 768 71°9 75:3 79:0 78:3 CeL eges0! {| 2 74:1 73°9 73°7 732 72:7 66°9 71°8 753 | «74:4 72°2 | 72:8 | 3 68°6 68°5 69°0 67°38 67°5 615 6774 69°2 69°0 67°6 | 67°6 | 4 62°4 62°6 63°6 618 615 56°3 613 632 | 62:8 62°0 | 61°83 5 56°3 56°2 574 551 | 552 50°5 549 565 =| 566 55°38 | 555 | 6 49°5 49°6 50°8 48°5 47-9 43°9 | 48°3 49°2 50°2 49°0 | 48:7 | 7 42:7 42°4 43:7 4173 40°4 36°5 40°6 41°6 43°3 421 | 415 | 8 35°4 35°0 36°2 33°9 | 324 29°4 32°6 33°38 | 37:2) | 347 | 341 9 29'0 2871 29°2 26°8 25°7 23°3 2571 26°9 30°83 28°0 | 27:3 10 23:9 22:8 23°8 20°9 21°4 20°9 19:0 22-4 254 22°7 | 22:3 ll 19°8 | 18:2 199 + 175 | 180 21°0 17°3 16°9 21-2 197 | 19°0 12 17°4 71 202. | Tee |) 1ST 205 | 181 16-0 21:2 17°5 | 18:3 | 13 175 17-4 19°4 49 | «(2h 234 | 20°7 17°6 201 18°5 | 19°1 | 14 178 177 20°4 16°3 20°5 222 | 20°65 18°U 18°5 18-9 | 19-1 | 15 19°3 17:8 198 | 16:2 20°8 225 | 204 18°5 19°3 17-1 | 19-2 | The temperatures at all the stations except Pavlovsk agree very closely. Paris and England have values slightly but uniformly higher » Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 1xxxii. pp. 67, 68. 2 Monthly Weather Review, September 1899. % The observations for Berlin and Zurich up to December 1907 are used. Those for Paris, Pavlovsk, and Koutchino up to September 1907. * Pyrton Hill 150m. Ditcham 170m. Manchester 40m. Glossop 340 m. 96 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. than the other stations. At Pavlovsk the temperature is continually lower than at the other places up to 10 km., after which it is higher than for the others. If the values for Pavlovsk are taken to be representative of the conditions for lat. 60° and those for Strassburg for lat. 50°, the mean difference of pressure between the two parallels at a height of 10km. will be nearly 7 mm. if any difference in humidity is neglected. If allowance is made for the diminished density of the air at this height, it follows that such a difference of pressure would correspond to a steady W. wind of about 24 m.p.s. (metres persecond).' Above 10 km. the temperature over Pavlovsk is higher than in lower latitudes, so that the difference of pre- sure would diminish with further increase in height. It would indeed diminish more rapidly than the density, so that the wind also would diminish in intensity above a height of 10 km. and the mean wind velocity would have a maximum value at about this height. It may be noted that the effect of the diminished proportion of water vapour present in higher latitudes would be to accentuate the difference of pressure in the upper air. The increase must however be small, and could not exceed 2 mm. even if the air over Pavlovsk were perfectly dry ; the actual value is probably only a fraction of a millimetre. The higher values found for Paris and in England indicate that there is a slight horizontal gradient of temperature from W. to E., and this will produce in the upper air a corresponding gradient of pressure also from W. to E. or from ocean to continent. IV. (6) Temperatures under Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Conditions. One of the most important questions which arise refers to the possible difference in the vertical gradient of temperature over cyclones and anti- cyclones. Hann ? deduced from mountain observations that the gradient was less for anticyclones than for cyclones, and the difference was so con- siderable that the mean temperature of the atmosphere up to 3°5km. was 5° C. higher over anticyclonic regions than it was over cyclonic. Gre- nander * used the observations made in the free atmosphere at Hald and Berlin and found similar results both for winter and summer. The fol- lowing table gives the mean fall of temperature between the surface and 5 km. for the different quadrants in winter and the mean values for summer taken from Grenander’s results :— | Winter | Summer Quadrant : a eee ——————_—_—_——__— | N E s W. Mean Mean = $ ° C) ° ° lie Anticyclonic 5 A 243 25-0 19°4 18:9 21:0 | 274C Cyclonic . : - 26°5 26°9 28°7 30°6 277 29:9 C The mean temperatures at different heights, calculated from Gre- nander’s results, are as follows :— ‘ The corresponding wind between lat. 40°-50° deduced by using St. Louis observations is 15 m.p.s. 2 Sits. Wiener Akad., 1891. 8 Arkiv fir Matematik, &c., 1905. a ee PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 97 Anticyclones. | Winter Summer N. E. s. W. Mean | Mean | Pea ead | act om bog |. og Surface about 60m. . | 787 T4:7 T44 76:3 76:2 | 89:5 lkm, . : : 52 || eign 70:0 711 75:2 Ta Qe ee S24 Dey. ee SIM OR TS MG 4g 68:4 72:7 702 1T3 3) eae : : : 663 604 65:3 68°8 66:2 Vipkey | ‘2 See A ‘ efor ie Ipeane. 7) 60°5 63°6 61:3 | 68:4 | i A : . | 544 49:7 55:0 574 | 55:2 | 62-1 Cyclones. Surface ; a Se ees) 175 798 78:8 77-0 88°7 1lkm.. c og Geel, 74:2 74:2 72:4 72:2 81:7 2) a 5 | FO7 68°4 68°8 66°4 67:1 75-2 3) ee p F sigller CXR. 63:2 63:1 58:9 616 69-7 Biro - : ‘ | 59-4 57:1 575 | 525 | 55-4 64-7 | bs | 53-4 50°6 511 48:2 49°3 588 | These results indicate that on the average the cyclones are colder than the anticyclones both in winter and in summer, the principal difference of temperature being found in the W. quadrant, while in the K. quadrant in winter cyclones are actually warmer than anticyclones. This is due partly to the fact that the cyclones have their lowest mean temperature in this quadrant and partly to the fact that on the whole anticyclones have their highest mean temperature in the same quadrant. The N. quadrant of the cyclone is throughout very considerably warmer than the E. quadrant of the anticyclone, indicating that the direction of the gradient between these two regions would be reversed at moderate heights. For example, if the surface pressures were 750, 760 mm., the pressures over the two regions at 5 km. would be the same, 396 mm. nearly. Berson deduced from the manned-balloon ascents the following values for the height of the 0° C. isotherm for different pressure distribu- tions :— Front of - Back of Front of Back of Anticyclone Anticyclone Anticyclone Cyclone Cyclone Height . ; 2850 2800 1580 2390 1120 m. If ‘front’ and ‘back’ be taken to be the same as E. and W. the results agree with those of Grenander for cyclones, although the difference is considerably greater. But for anticyclones the difference between “front ’ and ‘ back’ is exactly the reverse of Grenander’s results, and is much more accentuated. Grenander’s results, however, refer to the winter, and the majority of the manned-balloon ascents were made in summer. Hanzlik,' using chiefly mountain observations, has arrived at the interesting conclusion that in the layers up to 3 km. at least, anticyclones in Europe are of two kinds. Some are warmer and others colder than the normal. A warm anticyclone is either the later development of an anticyclone, ' Denkschrift, Wien, 1908. 1909. H 98 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. previously cold, which has become stationary with rising pressure in the centre, or it arrives in the European area as a warm anticyclone with slow indefinite translatory motion of the centre. The cold anticyclone, on the other hand, remains cold if it moves quickly, but if it remains stationary for some time it gradually changes into a warm anticyclone. Von Bezold deduced from the Berlin manned-balloon ascents that even up to 8 km. anticyclones were warmer than cyclones. The following table gives the values of the gradient for the different layers :— Height in kilometres (aib | eee |p 3-4 4-5 | 5-6 6-7 7-8 Anticyclonic . Bo) AD: | Sag | Oe ab Oe) Be ee ee Cyclonic eae bey | 55 | 57 | 53 | 65 | 67 | 64 | 62 Intermediate . 5-6 } B74) 89 [695] Sp eae Thus the temperature falls by 4°°2 C. less in anticyclones than in cyclones in the first 5 km., after which the difference diminishes, but is still 2°°5 C. at 8 km. The results from registering balloons have been taken for those cases in which the pressure, reduced to sea-level, exceeded 770 mm. and for those in which it was less than 750 mm. in order to obtain quite distinct distributions. The following table gives the mean gradients for different layers up to 14 km. and the mean temperatures at the various heights :— Gradients Temperatures | Height Pressure No.of | Pressure No. of Pressure | Pressure | <750 | Cases | >770 Cases <750 | >770 0 aE i) ea rae ea Ce | 760 1 39 1) ly 2045 SE.) By 2) Pies oe aagers 2 55 ES a ba)! 678 | 73-9 3 5:6 Pie ao | BY : 622 | 69 4 tee 6-4 1 ebb: CN CGR 558 63°8 eras 6-45 15 64 51 493 | 57:3 6 6-45 15 68) iano | 42:9 | 506 od 7:25 15 ey i tal | 35°6 43-5 8 635 | 16 78 Bi neh 298 35°7 9 4:3 15 74 50. | 25-0 28°3 10 Ay he PEP a 65 48 | 92°3 | 21:7 11 11 Wee em ele | 5:6 46 | 20-9 161 12 =O)(00 ei he ue TT 3-4 43 | 210 ~=«+| 12-7 | 13 =O 9 1:0 35 Jeshed heie Lda % 14 == (072 | 8 = 0:7, 29 212 12-4 If a correction is applied to the temperature owing to the irregular distribution of the ascents throughout the year and to the fact that four of the low-pressure cases are for Pavlovsk, which hasa mean surface tem- perature about 5° C. below that of the other places, the surface tempera- tures for the low and high pressures become 818 and 78:4 respectively. If we apply corrections to the gradient also, to allow for the unequal ————— PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 99 distribution and for the undue influence of Pavlovsk, we obtain, as cor- vected values for the gradients in the two cases, the following values :— Pressure | Pressure | | | | <750 >770 “ey: punto eg 9 Se ee len Eaaliy 0 | 81°8 78°4 80°1 | 80:0 5'1 06 1 16-7 DUS, it 77:0 771 65 Bia | | 2 | 70°2 74:1 [27 72:8 5'6 4°8 3 64:6 69°3 67°5 67:6 (oem (ees 4 i. | 58:2 63°5 61:7 61°8 | 6:3 6:4 oie | 51:9 571 55:4 55° | 64 67 6 45°5 50°4 48°6 48°7 70 72 7 | 38°5 43-2 41-4 41-5 6°6 76 } 8 31:9 35°6 34:0 34-1 4:5 74 9 | 27°4 28°2 27-2 27°3 3-4 | 5-9 10 | 24:0 22:3 22:2 22°3 17 | 48 11 | 22:3 17-5 19:0 19-0 o1"} 2:8 12 22:2 14:7 18:7 18°3 | —1-2 1-0 iB} 23-4 13:7 19°7 19°1 | 0°3 —0°5 14 | | 23-1 14-2 19°6 191 The column T, gives the corrected mean temperature for pressure <750, T, that for pressure> 770, T; is the approximate mean tempera- ture of the intermediate regions deduced from T,, T,, and the general mean T,, on the assumption that the influence of T,, T, in forming the general mean is approximately proportional to the number of observations. The result is interesting as showing that anticyclonic regions are not only warmer than regions of low pressure, but also warmer, up to 10 km., than the intermediate regions, which appear to be colder at 9-10 km. than regions of high or low pressure. If, in the centre of an anticyclone, 6 is the excess of pressure at any height above the normal pressure B for that height, and p is the density there, the value of the ratio b/pd may be taken as a measure of the intensity of the anticyclone, where d is the mean distance of the isobar B from the centre of the anticyclone. Now as long as the temperature near the centre of an anticyclone remains higher than that in surrounding regions, the value of b/pd increases with increasing height, and consequently the anticyclone increases in intensity. If 6,, d,, are corresponding quantities for a cyclone, b,/pd, increases with increasing height so long as the cyclone is colder than its surroundings. The values found above indicate that this is the case up to 8-10 km. Even at 14 km. the pressure over the anticyclonic region exceeds that over the cyclonic by more than 1 mm., which is as efficient in producing motion as a difference of 7 mm. at the H 2 LOO REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. surface. The difficulty that arises is to discover a means by which air can be brought into the anticyclone and out of the cyclone in the upper air, and to make these results accord with the results of cirrus observations, which imply a definite outward motion over cyclonic regions and an inward motion over anticyclonic. At the same time it must be remembered that the cirrus observations do not imply that the anticyclone becomes a cyclone at the cirrus level or conversely ; the direction of rotation is the same for the cirrus as at the surface according to Hildebrandsson’s results, and this can be the case only if the direction of the gradient of pressure remains the same. The results imply that the motion has a component across the isobars from the lower to the higher pressure. The difficulty of explaining this result was felt by earlier writers. Hann! expressed the opinion that the outward motion in cyclones was due to the centrifugal force of the motion exceeding the gradient. Although it is difficult to see how the necessary wind would be produced to bring about this state of affairs, it is at least a possible condition. If cyclones decreased in intensity with increasing height, and the air rising from the lower levels retained its angular momentum, it would indeed furnish a reasonable explanation. The case of anticyclones is more difficult because the effect of centri- fugal force is to assist the gradient of pressure in producing flow outwards. Gold? showed that in anticyclones there is a limit to the gradient and velocity for the motion to be steady and along the isobars. The approxi- mate radii of isobars at the earth’s surface differing from the pressure at the centre by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 mm., are 260, 370, 450, 520, 580 km. for this limiting case. If the gradients are less than these, there will be a steady motion with correspondingly small velocities. If the gradients are greater than these, the motion cannot under any circumstances be steady, and there will always be an outward component in the wind, because the centrifugal force due to the increased velocity will more than counter- balance the increase in the force arising from the earth’s rotation. The only possible case where there can be flow from low to high pressure for anticyclonic motion is when air enters a region where the gradients are less than the limiting gradients, with a velocity also less than that corre- sponding to the limiting gradient, but greater than that corresponding to steady motion for the actual gradient in the region. In that case the effect of the earth’s rotation would be to make the air flow inward towards the centre. It seems improbable, however, that such a state could persist for any time, because the results of observation show that the wind usually adjusts jtself to the gradient, provided it is at a sufficient height above the earth’s surface to be practically free from the effects of surface friction and irregularities. It seems more probable either (1) that anticyclones and cyclones arriving in the European area are in general dissipating systems, which are replaced continually by other systems arriving from what may be called productive regions, or (2) that there is interchange with regions in which the surface temperature or the temperature gradient is sufficiently different to produce mean temperatures greater in low-pressure areas and less in high-pressure areas than are found over Europe. . The results of observations of pilot balloons at Ditcham,* July 27-30, 1908, and at Munich,‘ during thesame period, and September 30 to October 2, ' Lelrbuch, p. 406. © 2? Barometric Gradient and Wind Force, M.O. No. 190. ® Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., 1908. 4 Registrierballonfahrten. eS a i a oe PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 101 1908, indicated that even to heights greater than 10 km. the wind had a component directed outwards from the region of high pressure, or was parallel to the general direction of the surface isobars and in the sense of the gradient wind at the surface. On January 3, 1908, on the other hand, the direction of the wind over Munich changed after 3-4 km., and the flow above this height up to 8 km. was directed inward towards the region of the surface high pressure. The English ascents indicate that the relative coldness of cyclones ceases at a lower altitude there than over the continent, and this tends to support the idea that the energy of the cyclonic motion is used up in extending the cyclone to greater heights and is gradually converted into the potential’energy of the anticyclone. Finality can be reached only by an examination of individual cases in which the observa- tions are extensive enough to furnish a good representation of the distribu- tion of pressure and wind at great heights. The results so far obtained show the need that exists for a series of ascents in the middle of the great Atlantic low-pressure system simul- taneously with ascents in Europe and America. The general drift of registering balloons is from high to low pressures, although there are excep- tions which are possibly due to the balloon entering at high altitudes a westerly current, which is caused by the general temperature and pressure distribution over the earth and may at times remain unaffected by shallow disturbances near the surface. The greater relative humidity over cyclones would tend to diminish the intensity in the upper air, but it is quite in- sufficient to bring about a reversal of the gradient between high and low pressure areas. For the surface layers Gold ' showed (1) that near the centre of cyclones the gradient of temperature up to 2 km. coincided very nearly with the adiabatic gradient for saturated air; (2) that in winter the gradient in the central region of anticyclones up to 3 km. was quite irregular, tem- or increasing and decreasing in different layers in different ascents, ut, on the whole, varying little from the surface value ; (3) that in summer the gradient in the central regions of anticyclones was regular in the first kilometre and nearly equal to the adiabatic gradient for dry air, but that above this level the fall of temperature was frequently arrested, showing that the vertical circulation was purely a surface phenomenon and was not connected in any way with a general descending current of air. This shows that the air up to a height of 3 km. in anticyclones is practically an inert mass taking little part in the general circulation. The result may be compared with the deduction arrived at by Shaw and Lempfert ” from a consideration of the air currents at the surface. They say, ‘ We have failed to identify the central areas of well marked deihoytones as regions of origin of surface air currents. . . . These latter are for the most part inert and comparatively isolated masses of air, taking little part in the circulation which goes on around them.’ ... ‘ The areas of descending air seem to be (a) the shoulders or protuberances of anticyclones, in par- ticular the regions of comparatively high pressure between two consecutive cyclonic depressions, and therefore also between two anticyclones or (0) the extension of an anticyclone between a depression and its secondary.’ If there is descending air in the upper atmosphere over an anticyclone (as indeed there must be if it maintains or increases its intensity) this air will not be considerably affected by radiation between 5 and 10 km., and the ! Barometric Gradient and Wind Force, M.O. No. 190. 2 Life History of Surface Air Currents, M.O. 174, p. 24. 102 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. temperature gradient will remain nearly adiabatic, and will therefore allow a constant flow downwards. But when the air enters the region between the surface and 5 km. it will begin to be cooled by radiation, and the cooling will increase with approach te the surface, although in the surface layers themselves convection may reverse the process. Such cooling would be an effective bar to further direct downward convection and would allow only a gradual oblique convection by which the descending air would be transferred to the earth’s surface, being cooled sufficiently by radiation in its progress to enable the convection to take place. IV. (c) The Advective and Convective Regions. Perhaps the most remarkable phenomenon revealed by the investiga- tion of the upper air with balloons carrying self-recording instruments is the comparatively sudden cessation of the fall of temperature at a height varying with the time and the latitude. Above this height, which may be regarded as the height of an irregular but roughly horizontal surface dividing the atmosphere into two regions, the temperature at any time varies very little in a vertical direction, showing on the average a slight tendency to increase. This comparative absence of regular vertical variation of temperature in the upper region led to the name ‘ isothermal layer or region ’ to distinguish it from the lower atmosphere, in which the vertical variation of temperature is about 6° C. per 1,000 m. The first indication of a considerable falling off in the gradient appears to be con- tained in a paper by M. Pomortzeff' referred to by Berson in the dis- cussion of the Berlin results. Pomortzefi tried to explain on theoretical grounds the diminution he found. ; The actual cessation of the fall of temperature was first noticed by M. L. Teisserenc de Bort * in June 1899, and again in March 1902. It was also discussed shortly afterwards by Assmann.®* Teisserenc de Bort found the average height at which the change occurred to be about 11 km. He discovered also that the height was greater near centres of high pressure than near centres of low pressure, the average heights for the two cases being 12°5 and 10 km. respectively. Later observations agree on the whole with these results. It may be asked if this is due to the slope of the isobaric surface, which would be lower over a cyclone than over an anticyclone. This is not the case. The difference of pressure over the two regions at a height of 10 km. does not amount to more than 10 mm., while the difference of pressure between 10 and 12 km. is 50 mm. This excludes the hypothesis that the air in the upper region is an inert isothermal mass consisting always of the same air, lifted up and down by the disturbances in the lower part of the atmosphere. There must be interchange of air in the upper region itself or between the two regions. The absence of vertical temperature fall implies that general direct convection in the upper region is also absent, but the occurrence of irregu- \ Wozduchoplanawiji i Izsledonaniji Atmosfery, vol. iii. 1897. The results obtained by Hermite and Besancon in March 1893 showed a tem- perature of 21° C. just below 16 km., but the balloon floated for some hours at that height, and in no sense can they be said to have anticipated Teisserenc de Bort’s discovery. C.R. cxvi. p. 767. * Séances, 1899, &c., Annuaire de la Société Météorologique, 1902. ° Ergebnisse Aéronautischen Obs., Berlin, May 1902; Berl. Ber., 1902. * But see Shaw’s deduction, infra, p. 108. ——————y—————— PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 103 larities in occasional ascents indicates that there is in places limited con- vection, and the considerable inversion of temperature frequently found at the dividing surface suggests that there may be oblique convection similar to that for anticyclones in the lower atmosphere. Any fall of temperature arising from such convection would tend to disappear owing to the effect of radiation. In general, however, interchange of air in the upper region would be mainly by advection and the two regions might be appropriately named advective and convective regions,’ expressing the characteristic difference between them. The height of the dividing surface will be denoted by H,, and the temperature at this height by T.. Although H, varies with the latitude, the observations available are insufficient to enable an accurate expression for the relation to be obtained. Teisserenc de Bort? found from simultaneous ascents at Trappes and at Kiruna on the Arctic circle that the value of H, was practically the same for the two places, but the value of T, was slightly lower for Kiruna. Towards the equator, on the other hand, the value of H, is considerably greater than for temperate latitudes. Rotch and Teisserenc de Bort failed to reach it over the Atlantic with balloons reaching 15 km. It has been reached, according to Assmann,*® by a German expedition which sent up balloons from a steamer on Lake Victoria Nyanza in 1908. Two of these reached heights of 17 and 19°8 km., and both entered an isothermal region, the temperature in which was lower than that found in temperate latitudes. The lowest temperature was — 84° C. or 189° A. The following table gives the mean values of H, and T, for certain places determined from the monthly mean values. The thirteen stations are those enumerated above and Guadaljara, Milan and Pavia, and Hamburg :— = Mean of (ot © E : : | 13Stations onion England st Paris | noes | as Milan | Vienna | Berlin | | H. 106 | 109 | 108 | 108 | 104 |. 96 | 106 | 107 | 102 | 107 | ies). |, 16° 16> .|. 18° | 15° «| 18° |. ag0 | wae | aze | 45° | qe° | No.of Cases} 336 53 32 67 57 28 | 18 25 | a4 | 32 Latitude .| — 4g? | 52° | 49° | 49° | Goo | see | 45° | 48° | 52° There is very little variation for places in Europe between lat. 45-55°: the more Continental stations give a slightly lower value for T, than the others. For Pavlovsk the value of H, is 1 km. below the average for the other stations and the value of T, is 2° above the average value. The results indicate that there must be a comparatively rapid increase in H, in crossing the limit of the trade-wind region, and it appears probable that the equatorial currents and the trade winds form a closed system without very much interchange of air with higher latitudes. Schmauss‘ has pointed out that the value of H, is greater in summer than in winter.> The following table shows the annual variation in H,, T, ' The upper region has been usually described as ‘ the isothermal layer.’ Recently T. de Bort has introduced the terms ‘stratosphere,’ ‘troposphere,’ to denote the upper and lower regions. 2 Compt. rend., 145, 1907; Met. Zeit., 1907. 8 Quart. Journ. Royal Met. Soc., 1909. + Registrierballonfahrten, Miinchen, 1908. > Rotch states that in America the conditions are reversed, and the minimum value of H. occurs in the summer. This is probably due to the inclusion of the large values he found in October in the winter series. Met. Zeit., January 1909. 104 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. deduced from the results for the thirteen stations and for Strassburg and Munich separately :-— Annual Variation in H.. aa | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec Mean of 13 Stations | 103 -10°4 91 101 | 105 | 10°77 | 10°99 | 11°4| 10-4] 11:9) 10°8 | 10-1 Number of Cases .| 26 | 22 32 a9! "| “81 27 24 61 46 38 25 25 Munich . = -| 10°0 | 10°4 OF | Bed) LD | ar) | DEAF 120! 1053) Less 118 | 114 Number of Cases . 4 | 3 6 4 | 2 4 3 11 5 een ae 5 Strassburg . .| 10° | 10°6 94 94 / 106 | 10:9 | 10:8) 12:3) 10:9] 11°9 |} 11:0] 111 Number of Cases . 5 | 5 BW le & 5 4 9 | 8 6 | 6 5 | Annual Variation in T.. den eed SL ——— — 4 eS ae | ——- Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April| May June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Noy. | Dec. | Mean of 13Stations| 13 | 11 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 20 | 20 | 18 | 92 | 14 | 45 14 Munich . 5 | 14 10°") 46 19 25 20 15 16 26 9 10 13 Strassburg . Salt eh 10 | 16 20 17 17 21 15 | 23 13 12 10 | The values of H, are plotted in Fig. 1. The observations are made at the beginning of each month, and the results may be taken to correspond nearly to the 4th of each month. The observations made at the end of July are counted in August, so that the values for August correspond nearly to the last day in July. The most remarkable feature is the depression in the value of H, i March and September. The fact that H, is greatest in October and T, is greatest in September effectually refutes the hypothesis that the cessation in the fall of tem- perature is due to any effect either of solar or of terrestrial radiation on the instruments. The value of T, is certainly slightly greater during the summer months, but the difference between the mean value for summer and winter is only 6° C. This difference is less than the difference in the mean temperature of the atmosphere up to 10 km. for the corresponding period, and it may well be a real increase in the temperature of the advective region owing to increased radiation from below. It has been suggested that the cause of the sudden change in the temperature gradient, which would naturally be expected to diminish gradually, is the formation of a veil of Ci. or Ci. S. If this were the case the annual variation in the height of these clouds ought to show the same peculiarities as the annual variation in H,. The annual variation in the height of Ci., Ci. S., Ci. Cu. is given in Fig. 1. The observations used are those for the international year 1896-97. The curves do not show the very marked minima in March and September which occur in the H, diagram, but there are indications of a peculiarity of this kind, more pronounced in the Ci. 8. and Ci. Cu. curves than in that for Ci. proper. The annual range is about the same as for H,, 2°5 km. nearly. The actual values of the heights are, however, much less than those of H,. Thus, while the results point to some common cause for the variation in H, and in the height of the clouds, they indicate that the formation of clouds is not a usual cause of the sudden fall and change of sign in the temperature gradient. One of the most remarkable features is the large variation sometimes found in T, and H, from one day to the next. This has been most marked in England, and the general agreement in results from different stations E OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 105 PRESENT STAT: oO LJ a = ae 6 iz of Gr ie 5 Sa. val re La” Ons 238 ae q : ~ z om: 408 {Z= Se ee iil Z| we irs ae PARE De : : SS * SP aot 6.6 lan ts. EAN OF STATIONS. 106 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. proves that it cannot be attributed to instrumental errors. For example, on April 1, 2, 3, 1908, the values of H,, T. v ere H Te Aprill . : : : : 10°5 15° Manchester oe ae : , : : 12 by Pyrton Hill eRES Aca 4 , : 3 7 24° Manchester The result is not surprising, since the English stations are subject to more frequent and rapid changes in the pressure distribution than the Continental stations. But it is nevertheless difficult to see how changes in the convective region can affect T, and the mean temperature found in the advective region.! The fact that the lowest temperatures occur over the equatorial region suggests that the general nature of the process may be as follows: The cool air in the upper equatorial regions moves Polewards, and in the natural course descends again to feed the trade winds. Owing to the irregularities of the earth’s surface, the change of seasons and the very considerable difference between the North and South Hemispheres, the regular process will be disturbed and even in general will not be sym- metrical. This will result in encroachments of the equatorial cold air on the advective region of temperate latitudes, and such encroachments will produce anticyclonic regions. The advective atmosphere would be reached there at a higher level and initially at a lower temperature than in the normal or average state ; but the temperature would be gradually raised by absorption of thermal radiation to the normal value for that latitude. The fact that H, has minimum values in March and September when equatorial temperatures are highest appears at first to be contrary to the idea. But the first effect of the increased equatorial temperature will be to increase the strength of the trade winds,’ and as at the same time there is in progress a transference of air across the equator to the Southern hemisphere, a transference which can be made only through the upper return current, there will be a deficiency of descending air and the equa- torial cold air will encroach less than usual on the Northern advective region. Naturally, if the earth were symmetrical, it would be expected that the process in September would be the reverse of this. But the autumnal transference of air to the Northern Hemisphere will be initially much more intense towards the great Asiatic continental region and, in a less degree, to North America, than to the Atlantic and European area, and the result may well be that the equatorial current again encroaches less than usual on that region. If such is the case it may be expected that the value of H, over the Asiatic area will not show the September minimum, and that if it occurs over America it will at least be less marked than over Europe. The high value of H, in October indicates that in that month the encroachment has become more general. The results of observations made with pilot balloons to heights greater than H, point to a decrease in wind velocity on entering the advective region. 1 See, however, Shaw, Perturbations of the Stratosphere ; The Free Atmosphere in the Region of the British Isles, M.O., 202. ? Over the Atlantic the N.E. trade wind is strongest in April, but has a secondary maximum in February. It is weakest in September. The S8.E. trade wind is strongest in February, and has a secondary maximum in April. It is lightest in May, and has a secondary minimum in September, See Hepworth, Brit. Assoc. Reports, Dublin, 1908, p. 625. ——— a re PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 107 The following table illustrates this :— Layer in | Decrease Velocity in Date Place [PtP ETc which Wind | in Advective | Decreased | Velocity Region | km. km. | m.p.8 | m.p.s. July 28,1908 | Ditcham 12 11 —13 18 i July 29, ,, | $ ; 13(?) 12 - 13 9 13 July 31, ,, a | 12°5(?) 11 —13 | 6 27 Heby 6, >,, | Munich | 12 11 -13 | 15 18 July 2, ,, > | 11°6 12 — 16 10 7 Ghee sis) || b | 13:2 11-6147 | 8 8 On July 31 and September 30, 1908, the velocity was observed up to 12°9 and 13°6 km. respectively, and showed no falling off, but a steady increase. The values of H, were 13°2 and 13°6 km. There is little doubt therefore that the falling off in velocity is associated closely with the advective region. On July 28 the maximum wind at Ditcham was 24 m.p.s. from N.N.W., and at Munich on the same day the wind at 12 km. was 21 m.p.s. from N. by W., indicating that the current extended right across the intervening region, just beneath the advective region. The attempts to furnish a reasonable explanation of the phenomenon on theoretical grounds led to various suggestions. Trabert' showed that if there were a decrease of temperature in a horizontal direction in passing eastwards over Europe, and if the air moving eastwards also had a small ascending motion, then the adiabatic fall of temperature would not exist in a vertical direction. It appears probable, however, that the causes which produced a horizontal decrease of temperature in one layer would also produce a similar decrease in the layer above it, and in that case Trabert’s effect would vanish. Fenyi’? considered the question of the absorption of solar radiation in the upper atmosphere. He concluded that, if the phenomenon were due to this, there must be absorption of dark radiation, since the ultra- violet radiation would be insufficient even if it were all absorbed. Humphreys * pointed out that if the effective radiating power of the earth and atmosphere were the same as that of a black body at tempera- ture T,, the effect on any radiating and absorbing matter near enough to the earth for the radiating surface to be regarded as an infinite plane would be to keep the matter at a constant temperature such that the radiation from it would be half the radiation from it at temperature T,. If the radiating matter were such as to admit of the application of Stefan’s law, its temperature would be T, where T! = 3T,'. The observed value of T agrees with the value deduced from this equation by giving T, the value estimated by Abbott and Fowle‘ from the value of the solar constant, regard being paid to the proportion of the incident solar radiation which is reflected and does not affect the tempera- ture of the earth. Gold ® developed a theory based on the experimental results for _ atmospheric absorption obtained by Paschen and others. His argument ' Met. Zeit., 1907. 2 Thid., 1907. 8 Astrophysical Journ., 1909. * Annals of Observatory of Smithsonian Institution, vol. ii. ° Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. 1xxxii. 108 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. rests on the principle that a necessary condition for convection is that in the upper part of the convective system the radiation from any hori- zontal layer must exceed the absorption by it. He takes the temperature in the convective region to be given with sufficient approximation by the equation T’= kp where n=4 and p is pressure: and represents the radiating power of the atmosphere by a/ (q—p), where a and q are constants, in order to allow for the diminution with height arising from the decrease in the amount of water vapour present.! He finds that for an atmosphere of uniform constitution the adiabatic state cannot exist to a height greater than that for which p=3p, where 7, is the surface pressure, because if it extends at any time to a greater height the absorption in the upper part will exceed the radiation. He shows that for the actual atmosphere the adiabatic state can exist to a limited height only, and that if the atmosphere consist of an adiabatic and an isothermal region the adiabatic state must extend to a height greater than 5°5 km., and cannot in general extend to a height greater than 10°5 km. He shows also that the radiation from the lower half of the convective region exceeds the absorption by it, and deduces that its temperature must be maintained by convection from the earth’s surface and by condensation of water vapour. It follows also from the theory that if in the upper region the temperature increases with the height the conditions for thermal equilibrium are satisfied if the convective atmosphere extends to a height greater than that for the case of an isothermal upper region—2.e., the limits for H. are greater than 5°5 and 10°5 km. Shaw? has recently considered the connection between a depression of the lower surface of the advective region and the temperature distribu- tion in that region. He finds that if such a depression is produced artifici- ally or through a disturbance in the convective region, the first effect will be to produce a horizontal difference of temperature in the advective region. If the advective region is initially isothermal it will still be 1 It has been suggested that the upper limit of the convective region may be also the upper limit of the water vapour atmosphere. But it appears certain that at this upper limit the atmosphere must always be saturated with water (ice) vapour, and that in the advective region the water vapour atmosphere will be such that the difference of vapour ‘pressure between two points will be equal to the weight of the vapour in the intervening column. For the processes of diffusion and of convection of water vapour alone would tend to produce a water vapour atmosphere, in which the amount of vapour present at any height in the convective region would be more than sufficient to produce saturation at that height for the temperature in the actual atmosphere. The only process which prevents the atmosphere being saturated at all heights is the descent of air carrying with it the water vapour it contained at the beginning of the descent, an amount insufficient to saturate it at lower levels. But at the upper limit of the convective region there can be no considerable descent of air from above, and the air arriving there from below will necessarily be saturated, since it must contain sufficient water vapour to saturate it at the lowest temperature to which it has been exposed, ze. Te, Of course the actual amount of water vapour present is small compared with the amount present near the earth’s surface; but a small amount of water vapour is sufficient, at ordinary temperatures at least, to produce considerable absorption of terrestrial radiation, and the absorption extends through a large part of the spectrum of radiation at terrestrial temperatures. In fact, it is probably chiefly due to the presence of this water vapour that it is possible to obtain theoretical results agreeing with the observed facts by using the assumption that the absorption, and therefore also the radiation, is sufficiently extensive to warrant the application of Stefan’s law. It follows, also, from this reasoning, that the mean amount of vapour present at any height above the lower cloud level will be at least half the sum of the amount for saturation at that height, and the amount necessary for saturation at the height Hg, 2 Perturbations of the Stratosphere, M.O., 202. 4000 METRES 3 2 DEDUCED METRES DPOREES CONTIG ) METRE 300 ANNUAL. VARIATION OF TE I3000 METRES 9000 METRE: BOCO METRES 7000 METRES GOCO METRES 5000 METRES 4000 METRES 1000 METRE {Q000 METRES -5/ 11000 METRES trating the Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Upper Atin¢ PRESENT STATE OF OUR ENC vertically isothermal, but the ‘be the same for all. Over tl He finds that the value of H height of the * home temperatures. If the increa: H, is about 2 km. IV. (d) Annw A question of some intere temperature at difforent hei the manned balloo cents no diminution up to 5 ‘a tendency to decrease, the definite conclusions. He giv as the difference between the ,an Range D) | No. of Cases ‘Toisserenc de Bort * dedu: in 1898-1900 that the rang Taking as the range the di monthly mean temperatures Height Range The following table give ionthly mean temperatures Column M gives the number were obtained, ‘The value: of the mean temperatures : stations — Annual Height | Berlin’ | stenned EE — Balloons M Surfaco 2 1 km. 16 al ul ” 15 WW Pitsartiett \ Wissensohafttiche Luftfah PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 109 vertically isothermal, but the temperature of the vertical columns will not e the same for all. Over the depression the temperature will be raised. He finds that the value of H, is diminished by 3°5 times the difference of height of the ‘ homogeneous’ stratosphere at the normal and increased temperatures. If the increase of temperature is 20° C., the decrease in AH, is about 2 km. IV. (d) Annual Variation of Temperature. A question of some interest is the magnitude of the yearly variation of temperature at different heights. Berson! concluded from the results of the manned balloon ascents that the absolute range showed practically no diminution up to 5 km., and that above that height, although there was a tendency to decrease, the ascents were not numerous enough to warrant definite conclusions. He gives the following values for the range, taken as the difference between the extreme temperatures observed :— Height | Surface Mee acs <8 4 5 6 7 | 8km. j Range [e} [e) ° ie) ° oO ° i} ° | (31-6) | 29-7 30-4) 31:8] 3282] 31-0] 273] 350 litsc.| | No. of Cases . 4 | — 56 50 40 32 20 11 5 ___ Teisserenc de Bort” deduced from his observations with ballons-sondes ‘in 1898-1900 that the range decreased considerably with the height. Taking as the range the difference between the extreme values of the monthly mean temperatures he found the following results :— Height Surface 5 kn. 10 km. 5 16°9 14°°6 LLSFOEC. The following table gives the range in degrees C., taken from the monthly mean temperatures, for ten stations, up to a height of 15 km. Column M gives the number of months in the year in which observations were obtained. The values for the ten stations together are the ranges of the mean temperatures and not the mean of the ranges for different stations :— Range Annual Range from Monthly Means. Height | Berlin Meer Paris | England Pavlovsk| Uccle | Zurich Balloons 26 | 12 21 16) 12/19 | 10 26 | 12] 21) 12] 19 | 11 15 | 12 16 17 | 12} 22);10 25)12/18)12}] 20 | 11 13 | 12 14 17 | 12} 21) 10 | 22) 12] 19/12!] 16 | 11 17 | 12 15 LSI Ze) 21 OR SSE tee Oona v4 77 16 | 12 17 17 | 12 | 20 | 10 25 | 12 | 22) 12) 16 | 11 17;12} — |19|12| 19) 10 | 21/12] 95}12) 21 | 11 20}12; — | 21/12/18] 10; 21|12|26|12| 23 | 41 18/12} — | 22/12] 22| 10) 16/12|99/12| 95 | 11 18/12| — | 23/12] 21|10|16/121 26/12! 26 | 11 15/12} — |19| 12] 18| 10/14/12] 294/12) 21 | 10 11|12; — |16|12] 16/10! 16|12/17/12! 12 | 8 14/12} — /|18/12/14|10| 22|/12/12/12/| 14 | 8 19/12, — | 20/12/15 | 10; 21|12/13]12| 15 | 6 21) 8/° — |19/12|/25| 9/17| 9/18/12) 93 1 5 25) 7) — |18/12/28| 9,10] 6/15/11 (6) |] 2 28; 6} — |22/11/95| 7/11] 5/15/11. @)| 2 | | - Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten, III. 2 G. R., 1900, and Met. Zit., 1901. 110 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Height Strassburg Munich Vienna | Koutchino Ten Stations | | bi eee feta a | oe | ese |) aa Su eae 2 las Surface 22 | 12 BBy rd tics hyip? 12 Alia le MC eel 1 km. ZO mss ol 2a sl 22 al? 2/25 12 27 11 167 / 12 2 5 DBT 2 | ees | 17 12 24 11 14:0 | 12 Bias 18 12 LS £2 15 12 18 tit 15:0 | 12 cae 18 12 21 Lael kG 12 18 11 160 | 12 Bist 20 12 23 2) MLZ 12 19 11 W7ERN | AL Ga 2 Vegilign 2. 23 12 17 12 20 11 18:3 | 12 lass 21 12 23 12 21 12 22 11 1 a 2 84, 2! 12 24 12 18 12 23 11 18°5 | 12 OF 17 12 22 12 18 12 24 | A La oe Lad a anlar: ssl) 2 16 | 12 19 12 25 il 12°3 | 12 agli ss 16 | 12 14 | 12 18 11 18 11 11:2 | 12 iS Maize 18 12 Wy) 12 19 10 19 11 114 | 12 re plivoss 16") 22 16 | 11 19 ) iby(aes |e ak} 13°3 | 12 HEA ee 16 12 Te: a) <8 17 7 Tester GE'S, 12°2 | 12 hers 19 12 10 6 13 6 Tal] ear =), |e) 1) 2A) The range diminishes in the first 2 or 3 km., and afterwards increases to a maximum value at a height of 7-8 km. which is also the height at which the vertical gradient is a maximum. The range then diminishes until the advective region is reached, after which it shows a further slight increase. This last small increase may be due to the effect of solar radiation on the instruments in some ascents, but the values show that there is still a considerable annual variation of temperature even at a height of 15 km. The following values for the first four components of the annual variation of temperature over Berlin have been deduced from the results of kite and balloon observations made in the five years 1903-07.' Time is measured from January 1. Height. Temperature. 122 m. ; : : : . 819-44+9°77 sin ( nt. +254)+0°19 sin (2 nt. + 40) +0°38 sin (3 nt.+ 10) +0°46 sin (4 nt. + 161) 500 m. 6 - : : . 79°3 +822 sin ( nt.+249)+0°05 sin (2 nt. + 42) +0°46 sin (3 nt. + 352) + 0°33 sin (4 nt. + 260) 1000 m. : - : é . 77°0+7-28 sin ( nt.+244)+0°15 sin (2 nt.+117) +047 sin (3 nt. +349) +0-21 sin (4 nt. + 282) 1500 m. : : : - . 74°83 4653 sin ( nt. +243) +024 sin (2 nt. +195) +0°35 sin (3 nt,+ 24)+0°46 sin (4 nt.+18) 2000 m. : : ; : . 72°44610sin ( nt.+239)+0:18 sin (2 nt.+ 90) +046 sin (3 nt.+ 3)+0°24 sin (4 nt. +312) 2500 m. : . 5 } . 70°4+4+5°88 sin ( nt.+236)+0:03 sin (2 nt.+115) +0:28 sin (3 nt. + 338)+014 sin (4 nt. +29) 3000 m. : : 5 : . 67°-'945°94 sin ( nt.+237)+0°17 sin (2 nt. + 204) +053 sin (3 nt. +285) + 0-12 sin (4 nt. +131) The actual mean monthly temperatures are given in the table :— Height Jan.'Feb. Mar.) Apr. May June July Aug. Sep.) Oct. Nov. Dec.) Year | | | | ie 0 ee Es = are = Surface 122m. | 71:8 73:4 76-2) 80-1 87'2, 89:6} 91:0 90:2 86:4) 81-4. 76-4, 72°7 81°38 . 500 m. | 71:5 72:1 73:5 77-4) 82-6 85-8) 87-3 868 84:3 805 75°9 72:2) 79 32 5 1,000 m, | 70:4, 70°1 72:1) 74°6) 80°4 82°5 84:2 83°6 81°6 788 74:5 71:0) 76-97 ce 1,500 m, | 69:1! 68:2 69:9) 73-7| 77-3) 79:4 81-2, 80:5 79°2 76:9 72°6 69°5) 74:80 Fp, 2,000 m. | 67°3/ 66'6 67:8, 70:0, 74:6) 76°7| 78:4) 78:0 77-0 74:4 70:7 68-0) 72°44 * 2,500 m. | 65:2) 64:6 66-0) 68-0) 71-9, 74:0, 76°4| 75:5 75:0 72:6 69-2 66 2) 70°38 5 3,000 m. | 61°6 62-4 63°9 65 6) 69:2, 72-2, 73 9) 72-9 72:2, 70 4 66 7 63°8| 67-90 1 Ergebnisse, Berlin and Lindenberg. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 111 The following table gives the total number of days in each month on which the observations, used for the calculation, were made :— — Jan. | Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July | Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. | = | | mY: | a ~ ==} Surface | 155 | 141 | 155 | 150 | 155 | 150 | 155 | 155 | 150 | 155 | 150 | 155 500 | 155 | 139 | 154 | 150 | 155 | 150 | 155 | 155 | 150 155 | 150 | 154 1,000 | 146 | 133 | 150 | 146 | 154 | 150 | 151 | 152 | 148 | 152 | 147, 150 1,600 | 115) 98) 110 | 122 | 132 | 128 | 134 | 132 | 129 | 134 | 124 120 2,000 | 79 73) 76) 89| 97100} 91/111] 109, 112 94 83 2,500 | 49) 48| 48) 57| 67| 71| 66| 85) 85} 84| 77] 60 3,000 | 24| 29 | 39} 55 | 50| 55 | 65| 60| 55/ 36 made at 40 m. They have been reduced to 122 m. by taking for each of the 27 months the mean gradient observed in that month between 40 m. and 500 m. The outstanding features of the results are a steady decrease in the amplitude and in the phase of the whole year term. The minimum tem- perature occurs near January 15 at the surface, while at 2,000 m. it does not occur until February 1. The results for 3,000 m. are unduly influenced by the fact that the observations at that height in January 1907 were made during a very cold period, and probably diminished the mean value for that month below its true value. The effect would be to increase the phase for that height. The amplitude at 2°5 km. is only 3 of its surface value, but it does not appear to decrease above this height. Hann! gives the following values for the amplitude of the yearly variation on mountain peaks and well-exposed places :— Sonnblick Place Altstitten | Trogen | Gibris | Rigikulm Siintis | Height 460 m. 880m. | 1,250 m. 1,790 m. 2,500 m. | 3,100 m. | Range | 19°4 17°11 | LD Dre 14°4 / 14°-1 / 14°'5 C. These values show the same general decrease up to 2°5 km. as those found for the free atmosphere, but they are in all cases 2°-3° C. greater than for the free atmosphere. The four components have been given to show the comparative regu- larity of the third both in amplitude and phase, compared with the second and fourth, the latter of which appears to be merely the result of accidental irregularities. The result appears interesting and worth investigation, because there is a similar period in the velocity of the centres of anticyclones. The following expression for the annual variation of this velocity in m.p.s. in America has been deduced from results given by Herrmann :” V=11:441-30 sin (nt + 68°) + 0°12 sin (2nt + 138°) + 0°31 sin (8nt +18°)+0°09 sin (4nt + 78°). Here the third component has an amplitude more than double that of the second, and treble that of the fourth, and its phase agrees very nearly with the corresponding term in the variation of temperature. This implies that when anticyclones are moving rapidly in America, the mean temperature over Berlin is above the normal value. 1 Lehrbuch, p. 105. 2 Monthly Weather Review, April 1907. 112 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The velocity of anticyclones in Europe has not been dealt with since 1887 when Brounow ! gave results based on ten years’ observation. These results give - V=7-7+ 0:32 sin (nt + 85°) +0°31 sin (2nt + 146°) 40°76 sin (3nt + 216°) + 0:56 sin (4nt +178°). The number of observations was considerably less than that used by Herrmann, but the third component is still greater than the second and fourth. The phase is nearly opposite to that for America. This implies that in rapidly moving anticyclones the mean temperature up to 3 km. is below the normal. The result may be compared with Hanzlik’s deduction that a rapidly moving anticyclone remains cold. The annual variation for heights up to 15 km. has been calculated from the ascents of registering balloons. The following table gives the results when the temperature is expressed in the form :— T=T,+P, sin (nt.+A,)+P, sin (2 nt.+A,)+ — the time being measured from January 1. Height. To P, Ay Py Ag P; A; | te} G ° ° Cc ° ° (@) ° Dek? s) Saree 8:3 245 0°55 39 0-49 307 re Nee M(t 65 235 0-75 50 1°35 321 3, | 67:6 61 232 0:87 11 1-25 347 Les, 61°8 64 231 1:28 73 1°55 344 Dias; 55°6 67 232 1:20 66 1:43 354 yee 48-7 73 231 151 72 1:66 355 Kismet 415 75 231 152 68 1:85 358 8° Sy, |e ae 76 232 1:32 1H (ame ape Se fr 359 See eee <2 247(-8) 70 231 1:06 35 1:46 361 10-55 1 223 56 234 1:26 333 0-98 356 Vitale ie 47 246 16 314 0:85 362 12 ,, 18°3 46 259 1-4 319 0-2 218 lacoe 19'1 41 275 21 354 | 1-0 326 Naess 19-4 4:0 272 18 22 1:0 328 Pee 19-2 44 272 2-0 356 Vl 317 The results agree with those deduced above from kite observations in showing a decrease in amplitude.and phase of the whole year term in the first3km. But at greater heights the amplitude increases, and the phase remains constant up to 8-9 km.,after which the amplitude again diminishes while the phase increases. Thus, at 13 km., the maximum and minimum temperatures, arising from the whole year term, occur at the end of June and December respectively, while in the layers 4-9 km. the corresponding times are the second weeks in August and February. The third com- ponent shows great regularity in phase, and its amplitude increases and decreases with the whole year variation until a height of about 12 km. is reached, when the amplitude vanishes and the phase changes by nearly 180°, returning gradually towards the value it has near the surface. The second component increases with the height up to 7 km., and after- wards diminishes for 2 km. It then increases again, and in the upper layers is half as big as the whole year variation. The following tables give the mean temperatures for each month at different heights and the number of observations from which they are calculated. The results are plotted in the diagram Plate II., and Fig. 2. ' Repertorium fiir Meteorologie, 1887. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 113 ANNUAL VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE AT VARIOUS HEIGHTS OVER STRASSBURG. i FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT .NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR USS Ys Sd aI aaa A ae EAS ae PAREIREREIREE REE Peer Se aes gt tA SES he ae eae ee eS eee aera : DAA ise APP ERISRUERERRS ERR EBETER Asse CAC GTEC ee RECERCAT CERCA ACERT j A NE AE EEN a ACID TN TIN TNT NCCE AC CECT ONTO ONE CNTR CAE WT AE | NETCONG NS et thet INGO OVA 8 VEY eV Ta SOHC ET et) Ae ta in re Te) 5 = —— ¢ b 8 ~ 9 a Ee repay a as * 3 ¢ 8% uu Wi, ONE O50 Sink 8 Oo cia OO eS SU : ! leogtie 2 toto + 1 + + S3YLSW SSYULSN SSYLAN * SSYLSNW S3SYL3SW Sa¥Law SSULSW S3yu.LIW SayLaw SSYL3IW Sau LAW oool! Oooo! 0006 0008 coool 0009 ©00S [ol eres 4 ooof 0002 ooo! -30 | ! -24 | I ! Taw Fie, 2. 1909. 114 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. shows similar results up to 11 km. for Strassburg. The monthly tem- peratures correspond to about the 5th of each month, but those for August to July 30. Mean Temperatures for each Month (200+). (Ten Stations.) Height | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. April May June | July | Aug. | Sept., Oct. | Nov. Dec. Surface Sonal 69:0 | 71:4 | 71:7 | 78:1 | 83:7 | 86°6 | 90:9 | 89°9 | 85:9 | 84°5 | 75:9 | 72:0 1 km. | 70:0 | 69:7 |70°6 | 73°6 | 78-2 | 81°8 | 85°7 | 86-4 | 81:3 | 81:3 | 75:0 | 70°5 2 ,, |67°6 | 69-2 | 66-2 | 68-3 | 72:3 | 76:4 | 796 | 802 | 76:2 | 77-2 | 73°6 | 669 8 ,, |63°6 |64:°6 {59:7 | 632 | 67-4 | 71:1 | 73:4 | 74:7 : ; 32° 4 ,, |58:0 |59°5 |53-1 | 57-2 |60°1 | 66-1 | 67-8 | 69-1 | 64-9 | 66:5 | 62:5 | 56°5 5 ,, |51:6 153-0 | 46-1 | 50-6 | 53°8 | 602 | 61:7 | 63:3 | 59°5 | 60-3 | 55°8 | 50:0 6 ,, | 44:5 145-9 | 38:5 | 43-6 | 47-1 | 53-8 | 55°6 | 56:8 | 53:3 | 53:3 | 49-1 | 43:0 tf 8 9 » |37:0 | 39:1 |30°8 | 36:2 | 39:9 | 46:8 | 48-3 |49°9 | 46:3 | 46-4 | 418 | 35-4 » | 290 |81-0 | 23-7 | 28-8 | 32-8 | 40-0 | 40°7 | 42-2 | 39:2 | 39-2 | 34:0 | 288 » | 22:1 | 24-5 | 19-1 | 22-7 | 25-9 | 31-7 | 33-0 | 35-2 | 32-9 | 32°8 | 263 | 22°6 10 ,, |165 |19-4 |17-8 | 19-0 | 21-4 | 25-2 | 26-7 | 28°8 | 28-0 | 26-8 | 213 | 17'S 11 ,, |13°4 |15°6 | 17-3 | 16-9 | 19-3 | 21:9 | 21:3 | 23°6 | 24°6 | 21°7 | 17-2 |13°8 12 ,, |13°5 {12-8 | 19-2 |17-3 | 19-4 | 20°6 | 22°6 | 21:5 | 24:2 | 18-0 | 15:9 | 13-4 133 95 15°3 | 18-0 | 20-0 | 17-3 | 20-2 | 21:0 | 23:7 | 22:0 | 23:1 | 16-4 | 16:9 | 10-4 14 ,, |161 |17-4 | 20-0 | 151 | 20°6 | 21:7 | 24-2 | 22-0 | 22-5 | 16-0 | 16-8 | 12:0 15 ,, |14:8 |17°0 | 20-7 | 17-0 | 204 | 21:2 | 239 | 21-1 | 221 | 15°7 |15°8 | 10:0 Number of Observations in each Month at each Height, Surface | 33 | 28 | 25 | 43 -| 33 | 27 | 80 | 67 | 38 | 38 «6-333 | «33 1km. | 34 dl 26 | 45 | 34 29 33 66 42 | 42 | 32 | 32 oes 32 | 26 | 25 | 41 32 25 | 26 | 65 36 | 41 32 | 30 By Lechy 32 | 26 | 26° | 41 32 25 | 26 | 65 | 36 | 41 32 30 Aes 32 | 26 | 25 | 41 30 25 | 26 65 36 | 41 | 32 | 30 58 55 32 | 26 | 25 | 41 30 25 | 26 | 65 | 36 | 41 32 | 29 Gh: 32 | 26 | 25 | 41 30 25 | 26 65 |} 36 | 41 32 | 29 th 32 | 26 | 25 | 39 | 31 25 | 25 65 | 36 | 41 32 | 29 3) Ba 32 | 26 | 25 | 38 | 31 25 | 24 63 35 | 40.) 32 e227 Dass 31 25 | 24 | 38 | 31 25 | 24 61 35 | 36 31 27 10) 75 30 | 21 23 | 34 | 28 25 24 60 | 34 | 36 | 30 | 26 1h 5. 27 19 LOS |Falae26 21 24 59 32 | 34 30 | 24 | 120s; 21 15 | 14 | 23 | 24 17 21 48 26 | 33 . 27 | 20 | The principal feature in the diagrams is the very marked minimum in March and the similar though less marked effect in September. Above 10 km. the conditions are reversed and the minima are replaced by maxima. A similar peculiarity, with which this is indeed connected, was found in the height and temperature at which the advective region was encountered, and an attempt was made to connect it with the general circulation of the atmosphere. The effect cannot be explained as due to a mere retardation in the time of occurrence of the minimum temperature, because the phase of the annual term shows that this retardation reaches its full value at a height of about 3 km., while the depression in March increases in intensity up to 8 km., and the minimum in September flatly contradicts such an hypothesis. It may be suggested that the pressure distribution at the time at PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 115 which the ascents in these months were made, was accidentally peculiar for the five years of observation. The following table gives the mean pressure at Strassburg for each month on the days of ascents during the five years, and for comparison the mean pressure at Aachen ' from the records for 1896-1903 :— Mean Pressure (700+ mm.). — Jan. Feb. Mar.) Apr.| May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov.) Dec. ded | | | | pooh 4: bvealh .-iec | Strassburg (140 m.) . | 54 | 55 | 49 | 49 | 53 Aachen (169 m.) . .| 49 | 47 | 44 | 46 | 46 51 | 61 | 49 | 50 | 50 47 | 47 | 47 | 47 (46 48 48 | 45 | The differences in pressure are practically no greater than are to be accounted for by the ordinary yearly variation. Of course the same causes which affected the value of H, and the mean temperature of the upper air would also affect the pressure. The possibility of such accidental peculiarities, however, emphasises the need for weekly ascents at one or two selected stations to fill up the large gaps between successive inter- national ascents. , IV. (e) Diurnal Variation of Temperature. Clayton concluded from a discussion of kite ascents made at Blue Hill that the most marked feature in the diurnal temperature variation in the free atmosphere was the increase in the semi-diurnal term, and the vanishing and reappearance with changed phase of the diurnal term in the first 1000 m. Wundt,? using observations made at Hald, in Jutland, obtained results for 1,200 m. from which the following expression for the variation has been calculated— T=T,+0'55 sin (nt + 248°) + 0:05 sin (2nt + 349°), time being measured from midnight and the amplitudes being expressed in degrees C. For the autumn of 1902, his results, which he regards as more trust- worthy than the general means, give T=T, +0:35 sin (nt + 229°) + 0°13 sin (2Qnt + 217°). Gold? found the following values for 1,000 m. from an analysis of the kite and balloon observations made over Berlin and Lindenberg in 1903-07 :— '! = T,— (4°40 + 0°08) + (0°87 +£.0°13) sin (nt + 197°) +(0:14+0:10) sin (2nt + 123°). where T, is the mean surface temperature at Potsdam (40 m.). This agrees with Wundt’s results in making the amplitude of the semi-diurnal term small, but differs from them considerably in the amplitude of the diurnal term and in the phases of both terms. A similar result was found when only those observations were used in which the observed wind at 1,000 m. was not less than 8 m.p.s. ' Met Zeit., 1906, p. 91. 2 Thid., 1908. 3 Nature, July 1, 1909. \ 116 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The value was— T =T;—(3'97 + 0°15) + (0°84 + 0°23) sin (nt + 173°) + (0°35 + 0°15) sin (2nt + 102°), and the agreement between the diurnal terms in the two cases proves that the results are not influenced to any considerable extent by solar radiation. The variation at 2 km. was found to be considerably less. It is approximately given by T =T,— (9°84 + 0°23) + (0°64 4 0°31) sin (nt + 270°) + (0°25 + 0:23) sin (2nt + 72°). The variation of the temperature in the free atmosphere is theoreti- cally connected with the variation of pressure. Mountain observations ' lead to the conclusion that the amplitude of the diurnal variation of pressure diminishes with height, vanishes and reappears with a change of phase of 180°. The semi-diurnal term, on the other hand, has its ampli- tude roughly proportional to the pressure, and its phase diminishes gradually with increasing height. If these conditions hold also in the free atmosphere, the phases of the diurnal variations of pressure and temperature ought to differ by 180° in the lower layers and ought to agree after the change in the pressure variation, 7.e., the phase of the variation of temperature ought not to change materially from its surface value. The observations are in fair agreement with this conclusion. The phases of the semi-diurnal variations of temperature and pressure ought to differ at the surface by 90° nearly, the latter (pressure) being the larger. In the upper layers this difference ought to diminish. The phase of the semi-diurnal variation of temperature found above is subject to a considerable probable error, but the results indicate a tendency in it to approach the value found for the phase of the pressure variation from mountain observations. Thus at Kew the phases actually differ by about 100°, while the phase at 1,000 m. differs by only 20°-30° from the phase of the variation of pressure observed at 1,000 m. in the Alps.2. The results for the temperature are, however, not sufficiently accurate to warrant conclusions as to the variation of pressure in the free atmosphere being drawn from them. V. Wind. The first attempt to discover the way in which the velocity of the wind changed with the altitude in the free atmosphere by the use of recording instruments appears to have been made by Archibald, whose results were communicated to the British Association at Montreal twenty- five years ago. He concluded that the velocities V, v, at heights H and h above the surface were connected by the equation V/o=(B/h)* where x diminished with height, but tended to a value nearly equal to }. } On the Pic du Midi, 2,860 m., the daily variation of pressure is given in mm, by Ap=0'19 sin (nt + 180°) + 0°25 sin (2nt + 124°) and that of temperature by AT=1°8 sin (nt + 251°) +0°6 sin (2nt + 80°). Met. Zeit., 1908. See also Hann, Lehrbruch, p. 605. 2 Hann. Lehrbuch, p. 605. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 117 Berson ! found the following values for the ratio of the mean velocity in layers 500 m. thick to the mean wind for the day at Potsdam. The latter was 5°5 m.p.s :— Layer |0—0'|05-1-0 10-1 15 ~9-0|2:0—9'5|2:5—3:0|8—4/4—5 above 5 km. | | Ratio . rae tori( Walters 1:85 | 1:95 | 2:08 2°16 2°45) 3:05 446 | Ratio (2) — | 1:00 1:02 1:07 | 1:14 1:19 | 1:35 1-68) 2°45 No. of Cases 54 54 55 49 | 41 38 36 19 10 | The ratio (2) is formed with the velocity in the layer 0°5-1:0 as stan- dard. The results show a very slow increase up to 2-3 km., after which the change takes place more rapidly. It appears probable that the values up to 3 km. are those appropriate to the pressure distribution at the surface, and indicate that the ratio of the gradient of pressure to the density remains nearly constant up to that height. The larger values in the upper layers show that the intensity increases with height, which is in accordance with the observations of temperature, since these show that the places with higher pressure have also higher temperature in the upper air. Gold 2 showed from a consideration of kite observations that the major part of the increase in the first 2,000 m. took place in the layers immediately above the surface. For Berlin 75 per cent. of the total increase occurred in the first 160 m. He found, too, that the velocity increased up to 500 m. almost without exception, but that at greater heights numerous cases occurred where the velocity decreased as the height increased. Thus at Oxshott, between 500 and 1,000 m. the velocity decreased in eight cases, remained constant in seventeen cases, and increased in twenty-three cases out of a total of forty-eight, while at Blue Hill the corresponding numbers were seven, four, and ten out of a total of twenty-one. The change depends on the direction of the wind. Both at Oxshott and Berlin the velocity almost invariably decreased between 1°5 and 2 km. in the case of S.E. winds, while S.W. winds showed the greatest increase near the surface. It was also found that the kite observations over Berlin furnished conclusive evidence that the wind at 1,000 m. altitude agreed both in magnitude and direction with the theoretical velocity deduced from the condition for steady horizontal motion along the isobars, viz.— (w 7 sin A+ vy_ldp, (w 7 sin A)? ip por r where p is pressure, p density, v velocity of the air, ) is latitude, » the angular velocity of the earth about its axis, and r the radius of curvature of the path of the moving air. Egnell * deduced from the observations of clouds that the velocity increases with the height, so that it remains nearly inversely propor- tional to the density, 7.e., the velocity V is given by V = V.p./p, where p is density and V,, p, are the values of V and p near the surface. The law appears to agree moderately with the observations from pilot balloons. The following table gives the values of Vp in arbitrary units 1 Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten, II. 2 Barometric Gradient and Wind Force, M.O., 190. 8 Comptes rend., 1903; International Cloud Observations. Trappes. 118 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. (metres per sec. x pressure in metres x T/T) deduced from ten sets of _ observations at Munich ! of which seven reached 12 km :— Height . : 3 1 3 5'5 8— LO 12 km. Vp 2 : ye tao) 48 45 53 45 37 Observations made by Cave * in July 1908 furnish in the same units at the same heights the following values :— Vp eee eo Eah? | bbs) 89); Ob tee toO. ae Vp(May 1909) . 85 54 36 36 ° 33 ~~ 19 The second row gives values from seven ascents in May 1909. The law implies that the mean gradients of pressure have the same value in the upper air as near the surface, and this can be the case only if the mean temperature over high pressure is greater than it is over the low pressure, 7.e., if the horizontal gradients of pressure and temperature are in the same sense. It was seen from the results for temperature that this was the case. It remains to be seen if the observed difference of temperature is sufficient to make the gradient of pressure constant. If p and p + 6 p are the pressures at two places at the surface, then the corresponding pressures at a height z are pe~",(p +6 p) e~“**” where u = (% = = Se T being temperature, and H the height of the homogeneous atmosphere, 8 km. nearly. If the difference of pressure is the same as at the surface e~“dp—pe“du=Sdp, ie, 8 p=—pe-“(l—e ")-18u. But HT? Er where ¢, is approximately the mean value of 5 T. Put T=T, (1—az) and a H =} corresponding to a constant vertical fall of temperature at a rate of 5°-7 C. per km. Then u = — (a H)™ log (1 — az) du= — 7, (a H) (l—az)7 ew= (1 = a. 2)° The condition cannot be satisfied exactly at all heights with such a distribution, but if ¢, be determined so that it is satisfied at a height H, say, it will be approximately true for intermediate heights, and the value of ¢, will indicate if the condition is likely to be satisfied, regard being paid to the results of observations. Ii z=H,«oH =}, T)=273 the condition 6 p= pe-“ (1 —e-“) 1 8u becomes __ 748 p du — (Me oT_ (ee t, P Thus if 6 p = 20 mm., t, = 2° C nearly. Now the actual mean difference in temperature up to 8 km. between regions where pressure > 770 mm. and regions where it < 750, is ap- proximately 4° C. or practically double the amount necessary to make V p constant. The value of V p ought, therefore, to be greater at 8 km. than near the surface. The results indicate that this is the case, and they show, further, that V p diminishes at greater heights. But this is entirely in accordance with the results for temperature, which showed that 6 T, ’ Registrierballonfahrten, 1907-08. * Quar. Jour. R. Met. Soc., 1908. ° Weekly Weather Report, 1909. PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 119 and therefore also ¢, and 8 p diminished above a height of 8 km. Of course, as long as 8 T remains positive 5 p/p will increase, and therefore V will increase. But the results for temperature show that 6 T is positive up to 10 km., after which it becomes negative. The observations of tem- perature and wind are therefore in general agreement, indicating an increase in V p up to 8 km. and an increase in V up to 10 km., with a tapid decrease of both at greater heights. The direction of the upper wind usually veers from that at the surface, t.e., if the wind is W. at the surface, the upper wind comes from some point N. of W. This is partly due to the fact that surface friction opposing the motion makes the steady state one in which the direction of the wind is between that of the gradient and the isobars. The smaller the friction, the closer does the direction for the steady state approach that of the isobars. The following values for the rotation of the upper wind from that at the surface are deduced from Berson’s results :— Height . : ait, £085, 1 15 2 2°5 3 4 5km, Rotation a R $2 15° 216 28° 35° 39° 40° 43° No. of Cases «os 58 58 51 43 39 35 22 In comparing these results with those obtained from kites it is to be remembered that a balloon does not rise vertically, but is carried along by the moving air and partakes of any natural curvature of path this may have in its horizontal progress. Similar results found by White, Pring and Petavel' show a smaller increase between 1 and 1°5 km., after which the increase is rapid. Height . : : 0:5 1 15 2 2°5 km. Rotation : : ie 18° 20° 30° 40° The authors do not state if these results are the mean values of the rotation irrespective of sign or not. The following values have been found for the deviation up to 3 km. from the observations made in England in 1906-07-08.” The values are the means of the individual cases, rotation in a clockwise direction (veering) being counted+. The values are arranged according to the direction of the surface wind, 8.W. winds being counted W. and so on. Only those observations are used in which the wind at 1,000 m. was not less than 5 m.p.s. The values of R are the angles made by the upper wind with the surface wind. : Deviation of the Upper Wind in England. (R rotation, N number of cases.) Heights | 05km. | 1:0 km. 15km. 2:0 km. 2°5 km. | 3°0 km. / Winter (October-March). | Ww & ; 15° 09 TN eal | HS 18° Ite ieey| N... 76 76 41 14 5 4 N R. s 6°5 13°°5 12° 102 —5° 02 : {N. : 37 37 22 10 4 2 E R. . 18° 25° tig 195 22° 27° ; LN. : 37 37 18 10 7 5 R NR. 16° 26° Ree 36° 37° 45° : {N, . 61 eae ee p+ a eae 13) 11 1 Quarterly Journal R. Met. S., 1908. a 2 Weekly Weather Report. See also Képpen’s Three Years’ Simultaneous Kite Ascents at Berlin, Hamburg, Pavlovsk. This publication was not available until after the present Report was printed. 120 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Deviation of the Upper Wind in England—continued. (R rotation, N number of cases.) Heights 05 km. | 1:0 km. | 15 km. | 20 km. | 2°5 km. SS SS Summer (April_September). w.{k- 5"5 9°:5 Li Be 13o 6°°5 SHINS 133 133 93 55 26 N R. . 2° 3° —4° —6° —2° Slee: 48 48 29 20 12 E f R. 2 12° 19° 21° 33° 41° Bano’ 39 39 31 20 14 g JB. 12° 26° 32° 41° 45° UNS 67 67 41 19 11 Year (Numbers = sums of Winter and Summer) W.. 9° 14° 14°°5 14° 8° N.. 4° s° Bie —1° —3° E. . 15° 22° 20° 28° 35° shee ; , , 14° 26° 32° 38° 41° Mean of all cases . 10° ays 18° 20°°) || wae Mean of yearly means 10°°5 17°'5 uly ee 19°8 20°°3 Total N. ; 300 | 298 269 202 142 30 km. Similar results from Berlin (Lindenberg) for 1906 are as follows * :— Heights } Winter. Ww le : 25° 31° ale Bl? es ee 76 70.— 2) «09 39 N {x ; 17° 20° 23° 22° ol aN tts 18 18 15 12 E 1 . 36° 39° 45° 48° 50 Heights | km. | km. | km. | km. / km. | km kn. m km. — aca / fas : Owe Ratio A. . {| H6L| 167 | 166 | 1-86 | 1-96 | 203 | 240 | 3:15 | 4-07 eno — | — | 3-00 | 4-11 | 1-17 | 1-22 | 1-44 | 1-89 | ota Ratio. C 1:96 2-00 2-09 | 217 | 245 | 249 | 266 | 3:57 | 5-03 eae | | 1-05 | 1-09 | 123 | 1-25 | 1-38 | 1-79 | 2-52 | 124 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Thus at all heights the ratio is greater in C thanin A. Thesecond rows have been introduced to show that the ratio to the wind in the layer 0-5-1-0 km. is practically the same for the two cases, so that the difference arises in the surface layer. The kite observations for 1905 lead to the following results for the velocity in m.p.s. in the two cases :— Velocity | Ratio Surface 1 km. 2 km. 1 km, 2 km. (1) 3°6 71 8-4 1:97 —_ (2) 4-1 8:2 8:4 2-00 2:05 C (1) 5°6 10:7 10'7 Si — (2) 59 10°5 10°7 1:78 1°82 The rows (1) include all observations ; (2) those only in which the ascent reached 2 km. The surface wind is the mean of the values at the time of observation. The ratio is less in C than in A, but the method of obtaining the surface value is different from that used by Berson, so that it is not quite certain that the results are contradictory. The results seem to imply that the difference is largely accidental and that the real difference is small. It would of course be natural to suppose that the surface friction and irregularities would produce a diminution in velocity which increased at a greater rate than the velocity itself, and this would accord with Berson’s results, Anode Rays and their Spectra. By Dr. Otto R&EICHENHEIM. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso]. In 1886 Dr. Goldstein found two sorts of positive rays in vacuum tubes, containing a perforated cathode, one passing behind through the cathode—the canal rays—the other going from the cathode in the same direction as the cathode rays, which he called K.-rays, and which are now known in English literature as ‘ retrograde rays.’ These rays owe their origin to the high fall of potential near the cathode; and so we may expect that positive rays can arise at any part of the space of discharge if it is possible to produce a sufficiently high fall of potential. The fall near the anode in a vacuum-tube filled with any indifferent gas, as H., N:, or helium, is usually 20 to 40 volts. As Gehrcke and I found two years ago, this fall can grow suddenly to many thou- sands of volts if one introduces small quantities of halogen vapour into the tube. From such anodes with high fall we found that positive rays were emitted. These we called anode rays. ANODE RAYS AND THEIR SPECTRA. 125 Fig. 1 shows an anode-ray tube. x is an ordinary cathode of aluminium ; the anode is formed by a stick a of a mixture of a halo- gen salt and graphite which is surrounded by a glass tube; through this tube passes a copper wire, which conducts the current to the salt, so that the surface of the salt mixture serves as the anode. If the current passes through the tube the surface of the salt, for ‘instance Lil, gets melted and develops vapour of iodine, which pro- motes a high fall of potential; the positive lithium ions on the surface of the melted salt get their velocity in this field and appear in the tube as anode rays. These rays show the spectrum of lithium; they pro- duce on the glass the yellow fluorescence characteristic of positive rays ; they are emitted at right angles to the surface from which they come; they are deflectable by electric and magnetic fields in the sense of positive charged particles. Sodium rays are yellow, Ca rays violet, barium and strontium rays blue; about the spectra I will speak later on. If one had a sufficient Fie. 1. quantity of Ral. or RaBr., I think, there would be no difficulty in making Ra rays—that is, rays of positively charged Ra-atoms. We measured the velocity and the relation between charge and mass of these rays. The following table shows that the velocity of these rays, which depends on the electric field at the anode, is about the same as that of canal rays, and that it appears correct to assume that these rays consist of positively charged atoms :— Atomi a caw & sec < cay my Weight Sodium F A 1:76 x 10’ 0°40 x 103 23 23 Lithium - f 2°40 x 107 1:15 x 10° 8:3 7 Strontium . : 1:08 x 10’ 0°21 x 10° 90 88 126 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The vapours of halogens can also produce high electric fields at any other point of the discharge, where there is a constriction of the path, and produce positive rays there. If one fill a tube such as is illustrated in fig. 2 with H., evacuate it and pass a current from i, the anode, to the cathode x, then cathode rays go out from the cathode, and striction-cathode rays out of the tube 1, 2, at 2, but no positive rays are to be found in the tube. If we now introduce any halogen vapour into the tube, not only does the fall at the anode rise, but a high fall is also created near 1, and hydrogen- anode rays are emitted from A, and striction-anode from A:. If we have helium instead of H, in the tube together with a halogen, helium rays are produced. Last winter I endeavoured to ascertain the cause of the remarkable power of the halogen vapours to increase the fall at a constriction of the path of discharge; and I found that the following hypothesis is supported by experiments of which time does not allow me to give an account: the halogens are, in accordance with their electro-negative character, much more inclined than other gases to form negative ions, Fie. 2. or, what is the same, to absorb negative electrons; and where there is a decrease of electrons one always finds an increase in the fall. If, now, the tendency of the halogens to form negative ions is the explanation of the high fall at the anode, then when a perforated anode is used those negative ions should become accelerated and appear behind the anode as negatively charged atomic rays, in the same manner as positively charged rays (the canal rays) pass through a perforated cathode. In a tube like the one shown in fig. 3, I tried to find these rays. K is an aluminium cathode; into the big tube leads another glass tube, B. In the end of this tube there is fused the anode a, a platinum plate which has a central slit. co is a cylinder of wire gauze, D a metallic diaphragm, c and pD are in metallic connection with each other and form a closed conductor inside which there can be no electric field. They can be connected by a wire with the pole of an electric machine. F is a fluorescent screen. If there is a mixture of H. and I. vapour in the tube, there is, in a suitable vacuum, an anode fall of about 4,000 volts; from a the H, anode rays (already mentioned) enter into the big vessel. In the opposite direction, towards F, there pass not only negative electron- ANODE RAYS AND THEIR SPECTRA. 127 rays (cathode rays), but also atomic rays. If one examines these atomic rays in a magnetic field one finds that they do not carry as expected a negative charge, but a positive charge. As these rays come from the anode and have, against all expectation, just as the K, rays, a positive charge, I called them A, rays. Thus we see that positive rays pass through the electrode a whether it is acting as cathode or as anode. In the first case these rays are canal rays; in the second case A, rays. Without supposing that here there is some radio-active process going on, we must conclude that these A. rays obtain their velocities as nega- tive ions. If afterwards they show a positive charge they must have dissociated negative electrons on their way. So the hypothesis seems permissible that in gases at low pressures material particles, having a certain velocity, dissociate negative electrons. This hypothesis of the origin 2 OV Fic. 3. of K, and A, rays is in accordance with the results of Willy Wien, for it will be remembered that he found that a bundle of uncharged canal rays becomes positively charged during their passage. The following diagram shows all the rays carrying electric charges in a vacuum-tube (fig. 4) :— Mo<|>e@5 Mo<\>eE Mote >eE’ , M "SoM tae K A Fic. 4. A represents a pefforated anode. K ss cathode. Black points E represent electrons. Circles M represent positively charged particles. The rays leaving the anode seem to be identical with those leaving the cathode, if one supposes that the rays at the anode have their origin at a gas-cathode situated just in front of the surface of the anode. In regard to the spectra of the anode rays it may be mentioned that the alkali rays show about the same spectrum as in the electric arc, a spectrum which consists of series. The spectrum which the anode rays from the metals of the alkaline earths emit is much simpler than 128 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the one they show in the electric arc. The difference will be seen from the following diagram (fig. 5):— This shows the spectrum of barium when it is used as metallic anode in a Wehnelt tube, and when the currents sent through the gas are so great that the metal begins to evaporate. Then the light near the anode throws a spectrum which is about the same as the one the metal sHows in the electric arc. Below this spectrum is shown that of barium anode rays. It is easily seen that the first spectrum has many more lines than the second one, which is the spectrum of the anode rays. The barium rays show a spectrum of the same type as that of the rays due to other alkaline earths, as they all have one line, which has no relation to any other, an isolated line, and then a few pairs of the same difference of vibration-frequency which are connected with the atomic weight in the well-known way detected by Runge and Paschen. So we may suppose that the lines owe their origin to charged atoms. By studying the spectra of anode-rays it will be possible to decide also for other elements which lines are emitted by isolated atoms and which are due to more complex systems. And as these spectra are very simple we may hope that relations in those spectra will be found for which no such relations have yet been discovered till now: for instance, in the spectrum of iron; but my experiments in this direction are not yet sufficiently advanced to say anything definite about it. All lines of anode rays which were studied are found to give the Doppler effect; by means of this effect we measured, for instance, the velocity and ratio of e by m of sodium rays, and found a mass equal to that of the sodium atom. I may mention that, when canal rays are moving towards the observer, one finds two spectrum lines instead of one. One of these has the ordinary wave-length and one is shifted towards the violet ; in Ger- man called by Stark ‘die ruhende Intensitaét ’ and ‘ die bewegte In- tensitit.’ The explanation of the shifted line is given by the theory of the Doppler effect; but the origin of the ‘ ruhende Intensitat’ is prob- lematic, and many and not very satisfactory theories are made about it. For the solution of the problem of the unshifted line a result may be important which I found in the Doppler effect of the rays from the alkaline earths. The spectrum of Sr-rays shows one isolated line and two pairs. The surface of the anode emits only the isolated line; the other lines only appear in the ray itself. And in observing the Doppler effect one finds that only the isolated line shows both the shifted and unshifted lines; the first being emitted by the ray, the second by the surface of the anode. The pairs only show the shifted lines, and not the unshifted. In the case of canal rays there are always the same lines emitted by the ray and the surrounding gas, so it seems to be quite natural to find both the shifted and unshifted lines. Here, in the case of anode-rays, the ray emits lines different from those of the gas, and so one finds, as to be expected, only the shifted lines. Fic. 5. — ON THREEFOLD EMISSION-SPECTRA OF SOLID COMPOUNDS. 129 On Threefold Emission-Spectra of Solid Aromatic Compounds. By Professor E. GOLDSTEIN. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] SOME years ago I observed ' that bright, fluorescent, and phosphorescent light is emitted by a number of aromatic solid compounds—for example, naphthalene, xanthone, anthracene, &c.—if cathode-rays strike on these substances, cooled by liquid air for preventing their evaporation and decomposition. In this way I was also able to obtain bright-light emission from a great many substances, which at an ordinary tempera- ture are liquid bodies—for example, benzene, the three xylenes, benzo- nitrile, the chinolines, acetophenone, &c. The light emitted by these substances gave bright discontinuous spectra of a great variety, all consisting of bands of various width and intensity. Since that time I have extended this research on nearly all aromatic substances which I could obtain in any way, and have thus obtained about two thousand emission-spectra of aromatic substances and of mixtures of such substances with other bodies. Of course, time does not allow me to give a complete report of this work. Here I just want to speak about one result of my experiments. In the beginning I was satisfied to observe just a single spectrum for each substance, because it was thought that every substance could emit only one single spectrum. But soon I found that the complexity of phenomena is much greater than it seemed at first sight. For each substance does not show only one spectrum, but, according to the conditions of the experiment, there appear three spectra, which are quite different from each other and have no coincident maximum. I call these three kinds of spectra respectively the initial-spectrum, the chief-spectrum, and the solution-spectrum of the substance. At the first moment, when cathode-rays fall upon the substances, there appears quite alone and bright the spectrum which I call the initial-spectrum. Then the brightness of the initial-spectrum diminishes and gets fainter and fainter till its intensity becomes very small, but it never entirely disappears. When the initial-spectrum gets fainter, the chief-spectrum at the same time appears and grows brighter and brighter. The chief-spectrum is for a great number of substances so characteristic that it is possible to recognise the substance in this way at a glance and without measuring the wave-lengths, just as you can recognise nitrogen by its well-known bands, or hydrogen, mercury, and helium by their line-spectra. This is even the case with isomeric sub- stances, for one is able to distinguish at a glance, for instance, the three isometric xylenes or other isometric aromatic hydro-carbons. The third kind of spectra, which is quite different from the two others, appears if an aromatic substance is dissolved in any other liquid or melted compound and the solidified solution is exposed to cathode-rays. Now let me just say a few words on the properties of each of the three kinds of spectra. The chief-spectra always begin from the infra-red, never reach the violet end of the visible spectrum, but end about the middle part of ' Verhandl. d. Deutsch. Physik. Ges., vi. 156 and vi. 185 (1904). 1909. K 130 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. it in the green or in the blue, sometimes even in the yellow. I never observed that a chief-spectrum passes the wave-length of 460. The chief-spectra consist of narrow-channelled bands, which nearly always have their sharper boundary toward the violet end of the spectrum. The number of the bands varies within a wide range for the different substances between a few strips and several dozen. The distances between them appear generally irregular. The substances, when they send out their chief-spectrum, look red or yellow or green, or of any other tint which occurs with fluorescent minerals or inorganic salts. On the other hand, the light which is emitted during the first moments of radiation and belongs to the initial-spectrum is—at least, for colourless substances—always blue. The discontinuous iitial- spectra of two substances are, like their chief-spectra, never quite the same, but as in their general appearance they are rather similar to each other, at least in the visible part of the spectrum, so one cannot recognise a substance at a glance by its initial-spectrum as one can by the chief-spectrum, but measures of its wave-lengths are neces- sary. The initial-spectra begin always like the chief-spectra in the red, but not only reach into the green or blue, but go on into the ultra-violet. One type of initial spectra occurring especially frequently invariably consists of siz groups of bands. Hach of the six groups is - formed by the same number of strips at the same relative distance and intensity; and as the relative distance of the groups themselves is also not very different—at least in the prismatic spectrum—the whole spec- trum gives the impression of having a very high regularity. Such spectra, consisting of six groups, with different wave-lengths for each individual substance, are, for example, the initial-spectra of mesitylenic acid, of metatoluic acid, of the anhydride of benzoic acid, of toluene and of its halogen substituted derivates—and of many other substances, especially of those aromatic bodies whose molecules contain a single- ring group. In the groups which contain two or even more benzene rings, and especially in condensed substances, one finds also other types of initial- spectra, all extending from red into the ultra-violet, which I will not speak of in this short report. The third spectrum of aromatic compounds is shown in very charac- teristic forms especially by dissolved compounds of the condensed type ; for instance, by naphthalene and most of its derivates. The chief spectrum of naphthalene shows the wave-lengths 589 (very bright) 589 (very bright) 555 615 (probably a doublet) 560 630 573 648 } 539 and 589 mark sharp boundaries on the violet side, the other wave- lengths belong to the middle of narrow strips. The spectrum of the same naphthalene, if dissolved in monochloro- benzene (which itself gives only a faint and almost continuous spectrum) shows the following wave-lengths (all for the middle of the narrow strips) :— 517\ 473) 3 505 | nother brie ES ist) Pu oe 483 } bright ait rather bright 528 { rather faint 5451 565 rather faint 582 faint. ON THREEFOLD EMISSION-SPECTRA OF SOLID COMPOUNDS. 131] Beyond this last strip the illuminated ground cannot be separated distinctly into strips. ‘One cannot, however, speak of a single solution-spectrum of a body, as the solution-spectrum of the same substance varies greatly with the solvent. The solution-spectrum of naphthalene, for example, shows differences, if the naphthalene has been dissolved in metaxylene or in orthoxylene or in paraxylene. Therefore, if one substance shows remarkable differences in isomeric solvents, one cannot wonder that the solution-spectra of the same substance show even much greater differences if more different solvents are used; for instance, if we compare the solution-spectra of the same substance when dissolved either in a xylene or in aniline, pyridine, ethyl-alcohol, and ethyl-ether. On the other hand, each condensed compound and its derivates, even in the case of isomers, show an individual solution-spectrum. The chief spectrum of the §-bromonaphthalene presents a similar aspect to the chief spectrum of the a-bromonaphthalene. But the solution- spectra of the two substances, for example, in monochlorobenzene, are very different. The solution-spectrum of the a-substance is of a similar type to the solution-spectrum of naphthalene itself, presenting only an appearance of a certain regularity by the occurrence of some doublets, while the solution-spectrum of the 6-form is of a quite different type, and shows a most regular structure. It consists of four bands, of quite equal aspect, extending from the red into the blue. Each of the four bands is formed by five narrow strips, the relative distance and intensity of which is quite corresponding in all bands. The light of the chief-spectra is fluorescent, and disappears at the moment when the cathode-rays stop. The light of the solution-spectra is phosphorescent, and very often one can see it for some minutes after the discharge which produces the cathode-rays is interrupted. Only very small quantities of a substance are necessary to produce a solution-spectrum bright enough to be remarked and to be measured. For example, one can detect in this way less than the hundred thou- sandth part of naphthalene dissolved in monochlorobenzene or in methylbenzoic ester. Of course these phosphorescent solution-spectra are, on the other hand, a very sensitive test for the purity of aromatic substances, or, what is the same, a very sensitive means of detecting very small quantities of admixed foreign aromatic substances. And I am sorry to say that, among many hundreds of preparations of the best obtainable ‘purity,’ the specimens which did not show very marked signs of im- purities could be counted on the fingers of one hand, if there were any at all. I spent much time and money in getting even very small quan- tities of certain substances really pure; for example, diphenyle, indene, carbazole, fluorene, and other condensed compounds, and some of the most famous chemists helped me kindly by the best known methods ; but at last I had to give up the hope of getting any of these substances in pure condition. Until now they have never been pro- duced in a really pure state, and I fear that the same holds true for all other aromatic bodies. K 2 132 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Some Properties of Light of very Short Wave Lengths. ° By Professor THEODORE LyMAN. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] THE most refrangible region of the spectrum discovered by Schumann! is interesting from two points of view. On the one hand, it affords a new field for the investigation of pure spectroscopy, and, on the other, it offers opportunities for the extension of the study of photo-chemical and photo-electric phenomena. In the realm of spectrum analysis something has already been accom- plished. Absorption and emission of light by hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, argon, and helium have been investigated and the absorption of a considerable number of solids has been studied. The absorption of gases is perhaps the most striking phenomenon to be found in this region. One millimetre of air at atmospheric pressure is quite sufficient to absorb most of the light of shorter wave length than 1700 Angstrém units. The oxygen of the air is the chief agent in pro- ducing the effect, for this gas possesses a strong absorption band extend- ing from nearA 1800 to the neighbourhood of A 1300. The discovery of the more refrangible limit of this band is one of the recent results in this subject.? Hydrogen, argon, and helium when examined in short columns all prove perfectly transparent, while the absorption produced by nitrogen is extremely slight. | Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, however, each possess absorption spectra characterised by narrow bands. The behaviour of oxygen is obviously different from that of other simple gases. This difference may be attributed to a photo-chemical reaction typical of this gas. From the point of view of the emission of light, hydrogen is the most important of the gases examined.* It possesses a strong spectrum, very rich in lines extending from » 1650 to 4 1030. This spectrum is much weakened when capacity is introduced in the discharge circuit ; it seems to correspond to the ‘secondary’ or ‘many line’ spectrum of hydrogen in the less refrangible region, but it is not continuous with it. Lines of the ‘ primary’ or Balmer type do not appear to exist in the region between A 2000 and 41250. This is to be expected from theoretical considerations, for the chief series as given by Rydberg‘ lies on the less refrangible side of A 2000, and the chief series as given by Ritz * lies on the more refrangible side of \ 1250. It seems prob- able that the first line of the series predicted by Ritz does exist, but so far experimental difficulties have prevented its identification. Next in importance is the spectrum produced by carbon monoxide; exactly the same spectrum is given by carbon dioxide. It consists of a large number of bands, whose heads point toward the violet and whose 1 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 1413. 2 Astrophysical Journal, vol. xxvii. No. 2. 8 Tbid., vol. xxiii. No. 3. 4 Tbid., vol, vi. p. 233. 5 Ann. d. Physik, v. 25, 1908, p. €67. SOME PROPERTIES OF LIGHT OF VERY SHORT WAVE LENGTHS. 133 tails stretch toward the red. This spectrum resembles the fourth group of Deslandres,! and appears to form a continuation of it. The bands extend from the region \ 2600 to X 1300; they afford a wide field for a test of Deslandres’ law. The spectrum of argon consists of a considerable number of characteristic lines extending from A 2000 to the limit of the spectrum. Up to the present time it has been impossible to attribute any lines to helium, to oxygen, or to nitrogen, in that part of the spectrum more refrangible than 1850. A great number of solids have been examined, with the hope of finding some substance more transparent than white fluorite.? The results have been negative. Rock salt in thicknesses of one or two mil- limetres begins to absorb strongly in the neighbourhood of A 1750. B.O; is even less transparent.* Quartz in thickness of 2 mm. absorbs strongly at X 1500, and the absorption increases rapidly with thickness ; even white fluorite becomes opaque near A 1250. It was the opacity of fluorite which set the limit to Schumann’s progress in the extreme ultra-violet. It was by the removal of all fluorite from the light path and by the use of a grating, that the writer has been able to extend the spectrum to its present limit—ad 1030. It is interesting to note that the positions of the absorption bands demanded by Maclaurin’s * dispersion formula for rock salt and fluorite lie in the neighbourhood of A 1265 and A846 respectively ; while on the experimental side strong absorption appears to begin near » 1750 for rock salt and near X 1250 for fluorite. The investigation of the spark or arc spectra of solids has met with very little success. Apart from a few lines in aluminium extending into the neighbourhood of A 1650 almost nothing has been accomplished.°® The difficulties are obvious. It is necessary to produce a spark or arc in such a manner that the light characteristic of the substance in question may enter the vacuum spectroscope without suffering absorption. The high potential arc * has been tried in this connection, but without result. On the photo-chemical side of the subject the well-known action of light in producing ozone is perhaps the most conspicuous phenomenon. The fact of importance to be deduced from a study of the Schumann region relates to the rapid increase of this effect with decrease in wave length. The very wave lengths which are most strongly absorbed by the air are those which are most active in the production of ozone.’ It seems probable, therefore, that the strong absorption of oxygen is con- nected intimately with this photo-chemical action. The formation of ozone may play a considerable part in determining the relative velocity of the ions produced by ultra-violet light. In photo-electric phenomena it is well known that for many sub- stances the discharge of negative electricity becomes more pronounced as the wave length of the exciting light is decreased. In the Schumann region this effect becomes very striking, as the following experiment will serve to indicate. 1 Compt. rend., V. cvi., 1888, p. 845. * Astrophysical Journal, vol. xxv., No. 1. 3 Tbid., vol. xxviii. No. 1. 4 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 81, p. 367. 5 Kayser, Handbuch, vol. iii. p. 339. 6 Physical Revien, vol. v. p. 1. 7 Astrophysical Journal, vol. xxvii. No. 2, p. 98.| 134 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. A discharge tube of the type usually employed by the writer is closed by a fluorite window, and upon this window is mounted an air- tight ‘ screen chamber ’ 1 cm. thick, also closed by a fluorite window, which communicates with an air-pump. Above the ‘ screen chamber ’ is the air-tight condenser chamber, which may also be exhausted. This last chamber contains a clean zinc plate, 9 mm. in diameter, aud below it a brass guard ring. The apparatus is so constructed that the light from the discharge tube, after passing through the screen chamber, falls directly on the zine plate; the brass ring is protected from illu- mination and is earthed. The zine plate is connected to a gold-leaf electrometer of the simplest type, and is given a negative charge. The discharge tube is filled with a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, at about 2 mm. pressure, and the condenser chamber is exhausted. Now, if the screen chamber is filled with air at 1 atmosphere pressure, on starting the discharge tube the leaves of the electroscope collapse slowly. On the other hand, if the screen chamber is exhausted to about 1 mm. pressure, on starting the discharge tube the leaves of the electro- scope collapse almost instantly. The phenomenon is so striking that the simplest electric arrangements serve to show it. It is known from spectroscopic measurements that the spectrum of a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide consists of a great number of lines and bands extending from the region of the visible to the limit of the spectrum as set by fluorite— 1250. It is also known that a layer of air, at atmospheric pressure, 1 cm. thick, absorbs all wave lengths shorter than A 1750 very strongly, and that a layer of air at 1 mm. pressure, 1 cm. thick, shows little absorption until the region of » 1300 is reached. Thus when the ‘‘ screen cell ’’ is filled with air, light from the red end of the spectrum—near \ 6800 to A 1750—falls upon the zine plate; when the cell is exhausted light from the visible to % 13800 falls on the plate. The addition of the region between \ 1750 and A 1300 increases the leak by at least tenfold. Thus it seems probable that the photo-electric effect for zinc increases rapidly with decrease in wave length as the limit of the Schumann region is passed. It is the rapidity of this increase which is the striking point. In the volume ionisation of gases the same state of things holds true. Lenard investigated the phenomenon, and lately Professor Sir J. J. Thomson has proved its reality. The amounts of ionisation obtained were, relatively speaking, small. It appears, however, that if care is taken to employ light of the shortest wave length, the ionisation obtained is quite considerable.! Here again the rapidity of the increase of the effect as the Schumann region is entered is the important point. This phenomenon of volume ionisation in its relation to short wave lengths has some bearing on the behaviour of vacuum tubes, and accounts for a part of the effects usually attributed to ‘ Entladung strahlen.’ ? Such, in brief, are the results which have been obtained in this small but interesting spectral region. A complete description of the apparatus which has been used and the methods which have been employed is to be found in the articles to which references have been made. ' Astrophysical Journal, vol. xxviii. No. 1, p. 56; Nature, April 23, 1908, p, 582. 2 Astrophysical Journal, vol. xxviii. No. 1. ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 135 Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. BE. Armstrrone (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry (Secretary), Professor SypNEy Younc, Dr. C. H. DkEscH, Dr. J. J. Dossiz, Dr. M. O. Forster, and Dr. A. Lap- worTH. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Dynamic Isomerism in relation to Luminous Phenomena.* A. Absorption Spectra. Durina the past year two series of investigations on ‘ The Relationship between Absorption Spectra and Isomeric Change ’ have been completed and published.? Attention may now be directed to the decisive evidence adduced in these communications that the presence or absence of a band in the absorption spectrum of a camphor-derivative is in no way dependent on the occurrence or non-occurrence of isomeric change. (1) Nitrocamphor, which changes rapidly in neutral alcoholic solu- tions, does not give rise to an absorption band * even when the isomeric change is stimulated by the addition of an acid. Very strong bands are observed in the spectra of solutions of salts of nitrocamphor ; yet these salts are not known to exist in more than one form. (2) a-Chlorocamphor, on the other hand, which changes only in the presence of an alkali, exhibits a strong band in neutral and in alkaline solutions indifferently, the band being only slightly intensified by the addition of an alkali. (3) The B- sulphonates derived from a-chlorocamphor also undergo isomeric change only when an excess of alkali is added ; but this has the effect of weakening instead of intensifying, the absorption bands which are produced by neutral solutions of these salts. (4) In the case of the isomeric a- and #-bromo-derivatives of a methyl-camphor, it is found that the methyl-camphor band is not apparent k /CRCHs in the B-compound C,H),Br Sy , but is in the a-compound CO We Br.CH; C,H, Sas , in spite of the fact that the former contains a dis- placeable a-hydrogen atom, and that no such atom is present in the latter, which therefore is unable under any condition to undergo keto- enolic isomeric change. The decisive experiments that have been made with these optically- active substances have an important bearing on the general theory of the ! The general discussion which follows is an amplification in the light of more recent evidence of considerations which were advanced by Armstrong in 1902 and by Armstrong and Lowry in 1903 (Proc. R.S., 72, 258-264) in a paper bearing these words as its sub-title. 2 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, 807-823; 1340-1346. ’ The ‘shallow band’ referred to in the previous report was found to be merely a ‘step-out,’ the effect of which had been exaggerated by under-exposure, 136 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. origin of colour in carbon-compounds. Broadly speaking, two alternative conceptions have been advocated. On the one hand, it has been suggested that the selective absorption of light by coloured compounds is due to a peculiar structure of the molecule and that certain types of structure in which ethenoid linkages and other unsaturated centres are present are specially susceptible to the ‘ optical resonance ’ which is universally recognised as the cause of the absorption of light by vapours and is probably also the cause of the less abrupt absorption of light by liquids and solids. On the other hand, it has been suggested that colour is due not so much to molecular structure as to change of structure, and that only those molecules which are capable of existing in isomeric forms, and may, therefore, be supposed to be in a state of continued oscillatory isomeric change, are capable of resonating to light of definite periodicity. This theory was introduced by Hewitt* to account for fluorescence; it was applied by Armstrong and Lowry ? in explanation of the storage of energy in phosphorescent and in triboluminescent substances, and has been put forward by Baly and Desch? and by Baly and Stewart‘ as an explanation of colour in organic compounds; it has also been used by Baeyer * and by Green ® to account for the specially intense colour of some of the derivatives of triphenylmethane. Two different types of isomeric change have been specially considered, namely— (1) Isomeric changes involving the oscillatory transference of an atom of hydrogen from carbon to oxygen as in ethylic acetoacetate, from nitrogen to oxygen as in isatin, and from oxygen to oxygen as in p- nitrosophenol. (2) Changes involving only a rearrangement of the bonds in the molecule without any substantial alteration in the relative positions of the atoms, as, for instance, in Kekulé’s well-known hypothesis, in which an oscillation of the linkages in benzene was assumed to take place in order to account for the identity of the 1:2 and 1:6 diderivatives. Changes of the former kind have been carefully investigated in several typical compounds and have been found (in direct contradiction to Laar’s hypothesis of tautomerism) to be subject to the ordinary laws governing chemical change. The occurrence of change of the latter type is at present purely speculative, as no case is known in which the occurrence of such a change has been demonstrated; but, in view of the extreme stability of the linkages in compounds such as the sugars, it is exceedingly probable that if ever an example of the second type of change be discovered, it will be found to obey the same laws, and to be governed by the same conditions as those which obtain in isomeric changes of the first type. The most important consequences of the application to luminous phenomena of considerations based upon the ordinary laws of chemical change are perhaps those concerning the effects produced by the pre- sence of foreign substances, and by the change from the fluid to the solid state. ' Proc. Chem. Soc., 1900, 16,3; Zit. phys. Chem., 1900, 24, 1. * Proc. Roy. Soe., 1908, 72, 258-264. ’ Trans. Chem. Soc , 1904, 85, 1029; 1905. 87, 766. ‘ Thid., 1906, 89, 502. 5 Annalen£1907, 354, 152, 5 Proc. Chem. Soe,, 1908, 24, 206. ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 137 B. Catalytic Action of Impurities. It cannot be insisted too strongly that no actual case of ‘ intramole- cular change’ is known to chemistry. The part which a chain or circuit of molecules plays in bringing about chemical action is now very generally recognised; it is unnecessary to do more than mention, as instances, the part played by moisture in determining the combusti- bility of gases, the importance of impurities in conditioning the dis- solution of metals by acids and the need of a catalyst to bring about the isomeric change of phenylchlorimide; it is, however, permissible to emphasise the fact that neither the dissociation of a molecule of am- monium chloride nor the transference of a hydrogen atom from carbon to oxygen in a molecule of nitrocamphor—changes which, if such a thing were possible, might be expected to provide excellent examples of single-molecule transformations—can be effected without the aid of a foreign substance, and the establishment of a complex heterogeneous molecular circuit. It is therefore legitimate, in considering the con- nection between luminous phenomena and chemical change, to apply as a critical test to any particular relationship that may be proposed the question as to whether the action can or cannot be arrested by the elimination of impurities. If the phenomenon can be proved to be manifest only in presence of a catalyst, not when pure materials are used, there is good evidence that it may be dependent on chemical change; if the effect can be proved to be independent of impurities, it must be regarded as inherent in the physical nature of the material. Positive evidence that the presence of a catalyst is essential has been forthcoming in the case of the phenomena of mutarotation and in the case of phosphorescence, as both manifestations may be arrested by suitable methods of purification ; these may, therefore, be correctly attri- buted to chemical rather than to purely physical changes. Refraction, dispersion, and optical rotatory power, on the other hand, are properties ~ which do not appear to be dependent in any way on the presence of foreign substances and must therefore be referred to physical and not to chemical characteristics of the molecule. In an intermediate group may be placed (1) colour, (2) fluorescence, and (3) triboluminescence ; it is in reference to these three phenomena that controversy and discus- sion have for the most part been carried on. Of the three phenomena quoted, that of triboluminescence is the one in which the clearest evidence is available, crystals of saccharin, for instance, showing the phenomenon very irregularly, highly purified crystals giving no ‘ flash’ whatever'; there is, therefore, good reason to adhere to the view put forward in 1903 that the flash of light which appears when the crystal is crushed is due to the sudden liberation of chemical energy stored in the crystal, for instance by the separation of a certain quantity of a labile form during rapid crystallisation. The case of fluorescence is less clear, as no investigation of a critical character on the influence of impurities in determining fluorescence appears to have been carried out. _It is therefore impossible at pre- sent to do more than to point out that fluorescence is often manifest only under special chemical conditions, e.g., in presence of an alkali, or ' See Armstrong and Lowry, loc. cit., p. 261, 138 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, after dissolution in concentrated sulphuric acid*; these conditions are often precisely those which determine the occurrence of oscillatory isomeric change: it is therefore permissible to adhere provisionally to the theory that fluorescence is dependent on change of structure until definite evidence to the contrary is forthcoming. The phenomenon of colour is on an altogether different footing, since exliaustive experiments have frequently been made in the hope of removing colour by careful purification of the material. These experi- ments have led to results of two types: in the case of some compounds, such as picric acid and p-nitrophenol, the colour of the crude material has actually been removed by purification or by crystallising out under special conditions; in the case of other compounds, such as quinone and o-nitrophenol, no indication whatever has been obtained which would even suggest the possibility of bleaching the compound. It is therefore impossible to resist the conclusion that colour, in the case of the latter group of substances, is an essentially physical phenomenon of the same general type as the closely related phenomenon of refraction and that it does not depend on any fluctuation of structure to which the ordinary laws of chemical change can be applied. The case of substances which can be rendered colourless by suitable methods of purification requires further consideration : it might be suggested that an impurity is able to develop colour throughout the material in much the same way as that in which the phosphorescence of calcium sulphide is developed by the combined action of a trace of bismuth and a trace of a sodium salt,” but the view that has been universally adopted is that the mass of the material is merely stained by a trace of some highly coloured dye-stuff and is itself essentially colourless ; it is indeed frequently an easy matter for an experienced eye to detect the staining-process by the feeble and variable development of colour which it produces, as contrasted with the intense and uniform colour of materials which are in themselves absorp- tive. If this view be adopted, it is clear that in these cases also the colour is due, not to change of structure in the original material, but to some characteristic absorptive-power inherent in the (fixed) structure of the staining material. Note in reference to ‘ stained materials.’—In considering the pro- perties of stained materials it is important to distinguish three cases. Sometimes the stain is produced exclusively during the preparation of the substance, and may be permanently removed by distillation, by contact with animal charcoal or by similar straightforward methods. There are, however, many substances which cannot be purified in this easy way, since they undergo change continually in contact with the air and give rise persistently to coloured oxidation-products (e.g., indigo- blue from indigo-white); in such instances purification can only be effected under special conditions, and a material partly bleached by purification may easily revert to its original colour if the essential pre- cautions are in any way relaxed. The third case, in which the substance undergoes reversible chemical change, is more puzzling than either of the others, and may easily give rise to erroneous conclusions. Fortunately, the conditions governing such cases are now well under- A : Few and Tervet, ‘Oxonium Salts of Fluorane,’ Trans. Chem. Soc., 1902, , 664, 2 Ne Visser, Rec. Trav. Chim., 1901, 20,'435; 1903, 22, 138, ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 139 stood, as may be shown by referring to some of the examples that have been most fully investigated. It is, for instance, generally recognised that reversible isomeric change may occur in such a way as to involve the interconversion of a coloured and a colourless isomeride.' Usually both will be present in solution but, on crystallising out, one form only will separate in an approximately pure condition; in some instances, however, the two forms are capable of crystallising with such equal readiness that it is possible to separate out the coloured or the colourless form at will by varying the solvent? or the temperature of crystallisa- tion * ; even when this cannot be done it is often found that rapid crystal- lisation causes the separation of a mixture of the two isomerides. It is then only necessary to assume that the two forms of the substance are endowed with the property of forming isomorphous mixtures or solid solutions, in order to realise the conditions for the production of stained crystals of absolutely constant colour-intensity, since it will follow (in accordance with a general law) that the constancy of the equilibrium-proportions in the liquid state will be reproduced in the crystals, although the actual ratio of the two components need not be the same in the two phases. Reversible polymeric changes involving the inter-conversion of coloured and colourless compounds are familiar in the cases of nitrogen peroxide and the colourless (bimolecular) and blue (unimolecular) forms of ter-nitrosobutane*; here again it would probably only be necessary for the two forms to be isomorphous, in order to give rise to stained crystals of uniform composition and constant intensity of colour.® The importance of these examples consists in the fact that they pro- vide forthe production of stained crystals from which the colour could only be removed by the discovery of methods even more refined than those which are required on the one hand to arrest isomeric change in solution and on the other to effect the separation of isomorphous mixture. C. Crystallisation in Relation to Lwminous Phenomena. Since chemical change is usually-checked, if not actually arrested, on passing from the gaseous or liquid to the solid state, it is clear that this should exert a most important influence on any luminous properties which depend for their development on the chemical rather than on the physical activity of the molecule. This is clearly seen in the case of triboluminescence, phosphorescence, and fluorescence, whilst colour may be quoted as an illustration of an optical phenomenon which is not affected in any marked degree by change of state. 1 This point is in itself sufficient to dispose of the idea that the development of colour is due to oscillatory isomeric change, since if this were the case the separate isomers must necessarily be colourless and only the mixture coloured. 2 #4g., isonitrosomalonanilide, Whiteley, Zrans., 1903, 83, 34. % Hg., p-methoxyphenylphthalimide, Piutti and Abati, Ber., 1903, 36, 1000. * Bamberger and Seligman, Ber., 1903, 36, 689. 5 Equilibrium between colourless and coloured forms has also been postulated as attending certain cases of ionisation (e.g., violuric acid has been supposed to acquire its characteristic colour only on passing into the ionised state), but the development _of colour is usually due to a change of structure of the kind that has already been considered and in any case the extension of the theory of ionisation to the staining _ of a colourless crystalline compound by its own ions would be too bold a conception to merit serious consideration. 140 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Phosphorescence.—The storage of energy by phosphorescent bodies is apparently confined to the solid state, though in this category it is necessary to include both vitreous and crystalline solids. Its gradual liberation finds a close analogy in the slow discharge of the residual current from a Leyden jar, and both processes may be regarded as depending on the retarded electrolysis of a viscous medium. It is note- worthy that a great number of compounds which are not phosphorescent at ordinary temperatures become so at the temperature of liquid air,* and that conversely the after-glow of many substances which are phos- phorescent when cold, disappears when they are heated. In other cases the energy stored up in the crystal is liberated in the form of light only on warming (thermophosphorescence) or on crushing the crystal (triboluminescence or tribophosphorescence). In all these cases the limi- tation of the phenomenon to the solid state and the profound influence exerted by temperature changes are fully in accord with the view that the energy is stored by means of reversible chemical change, being released only when the rigidity of the material is sufficiently relaxed to permit of electrolysis and chemical change.* Fluorescence, like phosphorescence, is profoundly influenced by the state of aggregation of the material. It is of frequent occurrence in liquids, including solutions in concentrated sulphuric acid, dilute alkalis, water and organic solvents; it is very rare indeed amongst solids. Indeed, in spite of the existence of a few well-known exceptions (anthra- cene, uranium salts, etc.), itis probable that out of a total of some two thou- sand fluorescent substances, less than one per cent. are fluorescent in the solid state. There is therefore ample support to be found for the view that fluorescence is due to oscillatory chemical changes of the same general character as those which take place in solutions of nitrosobutane or enitrocamphor, since these are usually (but perhaps not invariably) arrested on passing from the liquid to the solid state. This view is also strongly supported by the close relationship which has been proved to exist between fluorescence and phosphorescence. Thus Wiedemann has shown * that eosin, fluorescein, aesculin, quinine sulphate, etc., show a weak after-glow when the solutions are rendered plastic by gelatine and a little glycerine, that they become definitely phosphorescent when the solution is ‘set’ with gelatine, and that a still stronger phos- phorescence is developed when glue is used. Observations of this kind indicate clearly that phosphorescence is essentially identical with fluorescence and differs from it only in the fact that the energy absorbed during insolation is liberated gradually instead of instantaneously : it is therefore legitimate to argue that the strong evidence, obtained in- dependently, that these two phenomena are due to reversible chemical change, becomes doubly strong when they are proved to be merely two varieties of the same type of activity. It may also be pointed out that recent attempts to correlate fluorescence with colour, by introducing the ideas of ‘ fluorophor ’ and ‘ fluorogen’ groups (compare ‘ chromophor ’ and ‘ chromogen ’) do not rest on any direct experimental basis (a sub- 1 Dewar, Chem. News, 1894, 70, 252-253. ? Wiedemann and Schmidt, Wied. Ann., 1895, 56, 201-244. e ® The relaxation of molecular forces during crushing is well illustrated by Beilby’s work on the flow of metals during polishing and under the influence of mechanical forces generally. * Wied. Ann., 1888, 34, 446-163. q k ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 141 stance may retain its colour and lose its fluorescence by crystallising out from solution), but on a mere analogy, the value of which is highly problematical. Colour.—In contrast to these cases it is noteworthy that colour is not as a rule affected in any marked way by crystallisation. Certainly the passage from the liquid to the solid state is accompanied by nothing at all analogous to the abrupt bleaching which would almost inevitably take place if colour were really due to any concrete form of oscillatory chemi- cal change, and which forms the most commonplace of observations when dealing with fluorescent colour. It is indeed true that colour is often intensified at high temperatures and reduced by cooling, but these alterations proceed continuously ; in this respect they are in direct con- trast to the abrupt arrest of chemical change which takes place when nitrogen peroxide is frozen or when nitrocamphor is crystallised out from solution ; there is therefore nothing here to justify the contention that colour is due fo chemical change rather than to oscillations or vibrations of a ‘ physical ’ character not involving any real alteration of structure. On the contrary, the effects of crystallisation are such as to confirm the conclusions arrived at from general considerations and from the effects produced by impurities that colour, unlike phosphorescence and fluor- escence, is a physical phenomenon in which chemical change plays no essential part. The Study of Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of Benzene.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Principal MIERs (Chairman) and Professors H. E. Armstrona (Secretary), W. J. Pope, and W. P. WYNNE. In continuance of previous work a number of members of several series of sulphonic derivatives of para-dihalogen derivatives of benzene have been prepared and crystallographically examined. The substances for which data are given below crystallise in the monosymmetric system :— Br (Be ERIS der) Melting point S0,Cl 1. 24760 : 1 : 1:1439, B=95° 26’ . ; : + Tele} Br Br SO,Br 2 2°4792 : 1: 111448, B=96° 49’ . : . . 114°. Br I £0,Br 3. 24689 : 1 3 1:1537, B=95° 50’ . ; ’ » 102°, Cl 142 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. I $0,C1 4. 0-8552 :1706876,B=95°29. . » ~—- «182°. i I 80,Cl 5. 07288 : 1 2 0°6544, B=99° 42’ . 3 3 - 69°. a Br ‘ SO,NHPh 9.9576 : 1 : 08364, B=99° 30’ ee ; (labile form) ake EG Br The following compound crystallises in the orthorhombic system :— Br Melting point. ~ ‘ SO,OEt if OH90Es 1: O6257 =. .0. ain 2 eee br The substances numbered 1, 2, and 3 form a well-defined isomorphous series as is immediately indicated by the close approximation of the axial ratios quoted. The compounds 4 and 5 differ entirely in crystalline character from the foregoing but the similarity of the ratio ¢/b in the two cases suggests an intimate morphotropic relation as existing between their crystalline structures. In a series of papers Barlow and Pope have pointed out that the whole space occupied by a crystalline substance can be conveniently regarded as parcelled out amongst the various atoms composing the material and have shown that this mode of treatment leads to the con- clusion that the volumes thus allocated to atoms of different elements are, in any one substance, approximately proportional to their valencies. A crystallme substance is thus to be regarded as a close-packed assem- blage of spheres of atomic influence in which each of the latter has a volume directly proportional to the fundamental valency of the atom which it contains. The close-packed assemblages referred to are geo- metrically partitionable into units representing individual molecular aggregates ; these should represent in composition, constitution and con- figuration, the chemical molecules of the substances concerned. From the study of the crystalline forms of benzene and its derivatives Barlow and Pope have deduced a form of assemblage for the hydrocarbon which is partitionable into units of the composition C;H; and have described the configuration of the molecule as thus derived. In the crystalline assemblage the carbon spheres of influence are arranged in columns, of which each link consists of three spheres in_ triangular con- tact; it has been concluded that these columns remain intact in the crystalline derivatives of benzene: the passage from the hydrocarbon to any derivative thus involves the moving apart of the columns of carbon « ON THE STUDY OF ISOMORPHOUS DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE. 143 spheres and the insertion of the substituting groups in the spaces thus provided. It is possible to test the correctness of the conclusions briefly referred to above by aid of crystallographic data for benzene derivatives. Com- pounds may be compared by means of their ‘equivalence parameters,’ which are the linear dimensions of parallelepipeds having volumes repre- sented by the sums (W) of the valencies of the atoms composing the respective molecules, those linear dimensions being proportional to the crystallographic axial ratios. In the case of benzene, which crystallises in the orthorhombic system a:b:c: = 0°891:1:0°799, the value of W is 30; the equivalence parameters calculated from these data are g:y:% = 3101 : 3°480 : 2-780. The last of these values, z = 2-780, represents the height of two links in the columns of carbon spheres in the crystalline hydrocarbon ; if, as has been suggested, these columns remain intact in the crystalline derivatives of benzene, the value 2°780 should recur amongst the equivalence parameters of the derivatives. This has beenalready shown to be the case in a long series of crystalline derivatives of picric and styphnic acids; the data now contributed enable the conclusion to be extended to the sulphonic derivatives of benzene described above. The following table gives the equivalence parameters, «, y and z and the valency volumes, W, for the substances numbered in the above table of axial ratios :— if W =36. @ iyi 2=5 787 : 2337 : 2-674, B=95° 26’. 2. 36. 5°796 : 2-338 : 2°676, B=96° 49’. 3. 36. 5761 : 2°333 ; 2°692, B=95° 50’. 4, 36. 3°409 : 3°986 : 2°661, B=95° 22’. 5. 36. 3095 ; 4:247 : 2°779, B=99° 42’. The third equivalence parameter, z, calculated from the axial ratios and the valency volumes, in each case approximates to the corresponding value, z = 2-780, of benzene. The corresponding value in the case of the series of picric and styphnic acid derivatives examined by Jerusalem ! varies between 2°660 and 2°788. The axial ratios of the more complex benzene derivatives represented by the labile form of 1 : 4-dibromobenzene-2-sulphanilide and the ethylic 1; 4-dibromobenzene-2-sulphonate do not, in the form stated above, immediately yield values approximating to 2°780 amongst their equiva- lence parameters. On dividing unit length along the axis b by two in the former case and multiplying it by two in the latter, the following equivalence parameters are, however, obtained in which the value 2°780 recurs : — 6. W =68. @:Yy 5 %2=5'327 : 2-782 : 4:°653, B=99° 30’. 7 = 49. =2°859 : 6410 : 2:679, B=90° 0’. The confirmation of Barlow and Pope’s conclusion as to the existence of the columns of carbon spheres in crystalline benzene derivatives which Jerusalem obtained by the study of the picrates and styphnates may consequently be extended to the quite different class of derivatives dealt with in this report. The Committee are indebted to Messrs. Colgate, Rodd and Runeckles, students in the Chemical Department of the Central Technical College, South Kensington, for assistance they have rendered in preparing and measuring compounds described in this report. ! Trans. Chem. Soc., Jaly 1909, }». 1276. 144 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Llectroanalysis—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro- fessor F. §. Kipprna (Chairman), Dr. F. M. PERKIN (Secre- tary), Dr. G. T. Bumpy, Dr. T. M. Lowry, Professor W. J. Pore, and Dr. H. J. S. SAnp. Durine the year experiments have been carried out upon a new design of potentiometer, on the general simplification of apparatus and method for the electro-deposition of metals particularly by means of graded potential; and in connection with the electro-deposition of mer- cury upon gold, silver, platinum, and mercury cathodes. In connection! with the latter part of the subject it has been found, when mercury is deposited on a gold electrode, that the results are invariably from 0.5 to 2.0 per cent. too high; the same applies also to electrodes of silver. The gold electrode employed was in the form of a flag, and had a total active surface of 0.5 square decimeter. As pure gold was found too soft for working purposes, an alloy containing 5 per cent. of platinum was used. Specially purified mercuric chloride- bromide, and sulphate were employed, but the results obtained were always too high. When a platinum gauze electrode was placed in series with the gold electrode and an identical solution employed, as a rule the metal deposited on the platinum was almost theoretically correct, although at times it was fractionally low. In order to get more rapid deposition the gold electrode was placed in the field of a very powerful electro-magnet, but even though the time of deposition was reduced by one-tenth the results were still too high. The silver cathodes consisted of coils of pure silver within which a platinum anode was rotated, but although the whole of the metal was fre- quently deposited in forty-five minutes, the results were almost always too high. The exact cause of the high results obtained was not ascer- tained, although it was at first supposed to be due to occluded hydrogen ; this was practically proved not to be the case. It was finally shown that the only really satisfactory method for depositing mercury was to use a cathode of mercury. A new electrolysing vessel of quartz was designed for this purpose. This apparatus is a small quartz beaker capable of holding about 80 c.c. of solution, and has a siphon fused into it about 0.5 c.m. from the bottom. Mercury is placed in the vessel so as to just reach to the bottom of the siphon, and electrical contact is made with it by fusing a piece of iridium wire into the bottom of the beaker. The solution to be electrolysed is placed above the mercury and the spiral anode rapidly rotated (500-750 turns per minute). The mercury can be com- pletely deposited out in from twenty minutes to half an hour. The solution is then siphoned off by pouring in water which causes the siphon to act. The pouring in of water is continued until the ammeter shows zero. The whole of the waste water is then allowed to flow away and is replaced by 90 per cent. alcohol, then by absolute alcohol, and finally by two washings of dry ether. The surface is then dried by blowing dry air over it for about ten minutes. A very considerable amount of work has been done to make the ¥. M. Perkin, Trans. Faraday Society. ON ELECTROANALYSIS. 145 apparatus described by Dr. Sand (Trans. Chem. Soc. 91, 373 (1907) and 93, 1572 (1908) more portable and readily set up without sacrificing any of its essential features. The stand has been made completely portable by. providing it with a special cap which hinders the mercury forming the connection between the stationary and moving parts from being split during transport. A special clutch has also been designed which allows the moving parts to be readily thrown in and out of gear with the motor without stopping the latter. Such an arrangement becomes necessary when it is desired to actuate several sets of apparatus from a single shaft driven by one motor, or when a small motor-generator is employed for the double purpose of supplying the current and rotating the electrode, or lastly, when a water or hot-air motor is employed which cannot be stopped instantly while the electrodes are in a wet state. All the apparatus for measuring the potential of the cathode has been assembled in a single portable potentiometer-box, which is also arranged to show the potential difference between the anode and the cathode. For this purpose it became necessary to design a special new form of portable capillary electrometer. A full description of all the apparatus referred to will be published shortly. It was exhibited to Section 1 of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry. Experiments are also in progress with anodes made partly of glass and partly of platinum, and with cathodes of metals other than platinum. A very careful study has also been made of the composition of the deposit of lead peroxide obtained during the analysis of lead solutions. Results differing by more than 1 per cent. have been found in the labora- tories of Hollard. (Analyse des Bétaux (190) and Classen (‘ Quantitative _ Analyse durch Elektrolyse,’ 5th edition, 1908, p. 125.) It has now beer found that in a moist atmosphere lead peroxide will take up water at a temperature of about 200°, but will lose it exceedingly slowly at this temperature in a perfectly dry atmosphere. These facts are quite suffi- cient to explain the discrepancies observed. On the other hand, it has been found that lead peroxide deposited with a suitable current density at about 90-95° contains only about 4 per cent. of water after drying with alcohol and ether. It is here desiccated as a result of electric endosmose, and this method of depositing is recommended as by far the most trustworthy and simple. These results will also be published shortly. The Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Dr. K. Divers (Chairman), Professor A. W. Crosstgy (Secretary), Professor W. H. Perxin, Dr. M. O. Forster, and Dr. H. R. Le Sueur. 1. Nitro Derivatives of O-Xylene. In the last Report? mention was made of the fact that when the mixture of two isomeric dimethylcyclohexadienes, obtained by elimination of two molecules of hydrogen bromide from 3:5-dibromo-1: 1-dimethylcyclo- hexane, was treated with a nitrating mixture, two substances melting at 1 B.A. Report, 1908, p, 221. 1909. iv; 146 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 115° and 71° were obtained. The methyl groups in the hydrocarbons are both attached to the same carbon atom, and in such cases it has been frequently observed! that the transformation into an aromatic substance C(CH;), C(CH;). C(CH;), HC CH H,C CH, H.C ‘CH < = HC CH B,HC CHB, HC CH CH, CH, CH results in one of the methyl groups wandering into an ortho position, but never into a meta or para position. It was therefore presumed that the above-mentioned substances melting at 115° and 71° were trinitro- o-xylenes. No trinitro-o-xylenes had, up to that time, been described, and experiments were therefore undertaken with the object of preparing these substances. The work has now been completed,? and has shown that the above-mentioned derivatives, melting at 115° and 71°, are the two possible trinitro-o-xylenes. In the course of the work all the mono-, di-, and trinitro-o-xylenes were isolated and described. 2. Hydro-aromatic Kelones. Part 1.—Synthesis of trimethylcyclo- hexenone (Isophorone) and some homologues.” Chlorodimethylcyclohexenone contains a reactive chlorine atom, easily replaceable by an ethoxy group under the influence of sodium ethoxide, giving rise to the ethyl ester of dimethyldihydroresorcin. Condensation takes place readily between chlorodimethyleyclo- hexenone and ethyl sodiomalonate. The product is not, as might have been expected, the substance having formula I., but consists of ethyl (CHY.CCot DCH | CH,— CO (L) CH(CO,C,H,), + C,H,OH = (CH,),CKGy" gg >CH | (Il.) CH,. C0,C,H, + CO(0C,H,), dimethyleyclohexenoneacetate II, whose formation necessitates the elimination of a carbethoxy group, and this has been proved to take place with formation of ethyl carbonate. The product of hydrolysis of this ethyl ester is trimethylcyclohexenone III, identical with isophorone. (CHL CH _o PCH +H,0 =(CH,),C Cl.0,H,.NH. Ac. This change offers a very marked contrast to that of the nitroamino- benzenes, as hydrochloric acid appears to occupy a peculiarly privileged position, which was originally recognised by Armstrong, in bringing about this change. Crossley and Renouf, .7.C.8., 1909, 95, * B.A. Report, 1908, p. 115, les 148 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The mechanism of this transformation was investigated by Blanksma,! who ascertained (i) that it was apparently a reaction of the first order ; (ii) that the speed was proportional to the square of the concentration of the hydrochloric acid ; (ii) that in aqueous acetic acid solution the speed increased with the concentration of the acetic acid. Recently Acree,” since we started work on this subject, has elaborated Blanksma’s work, and has brought forward an hypothesis to account for the proportionality of the velocity of the change to the square of the concentration of the catalyst. He believes that the formation of a salt, Ac Zl Ar. Nop from the chloroamine and the hydrochloric acid is the necessary ‘H intermediate stepin the change. This suggestion was first made by Orton.” The complete ionisation of the hydrochloric acid requires that the concen- tration of the salt should be proportional to the square of that of the acid. It is however difficult to see why on this view hydrochloric acid should be the only catalyst. In fact, Acree believes his experiments show that other acids (sulphuric acid, &c.) or chlorine or bromine can act as catalysts, although in an inferior degree. In our experiments we used instead of the unsubstituted chloroamino- benzene, acetylchloroamino-p-chlorobenzene, the speed of the transforma- tion of which is far less than of the unsubstituted compound. The results are summarised in the following :— 1. Hydrochloric acid is the only catalyst. (a) Hydrofluoric, sulphuric acids, &c., have no effect ; hydrochloric acid can always be detected when a change begins in the presence of these acids. (6) Chlorine and bromine are without effect until hydrochloric acid is formed. (c) Hydrobromic acid reacts with the chloroamines in glacial acetic acid quantitatively, thus :— Ar.NC].Ac+ HBr=Ar.NH.Ac+ BrCl. This primary change is followed by rapid bromination (dimolecular reaction). The interaction between hydrochloric acid and a bromoamine is similar : Ar.NBr.Ac+HCl=Ar.NH.Ac+ BrCl, and is followed by an equally rapid bromination. In dilute acetic acid, 90 per cent. and less, the reaction is :~-- Ar.NCl.Ac+2HBr=Ar.NH.Ac+ HCl+ Br,, which is followed by a slow bromination. 2. Hydrochloric acid reacts with the chloroamine establishing the equilibrium : Ar.NCLAc+ HCl? Ar.NH.Ac + Cl). In glacial acetic acid the reaction is complete from left to right. As the acetic acid is diluted the left-hand side of the equation appears; in 90 per cent. acetic acid an equilibrium constant can be calculated. 1 Receuil des Trav. Chim., 1903, 22, 290. 2 Amer. Chem. Jour., 1907, 38, 258. 3 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1902, 71, 156. TRANSFORMATION OF NITROAMINES AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 149 In 65 per cent. acetic acid an equilibrium constant is obtained only when the reaction is represented as :— Ar.NCl.Ac+ H: + Cl’? Ar.NH.Ac+Cl, ; that is, the equilibrium constant is proportional to the second power of the concentration of the acid. In 50 per cent. acetic acid, at a concentration of 0-025 gram molecules per litre, the system is represented by the left-hand side of the equation, chlorine and anilide only appearing at higher concentrations. -3. Measurements of the velocity of the formation of the chlorinated anilide show :— (a) In glacial acetic acid the reaction is apparently dimolecular. If the concentration of the hydrochloric acid is small relative to the chloroamine the reaction becomes apparently monomolecu- lar, and its speed is proportional to the square of the concen- tration of the hydrochloric acid. (b) As the acetic acid is diluted to 95 per cent., the speed of the chlorination increases proportionately to the quantity of water added, As the proportion of water is further increased the velocity of the reaction falls, becoming scarcely perceptible in 30 per cent. acetic acid. (c) In aqueous acetic acid containing 70 to 90 per cent. acetic acid, there is no simple relation between the velocity of the change and the concentration of the hydrochloric acid. Below 65 per cent, acetic acid the velocity is proportional to the square of the concentration of the catalyst. = Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South Africa.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LampLueuH (Chairman), Dr. F. H. Hatcu (Secretary), Dr. G. CORSTORPHINE, and Messrs. A. pu Torr, A. P. Hawn, G. Kynaston, F. P. Menneuu, and A. W. Rocers, appointed to determine the precise Significance of Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South Africa. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Ow1na to the absence of the Secretary (Dr. F. H. Hatch) in South Africa, no further compilation could be got ready for publication this year. After consultation with other members of the Committee, how- ever, the Secretary proposes the following emendations in definitions or spelling of terms in the list published last year. The Committee ask for reappointment. Duin, plural duine A sand dune. Gouph (pronounced ‘ cope ’) A Bushman word, meaning ‘as dry as can be,’ applied to a portion of the Western Karroo. 150 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Kasteel (literally Castle)— A high peak or ridge, e.g., Riebeck’s Kasteel. Kloof- - The head of a valley, with steep sides. Kolk— A hole in a river course. Poortje— A little poort. Punl— (i) A point on the coast, or (ii) a spur of a mountain. Rug, plural Ruggen— A ridge or series of ridges. The ‘Ruggens,’ in Cape Colony, is a plain cut up by rivers. Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.—Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro- fessor W. A. HerpMAN (Chairman), Mr. H. C. Brasiey (Acting Secretary), Mr. EK. T. Newton, Professor A. C. SewarpD, Mr. W. A. EK. Ussuer, Professor W. W. Watts, and Dr. A. SmMitrH Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the Acting Secretary.) [PLATES III. AnD IV.] In presenting this Report your Committee have first to express their deep sense of the loss sustained in the lamentable death of their Secre- tary, Mr. Joseph Lomas, F.G.S., to whom their successful working has been mainly due. To the enthusiasm of youth he added the judgment and experience of middle age, and to his friendly and genial disposition and unfailing readiness to help others we are indebted for the assistance of workers outside the Committee. His powers of observation and description, devoted as they were in recent years to the study of the Trias, more especially of the probable conditions under which it was formed, enabled him to contribute two Reports embodying results of his own work, and it was in the prosecution of such research as that your Committee was formed to promote that Mr. Lomas met his un- timely end. During the past year your Committee have watched for further op- portunities of research, but the new material has been confined to a few remains of Rhynchosaurus which, as far as examination has at present gone, present no exceptional features, and a few other remains which have been too recently obtained to be reported on at this meeting. Mr. A. R. Horwood gives a further instalment of his ‘ Bibliography of the Keuper,’ bringing it to 1908, and Mr. Beasley a description of a new form of footprint. Mr. Watson adds a description of the ee ee ON THR FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 151 Rhynchosaurian skull in the Manchester Museum mentioned in the last Report. Since their appointment in 1902 your Committee have endeavoured to promote and record original research in connection with the Triassic Fauna and Flora, and to report on the description of new material or material hitherto undescribed. Also they have had in view the desir- ability of rendering the reference to existing material more easy for workers; and consequently lists of the Triassic Fossils in most of our principal museums (Reports 1904, 1905, and 1908) and of Fossils found in certain localities (Reports 1907 and 1908) and a Bibliography (Reports 1908 and 1909) have been included in the Reports. It is hoped these lists will be found of use. The names of the authors are a guarantee of the care with which the lists have been drawn up. There are still many other collections of which it is desirable to obtain a record. As regards research itself your Committee are glad to have been able to record the completion of the reconstruction of the skeleton of Rhyn- chosaurus articeps, with the aid of material in the Shrewsbury Museum submitted to the experts of the British Museum (Natural History) for development (see Report 1906). Reports have also been made on several other recently discovered less nearly complete vertebrate remains. (See Reports 1906, 1907, and 1909.) The paper by the late Secretary in the Report for 1905 dealing with Estheria, both recent and fossil, will aid in forming a correct idea not only of the surroundings of this Common Triassic invertebrate, but of the general conditions prevailing in Britain in Triassic times. The reports (see all years 1903 to 1909) on the footprints of verte- brates and supposed tracks of invertebrates, and the attempt to classify them, may prove useful when more of their remains have come to light. . The Trias of South Devon has so far been but slightly dealt with, but the description and figure of the Section E. and W. of Sidmouth by the late Mr. Hutchinson have been reproduced in the Report for 1905. The Committee desire to record their thanks to the following gentle- men, who, though not on the Committee, have kindly aided the work by the contribution of most valuable lists and reports, viz., Messrs. H. A. Allen, A. R. Horwood, L. J. Wills, and D. M. S. Watson, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood. In existing circumstances your Committee do not ask to be reappointed, but, in view of the large amount cf work still to be done, may be allowed to express a hope that this research may be still further prosecuted in the future under the auspices of the British Association. Report on Footprints from the Trias. Part VI. By H. C. Brastey. A number of very imperfect examples of a large broad footprint of unusual form have been seen during the last few years at Storeton, but have been too imperfect for description. Within the last six months a few more perfect have been seen. The print shows four short stout toes, their length being only about three-quarters their breadth. The print itself is about 15 cm. in width, and length 12 cm., but the posterior margin is not defined. At about that distance from the termination of the toes it narrows to about 6 cm., and the print is often continued for a few inches the same width till it merges into the surface of the slab. 152 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIRNCH. The print as a whole is very symmetrical, the two middle toes are about the same size, and the two outer rather smaller, but similar to each other; the narrow hinder part of the print probably represents a portion of the leg. The sole is covered with ridges or folds following the outline of the toes, but on the palmar surface they are more or less parallel to the axis of the foot. Some doubt must exist as to their origin and whether they really represent the loose integument of the foot. One or two fairly perfect casts of deep impressions are from the Lower Keuper at Storeton, and an exactly similar print is in the Salford Museurn from Lymm, and they might be compared with some less well- defined prints in the Warwick Museum ‘ from the Upper Keuper.’ So far great uncertainty exists regarding it, both as to whether it represents the pes or manus. Further material may show us this, also if there is a trace of a fifth digit. The possibility of its having been formed by any movement of such a foot as A 2 or K has been considered, but it is highly improbable. It is advisable that this P A print should be recorded (bearing in mind that it is the print only, and not the foot, that is being described) under a special letter. P,a four-toed print, breadth rather greater than length, toes short and stout, breadth at base exceeding length. Breadth of foot greatest at root of toes, narrowing rapidly posteriorly till it joins the leg. No defined posterior margin. Two inner toes alike, two outer toes also alike, but rather smaller. (Plate IIT.) It is perhaps now advisable to summarise shortly the Reports on Triassic footprints. A good deal of new material has been examined since the earlier Reports were issued, and some qualifications or corrections may be necessary. The reasons for not giving generic and specific names to the various forms which were expressed in the earlier Reports still hold good. The identification of the animals who left the prints with any whose remains have been preserved is unfortunately not yet possible, and how far the different forms represent different species of animals is not absolutely certain. Under these circumstances the specific naming of the prints would tend to error and confusion, which would be a worse result than the slight inconvenience incidental to the system of identification by letters and numbers. It is still necessary to deal with them as prints only. The greater number fall into three groups, which have been called respectively Cheirotheroid, Rhynchosauroid, and Chelonoid, mostly represented by what appears to be the print of a hind foot. Cheirotheroid prints have five toes, of which the middle one is the longest and the fifth the shortest, and this is usually curved outwards. The palmar surface is about equal i in area to that covered by the toes, though usually only a portion is shown in the print. To this group belong forms A 1 to 4, B 1 and 2, K and L. The four forms A 1 to 8.and K form a complete series where the toes I. to IV., which in A 1 are somewhat longer proportionately than the fingers of the human hand, gradually become shorter and broader, and the V. toe decreases in size till in K there are four short broad toes, and there is no trace,of the impression of V. : | . ‘ ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THR TRIAS OF THR BRITISH ISLES. 153 Since the four forms just referred to were first described another form, A 4, has been found varying in a different way from A 1, which otherwise it strongly resembles ; the LY. toe in A 4 is relatively shorter, and generally carries a longer and more powerful nail than do the other toes. Accompanying this feature is a very different print of the manus; in A 1 and 2 the manus is about half the size of the pes and has five widely spread digits and forms a short broad print. In A 4 the print of the manus is very much smaller, has four very short broad digits, with occasionally a very uncertain trace of a fifth. A 4, however, resembles A 1 in having the skin of both pes and manus covered with small tubercles. A 4 has been found in series on the same slab with prints of Al. It has so far only been found at Storeton, but on slabs raised there at intervals of several years. Nothing has been found to indicate that these variations in form have been caused by difference in the material in which the first im- pressions were made; in fact, this is disproved by the different forms having been found in close proximity to each other on a perfectly uniform surface. Neither is there any indication of their occurring on different horizons. It may be worth noting that the forms A 1 to 4 are seldom, if ever, found at Runcorn, whilst they are common a few miles east and west, and that whilst A 2 is common on Lymm and Warrington slabs, it is rather rare at Storeton. The beds at each place are about the same age, although it seems difficult to correlate them with each other. There would seem to be little probability of a continuation of the same bed for any great distance if, as is now generally held to be the case, the beds represent the bottoms of isolated, somewhat temporary, pools or lagoons. It should also be borne in mind that no large extent of the surface of the footprint beds is exposed in quarries in the course of several years, and the prints of one or two species that happened to go to the water together have been seen, whilst the prints of other species may be hidden from us a few yards off on exactly the same horizon. The two small prints B 1 and 2 have not been recognised in any new material, neither has the small print ‘ L,’ which, though much smaller, resembles the pes of A except that there is no trace of the first or inner toe. The manus resembles that of A 4, but in the very few examples we have, only three digits areseen. The only example of this print in series is in the British Museum (Natural History) from Storeton, whence it must have been obtained some sixty years ago. A single print of the pes was found at Storeton a few years since, and another came from Guy’s Cliff, Warwick, so they cannot be the tracks of one abnormal individual. The Rhynchosauroid prints have five toes, little or no palmar surface, _ and the fourth toe the longest. -To this group belong D 1 to 7 and E. D 1 seems to be the most common form, and to approach nearest to what might be expected from Rhynchosaurus articeps. D2 is much like it, but the toes are narrower and not so generally curved. It is very seldom that in either form there is any trace of the impression of a web. A webbed foot would leave some trace of the web in all but very exceptional instances. However, on a slab in the British Museum (B 295) there is what appears to be a distinct web, and, as pointed out by Mr. D. G. S. Watson, there is another in the Manchester Museum.! In * Mr. Watson’s paper, ‘Some Reptilian Tracks from the Trias of Runcorn,’ pre- sented at the June meeting of the Geological Society, not yet printed. 154 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. both cases the foot is very like D 1. The digits are not spread and are very unlike D 4, from Upper Keuper of Shrewley, which is distinctly webbed. As regards the other forms there is nothing to add to the Report. As a whole this group would come very near Saurichnites lacertoides, as described by H. B. Geinitz in his ‘Dyas or Permian Formation,’ Leipzig, 1861, page 5; but no attempt has been made in this report to trace the relation of British footprints to those of the Continent. The Chelonoid prints, in some respects resembling the prints de- scribed by the pioneers of ichnology as those of tortoises, form the third group. ‘They may be described as short, broad prints, with short toes and strong claws, and with the palmar surface forming the larger part of the area of the print. They have been distinguished by the letter F’. I 1 is the simplest form, being merely an oval rounded surface with four or five dots representing nailmarks a short distance beyond the margin on one side. In F 2 the place of the oval marking is taken by a moulded surface giving some indication of the position of the bones of the foot, and - there are five short clawed digits. IF 1 may probably be the impression of such a foot as F 2 on rather hard mud. F 3 has rather longer digits than F 2, and it is uncertain if the manus has more than four that have left traces. All these prints when seen in series are found to have a very broad track. The print of the pes is frequently imposed on that of the manus of the same side; at other times the pes and manus are near to each other. The prints of this group differ widely from most of the other two groups. A distant resemblance led to a careful comparison with some of the prints from Corncockle Quarry, Dumfries, in beds at one time thought to be in the Trias, but now generally considered Permian. The comparison showed that none of our Triassic prints were at all identical with those figured in Jardine’s ‘ Ichnology of Annandale.’ Within the last few months Mr. Geo. Hickling has published a paper on British Permian footprints,’ in which he goes thoroughly into this question, and comes to the conclusion that the footprints from the Trias are quite unrepresented in the Permian of Dumfries, Penrith, Notting- hamshire, or South Devon, as far as at present explored. As pre- viously noted, there are several forms which do not readily fall into either of the three groups. These have been described as C and O in Report 1906, I in Report 1904, and P in the present Report, but no further knowledge concerning them has been yielded by new material. The print O is very interesting, as in some respects like the New England prints, and it is hoped that a further examination of the Hollington quarries may result in obtaining further examples. It is noteworthy that no prints have been recorded that might seem to be intermediate between the three groups, but it is sfill possible that such may yet be found when the innumerable small prints covering slabs in various collections have been more thoroughly examined. The question of the possibility of various forms resulting from the same foot being impressed on mud of differing consistency has been fre- quently referred to, and it is hoped that observations and experiments now in progress may lead to good results. 1 «British Permian Footprints,’ Memoirs Manchester Lit. Phil,' Soc., vol. liii. part 3 (June 18, 1909). British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg, 1209. | [Puate ITT. Illustrating the Seventh Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles. : ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 155 Note. CONTENTS OF REPORTS ON FOOTPRINTS. Report, 1908. Introduction and description of forms A 1 to3, K, B 1 and 2, and L. 904. . Description of D 1 to 5, E, F 1 and 2, Iand M. » 1905. Description of footprints in Warwick Museum. », 1906. Description of A 4 (manus only), D 6, C and O. 1907. Description of A 4, D 7, and F 3, and of Liverpool University slab of footprints by Mr. J. Lomas. », 1908. Description of tracks of invertebrates, &c. Part I. » 1909. Description of P and summary to date. Explanation of Plate III. Two natural casts of footprints described as ‘ P’ in present report from the Lower Keuper of Storeton in H. C. Beasley’s collection. No. 1] is in high relief, about 3 inches; No. 2 not more than 1} inch. There are other markings of uncertain origin on both slabs. The scale shown is one of 6 inches, Ona Skull of Rhynchosaurus in the Manchester Museum. By D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc. Rhynchosaurus is probably the best known of all the Triassic Rhyncho- cephalia, and an excellent account of its osteology, by Dr. A. Smith Woodward, was published in the Report of this Committee presented at the York meeting of the Association. This report shows that our knowledge of the base and back of the skull is defective, and as a specimen in the Manchester Museum shows some new features in this region, it seems worthy of some description. This skull was collected by Mr. G. C. Spence in 1895 from the quarry at Grinshill, which is the type locality. Mr. Spence roughly developed the anterior portion of the palate, and in 1907 presented the specimen to the Museum. When I first saw it, it was contained in two small ‘ blocks of coarse sandstone, which fitted together. One of these blocks retains the nasals and premaxille, and is separated from the other by a split, which cuts the palate about 1.5 cm. in front of the transpalatines. The other block contains the main mass of the skull, and now shows the whole of both upper and under surfaces, together with the posterior surfaces of the quadrates. The matrix is a coarse and very hard sandstone, the bone is extremely soft, so much so that it falls away as dust, after being exposed for a few days, when subjected to the jarring inevitable to the process of develop- ment; the skull is thus very largely represented by an internal cast, to which a certain amount of bone remains attached, forming a thin white layer ; nevertheless, certain points are exceedingly well displayed. I am unable to add anything to the account given by Dr. Woodward of the anterior part of the skull. The brain-case widens out posteriorly, and lateral processes are given off which underlie the corresponding inwardly directed processes of the squamosal. There is, however, certainly a bone overlying the squamosal, and apparently running straight across from side to side without any connection with the parietals: this bone is probably a separate ossification, the epiotic of the Stegocephalian skull. The squamosal is a triradiate bone; it differs from that figured by 156 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. other writers in the skull of Rhynchosaurus articeps in having a larger area. The internal ramus extends in, under the epiotic on both sides, and is hence not well exposed. The anterior ramus is about 1.7 cm. long and at least 1 cm. wide at its base; it is well shown on the left side to underlie the posterior ramus of the postorbital. The inferior ramus also expands into a plate of bone proximally ; this is confluent with that formed by the anterior ramus; there is hence a very considerable area of bone over the postero-lateral corners of the upper surface of the skull. The figures of Owen and Smith Woodward’s restored drawing represent the skull of Rhynchosaurus articeps as very slender in this region, and it is hence possible that the Manchester skull really represents a distinct species ; I am, however, very unwilling to found a new species on this one specimen. The relation of the squamosal to the quadrate and the quadratojugal is not now well seen in the specimen, mainly on account of the crumbling of the bone in this region. I was able to see during development that there was no foramen between the quadrate and the quadratojugal as there is in Sphenodon; a specimen in the Elgin Museum shows that Hyperodapedon resembles Rhynchosaurus in this respect. Both quad- rates are now exposed from the back in the Manchester Rhynchosaurus skull, but are badly preserved, the bone being very soft and friable. The lower temporal arcade is represented by a misplaced posterior ramus of the jugal, which forms a thin strip of bone about 3 cm. high and *7 cm. thick. The quadratojugal can be seen as a forward pro- jection from the distal end of the quadrate, but it is not well exposed. The anterior portion of the palate is badly preserved; the teeth, for example, have been destroyed. There are certain differences in this region between this specimen and that figured by Huxley and Smith Woodward; for example, a length of 30 mm. in the new specimen corresponds to 50 mm. in Huxley’s specimen, which measures about 42 mm. across the transpalatine region, as against 87 mm. in the new skull ; thus the snout of the new specimen is blunter than that of Huxley’s skull. This difference may be specific or may merely depend on differences of sex or age. The important new features presented by this specimen concern the pterygoids and basis cranii. The right pterygoid is almost completely preserved and exposed. The anterior ramus cannot be distinguished from the palatine; the external ramus forms a nearly vertical plate directed forward and out- ward at an angle of about 45° to the basicranial axis. This unites with the transpalatine, the two forming the usual downwardly directed process. The transpalatine forms the posterior edge of the palate and joins the maxilla probably near its junction with the jugal. The anterior and exterior rami of the pterygoid pass back, forming a vertical plate of bone over a centimetre deep, which joins on to the pterygoid process of the basisphenoid. How much of this plate is pterygoid and how much basisphenoid I cannot say. The plate is 3 mm. in antero-posterior length, and very thin. From its posterior and ventral margin is given off the posterior ramus, which is a narrow bar only 2mm. by 1 mm. in section, passing back to the quadrate, a distance of some 20 mm. Its junction with the quadrate is not exposed, and it is possible that it is slightly dislocated at this point. British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg, 1909. ] [Puate IV. jigelnele , ll fay Fags q.j. - post. pt. ‘Ta 9 post. pt. | Fie, 2 par. Sq. Ep. Illustrating the Seventh Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles. ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 157 The basisphenoid is exposed as a bone nearly 1 cm. wide between the down-turned pterygoid processes. This bone contracts behind to a width of about 5 mm. ; behind this it has two lateral wings, which are, however, badly preserved and exposed. These wings probably corre- spond with the two knobs which occur in Sphenodon just before the junction of the basisphenoid and basioccipital. The small piece of bone immediately behind is the basioccipital. This is 1.5 mm. long, and is succeeded by the atlas, which is not easily distinguished from it, being represented mainly by a hole. The palate, as a whole, much resembles that of Sphenodon, the chief differences being as follows: (1) There appears to be no suborbital foramen in front of the trans- palatine, whereas in Sphenodon there is a small one; this difference is not a very important one as is shown by the similar variation in Sauropterygians. (2) In the great height of the pterygoid process and attached ptery- goids Rhynchosaurus differs considerably from the condition in ~ Sphenodon. (3) The great distance between the two pterygoids in this region in Rhynchosaurus is also a conspicuous difference from the other genus. (4) The fact that the posterior ramus of the pterygoid is only a slender bar in the Triassic genus renders its appearance different from that of Sphenodon. The palate of Rhynchosaurus resembles strongly that of Hypero- dapedon in certain respects, whilst differing from it more widely than does that of Sphenodon in others. Apart from the dentition, the chief differences between the two Triassic genera are as follows : — (1) In Hyperodapedon the pterygoids meet in the middle line and appear completely to conceal the basisphenoid from a ventral view; this is a pronounced difference from Rhynchosaurus, in which the whole of the basis cranii can be seen from below. (2) In Hyperodapedon the pterygoids appear to be only just below the main ventral surface of the basisphenoid, and are possibly in actual contact with it, whilst in Rhynchosaurus they are carried down on two long processes to about 1 cm. below that level. In these two respects Sphenodon seems to be exactly between the fossil genera. On the other hand, these latter agree in the absence of any infraorbital foramen and of the foramen between the quadrate and the quadratojugal. They also agree in the very pronounced downward curve of the premaxille, which in the recent Sphenodon bears two teeth and is not itself appreciably decurved. On the whole of the evidence, I think that Rhynchosaurus and Hyperodapedon should not be placed in the same family, but that they should be included in a super-family, which would most probably also include Stenometopon, but not Sphenodon. Explanation of Plate IV. Fig, 1.—Under surface of the skull of Rhynchosaurus in the Manchester Museum. Nat. size. ju. Anterior end of the misplaced jugal. q- je The quadratojugal. post. pt. The posterior ramus of the pterygoid B. 8. The basisphenoid, 158 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Fig. 2.—The right side of the same skull as it would appear if bisected by a sagittal section and viewed from the middle line. To show that the basis cranii lies far below the level of the palate. Reference letters as in fig. 1. Fig. 3.—Photograph of the upper surface of the back of the skull. x 13 approx. To show the epiotic (Ep.) overlying the squamosals (sqg.), which in turn overlie the parietals (par.), Bibliographical Notes upon the Flora and Fauna of the British Keuper. By A. R. Horwoop. Lists dealing with the paleontology of the Leicestershire Upper Keuper and some neighbouring localities, and a bibliography relating to the same, were published in the Trias Report for 1907. In the last year’s Report (1908) a list of the fossils from certain counties, which had not so far found a place in these Reports, was published, together with a bibliography of works relating to the flora and fauna from 1826 to 1876. The present communication is complementary to the two former lists, bringing the literature up to date from 1877 onward, and bringing together in one accessible bibliography all the works included in the Reports not so far arranged chronologically ; and to these are added 2 number of papers not hitherto noted therein. Furthermore, the analysis of the paleontology of each work given at the end will serve, it is hoped, as a useful summary of the subject-matter in this connection. In view of the fact that certain beds previously classed as Permian exhibit a typical Triassic vertebrate fauna, as remarked by Mr. H. A. Allen (Trias Report, 1908), some of the records which were regarded as referring to the Permian are included here. At the same time, the fact must not be ignored, in questions of this kind, that footprints resembling Triassic footprints have been discovered in the Permian beds of Mansfield,t Nottinghamshire, and in the Lower Sandstones of the Exeter district.2 Indeed, there is, according to Mr. G. Hickling, some doubt as to whether the Elgin sandstones are not also Permian,’ though Dr. F. von Huene* correlates these latter with the Dolomitic Con- glomerate and German Lettenkohle (Lower Keuper). 1. Agassiz, L.—1835-1844 ‘Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles,’ ii. pt. i p. 303. Palcwoniscus catopterus (Ag.), Keuper, Roan Hill, Tyrone. 2. Riley, H., and S. Stutchbury.—1836 ‘A Description of Fossil remains of three distinct Saurian animals recently discovered in the Magnesian Conglomerate near Bristol’ (‘ Geol. Trans.,’ v. 2nd series, 1836, p. 549). Palawosaurus platyodon (R. and 8.), P. cylindrodon (R. and S.), and 7'hecodontosaurus sp., Magnesian Conglomerate, Durdham Down. 3. Buckland, Rev. W.—1837 ‘Geology and Mineralogy considered with ceference to Natural Theology,’ 2nd edition (vol i. pp. 259-266; vol. ii. pl. 26). Cheirotherium, Trias, Dumfries. 4. Egerton, Sir P. de Grey.—1838 ‘ On two casts of Impressions of the Hind Foot of a gigantic Cheirotherium from the New Red Sandstone of Cheshire’ (‘ Proc. Geol. Soc.,’ iii., p. 14). Cheirotherium, Trias, Tarporley. 5. Ward, Dr. O. D.—1839 ‘ On Footprints and Ripplemarks of the New Red Sandstone at Grinshill, Shropshire’ (‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’). (?) Rhynchosaurus, Lower Keuper, Grinshill. 2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lxii. 1906, pp. 125-131. 2 Tbid., vol. lxiv. 1908, pp. 496-500 and pl. li. 3’ Mem. Manch. Geol. Soc. 1909, paper in press. “ Geol. Mag. 1908, pp. 98-99. ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 159 6. Owen, Sir R.—1842 ‘ Description of an Extinct Lacertilian Reptile, Rhyncho- saurus articeps’ (‘ Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc.,’ xii. pp. 355-369, pl. lv., vi.). Rhyncho- saurus articeps (Owen), Lower Keuper, Grinshill. } 7. Agassiz, L.—1844 ‘Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles du Vieux Grés Rouge’ (p. 139). Stagonolepis Robertsoni (Ag.), Trias, Lossiemouth. 8. Black, Dr. J.—1846 ‘ Observations on a Slab of New Red Sandstone from the Quarries of Weston, near Runcorn, Cheshire. Certain Impressions of Foot- prints in other marking’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ ii. p. 479). Chelone sub- rotundus (Morton), Lower Keuper Sandstone, Weston. - ' 9. Cunningham, J.—1848 ‘Proc. Liverp. Lit. and Phil. Soc.,’ i. Cheiro- therium minus (Sickler), Lower Keuper, Flaybrick Hill, Birkenhead. 10. Lloyd, Dr. T.—1849 ‘Rep. Brit. Assoc., Trans. Sects., p. 56. Dasyceps Bucklandi (Lloyd), Permian (?), Kenilworth. 11. Quenstedt, F. A.—1850 ‘ Die Mastodonsaurier,’ p. 16, pl. ii. fig. 2. On Capitosaurus. 12. Mantell, G. A.—1852 ‘ Description of the J'elerpeton Liginense, a Fossil Reptile recently discovered in the Old Red Sandstone of Moray, with Observa- tions on supposed Fossil Ova ; of Ova of Batrachians in the Lower Devonian Strata of Forfarshire’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ viii. pp. 100-5, pl. iv.). Z'elerpeton elginense (Mant.), Keuper, Elgin. 13. Egerton, Sir P. de G.—1854 ‘ On a Fossil Fish from the Upper Beds of the New Red Sandstone at Bromsgrove’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ x. pp. 567-371, pl. xi.). Dipteronotus cyphus (Kg.), ‘ Bunter,’ Bromsgrove. 14. Brodie, Rev. P. B.—1856 ‘On the Upper Keuper Sandstone (included in the New Red Marl) of Warwickshire’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xii. p. 574). Description of section of Upper Keuper Sandstone at Shrewley, Plants, Ystheria minuta (Alberti), Mollusca, Footprints, Tracks, &c. 15. Brodie, Rev. P. B.—1858 ‘ Notes on the Occurrence of a New Species of Fish in the Upper Keuper Sandstone in Warwick’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xiv. p. 165). Dictyopyge (Palc«oniscus) superstes (Eg.). Upper Keuper, Row- ington. 16. Egerton, Sir P. de G.—1858 ‘On Palconiscus superstes’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xiv. p. 164, pl. xi. figs. 1-4). Palconiscus catopterus (Ag.), Keuper. Roan Hill, Tyrone. 17. Hancock, A.—1858 ‘Remarks on certain vermiform Fossils found in the Mountain Limestone districts of the North of England’ (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ li. 3rd series, p. 443) 18. Meyer, H. von.—1858 ‘ Paleontographica,’ vi. p. 228, pl. xxvili. fig. 1. 19. Howell, 'H. H.—1859 ‘The Geology of the Warwickshire Coalfield’ (‘ Mem. Geol. Sury.,’ p. 32). Breea eulassoides, Caulerpites oblongus, C. triangu- laris, Permian (?), Meriden. (Vide also Phillips’ ‘Geol. of Oxford.’ 1871.) Huxley, T. H.—1859 ‘On the Stagonolepis Robertsoni (Agassiz) of the Elgin Sandstones, and on the recently discovered Footmarks in the Sandstones of Cummingstone’ (‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xv. pp. 440-460, pl. xiv. fig. 4). Hyperodapedon Gordoni (Huxley), Trias, Lossiemouth ; Footprints, Trias, Cum- mingstone. 21. Huxley, T. H.—1859 in H. H. Howell’s ‘The Geology of the Warwick- shire Coalfield, and the Permian Rocks and Trias of the surrounding district’ (‘ Mem. Geol. Surv.’). ZLabyrinthodon sp., Lower Keuper, Cubbington. (?Zaby- rinthodon Lavisi.) 22. Owen, Sir R.—1859 ‘ Notes on the Affinities of Rhynchosaurus’ (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ [3], iv. pp. 237-238). Rhynchosaurus articeps (Owen), Lower Keuper, Grinshill. 5. Jones, T. R.—1862 ‘A Monograph of the Fossil Estherie’ (‘ Pal. Soc.,’ p. 57, pl. ii.). Records of Estheria. 24. Owen, Sir R.—1862 ‘ Notice of a Skull and parts of the Skeleton of Rhynchosaurus articeps’ (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ pp. 466-467, pl. xxv.). Rhynchosaurus articeps (Owen), Lower Keuper, Grinshill. 25. Morton, G. H.—1863 (‘ Proc. Liverp. Geol. Soc.,’ i.). Cheirotherium stor- tonense, suggested. 26. Huxley, T. H.—1867 ‘On a specimen of 7'elerpeton elginense’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxiii., Proc. pp. 77-84, text figures, A—E). 7'elerpeton elginense (Mant.), Trias, Lossiemouth. 27. Williamson, W. C.—1867 ‘ Cheirotherium Footprint from the Base of the Keuper Sandstone, Daresbury’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxiii. pp. 56-7, 160 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. pl. i. fig. i1., and ibid., xxii. pp. 534-5). Footprint of Cheirotherium, Lower Keuper, Daresbury. 28. Huxley, T. H.—1869 ‘On Hyperodapedon’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxv., Proc. pp. 138-152). Hyperodapedon G'ordoni (Huxley), Trias, Elgin ; Lower Keuper, Coton ape Keuper, Left Bank of River Otter, Budleigh, Devon. 29. Etheridge, R.—1870 ‘On the Geological Position and Geographical Dis- tribution of the Reptilian or Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Bristol area’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxvi. pp. 174-192). Thecodontosaurus, Pala«osaurus, Dolo- mitic Conglomerate, Bristol; Hyperodapedon, Devon. 30. Huxley, T. H.—1870 ‘ On the Classification of the Dinosauria, with obser- vations on the Dinosauria of the Trias’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxvi. pp. 52-51, pl. iii. fig. 4). ZUhecodontosaurus cylindrodon (R. and 8.), Lower Keuper, Coton End ; 7'eratosaurus (Zanclodon), Coton End. 31. Irving, Rev. A.—1874 ‘ On the Geology of the Nottingham District ’ (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ pp. 314-9). Footprints of Cheirotherium, Castle Donington, doubtless meant for Weston, oes Colwick, near Nottingham. 52. Traquair, R. H.—1877 ‘ ‘On the Agassizian genera Amblypterus, Paliwo- niscus, Gyrolepis, and Pygopterus’ (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxxiii. p. 567). Dictyop yge catoptera (Ag), Keuper, Roan Hill, Tyrone. 33. Miall, L. C.—1878 ‘A Monograph of the Sirenoid and Crossopterygian Ganoids,’ pt. i. (‘ Pal. Soc.,’ p. 32, pl. v. fig. 2). Ceratodus levissimus (L. C. Miall), Upper Keuper, Ripple, Worcestershire; Lower Keuper, Coton End, War- wickshire. 54. Sollas, W. J.—1879 ‘On some Three-toed Footprints from the Triassic Conglomerate of South Wales’ (‘Quart Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxxv. pp. 511-516). Brontozoum Thomasi (Sollas), Trias Conglomerate, Newton Nottage, Glamorgan. 55. Nathorst, A. G.—1880 ‘ On some Tracks of Invertebrates, &c. ; and their Paleontological Bearing’ (‘Kon. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handlingur.,’ band 18, No. 7). 56. Hughes, T. McKenny.—1884 ‘Some Tracks of Terrestrial and Freshwater Animals ’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xl. p. 178, pl. 7-11). 37. Huxley, T. H.—1887 ‘ Further Observations upon Hyperodapedon Gor- dont’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xiii. pp. 675-694, pl. xxvii.). Hyperodapedon Gordoni (Huxley), Trias, Lossiemouth; and on Rhynchosaurus articeps (Owen). 38. Newton, E. T.—1887 ‘On the Remains of Fishes from the Keuper of Warwick and Nottingham, with notes on their mode of occurrence by the Rev. P. B. Brodie and E. Wilson’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xliii. pp. 537-543, pl. xxii.). Semionotus Brodiei (Newt.), Upper Keuper, Shrewley ; Lower Keuper, Colwick, Notts. 39. Zittel, K. A. von.—1887-8 ‘Handbuch der Palwontologie,’ iii. p. 203 and p. 404, £. 396). Palwoniscus superstes (Ag.), Trias, Tyrone ; and on Capitosaurus. 40. Woodward, A. 8.—1889 ‘ On the so-called Hybodus keuperinus (Murch. and Strickl.), Paleichthyological Notes, No. 1 (‘ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (6), ii. p. 297, pl. xiv. figs. 1-3) On Acrodus keuperinus (M. and 8.), Worcestershire, Warwickshire. 41. Woodward, A. S.—1889 ‘ On Diplodus Moores ‘sp. nov., from the Keuper of Somersetshire’ (‘ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (6), ili. p. 299, ‘pl. xiv. figs. 4, 5). Diplodus Moorei (A. 8. Woodw.), Keuper, Ruishton, Somersetshire. 42. Woodward, A. S.—1889 ‘Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum’ pt. i. p. 281. Acrodus keuperinus (M. and S.), Upper Keuper, Worcestershire; Pendock, Ripple, Burge Hill; and Shrewley and Rowington, Warwickshire. 43. Lydekker, R.—1890 ‘ Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum,’ iv. p. 217. Chirosaurus stantonensis (Morton), Lower Keuper, Storeton, Lymm. 44. Morton, G. H.—1891 ‘Geology of the Country around Liverpool,’ 2nd edition, pp. 106, 299, 300, &. Cheirotherium stortonense, C. minus, Rhyncho- saurus articeps (Owen), Rh. minimus, Rh. (7?) tumidus, Chelone (?) subrotundus, Equisetum keuperinum, Lower Keuper, Storeton, &c. 45. Gordon, Rev. G.—1892 ‘ Reptiliferous ‘Sandstones of Elgin’ (‘ Trans. Geol. Soc. Edin.’ ). 46. Newton, E. T.—1893 ‘On some New Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstone’ (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ clxxxiv. p. 431, &c.). Llginia mirabilis, Gordonia Traquairi, @. Huzleyana, G. Duffiana, G@. Juddiana, Geikia elginensis, Hyperodapedon Gor- doni (Huxley), Trias, Cuttie’s Hillock. — . ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 161 47. Woodward, A. 8.—1895 ‘ Some Extinct Sharks and Ganoid Fishes’ (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ xii. pp. 282-3, pl. x. figs. 1-5). Ceratodus levissimus (Miall), Upper Keuper, Ripple; Acrodus keuperinus (M. and 8.), Lower Keuper, Coton End; Phabodus Brodiei (A. 8. W.), Worcestershire, Warwickshire; Upper Keuper, Shrewley. 48. Jefis, O. W.—1894 ‘ Notes on a series of Fossil Footprints from Storeton, in Cheshire ’ (‘ Jour. Liv. Geol. Assoc.,’ xiv.). Rhynchosaurus (?) tumidus (Morton), Lower Keuper, Storeton; Chirosaurus stortonensis, Lower Keuper, Storeton; Ithynchosaurus stortonensis, Lower Keuper, Storeton. 49. Newton, HE. T.—1894 ‘ Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstone—Description of two New Genera’ (Phil. Trans., clxxxv. p. 574). Ornithosuchus Woodwardi (N.), Trias, Spynie ; Yrpetosuchus Granti (N.), Trias, Loissiemouth. 50. Newton, R. b.—1894 ‘ Note on some Molluscan Remains lately discovered in the English Keuper’ (‘Journ. of Conch.,’ vii. p. 408). Thracia Brodiei (R. B. N.), Pholadomya Richardsi (R. B. N.), Nucula keuperina (R. B. N.), Upper Keuper Sandstone, Shrewley. 51. Beasley, H. C.—1896 ‘An Attempt to Classify the Footprints in the New Red Sandstone of this district ’ (‘ Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc.,’ ii. pp. 391-409, pl. i.-iii.). Rhynchosaurus minimus (Morton), &c. 52. Beasley, H. C.—1896 ‘ Observations regarding a Footprint from the Upper Keuper Sandstone at Storeton, with a Note on the Probable Structure of the Foot by Professor H. G. Seeley, F.G.S., &c.’ (‘ Trans. Liv. Biol. Soc.,’ xi. p. 179, pl. vii). Chelone (7?) subrotundus (Morton), Lower Keuper Sandstone, Storeton. 53. Beasley, H. C.—1898 ‘Notes on Examples of Footprints, &c., from the Trias in some Provincial Museums’ (‘ Proce. Liv. Geol. Noc.,’ vili. pp. 233-4. Footprints, Lower Keuper Sandstone, Storeton, &c. 54. Jones, Professor T. R.—1898 ‘On some Triassic (?) Estheriz from the Red Beds or Cimorron Series of Kansas’ (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ pp. 291-3, fig. 3). Hstheria minuta (Alberti). 55. Burckhardt, R.—1900 ‘On Hyperodapedon Gordoni’ (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ 4, vii. pp- 486-492 and 529-554, text-fig. 3). Hyperodapedon Gordoni (Huxley), Trias, Lossiemouth. 56. Ward, J.—1900 ‘On the Occurrence of Labyrinthodont Remains in the Keuper Sandstone of Stanton’ (‘ Trans. N. Staffs Field Club,’ xxxiv. pl. iv. and y. p. 108). Capitosaurus stantonensis (A. 8. W.), Lower Keuper, Stanton, near Norbury. 57. Beasley, H. C.—1901 ‘Notes on the Type Specimen of Cheirotherium herculis’ (Egerton) (‘ Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc.,’ ix., p. 81, pl. v. and p. 203). Cheirotherium stortonense (Morton), Lower Keuper, Storeton. 58. Beasley, H. C.—1901 ‘On two Footprints from the Lower Keuper and their relation to Cheirotherium stortonense’ (‘ Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc.,’ ix. p. 238, pl. 15). Cheirotherium, Lower Keuper, Storeton. 59. Beasley, H. C.—1901 (‘ Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc.,’ ix. p. 289, pl. 15). Cheiro- therium minus, Lower Keuper, Storeton. 60. Lomas, J.—1901 ‘ On the Occurrence of Estheria and Plant Remains in the Keuper Marls at Oxton, Birkenhead’ (‘ Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc.,’ p. 77, pl. iv.). Estheria minuta (Alberti) var. Brodieana, Keuper Marl, Oxton, near Birkenhead. 61. Thompson, Beeby.—1902 ‘Some Trias Sections in South Staffordshire ’ (‘Geol. Mag.,’ Dec., iv. ix.). (Vide also ‘Journ. Northants Nat. Hist. Soc.,’ 1902, pp. 21-2). Rhynchosaurus and Cheirotherium, Upper Keuper, Chillington. 62. Woodward, A. S.—1902 ‘ Footprints from the Keuper of South Stafford- shire *.(‘Geol. Mag.,’ pp. 215-7). (Also ‘Journ. Northants Nat. Hist. Soc.,’ 1902, pp- 22-4). Rhynchosaurus sp., Cheirotherium sp., Upper Keuper, Chillington. 63. Boulenger, G. A.—1903 (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ excvi. B, p. 175). Ornithosuchus Woodwardi (N.), Trias, Spynie; Stenometopon Taylori (Boul.), Trias, Lossie- mouth. 64. Boulenger, G. A.—1904 (‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’). Telerpeton elginense (Boul.), Trias, Lossiemouth. 65. Woodward, A. §8.—1904 (‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ ii. p. 170, pl. xi.). Capito- saurus stantonensis (A. 8. W.), Lower Keuper, Stanton, N. Staffs. 66. Branson. E. B.—1905 ‘Structure and Relationships of American Laby- rinthodontid ’ (‘ Amer Geol.,’ xii. pp. 568-610, figs. 4, 10, and 13). 67. Arber, E. A. N.—1907 ‘On Triassic Species of the Genera Zamites and Pterophyllum: types of fronds belonging to the Cycadophyta’ (‘ Trans. Linn. 1909. M t 162 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Soc.,’ viii. pt. 7, pp. 109-127, pl. xvii.-xix.). Zamites grandis (Arber), Lower Keuper, Bromsgrove. 68. Beasley, H. C.—1907 ‘ The Storeton Find of 1906’ (‘ Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc.,’ 1907, pp. 157-171). 69. Wills, L. J.—1907 ‘On some Fossiliferous Keuper Rocks at Bromsgrove, Worcestershire’ (‘Geol. Mag.,’ December 5, iv. p. 28). Numerous plant, crus- *tacea, fish, and other vertebrate remains. (Vide Trias Report, 1907.) 70. Huene, Dr. F. von.—1908 ‘ Kine zvsammenstellung tiber die englische Trias und das alter ihrer Fossilien’ (‘ Centr. fiir miner. Geol. und Palaont.,’ No. 1, pp. 9-17). A summary of the British Keuper Flora and Fauna. 71. Huene, Dr. F. von.—1908 ‘On Phytosaurian Remains from the Magnesian Conglomerate of Bristol’ (Zileya platyodon) (‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ 8th series, 1. pp. 228-230, pl. vi.). ileya platyodon (R. and 8.), Dolomitic Con. glomerate, Bristol. 72. 'Huene, Dr. F. von.—1908 ‘ On the Age of the Reptile Faunas contained in the Magnesian Conglomerate at Bristol and in the Elgin Sandstone’ (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ Dec. 5, v. pp. 99-100). 75. Arber, E. A. N.—1909 ‘On the Affinities of the Triassic Plant Yuccites vogesiacus, Schimper and Mougeot’ (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ December 5, vi. pp. 11-14). The name Zamites grandis (Arber), first proposed, is rejected in favour of the older Yuccites vogesiacus, Schimper et Mougeot, from the Bunter, with which it is regarded as identical, though the Monocotyledonous affinity suggested in the latter generic name is not intended to be perpetuated by the retention of the earlier combination. Preliminary Notice of the Occurrence of Footprints in the Lower Keuper Sandstone of Leicestershire. By A. R. Horwoop. Smee no authentic specimens of footprints from Leicestershire * have, until recently, been forthcoming, it is of some interest to briefly note here the existence of a fairly well-marked example, with all but one digit intact, of Cheirotherium, very similar to forms found at Storeton, described by Mr. H. C. Beasley as A 8, and resembling Cheirotherium herculis (Kg.). This specimen was found thirty years ago by Mr. J. Large, in excavations for a house at a depth of about 8 feet below the surface, on the Derby Road at Kegworth, in North Leicestershire. It is interesting, moreover, to note by the way that the nearest locality at which these footprints had been obtained hitherto, Weston-on-Trent, Derbyshire, on the north bank of the river Trent, is distant from Keg- worth only about six miles. The rareness of their occurrence in this part of the country is, however, sufficient reason for their record here. The sandstone in which the present example was found (which it is hoped to describe more fully later) is a greenish sandstone passing into ‘ skerry ’ of the Lower Keuper intercalated in the red marls, with way-boards or partings of a reddish, flaggy sandstone. Its existence was made known during excavations for the Derwent Valley Water Board, a scheme by which the boroughs of Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, and Sheffield receive water from the waters of the rivers Derwent and Ashop and higher ground in Yorkshire. These excavations show that nearly opposite the site of the house mentioned a small excavation had been made in the sandstone below the made ground covering the sandstone, giving the appearance in the 6 to 7-feet sewer trench of a deep V-shaped gully, but whether this extended laterally up to the house itself is not known. The sandstone thins out towards 1 Those recorded in the Report for 1907 are not forthcoming, so that some doubt must be entertained as to their nature, and they are also from the Upper Keuper sandstone. FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 163 the river Trent about twenty yards (or rather less) from the spot where the footprint was found, and in the excavations entirely disappeared. The surface of the greenish (and red) sandstone is here frequently covered with ripple-marks of various sizes, ‘and with considerable variation in the distance between the crest and furrows of each. There are also sun-cracks both along the furrows and preserved separately, having a honeycomb arrangement formed of quadrilateral areas divided by raised ridges, rain-pittings, silt-marks, &c., and pseudo-morphs of salt-crystals (only one specimen of these was found). The footprint referred to was the only organic object found, unless some tracks, probably of invertebrates, are sufficiently definite to include here. The specimen came to light through the finding of two slabs of supposed foot- prints at the top of the sandstone by the gully mentioned, which were reported to the writer, but turned out to be inorganic casts of some concretionary structure. Within the sandstone similar cavities were filled like a geode with thin films of pink and orange-coloured fibrous gypsum. Investigation of the Igneous and Associated Rocks of the Glen- saul and Lough Nafooey Areas, Co. Galway.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Warts (Chair- man), Professor S. H. Reynoups (Secretary), Mr. H. B. Mavre, and Mr. C. I. GARDINER. (Drawn up by Mr. C. I. Gardiner and the Secretary.) Mr. C. I. Garprver and the Secretary visited Connemara in April and completed their field work on the Glensaul district, commencing, in addition, to map the Lough Nafooey district. The Glensaul district is a small one, measuring only about 2 x 1 miles. It is about three miles S.W. of the Southern extremity of the Tourmakeady district, recently described,’ of which it is clearly a con- tinuation, the type of sedimentary rock met with in the two being prac- tically identical. The general succession is: F Ill. ?Bala Beds—conglomerate and sandstone. These have not been studied. II. Llandeilo Beds. (5) Calcareous gritty tuff, passing in places into fairly pure limestone, and enclosing hands and patches of limestone breccia and bands of highly fossili- ferous limestone, which in some cases has been shattered by earth movement . . : . Thickness doubtful. (4) Very coarse tuff or breccia mainly composed of felsite fragments ; . < : . 750 feet, (3) Tuff coarse and fine with occasional patches of calcareous beds . : : ; : : . 150 feet. (2) Great felsite sill of Tonaglanna and Greenaun ._‘11,200 feet. (1) Tuff with some grit , : ; 5 : . 600 feet. ! Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. xv. 1909, pp. 104-153. M 2 164 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. I. Arenig Beds. (4) Coarse grit . ‘ : ; , : é . 150 feet. (3) Fine grit and tuff associated with black chert, graptolitic shale, and a prominent band of breccia 30 feet thick . E : - : . Thickness doubtful. (2) Coarse grit. : : : : : . 110 feet. (1) Coarse conglomerate. ; ; 5 : . About 600 feet seen. The black shales have yielded the following considerable series of graptolites, which have been kindly determined hy Miss G. I. Elles, D.Sc., and indicate the zone of Didymograptus extensus. The associated cherts contain radiolaria :— GRAPTOLITES FROM THE ARENIG BEDS OF GLENSAUL. Dictyonema, sp. Thamnograptus, sp. a Dendrograptid. Didymograptus eatensus, Hall (common). Tetragraptus pendens, Elles, D. filiformis, Tullberg. T. Amii, Lapworth M.S. D. fasciculatus, Nich. T. quadribrachiatus, Hall. D. bifidus, Hall. Clonograptus Lapworthi, Rued. D. gracilis, Térnquist. In the Llandeilo rocks, both limestone and tuff, a large number of generally rather fragmentary fossils was found, which are being deter- mined by Mr. F. R. Cowper Reed. The crystalline igneous rocks, all of which we believe to be intrusive, are by no means so varied as in the Tourmakeady district, and are practically limited to one broad band of felsite, which is noteworthy from the fact that it almost everywhere contains pyroxene. The district is much faulted, large faults bound it on the EH. and W., a somewhat complicated system of faults approximately parallel to these bounding faults intersects it, and there are other dislocations of importance. Composition and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey.— Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. Harker (Chairman), Mr. EK. GREENLY (Secretary), Dr. C. A. Matuey, and Professor K. J. P. Orton. Tue Committee record with great regret the loss they have sustained. in the death of Mr. J. Lomas, which occurred in the prosecution of geological research in Algeria. The work of the year has included the completion of the series of analyses of rocks of the hornfels type in Central Anglesey ; and now the pillowy diabase lavas with jaspers and other associated rocks (perhaps the most important in the island; of far-reaching importance, indeed, among ancient rocks beyond its limits) are being proceeded with. A series, also, of limestones and mudstones from the Carboniferous lime- stone and Old Red rocks have been analysed, which were collected during the survey of the Carboniferous limestone area in 1907 and upon which chemical information was greatly needed. Lastly, a gneissose marble, containing pseudomorphs after Forsterite, has been analysed. All the analyses are by Mr. John Owen Hughes, B.Sc., who con- tinues to devote to this work whatever time is allowed by his duties as Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University College of North Wales. _ ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 165 No. 5574. 7 S.E. Cromlech. SiO, . Al,O, Fe,O, FeO . MnO CaO . MgO . K Om Na,O . : . H,O (at 110° C.) H,0O (above 110°) Hornfels. Bodafon Mountain. IE, 58°52 23°40 3:02 2°30 Noe 99°67 peace He oo Hane 99-68 This rock completes the series from the hornfels associated with the granite. The high alkali percentage in some of these suggested doubts as to whether they could be of sedimentary origin. The alkalies are, how- ever, quite as high in this rock, and of its sedimentary origin there can be no doubt, the evidence in the field and under the microscope being decisive. It is from the beds which pass under the great quartzite of Bodafon Mountain, and was obtained in a small quarry which was made, with most fortunate results, right through the junction, in the spring Dolerite. 22N.W. Boss S.W. of Bryn Lhvyd. of 1908. No. 1074. i BiO>, a. ; : 47°43 iO}. 7: ‘ : trace AlLOpres : : 17-58 Hes0} : d 2°08 FeO). : : 7-45 Nao). : é trace CaO’. : ; 10-92 MgO . , - 6-71 EO), : 2 trace NaSO- 5 : ; 3°89 HZO(at 10a) 0-25 H,0 (above 110°) . 2°65 315 le le ES 0°53 99°49 ils Ill. 47-47 3°50 99°56 ie 4:23 No. 1074.’ This is the pillow diabase lava of the Newborough district, from the best sections, where it is quite undeformed and unaltered. No. 518A, 22 8. Cerig Mawr. SiO, . Al,0, Fe,0,. Alkalies Jasper. In Ellipsoidal Diabase. lr 88:01 1:36 10°68 None 100°05 166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. This is the jasper which occurs in the interstices of the pillowy diabase. It will be seen that the analysis is quite unlike that of any felsite or rhyolite, unless such a rock had been altered by introduc- tion of silica and iron, and of such a phenomenon there is no evidence whatever on the ground. ‘The relations, moreover, of the jasper to the diabase are quite inconsistent with such a view. Llanddwyn, near 312A. Dolomitic Limestone. Percentage MnO='01 ae N00, 016 This is to supplement an analysis made in a former year of a limestone associated with the pillowy lavas and jaspers. Jaspers occur in these limestones, as well as in the lavas. They frequently have a delicate rose colour, and this, it will be seen, is due to sub- stitution in the carbonate of a small percentage of rhodochrosite. Nos. 548 and 549 have been selected as extreme types of the lime- stones of the Carboniferous series, some of which are thick-bedded, light coloured, clean, and crystaline; the others thin-bedded, dark coloured, earthy, and compact. No. 548A. White Limestone. Carboniferous. Benllech Cove. ig Il Residues insoluble in HCl , H))0:32 O41 BROS We OLS Pi Aig tone sae eye. 0-19 CaO ©. 3 : ‘ : ; « 55743 55°37 MgO. 5 : : ; “ = -- GO; . : ‘ ‘ ‘ ; . 4416 44-19 100:08 100°16 Percentage CaCO, 98:98 98°87 Very white and crystalline. Its purity is remarkable. Corals are often abundant in the limestone of this type. No, 549A. Black Limestone. Carboniferous. Benllech Sand. it aE, Residues insoluble in HCl 5 . 22°02 21°66 Al,O,+ Fe,O, . ; : : . 0:24 0-49 CaO F . F : : 22 AlibT 41°61 MgO m , . ; - Se leo 1:16 COs ; . ‘ ‘ ; oye} 33°91 98°73 98°83 Undetermined = 1:27 117 Percentage CaCO, = 74°23 74°30 The insoluble portion has the following composition :— BAGS Sh, Wey PRU es wtp ratins er 90:23 ALOreHs.O1 i Geethe fF be eaeee 9°28 99°95 99°51 ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 167 The undetermined part consists of free carbon and some volatile sul- phides. During the grinding process the smell of H.S or some organic sulphide was detected, and lead acetate paper was blackened when held near the freshly-ground rock. An attempt was made to dry distil the rock and condense the vapours evolved, and this was partly successful. When the powdered rock was strongly heated fumes were evolved having an offensive odour resembling that of petroleum as well as H.S, and which were condensed to a pale yellow oil; as, however, only about three drops were collected it could not be further examined. Further examination of this rock would be of great interest. This rock is thin-bedded, compact, and very dark. Corals are rare, and indeed fossils generally less abundant than in the other type, except in certain seams in which are large numbers of Produclus giganteus. Nos. 546,, 5474, have been examined on account of the dolomitic appearance that certain beds assume in the neighbourhood of masses of coral. No. 546A. G'rey Limestone. Carboniferous. Penrhyn y Gell. Traeth Bychan. T II. Residues insoluble in HCl ; ae (i9o 799 Al,0,+ FeO, . ; s , =) O:62 0°58 CaQ. : P : ; : . 50°49 50°53 MeO. ; ‘ : ; : . 069 0-51 COy-. A ; : $ 3 . 40°42 40°35 100-15 99-96 Percentage CaCO,= 90°16 90:23 This is a massive, lightish grey limestone, of a type that makes up a great part of the Carboniferous series. The percentage of insoluble residues is higher than might have been expected from the appearance of the rock. No. 547A. From same bed as 5AGA, but close to a coral. Ts TT; Residues insoluble in- HCl ‘ - O24 018 Al,O, 5 : 5 , ‘ ~~ O63 0:69 Fe,0, ’ : : : 4 ee LAB 1:34 FeO . : : é . ; lasts 5-63 CaO . 4 t F ‘ 5230525 30°36 MgO. ; c : E I . 16:22 16°19 (1 NE ASE SSC Me BME? twee 45°69 100°12 100°08 Percentage FeCQ,= 8:99 9:07 LS CaCO, = 5401 54°19 3 Mg CO, = 34-06 33:99 It will be seen that in the neighbourhood of the coral, iron as well as magnesium replaces calcium in the carbonate, and that the soluble _ residues sink from nearly 8 to less than *5 per cent. 168 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. No. 544A. Mass of Dolomite in Carboniferous Conglomerate. Lliqgny Bay. I, THE, Residues insoluble in HCl : + OR, 1:21 Al,0O,+Fe,O, . 3 : : A pelle@ikss 17-07 CaO . i 2 : : : . 29°67 29°88 MgO. 3 , ; : ’ . 10:02 9°95 COpae ; : : ; : . 42:28 42-22 100-15 100°33 Percentage CaCO, = 52°98 53°35 + MeCO, = 21:04 20°89) This is from some curious, irregular masses that occur in very coarse conglomerates at the base of the Carboniferous series. No, 5114. Red Muddy Sandstone. TNE. Traeth yr Ora, i BE Residues insoluble in HCl 4 « 8479 85:03 Al,O,+Fe,O, . 6 ; : jee Sh! $18 CaO . 5 . 3 5 ° ; ea) 1°28 MgO. 5 ee 2-06 en ee eee Ye Tee ER 352 99-95 100-07 Percentage CaCO, = 2°08 2°25 3 MegCO, = 4-41 4:33 This is perhaps the most prevalent type of rock in the Old Red series. In it occur many beds of cornstone. No. 478A. Forsterite Limestone. 3 .S.L. 500 to 800 feet N.E. of Rhosmynach. At Contour. i sit Residues insoluble in HCl ' ee Lua BT 44 PAO ee ha arg ne eas ED 2°35 ¥e,0,. ; ; ; : 5 . 3:03 3°10 CaO . ; : : : . . 29°05 29°37 MgO. : : : ; : peeaks 2:27 EC, Obs ema eae ae eta 25°56 100°20 100-09 Percentage CaCO, = 51°87 52-44 This rock is one of a group of limestones that occur in a highly crystalline gneissose complex in the N.H. of Anglesey. They are all rich in crystalline silicates (to which is due the high percentage of insoluble residues), and among these are pseudomorphs that are almost certainly after Forsterite. An analysis of the insoluble residues will probably reveal much more magnesium than that which still remains as a carbonate. Notr.—The analyses completed up to date may be summarised as follows:—A series from the Hornfels group, to which it will not be ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 169 necessary to add any more, though the granite itself and the basic gneiss should be analysed if possible. ‘Partial analyses of a number of the dykes, to which a few more should be added in order to compare dykes of different groups. A series from the Carboniferous limestone, which may be regarded as sufficient. The principal rocks of the Ser- pentine-Gabbro complex have now been done, but tremolitic and other exceptional rocks of that complex should be added. The important groups of the jaspers and pillowy diabases are now nearly finished. But of the schists into which they are believed to pass only one or two have been analysed, and as difference of opinion still exists concerning the origin of some of these, and as they are widespread types, the question is an important one. ‘This, indeed, is the most important research yet remaining from the chemical point of view, and Mr. Hughes is preparing to go on with, it. Even when that and some miscellaneous rocks of exceptional interest have been dealt with, large groups, particularly in the Holyhead and northern region of the island, will still remain, and it may not be possible to deal with these. The Secretary hopes to complete the map in about a year, and detailed written descriptions in perhaps eighteen months after that, and while this work is proceeding Mr. Hughes intends to go on with the analyses as indicated. There is scarcely any wear and tear of apparatus, the average annual expenditure is under 1/. A small grant to cover this for, say, the three years remaining is asked for. The Committee therefore ask to be reappointed, and to replace the late Mr. Lomas it is proposed to appoint Dr. John Horne, F.R.S., the Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of Scotland. Dr. Horne paid an (official) visit of a week to the Secretary last autumn, has taken unremitting interest in the work since then, and is willing to serve on this Committee. Irratic Blocks of the British Isles —Ieport of the Committee, con- sisting of Mr. R. H. TippEMAN (Chairman), Dr. A. R. DWERRYHOUSE (Secretary), Dr. 'T. G. Bonnry, Mr. F. M. Bourton, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Rev. S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Professor W. J. Souuas, and Messrs. J. W. SratHerR and W. 'T. Tucker. Reported by Mr. A. C. Daron. From the neighbourhood of Scunthorpe, in Lincolnshire :— 1 specimen of Elolite Syenite, Norway. 4 specimens Andesite from Lake District. I specimen Andesitic Ash, Lake District. 1 = Andesitic Breccia, Lake District. 1 ay Fine-grained grit (Silurian), South of Scotland. l xy Porphyrite, Cheviot District. 1 > Hard Chalk, Yorkshire. 170 REPORTS ON THR STATE OF SCTENCT. Also the following rocks of unknown derivation :— 1 Carboniferous limestone. I! 5 sandstone. 1 Millstone grit. 1 Diorite. I Fine-grained granite. 4 Dolerite. 8 Quartzite (probably from Trias). 5 Sandstone (from secondary rocks). 2 Limestone (from secondary rocks). 1 Micaceous grit. 1 Coarse grit. 1 Porphyrite. 4 Mica schist. 1 Mica-chlorite-schist. 1 Hornblende schist. 1 Homblende granite. 1 Quartzose breccia (probably fault-rock). 2 Chert. 1 Chert with Oolitic structure. : 1 Vein quartz. 1 Felspathic grit with blue quartz. Reported by Rev. EK. Aprian Wooprurre-Peacock, F.L.S., F.G.S. _ A specimen of a coarse grit found in the neighbourhood of Brigg, in Lincolnshire, which, in the opinion of several members of the Geological Survey, strongly resembles the grits of the Highland Border. Reported by Mrs. Ernest Jonus, Harwood Dale, Kendal. A large boulder of Shap granite exposed during the excavations for the foundation of a house on the outskirts of Kendal. The following boulders found in Northumberland and Durham are reported through the Boulders Committee of the University of Durham Philosophical Society. (i.) Reported by Dr. J. A. SmyvHe. {a) From Eachwick Kaims, Eachwick, three miles west of Ponteland, Northumberland :— Threlkeld granite. Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Greywacke. Cheviot porphyrite. Granite. Whin Sill. Carboniferous limestone. Basalt. (0) From Kirkley Kaims, Kirkley Hall, three miles north of Ponteland, Northumberland :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Greywacke. Various granites. Several porphyrites. Chert. Saccamina limestone. Amygdaloidal lava. Car- boniferous limestone. Basalt. (c) From Dewley Hill Kaim, near Walbottle, Northumberland :— Armboth Dyke. Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Greywacke. Cheviot por- phyrites. Quartz pebbles. Several granites. Carboniferous limestone. Basalt. (d) From pebble bed, Duddo Burn, near Stannington, Northumber- and :— Cheviot porphyrite. Greywacke. Chert. Coarse granite. ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 171 (e) From pebble bed, Shilvington Slack, near Whalton, Northumber- land :— Cheviot granite. Basalt. Greywacke. (/) From boulder clay, Braid Hill, Callerton, Northumberland :— Threlkeld granite. Decomposed Criffel granite. (g) From boulder clay, How Burn, near Foulmartlaw, near Bolam, Northumberland :— Coarse granite with porphyritic felspar. (kh) From boulder clay, River Blyth, near Thorneyford, three miles north of Ponteland, Northumberland :— Criffel granite. (() From boulder clay, Gurry’s Point, Monkseaton, Northumber- land :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Granite. Cheviot porphyrite. (j) From boulder clay, Coast near Brier Dene Burn, Monkseaton, Northumberland :-~ Cheviot porphyrite. Basalt. Diorite. Several granites. (k) From boulder clay, Kenton Quarry, near Newcastle :— Threlkeld granite. Armboth Dyke. Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Coarse i grey and red granite. Eurite (Cheviots ?). Purple Cheviot porphyrite. (!) From boulder clay, Brunton Quarry, near Newcastle :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Greywacke. Cheviot granite, (u.) Reported by Dr. Wooxacorr. (a) From Grindon Kaim, near Sunderland :— Cheviot granite. Red granite. Borrowdale volcanic series. Quartz pebbles. Greywacke. Felsite. Carboniferous limestone. Felspathic grit. Iron- stone. Coal. Quartz porphyry. Cheviot porphyrite. Whin Sill. Basalt. Numerous pieces of Magnesian limestone —some of the cannon-ball and other concretionary types. (b) From boulder clay, Whitley Bay, Northumberland :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Cheviot porphyrite. (c) From boulder clay, quarry near Horden, Durham :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. (d) From raised beach, Cleadon, near Sunderland :— Piece of chalk. Black flint with chalk attached. Several flints. (e) From boulder clay, The Flats, North Shields :— Cheviot porphyrite. (f) From boulder clay, Hendon Banks, Sunderland :— Cheviot porphyrite. 172 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. (g) Boulders of Volcanic series of Borrowdale reported from east of Hetton-le-Hole, Consett and Wingate Old Quarry, Durham. (h) From boulder clay, Kenton Quarry, near Newcastle :— Besides those reported by Dr. Smythe: dark fresh porphyrite (Cheviots ? 5 cubic feet in volume). Grey granite (Criffel ?). Basalt. Shale with cone-in-cone structure. Red conglomerate. (c) From boulder clay, Claxheugh, Sunderland :— Cheviot porphyrite. Cheviot felsite. Basalt. Carboniferous limestone. (ui.) Reported by Mr. EK. Merrick and Dr. Wooxacort. (a) From boulder clay, Nightingale’s Brick Works, Forest Hall, near Newcastle :— Rhyolyte. Cheviot porphyrite. Greywacke. Diabase. Garnetiferous mica schist. Carboniferous limestone. (6) From Tyne Quarry, Walker, near Newcastle :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Threlkeld granite. Quartz felsite. Cheviot porphyrite. Volcanic ash. Schist. Red and grey granites. Carboni- ferous limestone (5 cubic feet in volume). (c) From black stony clay, Standard Brick Works, Heaton, Newcastle- upon-Tyne :— Piece of chalk. Amygdaloidal tuff. (d) From boulder clay, Walker Clay Pit, near Newcastle :— Cheviot porphyrite. Tuff. (ec) From black clay, Walker Clay Pit, near Newcastle :— Striated boulder of chalk. (/) From Bird’s Nest Quarry, Walker, near Newcastle :— Dark fresh porphyrite (Cheviots). (g) From boulder clay, Butcher Hill, near Matfen, Northumberland :— Cheviot porphyrite. Granite. (k) From boulder clay, Brickyard, near Marden Tower, Whitley, Northumberland :— Cheviot amygdaloidal andesite. Carboniferous limestone coral. Magnesian limestone. (t) From boulder clay, Whitley Links, Whitley, Northumberland :— Cheviot porphyrite. (j) From yellow clay, Robson’s Sand Pit, Heaton, Newcastle :— Quartz felsite. Cheviot porphyrite. Basalt, (k) From boulder clay, Brick’s Limited, Forest Hall, near Newcastle :— Voleanic series of Borrowdale. Basalt. Carboniferous limestone. Gabbro (Carrook Fell 2? 1 cubic foot in volume). ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 173 (1) From boulder clay, Benton Loop, North-Eastern Railway, near Nevreastle :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. (m) From clay, Leam Head, Springwell, near Gateshead :— Threlkeld granite (two boulders, one of them 1 cubic foot in volume). Whin Sill. Volcanic series of Borrowdale. (n) From clay, Moss Heaps, Wrekenton, near Gateshead :— Granite. Greywacke. (iv.) Reported by Rev. W. J. WINGATE. Volcanic ash of volcanic series of Borrowdale found near Crook, and Threlkeld granite found at Bishop Auckland. (v.) Reported by Mr. A. BELL. Volcanic series of Borrowdale at St. Helens, near Bishop Auckland. BovuLpERS COMMITTEE. Report No. 3. March 1909. The following boulders and pebbles have been collected and determined by members of this Committee since the last report was issued :— (I.) From boulder clay, Keaton, near Neweastle. Collected by R. C. Burton, G. Weryman, and the members of Armstrong College Geological Surveying Class :— Dark fresh porphyrite (Cheviots ? 5 cubic feet). Threlkeld granite (4 cubic foot). Several pieces of volcanic series of Borrowdale. Cheviot granite. F Grey granite (Criffel?). Basalt (several). Shale with cone-in-cone structure (several). Carboniferous limestone (numerous). Red con- glomerate. Clay ironstone. Septarian nodule. Sandstone. (II.) From Grindon Kaim, near Sunderland. Collected by Dr. Woora- corT. Pebbles, mostly small, with one or two exceptions all less than 4 cubic foot. Cheviot granite. Red granite. Borrowdale volcanic series (numerous). Magnesian limestone (very numerous)—some specimens of the cannon- ball and other concretionary types. Quartz pebbles. Greywacke (several). Felsite. Carboniferous limestone. Felspathic grit. Coal. Shale. Sandstone. Quartz porphyry. Purple porphyrite (Cheviots). Tronstone. Whin Sill. Basalt. Some of the stones were scratched. An incipient cementation occurs in places (III.) From boulder clay, small quarry behind Claxheugh, near Sunderland. Collected by Dr. Smytue and Dr. Wootacorr. Cheviot porphyrite. Cheviot felsite. Basalt. Carboniferous limestone. (IV.) Tyne Quarry, Walker, near Newcastle :-— (a) From ‘rag’ or ‘ mixture clay.’ Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Basalt. ee red granite. Sandstone. Carboniferous limestone (5 cubic eet). (b) Lying loose. Volcanic ash. Schist. Volcanic series of Borrowdale (5,' one 1 cubic foot). Greywacke (2). Granite (red and grey). Threlkeld granite (3). Quartz felsite (2). Cheviot porphyrite. Granite (Criffel ?) (2). Red grit. ' The numbers placed after some of the specimens refer to number of that rock noted. The size of the specimen is given wherever it is noteworthy. 174 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. (V.) Bird’s Nest Quarry, Walker, near Newcastle :— Dark fresh porphyrite. (Cheviot, 4 cubic foot.) (VI.) Brick’s Limited, Forest Hall, near Newcastle :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. Basalt. Carboniferous limestone (numerous). Gabbro (Carrock Fell ?, 1 cubic foot). (VII.) Benton Loop, North-Eastern Railway, near Newcastle :— Volcanic series of Borrowdale. (VIII.) Leam Head, Springwell, near Gateshead :-— Threlkeld granite (2, one 1 cubic foot). Whin Sill. Volcanic series of Borrow- dale (2). (IX.) Moss Heaps, Wrekenton, near Gateshead :— Granite. Greywacke. (IV. to IX.) collected by E. Merrick and Dr. Wooxacort. (X.) Boulder clay. Nightingale’s Brick Works, Forest Hall, near Newcastle :— Garnetiferous mica schist. (XI.) ‘ Black clay.’ Walker Clay Pit, near Newcastle. Striated boulder of chalk. (X. and XI.) collected by E. Murricx. Striations on the rock surface have been observed at Brick’s Limited, Forest Hall, near Newcastle. Direction, N.W.-S.E. The following notes are contributed by Mr. A. R. Horwoop, of the Leicester Museum :— Distribution of Erratic Blocks in the Drift of Leicestershire. These notes are supplementary to those previously published by Messrs. PLANT and others, recorded in earlier reports upon the Erratic Blocks, and to the summary compiled by Mr. C. Fox-Srraneways, F.G.S., in ‘Geology of the Country around Leicester,’ 1903, pp. 59-60 (‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Explanation of Sheet 156’). The notes are best arranged according to localities, and these have been grouped together in the drainage areas to which they respectively belong. For it is clear that the present valleys are simply preglacial valleys which have heen traversed by glaciers, leaving their accumulations of boulder clays, sands and gravels in these same valleys, and also in plateau form upon the hills. The source of the boulders, either from the north-west or north-east, is sufficiently clear to those conversant with the different boulder clays and the characteristic erratics of each. A.—Valley of the River Soar. 1. North of Leicester, Leicester (Essex Road).—A block of weathered Mount Sorrel granite, 4 it. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in., somewhat angular and roughly penta- gonal, lying parallel with the road, occurs here. It has ne doubt been ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 175 brought to its present position by human agency from adjacent beds of drift Leicester (Vass’s Brickyard).—A small block of Mount Sorrel granite, 15 in. by 8 in. by 6 in., has a rounded surface, and there are other smaller blocks, chiefly of granite, but also of slate, probably from Swithland, in proximity, with quartzite pebbles. Leicester (County Brick Works).—A large roughly trigonal or threc- sided boulder of Mount Sorrel granite, has a facetted contour. It is much pitted and fretted. It contains patches of darker colour, which may be “segregation masses.’ It measures 38 in. by 38 in. by 34in. The edges are more or less rounded. Leicester (between Leicester and Thurmaston), Star Brick Works——Here there are many boulders, varying in size from cubes of 2 ft. to 3 ft., and various types of sandstones and quartzites. Several slabs of sandstone, measuring circ. 1 ft. by 8 in. by 6 in., are quite flat upon one side, rounded or roughly quadrangular on the other. Small angular granite boulders occur in the river-gravels at this point. Many of the small pebbles and boulders in the latter are normally horizontally bedded, but others occur im situ, like Bunter pebbles—which many of them undoubtedly actually are—with the longer axis vertical. It is difficult to account for this phenomenon except by assuming the existence of somewhat turbulent currents at certain points, or eddies, accompanied by pounding and rapid deposition of sand and gravel, which would tend to arrange the larger blocks in a manner not consistent with the normal relation between the specific gravity of the boulders and the surrounding matrix. Leicester (Belgrave Brick Co.).—In drift overlying red marl a small boulder of Mount Sorrel granite and many small quartzites, much resem- bling the Hartshill quartzites, and milky white flints, occur. _ Levcesier (Barrow’s Brick Pit, West of the Midland Railway).—Countless rounded quartzite pebbles, some like the liver-coloured variety, but varying greatly in colour and texture, occur, and rocks of northern origin are intermixed with others, such as granite, millstone grit, Coal-measure sandstone, &c., of local or Derbyshire origin. Filints are not so plentiful as at the last locality, immediately south. One mass of granite (15 in. by 8 in. by 6 in.) has a curiously rectangular shape, with a regularly pitted and polished surface, soapy to the touch. Millstone grit is pretty abundant, and some dark rocks and a banded slate, probably from Charnwood Forest. The size of the rounded quartzite pebbles, many of which are derived from the Bunter, is remarkably uniform, varying from 3 in. or 4 in. to 6 in., some few more, some less. The shape, too, is characteristic, and in their outline one can see an originally quadrangular shape, or occasionally a much more irregular original contour. All degrees of smoothness and angularity are represented, and the origin of these pebbles must be extremely heterogeneous, for when split open they betray very diverse sources, the colour, texture, hardness, composition of the quartzites being very variable, every gradation between a true quartzite and a coarse or fine sandstone or grit existing. Thurmaston Brick Co.’s Pit.—Several large blocks of Mount Sorrel granite, one very large block of Coal-measure sandstone, Rhaetic and Lias limestone, and bolite, varying from cubes of 2 ft. to 3 ft., are found here, indicating a mixed origin of the drift beds above the Quartzose sand. 176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 2. South of Leicester. Knighton Junction Brick Co.—Several large blocks of granite, probably from Mount Sorrel, occur here, one with dark patches similar to those seen at the County Brickworks, and varying from 2 ft. by 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. to cubes of larger size. Small quartzite pebbles are again abundant. One large block ‘of granite is roughly hexagonal, and in the direction of the longer axis is 25 in., the greatest breadth 28 im., and the height 1 ft. 3 in. The sides are in parts flat and worn, smooth and polished. In others a kind of ‘skin’ covers the surface. Some thirteen of small size lying near are smooth and polished, with the same skin-like covering, and one is square. In some cases the original angular corners have been worn smooth. Leicester, Saffron Lane “(Underwood’ s Pu).—Mount Sorrel granite boulders from 3 ft. cubes to smaller sizes occur here, many being I cubic foot. Slabs of Swithland slate are also to be found. Some very large quartzites are to be seen uniformly distributed. The following examples of granite measured were 35 in., 38 in. by 28 in. by 16 in., 37 in. by 29 in. by 18 in., with rounded edges, a smoothed and polished surface, in parts with felsitic veins. Aylestone (south of Middleton Street)—A large roughly rectangular boulder, with angular corners and smooth sides, of Mount Sorrel granite ; is 39 in. by 35 in. by 26 in. Biggs’ Sand Pit.—A large boulder, whose longer diagonal lay N. by 8., measured 52 in. by 44 in. by 36 in. About I ft. of the boulder was embedded in the underlying, rather soft, quartzose sand, and around the base the matrix was puddled, due to drainage from its area collecting at the base, and causing the boulder to gradually settle lower down into the sand. The upper portion lay in reddish boulder clay. Blaby (Hattord’ 8 Brickyard). —A large boulder of Mount Sorrel granite, 39 in. by 31 in. by 12 in., occurs here, with many smaller ones of different age; many of them are very rounded and smooth and polished. Several rounded blocks of millstone grit, some Coal-measure, sandstone, skerry, and Keuper sandstone alse occur. The quartzite pebbles are very large. B.—Tributartes draining ground east of the River Soar, running into the Soar. Thurnby (Sand-pit, north of Houghton Road).—Here a few granite boulders and quartzites may be seen in hollows in the glacial sands and gravels. A large boulder of granite, 50 in. by 31 in. by 1 ft., lies at the side of the well in the village. It is flat-topped, and though placed where it now stands by human agency it doubtless comes from glacial beds close by. Ingarsby (near Butt’s Farm).—Several blocks of Mount Sorrel granite lie about—e.g., one angular block 18 in. by 18 in., one rounded block 18 in. by 18 in. cire., one rounded block 3 ft. by 2 ft. Between this point and Houghton there is a large slab of angular, roughly quadrangular marlstone, near a pit in glacial sands and gravels, 39 in. by 19 in. by 14 in. Between Withcote and Launde.—By the stream-side near Launde a large boulder of tufa, 54 in. by 49 in. by 22 in., lies on rising ground, with slightly rounded edges. rr THE FOSSILIFEROUS DRIFT DEPOSITS AT KIRMINGTON, Etc. 177 Investigation of the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, and at various localities in the East Riding of Yorkshire.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LampiueH (Chairman), Mr. J. W. StaTHEeR (Secretary), Dr. TEMPEST ANDERSON, Professor J. W. Carr, Mr. W. LOWER CarTER, Dr. A. R. DwerryHouss, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H. HowartH, Rev. W. JOHNSON, Professor P. F’. KENDALL, and Messrs. G. W. B. Macturx, EK. T. NEwTon, CLEMENTS Rep, and THoMAS SHEPPARD. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) In our report for 1907, presented at the Leicester meeting of the Associa- tion, it was mentioned that difficulty had been found in obtaining per- mission to excavate on a site in East Yorkshire, on which it had been intended to carry on the work. This difficulty proving insuperable, the committee decided to carry further the investigation already begun upon the Bielsbeck site, as described in the report above mentioned. The extent of the fossiliferous deposit at this site had already been partly determined by boring tools, and it was hoped that by sinking small pits in places not previously explored in this manner, further results of interest might be obtained. This has now been done so far as the funds still remaining in our hands would allow, and a further collection of bones and other fossils has been secured, without, however, materially adding to the previous lists. It is not therefore proposed to apply for a further grant, and it remains only to describe the work of the last season. The position and previous history of the Bielsbeck deposit was described in our report for 1907 and need not be repeated. The work done last autumn (1908) was the sinking of a series of trenches or pits, each having a diameter of from 8 to 10 feet, as shown on the plan and sections, pp. 178 and 179 :— Tt will’be seen from the diagrams that in pits Nos. 1 and 6 the unfossiliferous gravel rested directly on the Keuper Marl, but that in the other pits a wedge-shaped mass of the fossiliferous black mari intervened between them. From this material, in pits Nos. 2, 3, and 4, were obtained numerous bones, mostly more or less imperfect. These bones, which in the aggregate weighed about 1 cwt., have been preserved, and the determinable specimens have been submitted to Mr. HE. T. Newton, F.R.S., who reports that two species of animals alone appear to be represented, viz., Elephas primigenius and Bison priscus. Of the former animal the remains included :— Bones FRoM Bietspeck, 1909, Elephas primigenius? 5 pieces of a tusk. distal end of humerus. shaft of humerus (4 pieces), 3 = ditto. * 4 piece of pelvis. distal end of fibula. 1909. N MAQUI cower “~~ 178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Bielsbeck, East Yorks. Excavations, 1908. PLAN SHEWING TRENCHES BIELSBECK FAEM EXCAVATIONS 5s s 4 Lie 79 1 THE FOSSILIFEROUS DRIFT DEPOSITS AT KIRMINGTON, ETC. ‘Te Jadnay—y *sotog yATM ‘[reM yoRTq qovdmop— ‘sauog AIM [rem yortg—45 *[1VUr Ystua0IH— *joavid Aypeyo Apueg—q ‘pues painojoo-Aysuny—q “pues ysIUMOag—Q ‘pues TSHIUM—d “[los sovjans Apuygs—y OE ‘7 ‘(ued 04} Uo soqouer} o44 Jo staquinu oy} 07 Jajox SToquINU) seqoUET4 aq} JO suoIjIag ‘Q06T SUonwavoay “sy.40X gong ‘yooqsorg / iS FEET N 180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 9 Elephas primigenius? left cuboid (hind foot). 10 55 5 left cuneiform of hind foot. 11 ie 3 rib. 12 :. as P rib. Of Bison priscus were found :—- 13 Bison priseus horn core. 14 ts 49 base of skull. 15 93 oF piece of skull. 16 5 3 last lower molar. 17 i a; lower molar. 18) 19 “7 fl oe 20 ” ” portions of lower jaws. 2) 22 iG ” condyle of skull. 23 24 25 26 + * vertebre. 27 28 29 30 : ee fdiatand 3] ; 5 very large tibia (distal end), “A ” ” scapula (pieces). = ; - pieces of femur. 36 ‘5 m piece of distal end of tibia. 4 ; distal condyles of femur. 39 " + fragments of tibia. 40 4) 42 vi ; fragments of limb bones. 45 46 47 48 a 3 piece of pelvis ? 49 MS % piece of skull ¥ 50 - es P rib: 51 F 5 P rib. 52 = ?? fragments. 53 94 x ? patella. 54 4 7 2? rib. 55 “F 5 2? neural arch. The results obtained were thus in full agreement with those of the earlier investigators and of our own work of 1906, and the general con- clusions as to the origin and character of the deposit stated in our report of 1907 are confirmed. The Committee desire again to record their thanks to W. H. Fox, Esq., for permission to excavate; to the tenant, Mr. Howes; to Mr. W. H. Crofts; and to Mr. T. Stainforth for his services in superintend- ing the work and dealing with the material collected. The Committee do not ask for reappointment. ON EXCAVATIONS IN THE PALASOZOIC ROCKS OF WALES, ETC. 181 The Excavation of Critical Sections in the Palezoic Rocks of Wales and the West of England.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor C. LapwortH (Chairman), Mr. G. W. FEARNSIDES (Secretary), Dr. J. E. Marr, Professor W. W. Warts, and Mr. G. W. WILLIAMS. On some further Excavations among the Cambrian Rocks of Comley, Shropshire, 1908, by E. 8. Cossoxp, I'.G.S. THE excavations made during 1907 in the Cambrian rocks of Comley, Shropshire, were reported upon to the Dublin meeting of the British Association. These excavations were unavoidably interrupted early in the autumn of that year, and resumed in the spring and summer of 1908. The additional excavations form the subject of this second com- munication. The positions of the excavations of 1907 were shown on a sketch- map (reprinted below), and numbered 1 to 19 ; those of 1908, which were confined to Dairy Hill, the Shoot Rough Road, and one spot near the Comley Quarry, can be localised thereon from the notes appended. Dairy Hill Excavations. It had been ascertained by Excavation No. 8, 1907, that the lane round the north end of Dairy Hill was cut through a domical covering of the conglomerate of the Quarry Ridge Grits to the Olenellus Limestone and Lower Comley Sandstone below; also by Excavation No. 10 that rock similar to the Quarry Ridge Grits occurs at the top of Dairy Hill; and by Excavation No. 12, in the disused quarry near the south fence of the Dairy Hill field, that rocks very similar to the Lower Comley Sandstone occur there. It was a natural inference that the place of the Olenellus Limestone lay between these two last-mentioned excavations; but it seemed advisable first to ascertain more exactly the nature of the junction between the two sets of beds in the Dairy Hill Lane, and to seek an explanation of the absence of the Black, Grey, and French Grey Limestones which occur between them in the Quarry Ridge (see Sections Nos. 1 and 2 of the previous report). With this view Excavation No. 3 in the south bank of the lane was enlarged. The observations of 1907 were confirmed; no trace of the missing limestones was discovered ; and the conglomeratic portion of the Quarry Ridge Grits was proved to rest directly upon the Olenellus Lime- stone, and yielded fragments referable to Paradozides ; while the Olenellus Limestone’ yielded many of the fossils found in the same bed in the Quarry Ridge. ' This limestone and associated sandy rock has a somewhat different aspect from that of the quarry. The characteristic reddish-purple nodules are there, but the remainder of the bed might be described as a green, caleareous and micaceous sand- stone. 182 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Fossils :-— Olenellus, many fragments, some of which are referable to 0. (Holmia) Callavei, Lapw. Microdiscus Helena, Walcott. Ptychoparia(?) Atteboroughensis, Schaler and Foerte. Kutorgina. Linnarssonia. Stenotheca rugosa var. Mickwitzia (?). It seems probable that, prior to the deposition of the Paradozides-bear- ing Quarry Ridge Grits, the Black and Grey Limestones had been denuded at this point, but in such faulted ground the evidence is not conclusive. Close to Excavation No. 12, of 1907, in the disused quarry, at the south end of Dairy Hill, I found some fragments of grit in the soil, in- dicating the possibility that the grits might be found there in contact with the supposed Lower Comley Sandstone. Further excavation was therefore made at this point, and a north and south section, some 14 yards in length, was exposed, the beds dipping about 10° to the west. The upper part of the section shows 3 feet of bedded grit, similar to that of the upper portion of the Quarry Ridge Grits, resting conform- ably upon and graduating into some 10 feet of soft micaceous green sandstone, many of the beds of which are characterised by rusty circular spots. No fossils were found in this section, and it is impossible at present to assign these rocks to any previously described portions of the Comley Sandstone Series. The transition from grit to sandstone appeared to be complete, with no sign of either unconformity or faulting. In the hope of throwing further light on these Dairy Hill beds, a number of trial holes were made on the surface of the field and the results mapped in detail; but no definite opinion as to the succession could be formed. It is at present very doubtful whether the micaceous green sandstones belong to the Lower Comley Sandstone, and it is also uncertain whether the grits are part of the Quarry Ridge Grits. Further excavations, either here or at other spots in the Comley area, are required before the positions of these beds in the Comley Sandstone Series can be satisfactorily determined. Shool Rough Road Excavations. Previous excavations had been directed to the elucidation of the rela- tions between the lower part of the Paradoxides beds and the Olenellus zone below. ‘The excavations now to be described are in strata of a con- siderably higher zone, probably near the top of the Paradozides-bearing division of the Cambrian. On reference to the north-east corner of the sketch-map a road may be seen leading eastwards to Cardington. This is the Shoot Rough Road.! It ascends eastwards on ground which slopes southwards to a small stream, 1 So called because it passes (beyond the limits of the map) between the Shoot Rough Wood and Shoot Rough Farm. ON EXCAVATIONS IN THE PALAZOZOIC ROCKS OF WALES, ETC. 183 and its north side, being cut into the soil, touches rock at two portions of its length. Both these expcsures were much overgrown; the upper one, which is on the field side of the hedge, showed shale in association with gritty - Ba Lilttle &° Caradoc Stam mat Scale of Fret lec ot SH ooo Wnts = Excavation No. 20. Shoot Rough Road, Upper Section. flags, in which Professor Lapworth had previously found fragments of trilobites ; the lower exposure consisted of sandstones, grits, and shales seen only in the road gutter, and from somewhere in this lower length Professor Lapworth, in company with Mr. Rhodes, had collected Orthis Christiani@, Kjerulf (or a closely allied form). The exposures were opened up by excavation, and the following sections displayed. 154 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ‘The length in an east and west direction is about 24 yards. The beds dip about 50° to the north-east, except at the western end, _where a slight anticlinal fold sets in, bringing the dip round to nearly north. E.S.E. End of the Section. a. ‘ Shoot Rough Road Shales.’ } Ft. In. Bluish-grey micaceous shale, weathering brown, a good deal crushed but clearly conformable with the underlying beds, and contain- ing some very thin (4 or 3; inch) coal-black seams, and a few hard siliceo-micaceous bands (3 to 3 inch thick) near its base (top not seen) . : - : : : : : a b. ‘Shoot Rough Road Flags’ :— A series of coarse, glauconitic, gritty flags, in places calcareous and varying in thickness from 3 inch to 12 inches. b, Dark brown or black sandy rottenstone, flaggy in places 3 ‘ 170 b, Thin sandy shales or shaley flags . ; : : ; ’ : 1G 6, Shaley flags, thicker, with a few fossils . , ; 2 6 ‘ Acrotreta (?) sp., cf. Sabrine, var. malvernensis, Matley.’ }, Coarse gritty calcareous rock with pebbles of quartz and other rocks, crowded with Acrotreta . : 4 ; f : Z 0 6 ‘ Acrotreta socialis, von Seebach.’ ‘ Acrotreta (?) sp., ef. Sabrina, var. malvernensis, Matley.’ ‘ Acrothele (?) sp., cf. granulata, Linnrs.’ ‘ Kutorgina cingulata, var. pusilla, Linnrs.’ ‘ Obolella (?) sp., ef. Salteri, Holl.’ ‘ Obolella (?) sp. ‘ Orthis Lindstrémi, Linnrs,’ Agraulos (?) (freecheek only). Paradovides sp., cf. P. Davidis, Salter. A coral. b, Coarse gritty flags with round or elongate black nodules, (2) phos- phatic j : : : : : : ; : ; 10 +, A well marked ochreous sandy bed containing residual nodules of gritty limestone : 5 : ; : - 0 6 ‘ Acrotreta socialis, von Seebach.’ ‘ Obolella (?) or Acrotreta (?) sp. (with low concentric ridges).’ ‘ Lingulella feruginea, Salter.’ ‘ Orthis Lindstrémi, Linnrs,’ Agnostus fallax, Linnrs. Agraulos sp., cf. holocephaius, Matthew. Agraulos sp. Mierodiscus, fragment only. Paradowides Davidis, Salter. Solenoplewra (?) sp., cf. brachymetopa, Angelin (small). b, Gritty flags (base not seen) . " ‘ ‘ ‘ : - 5 5 6 ‘ Orthis sp., approaching O. Hicksi, Salter. This species differs from the St. David’s form in the fewer interpola- tions of ribs between the principal radii and in the small size of the umbonal cavity.’ Total thickness seen 24 0 W.N.W. End of the Section. No rock was found for about 80 yards along the road between the upper and lower sections. Ezcavation No. 21. Shoot Rough Road, Lower Section. A narrow horizontal plan of the strata was exposed by clearing out the road gutter and stripping the soil from the foot of the adj oining bank, ‘ These must not be confounded with the shales of Shoot Rough Wood, from which an undetermined Dictyonema was_collected some years ago by Mr. Gibson. ON BXCAVATIONS IN THE PALMOZOIG ROCKS OF WALES, ETC. 185 a deeper excavation being made here and there. Only the surface aspect of the rocks could be seen, and it is quite possible that the dips and strikes observed, and the thicknesses of the beds deduced therefrom, may be somewhat inaccurate. The easterly dip of the shales at the western end of the section is taken to be a reversed westerly dip, due either to surface creep down the natural slope of the ground, or to actual inversion of the strata. The beds are described from west to east as probably representing the descending order of succession. In order to identify in the future the exact positions of the beds of this section, which is certain to be overgrown in a year or liwo, measurements were taken along the gutter from the stile in the fence where the footpath (Comley to Lawley Hill) crosses the road ; these distances are given in the left-hand column of the following description :— W.N.W. End of the Section. Estimated Distance from thicknesses stile in of beds feet. in feet. 156 At this point there is a grating for rain water in the gutter. 156 to 200 Signs of shale in the soil but no solid rock. 200 to 250 a. Shale, cf. Shoot Rough: Road Shales of the upper Section.— Pale bluish-grey shale, weathering brown, containing much mica and several hard bands (3 to ? inch thick) of siliceo-micaceous material, one of which (at 224 feet) yielded brachiopods. The strike is at first N.N.W. and §.S.E., with an easterly dip of about 75°, but, in the last 6 or 8 feet of the shale, the strike works round to nearly N. and §. witha vertical dip. é about 30 ‘The dominant form is a minute ribbed Orthis with lobe on pedicel valve and a sinus on brachial valve. It ap- proaches the Upper Lingula Flag form Orthis lenticularis, Wahl, but is smaller and probably a distinct variety. The fossils are preserved as casts in the shaley sandstone, which does not lend itself to the preservation of the delicate characters of the minute fossils, There are other species present, including probably Kutorgina sp. and a small Acrothele, 250 to 272 4b. Gritty flags. Cf. Shoot Rough Road Flags of the upper section.-—Thin grits or gritty flags with dark rottenstone bands. The strike is at first N. and S. with a high dip, conformable with the shales, but it works round gradually to about N.E. and 8.W. with a north- Mi ed of about 45° . ; : : 12 272 to 273 ¢. Yellowish clayey material, possibly indicating a fault, but, equally possibly, some decomposed caleareous band ey 273 to 294 d. Soft green micaceous sandstone (in many respects resembling the Lower Comley Sandstone), rather flaggy and with some rottenstone bands. The strike is parallel with that of the gritty Hage, b, and the ge north- asd at 30° to Z0P%", 10 ‘Total estimated thickness . Rss: 294 to 354 The roadside was stripped of soil fora further distance of about 20 yards, but no more rock was laid bare. 186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. H.S.E. End of Section. From a measurement given me by Professor Lapworth, it appears that his specimens of Orthis Christianie, Kjerulf (?), were found at about 310 feet on the above section. Excavation No. 22.—50 yards North-West of the Comley Quarry. There is a prominent boss in the field lying north-west of the quarry, which proved on excavation to contain a quartzite agreeing very closely with beds b, and b. of Excavation No. 4, 1907, in the northern spur of Little Caradoc (see previous report). The rock is much fractured, but exhibits a north-easterly dip of 60° to 70°. Further trials were made in the field between this excavation and the quarry, but failed to reach solid rock. REMARKS. From a consideration of the fossils found in the Shoot Rough Road excavations it seems probable that a local shaley representative of the Lingula Flags has been touched, and that the upper limit of the Para- doxides division has been reached. Shale with Dictyonema,’ which may be of Tremadoc age, is known to occur within a horizontal distance of 200 yards north of the sections, and may be nearer, and in 1901 the Upper Lingula Flags species, Orthis lenticularis, Wahl, was collected by the Rev. W. M. D. La Touche and myself from a calcareous nodule in shale within 70 yards in the same direction.” It therefore seems very desirable to extend the excavations across the intervening ground, so as to establish, if possible, the local sequence of the middle ‘and upper divisions of the Cambrian rocks. The lower limit of the middle division and the upper surface (probably eroded) of the lower division have already been fixed within a few inches (see previous report *). It is anticipated that further excavations at other spots in the Comley area may throw additional light upon the details of the zones of the middle and lower divisions and upon the nature of the base of the latter, which was only approximately indicated in Excavation No. 4 of 1907. I have to acknowledge the very kind response made by Dr. C. A. Matley to my request for help with the brachiopods, who tells me that his determinations must be regarded as provisional. In the lists of fossils I have placed his identifications and remarks within quotation marks. I am also again indebted to Mr. Philip Lake for assistance in the determinations of the trilobités. ' See footnote, p. 184. 2 Caradoc Record of Bare Facts for 1901, Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club, Shrewsbury, 1902. 3 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1908 (Dublin), pp. 342, 343, 1909. FAUNAL SUCCESSION IN THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 187 Faunal Succession in the Lower Carboniferous Limestone (Avonian) of the British Isles—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. W. GREGORY (Chairman), Dr. A. VAUGHAN (Secretary), Dr. WHEELTON HIND, and Professor W. W. WATTS, appointed to enable Dr. A. VAUGHAN to con- tinue his Researches thereon. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Report by Dr. A. Vaughan on his work during the year 1908-09 :— South-Western Province—Gower. The paper by Mr. E. E. L. Dixon, B.Sc., F.G.S., and myself on the ‘Carboniferous Limestone of the Gower Peninsula’ is finished, and awaits publication. South-Western Province—Burrington Comb (Mendip). A detailed account of this important section—already sketched out, in its broad faunal features, by Dr. T. F. Sibly, F.G.S.—is in preparation by Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, M.A., F.G.S., and myself. The paper will include a full account of the various rock-species, zoned views of the section, and a minute exposition of the coral sequence in the Tournaisian. The Bernician Sequence of Northumberland. By Svanuey Smiru, M.Sc., F.G.S. I have devoted a small portion of the grant to preparing and photo- graphing a few important coral groups which characterise the uppermost division (‘ Yoredales ’) of the Limestone in the Northern Areas (the level indexed D, in the accompanying tables). Mr. Smith has kindly pro- mised to insert these figures in his forthcoming paper in order to demonstrate the progression of the coral fauna upon that of D. in the §.-W. Province. County Dublin—Malahide. The description and illustration of the Tournaisian Beds of this fine coast section will be the subject of a paper by Dr. C. A. Matley, F.G.S., and myself in the coming year. Under the guidance of, and with the assistance of, Prof. G. Delépine, of the Catholic Univer sity of Lille, I hope to devote the summer vacation of this year to an examination of the Belgian sequence, and to an exact correlation of the divisions recognised by Belgian geologists with the Avonian zones. For this purpose I hope that this Committee and grant will be continued for yet another (and final) year. LES: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Tables drawn up by Dr. Vaughan to exhibit the Present State of Knowledge of the Avonian in the British Isles. Table I. exhibits the zones and sub-zones of the Avonian, and the corals which characterise and diagnose them. In Table II. I have attempted to assign to the several phasal develop- ments their correct position on the Avonian scale. Table III. gives the zonal sequence at several points in the British Isles. In almost all cases I have seen the material on which these correla- tions are founded, and my thanks are tendered most heartily to those workers who have allowed me to present the information contained in this table before its actual publication elsewhere. TABLE I, The Avonian ZonEs and SUBZONES and the Corals that characterise them. THE ZONES. Dibunophyllum Zone (D). Dibunophyllum enters and attains a maximum. Lithostrotion junceum enters and is common throughout. Seminula Zone (S). Lithostrotion enters and is continuously abundant. Carcinophyllum enters and is not uncommon, [Maximum of Seminula ficoides.] VISEAN. Syringothyris and Caninia Zone (C), Giganteid Canini@ enter and attain a maximum. Michelinia grandis enters and attains a maximum. [The maximum of very large Syringothyris. | Zaphrentis Zone (Z). Simple Zaphrentes (of non-Caninoid and of non-Densiphylloid types) enter and attain a maximum. Michelinia favosa attains a maximum at extinction, TOURNAISIAN Cleistopora Zone (K). OCleistopora occurs throughout, but is common at only a few levels. FAUNAL SUCCESSION IN THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 189 THE SUBZONES Of the Dibunophyllum Zone (D). D,:— 8 | D, ( Cyathawonia’ Beds) :— Lonsdalia duplicata enters and attains a Cyathaxonia rushiana. maximum. | ‘ Cyathazxonia’ contorta. Cyclophyllwm attains a maximum. | Zaphrentis oystermouth- Koninckophylla of the typical group attain | ensis. & maximum, and include compound forms. | Michelinia favositoides. Diphyphyllum gracile enters. Lonsdalia floriformis enters and attains a maximum, Cyathophyllum regium (a compound Clisiophylloid species) enters and attains a maximum. Diphyphyllum lateseptatum enters. i Dibunophylla and Koninckophylla of simple structure enter and attain maxima, Carcinophyllum @ attains a maximum at extinction. Cyathophyllum murchisoni (a Clisiophylloid species) attains a maximum. [Productus giganteus enters—1st maximum. | VISEAN. Of the Seminula Zone (S$). 8, [a mutation of Productus ‘ Cora’ indexes the subzone]:— Carcinophyllum @ enters and becomes common. [The entrance of Cyrtina carbonaria marks the base in the 8.W. Province], §,:— ‘ Carcinophyllum mendipense enters. 4 Caninia bristolensis (a Cyathophylloid species) attains a maximum. Clistophyllum ingletonense attains a maximum. Of the Syringothyris Zone (C). ¢, -— ‘Cyathophyllum (a Caninoid species) enters and attains a maximum. C, :— a . . Caninia u.sp. is characteristic of the base (7). Caninia cornucopie attains a maximum. Cyathophyllum patula (a Zaphrentoid species) enters and attains a maximum. Of the Zaphrentis Zone (Z). Z, :— Zaphrentis koninckt enters and attains a maximum. Zaphrentis omaliusi abundant, Eaninia cornucopie enters. a Zaphrentis delanoui attains a maximum. [Maximum of Spirifer clathratus and 8S. tornacensis.] TOURNAISIAN Of the Cleistopora Zone (K). K, (maximum of Spiriferina cf. octoplicata) :— Cleistopora attains a maximum. [Productus bassus enters and attains a maximum.] N.B.—The information enclosed in square brackets regards the Brachiopod sequence ; only those facts which are diagnostic of zones or subzones are introduced. Note on Dy and D; :— D constitutes the continuation and apotheosis of the earlier D, fauna; it is t expressed in the fauna of the ‘Main Limestone’ of the ‘ Yoredales.’ D; connotes a phasal fauna later than the beginning of D,, and contemporaneous, in part, with Dy. An extension of this fauna is, locally, intercalated in the ‘becheri Beds’ of Lower Pendleside (P). : sf it ypically REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 190 *SU19] ULIS[eg UMONY-[[9M 9yy JO aoR[d ar paydope pue pauyapas A][nJorvo oq ysnut UBIT[PAPIY PUB UBIUOPAA|H SI1.19} 91} ‘a[qvJUBIIVMUN SB papdVsal SI SIND SIG} JJ “IOUTAOIg 4SaA\-Y9NOY ay Joy UOXIC “APY Aq pezesys “WOWap APUIOFMOOUN JO MOIYBIFIUL JO [2A] aY9 GTA PAOoV 07 OPBUT Uaaq SEY Way} WaeA\4aq aI] SUIPTAIP oI) PUv aay] pauIeqzor UWeaq DAVY UvaslA PUB UBISIBUANOT, SULIO} OYJ, *aAoqe UAAIS Aq GAIA UOTZE[AIIO0 943 07 paygiuui0d ABA OU UI ‘TaAaAoY ‘sI ay £ 4todar aumes a9 UI JjasmMIg pul “Iq Aq opeur st Spo_ VuworvywAD , a4 TM g JO WORIaI100 aq pus “(TE ‘d ‘9061 ‘Y40K ,‘qaodaxy “oossy “4IIq,) PUT, WOg[aey M “IC Aq paglo asoya axe apisa_piag JaMoy aq} Jo Sautoz OUT, “‘SadMatoyad ayqeqins ATjenba Jo Jaquinu years B MOAT pazoajas ATAIOUI a1¥ aSay} ! 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MIDLANDS Co. DUBLIN es es, Co, CLARE “* ye ia eo 2 * spirale 3 | Lo] sp a wn | ONE GRIT Peal Shales’ @ & ZE Cyathaxonia fauna _‘becheri 3 2 es | intercalated in Limestones’ E x Beds’ P a ia | ' 1 | eos "a D, and Dy ronia & |‘ Cyathaxonia Beds,’ Rusu oe | ! Sg 3: gs Ba feel =) ane zs fe ONE 5 | D. Me sseseer et Si one | c S& oats ie | Dz = 4 and a } Ds Lane L. and Conglomerate , D, 9 = 77 page (Rush) — ace Ss. Base not seen : megastoma-Beds of C,-S, Rush Conglomerate |—___— = | a ai tee ? *Waulsortian’ fauna C a = of St. Doulagh’s Quarry Ss = ~ & eNO) oe a is = Z, MALAHIDE Section Z, lind) | | K j Seen near Swords K }=—— - —— - —— - —_|_- - —_ - —_ Conformity —— - —— - —- probable conformity O.R.S. IBLY : ‘Q. J.,’ vol. lxiv. 8)—Midland Area, LYON HIND: References Collection. Remarks, ‘becheri Beds’ lie, at n the main, above D,. *Brachiopod Beds’ ll Phase’) appear, in to represent D,,and Dy typically developed in calities exhibiting this ar phase. C. A. MaTLEy and A, VAUGHAN: ‘Q. J.,’ vol. Lxii. (1906)—Rush. *Q. J.,’ vol. lxiv. (1908)—Loughshinny. Forthcoming paper—Malahide, Remarks. The Zaphrentis ambigua beds of Lane are certainly below D,, but may extend zonally a little lower than D,. (The massif of Colne, Lanes,j is probably of the same age.) The megastoma-Beds of Rush may be of the same or earlier age than the Lane conglomerate. The suggested horizon of the famous St. Doulagh’s Quarries is deduced from the practical identity of their fauna with that of ‘the Waulsortian’ of Co, Olare described by J. A. Douglas. | + A. WILMORE : forthcoming paper— Colne Area, Lanes, J. A. DOUGLAS ; "Qi. Wak) bev, (1909)—Co, Clare. e ample material which they have kindly allowed me to examine. [To face p. 1£0 FAUNAL SUCCESSION IN THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 191 ADDENDUM. Exametes oF Use or ZoNAL SCALE. Evolutionary Phenomena illustrated by the Coral Sequence. PHYLOGENETIC OLD AGE is indicated by a vesicular and indistinctly septate peripheral zone—as in Caninia gigantea and in Lonsdalia. Compounp forms succeed simple ones and, probably, to all compound species there is a simple ancestor: Cyathophyllum regium is the culmination of the Cyathophylla; simple Lonsdalia precedes (in D,), and accompanies (in D,), the entrance of ‘ Lonsdalia floriformis’; Lonsdalia duplicata is a compound and specialised Dibunophyllum. PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT is illustrated in the closely allied genera Lithostrotion and Diphyphyllum; the very narrow Diphyphyllum, D. gracile of D,, succeeds the broad D. lateseptatum of D,, just as the very narrow Lithostrotion, L. junceum of D, succeeds the broad Z. martini of 8. CoBVAL ASSIMILATION is exhibited by the Cyathophylla which are Zaphrentoid (C. patula), Caninoid (Cyath. @), or Clisiophylloid (Cyath. murchisont), according to the dominant ‘ tone’ of the age. DIRECT AND CONTINUOUS VARIATION is exhibited in the Koninckophylla from D, to D,, in the Cyathophylla from y to D, and in the Debunophylla. PERSISTENCE OF SPECIES is illustrated by the great Clisiophyllid trunk-line. Already highly developed in C. omaluzst of the Uppermost Devonian, this gens of Clisiophyllum reappears in y, becomes common in C, and attains a maximum (in a well-marked variant, C. ingletonense) at S,; it still persists into Dy, where the difference from the Devonian ancestor is remarkably small. Caninia cornucopie is another example; the gens starts at the top of Z, reaches a maximum in early C, and reappears, in D, and D,, in a mutation which differs but slightly from the early form. ACCELERATION OF VARIATION on approaching extinction is beautifully illus- trated by the large number of closely linked sub-genera into which the main Clisiophyllid section divides in D,, e.y., Aspidophyllum, Rhodophyllum, Histio- phyllum, Cymatiophyllum, §c. Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.-—Re- port of the Committee, consisting of Professor 8S. J. Hickson (Chairman), Rev. T. R. R. STespsine (Secretary), Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor A. SEpDGwIcK, Professor W. C. McIntosu, Dr. S. F. Harmer, and Mr. G. P. Brpper. _ Tue table at the Zoological Station at Naples has been fully occupied _ during the past session. Thanks to the kindness of Dr. Dohrn two or _ more nominees of the British Association Committee have, on occasions, ~ been allowed to work in the station at the same time. _ The following naturalists have occupied the table since the date of our last report :— Mr. W. J. Dakin, B.Sc., University of Liverpool. Mr. H. O. S. Gibson, B.A., University of Oxford. Colonel Shepherd, Indian Army. Mr. F. F. Dreyer, B.A., University of Cape Colony. Mr. Charles Martin, B.A., University of Oxford. 192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Mr. H. O. 8. Gibson occupied a table from the beginning of November, 1908, until April 23, 1909. His investigations consisted in an attempt to habituate Mysis to live in increasingly fresh water with a view to tracing possible changes in structure due to the change in environment. He also spent some time in investigating the digestion and secretion of Squilla mantis, and will pursue the subject further on the material prepared at the station and brought home with him. Mr. W. J. Dakin sends in the report which is appended. Colonel Shepherd occupied the table from the end of October until March 10, and collected a large number of the otoliths of fishes with the view to the publication of a memoir on these structures. He also collected a number of specimens of the pharyngeal teeth of fishes, upon which he proposes to publish a series of papers at a later date. He writes to the Committee to say that it would have been impossible for him to have made so much progress with the investigation he has in hand but for the opportunities and assistance he received at the Zoological Station at Naples. Mr. F. F. Dreyer arrived at the station at the beginning of April and was still there at the time of the receipt of his report. He carried on some investigations on the nervous system of the Afolidide. He has obtained the best results by using Apathy’s method of preserving and mounting, and has already obtained some interesting results. His work is not yet sufficiently advanced to enable him to send us a detailed report, but he hopes to be able to publish a paper on the nervous and blood- vascular systems of the Aolidide at the end of the year. Mr. C. Martin visited the station during the Easter vacation in order to continue his investigations on the structure of the Acinetaria. With reference to the report of last year, the Committee would refer to the important paper published by Mr. C. Clifford Dobell in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ Vol. 53, 1909, on the Infusoria Parasitic on Cephalopoda. This paper represents a part only of the work done by Mr. Dobell during the time he occupied the Associa- tion’s table at Naples last year. Mr. Whitehouse has prepared a large and important memoir on the structure of the caudal fin of fishes, which has been submitted as a thesis for the degree of M.Sc. of the University of Birmingham. It will be published shortly. In conclusion, the Committee wish to call attention to the increasing volume and importance of the original work that is done by the occupants of the Association’s table at Naples, and ask to be reappointed with a grant of 1001. Report of Mr. W. J. Dakin, B.Sc. The following is a brief résumé of the research I was engaged in whilst occupying the British Association table at the Zoological Station of Naples during the past winter. I arrived in Naples on November 1 and left at the end of February, so that I occupied the table for four months. The latter part of the time was devoted mainly to the collec- tion and preservation of material for continuation of the histological work at home, the earlier part of my stay to an elaboration of methods. I have, unfortunately, not been able to work at my slides or other material since I arrived back in England owing to pressure of work in OCCUPATION OF A TABLE AT THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 198 conjunction with Plankton and Hydrographic Research, and for that reason the report is rather incomplete as regards final results. I hope to have complete papers published by the end of this year, in which due acknowledgment to the British Association will be made, and copies will be handed to the Committee. I feel it my duty to thank the British Association for the opportunity of working at Naples, and must also mention the kind way in which the various members of the staff of the Zoological Station gave every possible help. The researches dealt in general with the histology and physiology of the nervous system and sense organs of lamellibranchs, continuing my previous work on Pecten. Though forty-four years have elapsed since the first detailed work on the eye of Pecten, it still remains incompletely known, owing to the extreme technical difficulties. I intended, therefore, to make a fresh and complete comparative study of the structure of the Pecten eye, using the new methods which have elucidated so many points in the structure of invertebrate sense organs in the last few years. Another branch was the study of the visceral ganglion and the inner- vation of the osphradium. The former is particularly interesting in Pecten, and unique as regards complexity in the Lamellibranchiata. I hoped to trace the distribution of the nerves in the ganglion in order to make out whether definite regions were concerned with the innerva- tion of separate organs, and finally to consider in detail the histology. With regard to the eye, it would be impossible here to discuss at all fully the histological structure without figures, but the following points may be noted. Hesse was able to see a layer of fibres lying between the cornea and lens, and bases a theory of accommodation on their presence (they stain, according to him, as muscle fibres), together with a peculiar structure in the lens cells. I find no trace of accommodation in the Pecten eye, and histological evidence points to these fibres being of connective tissue. I have been able to find between the cornea and lens numerous connective tissue cells which are produced into the extremely long fibres seen by Hesse. Certain points remain to be added to the known structure and shape of the lens cells. The axial fibril of the rod is with certainty a con- tinuation of a fibril in the rod cell. It is thicker in the former, and often remains in macerated specimens when the rest of the rod has been disintegrated. There is a growing region for rod cells and rods round the periphery of the retina, and the axial fibril is always far more distinct in the young cells than in those from the middle of the retina. There are large and small eyes often in close proximity on the same valve; the difference between these is simply the number of the elements-——-small eyes have fewer rod cells and rods. In most ways the axial fibril does not display the characters of a neurofibril, and may possess simply a supporting function. Numerous delicate supporting fibrille run longitudinally down the rod cells arranged at the periphery. The eyes are innervated directly from the visceral ganglion. The visceral ganglion consists of two central prominent lobes, with one or two smaller ones at their sides, a lobe partially covering the two first mentioned, and two large lateral crescentic lobes. I have made out the roots of the various nerves in detail. The branchial nerve arises by two roots. A separate nerve arising from the upper side (the sur- face against the adductor being considered the lower) innervates the 1909. Oo 194 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. osphradium. Some of its branches pass directly to the osphradium, another one joins the branchial nerve, from which nerves pass to the osphradial epithelium. The two large lateral lobes are extremely interesting. They are not found in other lamellibranchs. The nerves arising from them innervate the mantle folds. In P. jacobeus the eyes are more numerous and larger on the left valve, those on the right valve being small. The same difference exists between the two lateral lobes of the visceral ganglion in size. In P. maximus and P. opercularis the same difference in size of the two lobes corresponding to the number of eyes on the mantle folds exists, and in the three species examined the relative difference between the two sides is parallel with that of the number and size of the eyes on the mantle folds. From this alone it might be safely assumed that the lateral lobes of the visceral ganglion are due to the development of eyes on the mantle and are concerned with the innervation of these. This view was strengthened by the discovery that in several cases the nerve fibres passed direct from the visceral ganglion to the eyes. The eyes were formerly supposed innervated solely by the circumpallial nerve. The osphradium in Pecten, Arca, and Mactra, the species so far examined, is innervated by the visceral ganglion. It was in the latter species that Pelseneer obtained evidence of its innervation from the cerebral ganglia, and believed this to prevail throughout the Lamelli- branchiata. I believe the innervation is always from the visceral ganglion, though some fibres may pass from the cerebral ganglion, through the visceral, and into tue osphradial nerve. These, however, would be few in number, and in Pecten can only be seen passing into the branchial nerve. It is impossible to say at present whether the fibres passing from the branchial nerve to the osphradium contain any of these. Whilst examining the mantle edges of Pecten jacobeus I was able to discover the presence of a transversely striated muscle similar to that present in the adductor muscle of Pecten. A short paper on these has been published this year in the “ Anatomische Anzeiger.’ They occur between the eyes, and cause the rapid movements of the velum which take place and enable the animal to swim. It is often difficult to start a Pecten swimming, for ordinary stimuli simply cause a closure of the valves. A starfish brought before the valves, however, immediately causes the animal to swim. The same effect can be produced by the injection of starfish pulp just between the mantle lobes. Similar injection of sea-water or water with small par- ticles does not produce this effect. It is evidently not due to visual or tactile stimuli, and I am endeavouring at present to determine the action of the osphradium and abdominal sense organs in the perception of this stimulus. INDEX GENERUM ET SPECIERUM ANIMALIUM. 195 Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Dr. HENRy Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F. A. BATHER (Secretary), Dr. P. L. ScuaTer, Rev. T. BR. R. STEBBING, Dr. W. E. Hoyne, Hon. WALTER ROTHSCHILD, and Lord WALSINGHAM. é Sreapy progress has been made with the literature for the second portion of this Index (1801-1850). Among numerous works dealt with, the compiler, Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, specially mentions the fol- lowing :— Publications of the British Museum. British Association Reports. H. G. Bronn’s works. Publications of the Academy of Brussels. Many editions of Buffon. “Isis ’’ (von Oken). Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte. As a matter of interest, it may be mentioned that 42,500 index- slips, in duplicate, have been made and arranged within the last two years. The Committee regards this as a surprising and satisfactory rate of progress, when it is remembered that it is entirely the work of a single individual. All the index-slips, as arranged up to date, are accessible for refer- ence in the library of the Geological Department at the Natural His- tory Museum, Cromwell Road, London, where they are frequently con- sulted by zoologists, both in person and by letter. Thus, as the value of the Index increases with its daily growth, the time of the compiler becomes more encroached on by inquirers. On the other hand, the diminution of the grant during the past few years has been seriously felt by the compiler, and the Committee, while recommending its own reappointment, asks the Association to consider carefully the value of - such a work of reference, and to give it the much needed help with a renewal of the grant of 1001. Haperiments in Inheritance.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HrerpMaAn (Chairman), Mr. Dovctas Laurie (Secretary), Mr. R. C. Punnett, and Dr. . H. W. Marert Tims, on the Inheritance of Yellow-coat Colour in Mice. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) THE experiments discussed in my last year’s report are in progress. A detailed report would at present be premature. The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 301. 196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Feeding Habits of British Birds.—First Report of the Comnuttee, consisting of Dr. A. K. Saiptey (Chairman), Dr. C. GoRDON Hewirr (Secretary), and Messrs. J. N. HALBeRT, ROBERT NEWSTEAD, CLEMENT Rerp, A. G. L. Roaers, and F. V. THEOBALD, appointed to investigate the Feeding Habits of British birds by a study of the contents of the crops and gizzards of both adults and nestlings, and by collation of observational evidence, with the object of obtaining precise knowledge of the economic status of many of our commoner birds affecting rural science. Tur Committee decided to investigate first the feeding habits of the rook, starling, and chaffinch. It has organised the following body of correspondents, who have very kindly promised to assist the inquiry by sending specimens of these birds to the Secretary each month, and the Committee desires to express its great obligation to the correspon- dents for the assistance they are rendering :— Mr. T. A. Acton, Wrexham Mr. P. Horn, London; E. Mr. A. Arnold, Hants Mr. C. Ibotson, Bucks Miss E. V. Baxter, Fife, N.B. | Mr. T. W. W. Jones, Moreton-in-Marsh Mr. R. M. Barrington, Co. Wicklow Col. R. O. Lloyd, Pembroke Mr. M. D. Barkley, Huntingdon | Mr. E. N. Millington, Shropshire Mr. P. A. Buxton, Essex | Mr. W. A. Nicholson, Portobello, N.B. Mr. C. L. Burrows, Cumberland Prof. C. J. Patten, Sheffield Mr. A. H. Cocks, Henley-on-Thames Mr. R. Patterson, Co. Down Mr. L. C. Cox, Somerset | Mr. J. M. Pope, N. Devon Mr. E. Lloyd Edwardes, Llangollen Mr. D. B. Robinson, Cumberland Col. Wynne Edwards, Denbigh Mr. F. Shillitoe, Hitchin Mr. C. Gamble, Edinburgh | Mr. F. Smalley, Carnforth Miss Garner, Warwick Mr. B. Thornber, Cheshire Mr. A. G. Gavin, Fraserburgh, N.B. Mr. C. W. L. Tottenham, N. Wales Mr. R. Gurney, Norwich | Mr. F. Wilde, Cheshire Rev. J. St. Herbert, Llandrindod Wells | Mr. J. S. Wroth, 8. Devon As the correspondents live in different parts of England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and in different types of localities, birds feeding under a wide range of conditions are obtained. The first birds were supplied in December 1908, and during the first six months (December 1 to May 31) 590 birds have been received, the number being made up as follows: rooks, 124; starlings, 278; chaffinches, 188. Each bird or batch of birds is accompanied by a form filled in by the correspondent giving the following details :— Name of bird. Date on which specimen was killed. Hour of the day when specimen was killed. Exact locality where specimen was obtained. Character of land upon or near which it was shot. General character of neighbouring land. Is the land well cultivated ? What crops are grown in the locality? ' Is the district wooded ? Are the fields bounded by hedges, dykes, or walls? What was the bird doing when shot? (feeding, flying, etc,, I: Weather. Type of weather prevailing, FEEDING HABITS OF BRITISH BIRDS. 197 Was the specimen a member of a flock? If so, state the approximate size of the flock. Is the species abundant in the locality? Has there been any increase or decrease during the past few years? Date and hour of dispatch. General remarks. From such data some idea as to the environmental conditions under which the bird was feeding and the available food-supply can be obtained. The contents of the gizzards of these birds are being examined, analysed, and tabulated by the Committee, and the intestines are being examined for parasites. The data obtained by analysis are arranged on the tabulation forms under the following heads :— Grain Seeds other than grain Fruits Roots Miscellaneous vegetable matter INSECTS. (Injurious and useful insects are separated and indicated, and larve are particularly mentioned.) Coleoptera Lepidoptera Hemiptera Other Insects Diptera Molluscs Miscellaneous food Other Invertebrates | Remarks Other animal matter In addition to the above data, the weight of the bird and the condition and weight of the gizzard contents are recorded. When in the opinion of the Committee a sufficient number of speci- mens of any one species have been examined, the results of the tabula- tions and the particulars supplied by the correspondents will be digested, arranged, and published. In addition to the grant (51.) made to the Committee by the Associa- tion, a grant of 501. has been received from the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to enable it to carry on the work, and Mr. Rogers has been appointed by the Board as its representative. The Committee asks for reappointment, with a further grant, and with the addition of Professor F. E. Weiss, and of Mr. H. 8. Leigh as Secretary in the place of Dr. Gordon Hewitt, who is compelled to retire. The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Nineteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. F. Du Cang GopMan (Chair- man), Mr. D. SHarp (Secretary), Professor 8. J. Hickson, Dr. P. L. Scuater, and Mr. Epaar A. SMITH. Tuis Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re- appointed. The publication of the results of the work of the Committee is now nearly completed. One part of the ‘ Fauna Hawaiiensis ’ has been published since the last report, and it is expected that the work will be finished within the ensuing year. ' The Committee ask for reappointment. 198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCH. Zoology Organisation.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir E. Ray LANKESTER (Chairman), Professor S. J. Hickson (Secretary), Professors G. C. BouRNE, T. W. Brince, J. Cossar Ewart, M. Hartoa, W. A. Herpman, and J. Grawam Kerr, Mr. O. H. Larrer, Professor Mincutn, Dr. P. C. MitcHEt, Professors C. Luoyp Moraan, E. B. Povunton, and A. SEpGwick, Dr. A. E. Sarpiey, and Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING. Durine the past session the Committee have had several matters of im- portance under consideration, but it was not considered necessary 10 summon a general meeting of zoologists. A meeting of the Committee was held in Cambridge on June 22, when it was decided to ask for reappointment without a grant. Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. DENDY (Chairman and Secretary), Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor A. SEDGWIcK, and Professor SypNEY H. VINEs. Since the date of our last report the British Association’s table at the Plymouth Marine Laboratory has been occupied for a fortnight by Miss May E. Bainbridge, who was engaged in investigating the Copepod parasites of fishes. An application from Mr. J. S. Dunkerly for the use of the table during the month of August, for the purpose of in- vestigating the life-history of the Flagellate Protozoa, has lately been granted. Investigations in the Indian Ocean.—Fourth Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Sir JoHN Murray (Chairman), Mr. J. STANLEY GARDINER (Secretary), Captain E. W. CReak, Professors W. A. Herpman, S. J. Hickson, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, Dr. H. R. Mitu, and Dr. D. SHARP, appointed to carry on an Expedition to investigate the Indian Ocean between India and South Africa in view of a possible land connection, to examine the deep submerged banks, the Nayareth and Saya de Matha, and also the distribution of marine animals. THE Committee have received the following communication from Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner, who has had charge of the work :— The further expedition to the Indian Ocean, determined upon in 1907, has now been brought to a satisfactory conclusion. Accom- panied by Mr. H. Scott and Mr. J. C. F. Fryer, I arrived at Seychelles ON INVESTIGATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 199 on July 10, 1908, leaving on October 8. I devoted my attention to the geography and biology of the islands of Silhouette (2,467 feet) and Mahé (2,998 feet). The former is twelve square miles in extent and the latter over fifty square miles. Both are formed of coarsely crystalline granite rock, cut up by dykes of fine-grained black rock, down which the rain has for the most part cut its watercourses. The amount of erosion ig enormous, and the general topography of the islands is almost entirely to be ascribed to the action of weathering. In all there are twenty-seven granite islands of upwards of 150 square miles on the centre of a shallow (less than fifty fathoms) bank of over 20,000 square miles. My impression from a further study of the group is that the greater part of the bank must have been at one time granite land, and that the present marine and aerial erosive actions in progress are sufficient to account for its gradual conversion into a series of small islands standing on a relatively enormous bank. The fauna and flora of Silhouette and Mahé were carefully studied, very large collections being secured. They have a continental facies, i.e., the general appearance and variety of form which is usually asso- ciated with large land masses. Both are severely restricted as to number of genera and species, but not more perhaps than would naturally be expected from the cutting down of a large mass of land to a few scattered islands, and the consequent change, almost to complete uniformity, of climate that would result. Only about four square miles of the indigenous jungle now remain. It is of the tropical rain-forest type, and a century and a half ago undoubtedly covered the islands uniformly from the sea to their highest peaks. The conditions of a rain-forest are not altogether favourable for a great variety either of plants or of animals. The jungle that remains lies on mountain peaks, covered with almost perpetual mist, and possesses these conditions in their extremest aspects. Few of the plants have been killed out, many persisting by the streams, but scarce half of the insect fauna is likely still to survive. Introduced insects and spiders are everywhere, and have been peculiarly destruc- tive to the indigenous forms, directly by killing them and indirectly by consuming their food. In a former report I referred to evidence of a change of level of the islands of Mahé and Silhouette in respect to the sea. My investigations show an elevation of these islands, or a lowering of the sea, of at least twenty-five to thirty feet, or four to five fathoms. This could scarcely have been sufficient to affect the topography of the Seychelles group as a whole, but is an interesting phenomenon when taken in conjunction with the general slight elevation found in most of the island groups from Madagascar to India. No indication was found of any subsequent or previous subsidence, the possibility of which is contradicted by the whole topography of the Seychelles. Mr. H. Scott devoted himself to the entomology of the Seychelles, spending two months in Silhouette, five months in Mahé, and a month in other islands. He camped for the most part of the time in the mountains, and devoted himself to the insects of the indigenous jungles, collecting them and working at their habits and life histories. His collections comprise about 50,000 specimens, which are now being sorted and mounted for examination by specialists. It is too soon yet to say anything about these collections, but it may confidently be 200 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. anticipated that half of the species will be new. The collections are at least large enough to be used for basing deductions as to the relation- ships of the Seychelles considered entomologically. Mr. Fryer proceeded on our arrival to investigate Bird and Dennis, two coral islands on the north of the Seychelles bank. He remained a month in them, and then proceeded to visit the islands to the N.W. of Madagascar, left uninvestigated by the Percy Sladen Expedition in H.M.S. Sealark in 1905. It will be some years before his results can obtain final form, but I append his preliminary report on his investiga- tions. Meantime I cannot refrain from expressing my high appre- ciation of Mr. Fryer’s pluck and resource in carrying on his researches in these islands for six months, during which he never saw a white man. During the past year the first volume of the results of the investiga- tions (Trans. Linn. Soc., Vol. XII.) has been completed by the publica- tion of the following reports:—The Madreporarian Corals: I.—The Family Fungiide (J. Stanley Gardiner); A List of the Freshwater Fishes, Batrachians, and Reptiles (G. A. Boulenger); Antipatharia (C. Forster Cooper); Amphipoda Gammaridea (A. O. Walker); The Stylasterima (S. J. Hickson and Helen M. England); Polychaeta.— Part I.—The Amphinomide (F. A. Potts); Marine Alge (Chorophycee and Pheophycez) and Marine Phanerogams (A. Gepp and Mrs. C. S. Gepp). The following reports have also been read at the Linnean Society and are in course of publication:—Marine Nemerteans (R. C. Punnett . and C. Forster Cooper); Echinoderms (Professor Jeffrey Bell); Rhynchota (W. L. Distant); Cirripedia (Professor Gruvel); Further Amphipoda (A. O. Walker); Marine Mollusca (J. Cosmo Melvill); Land Mollusca of Seychelles (E. R. Sykes); Lepidoptera (T. Bam- bridge Fletcher); Alcyonaria (Professor J. Arthur Thomson); Amphi- oxides (H. O. Gibson); Further Chaetopoda (F. A. Potts); Penzidea, Stenopidea, and Reptantia (L. A. Borradaile); and Marine Deposits (Sir John Murray). J. Srantey GARDINER. Mr. Fryer’s Preliminary Report. IT arrived in Mahé about the middle of July, and after some delay, which enabled me to visit Bird and Dennis Islands, I left Mahé on August 22 for Aldabra, visiting en route the islands of Astove, Cosmo- ledo, and Assumption. These four islands, which all lie some 200 to 250 miles north (N.N.W.) of Madagascar, must be considered as very closely allied in regard to their structure and formation. It seems necessary to include in this group the islands of Farquhar, Providence, and St. Pierre, which I had no opportunity of visiting, but which were investigated by the previous expedition on H.M.S. Sealark. ASTOVE. I reached Astove on August 27, and left on September 1, hoping to revisit the island in January, in which, however, I was disappointed. The island is a perfect atoll, which has been elevated for at least 25 feet. It is some two miles long by one mile broad, with a single pass on the south-west, opening into a shallow lagoon. The basis of the land rim is entirely formed of coral rock, which almost everywhere shows clearly on the surface, though blown sand has in places formed small dunes. ON INVESTIGATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 201 The structure of the rock varies considerably, but as a whole is remark- able for the small amount of metamorphosis which has taken place. Even on the surface large fields of coral in natural position were fre- quently noticed, while on the face of the cliffs it was always obvious that the corals were stil] essentially in the same position as when under the sea. Rock consisting of a conglomerate of reef débris was not common, but was always more prevalent near the lagoon shores, point- ing to the probability that the central portions of the atoll were dead before elevation. Metamorphosed rock was found in various parts of the western half of the atoll, and always contained a considerable pro- portion of phosphatic matter, derived presumably from guano. Of the latter substance, considerable deposits exist near the lagoon shore on the west, and in large natural pits in the rock scattered over the atoll. © The lagoon is very shallow, being only a few inches deep at low spring tides; the bottom is covered with a very fine white mud, which, on account of the small depth, is churned up by strong winds, making the water quite white and piling the shores with foam. The amount of material carried to sea by each tide must be very large. This fact, taken in conjunction with the obvious erosion of the cliffs which form the shores of the lagoon, points to a rapid increase in size of the latter. Islands in the lagoon only occur near the pass, and it seems certain that much of the atoll depression must have existed at the time of elevation. These features of the lagoon can only be explained by supposing that the pass is of very recent date, an hypothesis borne out by the character of the latter itself. It is narrow, with no marked channel, being almost dry at low tide. The bottom is rocky, and there is no live coral either in it or in the lagoon. The reef outside is narrow, and but slightly channelled by the escape of water from the pass. It is not composed of modern reef substance, but apparently of elevated coral rock. Live coral is absent, though a certain amount of Lithothamnia exists. A cursory examination of the reef in other places pointed to its structure being the same, though a greater amount of sand and Lithothamnia- covered débris were present, often bound together by beds of Cymodocea. Variations in level across the atoll were difficult to estimate, but the highest rock level (12 feet above high-tide level) seemed near the sea, with a varying gradient to the lagoon. The seashore is sandy on the west, with cliffs appearing here and there. The east coast I could not visit owing to lack of time. The land vegetation consists of dense scrub, composed of large bushes and small trees near the lagoon, though to seaward it is formed rather by small shrubs and matted herbaceous plants. A small collec- tion of plants, as also of animals, was made, but the short duration of the visit coupled with the season prevented any thorough collecting being attempted. The settlement is situated on the west coast; it is small, and the inhabitants are employed in catching turtle and cultivating a small coconut plantation, which is being tried, while a certain amount of maize and tobacco is grown on the share system. COSMOLEDO. This group was reached on September 1. It is an atoll also, but differs from Astove in having only a small proportion of its rim capped 202 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. with land and in being considerably larger. It has an extreme length of 9 miles and breadth of 7 miles. The circumference of the atoll is about 24 miles, and of this only 10 miles at most consist of land. The latter is divided up into eight main islands and numerous small islets, but of all these only two are inhabited. During my stay, which was only one of four days, I visited four of the larger islands, and on my return journey I again had two days on the atoll, which enabled me to cursorily examine two more islands and take a representative series of photographs. The results of the two visits may be outlined as follows:—The islands in all cases are fundamentally of coral rock, though sand has been piled on to them by the wind, and in places has completely hidden the rocky base beneath sand dunes and ridges. The rock is typical elevated coral rock, and, with the difference that metamorphosis has been more extensive, much resembles that of Astove. The island shores are either rocky or sandy, but in either case show unmistakable signs of rapid erosion. On one island (Wizard) the remains of a house, now in the lagoon, enabled me to calculate the extent of the erosion as being 15 yards since 1893, an average of a yard a year. Evidence of the former extent of the land was obtained from the islets and table-shaped rocks on the reef, and I have little doubt that at one time the atoll was almost entirely capped with a ring of land. The lagoon has the greatest average depth of any atoll visited, though the channels in the Aldabra lagoon are deeper. There are no islands situated anywhere in it, and no suggestions can be made as to its former extent. The bottom is largely sandy, and there are signs of a tendency to replace the original rocky islands by sand shoals and cays. There are two passes through the reef; these are both situated on the southern side of the atoll. The reef was examined at a point on the south-west ; the seaward edge was conspicuous for the vigorous growth of Litho- thamnia; no live coral was observed in this zone. Inside the edge Lithothamnia were still abundant, but were chiefly encrusting forms found on broken pieces of dead coral flung on the reef. Passing to the lagoon was a sort of buttress zone, with channels and pools containing a little live coral. The lagoon at this point was very sandy, and almost dry at low tide. The land vegetation somewhat resembles that of Astove on the rocky places, but is not so dense, and owing to the presence of large quantities of sand perhaps would be more like that of Farquhar. -A large man- grove swamp exists on the lagoon side of the chief island (Menai). In the dry season the islands are much more parched and dried up than Astove, but during the wet season crops of maize seemed to flourish remarkably well. Guano has been found on several of the islands, and a considerable quantity exported, as well as phosphate rock, which was found underneath the guano. It was interesting to discover in the latter rock the eggs of the giant land tortoise, though unfortunately no remains were found to determine the species. A collection of land animals was made, and the fauna appears to be identical with that of other islands in this region. The settlement is small (twenty people) and the inhabi- tants employed as at Astove, ON INVESTIGATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 208 ASSUMPTION. Assumption was reached on September 6. It, unlike the two pre- vious islands, is not an atoll; it is crescent-shaped, about 32 miles long and from 1 to 4 mile broad. In composition it is undoubtedly an elevated reef, corals in position of growth being easily observed, especi- ally on the face of the cliffs and on the sides of pits in the rock, which form a marked feature of the island. Much metamorphosis has occurred in places in the interior of the island, producing a rock which usually includes a considerable proportion of phosphate, derived, as in the other islands, from a superficial deposit of guano. The conglomerate men- tioned in relation to Astove is common, and confirms the impression that it is of the nature of the rock forming on recent reef-flats. Varia- tions in level over the island were, owing to the thick bush, difficult to estimate, but judging from three tracks cut from east to west across the land, there is a slight ridge running north and south near the west shore with a maximum height of 20 feet, decreasing on each side to the common level (about 12 feet) of the island. In the south-east are large dunes (90 feet high) formed entirely of blown sand. The natural pits in the rock, before referred to, are most common in the interior of the island, but also occur within a few yards of the sea. They seem to owe their origin to imperfect consolidation of the reef at the time of growth. They vary considerably in size, the largest being 18 yards long by 14 yards wide by 3 yards deep, and the deepest 45 feet. Some contain salt water, and others are largely filled with guano, though in these salt water can be easily reached by digging; in all the water seems to fluctuate tidally, though in no case was any connection with the sea discovered, except that of free percolation. The sides of the pits are always being eroded and weathered, and consequently the latter are increasing in size. It was natural to consider whether a lagoon could be formed by this means, but the conclusion was in the negative, as there seemed no reason why the pits should connect more rapidly with each other than with the sea. Guano is present in some quantity, especially on a large plain near the east coast, while many of the pits contain a large quantity. It undoubtedly has had a considerable influence on the rock below. The land vegetation is a scrub, dense and thick in places, especially in the south-west, and thinning out to an open plain in the east. A curious occurrence is that of a growth of mangrove trees in three of the pits; as there seems to be no free subterranean connection with the sea it is difficult to explain their presence in an island so unsuited to them as Assumption. ‘T'wo of the pits contain Brugiera and the other Ceriops. A further discovery in these pits was that of the remains of giant land tortoises, considerable portions of several specimens being obtained. One species appears identical with that of the present Aldabra tortoise, but it appears likely that a second species also existed. Of the present fauna little need be said except that it resembles that of the other two islands. The settlement is quite recent and was made to work the guano. Green turtles are extremely plentiful, and until killed off will be a source of profit to the island. 204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. On September 12 I sailed for Aldabra, but again visited the island on my return, spending two days in photography and checking previous observations. ALDABRA. I arrived in Aldabra on September 18, and, owing to the excessive drought, had perforce to confine myself mainly to geological investiga- tion until the end of the period of south-east trade winds. The wet season commenced in November, after which month most of the plants were found in flower, while land animals, previously invisible, became fairly numerous. I had four camps—t.e., on Michel Island, at Taka- maka on Main Island, on Esprit Island, and on Picard Island—from which I examined every portion of the atoll. Owing to the dense and impenetrable scrub, exploration was always attended by considerable difficulty, as paths could only be cut at the cost of great labour; in addition I cleared several broad sections from the sea to the lagoon, in order to get a clear idea of the sequence of the rocks and vegetation and of the relative elevations. The nature of the ground and of its vegetation is such that the land may be divided into four somewhat irregular zones, from the lagoon outwards, as follows :— (1) Mangrove swamp—varying in size up to nearly a mile in maximum breadth. (2) Champignon—the surface much metamorphosed, coral rock, usually with sharply defined dark portions, which appear to consist of guano included during metamorphosis. It has evidently been subjected to heavy rain denudation, its surface being a mass of points and pits. The vegetation is a scrub of Pemphis acidula. (3) Platin—fairly smooth, composed mainly of coral fragments and reef débris, with a few shells, weathering into large flat slabs with soil accumulating in the crevices. In places are larger depressions, in which there are usually clumps of trees. The soil is guano, with a mixture of disintegrated rock. The vegetation is varied, containing numerous small bushes and trees, Pandanus, Ficus, Euphorbia, &c.; the fauna also is varied and comparatively rich. (4) Shore zone—largely of blown sand, with a stunted and wind- swept vegetation ; large clumps of Pandanus, Tournefortia, and Scaevola everywhere very numerous. In a broad sectional clearing which I made at Takamaka, the sea- ward reef commences with a fissured edge, succeeded by a sand flat, the sand being bound together by beds of grass-like Cymodocea, its rhizomes greatly overgrown by Lithothamnia; the buttresses between the fissures are themselves largely covered with sand; live coral is almost absent; not far from the edge are a few small boulders of dead coral, all much encrusted with Lithothamnia; a few species of seaweed are found in the pools left at low tide. The landward edge of the reef is formed of cliffs, 12 feet to 15 feet high, just outside which is usually a small depression in the reef with 2 feet or 3 feet of water. The cliffs are sloping, not overhanging, and are divided into buttresses ; they con- sist of a mass of corals cemented together with lime. The corals are all in the position in which they grew, and so perfect as to give the ON INVESTIGATIONS IN 'THE INDIAN OCEAN. 205 impression that they are only just dead. On the landward side of the cliffs is a ridge, 2 feet or 3 feet higher, of grass-covered sand; this marks the seaward edge of the shore zone, which is about 250 yards wide, the sand being shallow and lying on a basis of coral rock. Then comes a rocky ridge, 4 feet to 6 feet higher than the shore zone, the rock more solid and less denuded; this, the highest part of the section, is some 25 feet above sea-level. From the landward side of this ridge the level gradually decreases to about 10 feet above sea-level. It passes into a zone of Champignon, which here lies outside the Platin zone, which latter extends to the mangrove swamp. The Platin is all very similar in appearance, except that it is more wooded near the lagoon ; it terminates with a sharp drop through the last 4 feet or 5 feet to the lagoon surface. At Takamaka there is a spring of fresh water, and a grove of large Calophyllum and Ficus trees. This spring, with three others, all lying between Takamaka and the lagoon, is the only constant source of fresh water on the islands. The section finishes at Abbot’s Creek, which is a narrow passage from the lagoon with a thick undergrowth of man- By Bac 4 (oe cu *f hag Sy me Micnet 1 ~ big hae “ “8.5 7 oe we z quet™ 5 unas Jeon Lows Forte erin Tis | RN + Aldabra Atoll, Scale about 6 miles to 1 inch. groves on each side; its bed is rocky and covered with very fine white mud; at its termination in the land it passes between small cliffs, all much overhung and obviously breaking down. In another section, which passes from Vert Island in the lagoon northward to the sea, the country is all, with the exception of the shore zone, of the Champignon type, Platin being entirely absent. There is a gradual slope from the lagoon, becoming steeper at the beginning of the shore zone. Right up to the latter salt water is often found in pits in the rock, fluctuating, apparently, with the lagoon tides. The cliffs on this north coast are 4 feet or 5 feet higher than those before described, and are always much overhanging. Caves penetrate far into their faces, large portions of which have at intervals fallen on to the reef; this fallen rock appears to become disintegrated quickly, as small pieces are uncommon, the action of the sea being assisted by boring animals {small Gephyreans, boring molluscs, &c.). As elsewhere round the coast, the rock shows its component corals in a way which leaves no doubt as to their being in the same position as previous to their elevation. On the reef here there are three or foyr distinct regions; close to the 206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. cliff there is a small belt of bare rock, often worn into hollows contain- ing 3 feet or 4 feet of water; then a large area, mainly of broken coral fragments covered with Lithothamnia, and edged outside with a small boulder zone; and outside this, again, buttresses with a few colonies of living corals in the channels. Such are the usual features of the fringing reef at Aldabra, the appearance in the Takamaka section being quite exceptional. After the previous descriptions, it is possible to speak more generally of Aldabra. The cliffs, as stated, show their structure wonderfully clearly, except in the southern bight, where they are sloping and buttressed; they are much overhung, and are crumbling fast. The general variations in level across the land are similar; the highest point is near the sea, and there is a steady decrease in level to the lagoon. As regards the nature of the land, all the northern portion of the atoll—Polymnie Island, Malabar Island, and the north-east part of Main Island—-consists of Champignon. The south-east portion of Main Island is chiefly Platin. In the centre of the south of Main Island there is a wide shore zone, and then a belt of Champignon. To the east and west of this portion are large mounds (65 feet in height) near the shore. They are obviously wind dunes, the seaward slope being gradual with little vegetation, the landward very steep and covered with bush. Opposite each dune the cliffs have almost entirely vanished, a direct slope of sand leading up to the dune. It is noticeable that in Aldabra, as in most of the other islands of this part of the ocean, dunes are only formed on the coast facing the strong south-east trades. The west portion of Main Island is chiefly Champignon. At Couroupa there is a dip in the rock which appears to extend from the shore right across to the mangrove swamp; it is filled with sand, and attains a maximum depth of 8 feet. A portion of Picard Island and Esprit Island (in the lagoon) demand a fuller description. Esprit is largely swamp, but round the south and west there is a ridge of rock about 30 feet high, which is obviously not typical coral rock. The majority of the ridge is composed of a dark brown hard rock; at the lower levels it is very solid and homogeneous, but higher up it takes the form of a coarse conglomerate or pudding stone. The top of the ridge is capped with a rock which appears extraordinarily like flint. On each side are pinnacles of a rock which is evidently com- posed very largely of a deposit of mollusc shells, and which has suffered excessive denudation. On the outer (lagoon) side of the ridge these pinnacles are only a few feet high, but on the inner side, towards the centre of the island, they form a series of grotesque up-standing pillars and walls, varying up to 15 feet in height; they appear to be standing on the brown rock. Picard Island, which is mainly of typical coral rock, has in the centre (S.W.) a large plain of Platin country, on the east side of which is a large basin in the rock, in subterranean connection with the lagoon. On the floor of the basin IT found several small pieces of the dark homo- geneous rock, and, at one side, much of the brown conglomerate. The majority of the rock round the basin appeared purely calcareous, but there were some short veins (six inches to a foot wide) and masses of highly crystalline rock, some apparently calcite and some also ON INVESTIGATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 207 containing much phosphoric acid and apparently apatite. Bones, the teeth of elasmobranchs, and remains of other organisms, at present unidentified, were found both in the calcareous rock and in the brown ‘conglomerate.’ A small area near the basin was covered with pinnacles of the ‘ shell rock’ as at Esprit. Specimens of these rocks were sent home in advance, and some were sectioned and reported on as ‘volcanic glasses’ in the issue of ‘ Nature ’ of May 13, 1909. There is little doubt but that this identification is entirely erroneous, for since my arrival I have myself examined them briefly, and find that almost all of these strange rocks, with the exception of the ‘ shell rock,’ are largely composed of calcium phosphate, the colouring being apparently due to a considerable percentage of iron. Arrangements are being made for the proper examination of these rocks, the formation of which is at present shrouded in mystery, but which, it is hoped, will eventually throw considerable light on the early history of Aldabra. The four passes into the lagoon are interesting, and perhaps give a ciue to its formation. They have usually deep central channels, with reefs on either side. Small rock islets are present on these reefs, and it appears certain from their existence that the passes are steadily increasing in size, and that their reefs are really the remains of the land kept up to low-tide level by growing coral. Live coral extends for some distance into the lagoon, there being in all cases a luxuriant bed just inside the pass. At the mouth of the pass all corals are largely encrusted with Lithothamnia, and further seawards many are com- pletely killed by these alge. Besides the existing passes, it should be noted that there seems a likelihood of at least three more being formed—at Camp Frigate the Mangrove swamp extends right through the island to the sea, and no doubt a certain amount of water already traverses the land at that point. In Polymnie Island, at one place the swamp is within 100 yards of the shore, and a pass will probably be formed in time; at Dune Jean Louis there is only a quarter of a mile between the sea and the swamp, and if the lagoon erosion continues, no doubt Main Island will be divided at this point. It is worthy of note that fresh passes seem always to be formed by lagoon erosion, and not from the seaward side. The lagoon itself is very shallow, and the bottom sandy in the middle, changing into fine mud as it approaches the mangrove swamp. Eyerywhere one is forcibly struck by the extent of the erosion in the lagoon. Judging by its maze of small islands and mushroom-shaped rocks, at least one-third, or even more, of the lagoon can be shown to have been land at one time. At spring tides the amount of fine mud carried out to sea in suspension is very large, and it is obvious that the lagoon is still growing in size. There is some difficulty in accounting for the rapid transformation of the rock into mud, as boring animals are not common. As regards the vegetation, it is impossible to say much until the specimens collected have been worked out. The mangrove swamps Swat 208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Brugiera thrives better in the more rocky places and on the small islands. In the extreme east of the atoll there is a large forest of the pseudo-mangrove Avicennia. The only other fact that need be mentioned is that Esprit Island has several plants not found elsewhere, or which are common to it and Picard Island alone. The fauna also must be left until the collections arrive and have been examined. So far as can be seen at present, it appears to be of the regular coral-island type, with such additions in the land animals as would be natural considering the large amount of land and the larger flora. It should, however, be remarked that the mangrove swamps were very disappointing in their fauna, a condition very different from that described in mangrove swamps in other localities. Large numbers of giant land tortoises still exist, but the problem of their distribution does not relate to Aldabra alone, as I have found their remains on Assumption and Cosmoledo, and they are also known to have occurred in nearly all the Seychelles Islands, two of which—Bird and Dennis—are coralline in structure. In conclusion, I would suggest that the reefs and islands of the Aldabra-Farquhar line present a most interesting series representing the possible life of an atoll. (a) Astove.—Land rim of atoll almost perfect and mostly rocky. Only one small pass of recent date. Lagoon exceedingly shallow, but getting rapidly deeper. Formation of another pass proceeding. (b) Aldabra.—Land rim still very perfect, and mostly rocky. Several passes already in existence. Strong evidence of increase of lagoon at expense of land. Lagoon deeper, and at least three passes in course of formation. (c) Cosmoledo.—Land rim broken up into a series of small islands only. Most of encircling reef bare, but evidence of a former rock-cap in mushroom-shaped rocks and minute islands. A noticeable increase of sand on the island, and decrease of rock. Lagoon deeper than that of Aldabra, and more open. (d) Farquhar.—Judging from Mr. Stanley Gardiner’s description, land rim very small. Island nearly all sand, and typical coral rock very scarce. Lagoon still more open. (e) A final or hypothetical stage may be imagined as an atoll with a considerable lagoon, without, perhaps, any land; or, if land is present, only as sand cays piled up on the reef. The Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir R. H. Inetis PaueraveE (Chairman), Mr. H. STANLEY JEvons (Secretary), and Messrs. A. L. Bowxey and D. H. MAcGREGOR. Ar a meeting of the Committee held in November 1908 the estimate of the total gold coinage in circulation obtained from the available data was considered, and it was decided thaf the only assignable limits of GOLD COINAGE IN CIRCULATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 209 error were so great as to make the estimate of little value and unfit for publication. It was decided to attempt an estimate on the basis of the gold of dates 1904-6 in circulation, and for the purpose of calcu- lating this to obtain a fuller knowledge of the composition by date of British gold coin exported. Sy the kindness of the Governor of the Bank of England five bags of gold coin destined for export were opened in February, 1909, and the coins of different dates counted. ‘The result shows an unexpected variety in different bags, and they can hardly be taken as a true sample of the whole coinage exported. An estimate of the exports based on the composition of these bags gives a figure for the total coinage differing very widely from the previous estimate. Agricultural Development in the North-West of Canada, 1905 wntil 1909. By Professor James Mavor. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] In the end of the year 1903 the then President of the Board of Trade, the Right Hon. Gerald Balfour, did me the honour of asking me to make a confidential report upon Agricultural Production in the North- West of Canada, with special reference to the production of wheat for export. This report, which was the result of study of the subject since 1896, was prepared in 1904, the narrative and statistical portions being brought down to December 31 of that year. The report was published in 1905.2 The Chairman of the Sub-section of Agriculture of the British Association has invited me to contribute a paper bringing down the data to the present time. The region which was the subject of inquiry consisted of the pro- vince of Manitoba and the territories of Alberta, Assiniboia, and Sas- katchewan. It comprised in effect the great plains from the Red River valley to the Rocky Mountains and from the international boundary to the valley of the North Saskatchewan. In September 1905 the political structure of the region was altered. The area of the terri- tories above mentioned, together with additional areas towards the north, was divided into two provinces—Saskatchewan and Alberta. The Legislatures of these new provinces were endowed with the same powers as those of the other provinces of the Dominion, excepting that the control of the unalienated public lands and the control of the North-West Mounted Police were retained in the hands of the Dominion authorities. Regina was selected as the capital of Saskatchewan, and Edmonton of Alberta. Some time elapsed before the various departments of the new Governments were fully organised. New statistical districts had to be determined in the two new provinces, and thus comparison of their data with those of the former districts came to be somewhat difficult. The ’ Report to the Board of Trade on the North-West of Canada, with special reference to Wheat Production for Export, by James Mavor, Professor of Political Economy in the University of Toronto, Canada, 1904 (Parliamentary Paper) (Cd. 2628), London (1905). 1909. P 210 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. erection of the new provinces was coincident with a considerable increase in immigration, largely from Great Britain and the United States, although the population was also considerably increased by a less readily estimated immigration from the province of Ontario. In the preparation of the report of 1904 L found myself confronted by the fact that the region in question had only been partially sur- veyed, and that no agricultural survey properly so called had been made of any portion of it. Estimates of the agricultural possibilities of the region were thus matters not of knowledge but of opinion; and opinions of different persons, many of them equally well qualified to form judgments on such questions, varied very widely. in these circum- stances it was necessary to be guarded in the formation of any con- clusions about the conditions of the time and still more about the possibilities of the future. I felt bound, however, to consider and present such estimates of these possibilities as had been brought to my notice. At the same time | explicitly refrained from offering endorsement of any of these estimates. On the grounds of what official data were at the time available concerning the agricultural history and apparent tendencies of the agricultural exploitation of the region, I ventured to suggest some provisional conclusions of a very general character. Among these conclusions was the follow- ing :— : ‘ Very great improvements in the productive power of the country and a very considerable increase in the effective population, as well as a more exclusive regard to wheat cultivation, would have to take place before the North-West could be regarded as being in a position to be relied upon to produce for export to Great Britain a quantity of wheat even nearly sufficient for the growing requirements of that country. That an exclusive regard to wheat cultivation is unlikely to arise seems certain from much of the foregoing detail. Even if the soil were uniformly suitable, and even if the seasons could be absolutely relied upon, the disposition of the people and their settlement upon small farms of which the owner is also the cultivator seem against the exclusive cultivation of one crop. The tendency of knowledge derived from experience and of instruction and advice derived from the experi- mental farms, as well as other Governmental encouragement of mixed farming, are all opposed to exclusive cultivation of wheat or of any other one crop, as is also the experience of the States immediately to the south of the international boundary.’ + The experience of the past five years very strongly confirms this conclusion. A considerable improvement in the productive powers of the country has taken place, a considerable increase in the effective population has occurred, yet the quantity of wheat produced is still far short of the quantity annually imported by Great Britain. More- over there has been during these years less rather than more propor- tional cultivation of wheat. Mixed farming has become more common. These facts appear in the statistics which follow. 2 Report to the Board of Trade on the North-West of Canada, with special reference to Wheat Production for Export, by James Mavor, Professor of Political Economy in the University of Toronto, Canada, 1904 (Parliamentary Paper) (Cd. 2628), London (1905), p. 114. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 211 The Area of the Prairie Provinces.—The area of the three prairie provinces—Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta—is much larger than the area of the region formerly occupied by Manitoba and the North- West Territories. This appears in the following table :— 1904 1905 In Millions of Acres Land | Water| Total || Land | Water | Total Province of Manitoba .. . | 412] 60 | 472] 412] 60 | 47-2 The Territories, afterwards the i Provinces of Saskatchewan and | / Alberta (including the added i areas) . : . ‘ 1879 | 30 |191:0 1551 | 63 | 160-4 | 160°8 | 1:5 | 162°3 2291 | 9-0 | 2382 357-1 | 12:8 | 369-9 The added areas thus amounted to more than fifty per cent. of the original area of the region. The addition consisted of almost the whole of the former territory of Athabasca. The greater part of this addition is beyond the region of practicable settlement for commercial produc- tion at the present time. Meteorological Data of the Years 1905-09.—Attention was drawn on the previous occasion to the fact that the observation stations of the Meteorological service do not furnish records for a sufficient length of time to.enable decisive conclusions to be formulated regarding the important questions of temperature and precipitation. It is hardly necessary to lay emphasis upon the well-established scientific fact that the occupation of a country does not influence the climate. The erection of buildings and the planting of trees may affect, within certain narrow limits, the currents of air on the immediate surface, and culti- vation may render the soil less impervious to moisture, and may thus alter the quantity of moisture held by the soil; but none of these changes has any influence upon the rainfall or upon other phenomena of a cosmic character. This, at all events, is the general conclusion of meteorologists, who alone are entitled to be heard upon such a question. Average Daily Maximum Temperature. | | —— April July Sept. Nov. | January ’ Calgary . 53°2 74:7 63°7 35°3 23:1 hana rel Edmonton . | 529 | 737 | 621 | 39:5 | 162 Winnipee .| 501 | 776 | 65:3 | 305 8:0 Bar: earl bf Medicine Hat| 446 | 681 | 561 | 284 | 11°8 ons | —— =. ih P 2 212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, Normal Precipitation. The following table shows the average annual precipitation observed at the stations named: ? 1888-1907. Inches Inches Calgary (20 years’ observation) . 16°30 | Qu’Appelle (20 years’ observations) 15°84 Medicine Hat a selon kl | Mimiedosa 93 . 17°36 Edmonton - . 1820 | Winnipeg a . 2081 Battleford Hy Ae) | Macleod (14 years’ observations) 13:15 Prince Albert is . 16°60 | Brandon . . 17°38 Swift Current a » 15:90 Table showing Dates of First Occurrence of Sowing, Hay-cutting, and Grain-cutting in the North- West in Successive Year's since 1905. — | Sowing Hay-cutting Grain-cutting 1905 | Alberta . sal — July 20 First week in August | at Edmonton Saskatchewan | — — July 25 Manitoba “i, — _ First week in August | | 1906 | | Alberta . . | 90 per cent. of wheat July 12 | Wheat-cutting general | in by the end of | | by middleof August. | | April. Oats sown | Barley 4th. Oats | ‘in first week of | | 13th | May | Manitoba . | Wheat-sowing on | — August 4 April 30. Oat- | | sowing finished | April 30. Barley later 1907 | Harvest began gene- Alberta . | Gea me | rally on September 5, Saskatchewan | og | M see | _ except in far nor- Manitoba ) . y thern Alberta, where | no crops ripened 1908 | Alberta . 5 ‘| Wheat and oats Haying com- Wheat-cutting middle | Saskatchewan. |; 2 in. to 3 in. | pletedJuly 24 of August Manitoba ) high by May 31 General Calendar of the Scasons. | — | Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta | | 1905 Good year. Large | Good year. | Dry spring in west and | yield Large yield. north centre of pro- | | ‘Stinking vince. Rains in | | smut preva- June,with two frosts. | | lent’ Harvest | weather . good | 1906 Large crop, but de- | Early season. | Winter mild. Light | | ficient average Hot winds in snowfall. Heavy | | | yield reported July. Grain rains in May. Dry | prematurely and warm in June | ripened. and July. Hot and Yield per acre dry in August reported less than 1905 1 JT am indebted to Mr. R. F. Stupart, Director of the Dominion Meteoro- logical Department, for compiling these statistics, AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 213 General Calendar of the Seasons—continued. _— Manitoba Saskatchewan | Alberta 1907 Unfavourable year. | Unfavourable | Unfavourable year. Deficient harvest year. Defi- | Deficient harvest cient harvest. | Reported yield 13°52 bushels | ; per acre Government Loan of Seed. 1908 | Favourable spring | Favourable | Favourable spring | spring | | Hot and dry in July in three provinces | Good yield and heavy crop 1909 | Low temperature and cold rains eariy in June, followed by dry | weather. Seeding in all provinces was late. In the end of June some heavy local rains. Conditions of crops irregular and difficult to estimate in the aggregate. Hot and dry weather in July and August led to early harvesting. Result | of crop cannot as yet be stated with confidence Population.—The last Dominion Decennial Census having been taken in 1901, it was thought that an intermediate census ought to be taken of the three prairie provinces in 1906, partly because of the considerable immigration and partly because of the readjustment of the political status of the population. The following table shows the general result of this census, which was taken as at June 24, 1906 :— — 1901 | 1906 Increase | roar © ha. St a Manitoba. 2 5 : : zt 255,211 365,688 44:28 Saskatchewan . A 5 : 2 91,279 166,484 182°39 ME vo se. tcpventedl oy O22. | | 112890 15391 | = aes = = 2 A ere 1200! Qe neha seeihg abate: 419,512 | 808,863 92:31 | The following table shows the origin of this population in a very general way :— Per cent, Per cent. 1901 1906 Born within the British Empire . 3 : 78:40 70°21 Born within the United States . é 3 4:95 11:22 Total British and American born . c 5 83:35 81:43 Born in other countries . ‘ 5 f ‘ 16°65 18°57 100:00 100:00 The available statistics show that although the immigration from the United States had been considerable, there were, in 1906, in the three provinces but 90,738 persons who had been born in the United States. The population of British origin was thus still largely preponderant. 214 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. In the report of 1904 attention was drawn to the greater increase of the urban than of the rural population, as shown by the census returns up till 1901. This increase has gone on to an even greater extent than formerly, as is shown by the following table :— 1901 Rural Urban Rural avian | Population | Population | Population | Population Manitoba. 72°41 27°59 62°24 37°76 Saskatchewan . 84:38 15°62 81:20 18°80 Alberta 74:00 26:00 68°71 31:29 75°28 24°72 69°77 30°23 The relation between the increase of cultivation and the growth of the population is shown by the following table. The figures are for the three prairie provinces combined. —_ 1901 1906 Rural persons 315,821 564,278 Urban ,, 103,691 244,585 Total ae 419,512 808,863 Number of acres cultivated in field crops 3,597,691 8,010,980 Number of acres cultivated in field sf0Ps per 1,000 rural inhabitants 11,391 14,250 Number of acres cultivated in field crops per 1,000 of all inhabitants 8,576 9,941 Number of acres cultivated in ‘wheat per 1,000 of all inhabitants 5,950 6,258 | It will thus be seen that, together with the increase of population, there has occurred an increase of cultivated area per head of the population. While in 1901 the cultivated area amounted to less than 8°6 acres per head, of which 5°9 were in wheat, or 68 per cent., in 1906 the cultivated area was 9°9 acres per head, of which 6°3 acres were in wheat, or 62 per cent. Immigration.—The difficulty of collecting and of presenting accu- rate statistics of immigration and emigration for Canada was noticed in the report of 1904. The chief reason for this difficulty is that the large traffic between the United States and Canada by rail and steamer and the considerable traffic by road or by prairie cannot readily be divided into migratory traffic properly so called and tourist or commercial traffic. | Moreover even if such a distinction could be made the actual numbers passing, excepting those travelling by ordinary means of conveyance, could not be accurately ascertained. Large num- bers of settlers, for example, have in past years crossed from the United States into Canada in their own covered wagons at unobserved points on the frontier. Methods other than those involving actual ~ count on the frontier lead inevitably to omissions and duplications. Insufficient attention has also been paid to the deductions from the AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 215 totals of immigrants in respect to emigration. This has, however, been undoubtedly a smaller element than if was ten years ago. According to the statistics of the Department of the Interior, which, for the reasons explained above, must be accepted with qualifications, the following is a comparative statement of the immigration into Canada during the years since 1900. Comparative Statement of Arrivals at Inland and Ocean Ports during the Four Years ending March 31, 1908. Great Britain United Other | ie. and Ireland States Countries Total 1904-05 P 7 ‘ = 65,359 43,632 37,255 146,266 | 1905-06 . 86,796 17,919 44,349 189,064 1906-07 (9 months only). 55,791 34,659 37,217 124,667 ‘ 1907-08 . 5 | 120,182 58,312 83,975 262,469 The total number of arrivals during the period of six years from 1901 till 1906, embracing the two census years 1901 and 1906, was as follows :— United United Other Total Kingdom States Countries Yi 1901-06 : ; 273,390 240,590 196,572 710,552 Tt will be observed that during recent years there has been a con- siderable increase in the immigration from all the sources indicated, but especially from the United Kingdom and from other European countries. Large as the immigration from the United States has been it has not been so great proportionally as that from other countries. The reasons for the increased emigration from the United Kingdom have been chiefly the following: the increase of population ; the decline of trade, due largely to American fluctuations; the disturbance of the labour and money markets, due to the South African war; the activity of emigration societies, emigration agents, and steamship companies; and the offer of free homestead land in the Canadian North-West. Excepting the first—viz., the increase of population—these conditions are all temporary. The agricultural population of Great Britain com- prises now so small a proportion of the total that agricultural wages have risen sharply, and it must thus become more difficult to induce the agricultural labourer to change his habitat. It must be realised that although during the past two or three seasons many former tenant farmers and other persons with capital have emigrated and have esta- blished themselves in Canada, this class of men is not accustomed to hard physical labour personally. They have been employers and directors of labour. In that country labour is difficult to obtain, and very expensive when it is obtained. So long as the free homesteads are offered, and so long as mining and prospecting offer high remunera- tion, the farmer who attempts to cultivate his land by the labour of others must be seriously handicapped. in spite of its fertility. Gradual Depletion of the Unalienated Public Lands.—An excellent map recently issued by the Department of the Interior shows that the area of land available for homestead entry south of the North Sas- katchewan River is now comparatively small. The only district in 216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. which there is any considerable area still available is the large irregular triangle of which the main line of the Canadian Pacific Rail- way between Swift Current and Medicine Hat may be taken as the base, the apex being on the line of the new Grand Trunk Pacific Rail- way near the Buffalo Park Reserve. This region has always been looked upon with some disfavour as a field for settlement; but some part of it will doubtless turn out to be of value. Otherwise the intending homesteader will have to find his way northwards. This, of course, does not mean that the whole of the area of the Southern part of the three provinces is settled. Very large areas are in the hands of the railway companies; other areas are in the hands of land and colonisation companies, and a considerable amount is held by farmers and others for speculative purposes. If immigration were increasing greatly in the immediately succeed- ing years there would undoubtedly arise a land question, owing to the difficulty of procuring land at a moderate price. The condition of trade in Canada in 1907 and the deficient: wheat crop of that year rendered it difficult for the country to absorb so great a number of fresh arrivals, most of them bringing very slender resources to enable them to establish themselves. Many crowded into the towns during the winter of 1907-8, and some were the recipients of charitable relief. Such conditions led to legis- lation increasing the severity of the immigration law and compelling the steamship companies to take back to the port of shipment persons who, being found to be unable to support themselves, or being other- wise ‘ undesirable immigrants,’ were ordered to be deported. This legislation had the effect of diminishing the efforts of the steam- ship agents and the other agencies engaged in the immigration busi- ness to increase the immigration by mere numbers. The question of quality of immigrants is very intricate and cannot be said to be settled by the methods prescribed by the recent legislation on the subject. In 1907-8 there was a considerable increase in immigration, the number of immigrants in that year being the largest in the history of the country. The Policy of Wide Distribution of Immigrants.—The question of distribution of immigrants is one which is not wholly within the control of the Government in a free country. Many settlers resent the interference of the Government in determining where they should settle. Accusations of political instead of purely administrative motives determining action in particular cases would be quite certain to arise. When individual settlers come into a new country they must thus be left a large range of choice in the available field. Nevertheless the Department of the Interior does in practice reserve certain areas from homestead entry, and does from time to time throw these areas open to the settler. The policy of land settlement is thus to a certain extent under the control of the Department. The problem may be put in this way: Is it wiser to concentrate the incoming tide of immigra- tion in particular areas, or ought it to be permitted to go where it will? If it is concentrated, the favoured areas increase rapidly and regularly in value, as the incoming immigration produces additional demand for land within the areas. If immigration is dispersed, the exercise of administration and provision of the means of communication must accompany or follow the dispersal, and the eccentricity of a few settlers AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 217 who might wish to be very remote from others may lead the country into extremely heavy expenses for railways, roads, education, police, &c. For example, some Scottish settlers who had placed themselves by singular choice over one hundred miles from a railway station had to be visited during the winters of 1907 and 1908 by a troop of Mounted Police, to whom the severe journey was an arduous and costly affair. The provision of Governmental administration for isolated groups is thus very expensive, and for that reason sometimes very inadequate. The disadvantages of isolated and sparse settlement are felt most acutely in respect to education. Although the farmers appear to desire that their children should be educated there are great tracts in which there is no provision at all, and other great tracts in which the provision is very slender. For these reasons the recent settlements to the north of Prince Albert and those in the Peace River District seem to be quite premature. They are produced by a mere furore for change. Most of the farmers who have gone to the regions remote from markets and remote from civilisation have sold their farms in Manitoba, and even in Ontario, and have gone to the remote regions because they believed the optimistic tales of the persons who had visited the district in a casual way. The authoritative opinion of agricultural experts is altogether against the settlement of the Peace River District under present con- ditions, yet remoteness has a great charm for some people. The administrative expenses of a widely scattered population must be disproportionately heavy, no matter how the real incidence of the cost may be concealed by indirect taxation and by the system of pro- vincial subsidies. | The cost of roads has only been prevented from becoming an intolerable burden by mere neglect of them. As the road allowances come to be defined, and as the traffic upon them increases, either the roads must continue to be neglected, to the great loss of the inhabitants, or they must be kept in repair at an enormous cost. Collection of Agricultural Statistics. It is not necessary to urge the importance of the collection of reliable agricultural statistics, but it seems to be advisable to remark that their collection in Canada is not in a very satisfactory condition at present. In 1908 the duties of the recently established permanent Census and Statistical Office at Ottawa were enlarged, and this office was entrusted with the collection of agricultural statistics throughout the Dominion. This measure did not, however, result in the abrogation of the functions of the provincial statistical officers. We are thus periodically presented with two sets of statistics for the same areas, one set collected and compiled by the Dominion Statistical Depart- ment and another set collected and compiled by the provincial authorities. The methods adopted in the collection and compilation are not the same, and the statistics present very grave discrepancies. For example, the estimate of the Dominion Statistical Office for the wheat crop of 1908 is 91,853,000 bushels, while the combined esti- mates of the three prairie provinces is 107,002,093 bushels, a difference 218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. of about 16 per cent. Since the latter figure is that adopted by the Dominion Department of Trade and Commerce, the result is very confusing. A similar disparity is observable in respect to the oat crop; the Dominion Statistical Office estimates it for 1908 at 96,718,000 bushels, while the provincial authorities place it at 109,018,812 bushels. The statements of the acreage under crop ex- hibit similar discrepancies. It is quite impossible for an independent inquirer to decide between these rival authorities. The region is so vast and, so far as the greater part of it is concerned, so sparsely populated that the collection of information from every individual farmer is a difficult and expensive process. An attempt is, however, being made by the Dominion Statistical Department to collect the data in this way. On the other hand the Saskatchewan Depart- ment of Agriculture has adopted the method of obtaining from the ‘ threshers ’ a statement of the quantities of grain threshed by them. Of these ‘ threshers ’ about 2,400 made returns. The acreage under crop is estimated from returns made by 15,000 individual farmers. In 1906 there were, however, about 56,000 individual farmers, so that unless the farms from which returns were obtained were of carefully selected types, and unless the total number of each type was known with fair precision, it is obvious that there is room for errors of magnitude. It appears in the first place that a greater number of expert statistical officers might be employed, and in the second place that an adequate agricultural survey of the whole region might be undertaken at an early date and carried forward gradually to completion. The collection and continuation of agricultural statistics is a special business which has been highly developed elsewhere, and the time has un- doubtedly arrived when the results of the best experience should be applied to Canada. The surveys which have been and are being made by the Dominion land surveyors, under the direction of the Topo- graphical Surveys Branch of the Department of the Interior, are of value so far as they go, although many of them are now out of date; and moreover the reports of the land surveyors describe the land as it was before settlement. What is wanted is a survey of settled as well as of unsettled lands, with a record of their agricultural history and present condition. Such a survey seems to be an indispensable preliminary to the annual collection of sound agricultural statistics. Until such a survey is made it is really quite impossible to arrive at any but more or less fanciful conclusions about the future productivity of so vast and varied a country. None of the statistics give any statement of the number of acres sown to wheat of which no crop has been reaped, nor of the quantity of wheat which has not ripened, nor of the quantity which has been frozen, or damaged by smut or otherwise. Without these particulars an accurate knowledge of the yield in relation to the quantity sown — cannot be obtained; and the fertility of the soil is obscured, as well as, in some cases, the extent to which it is being injuriously exploited. Agricultural Production, 1906-07. —In stating the agricultural production of the past four years it is necessary, for the reason explained above, to give the results both of the Dominion and of the provincial authorities. This has therefore been done in the following table, which has been compiled from the reports of the respective departments, 219 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. / | | 945 80 Ite | TO |98 !%0 | 981 | T0| FT | &0 [SFT | 200 20 10 | 960 10-0 #0 9.0 | surerd 19410 | | . | GL-01| ST | 60 | Tet} > *foeE / a[qeyrear | €8-L PL-ST 00-42 61 | OF | T-8T | 08-61 I-1 | #T | 891)/10-16) G6 ST | gLT ya you | | | | SO14SI}B1G i . a ear 6-SL| F-8h| LFF) TLL) 66 | £86) L-GF | 08-28 L&I oie, ae IG-FL, 96°) G6 ¢-9F sy20 | | | | | GS-06 196.6% 00-L0T| T-L | 2-09) 66h) L9-TLi GP | L13\ 1-68! $-ZOll O-F O-LE! €-T9| | * *qeou AN ‘syaysng fo suonryT U2 PIAA } | | i 60-1 | TF-1/68-9 G6L-F TS-IT| #80 96-9 |TLF 81-8 | 870 ww 89-F | 68-2 | 62-0 |09-3 O8-F | 02:9 | GF-0 | F9-T | SLF | * TPL | | aye eu 0F-0 -10-0| 28:0 20:0 | $¢-0 | 100 96-0 80:0 LL0 | 10-0 | €10 | €0-0 | TT-0 | 10-0 | 80-0 | £0-0 10-0 |100-0 | 0-0 | 0-0 _ Sayers 18430 G-0| #Z-0 99-0 | 88:0 | 80:0 | 86-0 29-0 | 81:0 | 20-0 (80.0 99-0 | 09-0 | 20-0 | 90-0 | LF-0 | $90 | 90-0 | €0-0 | SF-0 | * * Sayed, GF 80\F6-G 161 | IFS | &F-0 LL | Te 96-3 | 18-0 | FL-0|1Z1 | €T-3 | €8-0 |€9-0 | 9T-T | SLT | 76-0 | 9F-0 | 80-L | “8720 | | | 72-1 | ¥-0/60-6 198-3 | 289 | 38-0 |OL€ |98-6 | 46% | 160 | 26-1 | 62-3 | SOG | 81-0 | 82-1 | PLE | 88-8 | OT-0 | &T-T | #9-6 | ° “yeouM | | } ' | | } | log atv | ASS “UU THOT “aIV “SBS UPN OT ATV SUS! HEN) MOL “aIV SMS “UU THON “ATV | ASRS) “USI 606T | 806T LO6T 906T gO6T ‘salop fo suoyprpyy ur abvaiopy ‘sousignyg pnvoueaotg (T) "GOGL-SO6L ‘Ppyunp fo Isay-YR4ONT 247 WL sdouQ pjarg fo UoNoNnpoLg OY} fo soysin}g REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. TOL) “AV | seg ‘ueRE! ToT, “qty “yseg “uUyT | OT, | “qty ‘ysug cup reIOZ,| “ary eos | He THO!) “ATV | HESS ae | ; 7 | j mi 96-0 | 8-T | 68-0 06-1 | $0 “el F0 | 18- | 100. FT okt 023 | $0 ot €-0 kits | 10 | $0 0 | eayesd zoriio 00:9 O94 18.08 £622| 6€ | OZ | Oral 81-61 Il FI | 91/8980) 6€ | 82 | Oat! 16.01 2/31 |o2 |* dapeg 82-86 08-16 wesg Z1-96| 8-26) G66 LFP ILbL) €6 | 2-85 | 12% 19011 O-F% GLb OFF 18-89, Lt 9.96 @1g)* * 8780 09-6 OG€8/0109 98-16) 89 | LEE G0¢, LE1L Gh LLS LEE 6OOIL 6 20a! CEO OFS) O8 | SIE 9LF qeoua ‘sqaysng fo suonjy Ur plant IFT | 6L-9| 26-4] 986 | 60 Th-€ TO. | #88 | 180 663 96/903 | 18-0 | 13-8 | 10-5 ieee Sar eed | a re ; | 10-0 | IT-0| €0-:0| 20-0 100 £000 10:0 10:0 100-0 £000 10.0 ST-0 | 100 | L-0 | 60-0 | 90-0 (900-0 | 70-0 10-0 | suretd 194309 | 10-9 | $9:0 |90-6 | 9F-E | ° [eqoy, | 6-0 | ¥£-0/ 01-0] 160 1-0 80-0 20) 6L0 110 | 80.0. 9:0 290 | 010 20:0 |#80 2¢-0 | 80-0 400|¢s0 + dazzeg | | | | | 68-0 | £8-L| 68-1} 11-6 | 69-0 86-0 €1 | 8h | 8F-0! 08-0) GI |/ses | 09-0 | 60 |€60 | OL-T | TE-0 | 19-0 | 82-0 | ° * 8}80 | | | 6E-0 | 69-6) 083] 99-2 12-0 | 6&3 0-8 | 90-9 | 20 403) 82 | 90-9 | 060.) 13 |BLa| FEE SI-0 ler 3FG * | geOUMA | ae a = jj. Bet: | 2 se || ost = 606L | 806 LOGL 9061 | £061 ‘salop fo suourrpy ue abnaiop “snrgsyanig Uornmuog (Z) AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA, 221 Wheat.—The yield of wheat in bushels per acre for the area cccupied by the three prairie provinces can be shown collectively only since 1898. Since then it has fluctuated widely—from 9°11 bushels in 1900 to 25°16 in 1901. During the past six years it has been twice above 20 bushels and four times below 16 bushels. The period is much too short for decisive conclusions, but there is no justification in the history of crops in the North-West for the custom of multiplying the estimated acreages by the arbitrary figure of 20 bushels and arriving in this way at a haphazard estimate of the crop. The following diagram exhibits the yield of wheat in the area occupied by the three prairie provinces from 1898 to 1908. Tho statistics upon which the diagram is based are those of the provincial and of the Dominion authorities, shown separately since the series of the latter authority began. Diagram showing the Yield of Wheat in Manitoba and the North-West Terri- tories from 1898 till 1904, and in Manitoba and the Provinces of Saskat- chewan and Alberta, 1905 till 1908. [Aggregate Statistics of Bulletins of respective Provinces—Solid Line Statistics of the Census and Statistical Department, Ottawa—Broken Line. ] - 1898 1899 1900 /90/ 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1/907 1908 > MILLION S BUSHELS COCA CS | J Fi aE a | | | 222, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Cost of Producing Wheat.—In my report of 1904 I gave some details of the cost of wheat-production. The first of the following schedules applies to the region, lately settled by farmers from the United States, which lies round Ponoka, on the Calgary and Edmonton line. The district is more suitable for the production of oats than of wheat; but labour, as a rule, is not so difficult to obtain as in many other districts. The date of the costs is March 12,1907. Two other schedules of cost, dated 1909, one in the Weyburn District and the other in the Rouban District, are given for purpose of comparison. The costs were exact at the time they were compiled; but I do not suggest that they should be regarded as applicable generally, or even over a wide area. At Ponoka 1907 New Land Old Land a Per Bushel Per Bushel Per Acre | (at 20 per | Per Acre | (at 20 per Acre) Acre) Breaking $3.00 | $ 01500 — — | Cultivation . 4.05 0°2025 $ 2.80 $ 0°1400 | Seed (12 bushel) ; 1,50 0:0750 1.50 0:0750 | Harvesting, threshing, &c. 2.68 0°1340 2.68 0°1340 Hail insurance ; 0.15 0:0075 0.15 0:0075 'Costatfarm. . . , $1138 | $5690 | $7.13 | $-3565 | Hauling to elevator or station 0:90 0450 0.90 0:0450 | | J M0 | Cost at elevator or station 12.28 | $0:6135 $ 8.03 § 4015 | Price, March 11, 1907 -- 0:5300 _ 05300 | Gain on Loss on new land . — $ 0°0835 old land | $0°1285 Three items not included here : (1) taxation; (2) value of farmer’s superintend- ence ; (5) rent or interest on capital. | In Weyburn District 1909 New Land Old Land Par Bushel | Per Bushel | Per Acre | (at 20 per | Per Acre | (at 20 per | | Acre) Acre) | Breaking $3.25 | $0:1625 Pee ae ken ce Cultivation 1.90 | 0:0950 $ 2.40 $0:1200 | Seed 2 4 : ‘ 1.50 0:07£0 1.50 00750 | Harvesting, threshing, &c. 2.75 01375 2.75 01375 Cost at farm . : $ 9.40 0:4700 $ 8.65 0°3325 Hauling to elevator 1.00 0:0500 1.00 0-0500 Cost at elevator F 10.40 0:5200 $ 9.65 $ 0:3825 Freight to Port Arthur . — 0:1200 _ 0:1200 Cost at Port Arthur — $ 0°6400 — $0'5025 | a é AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 223 In Rouban District 1909 New Land | Old Land | Per Bushel | ! Per Bushel Per Acre | (at 30 per | Per Acre | (at 30 per Acre) Acre) | | | = —S eS ee — i \ =| —— Breaking ; ¢ ; . .| $4.50 | $01500 | — —_ Cultivation . : ; F |. 3.50 0:1167 $2.60 | $6:0867 Seed : : , : : salpees Lee 00433 1.40 | 0-0433 Harvesting, ke... : : - | ast. 01250 | 3.75 | 01250 a —| Cost at farm . 5 : ; : 13.15 04350 $ 7.75 0 2550 | Hauling grain ; 5 j - 1.50 0:0500 1.50 0:0500 | Costatelevator . . . .| 14.65 04850 9.25 0°3060 | Freight to Port Arthur . . sal — 0:1200 | = 071200 sha a | | — = $0°6050 | $ 01250 | ———— = Pen wat Sd. om It is to be observed that, with the exception of seed and binder twine the whole of the above costs are costs for labour, which on a small acreage the farmer may, with his family, render himself. His actual outgoings are thus small; but if he is a new comer, working on new land, he has to compete with others whose land has already been in cultivation for years, and whose net earnings are therefore much greater, whether they employ labour or not. The costs above enumerated vary with the district and with the season, so also does the net price obtained, and therefore the profit. Any attempt to strike an average must therefore result in an arbitrary figure which would be almost destitute of value. The above schedules are given chiefly with a view of suggesting how such costs might be made up. In addition to the enumerated items there are to be considered . also three others, one of them variable in different districts, although easily ascertainable, viz., taxation; the others are very difficult to estimate. These are the value of the farmer’s labour of superin- tendence — his physical labour has been provided for—and the amount of his rent or the interest upon the purchase price of his land, with depreciation or improvement taken into account. In the case of production upon new land the balance of the cost of cultivation over that of old land may fairly be spread over, say, five years. In this way the net mean annual cost of his wheat to the farmer in the cases quoted would be reduced. His net profit in any one year would, how- eyer, depend upon the proportion of new land which he brought into cultivation. At a Winnipeg price of 75c. per bushel the farmer would probably make a gross profit, out of which the three last-mentioned items would haye to be defrayed, of approximately 20c. per bushel, upon such of his wheat as might reach the standard for which this price was obtain- able. Out of this gross profit the farmer has to provide his wages of superintendence, interest upon the amount paid for his land, interest upon his agricultural capital, and, besides, an insurance fund against the fluctuations of the seasons and the markets. 294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIBNCH. It should be observed that if the cost of the seed is deducted from the total costs, where the farmer saves his own seed, the quantity of the seed should be deducted from the yield. Increased Miscellaneity of Agricullural Production. The process which was noticed in the conclusion quoted above as having manifested itself during the years preceding 1904—viz., the increase in the miscellaneity of agricultural production—has been very conspicuous in the more recent period, as is shown by the following table. sbi of Ac rage sown in Wheat to Total Acreage under Grain Crops. } | Wheat | Other crops | 1905 | 1906 1907 | 1908 1909 I ) | 62°56 63:96 | 6068 59:20 5544 | 87 44 3604 | 39°32 40°80 4456 | | 2 Bae [ss | | 100-00 100-00 | 100:00 100-00 | 100-00 | Reference to similar calculations in the report of 1904 will show that this decline in the proportion of wheat crop area to the total cultivated area has continued since 1900, with two slight retardations, one in 1903 and the other in 1906. It is to be observed that the crop which has shown the greatest proportional increase is oats. This is exhibited in the following table. Percentage of each crop in relation to the Total Area under the following crops. 1905 ( 1909 | Man. | Sask. | Alta. | Total ef Man. | Sask. | Alta. ‘Total | | Whea 63-73 | 6890 25:85 6256 “B731 | 59-11 | 27-54 | 65544 | Oats 24-86 | 27-43) 58:38 | 27-79 2837) 3312 5866 3357 | Barley 10-42 | 201 | 1559] 855 || 1420) 3:56) 13:31) 8-72 | Flax 060 154 Oe oa el 0) ak | Sa Rye ONG he 7 ee O11 | 010) — | 049; 0:09 | Peas OFC Baer a ese 0:03 | O02) nal punme Speltz — | O12) 0:04 0 03 | fe — Corn argh eee Se ke Ol | Bis ee ee jt stu) ie Ad et Tas 100.00 | 100-00 | 100-00 100-00 i 100/00 10000 , 100-00 100-00 The increase in the absolute and in the proportional production of oats is due chiefly to the great amount of railway construction which has been going on in the three provinces during the past five years, and to a less degree to the immigration of new settlers. Both of these circumstances have involved greatly increased use of horses, and the relatively high prices obtainable for oats has constituted a strong in- ducement for the farmer to cultivate that crop. It will be observed The percentages are based upon the statistics of the Departments of Agri- culture ot the three prairie provinces respectively. * Cf. Report, 1904, p. 57. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 225 that in Alberta there is a slight increase in the proportional production of wheat. This has taken place almost entirely in the southern part of the province. Oats remain the preponderating crop in the north. Agricultural Progress.—The condition of agricultural progress may be estimated from the statistics which have been given. There can bo no doubt that, although summer fallowing is becoming more common, continuous cropping is still the rule. When wheat yields a high price it is very difficult for the farmer to realise that although he may be able to secure enough from two or three crops to pay for his farm he may in a few seasons exhaust its value. This method of continuous cropping has come to be known in the West as ‘ mining the farm.’ Rotation of crops is, however, coming into practice, and mixed farming is becoming more common. Summer Fallowing.—Although summer fallowing has been univer- sally recommended by the directors of the Experimental Farms and other agricultural authorities it is as yet applied to a comparatively small proportion of the area under wheat cultivation. The last year for which statistics on this point are available is 1906. In this. year the proportion of the total acreage in the three provinces under spring wheat which had been fallow the previous summer was only 25 per cent. Manitoba exhibited the highest proportion, or about 30 per cent. ; Alberta the lowest—about 16 per cent. Irrigation.—There are being carried out at present three large schemes— : 1. The Alberta Land and Irrigation Company’s, commonly known as the Galt Scheme. 2. The Southern Alberta Irrigation Scheme. It will probably be two years from the present time before this company is in a position to supply water. They expect to have about half a million acres under ditch. The land with which they are dealing is reported to be fine land, but useless without irrigation. 3. The Canadian Pacific Railway Scheme. This is by far the largest of all the schemes. The ultimate intention is to apply it to about 3,500,000 acres of land which formed the Canadian Pacific Rail- way grant in. the semi-arid area. This land is in a solid block; the arrangement as to alternate sections which applied to the remaining 22,000,000 acres of their grants does not apply to this area. At present the scheme involves about 1,000,000 acres. The block em- braced in this portion is divided into three sections—EKastern, Central, and Western. In the Western section there remain undisposed of about 250,000 acres. The following works are in progress and will be completed in 1909 :— Main canal, 17 miles. Secondary canals, 289 miles. Distributing ditches, 1,331 miles. About $3,500,000 have already been expended. The total estimated expenditure for the three sections is $8,000,000. The plans for the irrigation of the eastern and central sections are now being made. During the two past years the Canadian Pacific Railway Company has undertaken to prepare the land, fence it, and erect buildings, &c., for purchasers of land within the irrigation block in advance of aetual 1909. Q 296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. settlement, charging 5 per cent. over cost. The following represents the work done in this way :— — | 1908 1909 Breaking ‘5 : A ‘ A 54 4,000 acres 15,000 acres Sown to wheat . : : : z 2,000 _,, 8,000 __,, Fence erected . * ‘ A F ‘ 36 miles . 150 miles Wells sunk . 3 F ; a oH None 50 | Some portion of the area, in addition to the quantity mentioned as being sown to wheat, is no doubt destined to be so employed next year. The proportion of the work done by the Irrigation Department of the Canadian Pacific Railway in relation to the whole of the work done in the irrigation block is about 33 per cent. The following gives the increase in the acreage under cultivation in the irrigation block since 1905 :— 1905. . 1,600 acres 1908 . . 26,000 acres 1906. 7B D0U 55 1909 . eee fee.) Oe ee 1907 . . 5,800 ,, This land would probably not have been under cultivation at all but for the irrigation scheme. Dry Land Farming.—Much attention is now being devoted to what is called dry land farming. This practice, which has been introduced from the United States, consists of thorough and repeated cultivation. The principal advocate of the system, Prof. Campbell, says that, in order to render cultivation of grain profitable under his system, an annual rainfall of from 14 to 18 inches is required. The regions round Swift Current and Calgary fall within these limits, the average annual precipitation at these places being 15°74 and 1641 respectively. The regions round Medicine Hat and Macleod fall below the inferior limit, the average annual precipitation being only 13°72 and 12°17 respectively. Unfortunately the experiment of dry land farming is being tried in some regions where the natural conditions are quite unfavourable. Live Stock.—The following shows the increase in live stock between 1901 and 1906 :— : zh eae aii i aa | Year | Horses | wu | BS Soe Sheep | Swine | N.W. Provinces . : | 1901 | 340 244 | 698 182 200 Do. . an 1906 | 682 384 | 1,560 304 439 The increase in animals is thus, on the whole, rather greater than the increase in total population, and is much greater than that in rural population. The Value of Land.—According to the census returns of 1901 the mean value of land in farms of five acres and upwards was, in Manitoba, $10.53 (£2 3s. 4d.) per acre, and in the North-West Terri- tories $5.48 (£1 2s. Td.) per acre. The report of the census of the Prairie Provinces in 1906 does not give any estimate of the value of AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 227 land. No general average price can, therefore, be given applicable to any year subsequent to 1901. The following statement is, however, useful from a comparative point of view :— Sales of Lands belonging to Canadian Pacific Railway, 1901 to 1908.! Year | Acres Sold Average Price per Acre fem pte oidabe zor | 399,808 $3.15 1902 : é E : 1,362,852 3.26 1903 : ; : . 2,639,617 ? 3.67 1904 : : : . | 928,854 4.10 1905 : 4 f : | 509,386 4.80 1906 : : : ° | 1,115,743 5.84 1907 é ; ’ ; | 994,840 ° 5.92 1908 : ‘ ; ‘ 164,450 9.54 The total of agricultural lands in the Prairie Provinces still in the hands of the Company is 8,777,825 acres. These statistics show an advance in price. of about 300 per cent. as between 1901 and 1908 ; they show also a sharp advance beginning in 1906, the price of 1908 being double that of 1905. As desirable homesteads are now obtainable from the Government gratuitously only at an increasing distance from the centres of population, further advance in the price of land from these relatively low prices must take place, provided the stream of immigration is maintained. For land outside of the railway land grants, or in favourable positions inside of them, prices considerably higher than the averages quoted are now being’paid. Land which in 1904 was being transferred at $10 to $15 per acre is now probably being transferred at from $15 to $20. The price of agricultural land in the North-West of Canada is still considerably lower than that of similar land in the Western States of the Union. In Manitoba and in Central Saskatchewan and Northern Alberta the loan companies may lend upon the security of land up to about one- half of the value placed upon the land by their inspectors, but in Southern Alberta it is not customary to lend more than $1,000 upon any quarter-section of 160 acres—that is, about $6 per acre; showing that the maximum value placed upon land in this region by the loan companies is $12 per acre. At the present time the amount due to the Canadian Pacific Railway in deferred payments upon agricultural land and town-site sales is $14,000,000. The amount due to other railways on this account in the North-West is about $11,000,000. The total due on deferred pay- ments is thus $25,000,000. The average price of land sold from all Government land grants— Hudson Bay and railway lands—was in 1893 $2.93, in 1895 $1.94, 1 From the annual reports of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. * Including large blocks of land sold to colonisation companies. * Including land sold under contracts made previously. The average price ‘Yor lands actually sold within the year was $8.09 per acre. Q 2 228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. in 1897 $3.39, in 1899 $3.28, in 1904 $4.39, in 1906 $6.01, and in 1908 $8.78 per acre. Railway Development.—A general account of the earlier history of railway development in the North-West was given in my report of 1904. Since that date a very large amount of construction has been effected and projects of new lines are constantly being brought forward. It should, however, be recognised that in Canada, owing to the advisa- bility of affording every encouragement to railway enterprise, the process of obtaining a railway charter is usually a very simple one. The promoters of a new railway are not required to specify in other than a very general way the direction of the proposed line. They are not required to lay before Parliament or a Parliamentary Committee accurate surveys of the route. This elasticity has many advantages ; but it has the disadvantage of rendering the railway companies some- what casual in their applications to Parliament for charters. The result is that many hundreds of railway charters have been granted which have not resulted in any construction. The following table exhibits the mileage of constructed lines in the Prairie Provinces in each year from 1905 till 1908: — | 1905 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | | rare J Saree | | Canadian Pacific Railway: lines in | Miles | Miles Miles | Miles the Prairie Provinces. . . 3,854 | 4,097 | 4,276 | 4,376 Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, under | | | construction, Winnipeg to Wolf Creek | —- | — ce) 916 Canadian Northern Railway : | In operation : ; 3 a Sf). eS _ — |2,845). Under construction . | | — 621 } hae | Great Northern Railway A very significant although as yet minor figure in the above table is thes mileage of the Great Northern Railway. This railway system, whose main line crosses the great central plain parallel to and about seventy miles south of the international ‘boundary, has been during the past few years sending up feeding lines at short intervals from its main line northwards to the boundary. There are at present thirteen of these feeding lines on the southern boundaries of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Three of these lines enter Canadian territory, two of them extending into it for between seventy and eighty miles. Two other lines connect with Canadian lines. The remaining eight lines have their termini at, or almost at, the frontier. It cannot be supposed that their progress will be per- manently arrested there. The President of the Great Northern; Mr. James J. Hill, is a Canadian. He was one of the first to recognise the _agricultural value of the North-West, and there can be no doubt about the nature of his designs in pushing feeding lines to his system up into the prairies. It is very clear that in the first place he intends to haul out wheat to the mills of Minneapolis and St. Paul. It is very clear also that he anticipates at no distant date the adoption of a policy of reciprocity by the United States and Canada, and the freer movement of manufactured goods across the line northwards. It would be idle te | 1 Report of Department of Interior, 1908, Ottawa, 1909. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH-WEST CANADA. 229 ignore that this ‘ invasion’ of Canadian territory by Mr. Hill may not only result in competition with the Canadian railway lines, but must necessarily bring the manufacturers of the Middle West into com- petition with the manufacturers ef Eastern Canada. The conditions in the United States are resulting in the westward development of manufactures, so that the western manufacturers in the United States would compete with the eastern manufacturers in Canada at great advantage, in respect to distance, in a market in the development of which Eastern Canada has incurred considerable sacrifices. Estimates.—In my report of 1904 I quoted, among other estimates, an estimate of the maximum productivity of the North-West of Canada, which had been made for the purposes of the report by two highly responsible and well-informed experts in North-West settlement and agriculture. This estimate (referred to in the report as Estimate No. 1) ascribed to the region a possible total area annually available for wheat cultivation of 13,750,000 acres, and a possible total yield from this area of 254,375,000 bushels. The authors, however, desire me to say that although the data available in 1904, and the conditions, so far as they could be foreseen at that time, did not justify a higher estimate, they now consider that, provided ‘ intense cultivation, coupled with summer fallowing,’ be applied consistently to the western portion of Southern Saskatchewan and to the whole of Southern Alberta, it would be possible to add to their original estimate of 13,750,000 acres annually available for wheat production an area of 3,500,000 acres. They think that this area might be calculated upon ultimately to produce, at 18 bushels per acre, a quantity of 63,000,000 bushels. If this quantity be added to the quantity formerly estimated, the result will be 317,375,000 bushels. This total quantity would be sufficient, in the | opinion of the authors, to provide ultimately 232,250,000 bushels available for export. But they do not say at what period this is at all likely to be realised. I did not assume any responsibility for the original estimate, nor do I do so for this amendment. The reasons why the anticipations of the more sanguine of the prophets of the North-West with regard to wheat production have not been realised may be generally ascribed to the fact that due attention was not paid to the number of factors which were necessary to produce the desired result. Apart from the variability of the seasons and the liability of the crop in any and every year to damage from deficiency or from excess of precipitation, from hailstorms and from insect pests, there is the inevitable influence of the prices of the various crops upon their pro- portional cultivation, and there is also to be taken into account the circumstance that an increase of the acreage under cultivation is not always accompanied by maintenance of the yield per acre. The principal factors to be taken into account in forming an estimate of the productivity of any country in the future may be classified as follows :— 1. The increase of the rural population. 2. The suitability of different portions of the area for cultivation of a particular character, and the appropriateness and purity of the seed, together with the degree of its acclimatisation when in a new habitat. 930) REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCH. 3. Personal aptitude on the part of the cultivators and their experience of methods of farming suitable for the soil in question. 4. Prices of grain and fluctuations of demand. 5. Facilities for transportation. 6. Variations of meteorological conditions. 7. Risk of damage from insect pests. Conclusion.—No one who examines the statistics of agricultural production in the North-West since 1883 can fail to be astonished at the truly marvellous progress which the country has made during the snort period of twenty-six years which has elapsed since then. In 1883 the population was insignificant. One railway line had just been constructed—indeed, at that date it was not completed to the coast. Now in the three provinces there are three great lines of railway, with another forcing its way in from the United States. The population is upwards of a million, and agricultural productivity has been advancing by leaps and bounds. The country needs no fantastic exaggeration to draw attention either to its achievements or to its possi- bilities. What it needs at present is cool estimate of these and consoli- dation rather than excessive expansion. A vast amount of energy and much capital have been wasted in attempts to exploit regions which are and must for long remain distant from markets, while fertile soils easy of access have remained under cultivation of a highly primitive character. The immense natural resources of the rich soil of Manitoba and of portions of Saskatchewan and Alberta are not even yet being fully exploited. Very considerable improvements in agricultural methods must yet take place if these resources are to be fully utilised. The Development of Wheat Culture in North America. By Professor ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] In the year 1602, on one of the Elizabeth Islands, off the present coast of Massachusetts, Bartholomew Gosnold made trial plantings of wheat and other grains. The Spaniards had earlier brought wheat to Mexico, but this was probably the first wheat sown within the boundaries of the United States. Nearly twenty years later wheat was sown at Plymouth, without success the first season, but with returns afterward. The grain extended itself among the New England colonies, and about 1700 there are records of shipments, as from Norwalk to Boston and Boston to Virginia. As the eighteenth century progressed, however, wheat declined, except as sown on fresh clearings, and was brought in from New York and the Southern colonies. That wheat was already moving westward is shown by the fact that New England traders bought New York wheat, ground it in their own mills, and sold it in the West Indies. To revive wheat culture Massachusetts laid a duty on the product to be paid as a bounty to farmers, but Weeden tersely says that ‘ the duty could not counteract climate and soil nor feed the fishermen.’ There is early record of wheat in Virginia, for in 1607 the Council informed the Council in England that they had fortified themselves against Indians, and had ‘ sown good store of wheat.’ The first sowings THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 231 of English seed at Jamestown seem not to have been very successful. By 1800 wheat was raised along the entire Atlantic border except the southern parts of the coastal plain, but the Middle States from New York to Virginia assumed pre-eminence and held the centre of wheat for more than a generation. Meantime in 1769 missionaries carried the grain to California. ‘There was important export to the West Indies in the early years of the Federal Government, until Great Britain shut out the ships of the United States from this trade. In 1787 wheat was among American exports to Mauritius. But it was long before the United States assumed a commanding position as a purveyor of bread, for in the decade 1830-40 she imported several million bushels of wheat to feed her own population. In the later years of the eighteenth and the first decades of the nine- teenth century western New York, or the Genesee country, proved its suitability in soil and climate for the growing of winter wheat. On the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 the industry was favoured by suitable prices, the region was the famous wheat centre of the country, and Rochester was relatively as important for primary market facilities and milling as Minneapolis is to-day. The primacy of western New York was held until wheat began strongly to occupy the States north of the Ohio River. Before tracing the westward march of the wheat centre it will be useful to survey the expansion of acreage and production during recent decades, or since 1866. It is this period of progress which has more than historical interest, since it has to do with any forecast of the future. From 1866 to 1875 the acreage in the United States varied between 15 to 26 millions, and there was a consistent rise from the beginning to the end of the decade. In the following ten years, to 1885, the range was from 26 to 39 million acres, giving on the whole a steady increase, but showing only 34 million acres in 1885. The period 1886-1895 ranged from 34 to 39 million, with smaller acreage in the later years. From 1896 to 1905 the minimum was 34 and the maximum 49 million, but from 1898 to the present time the limits have been 42 and 49 million acres. The highest figure—49 million acres—has been reached twice, in 1901 and 1903, and the significant element in the figures is the high average of the last dozen years. Turning to production, the total for 1866 in the United States was 151 million bushels. In the next year, 1867, production passed the 200 million mark permanently. Another milestone was passed in 1874 with 308 millions. In 1878 the crop was 420 millions, and in 1882 504 millions. There were fluctuations in the following years, for produc- tion from 18838 to 1890 only once reached the 500 million mark, but 1891 made a showing of 611 millions, and 1898 brought 675 million bushels. The average from 1898 to 1908 has been 643 million bushels, and the maximum was, in 1901, 748 million bushels. If single States be considered, some curious fluctuations are observable. Thus Kansas has never attained even fourth place in a census year, yet holds the State record with her crop of 99 million bushels in 1901. She has at least four times passed Minnesota’s record of 80 million bushels. Minnesota dropped from 68 millions in 1899 to 51 millions in 1900, and leaped to 80 millions in 1901. North Dakota in the same years went from 51 to 18 and back to 59 millions. Kansas 232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. in those years made a steady gain from 36 to 82 and 99 millions. Production is so widely distributed, however, that the general total for the country is much more stable. For an orderly review of the movement of wheat from east to west in the United States four regions may be distinguished as follows: (1) the middle Atlantic States from New York to Virginia, including especially Pennsylvania and Maryland; (2) the five States of the “ Old North-West,’ lying between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes; (3) seven States west of the Mississippi River, including Missouri and Kansas on the south and Minnesota and North Dakota on the north, the wheat belt reaching to the arid parts of the Great Plains; (4) the Cordilleran region, extending to the Pacific Coast. The first of these regions was the North American centre of wheat from the first full establishment of the crop in the colonies until the Erie Canal and other means of communication opened to the east the possibilities of the Old North-West. The crops of New York for seven census years are as follows (the crop of 1908 is also included) : 1839 sais “ce wae iva 12,286,418 bushels 1849 ise “Ae aan w» 13,121,498 3 1859 ate nee ree ee 8,681,105 Ae 1869 aie sas 368 nes 9,750,000 i» 1879 62 ee i ..- 10,746,000 4 1889 ew wy ise des 8,929,000 si 1899 ois Po sale sate 7,005,765 ‘i 1908 eae ae ae “as 7,752,000 5 The crop of 1905 rose above 10,000,000 bushels. Pennsylvania has had a fairly steady rise from 13,000,000 bushels in 1839 to 24,000,000 in 1899, and her crop for 1908 was 29,000,000, ranking this State among great producers, a fact not often recognised. Maryland has almost trebled since 1869, and has been above the ten-million mark since 1897, producing nearly 15,000,000 bushels in 1907. Virginia fluctuates, usually producing from six to ten million bushels. Even West Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia show fairly steady records of several million bushels each. Taking those States which border the Atlantic, not including the Gulf, the total production of wheat in 1906 was 76 million bushels. In production per square mile Maryland held third place in the census of 1900 and in that of 1890, and her crop per capita in 1907 was more than 11 bushels. New York’s production averages about one bushel per capita, and Pennsylvania’s rate. in her best years is about four bushels. These figures concerning the sustained yield of many States on the eastern border have been given to show that the decline in wheat culture in this region is largely relative rather than absolute, a fact with which common impressions are at variance. It is true that as a whole the needs of the local population are not met, and that here is a large market for western wheat, but it is not true that the soils are exhausted, or that the Atlantic belt of States fails, or will ever fail, to make a substantial contribution to the bread supply of the nation. New England’s contri- bution was never of great significance, but it is of interest to note that in recent years Maine and Vermont are the only States in that group which make a report of this cereal. Before passing to the remaining major regions, it will be of interest THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 233 to show in the following table the rank of leading States in census years since 1839: Rank of Leading States from the Sixth to the Twelfth Census. Year First Second Third Momriia. (ogee oor Bushels 1839 | Ohio Pennsylvania | New York | Wyoming 16,000,000 1849 | Pennsylvania | Ohio New York Virginia 15,000,000 1859 Illinois Indiana Wisconsin Ohio 23,000,000 1869 Illinois Iowa Ohio Indiana | 30,000,000 1879 Illinois | Indiana Ohio California | 44,000,000 1889 | Minnesota | California Dakota Indiana 45,000,000 1899 Minnesota N. Dakota | 8. Dakota | Ohio | 68,000,000 | The swift progress of wheat westward is well shown in the fact that Illinois, which is not named in 1849, takes first place in 1859. In the same sudden manner Iowa springs to second place in 1869, and Minnesota to first rank in 1889. It will be remarked that Ohio persistently keeps its place within the group of four for every census except one, and that is not the last one. In the same connection it should be observed that a State lying farther west, Illinois, after holding the primacy three times, passes at once out of the leading group. It has already been stated that banner State yields seem to avoid census years, for Illinois has a record of 60,000,000 bushels in 1880; Minnesota has risen to 78, 79, and 80 millions; North Dakota to 75 and 77 millions; and Kansas leads all, producing, in 1901, 99,079,304 bushels. In 1839, while New York and Pennsylvania stood at 12 and 13 millions, Ohio had come to the front with 16 million bushels, and the great record of the second region was well begun. In forty-one years, from 1866 to 1906, Ohio produced 1,247,082,674 bushels—an average of 30,416,650 bushels. In the twenty-year period 1867-1886 the total falls more than 100 millions short of the total for the following equal period, 1887-1906. ‘This is a most significant showing; and it should be added that, among all States, Ohio in the twelfth census, erop of 1899, stood first in product per square mile. Thus still further emphasis appears as to the importance of wheat grown east of the Mississippi River. Ohio has eight times exceeded 40,000,000 bushels. The facts for Indiana are of similar magnitude. In 1860 she was second in production per square mile; she was first in 1870, 1880, and 1890, and fourth in 1900. Her total for forty-one years, 1866 to 1906, fell little short of that of Ohio, and she raised nearly 100,000,000 more in the second twenty-year period than the first. Like Ohio, Indiana exceeded 40,000,000 eight times in the period named, and raised more than 45,000,000 in 1908. Illinois has a total for forty-one years just under that of Indiana, being 1,160,352,208—an average of 28,301,273 bushels. In this State a balance of about 100,000,000 bushels is in favour of the first twenty-year period. While Ohio and Indiana contain only minor areas of prairie, Illinois is a typical prairie State, and goes heavily into the production of maize, in which it more than equals the combined crops of Indiana and Ohio. 934. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Michigan and Wisconsin, the Lake States of this group, make a lesser showing in wheat, Michigan having produced in forty-one years two-thirds as much as any one of the three Ohio River States. The second twenty-year period shows a moderate décline over the first. In 1908, however, Michigan raised nearly 16,000,000 bushels—a product of no mean order. Her maximum of 34,000,000 in 1898 suggests what her possibilities are. Wisconsin has a different record, having often produced over 20,000,000 until 1884, and since 1892 has but three times reached 10,000,000. In 1908 she dropped to 3,328,000 bushels. This does not mean that this great State is unsuited to wheat. The crop suffered decadence through soil exhaustion, insect enemies, and the vast growth of dairying; but, with intelligent methods, there seems to be no reason why Wisconsin may not again stand well up in the wheat column. Mr. R. A. Moore, Agronomist of the College of Agriculture at the University of Wisconsin, expresses the opinion ! that ‘the pendulum will swing back to quite an extent.’ He thinks the land of Wisconsin too rich for oat-raising, and that with rota- tion and other modern methods wheat can again be raised without impoverishing the soil. Before leaving the second group of States it will be of interest to note that of the entire crop of 1906, in the United States, of 735,000,000 bushels, 250,000,000 were grown east of the Mississippi River. This amounts to about 34 per cent., or slightly above one-third of the total. The third group of States forms the well- known present centre of wheat in the United States, and the figures need not be given in detail for individual States. Minnesota produced 10,000,000 bushels in 1867, and has steadily risen until, since 1895, her crop has never been less than 46,000,000 bushels, and has ranged up to 80,000,000. Iowa, as a prairie State, most resembles Illinois, but her wheat has seen larger decline. Thirty years ago the crop often passed 30,000,000 bushels, but in recent years runs from 8 to 14 millions. The reason is doubtless to be found in the expansion of maize and live-stock industries. Her average for forty-one years, 1866-1906, was 21,432,000 bushels. Missouri holds a strong average production in recent years of 20 to 30 million bushels, the maximum being 56,000,000 in 1902. Kansas, Nebraska, and the two Dakotas may be called the Missouri River wheat States, and represent the newest and greatest development of wheat within the territory of the Republic. In 1862 Dakota Terri- tory (before division) reported 11,000,000 bushels. This was but twenty-seven years before the present writing. Since 1897 the crop of North Dakota alone has but once fallen below 51,000,000 bushels, and rose in 1905 and 1906 to 75 and 77 millions. Nebraska’s product is usually above 40,000,000 bushels. The total of the three leading wheat States of the present time is as follows for the ten years 1897 to 1906: Minnesota ie oe Seid 685,129,558 bushels North Dakota ... ro ads 533,777,567 cs Kansas ... 286 &e — 687,901,805 Total... =» 1,906,808,930 ES ! Letter of March 16, 1909, THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 235 Kansas has a slight lead over Minnesota. She has had several greater crops than her rival, but is subject to greater fluctuation. The average annual total for these three States, 1897-1906, was 190,000,000 bushels. The States of Oklahoma and Texas represent an extension of this belt along the more southern parts of the prairies and Great Plains. Oklahoma has a record in 1894 of two million bushels, with a fluctuating rise to 18 and 15 millions in 1906 and 1908. ‘The crop is, of course, of longer standing in Texas, with report of nearly two million bushels in 1866 to a recent average of about 12 millions. It is an important fact that this belt, with its wide range of latitude, divides itself into a spring wheat region embracing the five States of Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, and the Dakotas, and a winter wheat section to the southward. In like manner Wisconsin and Washington, in the second and fourth of our major regions, raise spring wheat. The Cordilleran region offers an older development of wheat in the three Pacific States, and a more recent progress in the intervening regions of the Rocky Mountain plateaux and Great Basin. This is in harmony with the extraordinary leap of the frontier a half-century ago, followed by the gradual occupation of intervening territory. California reported 21,000,000 bushels so long ago as 1868. Her maximum crop of 45,000,000 bushels belongs to the year 1896. A com- parison of two twenty-year periods, 1868-1887 and 1888-1907, shows but slight decline ; but if two ten-year periods, 1888-1897 and 1898-1907, be taken, there is an important falling-off, due perhaps to the immense advance of horticulture and the progress of irrigation. California in 39 years produced 1,149,000,000 bushels of wheat. Oregon has had a somewhat uniform range of 10 to 16 million bushels since 1880, rising. to 24,000,000 in 1898. Not quite 11 million bushels were pro- duced in 1908. Washington, on the other hand, has seen conspicuous progress, and since 1897 has ranged between 20 and 34 million bushels. The greatest thousand-acre yield ever reported is ascribed to Eastern Washington in 1881—viz., 51,000 bushels. Outside of the coast States there are no large producers in the Cordilleran region. Idaho, Colorado, Utah, and Montana each grow several million bushels per annum, but in a general survey their chief interest has to do with their future possibilities under irrigation. The Cordilleran total for 1906 was 94,111,584 bushels. This is 18,000,000 bushels more than was grown in the Atlantic coast States in the same year, but the western area is several times greater. The following table, from the twelfth census, gives the successive positions of the wheat centre of the United States for the half-century 1850-1900 : Wheat ages U.S., 1850-1900. slag acy a Census Year | N. Latitude w. Hongitadls Approximate Location by important Towns 1900 41° 39’ 94° 59! 70 miles W. of Des once, Iowa. 1890 ogee | G80 OF 138 ,, S. by E. of Des Moines(in Mo.). 1880 40° 36’ | 90° 30’ 69 ,, N.W. of Springfield, Illinois. 1870 40° 39 88° 48’ 82 ,, N.K. of % 1860 39° 59’ 86° 1’ 18 ,, N.E. of Indianapolis, Ind. 1850 40° 14’ 81° 58’ 57 ~,, E.N.E. of Colngbns, Ohio. ASE Sal ! Rep. Bureau of Statistics, Washington, 1903, p. 69. 236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. An examination of this movement brings out some interesting facts. The amount of westward migration in fifty years was 680 miles. ‘The northward movement was about 99 miles. The latitude yariation was marked by slight fluctuations for 40 years, and then in a single decade wheat moved more than 2° northward, owing to rapid increase in the North-West. The greatest westward movement was in the first decade, 1850-1860, amounting to more than 200 miles. The westward move- ment in the ten years 1890-1900 was a little less than 100 miles. At the last census the centre of population was in south central Indiana; the centre of manufacture was in central Ohio; of corn in western Illinois between Springfield and St. Louis; of all cereals, on the Mississippi River near Keokuk, Iowa; and the centre of wheat was in western Iowa. In 1850 the corn and wheat centres were near each other in Ohio. Wheat has outrun all the other great interests in its westward march. The present position of the centre of wheat raises a most interesting inquiry. The latest data are for 1908, and returns from a few minor States are not before the writer. For exact determination detailed figures for counties are used by the Census Bureau. But taking the State totals, it appears that 320,000,000 bushels, approximately, were raised in the States east of the Mississippi, plus the tier of States bordering the west bank of that river. This is a little less than half the crop, and would seem to carry the centre for 1908 out of Lowa and across the Missouri River. Considering latitude movement, it must be noted that California has fallen off, but this is partly offset by a decreased crop also in Oregon. The crops, however, of Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, which are mostly south of the centre of 1899, were much greater in relation to the total in 1908 than in 1899. It would seem clear, therefore, that for 1908 the centre has returned southward, and might probably be found in south-eastern Nebraska. Passing to the inquiry as to the centre of wheat in North America, it is to be observed that the Canadian crop of 1908+ was 112,434,000 bushels. To take this into account would move the centre as determined for the United States northward across a belt sufficient to raise half the Canadian product, or 56,000,000 bushels. Assuming the centre for the States as in south-eastern Nebraska in 1908, this belt would cross southern Iowa and the northern part of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. As these States are heavy growers, the belt would be narrow, and the centre for North America would not go higher in latitude than that for the States in 1899. The greater part of Canadian wheat, about 92 out of 112 million bushels in 1908, is raised in the western provinces, and therefore westward of the centre for the States. Making allowance in a similar manner, the longitude centre for North America would be found by passing westward across a section of the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and would probably lie in Nebraska, 100 miles or less westward from Omaha. This is more than 500 miles from the Canadian border, and the Dominion’s production must vastly increase before the 49th parallel will be approached. The importance of the new development in the north is not, how- 1 Census and Statistics Monthly, Ottawa, December 1908. THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 235i, ever, thus measured. It is easy to conceive of a time in no distant future when the United States might raise 800,000,000 bushels and consume 700,000,000, while Canada might at the same time raise 400,000,000 and consume 100,000,000 bushels. It is easy to see that the northern country would even then hold a threefold more important place in the public markets. of the world than her neighbour, even while the North American centre of production remained at some distance south of the international boundary. The movement of wheat growing has been from east to west, and will now be from south to north. This is largely the movement of history, and follows the migration of the frontier in our continent. The direction has thus had an historical origin, and both the direction and the rate of movement have been conditioned by the development of transportation. The more special and local reasons for the shifting of wheat lend themselves to inquiry, and have perhaps been nowhere else so well discussed as by. Mr. C. W. Thompson.? The subject of study is the shifting of wheat culture in Minnesota. This cereal has: gone from south-east to north-west in that State. Olmstead County, in the south-east, is as fertile and as capable of large crops of wheat as the best Red River lands, and is as good now as it was in 1870. The one region is as favourable in soil and climate and as suited for the use of machinery as the other. But as population increases and land grows in value more must be allowed for rental, or interest on investment, and intensive, diversified farming replaces the more extensive wheat farming. The bonanza wheat farms tend to break up as the population grows, for with skinning processes and much hired help in one part of the year, and, it may well be added, with no stock or rotation of crops, there is no way to enrich the land, cultivate thoroughly, and thus increase the product of an acre. The acre must be put to crops and tillage that will enable it to bear its greater burden, and wheat must go elsewhere. Moreover, the best returns accrue where one man, the owner, and one set of farm machinery do most of the work. Such farms contain 160 to 170 acres of land. Hence not only does diversified farming drive out wheat in some measure, but the smaller wheat farm drives out the great bonanza farm with its thousands of acres, its enormous machines, and its small army of labourers. It is therefore an error to think that wheat must pass or be in jeopardy with the elimination of the frontier. This has already been seen in the sustained wheat growth of the old North-West. In the census year 1899 more wheat was raised on farms of 100 to 175 acres than on those of any other specified size. Less than one-eleventh of the country’s wheat grew on farms exceeding 1,000 acres. Almost one-fifth was raised on farms of less than 100 acres. Taking the whole country, the yield per acre on the smaller farms was slightly greater than the yield on the large farms, notwithstanding the fact that the latter were chiefly areas of virgin soil. Thus, while wheat has figured largely as a pioneer crop, to be grown on free or cheap land, these conditions are not so important as is supposed, and an old, highly cultivated country like France, raising nearly all its own wheat, offers the best of object Jessons. Dondlinger,? while holding that much land will become too * Quart. Jour. of Econ., vol. xviii, 1904, p. 570. * The Bogk of Wheat, p. 303, 4 938 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. valuable for wheat, thinks that lands now idle will be brought to its production, and even anticipates that the centre of wheat growing may reverse its historic direction of movement and return eastward. In 1904 Dr. William Saunders reported that Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River, was the most northerly point from which samples of wheat had been received. This is about 62° N. lat. Dondlinger’ is authority for the statement that spring wheat has been matured at . Rampart and Dawson, still nearer the Arctic Circle. It is fair to say, © however, that the latitude range of wheat in North America is from 30°, latitude of New Orleans, to 60°, latitude of the northern boundary of Saskatchewan and Alberta, a belt of 30°. The areas of large and assured production may, however, always remain between 35° and 55°, with more chance for northern than southern expansion. In RKurasia wheat reaches to Trondhjem (634°) and northern Russia, to a point in India below the Tropic of Cancer (to 219). This greater range of 40° is due to the cooling effects of the altitude of the high slopes and plateaux of northern India. By including the product of Mexico and the Central American States, though small, the North American range may also be greatly extended. Thus from Nicaragua to the Mackenzie River wheat reaches across 50° of latitude. Wheat is so important that every effort will be made to widen its areal and its latitude range. This will be accomplished in part by irrigation. In the last census year, 1899, 99 per cent. of Arizona wheat was irrigated. This territory is a small producer, but Colorado and Utah, much larger growers, watered 84 and 574 per cent. respectively of their wheat lands. The three States of the Pacific coast, which are larger producers, irrigate but a small part of their wheat. In the year named all the Cordilleran States, with Nebraska added, irrigated 14°1 per cent. of their wheat fields, and raised on this area 17°7 per cent. of their crop. This shows that the yield can be enlarged, where wheat is already grown, by dry farming, as well as by bringing new lands under the ditch. The cost of irrigation works, however, may make extensive wheat growing impracticable, because other crops permit more intensive farming and offer larger returns. Our conclusion miust be that only a moderate expansion of American wheat will be due to irrigation. Agricultural enterprise and the importation of varieties may be expected to show, and indeed are now showing, much greater results. Some time ago the Department of Agriculture brought from the Crimea and naturalised in Kansas a red winter wheat which is described as high in hardness, yield, milling value, and resistance to disease. Various other Russian sorts have served to push the wheat areas westward into the vast semi-arid regions where water is too limited for extensive irriga- tion, and which, therefore, must be given over to pasturage unless the crops can be adjusted to small rainfall. These varieties belong to the durum, or so-called macaroni wheats, and are commonly raised not only in Russia, but Turkestan, Algeria, and other parts of the world where the climate is dry and hot. A climatic comparison of the Great Plains, which cannot grow the usual varieties beyond the one-hundredth meridian, shows that the American semi-arid belt has three inches more rainfall than the great 1 The Book of Wheat, p. 5. THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 2389 home of macaroni wheat on the plains of the Volga.! The author to whom reference is here made also characterises the soils of the Plains as a counterpart of the ‘ black earth ’ of Russia. The first introduction of Russian durum was made in the United States in 1864, and experi- mental proof of its value has become conclusive and final. The area suited to its growth extends in a wide north and south belt through the Dakotas, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, and Texas. In 1906 the production of durum wheat in the United States had risen to 50,000,000 bushels, with a growing export demand in Southern Europe, as its qualities are known, and a larger domestic use accompanying development in milling methods and the enlarging of the macaroni industry. Both yield and areal expansion have been assiduously promoted in North America by skilful selection and cross-breeding. Professor W. M. Hayes estimates that farmers have increased the yield of maize 20 per cent. by selecting the best ears, and they have also pushed the corn belt northward.” According to the same writer, the past century saw the sugar content of the sugar beet doubled through selection by European seed-growers. Other important results from plant-breeding and selection are familiar, and it has been shown by ample experience that no vegetable product is more plastic than wheat. Different conditions in the United States have modified wheats in colour, hardness, moisture, gluten, and albumenoids, and have changed winter to spring and spring to winter wheats. According to Hayes, a single variety known as Minnesota No. 169, -bred at the experiment stations, has raised the yield in that State no less than 5-10 per cent. Among the most persistent and successful efforts in breeding new varieties are those carried out under the direction of Dr. William Saunders at the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, and at the other experiment stations of the Dominion. This work has peculiar interest, because one of its chief aims is to breed wheat suited to northern condi- tions. Where vast areas are suited to wheat in surface, soil, and potential transportation, it is of the utmost importance to secure early ripening and conformity to the shortness of the summer season. At the same time high quality must be preserved, since the chief present value of the crop is for the purposes of export. The most important of these new varieties are the Preston, Stanley, Huron, and Percy.* Preston is named by Dr. Saunders as the best- known of the early wheats, and the four named were all originated at Ottawa in 1888 by crossing Red or White Fife with Ladoga. As com- pared with the old and standard Red Fife, these varieties all ripen four to twelve days earlier. Their yield, colour of flour, baking strength, and market value are all high, and the early ripening therefore extends the wheat belt northward to a significant degree. The parent Fife holds its place where early frosts are not feared; but the new breeds are invaluable in latitudes where a single early frost puts in jeopardy the labours of an entire year. We need not suppose that the process of adjustment to northern conditions has yet reached its limit. * Macaroni Wheats, M. A. Carleton, Bull. No. 3, Burean of Plant Industry, U.8. Department of Agriculture. * Year Book, U.S. of Agriculture, 1901, p. 218. * Preston and other Harly-ripening Wheats, C. E. Saunders, Cerealist. Bull. of Central Experimental Farm, March, 1908. 240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The lunits of this paper allow little more than mere mention of the profound effects on American wheat culture of conditions of production, manufacture, and transportation. The vast interior plain of North America, ranging from warm to cold-temperate as one passes from the Lower Mississippi to the Upper Mackenzie, has provided not only an unlimited expanse of soil, but offers a surface on which the modern machinery of production and transportation can operate. The plains of Russia and Argentina fall into natural comparison, but here the inventive genius and enterprise of the North American step in and give present suplemacy, and, so far as we can see, this advantage will project itself over many years of the future. We may, indeed, consider transportation as important as production, for otherwise wheat has little value to grower or consumer. Genesee wheat was little more than the bread of a few pioneers before the digging of the Erie Canal. To send a barrel of flour from western New York to Philadelphia cost $1.25. Grain and flour in general could not bear the cost of transportation for more than 150 miles. In 1825, 50 cents per bushel was considered a large price on the Ohio River; and indeed, after a haut of several days to the river, the farmer commonly got 25 to 30 cents, and that in trade.? In that year wheat brought 25 cents in Illinois, 80 cents in Petersburg, Virginia, and flour $6 per barrel in Charleston, South Carolina. Similar differences prevailed in France, for in 1847 the average difference of the price per hectolitre in different parts of that country was 26 francs. Since 1870 the difference has averaged 3.55 francs.* Similarly prices have become equalised among nations as well as sections, and there is now a world market for wheat which, according to the experts in economics, cannot be widely or for long disturbed by speculation. The world’s crop is becoming available for the world’s hunger, and in this transformation the Transatlantic highway and the American railway and waterway have borne the largest part. The same author says: ‘ In respect to no other one article has change in the conditions of production and distribution been productive of such momentous consequences as in the case of wheat.’ It was the building of railroads and the development of lake naviga- tion that enabled the States of the old North-West to replace the Atlantic States as the grain centre, and in turn gave the new North- West its present supremacy. And now history repeats itself in the Canadian North-West, in the multiplication of trunk lines and spurs and in the extension of through lines of transportation from Europe to the St. Lawrence, from the St. Lawrence to the Pacific, and from Vancouver and Prince Rupert to the Orient. The grain elevator also has extended its useful sway from Buffalo, Chicago, Minneapolis, and Duluth to Winnipeg, Prince Albert, and Kdmonton. The develop- ment of Pacific steamship lines, the opening of the Mississippi, a canal from Lake Huron to tidewater, and the possible utilisation of the Hudson Bay route are all further steps in making North America the central bread-grower of the world. The future of the United States in the universal wheat market: is of peculiar interest both to her own citizens and to those of Canada. McMaster, Fistory of the United States, ili. p. 463. 2 J. Turner in American Nation, vol. xiv. 105-106. *Rand’s Leonomic History since 1763, p. 315. THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 241 This depends on two factors—possible production and the possible population. As to both of these factors and the resulting future in export trade, opinions differ greatly. So acute an observer of our affairs as M. Leroy-Beaulieu,' reterring to the fact that for some years increase in wheat exports has not been more rapid than growth of population, believes this will continue to hold true. He grants that export wheat is likely to remain at its present high level for some time to come, but little increase is probable, the predominance of agricul- tural exports will pass and manufactured products will take their place. Mr. James J. Hill is yet more emphatic,? holding that ‘ we are approaching the point where our wheat product will be needed for our own uses, and we shall cease to be an exporter of grain. There is still some room in Canada, but it will soon be filled.’ That there is some inconsistency in Mr. Hill’s utterance appears in the view expressed 1n the preceding paragraph of his address, that only one-half of our farm areas is improved, and that this half might be made, by ordinary care and intelligence, to double its production. Similar views are set forth by Mr. J. C. Williams,* who, referring to a falling-off in production and the increase of home use, thinks it “quite possible’ that the United States will become a permanent importer of wheat under normal conditions. To these opinions may be added that of Dondlinger:+ ‘ With the increase of population and local consumption, the internal and export movement of wheat will greatly decrease, and American wheat will be a factor of declining importance in the international grain trade.’ By American this author no doubt means the product of the United States. He holds that diversification and rise of land values will decrease wheat acreage in the west, though this loss may be in a measure offset by the adoption of new areas in the east and south. In addition to these recent views it is not out of place to observe that other and earlier prophecies now read curiously in the light of history. Edgar * quotes the conviction of John H. Klippart, writing in Ohio in 1859, that the limits of the wheat area in the United States had been reached, and that, without increase of yield, the surplus would ‘ by the next census be measured by the algebraic quantity of minus.’ So late as 1884 a high foreign authority expressed the opinion that the wheat trade in America had reached its limit, because of the exhaustion of the soil and the prohibitive cost of freight from remote districts. These forecasts may well have less real basis than those of recent years, but they at least hint at-the pitfalls of prophecy and admonish us that human wisdom rarely covers all the unknown factors of a hard problem. It will be prudent, therefore, to discuss the first of the two great factors in a wholly general manner. Can the United States largely increase its crop of wheat? Another wheat expert, Mr. HE. C. Parker, writing in the ‘ Century Magazine’ in September 1908, less than one The United States in the Twentieth Century. Conference of Governors 1908, Proceedings, p. 72. Science, N.S., xxi. 1905, p. 458. The Book of Wheat, p. 305. The Story of a Grain of Wheat, p. 87. 1909. R oeertwrns 949 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. year ago, thinks the home demand will soon stop exporting in any quantity. At the same time he exhibits a strong array of means for strengthening the industry, and considers it ‘ hard to imagine a wheat famine in the immediate future.’ Indeed, to fear for the wheat supply of many generations to come is pessimistic. According to Mr. Parker, we shall have bread enough, but not to spare. Some means of increasing the product have been considered. It may be admitted that increase by irrigation for export uses is more than doubtful, but it may also be claimed that watered lands will largely care for the bread of the increasing Cordilleran population. If agricul- tural exploration has given us a crop of 50,000,000 bushels of durum wheats, the extent of available semi-arid lands suggests the probability of a large increase on demand. The production of early wheats will increase the Canadian crop more than that of its neighbour, but may aid in naturalising the grain at higher altitudes in the west. There is an unknown amount of land east of the Mississippi to be rendered fit for cereals by drainage, for, as compared with Europe, we of North America know nothing about utilising waste lands. It is wise, therefore, to accept the dictum of a recent writer} that ‘the future growth of cereal production will depend more upon im- proved methods of agriculture than upon the addition of new lands.’ Anyone with faith in the new American agriculture must, it seems to the writer, have large faith here. A table of comparative yields per acre is not a pleasant sight to a citizen of the United States. The record of a few leading countries is appended. It gives the average, 1899 to 1904 :— United Kingdom sen), Oat Hungary as san, eat O Germany ay ee eel! United States... eo: I, France... 50¢ sv. 6208 European Russia 6 ah The yield for Canada in 1904 was 16°8 bushels. In 1908 Canada’s yield of spring wheat (the bulk of her crop) was 16°03 bushels, and of winter wheat 24°40 bushels. It should be added that in the United States the yield for 1904 was 14°5 bushels. For 1908 the yield was slightly under 14 bushels. Reasonable confidence in the soil and future tillage south of the forty-ninth parallel offer hope of large increase in the coming generation. Sixty years ago France was pro- ducing less than 15 bushels per acre. A duty on imports practically prohibitive has forced the adoption of thorough tillage and made it necessary for the French farmer to fertilise, and use every other expedient for winning the largest result from his small fields. It may be said that labour conditions are very different, but the fact remains that these anciently tilled fields have been made to grow a vastly larger crop than they raised seventy-five years ago. It is significant that the farms of the United States average 150 acres, while the French farms average twenty acres. Leroy-Beaulieu refers to our small outlay for labour as evidence that we have little intensive cultivation. The writer of this paper has elsewhere shown? that east of the arid region we had, at the last census, but one agricultural worker for each ‘E. L. Bogart, Heonomic History of the United States, p. 205. ** Distribution of Population in the United States,’ Geog. Jour., October 1903,.p. 383. THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 248 91:4 acres. Such facts are eloquent of our future possibilities, not only in wheat, but in every product of the soil. What is true of the United States is more true of Canada, with its ample soils and sparse popu- lation. A South Carolina writer‘! asserts that tillage has in some cases made an increase per acre of more than eight bushels. Professor Harry Snyder, of the University of Minnesota, asserts that the ‘ yield per acre of wheat in the United States is much less than the soils are capable of producing.’ ? Mr. W. C. Ford, referring to the increased yields of France,* utters a general principle which should be the inspiration of every North American farmer and the basis of reasonable optimism for every loyal citizen of the New World: ‘To this march of scientific agriculture there is no end.’ California is said to have used six times as much artificial fertiliser in 1900 as in 1890, and one of the latest bulletins of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, of date June 1908, deals with the rotation of crops. Fertilisers, even in the Red River valley, are said to have increased the yield in some cases from 15 to 26 bushels. Minnesota is not an old State, but is taking up the problems of the present and the future, and is quoted here, not as an exception, but as a sample of general practice throughout the United States. The other great factor in the wheat problem is the increase of population. Space forbids more than a word. The writer has given his views on this somewhat difficult subject in another place. In his belief the ordinary prophecies of increase in the coming generation are exaggerations. Mr. James J. Hill, for example, thinks we shall have 200,000,000 people in the United States by 1950. Let the reader observe the following rates of increase: Decade before 1880 __.... ... 80°2 per cent. increase Decade before 1890... .. 25°5 per cent. increase Decade before 1900 _... ... 20°7 per cent. increase Here is a drop of nearly 5 per cent. in each decade. The population in 1899 (census of 1900) was 76,085,794. The population for the thir- teenth census, now about to be taken, may be estimated at 88,000,000. This’ gives an increase of 15°6 per cent. in the last decade and main- tains the descending rate of previous periods. If we allow a drop of only 1 per cent. for coming decades, there would be in 1949, the year of the seventeenth census, a population in round numbers of 144,000,000. This is a sufficient comment on the prevailing extrava- gances in estimating our future numbers in the United States. It is, perhaps, more possible that 1950 will not see a population of more than 130,000,000. But let us grant 150,000,000 in no very distant future. At six bushels per capita, 900,000,000 would be needed at home. More than 700,000,000 bushels have already been raised in one year. An increase of four bushels per acre on present wheat lands would about fill the gap. An increase of ten to twelve million acres under good tillage would still provide for the present scale of export. It is safe to S.C. Bull., 66, 12. ? Art. ‘Wheat,’ Bncy. Americana, * Pop. Sci. Mo., 53,1898. p. 8. “Pop. Sci. Mo., September 1909, ‘ Capacity of the United States for Population.! R2 244 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. expect that this cereal, as an essential food, will press for its place, and all reclamation and adaptation of lands now idle to other crops will tend to release land for wheat. Regarding it as fairly probable that the United States will not materially increase its exports of wheat, the Canadian product assumes new interest, not only for the farmer and economist of the Dominion, but for every student of the subject. It would be needless—and, indeed, presuming—to bring to this place from across the border detailed statements as to the history, or confident predictions as to the future, of Canadian wheat. In comparison with some of its competitors, Canada is old in the — industry, having raised over 20,000,000 bushels in 1827, while Argen- tina began to raise wheat in 1882. Recent developments in the North- West belong to the experience of many who are still foremost in the field. Fort Garry has been Winnipeg but for a single generation, and the Canadian Pacific Railway entered the city so late as 1881. It has already been observed that the Canadian yield is high, owing to the native fertility of its prairies, and the greatest crop ever raised from unfertilised land is credited to Western Canada in 1901, when 63,425,000 bushels were raised on something more than 2,500,000 acres, an average yield of more than 25 bushels. The following tables show the progress of wheat in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta from 1900 to 1908. The figures are kindly furnished to the writer by Mr. A. Blue, Chief Officer, Census and Statistics Office.1 The product for 1908 is taken from the ‘ Census and Statistics Monthly,’ Ottawa, December 1908 ;— MANITOBA, 1900 ... 18,352,929 bushels 1905 ... 47,626,586 bushels 1901. =. ‘S0:502,035 1906 ... 54472198 ,, 1902 ... 53,077,267 ., 1907 ... 39,688,266 | 1903 ... 40,116,878 3. 1908 ... 50,269,000; 1904 ... 39,162,458 ,. SASKATCHEWAN. 1900 ... 4,306,091 bushels 1905 ... 31,799,198 b 1901 ... 11,956,069 _,, 1906 ... 50,182,359 iba: 1902) 691, .193/110,480 64 1907 ... 27,691,601 ° 1903 ... 15,121,015 ° 1908 ... 34,742,000 1904 ... 15,944,730 .,, pa ALBERTA. 1900... 797,839 bushels 1905 ... 3,035,843 b 100i: ee Ors T1S.~ 2s 1906 ... 5,932,267 cil W002 ee Bag ie 1907 ... 4.194.435 1903 ... 1,200,598 1908 ... 6,842,000 ” 1904. noite: 838.9005);,.:: +208 uf The exports of Canadian wheat ranged from sixteen and nine millions respectively in the years 1900 and 1901 to a maximum of 43,654,668 bushels in 1908. The Ontario crop is usually over twenty million bushels, but it is from the North-Western provinces that future growth is chiefly expected. Dr. William Saunders? states that during 1908 experiments have been carried on in the Peace River district, at Fort Vermilion, 350 miles north of Edmonton, where the crop amounted ? Letters of March 19 and 24, 1909. * Letter to the writer of date March 15, 1909. : : THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. 245 to 35,000 bushels. He adds the important statement that ‘ there seem to be no climatic differences there which are more difficult to be over- come than in the immediate vicinity of Edmonton.’ ‘ If there be prophecy as to Canada’s future product, her own experts must play the part of seer. We have not seen that Dr. Saunders retracts or in any way modifies his ‘ reasonable prophecy ’ of 1904— that wheat grown on one-fourth of the land suited to it in the Canadian North-West, with the yield of Manitoba for the previous decade, would bring a crop of more than 800 million bushels, which, as he shows, would feed 30,000,000 people in Canada and three times supply the import need of Great Britain. If there be such a surplus of good soil as three-fourths, this would leave ample room for diversified crops, and for such rotations and fallowing as might be needful in future years to meet the declining production of the prairie soils. Sir William Crookes in 1898 allowed from credible estimates six miljion acres of wheat land for Canada in the following twelve years. The acreage of 1908, after ten years, but slightly exceeded his figure. His fears, however, as to inadequate population to work the wheat lands are not likely to be realised. When he read his address at Bristol he could not have foreseen that spectacular migration across the border from the South, which now plays so large a réle in the North-West. In the year 1898 this immigration brought 9,119 settlers into Canada. In the fiscal year of 1908-09 the number had risen to 59,832, and had become a theme of interest to both countries. Sixty thousand settlers, mainly going to wheat farms, and bringing in capital and experience, means immediate and large expansion of Canadian wheat, and an annual product per capita far exceeding anything that any wheat- ° raising country has known. The population of Canada has always increased slowly, being 240,009 in 1801 and rising in 1901 to 5,371,315. But it is precisely in the wheat provinces that recent percentages of increase have been enormous, so that Canada promises to give herself to a great agricul- tural specialty, and remotely, if ever, will come the time when her population will press hard upon her productive capacity. Unlike the United States, she must confine herself to products of temperate climates, and her greatest reliance for exchange must, it would seem, be breadstuffs. Immigration into Canada since 1901 has brought more than one million people, and if the population in 1908 were 7,000,000, there was a per capita production of wheat of 16 bushels. The ratio will no doubt be much higher in the near future. It is easy to refute prophecies which the event has already nullified, but it is, nevertheless, sometimes useful to recall them. In his famous address of 1898 Sir William Crookes concedes his statements to be alarming, but asserts they are based on stubborn facts, and that ‘England and all civilised nations are in deadly peril of not having enough to eat; . . . as mouths multiply, food resources dwindle; . . . our wheat-producing soil is totally unequal to the strain put upon it.’ Great Britain then needed 240,000,000 bushels of wheat, of which she raised one-fourth and imported the rest. Sir William regards as a burning question what to do to avert starvation if crops should fail or nations combine in hostility, especially in view of the world’s increase of bread-eaters. The wheat-growing area was strictly limited ; there was no land left in the United States without cutting into maize, hay, and 246 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. other crops, and the export of 145,000,000 bushels would soon be required at home. In the world’s crop for 1897-1898 he gives the United, States 510,000,000 bushels. As it turned out, there were in the process of harvest, when Sir William was reading, 675,000,000. The average crop for eleven years, 1898-1908, has been 643,668,762 bushels, giving an average increase beyond his figure of 133,668,000 bushels—almost enough to cover the export amount then stated. The world’s crop for 1897-98 was said to be 1,921,000,000 bushels, leaving a deficit, but for supplies carried over, of 400,000,000. He thought the wheat lands of all nations brought to their utmost capacity might raise the total to 3,340,000,000, or within 17,000,000 bushels of what the eaters of wheat bread would require in 1931. We now know that the world’s crop eight years later, or in 1906, was 3 ,423,134,000 bushels, and the limit is nowhere in sight, and cannot be conjectured within a billion bushels by the keenest student of the wheat problem. Sir William felt that performance had lagged behind promise in Canada, and he observed the modest export of less than 9,000,000 bushels, which has now been raised nearly fivefold. It is hazardous to set limits to wheat, in view of possible unknown factors of production, and discussions have not taken sufficient account of the limitation of population which exhibits itself among the nations of higher standards, which are precisely the bread-eating peoples. Without regard to wheat this limitation would be operative, but any pressure on the wheat supply would foreshadow itself before the pinch came, and would tend to still further restriction of population. We may therefore comfortably come back to an earlier conclusion of an American economist:! ‘In short, it would seem as if the world in general, for the first time in its history, has now good and sufficient reasons for feeling free from all apprehensions of a scarcity or dearness of bread.’ Looking, in conclusion, at the world field, the only great importing countries are in Western Europe, or more truly North-Western Europe. Any increased demand in that region should readily be met by develop- ments in Canada, Russia, Argentina, Egypt, India, South Africa, and Australia. We may thus even leave out the United States, and we might omit India, should ampler distribution of her wheat at home be made to avert her too frequent periods of famine. Of the greater producers, Argentina is far from her market, is undeveloped, and in some degree uncertain. Russia is backward, and will not for more than a generation bring her vast resources to full effect in the world’s market. It is North America which has the land, the progressive appliances, the skilled energy of production, and the facilities of trans- portation to supply the bread market of coming decades. No citizen of the great Republic need harbour a jealous thought if in that market the major place should come to his northern neighbour. "Mr. D, A. Wells in Recent Economic Changes, p. 177 (1889). ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 247 Gaseous Hxplosions.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. Preece (Chairman), Mr. DuGautp CLERK and Professor BERTRAM Hopkinson (Joint Secretaries), Professors Bone, BuRSTALL, CALLENDAR, COKER, DALBY, and Dixon, Drs. GLAZEBROOK and HELE-SHAW, Professors PETAVEL, SMITHELLS, and Watson, Dr. Harker, Lieut.-Colonel HonpEn, and Captain SANKEY, appointed for the Investigation of Gaseous Explosions, with special reference to Temperature. [Prates V.-VIII.] APPENDIX PAGE A. Regnault’s Corrections - 8 - : : : : 4 . 264 B: Deville’s Experiments on the Dissociation of Gases. By Dr. J. A. Harker. 265 Durine the session 1908-09 the work of the Committee consisted partly of new investigations and partly of study and critical discussion of English and Continental work already published. The new work has necessitated the design and construction of much new apparatus, and especially of new optical indicators. Four meetings have been held in Mr. Dugald Clerk’s laboratory in London and one at the National Physical Laboratory. The five meetings have been excellently attended. Seven Notes have been presented and discussed :— No. 7. The Analyses of Exhaust Gases from the Petrol Engine. ‘ : : : : : . W. Watson. No. 8. Some Experiments on Chemical Equilibrium in Gaseous Explosive Mixtures ; : : No. 9. Deville’s Experiments on the Dissociation of Gases : : : : c : : . J. A. Harker. No. 10. On Radiation in a Gaseous Explosion . ; . BR. Hopkinson. No. 11. The Alternate Compression and Expansion of Dry Air in an Engine Cylinder . , . Dugald Clerk. No. 12. Direct Measurement of the Temperature of the Working Fluid in a Gas-Engine Cylinder . W.E. Dalby. No. 13. The Temperatures reached in the Compression of Air. 2 : ; : : . ; . B. Hopkinson. Dugald Clerk. It will be observed that Notes Nos. 7, 8, and 9, by Professor Watson, Mr. Dugald Clerk, and Dr. Harker, deal with the question of Chemical Equilibrium, while Note No. 10, by Professor Hopkinson, though deal- ing primarily with radiation, also bears upon the same subject. Notes Nos. 11 and 13, by Clerk and Hopkinson, are devoted to the study of the compression and expansion of cold air within a cylinder, while Note No. 12, by Professor Dalby, deals with the direct determination of the suction temperature in a gas-engine when working. Professor H. B. Dixon has continued his experiments on the ignition point of gases by two methods. In the first the gases are heated separately before being brought into contact, and the temperature is determined af which the meeting gases enflame. The combustible gas is led up a narrow tube of glass or quartz in the axis of a larger tube heated electrically ; air or oxygen passes up the space between the two tubes. The wider the 248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. tubes and the quicker the flow of gases, i.e., the less the contact action of the heated surfaces on the mixing gases, the lower the ignition-tempera- ture was found to be. Experiments made between half an atmosphere and two atmospheres showed a lowering of the ignition temperature with increase of pressure.’ In the second method the mixed gases are fired by sudden compression in a cylinder, according to Nernst’s suggestion. Photographs have been taken on a rapidly moving film of the flames produced by adiabatic com- pression. The values found are lower than those given by the first method, as was to be expected from the high pressures at which the gases are fired. These experiments are being continued. Professor Dixon has also continued his experiments on the velocitv of sound in different gases heated in a long tube. Apart from the new investigations dealt with in the Notes, much preparatory work has been done by many of the members. Thus Pro- fessor Dalby has refitted the engine—the subject of his experiments—with electric ignition, and arranged the end so as to take a new optical indi- cator; Professor Bone has made preparations to extend his well-known experiments to explosions and combustions where oxygen is present in excess; Professor Coker has improved his apparatus for studying wall- temperature change; Professor Burstall, in conjunction with Professor Hopkinson, has made comparisons between a good mechanical indicator and the Hopkinson optical indicator ; Watson, Callendar, and Dalby have devoted much study to the improvement of the diaphragm optical indi- cator; and Hopkinson and Clerk have improved the operation of their piston optical indicators. In this Report the sequence of the first Report will be followed as far as possible, so that the effect of the year’s work will be readily apparent. Measurement of the Internal Energy or Specific Heat of Gas at High Temperatures. No new high-temperature experiments on ‘ Volumetric Heat’ have been published, but attention has been devoted to the lower end of the scale, as Regnault’s and other standard results were shown last year to be in need of revision. This was necessary in order to clear the ground for high-temperature work. (1) Constant Pressure Experiments up to 100° C. It was stated in the first Report that the results of Regnault for the specific heat of air at ordinary temperatures, which have hitherto been accepted as correct, were materially lower than those obtained by some more recent observers. Among these latter researches the most im- portant were perhaps those of Mr. Swann,’ the results of whose experi- ments, which had not then been published, were communicated to: the Committee by Professor Callendar, and gave values about 2 per cent, 1 Dixon and Coward, ‘ The Ignition Temperature of Gases,’ Jour. Chem. Soc., 1909. ? “The specific heats of air and carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure by the continuous electrical method at 20° C. and 100° C.,’ by W. F. G, Swann, A,B.C.S., B.Se., Proc. Royal §oc., Series A, vol, }xxxii. 1909, Oi} GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. QAO higher than those of Regnault. Mr. Swann’s results have now been published, and he has supplied the Committee with a complete copy of his paper. ‘The method employed by him had previously been used by Professor Callendar for determining the specific heat of superheated steam. A current of the gas is passed over an electrical heater, the energy supplied to which can be accurately measured, and the temperature of the gas is measured before and after passing the heater by means of platinum thermometers. The rise of temperature, which amounted to about 5° C., can be measured correct to 0°001° C., and an at least equal degree of accuracy is obtainable in the measurement of energy supplied. A correction of the order of 10 per cent. of the total supply of heat has, however, to be applied for the loss of heat from the gas as it passes to the thermometer. It is assumed that with a given inflow and outflow temperature of the gas this loss of heat is independent of the rate of flow, and its amount is determined by experiments at different rates of flow. It will be remembered that a correction, amounting to about 5 per cent., was applied in Regnault’s experiments for the flow of heat by conduction along the substance of the pipe which connected his heater with his calorimeter. Regnault assumed that with a given temperature difference this correction was independent of the rate of flow of gas. It was pointed out by Professor Callendar that this assumption could not be justified, and that it would lead to too low a value of the volumetric heat. The corrections involved in the methods employed by Swann have been fully discussed by the author, and also by Callendar. They appear to admit of determination with an order of accuracy approaching 1 in 1000 in the result. On this account, and because of the close agreement of Swann’s results with those obtained by Joly, the Committee consider that there is now little doubt that Regnault’s figures were too low, and that the volumetric heat of air at 100° C. may be taken as being within 1 per cent. of 5°0 calories per gm. molecule, or 19°8 foot Ib. per cubic foot. They have come to this conclusion with the less difficulty because to a great extent they have Regnault’s own authority for it. He appears to have been fully aware of the uncertainty introduced into his results by the heat-flow along the connecting pipe; he discusses it in the same way as Callendar and Swann, and arrives at the same conclusion, that is, that it would be in such a direction as to make his results too low. The passage of his original paper in which he deals with this matter is of very considerable interest, both historically and in connection with the work of the Committee, and they have therefore reproduced it in full in Appendix A. For the volumetric heat of CO. the Committee also feel justified in adopting Swann’s values as correct to within 1 per cent. They are as follows :— At 20° 4. At 100° @. Specific heat at constant pressure : 5 0-202 0:221 ' Volumetric heat :— : Cals. per gm. molecule! . ci : : 6:93 776 Foot Ib. per cubic foot Bs, igs ee De 30°7 * Taken as 44 grammes, 250 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. (2) Clerk’s Experiments. In the first Report it was pointed out that the values of the volumetric heat of gas-engine mixture obtained by Dugald Clerk by the compression and expansion of gas heated by combustion were (at a temperature of 1000° C.) about 10 per cent. higher than the corresponding values given by Holborn and Henning’s experiments at constant pressure. Cal- lendar expressed an opinion that the constant-pressure methods of deter- mining specific heat were subject to systematic errors which would tend to make the results toolow. This view has received further confirmation in the publication of Swann’s work, to which reference was made in the last section ; for Regnault’s experiments were of the same character as those of Holborn and Henning, and any error of defect in his values might be expected to be of even greater magnitude in their experiments. On the other hand, Hopkinson gave reasons for supposing that Dugald Clerk’s values were too high because of a difficulty in determining the division of heat loss between the compression and expansion lines. In support of this view Hopkinson stated that he had found that when cold air was compressed and expanded in a gas-engine driven by an electric motor the values of the volumetric heat deduced by Clerk’s method from the compression and expansion lines were too high, and that the air took in heat during the first half of the expansion stroke, though its mean temperature was above that of the walls. This point has been made the subject of detailed experiments by Dugald Clerk, who communicated a preliminary account to the Com- mittee in Note No. 11. His experiments were made on the ‘ R’ engine of the Institution of Civil Engineers’ Tests,! of 9 inches diameter and 17 inches stroke, which was driven by an electric motor. The exhaust valve of the engine was permanently closed during the experiments, and commu- nication was made with a large reservoir containing dry air by means of the charge inlet valve, which was held partially open until the desired engine speed was attained, when the valve was tripped and acted on by the usual cam, so as to take an air charge into the cylinder. The trip gear was so arranged that after one full opening and closing the valve was held closed during the experiments so that the air thus trapped in the cylinder was alternately compressed and expanded. In this respect Clerk’s arrangements differed from Hopkinson’s, who kept both inlet and exhaust valves working continuously in the ordinary way, thus taking in a fresh charge of air at every other revolution, compressing and expand- ing it once and then discharging it. An optical indicator was used to take the diagrams, one of which is reproduced in Fig. 1.* An analysis of the last three-tenths of the. first compression line and the first three-tenths of the first. expansion line (AB and BC on the figure) by Clerk’s method, in which the heat loss is treated as the same in compression and expansion, subject to an allowance for the higher tem- perature in the former, gave as the value of the volumetric heat of air 20°9 foot Ib. per cubic foot, or 5°28 calories per gm. molecule. This was the mean of six cards, three of which were taken at a speed of 120 r.p.m. and three at 180 r.p.m.; the maximum value found was 21°1 and the minimum 20°5. The mean temperature on the expansion line was about ‘ Minutes of Proceedings Inst.C.H., vol. clxiii. p. 288. : 2 The particular diagram shown in Fig. 1 belongs to a later set of experiments. ¥ [Puatr V. 8.62 “¥vg SG ore T 1 "SNV'END ZO] “NOLS AB 1daMG BWMOA "SNI"END OFZ *BWdG NOISS3YdWOD JO IWNI0A "dUVD ONINIG LHD] WOUS “SSIyy"SOWLY LY G3TTI4 “TAD DoS] “YSLYM Law WE 4O “AW3) JE ‘D.G02 LAIN] 4v YI JO ‘“dWay Illustrating the Second Report on Gaseous Explosions. 0 SU L2| “SOWLY JAOBY “oSSUg XV ie “IWS “OSI “SARY British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg, 1909. | i bicig , , Sais j fi ae Oe ee See oe ON GASKOUS BXPLOSIONS. 251 170° G. and the value of © obtained by extrapolating slightly from Swann’s results would be 20°16 at this temperature and at atmospheric pressure. Unless, therefore, the difference in density gives rise to a greater difference in the volumetric heat than seems at all probable, Clerk’s value is about 3 per cent. too high. Clerk then went on to calculate from the diagram the actual heat loss on the compression and on the expansion stroke, assuming the true value of the volumetric heat to be 20. Comparing the heat loss in the last three-tenths of the compression (AB) and the first three-tenths of the expansion (BC), he found that they were in the ratio of about 3 to 1, whereas the mean temperature on compression was only about 11 per cent. greater than over the corresponding range in expansion. Clerk further found that the heat loss from 0'1 to 0°4 on the expansion stroke was practically nil, while on the corresponding part of the com- pression stroke it amounted to about 7 per cent. of the work done on the gas. Commenting on these results, Clerk says: ‘ The experiments show that the gas does not on the whole gain heat during the first half of the expansion stroke, as was found by Hopkinson.* But they do show that for some reason the heat loss is divided very unequally between the compression and expansion strokes. The proportion varies from point to point of the stroke, and also varies largely with the temperature of the walls, but for the inner one-tenth and the first three-tenths of the stroke the compression heat loss appears to be about three times the expansion heat loss. ‘ From this it follows that Hopkinson was correct in his expectation that the specific heat of air determined by division of heat loss in propor- tion to mean temperature would be too high. The experiments show that this method of division leads to a value about 3 per cent. higher than the true value.’ Clerk also finds from these experiments that the greater part of the heat loss was incurred at the inner tenth of the stroke during compression and expansion at the higher temperature and density; 80 per cent. of the loss on the three-tenths was due to the inner tenth. The loss on the compression line from 0°4 to 0°1 of the stroke was small, and that on the expansion line was less. Calculating C as the mean value on these lines, the value is 20°7 foot lb. per cubic foot. The mean temperature in this part of the diagram was 120° C. In view of these experiments on the compression and expansion of cold air, the Committee consider that the division of heat loss in the high temperature compressions on which Clerk’s values of the volumetric heats are based may require some revision, and that these values may on this account be rather too high. The results given by air (as to ratio of heat loss between compression and expansion lines) at temperatures of the order 200° C. may, however, not be quantitatively applicable to gases cooling at the high temperature of 1000° C. It will be necessary to experiment further on high temperature compré&sion before the amount of the correction necessary on this account can be decided. Clerk has * The gain of heat found by Hopkinson may have been due to the fact that he did not trap a single charge, but continually compressed and expanded fresh charges, in consequence of which the temperature of the cylinder walls, and espe- cially of the face of the piston, must have been materially higher than in Clerk's experiments. O52 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. made arrangements to continue the work on these lines, and hopes to be able to carry his explosion experiments to about 3000° C. by a modified method. " Clerk determined the leakage of the piston by two methods and found that it did not exceed 0°3 per cent. per stroke, so that error by leakage is negligible. Hopkinson’s suggestion that heat may be absorbed by a body of air whose mean temperature is higher than that of the walls enclosing it has been supposed by some to be impossible. If, however, the case be put in the following way it will be readily admitted that his explanation is quite possible. Referring to Fig. 2, which is a diagrammatic section of a gas-engine cylinder having a very elongated compression space, if it be assumed that air be compressed within the cylinder until the piston is full in, as shown in the dotted position, then the mean temperature may rise to, say, 240° C. as a mean throughout the whole space, but the air at the extreme end of that space may be cooled down nearly to the wall tem- perature, assumed to be 16° C. 500°C FIG.2. The temperature will thus range from nearly 16° C. at the small end of the cone to perhaps 300° C. in the open part of the compression chamber. Such a disposition may be made to produce a mean tempera- ture throughout the whole compression chamber of 240° C. If the air be now expanded by moving the piston from the dotted position to the full-line position, it is obvious that the temperature of the air, which has been reduced to 16° C. by contact with the walls, will fall below that temperature, and so heat may be added to the air at the extreme end while heat is still being lost to the cylinder by the air near the piston. Many gas-engine constructions have narrow spaces, and the engine ‘ R’ above its inlet valve has such a space, so that the temperature throughout, even during compression and expansion, may be very unequal. Although the unequal division of heat-flow between compression and expansion lines must be accepted as a fact, the Committee are not yet satisfied as to the explanation. The view put forward by Clerk, when discussing the possibility of an error from this source in his original paper,? was that the difference, if any, between the heat-flow during expan- sion and during compregsion was to be ascribed to a rise in the temperature of the surface of the metal or of a film adhering thereto. He expressed the opinion that any difference so caused could nof be great on account of the small possible variation in temperature of the metal surface. Hop- kinson’s suggestion, on the other hand, was based on the possibility of 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, vol. 1xxvii. 1906. ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 953 large variations of temperature in the gas, and referred the change of heat-flow not to the metal surface, whose temperature (he thought) might for this purpose be supposed to be constant, but to changes in the tempera- ture gradient in the layer of gas close to the walls. The controlling in- fluence of the condition of the surface layer on the rate of heat-flow from the gas appears in many experiments. In a gaseous explosion in a closed vessel, for example, the flow of heat from the gas to the walls is at first intensely rapid, for the hot flame is brought into immediate contact with the cold wall and the heat is drawn from the still hot surface layer, and has not very far to travel. As time goes on, however, this layer becomes cooled down, and serves as a jacket resisting flow of heat from the hotter core within. Study of the curve of cooling after explosion in a closed vessel shows that the rate of fall of temperature diminishes in much greater proportion than the temperature itself, and the same thing was shown by Hopkinson’s experiments with a recording calorimeter, in which the rate of heat-flow was directly measured and found to vary nearly inversely as the square root of the time elapsed.’ The basis of Clerk’s method is a comparison of volume and pressure changes in the rapid compression of a gas in a closed cylinder. In adia- batic compression the relation between these two quantities is— PV” = a constant, and the mean value of the volumetric heat over the range of compression oe, Ee : , Bea where R is the gas constant and equal to 7°75 foot lb. per cubic foot or 1°96 calories per gm. molecule. The value of y for true adiabatic compression is deduced from the actual indicator diagram by making corrections for heat loss in the manner to which reference has already been made. Another method of obtaining y-is.to find the relation between corresponding pressure and temperature changes in rapid com- pression. For adiabatic compression this relation is of the form where @ is the absolute temperature. It has been applied for small ranges of temperature by Lummer and Pringsheim, and also by Makower, who suddenly opened to the atmosphere a large glass globe, containing air at a pressure of a few centimetres of mercury above atmosphere, and measured the resulting fall of temperature at the centre of the globe by means of a platinum thermometer. He obtained in this way the value 19°3 foot lb. per cubic foot or 4°9 calories per gm. molecule for the volumetric heat of air at 20° C., which is certainly within 2 per cent. of the truth, without making any correction for heat loss from the air at the centre of the globe where the temperature was measured. Hopkinson has commenced experiments, described in Note No. 13, with the object of applying a similar method to the compression of air in a gas-engine cylinder. The engine is motored round, taking in a charge of air at every other revolution, compressing it, expanding it, and exhaust- ing it in the usual way. A fine platinum wire at the centre of the combustion space of the engine measures the temperature of the air at tv ? Proc. Roy, Soc., Series A, vol. Ixxix. p. 138. D4 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. that point, and simultaneous measurements of the pressure at the begin- ning and end of compression are also made. A small correction for time- lag in the wire has to be applied; this amounts at a speed of 250 revs. per minute to about 6° C. at the completion of suction, and is negligible at the top of compression. The value of the volumetric heat calculated from the pressures and temperatures at these two points, on the assump- tion that the compression was adiabatic and that y was constant, is 20°33 foot. lb. per cubic foot, the values in different experiments ranging from 19°76 to 20°95. The true value, according to Swann, for the range of temperature employed (20° to 270°) should be 20°1. Tt would appear, therefore, that the compression at the centre of the combustion space in an engine of this size (the diameter was 7 inches and the stroke 15 inches) is very nearly adiabatic, and there is reason to suppose that the method may yield good results when applied to higher temperatures. The ex- periments were done at various speeds, ranging from 60 to 250 r.p.m., and the fact that the values obtained at 60 r.p.m. are not systematically greater than those at higher speeds is further evidence that the loss of heat is small. The method has the advantage that it is in- dependent of leakage. Hopkinson found that in this engine at the top of compression the temperature of the air at a distance of half a centi- metre from the wall was about 30° less than in the centre. At points nearer to the wall, that is, within 1 mm., the temperature fell off very rapidly; it was still, however, decidedly above that of the wall at a distance of only 4mm. He is continuing his experiments with a view to giving a complete account of the temperature distribution and elucidat- ing more completely the phenomena of heat-flow. The general result, so far as he has gone, would appear to be that the layer of air in which the temperature gradients are considerable is extremely thin. It may, in fact, be difficult to decide precisely what is the nature of the film which determines the heat-flow. Once in solid metal it is quite certain that the temperature variations are extremely slight, and cannot be such as materially to affect heat-flow. On the other hand, the temperature of the air a fraction of a millimetre away from the wall is very much higher than that of the metal and approximates to the mean temperature of the ges. It is the temperature gradients in the composite layer of matter, partly air and partly solid or oil film, between these points which finally determine the heat-flow. It is possible that Clerk, who regards the solid and adherent film ! as the seat of the temperature changes, and Hop- kinson, who ascribes the action to a thin layer of air, are really dealing with the same thing from opposite points of view. (3) Explosion Haperiments. Much light has been thrown on the chemical processes in such ex- plosions as occur in the gas-engine by a very complete study made by Dr. Watson of the thermal and combustion efficiency in a petrol motor.” 1 In later experiments on the compression and expansion of air in an ‘ R’ engine, with a very large flow of water through the jacket, Clerk finds that the heat-flow on compression and expansion becomes nearly proportional to relative temperatures. This appears in Clerk’s view to support the hypothesis of an adherent film which in some conditions of experiments accumulates heat and rises in temperature. 2 Proc. Inst. Auto. Hng., May 1909. ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 255 Such a motor on account of its high speed is well suited for the investiga- tion of this question; in some of Dr. Watson’s experiments as little as 3p Of a second elapsed between the ignition of the mixture of petrol and air and the discharge of exhaust gases. The most important part of Watson’s work from the point of view of the Committee is the simul- taneous measurement which he has made of the quantities of air and of petrol taken into the engine and of the chemical composition of the exhaust gases. Several observers have found that even when the combustion in the petrol engine is apparently perfect, there being some excess of oxygen and no carbon monoxide or hydrogen in the exhaust, the ratio of hydro- gen to carbon in the exhaust gases is considerably greater than in the petrol used, showing that even in this case there must be some in- complete combustion.’ The very complete set of analyses taken by Dr. Watson, of which he was good enough to give full particulars to the Committee in Note No. 7, before his paper was published, bear out this observation, and show that the discrepancy between the composition of the exhaust gases determined in this way and that of the petrol is not due to errors of experiment. Some evidence as to the cause of the discrepancy is furnished by some experiments of Hopkinson, who found that by exploding the residue of the exhaust, after absorbing CO and H, with electrolytic gas a considerable further yield of Co:, amounting to nearly 5 per cent., was obtained. Hopkinson also found that the residual combustible gas re- vealed in this way was soluble in water, which points to the possibility that it may be an aldehyde or possibly acetylene. It is known that in the combustion of hydrocarbons, such as petrol, with insufficient oxygen, considerable quantities of aldehyde are formed, but so far as the Committee are aware the question has not been fully investigated where sufficient oxygen is present to burn the petrol. It is at least possible that the effect may be due to deficient vaporisation or incomplete mixture in the combustion as it occurs in the petrol motor, and that it would not happen if the petrol were completely converted into vapour, _ and that vapour sufficiently intimately mixed with the air before combus- tion took place. Prof. Bone, however, considers that the combustion of a hydrocarbon with insufficient oxygen is not different as to chemical actions from combustion with excess oxygen, and he dissents from the view that the effect observed may be due to deficient vaporisation or in- complete mixture. The question is one well worthy of the attention of those chemists who are engaged in the study of the combustion of hydrocarbons. Whatever the explanation, the practical result esta- blished by these experiments of Watson and Hopkinson is that the petrol is rarely, if ever, completely burnt in a motor fed by the ordinary types _ of carburettor, even when there is apparently a considerable excess of oxygen. Neither Waison’s nor Hopkinson’s experiments, which are in full agreement with one another, suggest that the incomplete combustion occurring in the petrol motor is conditioned in any way by the speed of revolution. It is probable, therefore, that it is not incomplete combus- tion of the kind contemplated by the Committee and referred to in their * Hopkinson, Engineering, August 9, 1907; Clerk, Proc. Inst. Auto. Enq., December 1907; Hopkinson, Proc. Inst. Auto. Eng., February 1909. 956 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. first Report, such as may be caused by the action of the cold walls of an explosion vessel in which a truly homogeneous mixture is exploded.* Some light is thrown on this question by some experiments made by Dugald Clerk during the year under review, who has exploded mixtures = EXPLOSION APPARATUS WITH AUTOMATIC_EXHAUST. MTG. £6 ON a | Ia) ji << FIG.S. , a of coal-gas and air in an apparatus (shown in Fig. 3) consisting of a cylinder containing a piston A, which piston could overrun a port B at 1 Prof. Bone writes :,‘I am not in the least surprised that Dr. Wateon has obtained evidence of some disappearance of carbon (as a soluble product) in his : ii ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 957 the eiid of the stroke. The cylinder was charged with 4 mixture of gas and air, the piston being placed so that the port was closed, and sufficient time was allowed for complete diffusion to take place. The mixture, which was at atmospheric pressure and temperature, was then fired, the pressure generated forced out the piston, which opened the port at a period yarying from 0:11 to 0°23 second from the moment of ex- plosion, thus liberating the gases. The gases escaped through the port and through a passage packed with cold wire gauze C by way of a small slide-valve D into a collapsed gas-bag E. The gauze checked any chemical action going on in the gases, which were subsequently removed from the bag into which they had been exhausted and analysed. In each of eight experiments, three of which were made with a mixture of 1 volume of coal gas to 7 of air, and five with a 1 in 10 mixture, a certain proportion of unburnt fuel was found in the exhaust. The quantity of carbon ranged from 2 to 4°3 per cent. by volume and the quantity of hydrogen from 0°8 to 3°7 per cent. by volume. These ex- periments seem to prove that from some cause combustion continues even in the explosion of a strong mixture for some little time after the attainment of maximum pressure. In the petrol motor as ordinarily used the air is insufficient to burn the petrol completely. Under these conditions the efficiency of the engine, reckoned on the actual consumption of petrol, is of course much reduced, since the exhaust contains CO and other substances of consider- able heating value. Hopkinson and Morse, however, pointed out two years ago’ that if the efficiency were calculated on the heating value of the chemical changes which actually took place in the engine, it remained nearly constant over a wide range of mixture strength, as was to be expected from theory. The effect of mixture strength on the efficiency of a petrol motor has been exhaustively investigated by Watson during the past year. Some of his results are given in the following table :— Indicated Thermal Efficiency calculated on Air : 3 F atchl by calorie Nene aoe ; P : ' correspondin ercentage o pufent Whole Calorific | “the Chemical Heat of Fuel ue Changes which liberated actually take place 14 248 | 251 99 13 235 . 264 89 12 220 278 79 11 204 287 71 10 185 289 64 Fig. 4 gives curves showing change of thermal efficiency with ratio of air and petrol by weight, beginning with a mixture having so little experiments ; indeed, I should have been rather surprised if he had not obtained such evidence. Some years ago, working on the combustion of dense hydrocarbons in a Diesel engine, I found a considerable ‘‘ disappearance’ of both carbon and hydrogen, which was at once explained when the water condensed from the exhaust gases was found to give very strong aldehydic reaction.’ * Engineering, August 9, 1907. 1909. . 8 258 _ REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. petrol as 1 part by weight to 19 parts by weight of air up to 1 part petrol tq 10 parts air. : The efficiency rises from A to B and falls from B'to D. The line C to E starting from the point C on BD gives the efficiencies calculated on the basis of the heat liberated during the chemical changes which. actually occur. The efficiency rises from point A to point B, the lower efficiency at point A being due to slow inflammation of the mixture for the speed of the engine, so that burning is continued after the constant volume phase is passed. B is the point of maximum efficiency, but it does not appear to be the point of maximum chemical combination ; the most complete chemical combination is found at the point C. The fall of efficiency is doubtless due to the continually increasing flame tempera- ture between B and C, that is between a mixture of 1 part by weight of petrol to 17°3 parts of air and 1 part of petrol to 14 parts of air. The increasing flame temperature with the richer mixture increases the heat THERMAL EFFICIENCY ™ os me be f { Be IN Reb fes a0 hae Ratio of Air to Petrol. ww, FIG.4. loss and also increases the mean specific heat of the gases over the range of the temperature used, and so efficiency is diminished from both causes. From C to D the petrol is in excess, and hence the flame temperature must on the whole be falling. At the point D a very large quantity, however, of the fuel is being discharged incompletely burned, as only 64 per cent. of the heat of the fuel is liberated. Calculating, however, the line CE, which is the line giving the thermal efficiency of the engine for the chemical action actually completed, it is somewhat sur- prising and interesting to find how greatly efficiency increases. With 1 of petrol to 10 of air it rises as high as 0°289. For these tests the air standard efficiency was 0.46, so that the efficiency ratio was 0°64—an extremely high efficiency for so small an engine.* 1 The portion CE of the curve is calculated by deducting from the calorific value of the petrol the heat which would be liberated if the CO, H, and CH, in the exhaust were burnt to CO, and H,O. There is some uncertainty in the result because there is undoubtedly some combustible matter in the exhaust which is not accounted for in the analyses. Moreover, in Dr. Watson's experiments the H and . ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 259 This increase in efficiency is to be ascribed mainly to the reduction of flame temperature—much as in Dugald Clerk’s super-compression experiments. A small increase is also to be expected from the increase of specific volume which occurs on explosion, and which may amount to as much as 10 per cent. volume in extreme cases. Although this volume change is insignificant compared with that occurring in ex- plosives of solids like gunpowder and cordite, yet it should strictly be included in calculations of thermal efficiency. It tends to make the efficiency of a petrol engine rather greater than that of a gas-engine, in which the compression and heat supply per cubic foot are the same. Radiation in Gaseous Explosions. The importance of radiation in its bearing upon the calculation of volumetric heats from explosion pressures was pointed out in the first Report. It is probable that the loss of heat from this cause, or at any rate that part of it which occurs during the progress of the flame, is independent of the size or surface area of the vessel, arid cannot therefore be allowed for by a comparison of vessels of different sizes. Any con- siderable amount of radiation of this character will seriously affect the values of the volumetric heat obtained by explosion experiments. Hopkinson has been investigating this question, and has made some progress during the year. He gives some of his results in Note No. 10. It will be remembered that at the meeting of the British Asso- ciation at Dublin he described the results of some experiments which he had made dealing with the effect upon explosion pressures of the nature of the surface of the vessel. He coated the inside of the explosion vessel with tinfoil, and compared the results of exploding identical mixtures, first with the tinfoil brightly polished, and, secondly, when it was covered with lamp-black. He found that the difference in maximum pressure was inappreciable, but that the rate of fall of pressure during cooling was considerably less with the bright lining than with the dark lining. This is in accordance with observations which have been made upon the effect of polishing the interior of the combustion space of a gas-engine, which has been found to result in a perceptible increase in mean pressure. During the year Hopkinson and his pupils have been carrying out further investigations on this subject. The results described in the last paragraph have been fully confirmed, and direct bolometric measurements have also been made of the radiation in an explosion. For this purpose a small portion of the surface of the explosion vessel was covered with thin copper strip, and the rise of resistance of this strip during the explosion was recorded by means of a quick period reflecting galvano- meter, a record of the pressure being taken at the same time. Com- parative experiments were made first with the strip polished as highly CH, were not directly measured, but were calculated by means of an empirical formula from the measured quantity of CO. Hopkinson and Morse worked out . the heat developed by burning the oxygen present to CO, CO,, and H,O in the proportions found in the exhaust. The result obtained is rather different from that calculated by Watson’s method, and this may account for the fact that Hop- kinson found a smaller increase in efficiency with richness of charge than did Watson, though the observations on which his calculations were based were in good agreement with Watson’s. : ; : s 260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. as possible; secondly, with it blackened over; and, thirdly, after it had been protected from direct contact with the flame by means of a plate of rock-salt fixed in front of it. It was found that the rate of rise of temperature of the blackened strip during combustion and the early stages of cooling greatly exceeded that of the polished strip, and that the difference between them was, roughly, the same as the rate of rise of temperature of the strip protected by rock-salt. It appeared that the amount of heat lost to the walls of the vessel by radiation up to the moment of maximum pressure was, with a 15-per-cent. mixture by volume of coal-gas and air giving a maximum temperature of 2150° C., of the order of 5 per cent. of the whole heat of combustion, and there was evidence that the radiation continued for some considerable time after maximum pressure, until the temperature of the gas had fallen to © 1400° C. The experiments are not yet sufficiently advanced to give a quantitative basis for the correction of volumetric heats obtained by explosion experiments, but Hopkinson considers that they establish the fact of a material amount of radiation at the moment of maximum pressure and during the first stages of cooling. Apart from their bearing on the determination of volumetric heats, these results, if fully confirmed and proved to be due to radiation and not to differences in roughness of surfaces or other secondary causes, will raise interesting questions as to the origin of the radiation and as to the state of the gas at the moment of maximum pressure. Comparing the two explosions, one with the bright lining and the other with the blackened lining, it seems to be established that the maximum pressure and the maximum temperature are the same; on the other hand, the experiment with the bolometer would seem to show that more heat has been lost in the one case than in the other; and therefore the energy of the gas enclosed in the bright lining is greater than that of the gas enclosed in the blackened lining, though the temperatures are the same. If this be the fact, there must be some want of equilibrium at this moment. ._Many chemists, including Bunsen and Professors Smithells and Dixon, have held the opinion that radiation from a gas, at any rate at temperatures such as can be obtained in an explosion, can only go on as a result of some sort of chemical or quasi-chemical action. According to this view, the want of equilibrium at the moment of maximum pressure must be due to incomplete combustion, and the continuing radiation after maximum pressure must be regarded as evidence of continued chemical action. This view as to the radiation from a gas is, however, not generally accepted, and the existence of radiation, therefore, cannot be regarded as conclusive evidence of continued combustion. If it be assumed that com- bustion is complete at the moment of maximum pressure or very shortly after it, then the want of equilibrium at this moment disclosed by the experiments must be ascribed to purely thermal causes. The most obvious explanation in such a case would be that the translation and vibrational energies of the molecules have not attained their equilibrium proportion. Since the temperatures in the two explosions with bright and blackened linings are the same, the translational energies, which alone determine temperatures, must also be the same. It is conceivable, however, that the energy represented by rotation or vibration of the molecules may be greater in one case than in the other, ON GASHOUS EXPLOSIONS. 961 The Measurement of Temperature. (1) Dissociation.—In the first Report the importance of dissociation in connection with the gas scale of temperatures, which is the only scale at present available for explosion and gas-engine experiments, was pointed out, and a hope was expressed that an investigation of dissocia- tion from this point of view might be undertaken by the National Physical Laboratory. The Committee are glad to be able to report that Dr. Glazebrook has given his sanction to such an investigation, which is now being carried on under the immediate superintendence of Dr. Harker, and that Dr. Glazebrook has shown his personal interest in this and the other matters engaging the attention of the Committee by joining them as a member. The main object of the high temperature research work which is now in progress at the National Physical Laboratory is to obtain direct gas thermometer measurements up to 1700° C. or 18009 C., and it is to this object that Dr. Harker’s efforts are being directed. On this inquiry the question as to the amount of dissociation present in the measuring gas has an important bearing, and may properly be included in high temperature research. In order to have the facts in a form for discussion, Dr. Harker prepared a Note on the early work of dissociation, particularly the experiments of Grove and of Deville. This Note, No. 9, in view of its historical interest and its bearing on their work, the Committee have printed in full as Appendix B. In view of the discrepancy which is apparent from the account given in this Appendix between the statements of Deville, on the one hand, and the recent work by Nernst and Wartenberg (which has been con- firmed by Holt on the other, as to the actual amount of dissociation in steam, CO and CO., particularly at low temperatures, it seemed of interest to ascertain if light might not be thrown on the question by a simple repetition of one or two of Deville’s fundamental experiments. Apparatus for this purpose has therefore been set up at the National Physical Laboratory, and was shown to the Committee on the occasion of their recent meeting at the Laboratory by invitation of Dr. Glaze- brook. The methods and apparatus for the purification and heat treat- ment of the materials used in the preparation of very refractory vessels were also explained. Sir William Preece was especially impressed with the necessity of repeating this early work, and accordingly the Committee welcome the installation of Deville’s experiments under modern conditions and with modern appliances for the accurate measurement of temperature which were unavailable in Deville’s time.? (2) Measurement of Pressure.—It was pointed out in the first Report that the determination of the energy function depended upon the measurement of the temperature of the gas experimented with, and that two methods had been used. According to one method, the gases them- selves which are within the engine cylinder or the explosion vessel are utilised as the thermometric fluid, and according to the other method the * Phil. Mag., May 1909. 2 Professors Smithells and Bone doubt the relevance of experiments according to Deville’s methods to the question of flame temperature, although they welcome the proposed experiments from the purely scientific point of view. 262, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. gas temperatures have been measured by a thermo-couple or a platinum resistance thermometer. The first method of measurement by pressure changes necessitates the use of accurate indicators. In gaseous explo- sions, pressures and temperatures before ignition are comparatively easily determined, but pressures after ignition are often difficult of deter- mination for purely mechanical reasons. The Committee are of opinion that for accurate work in gaseous explosions optical indicators offer marked advantages, and they recommend that in all investigations de- pending upon the use of such indicators the oscillation period of the indicator should be given. In the piston indicators used by Clerk and Hopkinson this period is very easily determined. Fig. 5 is a photo- graphic reproduction of an optical diagram taken by the Clerk indicator to determine the period of the instrument used for the experiments de- scribed in Note No. 11. Such diagrams are taken by causing the piston to strike against a stop before maximum pressure is reached. On the return of the piston alter maximum compression or explosion it will be found that the expansion line shows an oscillation. rom this oscilla- tion the period of the indicator can be readily obtained. In this indi- cator the oscillation period is 1-216th of a second. With a light spring diagram shown in Fig. 6 the period is 1-108th of a second—double the period of the other. To make certain that the indicator registered the maximum pressure correctly, the piston was held up by a movable stop, so that the spring was compressed to within a few pounds of the maxi- mum pressure. ‘The first compression line is, therefore, omitted from a diagram produced in this way until nearing the maximum compres- sion. The piston is then lifted from its stop whenever the pressure exceeds that put upon the spring by the stop, and the maximum pressure is indicated, avoiding the momentum effect which causes the piston to tend to overrun its true pressure. ‘This is clearly shown in Fig. 7. A number of diagrams taken proved that the maximum pressure obtained with the stop in and the stop out was the same. Oscillation period experiments and experiments with a stop are recommended to determine the accuracy and sensitiveness of piston- operated indicators. Careful comparisons made by Professor Burstall and Professor Hopkinson of the Hopkinson optical indicator and a specially selected Crosby mechanical indicator proved that the mechanical indicator gave maximum pressures differing considerably from the optical indicator, except when the ignition was very slow, though the mean pressure was nearly the same. Fig. 8 shows a comparison of the two indicators which will be readily followed. Experiments made by Clerk with another mechanical indicator compared with a Clerk optical instrument showed deviations exceeding 5 per cent. in maximum pressures. As showing the importance of temperature measurement in gaseous explosions, the Committee would refer to diagrams obtained by Callendar and Dalby, described in Dalby’s Note No. 12. These diagrams showed a maximum temperature of 2500° C. of the gas and air mixture in a gas-engine cylinder—a temperature about 300° C. higher than any temperature obtained by ignition from atmospheric pressure. Pro- fessor Dalby is continuing his investigations, and many interesting points can be determined by his method of experimenting. The question -of » See Proc. Inst.M.H., July 1909. British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg, 1909.] [Puate VI. ae co fad 1 ZIG SEC. SCALE PERIop Oscittation Illustrating the Second Report on Gaseous Explosions. British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg, 1909.| |Puate VII. g x oa a) Lot i 3 ell 1 10g SEC. ScALe ‘ Oscittation PeKioo Illustrating the Second Report on Gaseous Explosions. British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg, 1909.] [Puate VIII. is ire) ty Z eer a9) ae es ier 6 oe vu WwW c aoe ir Sok O50 ee eee eee ee KU We See rg oe a7 eg op) oe fae Illustrating the Second Iteport on Gaseous Explosions. ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 263 dissociation is directly affected by the possibility of getting temperatures of 2500° C. with any gas and air mixture whatever. 400 Hopkinson Crosby. * 300 ¥ Gompar ison between HGPKINSON and Crossy 200 Indicators November 5" \908. 150: 100 50 Hopkinson ° The Dublin grant has been carefully expended. The Committee consider that their continued work will prove useful, and they therefore recommend that they be reappointed, and ask for a further grant of 1001, 264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. APPENDIX A. REGNAULT’s CORRECTIONS. Some explanation of Regnault’s methods is necessary in order to make the following extract clear to those who are not familiar with his paper. The air was passed in a continuous stream through a pipe in a bath of heated oil and took the temperature of the oil. It then traversed a short pipe into a calorimeter, and in its passage through the calorimeter it took the temperature of the water therein. The rate of rise of tem- perature of the water in the calorimeter was observed over an interval varying in different experiments from five to forty minutes. It was assumed that the heat lost by the calorimeter to its surroundings and by conduction along the connecting pipe was such as to lower its tempera- ture at the rate A@ where: A§=A(0—t)+K. is the temperature of the calorimeter, ¢ that of the surrounding air, and A and K are constants independent of the rate of flow of air. The constant K represents the rate of flow of heat along the connecting pipe. A and K were determined by two observations of the change of tempera- ture in the calorimeter which took place when the air current was stopped during two periods of ten minutes which immediately preceded’ and followed the experiment with air flowing. The correction A@ to be applied at each instant during the experi- ment to the observed rate of rise in 6 was then calculated from the observed values of 6 and t. Regnault tested the correctness of the above assumption by making a series of determinations of the specific heat of air with currents of different velocity. He found that the apparent specific heat was practi- cally constant over a wide range, extending from 10 grammes per minute to 30 grammes per minute. If the rate of flow were outside this range the apparent specific heat was less. In the case of the slower currents this was doubtless due to an error in the correction. The faster currents gave wrong values because the air had not time to take up the temperature of the oil-bath and of the calorimeter respectively. There is a good illustration of Regnault’s apparatus in Haber’s ‘Thermodynamics of Technical Gas Reactions,’ p. 212. Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences de l'Institut Impérial de France, tome xxvi., p. 83. On peut conclure de ces expériences que la formule Ad=A(O—t) + K dont les constantes ont été calculées, pour chaque expérience, d’aprés les éléments observés pendant la premiére et la derniére période, peut étre employée, avec toute confiance, pour calculer les effets produits par les causes perturbatrices pendant le temps ot le courant gazeux traverse l’appareil. I] est nécessaire, néanmoins, de faire sous ce rapport une réserve, car il se présente ici une cause d’incertitude que j’ai vaine- ment cherché 4 éliminer, et dont je n’ai pas réussi 4 calculer les effets avec précision. Pendant la premiére et Ja derniére période de Vexpérience, on observe les variations de température sous l’influence ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 265 du milieu ambiant et de la chaleur qui lui arrive par conductibilité, suivant l’ajutage qui le relie au bain d’huile. La premiére de ces causes agit d’une maniére parfaitement semblable lorsque l’appareil est par- couru par le courant gazeux; mais il n’en est pas de méme de la seconde. En effet, quand le gaz ne passe pas dans le calorimétre, l'une des ex- trémités de l’ajutage est 4 la température du bain d’huile, tandis que la température de la seconde extrén.ité doit se rapprocher de celle du calorimétre ; le flux calorifique a lieu par suite de cette différence de température. Quand le gaz traverse l’appareil toute la petite tubulure en cuivre de l’ajutage est 4 la température du gaz entrant, c’est-a-dire 4 la température du bain d’huile, et l’excés de la quantité de chaleur qu’elle posséde 4 un moment quelconque, relativement au premier cas, lui est nécessairement fourni par le courant gazeux, qui doit subir, par ce fait, un léger abaissement de température. On ne peut donc pas admettre que la valeur de K soit la méme dans les deux cas. Lorsque le courant gazeux est rapide, la perte de chaleur que le gaz subit par cette cause doit étre extrémement petite, car le gaz n’a 4 fournir que la déperdition de chaleur que la tubulure éprouye 4 travers le petit bouchon, qui est trés mauvais conducteur de ja chaleur. Mais quand le courant gazeux est lent, cette perte n’est probablement pas négligeable, et c’est & cette cause qu’il faut attribuer en grande partie, la différence que l'on observe entre les valeurs de la chaleur spécifique, suivant qu’on la détermine avec un courant gazeux rapide ou avec un courant lent. Il est certain que cette cause doit rendre la chaleur spécifique trop faible; mais je n’ai trouvé aucun moyen qui permet d’évaluer, méme approximativement, l’importance de cette erreur. La disposition que j'ai donnée & l’ajutage avait pour effet de la rendre aussi petite que possible, et je pense que l’on peut conclure que entre les limites de vitesse du courant gazeux que j’ai employées dans les expériences dé- finitives, l’erreur est complétement négligeable; car, autrement, la valeur de la chaleur spécifique d’un méme gaz ne resterait pas sensible- ment constante quand on fait varier considérablement sa vitesse d’écoule- ment, en restant toutefois entre les limites indiquées. APPENDIX B. Deville’s Experiments on the Dissociation of Gases. By Dr. J. A. Harker. Introduction.—The importance of the réle of gaseous dissociation in the phenomena which it is the business of the Committee to study led me to look up the original papers on the subject, particularly the work of Henri Sainte-Claire Deville. In view of the fact that there appears to be no adequate account in English of these experiments, which seem to occupy a unique position in the literature, a Note dealing with them would not seem inappropriate. Deville appears to have commenced his experiments on this subject about 1851, his first work being a repetition of the celebrated experi- ments of Grove, which formed the subject of his Bakerian Lecture in 1847. Grove discussed the theory of the decomposition of water by heat, and seems to Have had clear views as to what we now call 266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ‘ dissociation,’ though this term appears to have been first used by Deville in 1857. One of his most interesting experiments Grove describes as follows * :— ‘I was now anxious to produce a continuous development of mixed gas from water subjected to heat alone . . . and for this purpose the apparatus shown in Fig. 9 was constructed ; a and b are two silver tubes 4 inches long and 0°3 inch diameter ; they are joined by caps to a plati- num tube, c, formed of a wire one-eighth of an inch in diameter, drilled throughout its length with a drill the size of a large pin; a is closed at Deville’s Apparatus. for Diffusion Experiment. A PP PP PP IPP PPP PP PA PLP IPP A SL PP ez | rz IT SE TE PE A DP A PLP AL PFS \ Outer glazed porcelain lube. \ 1 Fig. 9 Groves A ppara lus the extremity, and to b is fitted . . . the bent glass tube d. The whole is filled with prepared water, and having expelled the air from a by heat, the extremity of the glass tube is placed in a capsule of simmering water. Heat is now applied by a spirit lamp, first to b, then to a, until the whole boils; as soon as ebullition takes place, the flame of an oxy- hydrogen blowpipe is made to play upon the middle part of the platinum tube, c, and when this has reached a high point of ignition, which should be as near the fusing-point of platinum as practicable, gas is given off, which mixed with steam very soon fills the whole apparatus and bubbles up from the open extremity either into the air or into a gas collector. . . . I experienced a feeling of great gratification when, on applying a match to one of the bubbles which were ascending it gave * Phil, Trans., 1847-48, p. 12. ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 967 a sharp detonation. I collected and analysed some of ib: ib was 0°7 oxyhydrogen gas, the residue nitrogen, with a trace of oxygen.’ This experiment, and another one of Grove’s, in which the decompo- sition of water was produced by dropping molten platinum into it, seemed to have served as the starting-point of Deville’s experiments. Deville published many of his results for the first time in two lectures delivered before the Paris Chemical Society on March 18 and April 1, 1864,’ though much of his work had been done considerably earlier. The papers do not appear in the ordinary publications of the Society, but in a supplementary set of volumes of ‘ Lecons,’ which seem to be comparatively rare, neither the Royal Society’s nor the Chemical Society’s libraries possessing a copy. Deville appears to have realised the necessity for removing the dis- sociated products from further reaction, and in his experiments three methods were employed for the separation of the dissociated material from the unaltered gas, viz. :— ~ (1) By means of diffusion. (2) By admixture with an inert gas. (3) By very rapid cooling from a high temperature. Preliminary Diffusion Experiments.—Before proceeding to describe the first experiments made by the diffusion method it will be well to mention some results obtained by Deville on the flow of gases through porous walls at ordinary temperatures, as they have considerable bearing on the later experiments. . (1) If a fairly rapid current of hydrogen be passed into a tube of unglazed porous ware, and thence to a collecting vessel, it is found that instead of hydrogen practically pure air is collected. Analyses gave the following as an average composition :— Oxygen . : : 4 d ae Nitrogen . ; $ , mo Hydrogen. ; : , . (trace) Therefore hydrogen passes completely out through the walls of the tube, and air is absorbed in spite even of an excess of pressure amounting in some cases to several centimetres of mercury. Diffusion Apparatus.—Deville then proceeds to describe his cele- brated diffusion apparatus— which is shown diagrammatically, Fig. 9—which he used in so many experiments. An internal tube of unglazed biscuit—or earthenware—passes centrally through a larger and shorter tube of glazed porcelain, the ends of the latter being closed by rubber stoppers or corks. The gas to be studied is passed through the annular space between the tubes. The apparatus can be heated along its middle portion by a coke furnace to a temperature of from 1100° to 1300° C.? Hydrogen and CO: Experiments.—Employing this apparatus cold, Deville makes the following experiment: A fairly rapid current of CO, 34 Lecons sur la Dissociation professées devant la Société Chimique de Paris. 2 No data are given by which this temperature estimate can be even approxi- mately verified, but no blast appears to have been used, hence 1500° C. would bea probable maximum. ; 968 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. is led through the outer space, while a current of hydrogen is led through the inner tube in the opposite direction. It is found that hydrogen diffuses outwards so rapidly that it can be lighted at the exit of the CO, tube, while very little or none escapes from the end of the inner porous tube. ‘Thus by virtue of ‘‘ endosmose ’’ the two gases have changed places, traversing in opposite directions, the porous wall separating them. These phenomena, forming a striking and instructive lecture experiment, are in perfect agreement with the observations already made by Graham and by Jamin.’ * After this preliminary investigation of the action of his apparatus when cold, Deville proceeds to study by its means the action of heat on steam, using CO: as the inert gas. Steam being led in by the outer tube, the products collected from the inner one, after absorption of the CO:, were found to be strongly explosive. In several experiments the average amount of explosive gas collected was 1 c.c. per gram of steam passed in. (2) Dissociation of Steam.—-A porcelain tube, five or six cm. diameter, was filled with fragments of very clean porcelain previously heated to redness. A rapid current of CO. was led through a flask of water main- tained at 90° or 95° C., and thence through the porcelain tube, heated to full redness in ‘ a furnace using a blast of air.’ It is easily seen that a small quantity of steam is broken up into its elements. The gas passing out of the tube is collected over strong potash solution. After two hours 25-30 c.c. of an explosive mixture was obtained, which gave, on analysis : Sih Waa a) ete ty? ty MUG His, od ee ek. eo ee Omens elnreier re fiwicine), Siqed ee i, ewe? Wa bation o th bimini oe the speed of the gas current averaging seven or eight litres of CO. per hour. The quantities of gas obtained are only about a quarter of those got in a similar time by the first method. A blank test on the carbonic acid gas gave 1°6 c.c. of residue, instead of 25-30 c.c. Dissociation of CO».—In another paper, describing the same kind of experiment on CO; alone, the author adds some further details. He says: ‘I have proved the dissociation of water at a moderately high tempera- ture by separating it into its elements by the action of a solvent (some experiments not discussed here) or by the action of a mechanical pheromenon. I have succeeded still more easily with CO., because of the resistance to combination shown by oxygen and carbonic-oxide when they are disseminated through the mass of an inert gas. For- tunately for the rigour of my demonstration the gas may be CO. itself. I take the porcelain tube filled with porcelain fragments, as previously described. This apparatus is carried to a temperature which I estimate at 1300° C.’ An analysis of the residual gas gave: O,=30 CO=62 paverage of several samples. v= 8 + Analyses of the gases passing into the collecting vessel did not always give the same result, thus casting some suspicion on the experiment, particularly on the gas-tightness of the porcelain tube. Deville would not admit that his porce- lain was porous, but says that his joints were not all secure against small leaks of hydrogen. ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 269 If the same quantity of the original CO, is made to pass the potash solution, and the residue is collected, this measures at the end of the same lapse of time 1°4 c.c., consisting of 0.= 14, N 2= 86, which accounts for the small quantity of nitrogen in the products of dissociation of the CO. The ‘ Cold-Hot’ Tube.—In this arrangement the recombination of the dissociated gases is prevented by rapid cooling, instead of diffusion and dilution, as in the previous experiments. A thin brass tube, silvered externally, takes the place of the porous inner tube of the first appa- ratus. Through this is maintained a rapid and steady current of cold water. Experiments on CO.—A current of pure CO, made by the action of sulphuric acid on oxalic acid, is passed through the outer tube of the apparatus. The CO, in the CO is absorbed by passing through several wash-flasks of potash, then over a tube of iron, filled with red-hot iron wire, and finally more potash vessels. The exit-tube from the furnace passes to a baryta solution. As soon as the tube becomes red-hot, CO, is shown in the issuing products. Carbon deposits on the under side of the silver tube as soot. Modified ‘ Cold-Hot’ Tube.—The same arrangement as just de- scribed was modified by boring a hole about 0°2 mm. in diameter through the metal tube, and attaching to the outlet for the water a long glass tube bent vertically downwards. This acts like the old form of Bunsen pump, causing some gas to be drawn inwards at the hole, and to pass on with the current of water. The lower end of the water- delivery tube is bent so as to allow the gas issuing to be collected in an eudiometer. With this apparatus Deville considers he showed CO: to be ‘ strongly dissociated at 1200° C.’ Sparking Experiments.—This is confirmed by a sparking experi- ment. If CO. confined over mercury in an eudiometer be sparked vigorously in presence of phosphorus, all the oxygen is absorbed as fast as pro- duced, and the dissociation is complete. Consideration of the papers, of which the above is an abstract, and also others not dealt with, has led me to believe that Deville may be more right as regards the magnitude of the dissociation produced in steam and CO: by heat than recent writers on the subject would lead us to suppose. Each experiment considered alone would not be unimpeach- able, but although there appear to be many pitfalls and possibilities for secondary effects to interfere with the reactions studied, yet the evidence seems so strong that it is hardly possible to discredit it. If this be the case, further work on the lines indicated by Grove and Deville, accom- panied by proper temperature measurements, would seem very desirable. For a repetition of the first experiment an external ‘ guard-tube,’ coming outside the glazed porcelain tube and conveying a stream of the gas to be studied, would be an obvious improvement. This would enable the effect of small leaks in the porcelain tube to be minimised. The glaze of the best Berlin tubes softens and is distinctly ‘tacky’ at 1150° C., while after long exposure to 1200° C. the glaze sinks in and perishes. Silica tubes begin to sag, when unsupported in the hot parts, 270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, at about 1240° C., and could not be used for hydrogen at any tempera- ture above a dull-red heat, so that until gas-tight tubes of some more refractory material are available, there does not seem much probability of being able to repeat the experiments at higher ranges. In view of the fact that Crafts states that the dissociation of CO. is still inappreciable at 1500° C.,1 a statement confirmed by the more recent work of Nernst and Wartenburg, a careful repetition of Deville’s experi- ments is very necessary. If some such amount as 1/400th of the whole gas is proved to be dissociated at temperatures of the order of 1200° C. (and it is to be remembered that the amount found by all these methods is necessarily a minimum limit), then at gas-engine temperatures it is probable that the total dissociation is much larger, and hence the rise in the apparent specific heat of the gas might be quite appreciable. The dissociation of carbon monoxide seems proved beyond doubt at Deville’s temperatures. He says it is detectable at the melting-point of glass, and is marked at the melting-point of silver, as proved by the inverse reaction of passing CO. over carbon at that temperature. This is undoubtedly of great importance, if true; perhaps some of the chemists on the Committee can give us further information. The Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyd Dawkins (Secretary), Pro- fessor W. Ripceway, and Messrs. AntHUR J. Evans, C. H. Reap, H. Baurour, and A. BULLEID, appointed to investigate the Lake Villages ‘in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society. Tue Committee have to report that owing to the amount of work thrown on the hands of Messrs. Bulleid and St. George Gray in compiling and arranging the details of the monograph on Glastonbury Lake Village, it was found inexpedient to resume excavations this summer on the new site at Meare. The expenses incurred in the preliminary excavations carried on at Meare last summer have already been paid by Mr. Bulleid, and, consequently, no part of the 51. grant made by the Association has been expended. The Committee have therefore to recommend that this grant be renewed, together with at least 301. in addition. With a sum of 35]. assured, and the number of private contributions already announced, the Committee hope to make considerable progress in excavating the Meare Lake Village during the summer of 1910. Judging from the discoveries already made and recorded (Tenth Report, Dublin Volume, p. 414), this new lacustrine site promises to be richer in archeological remains than even Glastonbury. * T have not been able to find the original paper dealing with this. It is pro- bably in one of his papers on the gas-thermometer. The fact is quoted from Mallard and Le Chatelier’s papers in the Annales des Mines: ‘Recherches sur la combustion des Mélanges gazeux explosifs,’ p. 275, ; : ; a ae “Sr ae” Se — EXCAVATIONS ‘ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 271 Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor J. LL. Myres (Chairman), Pro- fessor R. C. Bosanquet (Secretary), Sir EDWARD BRABROOK, Dr. T. AsHsy, Mr. D. G. Hocarts, and Professors W. RIDGE- way and W. Boyp Dawkins, appointed to co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain. Tue Committee report that in the course of recent excavations, con- ducted jointly by the Chester Archeological Society and the Liverpool Committee for Excavation and Research in Wales and the Marches, on the site of a newly discovered section of the Roman Wall at Chester, a paleolithic implement was discovered in made earth near the base of the wall. Such a discovery is of the highest interest, in view of the fact that paleeolithic implements are not usually found in Great Britain so far to the north-west. It has appeared, therefore, to be of importance to ascertain more exactly the character of the deposit in which this implement was found, and the Committee’s grant of 51. has been placed at the disposal of Dr. Robert Newstead, of the Chester Museum, for this purpose. Dr. Newstead’s report has not yet been received. The Committee ask to be reappointed with a further ea The Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), -Lord AvreBurRy, Professor W. Ripceway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor Boyp DAWKINS, ‘and Mr. A. Li. Lewis, appointed to conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) In planning the arrangements for further excavations at Avebury Stone Circle, in continuance of the work done last year, the Committee were of opinion that the most satisfactory results were likely to be obtained from renewed examination of the silting in the fosse, particularly the lowest layers occupying the original bottom of the huge trench. It was also considered desirable, as a minor operation, to explore the ground at the base of one or more of the prostrate stones of the circle, » with a view to examining the original sockets in which the stones stood when erect. Instructions were accordingly given to Mr. H. Gray, whose services were again secured, to concentrate attention upon these two main objects. The details of the excavations, and the results ob- tained, are given in the appended report by Mr. Gray, and the Com- mittee have every reason to feel satisfied with the manner in which the work has been carried out, and the care with which the exact position of all ‘ finds ’ has been determined and recorded. To expose even a small area of the original bottom of the fosse is of necessity a work involving great labour, owing to the enormous amount of silting which must be moved; and in view of the smallness of the available grant, it was necessary to invite subscriptions from 972 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. other sources. The response made to the appeal for funds has been gratifying, substantial assistance having been forthcoming from societies and from private individuals. A list of donations appears in the accounts for the year, and the Committee take this opportunity for thanking those who have contributed so generously; without their assistance, work on any substantial scale would have been impossible. The Rev. E. H. Goddard very kindly undertook to collect subscriptions from members of the Wilts Archgological Society. The thanks of the Committee are also due to Lord Avebury and to Captain Jenner for permission to conduct excavations on their property; also to the Rev. T. G. Ward, Vicar of Avebury, for assistance in securing labourers. The Committee wish also to acknowledge gratefully the courtesy with which the Somersetshire Archeological Society made it possible for Mr. Gray to have leave of absence from Taunton during the period oi the excavations. The main result achieved from the deep cuttings in the fosse is a confirmation of the opinion arrived at last year as to the probable date of the monument. Additional positive evidence has been obtained from the objects discovered in the lowest layers of silting, and on the original bottom of the ditch. These in all cases are objects such as are characteristic of the Neolithic period, and although it would be hazard- ous to state definitely that they must be of Neolithic date and cannot belong to the Bronze Age, the negative evidence, afforded by a total absence of copper or bronze, and of objects which are certainly of Bronze Age, affords powerful confirmation of the probability of the earlier date being the right one. A transverse section of the fosse close to the modern road was expected to reveal the sloping sides of the causeway presumed to exist, connecting Kennet Avenue with the interior of the monument, since at first sight it seemed likely that the road would have followed the line of the causeway. No trace of the latter, however, appeared in this section, and as it was of considerable interest to ascertain whether or not such a causeway had existed, ex- ploring trenches were cut on the opposite side of the road, and the causeway was discovered to the east of the present roadway. This locating of the original line of approach to the interior of the huge circle is a most interesting result of this year’s excavations. Sectional and other plans of all the parts excavated have been pre- pared with very great care, and a large number of excellent photographs are now available. The grant from the Association having been expended together with most of the money raised by subscriptions, it becomes necessary to apply for a fresh grant to carry on the work. The Committee ask to be reappointed and apply for a grant of 75/., and also for leave to invite subscriptions in order to make up a sum sufficient for carrying out effective exploration. The huge scale of the earthwork renders its investigation comparatively costly and laborious, as the mass of silting in the fosse is very great. It is very desirable to continue the work next spring, in order that making good the already disturbed ground and conducting fresh exploration may proceed together. The ad- vantage, moreover, of being able to secure men who have already worked under Mr. Gray’s supervision is obvious, and some of those employed in this year’s excavations would no doubt be available next year; continuity in their employment would undoubtedly save much SE ae a ae os ON THE AGE Of STONE CIRCLES. 973 trotible in training them to the work. ‘lhe thorough invéstigation of this splendid monument is of the greatest importance, and it is to be hoped that adequate funds may be available. The Avebury Excavations, 1909. By H. Si. Gzorar Grav. I. Introductory Remarks. In the report of the excavations, 1908 (Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1908, pp. 401-413), an epitome was given of the existing archeological litera- ture on Avebury, having reference to its stone circles, surrounding earth- works, and ancient remains in the immediate neighbourhood; and a summary representation of the opinions and observations of several authorities on Avebury, including Aubrey, Stukeley, Hoare, Crocker, W. C. Lukis, Fergusson, and the Revs. A. C. Smith and Bryan King, was also placed on brief record. In another section a condensed account was given dealing with previous and less extensive excavations which had been conducted in various parts of ‘ the Temple ’ between 1865 and 1894; none of these, however, produced any definite evidence of date, for the reason, mainly, that scientific method in archeological field- work had not then attained to the standard aimed at in the present century. Having dealt with Avebury under these headings in the previous report, the present account will be almost confined to the excavations conducted from Monday, April 26, to Monday, May 17, the filling-in, completed this year, continuing till May 20. A maximum number of sixteen men was employed this season, eleven being engaged in 1908. The weather was highly favourable during the three weeks, only four hours being lost owing to rain. Last year we were much hindered by falls of silting from the almost vertical sides cut as the digging penetrated into the lower levels of the great fosse. But, having grown wiser, we left a considerable batter to the faces of the silting this season, at the expense, however, of uncovering a relatively shorter length of bottom of the fosse. A number of sectional diagrams were made as the work proceeded, in which the various soils were indicated, and the exact position of every object of importance found during the exploration was projected into these sections, notes being made relating to each numbered ‘find.’ Eleven sectional drawings and plans were made, and a scale map of the whole area excavated in 1908 and 1909. An average section of the southern fosse having been given in the Report of 1908, it will be unnecessary to publish another on the present occasion, the previous one being fairly representative of the other sections made for the sake of careful record and precision. Twenty-two satisfactory photographs (half-plate) were taken during the season and sixteen last year, some showing the progress in the excavations from time to time as new features presented themselves, others being interesting views of various parts of ‘ the Temple’ taken under favourable conditions of light. The excavations were visited by some of the members of the British Association Stone Circles Committee, by Fellows of the Society of Anti- * The foreman on this occasion (J. Lush) had previously done deep digging in the chalk at the Maumbury Rings excavations at Dorchester last year, 1909. T 974. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. quaries, and by members of the Wilts Archeological Society, and Marl- borough College Natural History Society. Most of the excavations have now been filled in, but Cutting IT Grouch the fosse has been left open for the inspection of visitors during the summer, Il. Geological Note. Avebury is on the Middle Chalk, but Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne, F.G.§8., informs us that the area has not yet been accurately mapped, and it is uncertain whether the site stands on the Terebratulina gracilis zone or that of Rhynchonella Cuvieri. Of the fossils from the Avebury fosse, 1909, all are Inoceramus mytiloides except two, which are Rhyn. Cuvieri. Mr. Browne also reports that ‘ the evident abundance of Inoc. mytiloides is greatly in favour of the zone of Rhyn. Cuvieri; they are seldom abundant in that of Terebratulina, which always consists of fairly soft white chalk, while that of Rhyn. Cuvieri is harder, more nodular, and often yellowish.’ Iron pyrites were commonly found in the fosse cuttings. III. Excavations into the Fosse. (a) Cutting I.—Rather more than three-quarters of the silting from this cutting was re-excavated last year. It was 24 feet long, all the upper deposits down to the top of the Roman stratum being removed in 1908, and a length of 17 feet cleared at the bottom (B.A. Report, 1908, pp. 408-410. It remained, therefore, to uncover 7 feet on the FE. margin this year. Roman pottery was found at depths of 5-7 and G feet respectively, and a human clavicle, depth 8°5 feet). The mixed silting was reached at a depth along the E. margin of 9°1 feet (the depth on the W. margin being 8°7 feet).. After having penetrated the chalk rubble to a depth of 12 feet from the surface a large fall of several tons of material from the E. face had to be contended with, and, although the labour entailed thereby was considerable, the final results were satisfactory. Eventually the bottom along this margin was reached at a depth of 17°8 feet from the surface of the sitting, and we were rewarded by finding, in all cases on the floor, four antler picks (Nos. 131, 133, 185 and 136), which are described below. Cutting I produced in all (1908-09) parts of ten picks of red-deer antler and a shovel of shoulder-blade bone—implements which had been used in the original excavation of this huge fosse. But the most interesting discovery on the floor was the chipped: flint knife, a piece of flint full of sponge-spicules which appears to have - been slightly scorched but never burnt red-hot, and a piece of charcoal. The knife, described below, is not only of characteristic Neolithic type, but most probably of Neolithic date. It is of a kind frequently found on the site of an ancient factory of flint implements on Windmill Hill, about a mile to the N.W. of Avebury. The following objects were found in Cutting I in 1909 :— 109. Fragment of thin grey Roman pottery. Depth, 6 feet. 116. Handle of a vessel of grey pottery, painted brick-red; Roman. Depth, 5°7 feet. 113. Greater part of a inte clavicle. Depth, 8°5 feet at the bottom of the fine mixed silting, or ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. YH 111. Well struck narrow flint flake. Depth, 7 feet. 132. Chipped flint knife of ovoid form, with a deep white patination; length, 89 millimetres; maximum width, 44 millimetres; the point appears to have been broken off. One face is quite roughly chipped; the other presents a smooth surface, although there are no indications of polishing; the cutting-edge on this face is finely worked. It was found resting on the bottom of the fosse at a depth of 17°8 feet below the surface of the silting, 8.E. part of the cutting. Close to it, also on the floor, were found the antler pick (No. 135), a piece of scorched flint, and a piece of charcoal. 131. Small shed antler with brow- and bez-tines broken. The more perfect parts show no signs of wear, and it is uncertain if this specimen was ever used as a pick; the head shows no signs of hammering. Depth, 17°8 feet on the bottom. 133. Fine antler of slain deer, which has evidently been used as a pick; the bez-tine remains only as a short stump, but both the brow- and the trez- tine show considerable evidence of use, the former having a smooth rounded point, the finely developed trez-tine not being worn down, but the tip is extremely smooth. The grip of the handle is also smooth, as in No. 90 found last year. The tool was also used for hammering on the side opposite to the brow-tine. Depth, 17-8 feet on the bottom. 135. Pick, the shed antler being now missing beyond and including the trez-tine. The brow-tine is complete, showing signs of wear at the rounded point ; the bez-tine has been intentionally removed; the back of the burr bears indications of hammering. Found on the bottom of the fosse. 136. Pick (present length, 204 inches) bearing considerable indications of prolonged use, the brow-tine being worn down to a length of 3 inches. The bez- and trez-tines remain only as stumps. The antler was shed. It is interesting from the fact that the base for a length of 4 inches from the burr is battered by hammering-to a very considerable extent, and un- doubtedly this tool had proved to be a most serviceable one. (b) Cutting II.—This cutting was pegged out last year also to a length of 24 feet, the W. margin being 69 feet to the FE. of the W. margin of Cutting I. Being nearer the road on higher ground, it was obvious there would be a greater amount of surface silting to remove than in Cutting I. Last year a length of 9°5 feet was dug to a depth of 5°5 feet, and in the re-excavated material were found a number of shards of Norman and medieval pottery (B.A. Report, 1908, p. 410). It was at this point that we continued operations this year. The surface silting was found to extend to an average depth of 5:8 feet in the middle. Nothing worthy of particular record was found in it: but a number of shards of medieval date and even later, together with an Irish half- penny of George III and a seventeenth-century tobacco-pipe of clay, bearing the name of ‘ Thomas Hunt’ on the heel, were collected from depths varying from 1 to 3 feet. Another tray of pottery of similar character was preserved from depths of from 2 to 4°5 feet, and other Medieval fragments were found along the E. margin of the cutting at depths between 4°5 and 5:8 feet. The upper deposits had probably been disturbed, and further inquiries led me to believe that the surface of this part of the fosse had been cultivated up to the third quarter of last century. The next deposit—mixed silting, consisting of mould with a larger proportion of small pieces of chalk—extended to an average depth of 10°3 feet in the middle. The lower 2 feet of this silting was found to be of a finer kind with a smaller admixture of chalk. Eight lots of Roman or Romano-British pottery were found in the cm T2 276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. mixed silting at depths varying from 5 feet to 8 feet, all of which are described below. One piece (No. 118) was picked up at a depth of 8°5 feet, but it may have tumbled down during the digging. Several pieces of pottery of Bronze Age type were also found in the mixed silting at depths between 8°5 and 9°5 feet and above the pure chalk rubble. This pottery was of the soft smooth hand-made cinerary-urn type con- taining few grains of quartz; one piece (No. 134) has a typical cordon or encircling ridge. This deposit also produced human remains in two places (Nos. 117 and 122) to a maximum depth of 9 feet. Flint flakes were also found, and four objects of flint, numbered 106, 110, 125, and 138 below, including a good specimen’of an oval scraper. Between the mixed silting and the chalk rubble in the middle part of the silting, tapering in both directions, a seam of crystallised chalk, almost impenetrable to the pick-axe (indeed, it broke two points), was reached; it occurred at the same level in all the cuttings made. Car- bonate of lime had consolidated the chalk and rendered it as solid as the hardest concrete to a thickness of a foot in places. The workmen con- sidered it to be the bed of an ancient watercourse! In any case, there must have been a considerable soakage of water to deposit carbonate of lime in such quantity. Owing to the curvature of the stratum in the silting, the chalk rubble on the sides of the fosse extended almost to the top; in the middle it was reached at a depth averaging 10 feet. From here to the bottom, as elsewhere, silted chalk rubble only had to be removed, with thin seams of dark mould caused by the occasional falls of turf. A piece of early British pottery was dug up at a depth of 8°7 feet near the southern margin of the fosse. No other pottery was discovered, but four pieces of worked flint (numbered) were found at depths between 6°5 feet and 9°5 feet (none in the middle depths of the fosse). The greater parts of two antler picks were found in deep positions, as described below. Six of these picks were recovered during the season. Since the Avebury Report, 1908, was written explorations at Maumbury Rings, Dorchester (which I had the charge of), revealed a Neolithic shaft, 30 feet deep, in the solid chalk below the floor of the Roman arena, in which no less than nine antler picks were found, some being in good preservation, two having the smoothed grips like some of the examples from Avebury and the Grime’s Grayves.! The Dorset County Museum contains parts of antler picks also from Jordan Hill, Fordington, Hambledon Hill, &c. Close to the bottom of Cutting I last year we found a fragmentary scapula in a shattered condition, its position, &c. (B.A. Report, 1908, p. 410), suggesting its use as a shovel of the character of those found in the Neolithic flint-workings at Cissbury, specimens from which may be seen in the British Museum and the Pitt-Rivers Museum at Oxford. A number of worked scapule, one being finely ornamented, were found in the Meare Lake Village. In the 1909 excavations at Avebury three well- defined specimens of these shovels were found in Cutting II fosse, two (Nos. 129 and 137) shoulder-blades of ox (Bos longifrons) being found on the floor of the fosse at depths of 18°5 and 18'8 feet respectively ; the other (No. 145) was a scapula probably of pig (Sus scrofa), found at a depth of 14°83 feet in the chalk rubble, having perhaps slipped down from » Proc. Dorset Field Club, xxix. 270. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 277 the valluim before it became turf-clad. The two shovels of scupule of ox measure 132 inches and 123 inches in length. In two cases (Nos. 129 and 145) the large anterior spine has been cut away, or partly removed, and from this fact and the worn appearance of the three specimens, together with the great scarcity of other animal remains except the antler picks at such a great depth, we think it more than probable that they were used as shovels in the original excavation and clearing of the fosse. The bottom of the fosse, Cutting II, was just as smooth as in Cutting I, but it narrowed slightly. In Cutting I the width at the bottom varied from 16 to 17°3 feet. In the W. half of Cutting IL it varied from 11°8 to 17 feet; in the HE. half it averaged 14°3 feet. The walls of the fosse in the lower parts (Cutting IT) became steeper and were very uneven, there being considerable projections of hard chalk, left apparently for no particular purpose. We experienced no fall from the E. face of the silting, it being sloped as the excavation proceeded to the extent of 44 feet out of the vertical. The bottom was found to rise towards the-east slightly, and along the HE. margin a ridge (height about 0°9 foot) of solid chalk crossed the fosse as shown in one of the sectional diagrams; in the middle of the ridge was a slight hollow. We could not, of course, ascertain whether this sudden slight rise continued in an easterly direction. The depth of Cutting IL from the surface of the silting on the west was 18°8 feet ; on the east 20°5 feet; the difference being accounted for from the fact that the surface rises considerably towards the road. The following numbered ‘ finds ’ were recorded in Cutting II, 1909 :— 126. Piece of base and rim of an early medieval pot, with fingermark indentations round the edge of the bottom. Depth, 3:2 fect. 101. Piece of hard grey Roman pottery, painted brick-red inside and out; thickness, 7°5 millimetres. Depth, 5 feet. 102. Fragment of thin Roman pottery, pale grey on the innev face, brick- red on the outer. Depth, 6:2 feet. 104. Part of base of a coarse brown pot; Romano-British or Late-Celtic. Depth, 8 feet. 108. Small piece of red pottery of a smooth, soft paste; Roman. Depth, 4°5 feet, near the wall of the fosse and in the chalk rubble just below the mixed silting. 114. Several fragments of a lathe-turned vessel of brown ware of a very sandy texture; Romano-British. Depth, 5°8 feet. _ 115. Three fragments of Roman vessels of different qualities. One piece is of sandy texture like No. 114; another greyish-brown ware; the third a fragment of thin grey pottery painted brick-red on both sides. Depth, 6°8 feet. 118. Piece of thin grey ware and a fragment of dark brown ware; Roman. Depth, 8°5 feet. 130. Two pieces of Romano-British dark brown ware of sandy texture like No. 114. Depth, 7 feet. 107. Small piece of soft British pottery, black on one side, red on the ae Depth, 87 feet, near the south side of the fosse, in the chalk rubble. 119. Small fragment of pottery of British type containing small grains of quartz. Depth, 9°3 feet in the mixed silting, just below the Roman deposits. 123. Four pieces of soft British pottery (the No. 2 type of Pitt-Rivers), reddish-brown in colour. One piece is ornamented with a row of three 978 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. finger-nail impressions. Another is the straight rim of a hand-made vessel ; the top of the rim is bevelled inwards; average thickness, 12 millimetres. Depth, 8°5 feet. 134. Piece of thick soft British pottery of cinerary- urn type, black on the inside, brick-red on the outer surface. This specimen is crossed on the outer face by one of the typical cordons or ridges. Depth, 9°5 feet at the bottom of the mixed silting. 117. Part of a human" femur and three-quarters of a humerus (least circumference, 59 millimetres). Depth, 9 feet in the mixed silting. 122. Part of a human femur and radius. Depth, 7:9 feet in the mixed silting. 105. Small flint scraper of long, narrow form, which from its position in the chalk rubble near the edge of the fosse might perhaps be of Neolithic date. Depth, 7°8 feet. 106. Pointed implement of flint with thick white patination, having, slight traces of secondary chipping; length, 66 millimetres. Depth, 7 feet in the Bronze Age stratum of the mixed silting. 110. Flint knife worked along one edge; length, 30 millimetres. Depth, 5:3 feet in the mixed silting. 112. Worked flint flake, with prominent bulb of percussion. Depth, 6°5 feet near the margin of the fosse. 120. Flaked flint knife of ovoid shape; length, 40°5 millimetres. Depth, 9°5 feet in the chalk rubble. Bronze Age or Neolithic. 125. Flint scraper of bluish-brown flint, showing part of the crust, with bevelled edge. Depth, 6°8 feet in Bronze Age stratum. 138. Oval flint scraper, 46 by 38 millimetres, with deep bevelled edge. Depth, 9°5 feet in the Bronze Age stratum. 146. Flint core (? sling-stone). Depth, 9°5 feet. 124. Pick of antler, worn out from prolonged use, very little now remaining of the brow-tine. The bez- and trez-tines exist as stumps. - The pick shows signs of having been used for hammering in the usual position. he smooth grip remains in a damaged condition. The antler is a shed one with a heavy straight beam. Depth, 18°8 feet, on the bottom of the fosse. 128. The greater part of the beam of an antler pick, the base deficient, the trez-tine remaining as a stump. Signs of hammering in the usual position. Depth, 16°5 feet in the chalk rubble, near the bottom. 129, 137, and 145. Bone shovels, previously described fully. (c) Flint Flakes.—These were numerous from Cuttings I, II, and II], and many of them were fine examples, with well-defined bulbs of percussion. The following were collected in 1908 and 1909 :— CuttingI. : ‘ E ; : ; 73 CuttingII . 5 é : : ; x aiLeg Cutting III . . : : ; , : 99 291 The depths of all were recorded. In Cutting I, 8 were ome in the surface silting, 29 in the mixed silting, and 36 in the chalk rubble. Of these 1 was found at 11 feet deep, 1 at 14 feet, and 2 at 15 feet. In Cutting II, 18 were found down to 5 feet, 97 from 5 feet to 10 feet, 2 at 11 feet, 1 at 12°5 feet, and 1 at 17°5 feet. In Cutting Lid 21 were found down to 6 feet, 65 from 6 feet to 12 feet, and 13 from 12 feet to 13°5 feet. Oo7 ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES, 279 (d) Cutting III.—The E. margin of Cutting III was only 6 feet W. of the middle of the western hedge bounding the modern road into Avebury from the south. A length of 14 feet of fosse was marked off for examina- tion. It was close to the gate of the high road, and was dug to ascertain if the fosse rounded off to form a solid entrance-causeway. Both Aubrey and Stukeley apparently show the position of the Kennet Avenue entrance into Avebury as being exactly on the site of the present road, and this fact rather led one to suppose that the fosse of the W. side of the solid entrance-causeway must have terminated in about the position of the present western hedge. But our excavation into the fosse of Cutting III proved that their plans are incorrect and misleading. In 1909 (B.A. Report, p. 410) we made several trial holes to ascertain the direction towards the east taken by the upper margins of the walls of the fosse exposed in Cutting II. Holes were made along both margins, and in all those nearest to Cutting II the solid chalk . upper border of the fosse-wall was revealed; but instead of the fosse narrowing it widened as it approached the hedge and road. This year before re-excavating a part of Cutting III we dug a trench about 32 feet long and 5 feet wide, connecting the northern face of Cutting II with the northern face of Cutting III, and clearly exposed the upper walls of the fosse. On the top of the solid chalk ‘ wall’ in the N.N.E. corner of Cutting II a slight platform was observed. It was found on excavation to continue a little towards the north, but judging (1) from the apparent hollows in the turf-clad inner bank for some little distance round, and (2) the fact that modern shards were found down to the solid chalk, it appeared evident that a recent excavation had been made here, perhaps for chalk, as in the much larger mutilation in the vallum opposite on the south. Having re-excavated Cutting III to a considerable depth we felt bound to complete the northern portion of it to the bottom, which the fine weather permitted us to do, but, as we shall see presently, we proved the existence and position of the ancient entrance-way on the E. side of the modern road. It soon became clear in digging Cutting III that the fosse approaching the causeway from the west not only maintained its great depth, but expanded considerably towards the point where it rounded off to form the causeway under what is now the high road into Avebury. (This will be clearly shown in the plan to be reproduced hereafter.) The top margin of the fosse in Cutting III proved to be 52 feet wide, and the whole of the filling to a depth of 5 feet was removed. This pro- duced no object of importance and consisted entirely of silt from the hedge and road and a loamy tenacious material said by the local people . to have been brought to this spot from the site of the ‘ New Bridge ’ across the Kennet stream on the Devizes road, a quarter of a mile S.W. of our diggings, when it was built. It entailed much manual work ta remove this ‘ dumped ’ material, but afterwards we came upon the same ancient deposits as occurred in Cuttings I and II, making ‘ finds ’ of pottery and a well-worn flint scraper (No. 140), described below. \ At length we reached the bottom at a depth of 23 feet from the surface, but nothing was found in the lowest depths but a scapula of sheep at 18 feet ; and no remains actually on the smooth floor of the fosse, which was exposed for a width of 8 feet and a length averaging 3°8 feet. In no part of the excavations could one realise better the immensity of the 980 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. great fosse and the labour its construction must have entailed when metals were unknown in Britain. This inner slope of Cutting III was the finest example of cut chalk exposed in any part of the excavations ; and the uniformity of the slope and the absence of projections seemed to indicate that the fosse was originally excavated with greater care near the entrance-causeway than elsewhere. The average inclination of the fosse wall was at an angle of 634°, and covered a length of 26°5 feet on the slope; but the steepness of the profile in the lowest 6 feet was remarkable, being at an angle of 81°, the chalk resting in immense solid blocks in its natural condition. No ancient tool-marks were observable on the walls of the fosse, near the bottom or elsewhere. The following specimens were collected from Cutting ITI :— 139. Fragment of the base of a medieval pot; depth, 6 feet. Medieval pottery was less plentiful in Cutting III than elsewhere; we have, however, a tray of shards from depths between 4 and 5°5 feet. 144. Two small pieces of grey Roman pottery. Depth, 9°5 feet. 143. Fragment of coarse brown pottery with smooth faces; apparently of Late-Celtic type. Depth, 11 feet. 142. Fragment of light brown pottery containing very few grains; probably Bronze Age. Depth, 12:3 feet. 140. Finely worked discoidal flint scraper bearing indications of con- siderable use, and having a deep bevelled edge. Depth, 9°5 feet in the mjxed silting. 141. Roughly chipped implement. Depth, 9°5 feet in the mixed silting. 147. Flint core, Depth, 12°5 feet in the mixed silting. IV. Excavations in the Position of the Ancient Southern Entrance. Cutting ITI having given us no evidence of the position or existence of a southern entrance into Avebury, we found it necessary to pay attention to the area to the east, on the other side of the high road, both near the two large standing-stones of the outer circle on the property of Lord Avebury and in the position of the plantation of beech trees owned by Capt. Jenner, the two properties being divided here by a barbed-wire fence. The trees were noticed to be planted on a slight ridge sa near th road that it was thought possible that it might be the result of a collection oi rubbish from the highway and elsewhere, and especially as the position is covered on the south by the end of the outer vallum which appears to obstruct any direct approach to the most northern remaining stone of the Kennet Avenue. But it was, on closer examination, observed that the slight ridge also extended towards the north into the meadow in the direction of the space (24 feet) which exists between the two remaining standing-stones of the outer circle. (a) Cutting IV.—-Forthwith we made a cutting (No. IV), length 47 feet, width 5 feet, approximately at right angles to the ridge and 23 feet from the most westerly of the standing-stones. Here we reached the solid chalk in the middle of the cutting at a depth of 2 feet from the turf, and there appeared to be no sign of a continuation of the fosse in this position. The same depth was maintained to the most easterly part of the cutting, but there were occasional dips in the chalk which appeared to have no special significance. At 28 feet from the eastern end there was a step in the solid chalk down to a depth of 3 feet from the surface ; ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 981 at 33°5 feet another step to a depth of 4 feet from the surface ; then a level floor for about 5°5 feet, followed by a gradual slope downwards to a depth of 4°5 feet. Having almost reached the hedge we could go no further. But we had struck the causeway and what appeared to be steps down to the brink of the ancient fosse at its termination on the west of the entrance. A large number of shards, glazed and unglazed, were found between the turf and a depth of 18 inches in the middle parts of the cutting; all of which appeared to be medieval and later ware. In the deeper part on the west a few pieces of brown pottery, which we regarded as medieval, were found in or on a distinctly blackish-brown seam of mould, the result probably of disturbance at such a time as the modern bank and hedge were made. (b) Cutting V.—The next cutting made was close to the fence on Captain Jenner’s property. The western half was cut 5 feet wide, the eastern 3 feet. It was begun close to the road-fencing and continued in an easterly direction for a distance of 54 feet. At 29 feet from the eastern end the solid chalk was reached at a depth of 1°4 foot from the surface—the level of the ancient causeway. From this point east- wards the surface of the ground sloped towards the eastern fosse ; likewise the solid chalk sloped downwards gradually, not evenly, but in rough shallow steps. At 50 feet from the western end of the cut- ting the solid chalk shot down suddenly at an angle of 46°, at which point the brink of the eastern fosse was undoubtedly reached. The western end of the cutting is more difficult to describe, because we met with a modern earthenware drain-pipe, for draining the surface-water from the modern road into the eastern fosse, the placing of which had destroyed the contour of the solid chalk as left by the constructors of the causeway. (The sectional diagram of this cutting shows the line of the chalk as it exists at present.) (c) Cutting VI.—Another cutting (length 56 feet, width 2°5 feet) was made close to and parallel with the barbed-wire fence, and on Lord Avebury’s side. This revealed the solid chalk running level for a length of 26 feet, the nearest part of the surface of the turf being at a depth of 1°6 foot. At 19°5 feet from the west end of the cutting the solid chalk dropped in two steps towards the western fosse, in the same manner as described in Cutting IV. At the east end of the cut- ting the chalk sloped off very gradually. (d) Cutting VII.—This narrow cutting was dug amongst the beech trees on the Jenner property. The length examined was 50 feet, but a part in the middle had to be left untouched on account of the large roots of the trees. This cutting gave clear evidence that the causeway was 24 feet wide at the top in this part, and at a minimum depth of 1'8 foot from the surface. From the margins of this ancient road of solid chalk, rough steps downwards were traced in both directions. In the eastern half the brink of the fosse was reached at a distance of 14 feet from the eastern margin of the top of the causeway, from which point the solid chalk had been cut abruptly downwards at an angle of 519°, into the depths of the fosse below. . No relics of datable importance were found in any of these cut- tings. 282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. V. Excavation round a Prostrate Stone. The fallen sarsen stone chosen for examination this year is one of a group of five (two standing, three fallen) forming the south and south-west portion of the southern of the two inner circles. It is the most southern of the remaining prostrate stones of this circle, at a distance of 144 feet to the north of the most western of the two standing-stones near the entrance. Before excavation the stone was seen to have fallen in a southerly direction, the north end being con- siderably covered by turf. The digging was carried down to the solid chalk on all sides except the south and south-west. This digging proved (1) that the stone measured 16} feet long by — 12 feet wide; (2) that it had fallen in or since medieval times ; (8) that a socket-hole had been cut into the solid chalk to a depth of 1°5 foot, roughly shaped to receive the base of the stone; (4) that for additional support the stone had been packed round with a considerable number of blocks of sarsen measuring from 4 inches to 16 inches across; (5) that the base of the stone had been set at a depth of 4°3 feet from the present surface of the field; and (6) that the base of the stone in its fall had kicked out in a northerly direction only to the extent of 2 feet. _ A number of shards were found in this excavation, but nothing was apparently of earlier date than Norman times. Between the surface and a depth of 2°5 feet, and above the level of the socket-hole cut into the solid chalk, this medieval pottery appeared to be plentiful enough to indicate the former existence of some kind of a dwelling close against the stone, and it is possible that shelter for a number of years together may have been taken in close proximity to these huge standing-stones. Some of the pottery was found under the north end of this prostrate stone; it was, however, observed that the shards were close against the stone, and none below the level of the natural bed of the solid chalk. A scale plan and two sectional diagrams were made of this ex- cavation. ; VI. Animal Remains. Last year were found the remains of ox (of two sizes), horse (of two sizes), sheep, red-deer, ? roebuck, pig, dog, fox, ? wolf, and fowl. Some of these were kindly identified by Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S. _ Besides the red-deer antler picks and the shovels of scapul@ previously recorded, the following animal remains were found this year :— Cutting ‘IL. Ox.—Humerus, depth, 6°3 feet in Roman stratum; tibia with ends missing, depth, 9°5 feet in Bronze Age stratum; part of radius of a young animal,’ depth, 18°5 feet on bottom of fosse; metacarpus of large ox (length, 240 millimetres ; estimated stature, 4 feet 9 inches), depth, 7°5 feet in Roman stratum ; two digits,’ depth, 7 feet. Red Deer.—Two pieces of tine of antler, depth, 8 feet in mixed silting (No. 121 in section); smooth piece of tine of antler, depth, 10-2 feet at bottom of mixed silting (No. 127 in section); part of a metacarpus,' depth, 9 feet: “© “Mole.’—Scapula and sternum; depth not recorded. Toad.'—Tlium ; depth not recorded. 1 Identified by Mr. E. T. Newton, F.B.S. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 983 Cutting III. Three teeth of horse; depth, 9°5 feet in Roman stratum. -Astragalus of ox; depth, 9°5 feet in Roman stratum. Digit of red-deer ;' depth, 11:5 feet in mixed silting. Scapula of sheep ;' depth, 18 feet in chalk rubble. Lower jaw of dog,’ smaller than a retriever; depth, 4°5 feet. VIT. Concluding Remarks. The season’s work, considering its short duration of three weeks for an undertaking of such magnitude, has in many respects been more interesting and eventful than the opening excavations of 1908. The main results of 1909 embody (1) proof of the existence and position of an ancient entrance into ‘the Temple’ from the south, 7.e. from the direction of the Kennet Avenue, and (2) a considerable strengthen- ing of the evidence obtained last year towards solving the difficult pro- blem of the date of construction of Avebury, or, at any rate, of the great fosse surrounding the circles. The finding of a worked flint knife with every appearance of great age and of typical Neolithic form on the bottom of the fosse, is, we think, almost sufficient in itself to assign Avebury to the Neolithic period, rather than to the early Bronze Age—to which period Stonehenge is referred on fairly strong evidence. It is also necessary in considering date to draw attention to the position of the pottery of Bronze Age type, most of which occurred about half-way down in the- accumulated silting, showing that it became deposited when the fosse had become filled to a considerable extent; and some of the early British pottery was found in the mixed silting immediately below the Roman stratum. In addition to the knife the bottom of this vast fosse has revealed several picks of antler and shovels of bone to the exclusion of other tools, and although there is no reason why such implements should not be used in later times, those found at Avebury are of precisely the same type as those of undoubted Neolithic age discovered in some quantity at Cissbury, the Grime’s Graves, and in the Neolithic pit at Maumbury Rings. We have now little or no hesitation in regarding the fosse of Avebury as being of Neolithic construction; but it would be highly desirable, if not advisable, to make one or two cuttings more into a fosse affording the variety of interest which the Avebury one does. It must have been a most imposing sight—never to be blotted out from one’s memory—to see that stupendous fosse open to the bottom all the way round. Now that we know the position of the southern entrance it would be highly interesting to excavate the rounded end on its eastern side. The beech-trees and the modern road would not be hindrances in this position, and it would be necessary only to remove some scrub and small bushes. The silting not being so high as in the parts already examined, and probably at no time under cultivation, the labour en- tailed in re-excavating this part would be proportionately less than in this year’s cuttings. It would also be desirable to prove whether an entrance-causeway exists at the north of Avebury; and there are other details to clear up in regard to the southern entrance. In the latter work this year we * Identified by Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S. 984 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCI®NCE. were pressed for time, and were hindered in determining the exacl width and form of the causeway throughout its whole length, and our work was also impeded by the plantation of beech-trees. As far as the causeway could be examined, the top, found at an average depth of 1°7 foot from the surface, was about 24 feet wide. On either side the level of the solid chalk gradually receded as if sloping off to meet the upper margin of the walls of the fosse in the form of rough steps not always well defined. The brink of the eastern fosse was followed in two places only. On the west such obstacles as the wooden fence, the bank and hedge, and the road itself, prevented any exact determina- tion of the manner in which the western fosse finished and the cause- way began. However, the existence of the entrance-causeway is a proved fact, the portals to the central area being represented by the two great standing- stones of the outer circle still in their original] position. The vallum now remaining nearest to the causeway would appear to have obstructed the entrance-way from the Kennet Avenue, but this is not really so, for allowance must be made for the silting down of the material composing the vallum at its end, forming a talus, and for the fact that other beech-trees have been planted in this position, caused obstruction, and gathered round them a certain amount of de- cayed vegetable matter. VIII. Grants and Subscriptions. In addition to the grant of 801. made by the British Association for the excavations of 1909, the following private donations and grants were kindly subscribed to the fund :— £8) a Society of Antiquaries of London . 25 0 0 Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. (1908-9) . 20 0 O W.-M. Tapp, LL.D., F.S.A. . : 2 : 5 0 0 ‘The Hon. John Abercromby, F.S.A. (Scotland) 5eOleO Marlborough College Natural History Society . 5 0.0 British Archeological Association . sis TO Mrs. Eustace Smith and Salen A. Smith, F. 8. A. 100 J. Challenor Smith, F.S.A. . ; 010 6 And the following donations from the Wiltshire Archeological Society :— W. Heward Bell, F.S.A. . Sir Prior Goldney, Bart., ‘OV. 0, C.B. Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice F. H. Goldney : N. Story Maskelyne, F. RS. G. J. Buxton . ’ eromtotoomt cocoon an”? eccocooooarn j NOTES AND QUERIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 285 Notes and Queries in Anthropology.—-Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. ©. H. Reap (Chairman), Professor fatal is Myrzs (Secretary), Professor D. J. CunntncHAM, Mr. E. N. Faupaize, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. T. A. Joycr, and Drs. C. 5. Myers, W. H. R. Rivsrs, C. G. SELIGMANN, and F. C. SHRUBSALL, appointed to prepare a New Edition of * Notes and Queries in Anthropology.’ Tur Committee have continued the work of preparing the new edition of Notes and Queries in Anthropology, and expect to print and publish it in the course of the coming winter. Until the precise size of the new edition is determined by final revision it is premature to enter into a contract with a printer. The Committee have, therefore, incurred no expenditure on this head, and retain intact the grant made by the Association in 1908; but the whole of this grant will certainly be re- quired, unless the new edition is found to be much shorter than the old one. The Committee therefore ask to be reappointed, with the balance in hand, Anthropological Photographs.—Report of the Committee, con- sisting of Dr. C. H. READ (Chairman), Mr. H. 8. KINGSFORD (Secretary), Dr. T. AsHBy, Dr. G. A. Aupen, Mr. H. Baurour, Mr. E. N. Fauuaize, Dr. H. O. Forsss, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. E. Srpney Harrnanp, Mr. KE. HEAwoop, Professor J. lu. Myres, and Professor FLINDERS PETRIE, appointed for the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthropological Interest. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tur Committee have to report that, as no grant was received last year, and the balance in hand has all been expended, no additions to the collec- tion have been made since the last meeting of the Association, as it is useless to accept prints for the collection if it is not possible to mount and store them. The Committee, first appointed in 1899, have received nothing beyond the initial grant of 10/., which has now all been expended. Over a thousand photographs have been received and mounted, while in addition to this other collections, numbering some three thousand sub- jects, have been registered, catalogued, and made available to students. 286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM (Chair- man), Mr. J. Gray (Secretary), and Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL. AurHouau the last report of the Committee was considered to be tinal as regards the method of anthropometric investigation, it was thought advisable to reappoint the Committee to act as an organising centre to promote the establishment of anthropometric investigation among all classes of the population of the British Isles. In this direction im- portant work has been done during the past year. In October last the Secretary, at the request of Dr. Rawson, the Principal of Battersea Polytechnic, instructed his medical officer in the method of carrying out measurements in accordance with the Committee’s scheme. The importance cf installing anthropometry in public schools was brought under the notice of the Headmasters’ Conference on February 10 last, and their co-operation was asked for. In reply, a letter, dated May 21, was received from the Secretary of the Headmasters’ Conference Committee, suggesting the issue of a short circular explaining the items of information that it was most important to collect. In response to this suggestion a memorandum was drawn up and sent out by the Anthropometric Committee to the headmasters of 107 public schools. It is hoped that this action will result, in the course of time, in the general establishment of anthropometry in public schools. Measurements are now being carried out generally under the direction of the medical officers of the education authorities, in primary.schools, and in a certain number of provided secondary schools. But there is still a wide field among secondary schools for both boys and girls in which the Committee could do‘good work. The 1908 Report of the Committee on anthropometric method has been issued as a separate publication by the Royal Anthropological Insti- tute (price 1s. net). This will make the scheme of the Committee avail- able, in cheap and convenient form, to all who propose to undertake anthropometric work, and will ensure the uniformity which is so essential to make the results of different measurers comparable. The Committee recommend that they should be reappointed, with a grant of 51. for printing or typing circulars, postage, stationery, &c. Archeological Investigations in British East’ Africa.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. Hogar, (Chairman), Dr. A. C. Happon (Secretary), Mr. H. BAtFour, Mr. C. T. Curreniy, Dr. H. O. Forses, and Professor J. L. MYRES. No practical steps have been taken this year with regard to field-work in British East Africa, but the Secretary has received from local Govern- ment officers information as to localities which it is proposed to investi- gate, and estimates as to the cost of the expedition and other details of a practical character. rf - —— ARCHAOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 287 Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. HoGartH (Chairman), Professor J. L. Myres (Secretary), Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. Duckwortu, Dr. A. J. Evans, Professor A. MACALISTER, and Professor W. RIDGE- WAY. Tue Committee have received the following reports from Mr. C. H. Hawes, who was able to return to Crete in the spring of 1909. In view of the important results outlined in this report, and of the possibility of a longer stay in Crete than Mr. Hawes originally contemplated, the Committee ask to be reappointed, with a further grant. Report from Mr. C. H. Hawes. Owing to the exigencies of printing and publication the present report has to be written at the outset of the expedition, and must therefore be an interim one. The report presented at the Dublin meeting last year re- sumed some of the results of a statistical study of the anthropometric survey made in 1905, and mentioned the lines of further research sug- gested by that study. A piece of good fortune was met with at the opening of this season’s work. During October 1908 four skulls, two portions of other crania, several pelvic and long bones came to light in the course of deepening a well in the alluvial bank of an ancient river ten minutes east of Candia. The argillaceous deposit in which they lay had acted as a natural plaster of Paris, and we are now in possession of human osseous remains of not later than the Middle Minoan III. period in the most extraordinary state of preservation. Complete measurements and observations have been made upon these, and I hope to publish them at an early date with a comparison of those discovered by Dr. Duck-: worth in 1903. As I write I am about to set out for the small villages dotting the mountains which shut in to the south the richest and biggest plain in Crete, the Messara. Here and elsewhere in isolated mountain hamlets I hope to find the oldest element in the present racial mixture in Crete— the * offscourings of the plains.’ In attacking the problem of how to discover or uncover the ancient stratum among the modern people, I have addressed myself to the task of finding out and isolating, if possible, alien elements of historical times. Representatives of Turkish and old Venetian families have been ap- proached, and genealogical, traditional, and historical information garnered, with a view of testing it anthropometrically. For example, one. village at which I am to stay this week claims to contain only. descendants of Venetians who have strictly refused exogamous marriages. A small Armenian colony has existed in Candia since the Turkish occupa- tion in 1669, and inasmuch as the Armenoid type of head is met with in the east end of the island, whether of historic or pre-historic date, this little band of settlers is being measured. Albanian influence has been suspected in Crete, and rightly so, since for various reasons the Turkish Janissaries in the island included large numbers of these Europeans, and considerable mixture resulted. In view also of the Dorian occupation of 288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCH. Crete and the belief in certain quarters that Illyria largely furnished the Dorian hosts, it seemed important to get at the Albanian type. Records of these and other peoples to be met with in the island were in my posses- sion, but I was anxious to attempt the method of race analysis by contours of the living head. During my short stay at Athens I was able, by the aid of Mr. Steele, of the Lake Copais Company, to pay a flying visit to an Albanian village in the mountains to the north-east of the lake. There, in the village of Martino, reputed to be the purest of five such, I measured forty individuals and obtained contours of their heads by means of an instrument which I had just completed. It is as yet too early to speak of the value of this method of race analysis. Its advantage in sharpening and correcting visual impres- sions of head shapes is obvious; but I hope to be able to show after several months’ test that a new weapon has been forged, with which to attack the very difficult problem of race analysis. Contours obtained at random from Albanians of the islands of Hydra and Spetza coincided exactly with the type from Martino. The problem has been attacked from another direction. What modi- fication of the cephalic index and the shape of the head has been effected by artificial deformation or formation of the head? I am indebted to Professor Macalister for calling my attention to the importance of this factor. It is acustom which is far more prevalent than is dreamed of, and thousands of people in this island, mostly of the male sex, are unaware of a custom which is universal except among fhe Mussulmans and the better educated minority of the urban population. As to the reason and methods of such head shaping, I hope to enter into details in a separate paper. ‘The first object was to gauge the effect on the cephalic index and the contours. At the outset it is necessary to distinguish between the results of intentional formation and involuntary deformation due to the lying on hard surfaces. For these purposes I am making comparisons between subjects who have or have not undergone head shaping, and between those who have or have not suffered from a pillowless infancy. Striking examples of the latter are to be found among the small colony of Epirote bakers, who, owing to the extreme poverty of their parents at home, the circumstances of which I shall enter into more fully elsewhere, possess the most extraordinary and incredible head-shapes it has been my lot to see. Similar observations are being made upon the Armenian settlement here. Observations on these two extreme forms of head will prove instructive in comparison with the results of similar, though modi- fied, treatment of the Cretan native. Further, whole families of Cretans are under observation, and measurements and contours have been taken of them, including children who have or have not been bandaged in their infancy, from the age of fourteen days up. In addition to these researches, which are in progress, I have been able to garner from a cave, where are carelessly consigned the bones of many a deceased Cretan of to-day after a short burial in the cemetery, some hun- dred bones from all parts of the skeleton, saving, unfortunately, the cranium; and thus a comparison is possible between skeleton and skeleton of ancient and modern times. Two collections of hair, repre- senting a series of shades, have been made for me by Orthodox and Mussulman barbers in Candia. Crete appears to me to be a more than ordinarily instructive and significant field of research, and I hope that in the short time at my ARCHAOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL RESHARCHES IN CRETE. 289 disposal I may find answers to some of the many questions which open up at every turn. Further Report from Mr. Hawes. This report is made within a week of my return from Crete, and claims to be no more than a statement of the work accomplished and the material gathered. I left England on March 24 of this year, and reached Athens on March 31, whence I visited the village of Martino, in the mountains to the north-east of Lake Copais, in order to get a series of measure: ments and head contours of reputedly pure Albanians for comparative purposes by a new process described below. I landed in Crete on April 9 and remained on the island until July 18. Returning to Athens, a short expedition was made to Leonid- hion, in the Peloponnesus, and England reached direct on August 5. During the stay in Crete the remarkably preserved skulls and long bones belonging to the Middle Minoan period, recently discovered near Candia, were carefully and completely measured and compared with those previously discovered. For comparison with these, twenty-six skulls of nineteenth-century Cretans at the monastery of Arkadhi and twenty-eight skulls of eighteenth and nineteenth century Cretans at the monastery of Aghia Triadha, in Akrotiri, were measured and contoured. Four journeys on horseback, aggregating about seven hundred miles, were made for the purpose of measuring and contouring living subjects in special areas of the island; while every eparchy was traversed and sampled. Particular attention was paid to the highland peoples, and especially to those inhabiting the mountains to the south of the Messara plain, Sphakia and Lasithi. In the last case the various outlets were carefully tapped for comparison with the peoples aboye in the high land and those below in the plains. Censuses of hair and eye colours were taken at schools throughout the island. In Candia and elsewhere the prevailing custom of the head- bandaging of infants was studied, and measurements, head contours, and photographs were taken of children of nine days old and upwards. Colonies of Armenians and Epirots were also included in my investiga- tions. Finally a hundred photographs of various types were taken. Tn all 1,693 persons were measured and about 1,650 contoured. Of these 1,576 were examined in Crete, but this number includes many foreigners. If we exclude all with known forbears from outside the island, as, e.g., the Adgean and Ionian islands, and add the 200 records of Dr. Duckworth (1903) and my own 1,442 previous records (1905), we have in all, for the principal measurements, about 2,900 Cretan subjects represented. Of the 117 persons measured outside of Crete the majority hailed from Martino and Leonidhion, the latter, according to philologists, speaking the most Dorian dialect of Greek extant. The most striking aspect of my anthropometrical work this year in Crete is the application of a new method of race analysis. I had only just completed before starting an instrument with which I intended to delineate the forms of living heads, and to pose these drawings in a scientifically comparable position. Though I have included among the head contours the transverse and the horizontal, I have finally relied upon the sagittal curve as the most significant. The significance of this became apparent when, in experimenting 1909, U 290) REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. with Albanians of Martino, in North-Kast Greece, and others from the islands of Hydra and Spetza, I obtained practically identical contours, and when these again differed from the bulk of the Cretans. In Crete I frequently determined, to his astonishment, the local provenance of an individual merely by his contour. Speaking generally two types of head contour, strikingly distinct, are iound in the island to-day, one associated with dolichocephaly and the other generally with brachy- cephaly. This latter type is found most commonly in Sphakia, a region naturally isolated, where the people are also less mixed, by reason of the custom of endogamy. By tradition and dialect the Sphakiots are more Dorian than the rest of the island. These types have connections outside of Crete which point north and west, but we stand badly in need of head contours for comparison. It is obvious, if this method proves so rapid and incisive a criterion of race analysis in an island which, when all mean measurements are taken into account, is fairly homogeneous, that it might be applied with advantage over greater areas, where bigger contrasts are available. Further, it may enable us to determine the type or types of the pre- historic migrants. It bears testimony to the permanency of head form, in that, among others, a Late Minoan skull from Knossos is a type well represented among the nineteenth-century skulls at the monastery of Arkadhi. The problem of the origin and connections of the blue- eyed people of the higher altitudes of the Mediterranean and the greater problem of the connection between the short, dark dolichocephal of the Mediterranean and the tall, blonde dolichocephal of Northern Europe seems to me to await confirmation by this method. I have already made a beginning in measuring and contouring 161 foreign troops— French, Italian, and Russian—in Canea, but main types throughout Europe should in my opinion be contoured without delay. The instrument referred to above will be more fully described and illustrated later, but a brief description is appended here. The first portion, for obtaining the sagittal curve or contour, is a simple solder wire (half lead and half tin) one-eighth of an inch in diameter, cased in a rubber tube. This is found .to be plastic, yet firm enough to withstand alteration in handling and posing. The instrument for posing the rubber-cased wire is of aluminium, and consists of two legs at right angles braced. These are scaled and pierced with slots, in which small square frames work. The frames hold false pencils, also scaled, which slide at right angles to the plane of the aluminium frame. At the angle, but exteriorly, is a detachable ear-piece, to insert in the auditory meatus. The base-line adopted is that of the Frankfort agreement, and the object of this instrument is to determine the position of the curve in relation to this. The wire, having been shaped to the head, is left in position, and the instrument is held with the ear-piece in the ear- hole, and one leg pointing vertically and the other horizontally in the Frankfort base-line. Thus held it is only necessary to chalk the rubber where the legs cross it; but, as the legs, held at the side of the head, are at a distance from the rubber-cased wire in the median plane of the head, the false pencils are pushed through to meet it. The square frame and the false pencils can all be set to scale before applying to the head if the usual measurements have been already made on the head, or merely the breadth, the auricular altitude, and an additional auricular ; : ARCHASOLOGICAL AND -ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 291 radius to the point on the nose, where the extension of the Frankfort base-line crosses it. This method gives greater accuracy and saves time. The chalk-marked wire is now ready to pose on the paper. The paper which is recommended is millimetre-ruled paper of about type- writer size, as supplied to schools. With plain paper it would be necessary carefully to place the instrument, withdraw the ear-piece, slide through the pencils, and mark the vertical and horizontal positions. With millimetre paper it is only required to read the scales and mark the paper accordingly. It is then a simple matter to pose the wire so that the chalk marks coincide with those marked on the paper, and to draw the curve, the rubber being found to cling well to the paper. The curve or contour thus taken begins in my examples at the inion and ends at the point on the nose crossed by the Frankfort base-line. A description of this sort is naturally difficult to follow and gives a false idea of complication. I have found after some practice that the fitting of the rubber-cased wire on the head, the setting of the scales, and the posing and drawing, take on an average a minute and a half. To obtain the transverse and horizontal contours the latter instru- ment is not required, the wire being sufficient. In the case of the horizontal contour, the position of the auditory meatus on each side should be chalked. _ For a long time the need has been felt of something to supplement the cephalic index. In small areas or regions of comparative homo- geneity, a less clumsy, more refined criterion is required, and I believe we have it in the contours of the head. The cephalic index was the result of the search after some mathematically comparable representa - tion of the head form, but its most loyal adherents have felt the need of some more adequate description. A natural revolt was seen in Pro- fessor Sergi’s methods and attempts at classification according to the pictured or observed head forms. There are, however, two obvious and important objections to the application of his methods to the living subject. First there is the drawback of the personal equation in descrip- ‘tions of the shapes of heads, and secondly there is the impossibility in many cases—and this is a more serious objection than the layman would think—of getting a true visual impression of these shapes, covered ‘as they are (and too often concealed) by hair. These two objections resolve themselves into one, and one which, I hope, the instrument I have described removes. It provides us with a means, until now wanting, of scientifically obtaining and recording the actual head-form ‘of the living. Archeological and Ethnological Investigations in Sardinia.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. HoGarTH (Chairman), Professor R. C. Bosanquer (Secretary), Dr. T. Asupy, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworts, Professor J. Li. MyREs, and Dr. F’. C. SHRUBSALL. Dr. Duncan Mackenzin, honorary student of the British School at Rome, returned to Sardinia at the end of September 1908, and stayed there till the middle of November. He was accompanied for part of the time by : - - ; u2 992, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the director, Dr. Thomas Ashby, and by an architectural draughtsman, Myr. F. G. Newton, student of the school. Their new observations have materially increased our knowledge of the two main groups of Sardinian megalithic monuments, the Nuraghi and the ‘ Tombs of the Giants.’ The previous year’s work made it clear that the former were fortified habitations. Dr. Mackenzie has now visited other examples and recorded variations of type and peculiarities of con- struction. The most remarkable is the Nuraghe of Voes in the Bitti dis- trict towards the north of Central Sardinia. Triangular in plan, it con- tains on the ground floor circular chambers with bee-hive roofs : the usual central chamber and one in each of the three angles. The entrance is on the south and leads into a small open court with a doorway at each side leading to the chamber at the base of the triangle, and another doorway straight in front by which the central chamber is entered. There was an upper story, now destroyed, reached by a stairway of the usual type. Exceptional features are two long curving corridors in the thickness of the wall on two sides of the triangle, intended probably as places of con- cealment. Above them were others of similar plan, but both series are so low that the roof of the upper one is level with that of the bee-hive chamber on the ground floor. This skilfully planned stronghold must have been built all at one time; other large Nuraghi were originally of simpler design, and have grown by the addition of bastions and towers. A new type of Nuraghe was discovered at Nossia near the modern village of Paulilatino, in Central Sardinia. It is a massive quadrangular citadel of irregular rhomboidal plan with a round tower at each corner. These towers resemble the stone huts of the villages attached to some of the Nuraghi; they are entered from a central court-yard which here takes the place of the normal bee-hive chamber. It was partly filled with circular huts, so that this Nuraghe must be regarded as a fortified village rather than as the castle of a chieftain. The dwellers in these Nuraghi buried their dead in family sepulchres popularly known as Tombs of the Giants. Several writers had suggested that these tombs with their elongated chamber and crescent-shaped front were derived from the more ancient dolmen type, but hitherto there was little evidence to support this conjecture, only one dolmen being known in Sardinia. Dr. Mackenzie has now made this derivation certain; he has studied ten important groups of dolmen tombs, most of them entirely unknown, which furnish a series of transitional types. In one case the chamber of an original dolmen tomb had ati a later period been elongated so as to resemble that of a Giant’s Tomb. In another example the large covering slab was supported by upright slabs at the sides and back; and behind it there are traces of an apse-like enclosing wall, such as is characteristic both of the Giants’ Tombs and also of dolmens in certain localities where Giants’ Tombs do not exist: for example, in Northern Corsica and in Ireland. Dr. Mackenzie also discovered a new type of Giant’s Tomb in which the mound was entirely faced with stone, upright slabs being used below and polygonal work above. Another feature, hitherto unique, is a hidden entrance into the chamber at one side, in addition to the usual small hole in the centre of the front through which libations and offerings were probably introduced. These results were described at a meeting of the British School at Rome in March 1909 (see ‘ Atheneeum ’ of March 27). An illustrated report of them will appear in Volume V. of the Papers of the School, ON INVESTIGATIONS tN SARDINIA. 993 Dr. Mackenzie and Mr. Newton intend to go to Sardinia, in Septem- ber, for six weeks in order to continue the exploration of the island. The importance of anthropometrical work in connection with the problems presented by the early civilisation of Sardinia was pointed out in a previous _report of this Committee. Mr. W. H. L. Duckworth, a member of the Committee, went to Rome last April and studied the collection of a hundred Sardinian crania in the Collegio Romano. He made about 1,200 measurements, and is preparing a report which will serve as a basis of comparison with any collection of ancient crania that may be obtained. In addition to these specimens, which had not been described previously, Mr. Duckworth has examined about thirty Sardinian crania in the museums of Rome and Paris. He has recently spent ten days in Corsica, where he obtained valuable illustrative material, and hopes to take part in Dr. Mackenzie’s expedition to Sardinia in September next. The Committee ask to be reappointed, and apply for a grant. The Hacavation of Neolithic Sites in Northern Greece.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. RIDGEWAY (Chairman), Professor J. Lu. Myrus (Secretary), Mr. J. P. Droop, and Mr. D. G. HoGartH. Tue Committee were appointed at Dublin, but received no grant: it was therefore impossible to undertake the proposed expedition to Thessaly. Those students of the British School of Archeology in Athens who had made the preliminary explorations reported at the Dublin meeting were, however, enabled by grants from the British School, and from the Liver- pool University Institute of Archeology, to make excavations on fresh sites at Lianokladi and near the ancient Kierium. ‘The results of these excavations will be published in the ‘ Liverpool Annals of Archeology and Anthropology ’ and in the ‘ Annual of the British School at Athens. The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant in aid of further inquiries in the same district. The Ductless Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SCHAFER (Chairman), Professor SWALE VINCENT (Secretary), Professor A. B. Macanttum, Dr. Ll. E. SHore, and Mrs. W. H. THompson. (Drawn wp by the Secretary.) Tue work has been divided as follows: Mrs. Thompson has con- tinued her investigations upon the comparative anatomy and histology of the thyroids and parathyroids. Dr. Halpenny has been engaged in experimental work upon the same organs. Dr. Young has performed a further series of experiments of the same character as those which were reported last year by him and by Dr. Lehmann. Dr. Leeming and Mr. McKenty and Prof. Vincent have been occupied with the study 294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. of the medulla of the adrenal body and the question of its relation to other similar tissues in the body. Thyroids and Parathyroids.—Mrs. Thompson reports that all the evidence collected from a study of the thyroids and parathyroids through- out a wide range of the animal kingdom supports the view held by Vincent and Jolly, and by Forsyth—namely, that thyroids and parathy- ° roids are not separate and independent organs, but are very intimately related. Within the thyroid of elasmobranchs are small, solid masses of cells, partly epithelial, partly adenoid. ‘These, so far as we are aware, have not been previously described. In Teleosts there appears to be nothing corresponding to the parathyroid. The cells lining the thyroid vesicles are almost flat. In Amphibians the parathyroid is not in intimate relation with the thyroid. In Reptiles thyroids and parathyroids are anatomatically separate organs, but the parathyroid in some instances possesses distinct lumina, and the post-bronchial body secretes colloid. in Birds we frequently find large areas of the thyroid devoid of colloid vesicles (confirmatory of Forsyth). In Mammals there is much more intimate relationship between the parts of the thyroid apparatus than in the lower animals. ‘The cells lining the vesicles are apparently of the same character as those accumulated in varying amount between the vesicles, which do not differ in any essential respect from those form- ing the parathyroid glandules. Many of the masses of intervesicular cells are indistinguishable from parathyroids. ‘The internal parathyroid is frequently in direct tissue continuity with the thyroid and every kind of transition form exists. Parathyroid seems only to require colloid spaces in its interior in order to constitute itself thyroid, and this occurs in the human subject under certam pathological conditions. But thyroid and parathyroid are to be looked upon as structures of somewhat different embryological origin, which are totally distinct in the lower vertebrata, although coming into very intimate anatomical and physiological relation- ship with each other in the Mammalia. In this latter group they form, in fact, one apparatus. Vincent and Jolly found that in the cat a parathyroid left behind after thyroidectomy changed its structure so as to approximate to that of thyroid. Inthe dog Dr. Halpenny has found similar, but more marked, changes in a parathyroid left behind after removal of the thyroid, and he also describes a case (see below) of the same kind of transformation in the rabbit. Without denying that parathyroidectomy may be in itself fatal, Dr. Halpenny’s experiments justify him in adopting the attitude of Vincent and Jolly that the operation is so supremely difficult (indeed, in the majority of cases, impossible) that the positive evidence on this point is far from convincing. It is certainly true that in many cases, when one performs the operation of total parathy- roidectomy, doing as little damage as possible to the thyroid itself, the - animals die quickly and with severe symptoms. But it is also the case that in many instances, when the operation has apparently been just as completely performed, the animals do not appear to suffer. This position has been reached after a large number of experiments, in many of which a complete histological examination was made of everything which was removed at the operation, and of all adjacent structures which were found on postmortem examination. ‘This has involved the cutting of a large series of sections through the thyroid of animals which survived ON THE DUCTLESS GLANDS. 295 parathyroidectomy. In some of these parathyroid tissue was found which had been overlooked at the operation ; but it is important to note that in a few instances the animal] died shortly after the operation, although two parathyroids were left intact. It has been frequently stated that parathyroidectomy is not only essentially fatal, but that death occurs more rapidly than when the thyroids are removed in addition, and various hypotheses have been put forward to explain this phenomenon. In the present series of experiments death occurred earlier on the average with the complete operation than when parathyroidectomy alone was done, and in most of these cases the symptoms were those of violent tetany. The experiments of Vincent and Jolly on the rabbit were few and inconclusive. In one respect our experiments entirely bear out.the con- clusions of the majority of workers on these animals—namely, that the animal dies in a few days if the whole apparatus be removed, thyroids and parathyroids together, but that it may survive for weeks or months if one or both of the external parathyroids be left in situ. Whether the animals may suffer from chronic symptoms _ re- sembling those of myxcedema in the human subject, cannot at present be certainly decided. It may be definitely stated, however, that no such chronic symptoms are noticeable after a period of three months. One rabbit, in which an attempt was made to extirpate thyroid and para- thyroids in toto, survived forty-five days without symptoms, and was then killed. But at the postmortem examination shreds of glandular-looking tissue were found in the former situation of the external parathyroid, and these on microscopical examination showed distinctly the first stages of transformation into thyroid tissue. Nearly all the portions of para- thyroid tissue revealed minute cleft-like spaces. In other portions of the tissue small rounded spaces, lined by a regular circle of cells, were to be seen, and in still other regions, especially at the edge of the parathyroid, were typical large colloid vesicles. In another rabbit, which died forty-three days after removal of the thyroid with both external parathyroids left in situ, no changes had occurred in these glandules. It is tempting to suppose that it is precisely these changes in the parathyroids left behind which make a prolonged survival possible. » Changes in the pituitary corresponding to those described by Herring after thyroidectomy have been noted in the case of the dog after parathyroidectomy. This may indicate a functional relationship between parathyroid and pituitary. Adrenals.—Dr. Young finds that, although on releasing ligatures which have been placed round the adrenal vessels there is a distinct rise of blood-pressure, yet during the period that the ligatures are applied there is no appreciable fall of blood-pressure. This is the case even after the lapse of several hours, with the blood from the adrenals absolutely excluded from the circulation. 'These experiments were performed upon dogs. Strehl and Weiss obtained a temporary fall on clamping the adrenal veins of the rabbit. Paraganglion aorticum.—Mr. McKenty and Professor Swale Vincent have succeeded in displaying the ‘ paraganglion aorticum’ in several animals by the method of Stilling and Kohn, and a detailed microscopical pty of this and kindred structures is being carried out at the present ime. 296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Anesthetics.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. D. WALLER (Chairman), Dr. F. W. Hewitt (Secre- tary), and Sir F. TREVES, appointed to acquire further know- ledge, Clinical and Experimental, concerning Anesthetics— especially Chloroform, Ether, and Alcohol—with Special Reference to Deaths by or during Anesthesia, and their possible Diminution. [PLATES IX.-X1II.] PAGE General Statement ; . : 5 : d i : . é ; 296 ATPENDIX I. Report upon the Routine Use of a Mixture a Chae and Ether. Hewitr and BLuMFELp . : 298 II. Description of the Chloroform ries Wie : c : 2 00S III. On the Physiological Effects of Mixed Anasthetics. WALLER . 4 505 IV. The Comparative Action upon Isolated Muscle of Alcohol, ii and Chloroform.—‘ Proc. Roy. Soc., June 1909. Water . 307 V. A Report on the Percentage of Chloroform in the Blood of oe tised Animals and of Man under Various Conditions. Garp- NER and BUCKMASTER . 507 VI. The Comparative Power of Chir oPoaal Rther, dan Ata® gauged by Intravenous Injection. Water and Symes . 312 Tue Committee have held six meetings during the past year, and have in additon met informally on many occasions in the laboratory and at hospitals. The following gentlemen have been co-opted members of the Com- mittee: Dr. Buckmaster, Mr. J. A. Gardner, and Dr. Blumfield. Sir F. Treves, by reason of the pressure of other engagements, desires to retire from the Committee. General Statement. § 1. We are agreed that while a skilful, careful, and experienced administrator can be trusted to secure anesthesia of required degree with a minimum of risk, it is necessary to provide against accident at the hands of administrators who have not yet acquired experience, or whc have not been educated so as to appreciate the power and danger of chloroform vapour. This end can be approached by improved laboratory instruction con- cerning the physiological effects upon animals of chloroform vapour at known concentrations, and by the use of apparatus or other means of ensuring that the concentration of chloroform vapour shall be kept within given limits. § 2. Apparatus by which the percentage of the chloroform mix- ture offered to inspiration can be read off is especially valuable for educational purposes. As regards the use of apparatus for clinical use we prefer not to express any collective opinion at present. § 8. Another way of limiting the action of chloroform, by taking its vapour from a mixture of chloroform and ether (2 vols. chloroform + 3 vols. ether) has formed the subject of clinical investigation by Drs. Hewitt and Blumfield, The results of that investigation are given in PLATE IX. i | 1903.] nnipeg, 9th Report, W 7 ciation, h Asso ritis B kq pajonaysqo pur ‘eyqrssod sv oaay sv m01ye qidse I quay ‘SaqNUIUI UL peyAvur st aug, (*syuemeAout AroyRatdsea Jo opnytfdure ayy JO OAlyRorpuL ‘MeTIOpgR 94 JO SJUeMMEAOU oY SEATS OUT, deddn oyy,) ‘woreardser poyonaysqo Jo pure vedy Jo SasBo OT]4 UT LOYIp 4Or Saop LOTFBAYSIUIUIPY YORe 48 Surdanooo (@uly IaMoT) aInsseid-pooyq pryorwo jo [[V} ey, ‘“seynuru zg epqissod sv ATrwou sv 1oF poyse SUOTJBAYSLUTLUPB INOF OY} JO YOR ‘“UOMBATESqO 9} JNOYSNoIy, VIsoyJsSBUB UL SBM 4woO BT], 4ue0 red Gc 4B imodva UWIIOFOLOTYO JO SUOTPBAYSTUIUIpPB BATSS90ONS ANOF JO 4 I I ‘aqny [BeyoRly ayy JO worssotdut09 oy “og etics. gy the Report on Anesth stratin Iilu {Prare X. innipeg, 1909. | Report, W a British Association, 79 nN ‘onssaid-poojq pryores ayy Jo (g) puv { szueuIaAoUE Aqoyvardsat ayy JO (Z) | uovardsat JO WOBssad [IZUN 4B BOF pataySTUItMUpT WAOJOIOTYD Jo asvguaored ayy Jo (T) plooat snoouryNUUISs VW Illustrating the Report on Anesthetics. ON ANASSTHETICS. : 297 Appendix I. In this connection Mr. Symes has estimated the percent- ages of chloroform vapour aspirated from the inner surface of a bottle containing a mask upon which were poured equal volumes of (1) chloro- form, (2) chloroform and ether mixed, and Dr. Waller has compared the relative toxicities on muscle of solutions of chloroform and ether mixture and of chloroform alone (Appendix IIT.). § 4. The relative toxicities of chloroform and of ether have been systematically estimated by Dr. Waller by a new method and compared with that of ethyl alcohol. The method and its results are described in a communication to the Royal Society. According to those results 1 vol. of chloroform is physiologically equivalent to 15 vols. of ether (or by weight 1 gramme chloroform=8 grammes ether).* Otherwise expressed, the physiological effectiveness of 1 vol. of ether is 0067 that of 1 vol. of chloroform, and 1 vol. of chloroform is physiologically equivalent to 2°3 vols. of a mixture of 20+3E. § 5. We are agreed that obstruction to respiration, whether by occlu- sion of the air passages or by the additional resistance offered to respira- tion by apparatus, should be avoided or promptly remedied. We therefore deprecate the use of apparatus based on the vacuum principle by which the patient aspirates anesthetic vapour by means of a closed mask and tube, and consider it essential to any form of apparatus that it should be based on the plenum principle, by which an excess of anesthetic vapour suftably diluted with air is propelled to an open mask by mechanical means sufficient to maintain a slight positive pressure at the end of the delivery tube. In this connection we think proper to quote two experiments (repre- sentative of many others) :— § 6. First Experiment.—The number of respirations per minute were taken of a member of the Committee breathing through a closed mask and a broad 1-inch tube :— A with the end of the tube free. B with the tube connected to the outlet of a balance case with the inlet connected to a force pump, working at between 10 and 15 litres per minute, giving at the mask a positive air-pressure equal to between 1 and 2 millimetres of water. The normal respiration-frequency of the subject was 16 per minute. The frequency under the conditions A quickly became 20, rose to 40, and culminated in dyspnoea, so that the mask had to be removed. The frequency under the condition of B fell to 10 and 9, and the subject breathed from the closed mask for an indefinite time without feeling any inconvenience. These results, in our opinion, sufficiently illustrate the ease with which dyspncea can be produced in the human subject by slight obstruc- tion and the contrary effect of air-supply delivered under positive pressure. § 7. The second experiment, on a cat, was made in order to see whether the toxic effects of chloroform were aggravated by obstructed respiration. The result was not in accordance with our expectation: no appreciable aggravation of toxic effect was caused by very considerable + Since this report was adopted Waller and Symes, by a different method, have arrived at the same result, yiz., 1 gramme chloroform = 8 grammes ether (see Appendix VI.). 298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. degree of respiratory obstruction. We feel it necessary to report the result, although it contradicted our anticipation ; the fact admitted of no doubt, whatever its explanation may be. The chloroform was of known identical percentage inspired from freshly filled bags of gold-beater’s skin, and all other conditions of experiment except that of obstructed respira- tion were unaltered. § 8. The determination of the amount of chloroform in the blood of animals and of the human subject under various conditions of anesthesia has been undertaken by Dr. Buckmaster and Mr. Gardner. The results of a large number of determinations can be briefly sum- marised as follows: The amount of chloroform found in the blood during full chloroform anesthesia was between 0:020 and 0°030 gramme per 100 grammes (by volume of vapour approximately 4 to 6 c.c. per 100). The amount of chloroform found in the blood immediately after death by excess of chloroform was between 0'040 and 0:070 gramme. § 9. General Conclusion.—The Committee believe that the results so far obtained are of a nature that calls for the prosecution of the inquiry. The directions in which the Committee desire to proceed are: The further study (1) of the influence of obstructed respiration upon the course of anesthesia, (2) of the physiological and clinical characteristics of mixed aneesthesia, and (3) of the physiological effects of local anesthetics, such as cocain and allied substances. APPENDIX IT. Report upon the Routine Use, by the Open Method, of a Mizture of Chloroform and Ether. By Dr. F. W. Hewitt, M.V.O., and Dr. J. Buumrep, B.A. 1. The Anesthetic. The mixture is made of chloroform 2 parts by volume and ether 3 parts by volume. In hospital cases Duncan and Flockhart’s methylated (red label) chloroform and Huskissen’s ‘ pure methylated ’ ether were used to make the mixture. A similar mixture was usually employed in private practice, though in certain cases one with ethyl-alcohol constituents was used for purposes of comparison. 2. The Method of Use and Apparatus employed. The mask employed (fig. 1) is essentially a Skinner’s mask, and consists of a wire frame over which is stretched a single layer of thin flannel. The mask thus formed presents an oval opening 5 inches by 3 inches, and is capable of close adaptation to the face. The vault of the mask is high enough not to touch the nose when its rim rests upon the face. The size of the mask and the material with which it is covered are important details. It is found, for instance, that if two layers of the thin flannel are used instead of one an equal quantity of anesthetic produces different effects in the two cases. The small tube passing through the middle of the stretched flannel is only of use when oxygen is required. A mask of the same dimnsions, but with a guttered rim, a handle, and no oxygen tube, has generally been used by one of us (J. B.). In using the mixture a gradual process is followed. The mask is applied to the face, and, after a few breaths, the mixture is added, a few ai Gok ab wo time. eo eee ON ANAUSTHETICS. 999 A regulating drop bottle is used capable of delivering the mixture in isolated drops, in a rapid series of drops or in a continuous stream (fig. 2). During the first two minutes the mixture is poured upon the mask in such smail quantities at a time that there is never more than a quarter of the mask moist. From this time it is added more freely until, roughly speaking, in the case of men the whole surface of the mask, in the case of women three-quarters of the surface, and in the case of children one half of the surface, is kept moist with the liquid. Asa rule at least four minutes pass between the beginning of the administration and the moment when the maximum quantity to be used is upon the mask. 3. The Nature of the Cases in which the Method has been employed. _ The cases in which the method has been employed include a variety of operations, comprising examples of almost all the graver abdominal procedures, which were particularly chosen as providing a severe test of the efficacy of any anesthetic and method. Thus, pan-hysterectomies, removal of double pyo-salpinx, difficult appendicectomies, excisions of rectum, and ‘complete’ amputations of breast figure amongst the cases. Moreover, the patients comprised individuals of widely differing physique and states of health. They ranged from the very healthy mus- cular police-sergeant to that of the emaciated, anemic young woman, the subject of long-standing colitis. Several so-called ‘ bad subjects ’ have been anzsthetised with success; for example, heavily built, florid, thick-necked men, with irritable throats and nasal obstruction, patients with ill-developed lower jaws, &c., subjects who invariably give trouble under ‘ gas and ether.’ In age patients have ranged from the infant of fourteen months to old persons over eighty years of age. Several patients were markedly alcoholic, others were asthmatic and orthopneeic; one patient was suffering from pneumonia, and in this case oxygen was simultaneously administered through a tube passing through the mask. One case, that of a young woman who underwent laparotomy for the removal of double pyo-salpinx, was a good example of the subject who, originally favourable, is at the time of operation in a condition of extreme 300 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIBNCE, feebleness from acute illness of some duration. Other examples of unfavourable conditions present in the patient were Graves’ disease, acute bronchitis, and extreme anemia. We have already conducted about three hundred administrations and are continuing to employ the method. The preparation of patients has varied to some extent in the private cases. In hospital patients it was as follows :— On the afternoon of the day preceding the operation a dose of castor oil, usually about an ounce, was given. On the morning of the operation (which took place after 1 p.m.) an enema was given at 6 a.m. Tea and bread-and-butter were given at 7—two slices and one cup. A pint of beef tea was given at 10. The enema was repeated if necessary. 4. The Time required for inducing Anesthesia and the Symptoms evoked during Induction. Time of induction is reckoned from the moment of commencement of inhalation to the moment when the patient is ready for the operation. That this point had been reached was judged by the presence of (1) faint or absent corneal reflex ; (2) complete muscular relaxation ; and (3) presence of inspiratory stertor. The average induction period in a series of hospital cases was 8} minutes ; the longest time spent in securing readiness for operation was 17 minutes; the shortest time was 5 minutes. With children 5 minutes was the rule, and this was the time also in the case of a woman very anemic and ill with peritonitis. 'The longest induction period was in the case of a middle-aged carman, red-faced and accustomed to large amounts of beer, who had to be operated on for fistula in ano. At the beginning of inhalation the vapour was not, as a rule, objected to, particularly if constituents made from ethylic alcohol were used. There is never any difficulty in getting patients to breathe freely. Excited talking becoming incoherent, or quiet busy muttering occurred in ten of forty hospital cases. Some rigidity of limbs and of jaw muscles occurred in eighteen of these cases. Excited movements of limbs or trunk, so forcible as to require restraining lest the patient should fall off the couch, occurred in one case. Excitement of the above kinds, when it occurred at all, was always after consciousness had gone—at any rate, to such an extent that the hearing was already quite lost. Secretion of mucus and saliva is not a feature of the induction stage with this anesthetic. In difficult cases there is less temporary interference with respiration during the induction stage than when employing ether or ‘ gas and ether.’ 5. Amount of Mixture required. Generally speaking, it is found that in the case of an adult male the mask has to be kept moist over its whole surface after the first four minutes until full anesthesia is induced. After this it is necessary to keep it moist to that extent only in the case of ‘ difficult ’ subjects. In the case of easier male subjects and in the case of women and of children only half of the mask is kept moist when anesthesia is once esta- blished. In the case of children and women who are particularly feeble never more than half the mask is moistened from first to last and most ON ANASSTHETICS. 301 of the time only a quarter. In a series of hospital cases the average amount of the mixture consumed was an ounce in fourteen minutes :— The least used was 4 oz. in twenty-two minutes (feeble infant). The most used was 3} oz. in thirty minutes (fat aleoholic woman). 6. The Condition of the Patient during Operation and the Occurrence of Shock or other Reflex Effects. A condition which is highly satisfactory with regard to the state of the circulation, the respiration, the relaxation of muscles, and the immobility of the patient can almost invariably be obtained and main- tained. Respiration is usually rather deeper, the pulse quicker, and the colour better than in average chloroform cases. The pupil is usually of moderate size. In one case only was a change of anesthetic demanded. In this case, during the removal of a gall-stone a condition of persistent rigidity of the rectus led to a change from the mixture to ether (F. H.). In cases with marked respiratory defect the mixture can be given with oxygen. The type of anesthesia obtained is more like that secured by low percentages of chloroform vapour than like that seen with ether. It is generally possible to secure a condition in which the corneal reflex is just present without the occurrence of inconvenient contraction of muscles or of coughing or retching. Reflex effects due to the operative procedure have been noted in several cases. Serious disturbance of pulse or of breathing arising in this way appears to be less liable to occur with this mixture than with pure chloroform, though more likely than when ether alone is given. Thus reflex effects during anesthesia, chiefly bear- ing upon respiration, were evident in fifteen of seventy-five carefully recorded cases. In most cases these effects were in the nature of stridor, or of grunting expirations. They occurred during stretching of anal sphincter, forcible pulling up of uterus, internal urethrotomy, &c. The most marked instance of respiratory effect was produced by dragging upon the sac of a hernia, and this case afforded an excellent example of the degree to which such an effect can go, respiration becoming absolutely obstructed and the chest having to be compressed three times before breathing started again. At-the same time the pulse scarcely showed any change. Reflex movements of limbs or reflex rigidities of muscle were very rarely met with, and this absence was particularly noticeable in rectal operations which, under ether, are frequently attended by such reflexes. Slowing of pulse as a reflex effect was occasionally observed. Tn a few cases well-marked pallor occurred during surgical manipulations. Severe surgical shock, resulting in disappearance of pulse, dilatation of pupils, opening of eyes, pallor, and stopping of respiration, was seen in one case in which laparotomy was being performed upon a thin anemic young woman, the subject of extreme chronic constipation. The corneal reflex was faintly present at the moment when symptoms of shock suddenly showed themselves. 7. After-effects. Speaking generally, recovery takes place rapidly and without any disagreeable after-effects, provided, of course, that the patient has been properly prepared. In no cases of our series were there severe after- effects. The worst instance was that of a case of removal of glands from 302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. a young man of twenty-five years. In this instance there was vomiting seven times during the first fourteen hours after recovery of consciousness. Liquid nourishment was taken between the attacks of sickness, and there was no serious constitutional disturbance. In several cases there was yomiting once or more after recovery of consciousness. In one of these the vomit consisted of altered blood on the two occasions on which it occurred: this was a case of gastro-enterostomy. In practically all cases there was, twenty-four howrs after operation, complete freedom from sickness and from feeling of nausea. Our belief is that after-effects are less common with this method than with most others now in use. 8. Conclusions. Our experience leads us to believe that this mixture used in the particular manner described is a trustworthy and comparatively safe anesthetic. By this we mean that if the simple principles are adhered to of starting gradually and limiting the moistened area of the mask overdosage is very unlikely to occur. It seems to us highly probable that the percentage of chloroform vapour thus offered to the patient is within the safe physiological limits. Moreover, the danger of post-anzsthetic lung complications which detracts from the otherwise safe nature of a similar ether anzesthesia is apparently no greater than is the case with chloroform. In our judgment the fact that even the most vigorous subject may be anesthetised by this mixture on an open mask marks a distinct step in the progress of practical anzesthetics. The Rendle Inhaler, and all similar semi-open inhalers for the ACE or the CE mixture, should, in our opinion, now be discarded. The method described seems to us to contain the advantages of open etherisation with those of percentage chloroformisation, although, of course, it does not pretend to any abso- lute scientific accuracy so far as vapour percentages are concerned. By this method chloroform is rendered far safer than when administered per se on a Skinner’s frame, and very much safer than when adminis- . tered on lint or towel. We go so far, indeed, as to express the view that the administration of undiluted chloroform by means of lint, hand- kerchief, or towel should henceforth be proscribed in practice. The anesthesia produced by this method is doubtless a chloroform anesthesia in its essential features, but the dilution with ether renders it possible to present continuously a weak and comparatively safe chloroform per- centage to the patient. Moreover, this mixture may, with the rarest possible exceptions, be used whenever chloroform itself is indicated. But it has advantages of another kind. It answers admirably and certainly far better than ether in so-called difficult cases, particularly in those liable to display symptoms of obstructed breathing during in- duction and in those in which the secretion of mucus would constitute a difficulty. As a substitute for the ‘ gas ’-ether-chloroform sequence this mixture and method have much to be said in their favour. We have come to the conclusion, indeed, that some of the slight difficulties ex- perienced by the anesthetist in securing the most favourable surgical conditions during abdominal operations are often dependent upon the presence of small quantities of mucus within the upper respiratory passages resulting from the use of ether during the induction stage. Though rapid induction may be depended upon by ‘ gas and ether’ or similar methods before proceeding to chloroform or CE mixture, a ON ANASSTHETICS. 803 penalty often has to be paid, so to speak, for this rapid induction—viz., some disturbance in the smoothness of the subsequent anesthesia. Although the method here advocated has the disadvantage of a com- paratively lengthy induction, the eventual type of anesthesia is highly satisfactory. In a word, we have no hesitation in recommending this mixture, administered by means of the particular mask and method we have described, as one which is capable of a wider range of applicability in general surgery than any other anesthetic or mixture with which we are acquainted. Whilst the anesthetic we have attempted to describe is undoubtedly safer than that produced by sprinkling undiluted chloroform upon lint, towel, or any form of open inhaler;we do not contend that it is safer, whilst the patient is wpon the operating table, than ether anesthesia. If, however, we take into account the risks of ether anes- thesia after the operation, we are of opinion that the method compares favourably with all known methods of etherisation, so far as safety is concerned. APPENDIX II. Descriplion of the Chloroform Balance. By Dr. A. D. Wautmr, F.R.S. A closed glass bulb (capacity=870 c.c.) is suspended from one side of the beam of an ordinary balance, the pointer of which shows 3 millimetres per centigramme, and is counterpoised at the other side of the beam. The balance case (capacity =about 30 litres) is provided with inlet and outlet tubes, the former connected with a chloroform bottle through which a current of air (in this case about 15 litres per minute) is established by a pump or bellows, the latter connected with the mask or tube by which the mixture is delivered. The tube from the bellows or pump is provided with an elastic bag, and a constant stream of air of known volume per minute (10 to 20 litres) is secured by a perforated “ stop ’ fixed in the lumen of the tube; the chloroform bottle is provided with a regulating tap, by which all or none of the stream of air is passed through the chloroform bottle at will. The latter is graduated. The percentage of chloroform (or of ether vapour if ether be used) is indicated by the pointer of the balance. It is at the same time -recorded, if desired, on the smoked surface of a drum revolving once per hour (or per 12 hours), by means of a light pen fixed to the beam of the balance. This pen serves at the same time to damp the oscillations of the beam. The calibration of ? of the instrument is effected by means of weights corresponding to the weights of 1, 2, 3 per 100 of chloroform vapour in the volume of air represented by the bulb at ordinary temperature and pressure. The zero of the chloroform scale is given by the position of the 1 For the calibration at 18° C. and 760 mm. Hg of a chloroform balance in relation to the volume of a given bulb, divide the volume in c.cms. by 26 35; the quotient expresses the number of milligrammes that correspond to 1 per cent. of chloroform vapour, e.g., for a bulb of 870 c.c. the corresponding weight is 870 : 26°35 or 33 milli- grammes, and the scale of 1 to 3 per cent. is given by weights of 33, 66, 99 mgms. The effect of variations of temperature and pressure may be disregarded in this connection. The corrected values of 1 per cent. would be 1:017 and 0983 at 28° and 13° res; ectively (i.e., at 74° 4 and 56°°4 F.). 504 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCH. indicator point at the scale (and on the record) when thie bulb is surrounded by air. If the indicator point at the scale is not opposite the zero marked there, the correspondence is secured by counterpoising or more simply by shifting the scale. At the temperature of 18 + 10° the zero line would thus be lowered or raised by a weight of about 20 milligrammes (=rather more than 1 per cent. of chloroform), but the correction is not required, since it is made automatically. Smoked Cylinder Glass Bulb Space of 30 litres air and chloroform vapour at 27 Variations of temperature during observation would of course raise or lower the scale zero, but they are fortunately too trifling to be of account in the instrument shown. There is generally a variation of not more than + 0'2 to 03°, implying a variation of weight of 0'4 to 0°6 milligramme, 7.e., 0°0235 to 0°0353 per cent. of chloroform. These are negligible corrections in the case of records taken by means of a 450 ¢.c. bulb with 1 per cent. chloroform at 18° and 760 mm. repre- sented by 17 milligrammes of counterpoise and on the record by an ordinate of about 3°5 millimetres. For finer observations with a delicate balance and a large bulb— 870 c.c., and 1 per cent. CHCl, represented by 33 milligrammes— readings are taken by the null method on the pointer scale with an appropriate rider used as counterpoise ; the estimation can then be made to an error of + $ or } milligramme, i.e., to an error of between ,}, or rks per cent. of CHCl. In this case of course the thermometer and barometer readings are taken into reckoning. But for all ordinary chloroform determinations temperature and pressure corrections are un- necessary. The litre weight difference of ether vapour as compared with air (2020) is practically one-half that of chloroform (4045), so that the chloroform scale 1, 2, 3 per cent. is at the same time an ether scale 2, 4, 6 per cent. ON ANASSTHETICS. 3805 APPENDIX III. On the Physiological Effects of Mixed Anesthetics. By Dr. A. D. Watuzr, F.R.S. In a paper recently presented to the Royal Society’ I give in conclusion of a long series of experiments the following physiolo- gical equivalence of chloroform, ether, and alcohol: 1 ¢.c. chloroform =15 ¢.c. ether =75 c.c. alcohol. Adopting as a basis of calculation that the physiological power per unit of volume is therefore— Alcohol, F ; - 5 - ae all Ether . , : > - 4 - cas ib Chloroform , © ‘ . ‘ ° Poms) I proceeded to compare the effects of mixtures of anesthetics with those of their constituents. I found, in the first place, that the components of a mixture do not sensibly modify each other’s effects. Taking, e.g., the physiologically equivalent solutions— Alcohol. ° : ‘ . . 76 c.c. per 1000 c.c. saline Ether . : . . . » 16 ” ” ” ” Clorolorml veh we pe el 5, ” » I found that mixtures of these solutions produced about the same aneesthetic effect as did any one solution. Taking next a mixture composed of equal parts of ether and chloro- form, I found that its physiological strength was approximately one half that of pure chloroform, i.e., that a 2 c.c. per 1000 solution of the mix- ture was physiologically equivalent to a 1 c.c per 1000 solution of chloro- form alone. Theoretically, from the numbers given above, the equiva- lence should have been 1°88 c.c. of the mixture to 1 c.c. of chloroform, since the power of the mixture relative to that of chloroform is as 8 to 15. As a matter of fact, the 2 c.c. per 1000 solution of mixture had rather more effect than the 1 c.c. per 1000 solution of chloroform. Similarly, with a mixture of equal volumes of alcohol and chloro- form, in which the physiological power of the alcohol is relatively still smaller than in the case of ether, the action is still further reduced. In this case the equivalence should have been 1°97 c.c. of mixture to 1 c.c. of chloroform. These observations show clearly that in anesthetic mixtures com- posed of ether and chloroform, or of alcohol, ether, and chloroform, the principal anesthetic power pertains to the chloroform, while ether and a fortiori alcohol act principally as diluents of fhe chloroform.” Thus in the well-known ACE mixture, composed of 1A, 2C, and 3E, the shares of anesthetic power of the constituents are A=1, C=150, E=15, the total power of the six volumes of mixture is 166, which, 1 June 24, 1909. ? This is confirmatory of the statement I made in 1897 from experiments on isolated nerve, to the effect that ‘the action of mixtures of ether and chloroform (7 parts of ether to 1 part of chloroform) is additive—the sum of the action of the two constituents of the mixture,’ (British Medical Jowrnal, November 20, figs, 20 and 21.) 1909, x 306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. in relation to the power of six volumes CHCl,=450, gives as the anesthetic power of ACE compared with that of chloroform 166 : 450 or 0°37. ; For a mixtue of two volumes chloroform with three volumes ether the similar value comes out as 165 : 375 or 0°44. I proceeded to test these values by the experimental determination of equitoxic concentration of mixtures in relation to the toxicity of pure chloroform. And although the determinations have not been as numerous as I could have wished, owing to the fact that I had to make them myself and that my time is limited, yet they have given results that have been near enough to show that the method is sound. Thus with 2°5 per 1000 solutions of the mixtures (2C+3E) and (1A+2C+8E) as compared with a 1 per 1000 solution of chloroform alone, I found that the first came out ‘ too strong ’ and the second * too weak.’ In terms of chloroform power taken as =1 the values of these two solutions —0'44 and 0°87, so that to make up their solutions to be equitoxic with a 1 per 1000 solution of chloroform I should have taken 2°3 and 2°7 c.c. per 1000 for the two solutions respectively. Considering that the excess and deficiency of 0°25 above and below these theoretical values 0°23 and 0°27 is only 0°02, and consider- ing further the tentative character of those theoretical values, this result must be adinitted to be very satisfactory. It affords further proof of the statement made above that the effect of mixed anesthetics is the sum of the effects of the individual components. For all practical purposes I think it sufficient to say that I find the physiological efficacy upon muscle of an ACE mixture and of a CK to be approximately equal to that of chloroform the ACE being slightly pp y eq a5 ) § Signtty weaker than the CE mixture. _ Effect of a 2°56 per 1000 solution (by volume) in normal saline of the following mixture: (1 volume alcohol + 2 volumes chloroform + 3 volumes ether), Effect of a 1 per 1000 solution (by volume) of chloroform in norma] saline, ' ON ANASSTHETICS. 307 1) in MINN fl Te i c tk . i re HAH itt Hi) Effect of a 2°5 per 1000 solution (by volume) in normal saline of the following mixture :— Chloroform : : é : . 2 volumes Ether i ” N.B.— In each of these three records, reading from right to left, there are three groups of contractions, viz. :— 1, A group of normal contractions with the muscle immersed in saline. 2. A group of declining contractions with the muscle immersed in the test- solution. 3. A group of rising contractions with the test-solution replaced by normal saline. APPENDIX IV. The Comparative Power of Alcohol, Ether, and Chloroform as measured by their Action upon Muscular Contraction. By Dr. A. D. Water, F..S. (Royal Society, June 24, 1909). The object of the experiments described in this paper was to determine the relative physiological power upon muscular contraction of chloro- form, ether, and alcohol at various dilutions. The conclusion derived is to the following effect :— By volume . - lee. chloroform=15 e.c. ether=75 c.c. alcchol By weight . . lgrm.chloroform= 8 grms.ether= 40 grms. alcohol By molecules. . 1 mol. chloroform=13 mols. ether =100 mol. alcohol. APPENDIX V. Quantitative Estimations of Chloroform in Blood. By J. A. Garpner and Dr. BucKMASTER. The Anaesthetic and Lethal Quantities of Chloroform in the Blood.—The method we have pursued in these experiments was as follows: In all cases the percentage of chloroform vapour in the in- spired air was determined for each separate experiment. The amount of chloroform in the blood was estimated by the difference in chlorine- content of the blood before the administration of chloroform, and again at any subsequent period from the time when the chloroform-and-air mixture was inhaled. Numerous control experiments were made in order to ascertain whether the percentage of chlorine normally present in the blood of an animal remains sufficiently constant during a pro- longed experiment. This was found to be the case when ether - was the anesthetic used. Small amounts of blood withdrawn from time to time during such an experiment were found to in no way affect the percentage of normal chlorine in blood. The chlorine was estimated by the method of Carius. A known weight of blood, about three to five grammes, is treated with nitric acid and an excess of solid silver nitrate in a bomb tube heated to 200° C. for six hours. The amount of resulting silver chloride was then determined, and the difference oe = 308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the chlorine-content of the blood before and after anesthetisation with chloroform was calculated, and this gave a figure which could be ex- pressed as chloroform. The whole method is an entirely new one, and has never been employed by earlier observers. In exactness it is believed to be preferable to those methods where the determination is a volumetric one with an end point which depends upon a colour reaction. Most of these experiments have been carried out on cats, while other observers have generally carried out their investigations on dogs. The chief conclusions arrived at were that the amount of chloroform in arterial blood at the moment when some definite reflex action disappears varies with different individuals. The same is true for the lethal amount in the blood; but a consideration of all the experiments taken together shows that only a narrow margin exists between the weight of chloro- form in the blood at the moment of anesthesia (loss of conjunctival reflexes) and the cessation of respiration (lethal amount). The conclusions are represented in the following table in comparison with the results of previous observers :— Rearaal Anesthetic amount Lethal amount Observer, ; of CHCl;. of CHC];, mg. mg. Grébant and Quinquand, 1883 dogs 50 — Pohl, 1890. : c ess 18-50 : . . 35 Waller and Wells, 1903 . cats Sip os 4 ¥ grad Nicloux, 1906 ° : . dogs 50. : : - . 41-70 Tissot, 1906 . ; . s 34-40. ‘ : fs . 60-105 J. Mansion and J.Tissot,1906 _,, { oe } yen etn ls = Buckmaster and Gardner,1906 __,, 16-41 reflexes just gone. 61-69 3 i ” cats 14-27°5 reflexes just gone. 40 The Rate of Assumption of Chloroform by the Blood.—It is a familiar fact that when chloroform is inhaled the respirations may rapidly diminish in depth and frequency, or even actually stop within a few minutes. In the case of cats it is exceedingly rare not to see this effect on a respiratory tracing. Any individual animal may exhibit this phenomenon in different degrees, and cessation of respiration may be permanent unless resort is had to some means of artificial respiration. When the same animal is anesthetised several times with the same percentage of chloroform vapour, this condition, which may be con- sidered to indicate the first danger-point in chloroform anesthesia, occurs at the same time, and presents a constant type of impaired respiration. In our experiments, which were carried out on cats, small quantities of blood were withdrawn from time to time from an artery during the induction of anzsthesia with known percentages of chloroform vapour and air. The determination of the quantity of clHloroform in these samples, ten or twelve in each experiment, afforded the data from which curves could be constructed. In all of the curves the same general features were seen. In the pre-anesthetic period, or initial stages of anesthesia, at a time when the individual is conscious, the chloroform-content of the blood rises with great rapidity to a value which approaches a maximum. During this period, which occupies the first few minutes, the first danger-point in anesthesia occurs, because the quantity of chloroform in the blood directly or indirectly affects the respiratory nerve-centres of the brain. In consequence of ON ANAESTHETICS. 309 the respirations being slower and shallower, the amouiit of chloroform in the blood falls, but the fall is also due to the exit of the drug from the blood into the tissue-cells of the body. When the animal has passed this first stage the amount of chloroform again quickly rises (Amount of CHC), (in milligrammes per 100 grammes) 2 Time /0 mins. 20 Plotted curve of the amount of chloroform found in the blood of a cat during the first hour of administration of chloroform at between 3 and 4 per 100 as determined by densimetry. (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Ixxix. p. 562.) towards a maximum value, and an equilibrium between the factors which determine the amount of chloroform in the blood appears to be obtained, the processes of intake and output of the anesthetic at the surface of the lung going on side by side. In other words, a state of equilibrium is reached, which persists for a considerable period, and throughout this period the difference between the amount of chloroform present in the blood and what is found at the lethal point is very small. The state is far from one of safety, and the animal may suddenly die at any moment should any disturbing factors come into play. The whole of this period is a danger period. In the experiments quoted the percentage of inspired chloroform was maintained constant, but it is evident that the contention of those anesthetists who have insisted that after anesthesia has been established this can be and should be main- tained with a much smaller amount of chloroform vapour rests upon a sound basis. The Function of the Red Blood-corpuscles in Chloroform Anasthesia.—Experiments undertaken in order to ascertain how the anesthetic distributes itself in the blood between the corpuscles and ~ plasma proved to be exceptionally difficult. The separation of the corpuscles was accomplished by centrifugalising tubes of blood sur- rounded with ice, so as to hinder any clotting. Their conclusions, that chloroform is very firmly held by the blood of an anzsthetised animal, are in accord with all other observers. But it was also found that 310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. chloroform primarily associates itself with the red corpuscles and does not enter the plasma to any marked extent unless the anesthesia is pushed to an extreme degree, or a chloroform-and-air mixture is administered with a high percentage of the drug. After the inhalation of 2 per cent. chloroform for three-quarters of an hour no less than 98°5 per cent. of the anesthetic was held by the red corpuscles. In order to obtain additional proof that the red corpuscles, as would seem to be the case from experiments, are the essential vehicles for the carriage of chloroform, we argued that if the view was correct that the transport of chloroform was a function of the red corpuscles, then, though the absolute amount of chloroform present in the blood might be modified by abstracting or adding blood from or to an animal, the percentage of chloroform ought to remain constant. The general plan of the experiments was to anesthetise an animal with ether or nitrous oxide, allow the anesthetic to be disengaged from the body, and then administer a known percentage of chloroform. The determination of the amount of the drug in the blood was made at the asphyxial point. In one hour or an hour and a half all the an- esthetic was eliminated, and during this period a measured amount of blood was abstracted and the experiment repeated. In other experi- ments the amount of chloroform present was determined in the same animal before hemorrhage, after hemorrhage, and after the replace- ment of the blood which was furnished from another animal in such quantity as to augment the original volume of the blood by one-third to one-half. The general results of all the experiments were to the following effect : — Average amount of CHCl; per 100 grammes of blood. Before bleeding. After bleeding. Experiments in which the asphyxial state was rapidly reached,in } 0-043 mg, 0-045 mg. about 3 to 9 min. J Experiments in which the asphyxial ) state occurred in about 30 to 0-048 0-051 80 min. J After After replacement hemorrhage. of the blood. Experiments made at the asphyxial | 00421 mg. 00426 mg. point. j 00768 ,, 00768. ,, Before After After replacement hemorrhage, hemorrhage. of blood. Experiments made at the } asphyxial point. J 0-061 mg. 0:059 mg. 0-049 mg. The Rate at which Chloroform is eliminated from the Circu- lating Blood after Ana@sthesia.—All observers are agreed that after the supply of chloroform is stopped the anesthetic rapidly leaves the body. Thus, Nicloux found that the percentage in the blood five minutes after the cessation of chloroform inhalation had fallen to half its original amount during inhalation, and that at the end of seven hours the blood was quite clear of chloroform. Tissot gives, e.g., the following numbers :— ON ANASSTHETICS. 311 Milligrammes of CHCl; per 100 grammes ood, of bl Chloroform adminis- 45 min. 2 hr. tration stopped. later. later. Arterial blood oH ies 53°2 58 0 Venous blood mas ves 48-1 77 4°9 In our own experiments, immediately the inhalation of chloroform stopped a sample of blood was taken from an artery, and this was repeated at intervals, until half or three-quarters of an hour had elapsed. In other experiments venous blood taken close to the right ventricle of the heart was examined in the same way, while in a few experiments samples of arterial and venous blood were taken simul- taneously. The main conclusion which can be drawn from these experiments is that the rate of elimination of the drug from the body vid the blood depends upon the physiological state of the individual animal. The rate of loss is at first comparatively rapid, and subse- quently becomes slower. But the initial rates of elimination are much less rapid than the initial rates of the intake of chloroform, and, on the whole, elimination is a much slower process than assumption, a view which is supported, not only by the actual determinations of chloroform in the blood, but by a comparison of the times at which the various reflexes disappear and reappear. From our curves the initial falls are not quite so rapid as the work of other observers had led us to suppose. 60 50 40 30 20 10 Amount of OHCl, in milligrammes per 100 grammes, Smins. 10 15 20 Plotted curve of the amount of chloroform in the blood (arterial) of a cat during recovery irom deep anesthesia. (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxix. p. 585.) The chloroform-content of the blood was only reduced by 50 per cent. in fifteen to twenty minutes; three-quarters of the chloroform was eliminated in about half-an-hour. These statements hold good when the animal is breathing naturally, but, as might have been expected, the extent to which the lung is being ventilated during any period is the chief, if not the only, factor which determines the rate of elimination. Our experiments are in agreement with Tissot’s observations: that at the moment when chloroform inhalation stops arterial blood contains an excess of the drug when compared with venous blood, but the differ- ence between the amount of chloroform in arterial and venous blood after regular respiration is established is practically the same. . Be REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ee Percentage of Chloroform in Human Blood at the Stages of the Vanishing of the Corneal Reflex.—In order to ascertain whether the percentage of chloroform in the blood.of man was of the same order of magnitude as in the blood of cats at a similar stage of anesthesia, the following experiments were made: Three samples of blood were drawn by means of a syringe from the arm of a patient under chloroform at the point when the eye reflexes were just vanishing. The samples were taken within three minutes, and during this period the anesthetist endeavoured to keep the patient at this stage. The blood wag analysed by Nicloux’ method, with the following results :— Sample J, - : - . 0:0126 gramme per cent. of blood, Sample Il, , P n - 00117 ” » ” Sample Il], , , : - 0:0173 ” ” ” These figures are comparable with those found in animals. APPENITEX “Wi. The Comparative Physiological Power of Chloroform, Ether, and Alcohol, gauged by Intravenous Injection. By Dr. A. D. WaLLER and Mr. W. L. Symzs. Reckoning, from the observations quoted in Appendix V. (p. 307), that the average quantity of chloroform in the blood of fully anesthetised animals is about 25 mgms. per 100 gms. of blood, considering further that 100 c.c. of saline solution can take into solution 500 mgms. of chloroform, it was to be expected that it should be possible to maintain complete anesthesia by intravenous injection of saline containing chloro- form in solution. Taking, for instance, a 2 kilo. cat containing, say, 100 c.c. of blood, the injection of 10 c.c. of such ‘chloroform saline ’ introduces into the circulation 50 mgms. of chloroform—i.e., it is possible by this means to introduce no less than 500 mgms. of chloroform into the circulation, an amount far in excess of an anesthetic or even a lethal percentage. The possibility of inducing and maintaining anesthesia by intra- venous injections of emulsions of ether and of chloroform had, indeed, been shown by Arloing.t But considerations of convenience and precision led us to employ solutions, in spite of the greater dilution entailed. For obvious reasons we could not induce anesthesia by this means; we did so in the usual way by ether vapour, and the necessary pre- liminary operations, viz., tracheotomy and the introduction of cannule into the carotid artery and femoral vein, were carried out under full anesthesia. From this point onwards anesthesia was maintained com- plete by periodical injections into the venous system of 10 c.c. of ‘ chloro- form (or ether) saline.’ In a first experiment a 3 kilo. cat was maintained in profound anesthesia for two hours by fifteen such injections, containing a total amount of 750 mgms. of chloroform, i.e., at room temperature, 150 c.c. of chloroform vapour. Our object in adopting this method of anesthesia was to institute a strict comparison between the effects of chloroform and ether and other } Arloing, Recherches expérimentales comparatives sur Vaction du chloral, du chloroforme et de Véther, Paris, 1879, = Nn 1 & *(UILOJOLOPIPO “ULIS GO. SUIUILZUOD SUITS WIALOJOAOTYO *0'O OT puR ‘Toto ‘WAS ¢.9 SUIUILIMOD OUITYS IaYye ‘d'd OT) doJatmoURUT - S| [elmmoreut vw Aq uexey eanssead-poojq ay} UO UILOFOTOTYO JO puv Joye Jo yoo ‘SOY G.g ye ‘GOGI ‘6a ATUE ‘sc ‘ON JuouIaedxy = oy *(moroalur q9ZT) *(mo1qoalut W9¢) a wAoporoT YH TOI uLOL oy LZ OL 69 89 eu, 0g 08 “001 O@T hi eanssaid , 19th Report, Winnipeg, 1909. } < ~poolg S “O9L 3 ‘> o S . % O8T = SH wy ce 8 Br 7cs. Illustrating the Report on Ancesthet Report, Winnipeg, 1909. | 79th" British Association, ‘(qoyye ‘UIs F.9 “a2 “gued Jad g 4" aUI[Rs Aaya Jo ‘0°90 g) UOMQIaLUT Lay Ye YQXIS ey} JO PUL (WUAOFO.LOTYD “WAS G0.9 “9°? “queo dad ¢.9 48 , eUITEs UIIOJOAOTYP , JO *0'2 OT) UoMoalur MAOJOAOTYD YAXIS 9Y} Jo plodey OL c9 "SOY G BO og Ane Gr a oO guouitedx oy “THI T1109 ay, “Og aanssaid * 001 u0ty me - elTdsayy Jilustrating the Report cn Anesthetics. ON ANAISTHETICS. 313 anesthetics, with precise knowledge of the actual mass of the anesthetic introduced into the organism, The comparison of ether with chloroform introduced by inhalation is valuable and necessary, inasmuch as in- halation is the ordinary and regular means of introduction; but for an exact knowledge of the comparative effects of ether and chloroform at equal masses of the two drugs, inhalation is inadmissible, and it is necessary to proceed by intravenous injection. The solubility of ether in saline—upwards of 8 per cent. at ordinary temperature—permits the employment of a solution of ether in saline at 5 per cent. by weight. We used, therefore, a 5 per cent. solution of ether in comparison with a 0°5 per cent. solution of chloroform, i.e., a mass relation of 10 grammes of ether to 1 gramme of chloroform (or a molecular relation of 16 mols. of ether to 1 mol. of chloroform). In experiment No. 2 we noted that the injections of 10 c.c. of 5 per cent. ‘ ether saline ’ produced rather larger effects on the blood-pressure than did an equal volume of 0°5 per cent. of chloroform saline; but in this experiment we had not insured that the intravenous injections of 10 c.c. were made with equal rapidity, and we did not, as in our next experiment, systematically alternate the injections of chloroform and ether ; we also noted in this experiment that the ether injections produced a greater effect on the respiratory movements than the injections of chloroform. Eaperiment No. 2.—July 29,1909. Cat 35 hilos. Fall of Blood-pressure. Blood-pressure. Min. Mm. Hg. Mm. Hg. 14 Eth, 145 25 18 Chl, 160 15 32 Eth, 150 50 35 Chi, 155 35 52 Eth, 160 120 55 Ch], 135 25 67* Eth, 155 70 70* Chl,, 155 20 90 Eth,, 150 100 93 Chl,, 140 30 98 Chl,, 145 25 101 Eth,, 140 70 Experiment No. 3.—July 30,1909. (Alternate injections of 10 c.c. of Chloroform Saline and Ether Saline.) Fall of Blood-pressure. Blood-pressure. Min. Mm. Hg. Mm. Hg. Resp. 4 C, 140 80 Diminution 8 E, 100 70 ; Arrest 16 Cc, 160 70 Brief arrest 23 E, 150 70 Arrest (art. resp.) 27 C; 170 80 Arrest 32 E, 160 100 Arrest 41 C, 150 80 Brief arrest 45 E, (8 c.c.) 150 80 to 110 Arrest 4) C; 140 70 No effect 53 E, (8 ¢.c.) 140 70 to 90 Arrest 60t is 130 90 Arrest 67+ E, (8 cc.) 140 70 to 90 Arrest 74 C, 140 90 Arrest 80 EK, (8 c.c.) 100 Death Permanent arrest; * See Plate XI, t See Plate XII, 314 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. During 80 minutes the animal had had injected into the circulation 70 c.c. of chloroform saline (0°350 gramme of chloroform) and 60 c.c. of ether saline (3 grammes of ether). The effect of 0°5 gramme of ether was rather greater than that of 0°05 gramme of chloroform. The effect of 04 gramme of ether was, as nearly as possible, equal to that of 0°05 gramme of chloroform—i.e., by weight chloroform was found to be about eight times as powerful as ether. We proceeded to compare the effects of chloroform and alcohol, taking ‘ chloroform saline ’ at 0°5 gramme per 100 of chloroform, and ‘ alcohol saline’ at 16 grammes per 100 of ethyl alcohol. Our anticipation was that approxi- mately equal effects should be produced by the intravenous injection of equal volumes of these two solutions, and as a matter of fact our expec- tation was fulfilled by the following experiment :— Experiment No, 4.—August 3, 1909. Cat 2°5 kilos. Fall of Min. Blood-pressure, Blood-pressure. 4 C, 150 50 6 A, 150 50 9 Cc 150 50 13 IN 140 50 18 C; 100 40 22 E, (5 c.c.) 90 30 to 60 32 A, 5 100 20 42* C, 100 30 45* A 90 30 - In this experiment the depressions of blood-pressure by what we had taken as physiologically equivalent injections of chloroform and alcohol were practically equal; we noted, however, that the alcohol depression was more gradual and more enduring than the chloroform depression. The ether depression was characteristically double. Experiment No. 5.—August 5, 1909. Cat 4 kilos. Min. Blood-pressure. Fall. 4 Chl, 8 c.c. 0:040 gm. 200 50 6 Ale, 10 1:600 ,, 200 80 to 130 13 Chl, 10 c.c. 0:050 ,, 150 20 18 Ale, 5 c.,c. 0:800 ,, 150 10 20 Chl, 10 0:050 ,, 150 30. Death. Experiment No. 6.—August 6,1909. Cat 1:3 hilos ; injections of 5 ¢.c. alcohol suline, ether saline, and chloroform saline. Fall of Time. Injecti Blood-pressure. Bloud-pressure. Min. mC Mm. Hg. Mm. Hg. 3 A, 140 60 25 E, 130 50 45 C, 120 40 50 A, 110 50 60 AS 100 60 70 E, 100 50 80 Cc, 90 50 Further experiments will be required to bring out in detail, by the method of saline injections, the comparative effects of chloroform, ether, and alcohol (and other reagents). The examples we have quoted may, however, be taken as preliminary evidence of the mutually confirmatory * See Plate XIII. ~ *(O@UITBS UI [OTLOOTB “4u8d red gf fo ‘0° OT Jo uomoolur YyAMoF) [oooyR tAyye Jo puv (euryes UL WMOFOIOTYS “yuUsad qed ¢.9 Jo ‘A°0 OT Jo woroolur Yganoj) WiaoForOTYO FO yooH “soy G.syep ‘KOGT ‘e qasnsny ‘fF ‘ON queued x WY Lo 9F cP tPF SP “UU PUSH out, British Association, 79th Report, Winnipeg, 1909.] Illustrating the Report on Aneesthetics. ON ANMSTHRTICS. 315 character of the method of intravenous injection and of the sartorius method. By the Sartorius method (Appendix IV.) one gramme of chloroform was found to be physiologically equivalent to eight grammes of ether and ato 40 grammes of alcohol. By the method of intravenous injection one gramme of chloroform was found to be physiologically equivalent to eight grammes of ether and to 32 grammes of alcohol. The Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism of Arum Spadices.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. D. WALLER (Chairman), Miss SANDERS (Secretary '), Professor GotcH, and Professor FARMER. Tue lines along which this investigation developed during the year 1907-08 led us to pay special attention to the general question of electrical response, and, in particular, to the question of transmission in vegetable tissues. In that connection it had been found that ‘thermic stimula- tion ’ alone was capable of arousing an electrical response at a distance, mechanical and electrical stimulation being quite ineffective in this respect. This result was remarkable as being altogether opposed to the results of excitation in the case of animal tissues—nerve, muscle, heart. In these tissues, while the propagation of excitation, as indicated by its electrical signs, is quite clear, mechanical and electrical excitations are effective, whereas thermic excitation in its strict sense is exceedingly doubtful. This obvious opposition between the results in the two cases of animal and vegetable tissues led us to realise the very uncertain character of our knowledge concerning thermic excitation and the effects of heat upon the electrical state in animal as well as in vegetable tissues, and obliged us to undertake a far more extensive investigation than had been at first contemplated, viz., that of the effects of heat upon the electrical state of living tissues, animal as well as vegetable. To embrace the whole of this extensive field has, of course, been impossible. All that we could hope to do was to approach it at one or two promising points, at which we might expect to obtain positive data concerning vegetable tissues, which we have kept before us as our central point of attention. We have from time to time communicated, and when possible demonstrated, our results as regards animal tissues to the Royal Society and to the Physiological Society.2 These results, as regards vegetable tissues, are given in the present Report, together with a summary of the papers referred to below. ‘The relative ease with which electrical response appears to be aroused in vegetable tissues by heat led us to retry under improved conditions of 1 In the absence of Miss Sanders the duties of Secretary have been carried out by Mrs. Waller. ? No. 1. Do thermic shocks act. as nerve-stimuli? Proc. Physiol. Soc., January 23, 1909. No. 2. Do thermic shocks act as muscle-stimuli? JZbid., February 27, 1909. No. 3. The effect of heat upon the electrical state of living tissues—muscle, nerve, skin. Jbid., February 27, 1909, and in Proc. R.S., March 1909, 316 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. experiment the question formerly put as to whether muscle and nerve are excitable by thermic stimuli. This retrial was all the more necessary in that, although the original publications of fifty and thirty years ago by Valentin, Eckhard, Pickford, and Grutzner give answers that are in substance in the negative, most recent text-books of physiology include ‘thermic stimuli’ in the list given of the various kinds of stimuli by which nerve and muscle can be excited. So that anyone coming fresh to the subject would be justified in assuming as a fixed datum of accepted knowledge that muscle and nerve can be excited by thermic shocks, whereas, as a matter of fact, the results of experiments, when first wit- nessed fifty years ago, were more than doubtful, and there is no subse- quent sign in the literature of the subject to indicate that the experiments have ever been tried again; far less has any demonstration been given of either an affirmative or a negative answer to the question. Paper No. 1! reports the experiments and results from which we draw the conclusion that the stimulation of nerve by the brief localised applica- tion of heat cannot be demonstrated by any regular effects in the muscle or in the galvanometer, the effects, if any, being irregular (and irrever- sible) and attributable to desiccation. Therefore the answer to our ques- tion, ‘ Do thermic shocks act as nerve stimuli?’ is a clear negative. It need hardly be added that the answer applies solely to nerve fibres, and not to nerve terminations, and that it does not involve the well-known influence of heat upon excitability to ordinary forms of stimulation. Paper No. 2? gives an account of experiments made in answer to the question, ‘ Do thermic shocks act as muscle stimuli?’ It is more difficult to answer by a decided ‘ Yes’ or ‘No’ to this question, because, on the one hand, muscle gives a contraction at each thermic shock that is to all appearance a ‘ sign of life,’ in which case the answer is ‘ Yes,’ and, on the other hand, altogether similar ‘ contractions ’ can be obtained on nerve that are assuredly not a ‘ sign of life,’ in which case the answer is ‘No.’ The balance of probability is, therefore, that the answer is, as before, in the negative. Paper No. 3% contains conclusions that we regard as being of very considerable general importance towards a comprehension of the chemical changes underlying excitatory effects in animal and vegetable tissues, and offers evidence of an opposition between the electrical effects of excitation and those of a brief application of heat. As regards animal tissues we investigated isolated muscle, isolated nerve, and isolated skin; as regards vegetable tissues we used pea and bean seedlings and the young fronds of maidenhair ferns. We com- menced by observations on the sartorius muscle of the frog, repeating, under improved conditions of experiment, the observations of Worm- Miiller and Hermann, whose results we considered to be inconclusive. The uniform result of our observations, from which the fallacy caused by thermo-electric currents was carefully excluded, was to the effect that the brief local application of heat (by means of a current of warm air) is to render the warmed spot ‘ anti-zincative’ (galvanometrically positive) to any normal unwarmed spot ; on repetition of the application 1 Do thermic shocks act as nerve-stimuli? Proc. Physiol. Soc., January 23,1909. 2 Do thermic shocks act as muscle-stimuli? Jbid., February 27, 1909. § The effect of heat upon the electrical state of living tissues. Proc. Physivl. Soc., February 27, 1909, and Proc.F.S., vol. 81 B., p. 303, 1909. ‘ > ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES. 317 or by more prolonged continuous heat the warmed spot was rendered “zincative ’ (galvanometrically negative). Thus the electrical effect of little heat—z.e., of a comparatively small rise of temperature—is of the opposite sign to that of much heat—i.e., of a comparatively large rise of temperature, and to that of injury; and we think there can be no doubt that the effect of much heat is in reality an effect of local injury, which, as is well known, is of the same electrical sign (zincative or negative) as that of the effect of local excitation. We note, there- fore, as our conclusion that the first electrical effect of local heat is of heat heat heat heat Effect of heat locally applied as described in the text under B (six times repeated) and under A (four times). In the first group B is rendered anti-zincative. In the second group A is rendered anti-zincative. opposite direction to that of local excitation—.e., that the effect of moderate heat is anti-excitatory. Similar experiments upon isolated frog’s nerve gave similar results, from which we draw a similar conclusion confirmatory of the idea that the effect of moderate heat is anti-excitatory. : Similar experiments upon isolated frog’s skin were particularly satisfactory. In this case the electrical effect of local excitation was to render the excited spot ‘ anti-zincative ’ (galvanometrically positive), and that of local moderate warmth was to render the warmed spot “zincative ’ (galvanometrically negative). Thus, whereas the. effects of excitation and of heat are of reversed sign upon the skin as compared with muscle and nerve, the electrical effect of local heat is, as in the case of muscle and nerve, of opposite direction to that of local 318 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, excitation. We have, therefore, as a general conclusion covering the three cases of muscle, nerve, and skin that the effect of moderate heat 1s anti-excitatory. And we may refer back to the negative answers given to the question whether thermic shocks can act as stimuli to-muscle. Obviously the fact that ‘thermic shocks’ give upon muscle and nerve electrical effects in opposite direction to that of the effects of excitation—t.e., in an anti-excitatory direction—is in harmony with the conclusion that they do not act as stimuli to either muscle or nerve. The phenomena of heat-paralysis, moreover, which are apparently entirely non-exci- tatory, are in equal harmony with the conclusion.* Similar experiments upon plants give results similar to those obtained upon muscle and nerve—i.e., zincativity in consequence of local injury and local excitation ; anti-zincativity in consequence of moderate local warmth. So far the identity of electrical effects in the case of animal and vegetable tissues is complete. The points on which identity is not complete relate (1) to the question of transmission, and (2) the question whether thermic shocks act as plant stimuli. We do not feel prepared to give a firm answer to this second question. On the side of a negative answer we have the fact that the electrical effect of moderate heat is in the anti-excitatory direction. On the other hand, the facts concerning transmission in which ‘thermic excitation’ was employed appear to imply an affirmative answer. Nevertheless, on weighing the probabilities of the case, we think it nearer the truth to speak of excitation by thermic injury rather than of thermic excitation proper, and we incline to the opinion that moderate heat in plants as well as in animals is anti-excitatory. Note by Dr. Waller.—We find it difficult at the present stage to reconcile this conclusion with the undoubted fact that up to a certain limit the rate of chemical change is augmented by rise of temperature. It might have been anticipated a priori that sudden rise of temperature would arouse greater chemical action of the same character as that aroused by mechanical or electrical excitation, and therefore an electrical change of the same sign. As a matter of fact, however, the electrical change aroused by moderate heat, as stated above, has always proved to be of the opposite sign to that aroused by mechanical and by electrical excitation. Note by Dr. V. H. Veley.—Dr. Waller has referred to me the difficulty set forth in the preceding note. The answer, as far as I am able to judge from the data, can be given as follows :— Limiting our attention to muscle only, let us suppose a potential (and partial) chemical change, which becomes actual under slight varia- tions of conditions, of a certain nature-stuff, called hereafter, for the sake of brevity, ‘inogen.’ Let us further suppose that this chemical change can take place in either of two directions, namely those of com- bination and of dissociation, being a simple reversible change of the type X+Y 2 XY. Let us assume that such change is endothermal at a : Brecht, ‘Observations on the Nature of Heat-Paralysis in Nervous. Tissues.’ American Journal of Physiology, vol. xxii., September 1, 1908. : Serres? ieee ks ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES. 319 lower temperature and exothermal at a higher temperature, then its graph may be represented as under :— % of Chemical change Temperature The ascending portion of the curve represents chemical combination as induced by heat, the descending point chemical dissociation or decom- position induced by excitation, both, of course, being partial; the maximum point being that of injury or of initial excitation, as the case may be. The graph corresponds to the more general diagram by which Dr. Waller has represented the effects of heat and excitation, viz. :— Heat <—_ -——> Excitation or injury —> <— Such chemical changes of the inogen, as represented in the graph, correspond to well-known chemical changes such as the formation or decomposition of hydrogen iodide from or into its constituent elements, or of hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen selenide (cf. Bodenstein ‘ Zeit. Phys. Chem.’ 1899, 29, 295, 315, 429). From this standpoint it is quite conceivable that the chemical (and electrical) effects of heat and of excitation respectively should take place in opposite directions. The observations given in the Report appear to indicate that this is actually the case. The Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir LaupER Brunton (Chair- man), Mr. J. Barcrort and Lieut.-Colonel R. J. 8. Simpson (Secretaries), Colonel Sir D. Brucs, Dr. S. G. CampsExL, Sir Kenpat Franks, Professor J. G. McKernpricx, Sir A. MitcHetu, Dr. C. F. K. Murray, Dr. C. Porter, Dr. J. L. Topp, Professor G. Sims WoopHeap, Sir A. E. Wricut, and the Heads of the Schools of Tropical Medicine of Liverpool, London, and Edinburgh. Tae Committee have received a number of communications from many parts of the world bearing upon various subjects of investigation. No progress has been made with the co-ordination of the data becausa 320 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the work itivolves a considerable amount of clerical assistance, for which at present no provision exists. Researches upon the following subjects have been completed by individual members of the Committee : (1) An analysis of the climatic conditions accompanying the incidence of epidemics of influenza in London in the past twenty years. (2) One of the Secretaries, Lieut.-Colonel Simpson, C.M.G., has published the results of his investigations of the ‘ Effects of Heat in the South African War.’ ! (3) The other Secretary, Mr. Barcroft, is now engaged on a study of certain conditions of the blood which influence respiration at high altitudes. These researches will be ready for publication, in part at all events, in the course of the ensuing year. The Committee desire that they should be reappointed, and they ask for a grant of 151. The Structure of Fossil Plants.—Interim Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor F. W. Ouiver (Secretary), Mr. EK. A. NEWELL ARBER, and Professors A. C. Sewarp and F. E. WEIss. Most of the sections purchased are for Mr. H. H. Thomas’s work on the structure of the leaves of Calamites and Sphenophyllum. He is obtaining interesting results, and his paper on the Calamitean leaves is likely to appear shortly, that on the leaves of Sphenophyllum following later. Little work has been done hitherto on the anatomy of these organs, as shown in the English coal measure material, and this investi- gation is likely to prove of considerable value from the point of view of physiological as well as of morphological anatomy. The Experimental Study of Heredity.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis Darwin (Chairman), Mr. A. G. TansuEy (Secretary), and Professors BATESON and KEEBLE. (Drawn up by Professor BATESON.) ' My own experiments have consisted chiefly in continuation of the investigation of heredity in poultry, sweet peas, and some other subjects. Miss Saunders has been for the most part engaged in experiments on the inheritance of double flowers in stocks and in several other genera. Miss Killby has, as hitherto, assisted Miss Saunders in her work, and is undertaking a separate study of colour-inheritance in the annual phloxes. The results attained in these several researches will be published in due course. 1 Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, March 1909. CLART ISLAND. 821 Clare Island.—lteport of the Committee, consisting of Prolessor T. Jonnson (Chairman), Mr. R. Lioyp Prancsr (Secretary), Professor GRENVILLE CoLe, Dr. ScHarrr, and Mr. A. G. TANSLEY, appointed to arrange a Botanical, Zoological, and Geological Survey of Clare Island. Work was begun at Easter 1909 when a party cf nine members visited the island and the adjoining mainland, remaining for periods varying from five to nine days. Zoological, botanical, and geological work was carried out, special attention being given to land and fresh-water mollusca and to marine alge. On May 15 a party of four proceeded to the island; birds, worms, and Muscinee in particular being studied. They remained at work in the district for from one to three weeks. On June 8 a party of nine went to the island. The fresh-water fauna of the island and district (Crustacea, Rotifera, Hydrachnida, &c.) in par- ticular was studied. Good collections of insects were also made. In addition to these organised parties, several other workers have been sent down separately, mosses, hepatics, and lichens in particular being collected. During July two parties, numbering in all fourteen persons, have been arranged for, and much collecting and observation will be carried out. In August a party of about fifteen will go down, and in September another party. The greater part of the material collected has not yet, of course, been worked out; but some interesting plants and animals have been already recognised, including a number hitherto unknown in Ireland. Mental and Physical Factors involved in Hducation.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. J. Finp- LAY (Chairman), Professor J. A. GREEN (Secretary), Pro- fessors J. ADAMS and K\. P. CuULVERWELL, Mr. G. F. DANIELL, Miss B. Foxnry, Professor R. A. Grecory, Dr. C. W. JtimMins, Miss Masor, Der ia. Nom, Dr SPHARMAN, Miss L. Epna WADTER, and Dr. F. WARNER. Sir E. Brasroox, Mr. T. Loveday, Dr. Slaughter, Mr. Bompas Smith, and Mr. Twentyman have been co-opted upon the Committee. The Committee have during the year been engaged in a preliminary inquiry as to the nature of the work that is at present being carried on, and as to the chief centres of activity. The problems of education and instruction have been the subject of experimental inquiry of a sporadic kind during the whole of the nine- teenth century, beginning with the work of Pestalozzi in Switzerland, who, in spite of defective equipment as a psychologist, endeavoured to lay the foundations of educational practice upon established facts of mind. He aimed at the discovery of formule, psycho-physical laws, as he called them, upon the basis of which text-books of instruction might be written ; 1909, ¥ 322 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. and also advocated the establishment of institutions of pedagogical research, and of experimental schools, for which Kant himself had pleaded in still earlier days. The connection of Universities with the problem goes back to the middle of the eighteenth century, when first Gesner and then Wolf esta- blished discussion classes for future schoolmasters in connection with their chairs. It was Herbart, however, who, during his tenure of the Chair of Philosophy and Pedagogy in K6nigsberg, made the Paédagogisches Seminar an essential feature of a German University, and a pupil of his, Stoy, founded what is still the most famous School of Pedagogy in Europe, if not in the world. For a time the reputation of another Herbartian, Ziller, made that of Leipsic still more important; but Ziller’s death led to the abandonment of the most essential feature of such a Seminar from the Herbartian standpoint, viz.: the Uebungsschule. The University of Jena is now the only German University which maintains a permanent school in which the teaching of the Professor of Education may take a concrete shape, and where experimental work may be carried out. In America and in England such schools have been established more or less on the Jena model. In Chicago an experimental school was esta- blished under the direction of Professor Dewey, and in England, thanks to the generosity of a private donor, the University of Manchester has been able to place the Fielden Demonstration Schools on a permanent footing. Important accounts of work done have issued from both these schools.* Schools of this kind have usually been regarded as providing a field in which the general principles of education as taught by the Professor might take practical shape, not with the idea of attaining finality, but rather of showing ways in which principles might be applied, and of inspiring the students to fresh and varied effort in the application of them to the conditions of the ordinary schools. The existence of the school has naturally had a far-reaching effect upon the teaching of the Professor, who finds contact with reality a never-failing source of sug- gestion, as well as a testing-ground for the adequacy of his theories. In the main the problem of these schools is one of organisation in accordance with clearly conceived principles; their function is, on the one hand, to inspire students with a sense of the importance of basing teaching pro- cedure upon rational grounds, and, on the other hand, to discover the necessary compromise between principles more or less abstract in character and the necessities of the practical situation. Thanks very largely to the progress which has been made in experi- mental psychology, these schools are already in some cases serving a new cause—viz., the effort to base educational theory and practice upon ascertained facts in the physical and mental development of the child. It is difficult to appraise the work so far accomplished, but the Com- mittee have satisfaction in reporting that wide interest has been already roused, and no mean yolume of work has been placed upon record. They hope to deal with the subject in a later report. Recognition is due to those experimental psychologists who, as individuals, have taken up this aspect of mind research, and contributed largely to securing the recognition of its importance. Amongst such men, Professors Binet and Henri in France, Professor Claparéde 1 The Elementary School Record, University of Chicago Press. The Demonstra- tion Schools Record, University Press, Manchester, MENTAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN EDUCATION. 3823 in Switzerland, Professor Meumann and Professor Stern in Germany, Professor Van Biervliet in Belgium, Professor De Sanctis in Italy, Professor Stanley Hall in America, take a leading place. Whilst their methods differ fundamentally, all these gentlemen are experi- mental psychologists who have devoted themselves to inquiries of the greatest importance to the teacher. In addition to the special interest of these particular professors, numerous institutions of a more permanent character have been set up in University and other centres. The Municipality of Milan has housed and endowed an ‘ Institute of Experimental Pedagogy,’ under the direction of Dr. Ugo Pizzoli. The work of this institution was for a time recorded in its own journal, ‘ Bollettino di Pedagogia Sperimentale.’ The city of Antwerp maintains a pedagogical laboratory under the direction of Dr. M. C. Schuyten, who, in addition to the series of year-books regularly issued from his laboratory, is also responsible for researches which have been published in the ‘ Bulletins de l’Académie Royale de Belgique,’ “ Archives de Psychologie,’ &c. In Leipsic, the teachers of Saxony have founded, out of their own funds, aided by a State subvention, an Institut fiir experimentelle Pddagogik und Psychologie, with Privatdozent Dr. Brahn as its director. The Russian War Office, curiously enough, has since 1904 maintained a laboratory for experimental psychology, with special reference to peda- gogical questions. Here investigations are conducted and courses are delivered to audiences of teachers. The laboratory is now united with the Academy of Pedagogy, which was opened a year ago. Only students who have already graduated at some University are permitted to attend the courses. The Education Association of Moscow has opened a psycho- logical laboratory, and the Psychopddagogisches Institut of St. Peters- burg has undertaken an ‘ all-round’ investigation of the daily progress of a number of children from birth to their twenty-first year, and upon the basis of observed facts it is proposed to fashion their education. In Buda Pesth a State institution for research in this field was esta- blished in 1906, under the honorary direction of Dr. Ranschburg. It originated out of an effort to base the education of defective children upon a more scientific diagnosis of their condition, and its work now includes the investigation of the mental development of normal as well as of abnormal children. In France Binet’s interest has led to the foundation of a laboratory in close connection with a Paris elementary school in which the investiga- tion of children’s capacity and its development, both physical and mental, is continuously carried on. In America the psychological laboratories of the Clark University under the guidance of Drs. Stanley Hall and Sanford, and of the Columbia University of New York under Dr. Cattell, are good examples of the tendency of the experimental psychologist to pursue problems genetic in character. *. In addition to these institutions, attached for the most part to Univer- sities, a number of societies for the scientific study of children have been active in recent years. Amongst these may be mentioned the following as typical :— La Société libre pour I’ Etude psychologique de l’Enfant, which, besides showing an interest in the work that is being done in various x¥2 324 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. centres, actually itself undertakes inquiries into problems of genetic psychology. The Child Study Sociely of our own country, which is a federation of Child Study Societies in London and several large towns, publishes a quarterly journal, the ‘ Child Study’; and, though somewhat different in character, the Institut fiir angewandte Psychologie und psychologische Sammel- forschung, of Berlin, which aims at becoming a centre of information for all interested in any branch of applied psychology. As a further mark of the present-day importance of the work which the Committee have undertaken to investigate and report upon, we may note the great number of journals which are now largely devoted to the subject. In addition to those already mentioned, there are in Germany :— ‘ Zeilschrift fiir experimentelle Pédagogik ’ (Meumann) ; ‘ Zeilschrift fiir pidagogische Psychologie, Pathologie und Hygiene ’ (Kemsies) ; * Zeitschrift fiir Kinderforschung ’ (Koch, Triiper, &c.); * Pédagogisch-psychologische Studien’ (Brahn); ‘ Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Psychologie und psychologische Sammel- forschung ’ (Stern) ; ‘Sammlung von Abhandlungen aus den Gebielen der pddagogischen Psychologie und Physiologie ’ (Ziehen und Ziegler) ; * Pidagogische Monographien ’ (Meumann) ; in France :— ‘ Année Psychologique ’ (Binet) ; ‘ Bulletin de la Sociélé pour l’Elude psychologique de l’Enfant’ (Boitel) ; in America :— ‘ Psychological Clinic ’ ; © Pedagogical Seminary ’ ; besides others in the Italian, Swedish, Spanish, Russian, and Japanese languages. It is impossible in this report fo put on record the many important experiments which are being carried out in schools in America, London, and elsewhere. These are isolated, and the Committee have not yet been able to get full information about them. The value of the work that has been done cannot, of course, be measured by its volume. Some portion of it has probably little per- manent value, because it has been done by persons who are not adequately trained psychologists or are not competent educational practitioners. The Committee feel with Dr. Spearman that ‘the great need of the moment is the procural of facilities for research and the training of persons to direct it.’ They would in this connection point out the need for public assistance. It is a new and important branch of research for which few, if any, British institutions are adequately equipped. They therefore ask the Sectional Committee to propose to the Committee of Recommendations that the Council of the Association should be authorised to organise a deputation to the Board of Education urging MENTAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN EDUCATION, 325 the need of financial aid to Departments of Education in Universities and other higher institutions of learning, for purposes of research. In conclusion, the Committee ask that they should be reappointed, and that a grant of 101. should be made towards the cost of the inquiry. This sum would be chiefly expended in circularising foreign institutions and securing such literature bearing on the work that is being done as would enable the Committee to report more precisely upon the subject. Corresponding Societies’ Committee.—Report of the Comnuttec, consisting of Mr. W. WHITAKER (Chairman), Mr. W. PB. D. STEBBING (Secretary), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir [Epwarp Braprook, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H. GRIFFITHS, Mr. T. V. Houmres, Mr. J. Hoprxtnson, Professor Rh. Meupona, Dr. H. R. Mun, Mr. F. W. Rupwer, Rev. T. R. R. Srepsinc, and the PResIDENT and GENERAL Orricers. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tur Committee beg leave to recommend that the Royal Institution of Cornwall and the Liverpool Botanical Society be placed on the list of affiliated societies. Applications have also been received from the Ipswich and District Field Club to be raised from the associated to the affiliated list and from the West Kent Natural History, Microscopical, and Photographie Society for affiliation, but the Committee has deferred its decision until further or sample parts of the proceedings of these two societies have been received. The resignations of the Bakewell Naturalists’ Club and the Haslemere Natural History Society as associated societies have been accepted by the Committee. The Committee have had an enquiry arising out of the subject of photographic surveys, which was dealt with at the York and Leicester meetings, during the past year, as to starting a photographic survey of the County of Northamptonshire by the Northamptonshire Natural History Society and Field Club if the preliminary funds (about £12) could be raised. Through the outcome of a clause in the resolution passed at the Leicester Conference that steps should be taken ‘ to found or promote a photographic record of the town or district in which the British Associa- tion holds its annual meeting,’ the Committee are pleased to be able to state that an excellent exhibition of photographs, illustrating local natural history and archeology, was got together last year by the Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club. ‘The collection was shown in a room at Trinity College. The Committee desire to bring before the Council the unofficial position of the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates. They suggest that he should be ex officio 1 member of the Committee of Recommendations, and therefore in a similar position to the Presidents of Sections. 326 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Strong representations having been received as to the want of means for the publication of original work from which many scientific societies suffer, the Committee, with the consent of the Council, drew up a circular headed ‘ Suggested Publication Fund.’ This has been sent out to all the chartered and local scientific societies not wholly given up to pro- fessional interests. By the end of July rather over forty acknowledging and detailed replies had been received to this circular. These have been partly considered and analysed, but the Committee await further replies and the result of the discussion at the Conference of Delegates before drawing up their report on the subject to the Council. The Committee have decided to recommend that a discussion, intro- duced by Professor Meldola, on its ‘ Suggested Publication Fund,’ should form a part of the business to be brought before the Conference of Delegates on October 25th and 26th. Special delegates have been appointed to joi in this discussion. The Committee have also decided that the following subjects be brought before the Conference for dis- cussion :— ‘ National Anthropometry : its object, methods and local organisation. Demonstration of methods of measurement.’ To be introduced by Mr. J. Gray, B.Sc. ‘The Financial Position of our Local Societies.’ To be introduced by Mr. John Hopkinson (Watford). Dr. A. C. Haddon has promised to preside at the Conference in London and to deliver an address to the Delegates. The Committee ask for confirmation of the appointment of Mr. F. W. Rudler as Vice-Chairman and Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing as Secretary. The Committee further ask to be reappointed with the additional name of Mr. A. L. Lewis; and they apply for a grant of £25. Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held at the Rooms of the Geological Society in London, October 25 and 26, 1909. Chairman. : . A.C. Haddon, D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Chairman d eH Wiemaudlers WS Or Secretary. : . W. P. D. Stebbing. Owing to the British Association meeting in Canada this year it was decided that the Conference of Delegates should meet in London, as was the case on the occasion of the South Africa meeting of 1905. The meetings were therefore held on the mornings of October 25 and 26, in the rooms of the Geological Society in Burlington House. Previously, on Sunday, the 24th, the Director (Lieut.-Col. David Prain, C.I.E., F.R.8.) and Dr. Stapf conducted a small party round the Royal Gardens at Kew; this was followed on Monday by a visit to the Natural History Depart- ment of the British Museum at Cromwell Road, under the leadership of Dr. A. Smith Woodward, Dr. 8. F. Harmer, and Dr. G. T. Prior; and on Tuesday afternoon, by the kindness of the Council of the Zoological Society, a party visited the Society’s gardens, and were conducted round by Mr. Seth Smith. Ag areal CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 327 First Meeting, October 25. The meeting was presided over by Dr. A. C. Haddon, Chairman of the Conference, who delivered the following address :— Regional Surveys. In all our societies there are various kinds of members, who have joined for very different reasons. The remarks which I am about to make are not intended to apply to the majority of workers. They for the most part know what they want to do and how to do it, and their time is usually fully occupied. There are, however, many members who are not workers; of these there must be a considerable number who accomplish nothing because they mistrust their own ability or do not quite know what to do. In other words, these members are interested, but not sufficiently interested. The problem is, how can their imagination be sufficiently stimulated to constrain them to set to work at something ? As men have diverse gifts so have they diverse interests. If our societies could manage not only to maintain the zeal of their ordinary working mem- bers, but to arouse the enthusiasm of fresh workers in old and new subjects, the societies would increase their membership and their efficiency, and the broader the basis of interest the more stable would be their position. The widening of the interests need not lead to superficiality, for each worker can be as keen and deep a student of his own branch as his ability, time, and opportunities permit. The mingling of enthusiasts of different interests is alike stimulating and educative, and it is not loss of time to learn what others are discovering in or concerning the neighbourhood. With all diffidence I venture to make a few remarks about certain subjects which appear to me eminently suitable for the more converted study of the members of local societies. The relation of geology to the present scenery has been the subject of innumerable books and memoirs, but there is yet room for more studies of the character of Principal A. W. Clayden’s extremely valuable and interesting book, The History of Devonshire Scenery: an Essay in Geographical Evolution (1906). Our local societies can give valuable help in the collec- tion of the details upon which generalisations of this kind are based, and those members who are interested in photography can supply the pictorial illustrations. I should like to draw attention to the paper on ‘ Charnwood Forest: a Buried Triassic Landscape,’ by Professor W. W. Watts (Geogr. Journ. xxi. 1903, p. 623), as an illustration of the close connection between geology and geography. At the same time it affords an example of what can be done in a limited area by one who combines the gifts of seeing both minutely and broadly. The study of geography has now been recognised as one of primary import- ance, not only for its own sake, but as a department of other branches of study. Fortunately, the teaching of geography has undergone a fundamental change since the days when most of us were at school, and from being largely an effort of memory has become a rational subject. The inter-relations of geography with other sciences render it peculiarly valuable as a starting-point or a meeting-ground, and the junior members of our societies should be encouraged to think geographically—if only the responsible persons in the Colonial and Foreign Offices could do so, much friction, ill-feeling, and loss would be saved to the Empire ! No better illustration of my meaning can be adduced than Dr. Hugh Robert -Mill’s admirable paper entitled ‘A Fragment of the Geography of England : South-West Sussex’ (Geogr. Journ. xv. 1900, pp. 205 and 353). Allusion may also be made to Dr. D. Woolacott’s ‘The Origin and Influence of the 328 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Chief Physical Features of Northumberland and Durham’ (Geogr. Journ. xxx. 1907, p. 56), and to a number of articles in the Geographical Teacher and the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Nearly every district affords opportunities for geographical research, and guidance in such investigations is not lacking, as the Royal Geographical Society has of late years instituted a Research Department, one of the most important functions of which is to stimulate, direct, and criticise detailed local studies. In the summary of the work done during the last session it is stated that ‘one important investigation is proceeding, namely, that upon the character of our coast, and its history as regards loss and gain, change of level, &c. But there are other objects which would repay attention, and among them may be mentioned the changes effected by rivers during historic times in the position and form of their beds, the change of level of the land now in progress from various causes, and the history of the names of fields, where these are of ancient date.’ Permit me to say a word about botany, or perhaps I should say local floras. While it is necessary to compile lists of plants growing in a district, these catalogues are apt to be as dry and lifeless as the actual specimens in a herbarium. Fortunately the living interest given to field-botany by the late R. Smith (Botanical Survey of Scotland: I. Edinburgh District; IT. Northern Perthshire, 1900) has led to fruitful results, and the plant-ecologists who follow in his steps have done most excellent work, such, for example, as the following :— ‘ Geographical Distribution of Vegetation in Yorkshire,’ by W. G. Smith and C. E. Moss, Geogr. Journ. xxi. 1903, p. 375, and by W. G. Smith and W. M. Rankin in Geogr. Journ. xxii. 1903, p. 149. J. G. Baker in his North Yorkshire, 1885, and F. A. Lees in his Flora of West Yorkshire, 1888, have adapted to Yorkshire Thurmann’s attempt in 1849 to classify vegetation according to the mechanical constitution of the underlying rock ; this was a step in advance, but modern ecology takes a wider view. ‘Gecgraphical Distribution of Vegetation of the Basins of the Rivers Eden, Tees, Wear, and Tyne,’ by F. J. Lewis, Geogr. Journ. xxiii. 1904, p. 313, and xxiv. 1904, p. 267. ‘The Vegetation of the District lying south of Dublin,’ by G. H. Pethy- bridge and R. L. Praeger, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. xxv. B. No. 6, 1905, p- 124. ‘ Peat Moors of the Pennines: their Age, Origin, and Utilization,’ by C. E. Moss, Geogr. Journ. xxiii. 1904, p. 660, may be instanced as an inves- tigation that has a more human aspect. There still remain many areas in the British Islands where nothing of the kind has been done, but which will afford ample opportunities for local botanists. Even in the well-worked subject of zoology there is much that can be done in addition to the record of the local fauna. There are numerous aspects of ecology that require to be studied. Even such a simple matter as whether birds eat butterflies requires further observation. It would not be uninterest- ing to record the faunal variations that occur from month to month in a selected sheet of water, or to note if the tributaries to a stream or river differ from one another as regards the facies of their respective fauna, and, if so, to seek for an explanation of the difference. The inter-relations of climate, soil, flora, and fauna present illimitable scope for study. The Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club has set a good example in its survey of Lambay, an island off the coast of County Dublin, and in that of Clare Island, now in progress, which might well be followed. The results of the former survey were published as ‘ Contributions to the Natural History of Lambay’ in The Trish Naturalist, vol. xvi., January and February 1907, while those of the latter will be published by the Royal Irish Academy. A fascinating and far-reaching subject is masked under the somewhat CORRESPONDING SOCIBTIES. 329 repellent title of anthropogeography. This deals with the geographical distribution of man and the geographical control (as it is now so frequently termed) of man, his actions and works. Although much has been written on the effects of climate, geographical and geological conditions, and environ- ment generally upon human occupations and settlement, there is yet a large field for the energies of local observers. Inquiries such as these are at the same ee geographical, ethnological, archeological, historical, and socio- logical. As an example of more strictly ethnological inquiries, permit me to refer you to a paper on ‘ The Ethnography of the Aran Islands, County Galway,’ by A. C. Haddon and C. R. Browne (Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. [8] ii., 1893, p. 783), and to the subsequent papers by Dr. Browne in later numbers of the Proceedings. The subjects investigated were as follows :—I. Physiography, including the main geological and geographical conditions, climate, flora, and so forth. II. Anthropography, including statistics of hair- and eye- colour, physical measurements, vital statistics (population, acreage and rental, language and education, health), psychology, names. ITI. Sociology, including occupations, family life and customs, food, clothing, dwellings, transport. IV. Folk-lore V. Archeology (survivals, Christian antiquities, pagan antiquities). VI. History, &c. The methods of investigation, subjects studied, and mode of presentation of facts could be considerably improved ; but I cannot but feel very strongly that we need investigations of this nature from every part of the country. Not only as regards savage and barbaric peoples, but also at home, our watchword should be the extensive study of limited areas. At the risk of appearing egotistical I may draw your attention to my Study of Man (London: John Murray, 1898), wherein numerous examples are given of various branches of ethnology which can be studied in our own country, and where I have also described some of the methods of ethnographical investigation. There are signs that the value of studies of this nature is being recognised. A short time ago I read a review of a recent book by Jules Sion, Les Paysans de la Normandie Orientale, stating that ‘ this work endeavours to describe the physical environment as mankind found it in Kastern Normandy, and then goes on to trace the influences of that environment on the life of the inhabitants, together with the complex reactions of human activities on the characters of the district. .... The reader of this work will be tempted to hope that some day the local and provincial authorities of Britain may read studies of this kind, which would be invaluable helps towards working out an evolutionist and non-partisan policy for the healthy economic and social development of the districts under their charge.’ -How detailed local study can elucidate history is exemplified in a sugges- tive paper entitled ‘ The Inclosure of Common Fields considered Geographi- cally,’ by Dr. Gilbert Slater (Geogr. Journ. xxix. 1907, p. 35), in which the author studies ‘‘‘ the extinction of village communities”? or ‘‘ throwing parishes into the melting-pot.’’ These phrases imply that in places where common fields, as distinct from commons, are inclosed (1) there was, before inclosure, a definite survival from ancient times of the village community ; (2) that such inclosure was a village revolution, a crisis in the village history, from which the village emerged with its social constitution materially altered. - . . . The inclosure of common fields is, it is clear, a feature of our national history, which needs to be viewed from the geographical as well as from the legal, agricultural, economic, and social points of view to be fully under- stood.’ Mr. Laurence Glomme’s ‘The Story of London Maps’ (Geogr. Journ. xxxi. 1908, pp. 489, 616) indicates what may be done in a sitnilar direction for other towns. ; It is net possible to give every example of a local history on broad lines, but I should like to draw your attention to The Evolution of the Ancient oo) REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Town of Pickering in Yorkshire, by Gordon Home (London: J. M. Dent & Co. 1905).* It would be advisable, if we could, to get more of the local photographic societies to work in harmony with other societies than is at present the case. They have their own proper functions, such as the interesting and training of beginners, the giving of demonstrations of various technical methods, artistic photography, and the like. There is, however, no reason why photo- graphers should not co-operate with other workers and photograph scenery, geological sections, plant-colonies, folk-lore subjects such as old customs, - old buildings, and other objects which are of interest for their antiquity or history, or which are in danger of destruction. By being pressed into this service they would assist their colleagues in other departments, and at the same time could follow out the special objects of a photographic society. There are several counties which have a committee or society devoted to a photographic record survey. These need to be increased, and smaller units might be made, since possibly a regional photographic survey might appeal to more people than would a county survey; at all events the two are not mutually exclusive. It would be presumptuous of me to offer you advice, but I would like to ask your consideration of the advisability and feasibility of local societies making it a part of their function to consider their area as a whole. By doing so they can attract new members and stimulate both the newer and the older workers. Wherever an individual’s interest may lie, there is almost certain to be something of local interest that will appeal to him. There is plenty of scope for the usual type of field-naturalist and antiquary; at the same time there are new ways of regarding old subjects which need fresh workers. Even while details are being amassed there should always be kept in view the reasons for their accumulation. I should be the last to ignore the fact that all work that is worth doing necessitates a great deal of tedious labour ; observations have to be made and remade, and the discipline of research must be regarded as one of its rewards; but, at the same time, the labourer should from time to time raise his head from his immediate work and look around him. Facts by themselves are liable to be but dull things; it is their inter- pretation that really counts. A heavily laden hulk makes very slow progress, and, on the other hand, a vessel with very little cargo but carrying much sail is liable to heel over. It is surely one of the functions of the Council of a local society to strike the balance between the two extremes. I would there- fore suggest that those in authority in the local societies should definitely direct local effort. The results obtained by individuals or groups of workers would be published in most cases, I presume, in the Proceedings of the Society or in some other journal ; but if they were reprinted in the local newspapers a great stimulus would be given to the intelligent teaching of geography and history in the schools, since immediate and actual facts are more interesting and impressive to most people than those that are remote, which must at the same time almost necessarily be vague. Mr. William Dale (Hampshire Field Club and Archeological Society), in proposing a vote of thanks to the Chairman for his address, said the Conference was under deep obligation to Dr. Haddon, whose sug- gestions were most valuable, and who had shown a singular aptitude 1 Since giving this address there has appeared a very valuable and suggestive book by Miss M. F. Davis, entitled Life in an English Village: an Economic and Historical Survey of the Parish of Corsley, in Wiltshire (Fisher Unwin, 1909). A work of this kind supplies invaluable data alike for the theoretical and practical economist, and while it may be profitably imitated by workers in other districts, each investigator would naturally vary the treatment of the subject pre to his (or her) previous training and predilections and the character of ne district. CORRESPONDING SOCIBTIES. 331 for setting other people to work. He hoped that when the address was printed it would come forth in an enlarged form, and be read by all the Societies which were represented that day, as well as by those who were not. As an instance of the value of employing others, Mr. Dale said that his own large collection of prehistoric objects was formed largely through his teaching workmen who dig the soil what to look for. He hoped that each county in England would be able to find someone who would record the earthworks within its borders. He had succeeded in finding a worker who was now successfully scheduling those of Hampshire. He also said that, although the appointments on the Ancient Monuments Commission were not all that could be desired, it was the duty of the local societies loyally to assist that body. Mr. F. A. Bellamy (Ashmolean N.H. Society of Oxfordshire) seconded the vote of thanks. Mr. F. Balfour Browne (Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club) was very glad that the subject of regional surveys had been raised, but he feared that the Chairman expected too much from the amateur. A survey of Lambay Island had been made, and another of Clare Island was in progress. Such surveys resulted largely in mere lists of species, and it was only the trained biologist who could make use of these. The amateur was doing very good work as a collector, and as a rule we should not expect more from him. Mr. Hopkinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society) spoke as to the importance of surveys, whether geographical or biological, being undertaken on a definite plan and by concerted action, and as to the false impressions which might arise from one district, be it a county or other division, having undergone thorough investigation, while others had been entirely neglected. At any time from about the year 1865 to 1890, he said, it might have been inferred from the recorded distribution of the Freshwater Rhizopoda in the British Isles that they were almost exclusively confined to Ireland; but as they have not been investigated there for the last thirty years or more, and have been assiduously collected in a few districts in England, Wales, and Scotland, Ireland would now have been far behind in the number of its known species had not he, in a few days’ collecting in County Wicklow last year (September 1908), more than doubled the number hitherto known for the whole of the Emerald Isle. A more striking instance of the misleading effect of isolated instead of concerted effort is that of our knowledge of the Diptera of Hertfordshire. In the British Museum there is a collection of about 1,000 species of flies from Felden, Boxmoor, not one-quarter of which are known to occur in any other part of Hertfordshire. The collection was formed by Mr. Albert Piffard, and in it there is only one flea, whilst the Hon. N. Charles Rothschild has found thirty species of pulicide at Tring, not one of which, except the Felden species (which is not Pulez irritans), has been recorded from any other part of the county. The list was published last year in the Transactions of the Society he represented, and although he did not think that Hertfordshire was particularly troubled with flies in general or with fleas in particular, he doubted whether any other county could show nearly so large a list of either. In the discussion Dr. G. B. Longstaff, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Mr. H. D. Acland also spoke. On the motion of the Chairman the meeting passed a hearty vote of thanks to the President and Council of the Geological Society for permitting the Conference of Delegates to meet in the Society’s rooms. The Secretary then read the report of the Corresponding Societies Com- mittee to the British Association at Winnipeg. The Secretary announced that the Rules of the Association had been amended so as to include the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates among the ex officio members of the Committee of Recommendations. _ Mr. H. D. Acland (Royal Institution of Cornwall), as a matter on which Bie REPORTS ON THE STATH OF SCIENCE. tlie Conference might express an opinion, suggested that the British Asso- ciation should be the central body to encourage and direct local societies, that a circular should be sent to all such societies, whether in correspondence or not, suggesting that discoveries or original work should be reported to the British Association, and asking that schoolmasters and children and employers of labour should be desired to report any matter of interest to the local society. Myr. F. Balfour Browne gave notice that he intended to bring up before the next meeting of the British Association a proposal that a committee of biologists should be formed to recommend the adoption of a definite system on which collectors should record their captures. The real use of the collectors’ list is for the student of distribution, and if all the records were made on a definite system the regional surveys would be of definite use. The county and vice-county system, as laid down by H. C. Watson (Cybele Britannica), was probably the best, but there were several modifications of it used by different investigators, and it was necessary that some one form of it should be officially recognised. If this were done the regional surveys would be really valuable, and since all branches of biology would be worked on the same basis, the inter-relationships of the various subjects could be brought out. Mr. John Gray (Royal Anthropological Institute) introduced the following subject :— National Anthropometry: its Objects, Methods, and Local Organisation, National anthropometry may be described, as far as we are concerned, as the study by exact measurements of the origin, racial composition, and evolution of the British nation. A. time comes in the history of every science when an attempt is made to measure the somewhat vague qualities with which perforce the infant science is content to deal. ‘The qualitative science becomes quantitative. Such a change has already taken place in such sciences as chemistry. The change has begun, though it is yet far from complete, in the science of anthropology. We may define anthropometry as quantitative anthro- pology. We can measure with great precision the bodily structure of man, for example—his weight, height, head, and other anatomical dimensions— we can also measure with fair precision his physiological functions, such as the acuity of vision and hearing, tactile sensibility and muscular power ; but a beginning has only just been made by the anthropologist in the exact measurement of the higher mental functions. These last promise to be the most important of all the departments of anthropometry. The objects of national anthropometry may be roughly subdivided into— lirstly, those of purely scientific interest, such as questions of the origin and racial composition of our people. Secondly, those of more utilitarian interest, such as the present-day evolu- tion of our people, and the probable changes that may be brought about by the new conditions of modern life. The value of anthropometry in identifying the various racial elements in our population, in ascertaining approximately the epochs of their settle- ment in this country, and in determining their affinities with other races, may, I think, best be explained by shortly describing some of the results that have already been achieved. It is now pretty generally accepted among anthropologists that the average physical characters of a people tend to remain constant for vast periods ef time if there is no admixture with other races and no great changes of the environment. In Egypt, for example, it has been proved by measurement that the average head-dimensions of the peasantry have remained practically constant for some ten thousand years. GORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 3393 The ratio of the head-breadth to the head-length has been found to be a very valuable index of race. This, when expressed as a percentage, is termed the cephalic index, and races having a high cephalic index are said to be brachycephalic, those having a low cephalic index dolichocephalic, and those with a medium cephalic index mesocephalic. In a map showing the geographical distribution of cephalic indexes among the various races of the earth it will be seen that the grand centre of brachycephaly is in the mountainous regions of Central Asia, and that it spreads with reduced intensity through Asia Minor and the Alpine regions of Central Europe. The native Indian tribes of America are mostly brachycephalic, while dolichocephaly is practically universal in Africa. In the south and north of Europe the populations are inclined to dolicho- cephaly. These general facts give us a datum-line for the determination of the probable racial affinities of the prehistoric races of Britain. I show a chart of the average head-dimensions of the known prehistoric races of Britain. The position of each race on the chart is determined by using its average length and breadth of head as a kind of latitude and longitude, the diagonal lines showing the cephalic indexes. The earliest skulls found in Britain (with the éxception of one solitary palzolithic specimen) belong to the neolithic or late Stone Age. This race is represented on the chart by two groups, one measured by Davis and Thurnam and the other by Schuster; both these groups are dolichocephalic. Following the neolithic race, at the beginning of the Bronze Age, a short hyper-brachycephalic race, with a cephalic index of 86, entered Britain. Knowing what we do about the stability of the physical dimensions of races, it appears to be impossible to believe that this race was derived from the neolithic race. Its nearest affinities, as far as is known, are with some of the brachycephalic mongoloid races of Asia. Coming after this short hyper-brachycephalic race of the early Bronze Age we have a tall brachycephalic race of the later Bronze Age (the round barrow- men), which from its position on the chart may well be a blend of the two previous races. Then we have the Saxon type of the Iron Age, which closely resembles the modern Scandinavian type, as we should naturally expect from historical evidence. Thus we see that where historical and anthropometric evidence overlap they agree. This gives us some confidence in the anthropometric evidence, which may fairly claim that it contributes an important part of the light that relieves the long night before the dawn of history. Traces of these prehistoric races ought to be found in the living popula- tion of the British Isles, and, as far as measurements have been made, this is found to be the case. Comparatively few measurements of the living races have, however, been made, and this is one of the questions of the greatest scientific interest which would be solved by a National Anthro- pometric Survey. If the Corresponding Societies were to undertake such a survey they might be able to tell us whether the cephalic index of the population is higher than the average in the districts where the hyper-brachycephalic skeletons of the early Bronze Age have been found—for example, in Wales and on the east of Scotland from the Forth to the Orkneys. cSisy Again, we should look for a dolichocephalic type, tall and fair, in the regions which history tells us were conquered and colonised by the Anglo- Saxons. The extent to which these characteristic traits of the Teutonic or North European race have been modified will give a fair estimate of the amount of admixture with other races or of the influence of known changes of environment. ‘ et. These illustrations may give you some idea of the immense scientific interest of extensive measurements of the living population. 334 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The private enterprise of a few anthropologists has resulted in a some- what superficial survey of some of the physical characters of our population. A map?of the distribution of stature in the British Isles has been prepared from data collected by the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association, but it should be noted that the map has been prepared from measurements of only 8,585 persons, a quite inadequate sample of a population of forty millions. Dr. Eeddoe has prepared maps of the hair- and eye-colours of the British Isles, which are undoubtedly of the greatest value, though the number of observations again are far from sufficient. The scientific enthusiasm and patriotism of the school teachers of Scotland has enabled them to carry out a pigmentation survey of the children in the primary schools of Scotland. But all the anthropometric work that has hitherto been done in the British Isles is quite inadequate to give a correct representation of the physical characters of our population. As an indication that a complete anthropometric survey will show that quite different racial types will be found inhabiting different parts of the country, I exhibit a cephalic chart of a number (not very large) of measure- ments I have made of persons drawn from all parts of the British Isles. The contrast, say, between Yorkshire and Cornwall and Devon is very marked. But much more numerous data would be required to establish these results. The utilitarian applications of national anthropometry are likely to be of immense value to the social reformer. The evolution of man is deter- mined by the actions and reactions that take place between man and his environment. The genetic environment by the process of natural selection determines the capacities of the stock; the trophic environment controls the growth and activities of the living bodies, and produces a more or less efficient population from a given stock. It is of immense importance to know which of these modes of action of the environment exerts the greatest influence on man for good or evil. On this depends whether social legislation should be directed in the first place to the improvement of the trophic factors, such as nutrition, housing, physical training, education, &c., or to the introduction of genetic measures | which would improve the stock by selection. The collection of exact data by the measurement of the physical and mental characters of the people and the factors of their environment is the only method by which the above-mentioned problem can be solved. By the calculus of correlation the degree of association between any given factor of a child’s environment and its physical and mental characters can be determined and compared with the influence of stock on the same characters. For example, it has been shown by Miss Elderton that the stcck of the parent has more influence on the physique of the child than the presence or absence of drinking habits. Only the scantiest data exist at the present time for the solution of these vital problems, and such few and statistically imperfect examples as have been worked out appear to show that our measures of social reform are more often than not misdirected. Apart from the changes in our environment that have been introduced by legislation within the last century, the vast social changes that have been introduced by the growth of industry require to be carefully studied and directed by periodic measurements of the population. A few of these changes may be realised from the charts in a recently published Blue Book (Cd. 4671). Within the last fifty years the population of England has doubled, and almost as great an increase has taken place in the population of Wales * See Report Brit. Assoc., 1883, p. 264. —-_ Fo. le TT ae CORRESPONDING SOCIBTIRS. DOD and Scotland. The population of Ireland, on the contrary, has decreased by 33 per cent. Unless the mating, fertility, death-rate, and gains and losses by migration of the population have been very nicely adjusted a considerable change in the physique of the people may be expected from these great changes in the number and distribution of the population. Another great change that has taken place within the last fifty years is the great increase in the proportion of the urban population as compared with the rural population. Fifty years ago only one-half the population lived in towns; to-day 77 per cent. of the population do so. Now, this does not mean, as has often been supposed, that the country has been depopulated, for it will be seen by the diagram exhibited that the rural population is only four to five per cent. less than it was fifty years ago, 7.e., it has remained practically constant, while the whole increase of the popu- lation has accumulated in the towns. The conditions of life in town and in country are vastly different, and the relative rate of increase of different classes may be expected to be very different. Is this great change making for the improvement or the deteriora- tion of the people? That is a question which can only be settled by periodic national anthropometry. From the same Blue Book I exhibit a map showing the distribution of pauperism in England. Is this peculiar distribution due to race, or to the special conditions of the districts in which the people live ? The maximum pauperism appears to correspond very closely with the area occupied by the southern Saxons, the Jutes of Kent and the Angles of North England being free from the taint. This would suggest that pauperism was more affected by stock than by trophic environment, which cannot, as far as one can guess, be very different in these districts from that in the rest of England. If more exact observations were to prove that if was indeed associated with the Saxon race, then we should have to come to the conclusion that the race which, by its spirit of adventure and fine military qualities, once conquered England has now succumbed in the struggle for existence when the environment has been changed from the military to the industrial. This is another question that can only be settled by national anthropometry. National anthropometry will never be adequately carried out until it is established as a State institution. The Government have been asked to undertake this important work, which has been recommended as of primary importance by the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration. They have taken one step in the right direction by directing the annual measurement of the weight and stature of the children in primary schools. But this is not enough to give a sufficient estimate of the physique of the nation. Japan, Denmark, and Germany have shown more alacrity than our own Government in adopting the suggestions of British scientists. No measurements of adults are made by the State, and this in the mean- time must be carried out, as far as possible, by private enterprise. The Corresponding Societies of the British Association appear to be specially fitted to take up, to some extent, the work neglected by the State. Each society might form an Anthropometric Committee, which would organise the work in its own district. Complete instructions for carrying out anthropometric work have been drawn up by the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association, and will be found in the Report published by the Royal Anthropological Institute at the price of one shilling. Local societies have done good work in the past by their observations on local botany, geology, zoology, &c. Why should they not perform equally good work in local anthropometry? This science is not more difficult to master than the other natural sciences in which they have already achieved 336 REPORTS ON THE STATR OF SCIENCH. so much; it is equally if not more interesting, and the results obtained would be of the greatest utility in promoting the higher efficiency of the nation and maintaining our position in the front rank of the great nations. [A demonstration of methods of measurement was then given. ] In the subsequent discussion Mr. A. L. Lewis (Royal Anthropological Institute) remarked, in reference to Mr. Gray’s pauperism map, that the type of Poor Law Guardian in the respective localities might perhaps be usefully investigated as an assistance to the solution of the problem. The following members of the Conference also spoke :—Colonel Underwood, the Rev. R. Ashington Bullen, and Messrs. F. Balfour Browne, W. Whitaker, Mark L. Sykes, and W. P. D. Stebbing. Second Meeting, October 26. The meeting was presided over by Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman). Thanks were passed to Mr. Gray for attending, before the business of the day commenced, with his measuring instruments and demonstrating their use. The Chairman read a motion relating to the work of the British Asso- ciation and its corresponding societies, brought forward by Mr. H. D. Acland, but the subject, after discussion, was withdrawn. Professor R. Meldola introduced the discussion’ on the ‘Suggested Publication Fund’ circular of the Corresponding Societies Committee. This points out that— ‘There is reason for believing that many, if not most, of the scientific societies in this country are suffering from want of sufficient means to enable them to publish the results of -original investigations which are presented by their fellows or members. The scientific activity of the country, as represented by the publications of these societies, is steadily increasing; but with this increased output of scientific work there has not been a corresponding increase in the finances of the societies concerned, and so in many cases their resources are strained to such an extent that their Councils are unable to publish much of the original work done, or, if they spend to the utmost extent of their resources upon their publications, their work in other directions is crippled. ‘This state of affairs has recently been discussed by our Committee, and it is considered that the time is opportune for getting an expression of opinion from all our scientific societies, with a view to deciding, if thought desirable, upon some line of action. As assistance is required towards the cost of publishing, it has been suggested that the establishment of a Publication Fund of the same kind as the Government Grant for Scientific Investigations, now administered by the Royal Society, would be the best method of dealing with the difficulty. How such a fund could be obtained, and whether the assistance of the Government should be asked for, are questions which could be considered after the general principle of the necessity of obtaining some such means of promoting work, which is really of national importance, has been decided upon.’ The circular goes on to specify the form of the present direct State aid for the promotion of scientific research. It considers the necessity for a hody of evidence on the state of affairs and the means available by scientific societies for publication. Continuing, it suggests that the societies receiving the circular can show ‘ Whether it is desirable that any concerted action should be taken with a view to relieving scientific societies of a portion of the burden of publishing the results of original investigations’ and whether ‘the increase of the Government grant by an amount to be earmarked for this particular purpose would be the most effective means of rendering such assistance.’ Ihe Committee point out that to carry weight in any action CORRESPONDING SOCIRTIES. 337 that may be taken it is important that facts and figures should be cited by each Society in addition to its general views. The circular is signed by the President and General Officers of the Associa- tion and ten members of the Committee. Mr. John Hopkinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club) introduced the following subject :— Lhe Financial Position of owr Local Societies. A few days ago I examined the most recent balance-sheets of a dozen of our affiliated societies, taking only those which I knew to be doing good local work. A bare majority appeared to be in a sound financial position, but the rest were not so. ‘Two had transferred funds from their life-membership account to provide for their ordinary expenditure, one of these transferring £10 and leaving a balance of £5 due to the Treasurer. One had spent £10 more than its income and had a balance of £10, so that with another similar year its funds would be exhausted. One had an adverse balance of £52, and the report stated that the work of its museum was much crippled for want of adequate funds ; its expenditure included interest on bank overdraft. The fifth showed a deficiency of £73. Thus five out of the twelve appeared to be in a critical position from want of funds. The figures given are approxi- mate only. I will now give a little information about the Society which I represent and its financial position. When, on removing from London to Watford in 1874, I suggested the formation of a Natural History Society and asked a geological friend to be Treasurer, he hesitated to consent because, he said, his office would be a sinecure, for there were not half-a-dozen scientific people in Watford. The Society was founded in January 1875, and numbered 150 in its first year, including five honorary and five life members. The membership extending over the county, the title of the Society was changed, in 1879, from the Watford to the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, and in its palmiest days numbered 288 members of all classes and possessed over £350, mostly invested. About that time a botanical member, A. R. Pryor, died and bequeathed to the Society his botanical library, herbarium, MSS., and £100 (reduced to £92 by legacy duty) for the upkeep of the library. His MSS. chiefly con- sisted of a Flora of Hertfordshire, which the Society published at a loss of £205 on the subscription list for it, and since its publication the sale has realised on the average scarcely one-half per cent. per annum of that loss. Owing to loss of members from lack of interest in East Herts, to deaths and the removal of members from the county, chiefly from Watford, and to the few new members who can be obtained, the income of the Society is now greatly reduced, only £100 is invested, being half the amount of the composi- tion fees of forty existing life-members, and there has lately more than once been an adverse balance at the end of the year. When the Society was founded scarcely anything was known of the natural history of Hertfordshire, using this term in its widest sense, except the geology, and to that the members have added much information in the Transactions. The meteorology of the county has been very thoroughly inves- tigated. For twenty years the monthly results of observations at four Climatological Stations have been published annually (for twelve of these years at five stations), and for the whole period of thirty-four years tables of the monthly rainfall at numerous stations, now numbering over fifty. Owing to the large amount of tabular matter these meteorological reports are expensive to print. The information they give has proved of great practical value in questions relating to water-supply. In addition to the publication of Mr, Pryor’s Flora, much botanical information has been given, chiefly relating to cryptogamic plants. In almost all departments of zoology much 1909, Z 338 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. good work has been done, and it may be said that practically all the know- ledge we possess of the zoology of the county is due to the existence of the Society. The prehistoric archzology and the topography of the county have also received much attention, the most complete list extant of the maps of any Enylish county being that of Hertfordshire published by the Society. It runs to 164 pages, has maps and other illustrations, and cost £62, the author providing the blocks for the illustrations and contributing towards the expense of printing the last of the four parts of which it consists. Of other important papers may be mentioned one of thirty-two pages on Hert- fordshire earthquakes and a list of Hertfordshire Diptera of twenty-eight pages. The Transactions have from the first been almost entirely devoted to the publication of the results of local scientific investigations. Fifteen volumes, comprising 4,900 pages with ninety-one plates and numerous text-figures, have been published at a cost of £1,700, and a new volume has been com- menced, but owing to want of funds we are a year behindhand, having only. just printed the papers read during the session 1907-8. The Society has accumulated, chietly by exchanges and the Pryor bequest, a valuable scientific library, but from want of funds for its proper accommo- dation it is stored in an almost inaccessible room lent gratuitously by the Watford Urban District Council, and the subscription to several scientific journals has had to be discontinued. The formation of a museum was commenced, and the collections formed the nucleus of the Hertfordshire County Museum at St. Albans, which the Society was almost solely instrumental in founding. The museum is free, and has, on the average, from 150 to 200 visitors per week. It has been made, by a member of the Society, a Climatological Station, and a Daily Weather Chart is shown at the gates and is much consulted. The Society presented a petition to the Hertfordshire County Council which resulted in an order being issued protecting our rarer and beneficial birds, the schedule being drawn up by its ornithological members. It organised two public meetings, which resulted in Bricket Wood Common being preserved as common land in its natural state ; and lately it assisted the Watford Field- -path Association, an offshoot of the Society founded by its members, in calling a public meeting which was greatly instrumental in fifty acres of Cassiobury Park, which had been sold for building-land, being secured as a public park for Watford, and entirely so in securing that this park is open to the remaining portion of Cassiobury Park instead of being surrounded by houses. Great economy is exercised in carrying on the Society. There is one paid assistant whose salary has recently been reduced from £5 to £3 per annum. Authors now have to pay the cost of providing illustrations for their papers, and instead of being presented with twenty-five reprints, twenty copies of the Transactions are cut up for their use. Although the membership has been much reduced during the last twenty, and especially during the last ten years, the number of its working naturalists and the interest taken by them in its proceedings has increased, and more and also better local work has lately been done by them. Much, however, remains to be accomplished, especially in the investigation of the lower and minuter forms of life, and the value of the annual reports by the various Recorders increases as they extend over a greater length of time. This is especially the case with meteorological and phenological observations, and it would be a matter of great regret if the tables of monthly rainfall could no longer be published, or even if there were a break in their continuity. It is towards the expense of such costly contributions as these, and of such important works as the late Mr. Pryor’s Flora of Hertfordshire and Sir George Fordham’s Catalogue of Hertfordshire Maps, that a contribution from an oatside source would be most welcome. a CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 339 It may be asked, Why not economise by printing less? The answer is that nothing, except an occasional Presidential Address, is printed but the results of local investigation or what is helpful in such investigation and may encourage it ; and there is no other local medium for the publication of such matter ; and also that many of the members live at too great a distance from the places where meetings are held to attend them, and therefore can only be retained on our list by giving them something worth having in the Trans- actions in return for their subscriptions. A joint discussion then took place on the two subjects. Sir Alexander Pedler (British Science Guild), in reply to an invitation from the Chair, said he could only give the meeting information on the subject of the deputation of the British Science Guild, about eighteen months ago, to the Postmaster-General, with a view of obtaining a reduc- tion in the rate of postage on the publications of scientific and learned societies. In that connection about 110 important societies were approached, and almost all were strongly in favour of the proposal as giving much-needed relief, and they joined in the arrangements which culminated in the deputation. It was considered most anomalous, and indeed unfair, that while printed matter, consisting largely of advertise- ments, on which a profit was made, and which are absolutely of no permanent value, could, if only registered as a newspaper, be sent by newspaper-post, under which a weight of five pounds cost only a halfpenny ; on the other hand scientific publications, such as those issued by the Royal, Chemical, Physical, and other societies, which are of the utmost value to the progress of the nation, and which are produced at great cost and not for profit, could only be sent by post at a cost which is usually six or eight times as great as that of a newspaper, which is published in order to make a profit for an individual. However, the Postmaster-General could not see his way to grant the desired relief; but his reply was very sympathetic, and he showed himself to be distinctly in favour of some aid being given by Government to help scientific societies to carry on their valuable work. The British Science Guild did not, however, consider that this reply finally disposed of the postal question, and there was an intention to raise the subject at some future date, when circumstances are more favourable. Dr. Alexander Scott (Chemical Society), who submitted a detailed table of the expenditure of his society on publications from 1900 to 1908 inclusive, drew attention to the continually increasing cost of this branch of their work. A considerable sum in the balance-sheet was incurred through their custom of handing over to some of their younger fellows literature on chemical subjects, the matter of which was abstracted for publication and paid for at a low rate. The Chairman, Dr. A. C. Haddon (Royal Anthropological Institute), who spoke on certain aspects of the subject as it affected his society, was followed by Mr. A. L. Lewis, who added that the Royal Anthropological Institute publishes a very large and handsome Journal in half-yearly parts, at 15s. each, free to the fellows, whose subscription is two guineas per annum. It also publishes Man at one shilling monthly, but it is not able to supply this free to the fellows, for want of funds. The postage on these publica- tions is, of course, a large item. The Institute occasionally receives reports and papers for publication in its Journal from the Foreign and Colonial Offices, and is very glad to do so, because they are often extremely valuable ; but it would also be glad to receive—what at present it does not—a grant to pay for the printing of them. The financial position of the Institute is, however, better now than it was a few years ago. Mr. E. B. Knobel (Royal Astronomical Society) gave details of his £2 340 REPORTS ON THE STATIS OF SCIENCE. society’s expenditure on their publications and the amount per cent. of their income. He deplored the present-day want of conciseness. With regard to the easing of the burden of postage, the deputation to the Post- master-General showed insuperable difficulties to be surmounted in dis- criminating between societies. His society was a rich one and in a different position from local societies, but he would like to have more statistics. He bore testimony to the loyalty of the amateurs of science and the valuable unpaid work that was done. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell (Zoological Society) pointed out that the adminis- tration of any Government fund for aiding scientific publication would involve a very severe scrutiny of the quality of papers read at the meetings of local societies. Many such papers would lose their local utility if they were reduced merely to the new matter they might contain, whilst the difficulties of local societies would be increased if it were known that the publication of memoirs could take place only after a rigid censorship. On the other hand he expressed his opinion that there was no difficulty in getting good new work published by the local societies, and that it was of great im- portance that the number of publications in which new contributions to science were published should be diminished rather than increased. In zoology alone there were already over 1,200 publications in which such new work might appear, and even the combined London libraries did not contain all of these. He opposed the establishment of the suggested fund. The Rev. 'T. R. R. Stebbing said he rather expected to be in the invidious position of a single dissentient. But the last two speeches encouraged him to hope that his own point of view has its fair share of supporters. Indirectly, indeed, it derived assistance from an unexpected quarter last Sunday morning in Westminster Abbey, when the Bishop of Colchester was pleading for the thousands of clergy with inadequate incomes. He mentioned many futile expedients suggested for increasing those incomes. One was that the clergy should write. The objection to that was, he said, that a great many of them cannot write—meaning, of course, that they cannot write anything of saleable, money-getting value. But further, he said, as a rule we don’t want them to write; we want only those to write who have a true gift for it. The very same rule applies to scientific writing. Again, yesterday morning our Chairman in his address alluded to some out of the way subject, something like pithecanthropogeography, and explained that when he was taking it up he immediately found that innumerable books had been written upon it. The fact is that however obscure, however minute the branch of science on which a student enters may be, he presently finds that it has been handled in a vast variety of widely distributed treatises which it is more or less difficult to get hold of. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell has just been insisting on this. Now the library of the Zoological Society is perhaps the best in the world for zoology, the most accessible, the most friendly; and yet the Secretary confesses to this difficulty, and however readily the library offers its resources workers in the North of England may not find it easy to use them. Why should we go about to increase the complexity of scientific literature? The present proposal, at least as originally explained to him, must have that effect. It is a proposal which he had strenuously opposed before it was made, at any rate before it received its present embodiment. When you send round to all the scientific societies in the kingdom, inviting them to uphold an appeal to Government for financial assistance, naturally in upholding such an appeal many of them will expect to share in the spoil. Probably there will not be such societies as the famous Royal Polytechnic of Cornwall, the premier, he believed, among local scientific institutions, but others of quite different quality, however meritorious in their way. Accordingly the grant runs the risk of being used, in part at least, for bolstering up ‘pauper’ scientific societies, help- ing lame dogs over stiles into fields where lame dogs are not wanted, CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 841 increasing tho output of a literature which is already overwlhiclming, and multiplying centres of publication when every effort is desirable for their greater concentration. Mr. J. A. Longden (Institution of Mining Engineers) said the matter appeared to him to be a question of pounds, shillings, and pence, and he knew their late Secretary had been very anxious that the Postmaster-General should put scientific postage on the same rate per pound as any other printed matter. The Institution he represented had 3,000 members, and the contribution was two guineas per annum, and to meet deficiency the subscription had recently been raised. Any saving effected by this method would undoubtedly assist in the publication of good papers. As to the suggestion that a Government grant should be obtained, Professor Milne told him that a few years ago the Government granted 1007. per annum towards the cost of his wonderful records in the Isle of Wight, and a Board of Trade official went to see him, and told him what the requirements of the Board of Trade would be in consideration of the grant named. The Professor said he begged to decline the grant, and thought he knew best how to carry on his work. The speaker thought this 1007. per annum now went to Germany. The difficulty is that the Post- master-General will not be willing to reduce his receipts voluntarily, and on the other hand the Government will not make grants without attaching conditions. He suggested that the Postmaster-General be pressed in common fairness to accede to this request. Mr. Balfour Browne suggested that the spirit of Socialism was invading the scientific societies since it was proposed to ask for State aid for the pub- lication of their papers. He was entirely opposed to this step, and considered it unnecessary. The local societies publish a good many papers which are quite outside their scope; for instance, the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society published a few years ago papers on the ‘Butterflies of Switzerland,’ and there are numerous similar examples. These societies could save expenses on this sort of paper. So long as there is sufficient energy in a district to keep a society going that society will not go bankrupt, and it is most advisable that if the interest wanes the ‘society should be allowed to die, and should not be kept alive by outside aid. A good paper can always find a publisher, and the cure for the present state of poverty of some of the societies is the cutting out of papers which have nothing to do with the work of the local society. Mr. Whitaker said that the discussion under the last speakers seemed to him to have largely gone off the point. The Committee, in their proposal, had certainly no idea of subsidising presidential addresses. What was wanted was help for only important papers, and although the Government grant to the Royal Society was available to outside societies it was so small that it had to be largely used for publishing the research-papers of the Royal Society itself. Mr. H. D. Acland (Royal Institution of Cornwall) thought that it appeared to have been forgotten that there are two classes of scientific societies, large central and small local ones. Small local ones should be self-supporting. Papers worthy of publication could he read before large societies, if accepted by them. Societies should be very chary of accepting grants from the State, as it would involve State control. Papers worth publishing by State aid should be State Papers. Mr. William Watts (Geological and Mining Institution of Man- chester) said the publication fund under discussion had been considered by his Council, who saw difficulties in obtaining a grant from the Government in carrying on the work of the society, but would be glad if some concessions could be made to them in reducing the cost of transmitting the society’s pro- ceedings through the Post Office. His society was not directly in want of funds, as the members’ subscriptions maintained them, but an easement in 342, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. the cost of postage would enable the proceedings of the society to become more widely known. Mr. J. Howard Reed (Manchester Geographical Society) said that he was not in favour of a fund for publishing original work, but was for some arrangement that would ease scientific societies of the burden of postage. Colonel Underwood (Ipswich and District Field Club) said: Several dele- gates have deprecated any grant being asked for from the Government, but these gentlemen represent rich societies with comparatively large incomes and a high entrance fee. The society I represent has a low entrance fee (2s. 6d.), but { venture to think we are doing a good work, and we are publishing a journal entirely composed of original research. In accordance with the views of our Chairman, which he has set forth in his excellent address on ‘‘ Regional Surveys,’? we have grouped our field club into sections, each under a leader, which are carrying on original research in several sub- jects, notably in marine biology at Felixstowe by means of sea-dredging and microscopic investigation. It seems to me that the difficulty which some of the speakers pointed out of the danger cf encouraging by Govern- ment assistance the publication of journals of no use to science might be avoided by allocating the grant to some society, such as the British Associa- tion, who could appoint a committee to decide from a perusal of the journals which societies were worthy of participating in the grant. If. science in this country is to be decentralised and made more generally popular, it can only be done by judiciously assisting those societies which are full of zeal and doing a good educational work, but are in want of the necessary funds to extend their operations. Our members are largely composed of school-teachers whose means are small, but who, as the leaders of the young, should be encouraged in every way. Mr. A. B. Harding (Catford and District N. H. Society), speaking as the representative of a small local association, said that they had a membership of seventy-five, each paying an annual subscription of 3s. ; new members also paying an entrance fee of 1s. Unlike many societies represented here to-day they had no adverse balance, never having been in a position to open a banking account. So far from being able to publish papers read, we can only afford to issue notices of forthcoming meetings. Yet much of the work done by members is original and of high value, e.g., memoirs of long-continued observations on British alien plants, the effect of controlled diet on Lepidoptera, and many geological and archeological points of importance, the publication of which could hardly fail to prove helpful to science. Personally they seek no recompense ; all they suggest is that papers of special merit, selected by the Committee, should be submitted to the Council of the British- Associa- tion, and whenever their judgment is in favour of publication a grant towards this object should be made out of any funds obtained for such a purpose from the Treasury. Dr. G. B. Longstaff (Entomological Society of London) said that the society which he represented occupied itself not only with the necessary systematic work, but had of late years been greatly concerned with bionomic problems. For the solution of the latter it was essential that naturalists should publish their observations, and not take their knowledge with them to the grave. In the study of the working of natural selection it was of great importance to have numerous exact and repeated observations of, e.g., the attacks of birds on butterflies. Mr. G. A. K. Marshall had got together a mass of evidence, but much more was required. Sportsmen (in many cases half naturalists) might collect such information, so might gardeners. Tropical collectors had several times of late complained that they did not know what observations were required. They did not know what to look for, and if interesting facts came to their notice often failed to record them. He proposed the following resolution : = —s CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 343 ‘That this meeting hopes that the British Science Guild will persist in its efforts to induce the Post Office to give scientific societies the same postal facilities as the publishers of newspapers and traders in general.’ This was seconded by the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing. The discussion was continued by Mr. Mark L. Sykes (Manchester Microscopical Society), who put forward a proposal that was not seconded ; the Rev. J. O. Bevan, who approved of the principle of Dr. Longstaff’s motion; Mr. W. A. Nicholson (Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society), who as a member of a body numbering 270 members,: with small funds, was in favour of the Publication Fund; and Professor R. Meldola, who said that he would be pleased to co-operate at some future date in Dr. Longstaff’s proposal, but that the present time was hardly suitable to re- introduce the subject. Sir Alexander Pedler said that a reconsideration of this matter by the British Science Guild was at present in abeyance. Dr. Longstaff’s proposal was then passed by the meeting on the understanding that it would be con- sidered by the Corresponding Societies Committee. The Rev. J. O. Bevan submitted the following proposal to the delegates : ‘That this Conference expresses its opinion that the Government be asked to enlarge the grant already allocated to the Royal Society.’ Professor R. Meldola criticised the proposal, as it presupposed the willingness of the Royal Society to administer such an enlarged grant. Mr. R. A. Bellamy (Ash- molean N. H. Society of Oxfordshire) having spoken in favour of the Publication Fund, Professor Meldola moved the following amendment: ‘That, in view of the opinions elicited during this Conference, the question of the advisability of taking further action be referred for consideration by the Corresponding Societies Committee.’ This was seconded by Mr. Whitaker, and carried. The meeting then adjourned, after passing a hearty vote of thanks to the Chairman for presiding. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 44 Pe] 3) c “Ayponune “q30doy = "p-9*sz £O{UIOOSS'Y| ATOM “DOSS | SATYQUOTL ,“9S1]BANJVNY YSIT, | s"s¢ StequleyY | :*sg "qQuoyy | Zl | “Ayenuus ‘sZuypee01g “SOT "SOT 00F “AT[enuUe ‘suOT? 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IBTIE 1 J SOC SPONDING " a} CORRI “P9801 SEqUIOOSSV S's 7] SIsqMeyT *A[1eqieub ‘jeusinor *A[PVUOISBOOO'SUOIJOVSULLT tavak 8 ad1Mg ‘s5uUIped001g *s]qQuouL (IUIZVSeP sui9 gies, *ApavoA-J/ by ‘[euInor -A][enuus ‘sZuipsoo01g “Ayyenuue ‘qaodey pus suoljoBsuVIy, *A[]vnUUe *‘q1oday pus suoljoBsuBay, *syyBnuuse ‘sSurpsso01 gg “Aypenuue ‘suo}} -OBSULIT, pur ssulpsed0Ig *“Alpenuus ‘suoljovsuesy, * 3 ab *A[YQUOUL's1ON UI SUG aU, | | jo ‘4suy jO suoljovsueay | ‘sZp PUB ‘sez au0N ose‘l 4 : . “Ayenuae “SUOIqOBSUBI, “sg ou0oN ¥8z “ATyQUOUIs.VOUI ZU SULUTY JO “48Ul JO suorlgo¥suR.y, “SOT ‘IT auoN 90€ 4 - * (v,, 2’, --+ 5 2) y), in which the lowest term in y alone is of degree n, can be expressed as a product : (y® + ayy™-2 4+ 266 +Qn-1Y + An) B (Hy + + y Up Y)s Where a,,a,... a, are convergent series in 2, . . .,%,, which vanish with these arguments, while @ is a convergent series in all p+1 variables with a constant term different from zero. The theorem is-important because it enables one to separate from the function F a polynomial whose roots are the only values of y which can satisfy the equation F=0 in the neighbour- hood of the origin. The original proof by Weierstrass, and most of the later ones, depend upon function theory. Goursat, however, recently called attention to the essentially elementary character of the theorem, and gave a more direct demonstration. In the present Paper a proof is given which seems still simpler than that of Goursat, and formule are set down by means of which the coefficients in the series @,, @, . « .) Up, ® may be readily computed. 390 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 5. On Ideal Numbers. By J. H. Grace, M.A., F.R.S. 6. On a Correspondence in the Theory of the Partition of Numbers. By Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S. 7. A Continuant of Order N+I which is expressible as the Product of N+I Facters. By Professor W. H. Merzier, Ph.D. The theorem of this paper may be expressed as follows. The continuant :— Bi aa. 0 0 0 ma(a—B) r—ap 2aa 0 0 0 (n—1)a(a—B) 7 —2aBp 3aa 0 0 0 (n—2)a(a—B) r—3aa 0 : : : : . . *—(2u—1)aB naa 0 ; a(a—B) r—nap = {r+na(a—B)} {7 +na(a—B) —2aa+aB} {r+na(a—B) —4aa + 2ap} nf Arennay ae Ss. o P8 . (1) It will be observed here that each factor differs from the preceding by the quantity «8 —2aa. If in this theorem we put a=8=1 it reduces to 7 a 0 0 0 n(a-—1) r—1 2a 0 0 0 (w—1)(a-1) r—2 3a 0 0 e . = {r+n(a—1)} {r+n(a—1-2a41}...fr—na}. . © 2 « (2) a theorem due to Painyin.! If in (1) B=2a all the factors become equal to (*—zaa), and the theorem becomes r aa 0 . 0 —naa —2aa 2aa ° 0 0 —(n—l)aa + —4aa 3a 0 0 j i — ae r—2naa = (r —naa)r*! . . r ° . (3) Tf in (3) we put aa=1 it reduces to a special case of (2) noted by Painvin (loco citato). Tf in (1) we put 8 =0 it reduces to r aa 0 0 0 naa r 2aa 0 0 0 (n—1)aa r 3aa 0 0 , f r naa 0 e * aa r = (7? —n?a%a*) (1? — (m —1)?a70").. ee eeee eee (7? — aa") or = (7? —n?a7a*) (1? — (1 —1)?a70")..0.. ese eee (7? —2?a’?a?)r according as x is even or odd, the factors coming together in pairs . . (4) If in (4) we put aa=1 it reduces to a theorem given by Sylvester.? 1 Journ. de Liowville, iii. 2 Now. Annales de Math., xiii. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 391 8. Imaginary Geometry of the Conic. By Professor Eutery W. Davis, Ph.D. In this paper a comp!ste representation is given of the elements of the central conic whose axes are non-similar complex quantities, making it depend upon the representation of two auxiliary circles having each one of the axes for their radii, The entire plane, with the exception of the interior of a certain fundamental conic, is covered with pairs of conics, each pair connected by vectors that are the representatives of the complex elements, 9. On the Invention of the Slide Rule. By Professor FLortan Casort. When and by whom was the slide rule invented ? Some say Edmund Gunter, 1620 or 1624; Augustus De Morgan said William Oughtred, 1632; most writers of to-day say Edmund Wingate, 1624, 1626, 1627, or 1630. De Morgan’s claim that Gunter invented ‘Gunter’s scale,’ but not the slide rule, can be verified by consulting Gunter’s works, which are easily accessible. No one denies that Oughtred invented the circular and the rectilinear slide rule; that his Latin MS., describing them, was trans- lated by William Forster into English and published in 1632 and 1633. The main question is, Did Wingate invent the rectilinear slide rule, and is he entitled to priority? Hutton, Benoit, Hammer, Favaro, Mehmke, D’Ocagne, Henrici say Yes; De Morgan says No. But De Morgan had not seen all Wingate’s works, most of the other writers had not seen any. We have had examined all of Wingate’s mathematical works, which had not been seen previously by De Morgan and Benoit. None contain the slide rule, and Oughtred is the inventor of it. The following books by Wingate have been examined: L’usage de la regle de proportion en Varithmétique et géométrie, 1624, seen by Benoit, copies in Bodleian Library (Oxford), in Bibliothéque Nationale and Bibliothéque Mazarine (Paris) ; Use of the Rule of Proportion, 1626, 1628, 1645, 1658, 1683, the 1645 edition seen by De Morgan, copy in British Museum ; Arithmétique Logarithmique, 1626, seen by De Morgan; Construction and Use of Line of Proportion, 1628, copy in British Museum ; Of Naturall and Artificiall Arithmetique, 1630, 1652, copy of 1630 edition in Bodleian, of 1652 edition in British Museum; Ludus Mathematicus, 1654, 1681, seen by De Morgan ; Use of the Gauge-rod, 2nd edition, in Bodleian ; The Clarks Tutor, 1671, 1676, copies in Bodleian, 10. The Asymptotic Expansions of Legendre Functions. By J. W. Nicuouson, Nie AS NT) Se* The results given in this paper are generalised forms of those relating to Bessel functions. The Legendre functions are defined by the contour integrals, in the plane of a variable ¢. w+,1+,u-, 1-. a = Mace o(m +2) 2] jim] o—n (#2 n ae Pum) 4n sinner (n) et) (2 (=1)@—p)* = Tip l 1 em tmnt)) m+n 2 x Q”,(4) a Aataae ar aoe ) (ni [ore —1)"(t-p)yr-m with a cross-cut from ¢=1 to f= —o. When m is a positive integer, this definition yields Gee. Q,”") ( Bp) J (? Fs 1) q™ | dp™ i aA Q,) (1) 1 B.A, Report, Dublin, 1908, 392 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. and in general, the apes admit the following expansions: ? 4m (2) Pm) = eat a =) F(—n,n+1,1-m,43(—p)) 1p] <2 (2) Q,"(#) = n+m+1 o( 2 ) o(-3) n+m+1 m—n1 = 1, Qm— 1 ek(m—n)nt = es If i Ay Geel 4 eT —~—) =) id = wk: + Qn ener ) ake =e (u2—1)™ jae ea 8: ) . —m— pameyO where //< 1 and pis slash e. If be negative, the exponential has argument 3(3m + 2)ri. (c) If |n/>1, m = 2-7-1 ima @( + Mm) w( — 3 3) (n° abe. a +n+2 m+n+t 3 BS Q, (#) e o(n+4) “pment ( 2 4 2 : Soeur = -_ (a) If |p| >I, >m(,)— Sin(n+m)r _o(n+m) (w?-1)™ n+m+2 n+m+1 cage F (#) 9+. cos mr o(n +3) o(— ~4) pmenet F( ) 4 oy, Rat Dy =) “a +2 w(n—%) min—m p(mao-ntl m—n 1 _ a; rer pres yg cid Gear pomuaar r These define the functions of argument greater than unity. mis [ul<1, P,,(u) is defined as the common yalue of e+ '™” P ™(u4 20.7) and 2 e'™™ Q™(n) = eH Q (wn + 0.7) + etm” Q™( —0.2), The expansions of the paper, when 7 is large, are as follows :— Let A,, A.» . . » be a series of coefficients satisfying k'(k? ~1)(r — 2)(r —4) (7 —6)A,_¢ + 4(2 — 3k*)(r —2)(r -—3)(" -4)Ay_4 + (1 +2) {K? + 8k?(7 — 2)? — (7 — 2)?}A,_2 + (r—1) {(2n + 1)*-(n—1)?}Ar =0, with A, =1, A, = — (4k? +1)/8((n + 3)?—-1°), Af (n+ $)?-27)A, = ~ 64?(2 — 3k”) + 3(4K? — 1)(28K? —9)/8{(n + 3)? - 1°} where k=m|(n+}), so that, if % is not of order greater than unity, A,, A,;, A, are of the same order, but A, of order n? less, and so for every third coefficient. Moreover, let D denote the operation mt d d \2 d\3 = _ He Ms ( ay D1 + He (an) a a ian) where the p’s are given identically by Ltpyvtpot? + 2... S(L+AvtAge?74+ 2.7, and have the same property of convergence as the X’s. Then the following expansions exist, for a real argument, 7 being large:— Case 1: p>1, m1, m>n+4, which is not integral. The expansion in this case only differs from that of Case 1 in the form of t, which becomes kp+(v? +h)! k-1 fs 21 72)8) _ be tne 3=D. Tog, {w+ (+h) }—5 1 iu? +h Bel If m and x are both integers, P,"(1) must be defined with another multiplier, and the expansion is readily obtained, Case 3: O als Seth m) ree i ie ah Siegen where D’ is the operation D with the signs of p,,p,;... cena Casa 4; ; k>1, p<, 2 o(n+m : PMH) = ae agg) A= ty RB sin n+m a Q,"(#) = 7? ay (2.1—p?)"? R} cos Py 1-p? A, Per Neae ‘ak As Drie Bev (ey * i o* Kaito: dis) 2) eee ee ; ~log ae + yy } Case 5: k(1—2). The expansion is that of Case 3, with a change of p to Cay o*(” + 3) p{5 (P+ vb +h ahs is Spiga! 27 w(n+ m)o(n =r 2 loge . kp — (ke +7 a ea leg Gs i") —log p+ (i? 40°) by 394. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, Case 6; When p<1=cos 6, and cos 6= mn + 3 nearly, 6723-'mni(cos es Pu) = SOUR) Tae C) sin — +pr(3) sin (¥ *) a(n—m) ‘ f'r(2) sin(=) eras sh, 6733-*mi(cos 8}'Q,™(H)P™(H) = — = { T (5) cos 7 +pr(3) cos (+) Ome) her =2n+1 i y (sin 0-5" ise Picton m cos” 8 and is small. By the use of the relation J im(2) = Pn=co Pn {cos § Sp and its analogue, it may be shown that all the expansions for Bessel functions given in a previous paper are special | cases of these. The toroidal functions, with 2 + } integral, are excluded from the investigation, 11, Report on Bessel Functions.—See Reports, p. 33. DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL PHYSICS. The following Papers were read :— 1. On Threefold Emission-Spectra of Solid Aromatic Compounds, By Professor E. See Reports, p. 129. 2. The Influence of Electrolytes on Colloidal Ferric Oxide Solutions. By E. F. Burton. A commercial ferric oxide solution was dialysed in conductivity water, and the velocity with which the particles moved in a unit electric field was observed from time to time. At first, as the solution was purified, the velocity of the particles increased, but as the purification was carried on the velocity gradually decreased in almost linear relation with the amount of chlorine found in so colloidal solution. The influence of a potassium phosphate on the velocity of the particles was measured, and was found to be analogous to the action on the Bredig copper colloidal ‘solution previously tried by the author (Phil. Mag., May 1909). A comparison of the coagulating powers of monovalent, divalent, and trivalent ions on the colloidal particles indicates that the Linder-Picton- Hardy law holds. 3. Separation of New Radio-aciive Disintegration Products. By Dr. Orro Hann. The disintegration theory of Rutherford and Soddy has brought forward a long list of radio-active products, which have distinct chemical and physical properties, and which may be separated by various methods, Some of these products emit @ particles, some 8 particles, some emit TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 395 a and g particles, and some do not seem to emit rays at all. The a par- ticles for each special product are emitted with a quite definite speed, which is characteristic for the product. This apparently does not hold true for the 8 rays. The absorption curves for the 8 rays are in some cases ecmplex, and seem to indicate complex 8 rays; in some cases the absorption curves indicate cnly one type of rays. In collaboration with Dr. Lise Meitner, the author began, two years ago, an investigation of all the various B-ray products, with the view of comparing all the separate and single products under identical conditions. As the result they put forward a working hypothesis that single radio-active products emit only one type of radiation, either homogeneous a particles or homogeneous 8 particles. In the view of this hypothesis all products emitting a and B rays or complex B rays must be complex and be separable into two or more single products. The working hypothesis proved fertile in the case of the active deposits of thorium, actinium, and radium. The active deposit of thorium consists of four different, single products Th A, B, C, D, thorium D being a new product with a life period of three minutes, emitting the 8 rays which formerly were attributed to Th C. The active deposit of actinium consists of three different single products, Act A, B, C, the latter having a period of 51 minutes, and emitting the B rays which before had been attributed to Actinium B. In the case of the quickly decaying active deposit of radium, we have apparently single 8 rays from radium B, complex ones from radium C; therefore radium C must be complex and consist of three products, onea and two 8 ray substances. It is, of course, a matter of great diffi- culty to separate by chemical means very quickly decaying products, and I have therefore made use of the ‘recoil method’ of separating radio- active disintegration products. The effects in the case of pure radium C were very weak; but this was to be anticipated supposing the a rays to be omitted from the rest product of radium ©. The result seems to show that really radium C is complex, consisting, besides the nineteen minutes product, of one substance of about 1-2 minutes’ period, and one with an even shorter life. But there is still a better possibility of proving the correctness of the hypothesis. The authors have found that radium itself emits B rays of a quite distinct character. As it has long been known that radium itself emits also a particles, in the view of the hypothesis radium itself must be complex and consist of two different products, say radium and radium X. Some recent experiments seem to indicate that this might be the case, and it looks as if radium itself emits easily absorbable 8 rays only, and the hypothetical substance radium X emits the well-known a articles. If further work should prove radium to be complex, there is little doubt that the few other radio-active transformation products which still emit complex rays are complex, atid therefore may be separated. We might then be in a position to find some relation between life periods and other qualities of the products and the kind and velocity of the rays the products emit. 4. On the Secondary Rays excited in different Metals by Alpha Rays. By Professor J. C. McLennan. In this paper an account was given of experiments which led to the following concliasions :— I. The secondary rays emitted by a selected metal when bombarded by the alpha rays from polofium deposited on copper are proportional to the intensity of the alpha radiation. 3896 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. II. The secondary rays excited in thick plates of different metals by alpha rays of constant intensity from polonium were measured by the electrical charge acquired under the emission of the secondary rays by the plates when insulated in high vacua. The following order of intensities was found fot the different metals :— Tntensity of é Secondary Rays Platinum . ‘ ; é Fi ; ; ‘ : A . 62:02 Silver . : 3 7 P 6 Fi . ‘ . - 61:08 Zine . ;: : 5 é ‘ A , 5 ‘ . 60°76 Lead . . ‘ . ci 4 0 ‘ 0 4 - 59°85 Copper . . : . . : 3 . . . . - 50°75 a) os : : A ; 4 5 5 < : 5 . 49°48 Aluminium . . . . . . . . . - 47:08 III. The delta rays from deposits of polonium on the metals zinc, lead, aluminium, and copper were found to be proportional to the intensities of the alpha radiation from these deposits, 7.e., the delta radiation appeared to be independent of the metal which carried the deposit of polonium. IV. Considerations were presented which support the view that the delta radiation is produced by and accompanies the alpha particle in the course of its expulsion from the polonium atom. 5. On some Phenomena associated with the Radiations from Polonium. By V. BE. Pounn, M.A. In this paper experiments were described dealing with the electrical charge acquired by an insulated metal plate B placed close to and facing an insulated copper plate A bearing a deposit of polonium. A series of curves was submitted which made it clear that, by the use of moderate electric and magnetic fields, at least three types of radiation were present and exerted an effect of greater or less degree on the charge acquired by the plate B, viz. (1), the alpha rays emitted by the plate A ; (2) an easily absorbed secondary radiation emitted by the plate B consisting of negatively charged particles; and (3) an easily absorbed delta radiation emitted by the plate A. With the application of high electric and magnetic fields, however, results were obtained which indicated the existence of a radiation which had hitherto escaped detection, of negatively charged particles from the polonium deposits. From the behaviour of this radiation under various conditions it was censidered to consist of streams of rest-atoms from the active product Radium G or polonium. 6. Anode Rays and their Spectra. By Dr. Orto Rercuennem. See Reports, p. 124. 7. On Clark and Weston Standard Cells. By H. L. Bronson, 'Ph.D., and A. N. Suaw, B.A. This paper dealt mainly with the accuracy and reproducibility of Clark and Weston cells, and it is hoped that it may throw further light on the value of the cell as one of the two legal electrical standards. The work has been very much facilitated by the courtesy of the Bureau of Standards at Washington, where one of the authors, at the suggestion of Dr. H. T. Barnes, spent some time in the summer vacation of 1908 in studying the construction of modern standard cells. At the invitation of . TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 397 Dr. F. A. Wolff we have been glad to actively co-operate with the Bureau in the work it has been doing along these lines. I. The Reproducibility of the Cells when prepared according to the Specifications of Wolff and Waters.—The mean of fifteen Clark cells made in this way differed, a few weeks after their construction, from the mean of the reference cells of the Bureau of Standards by less than 14 microvolts. The average deviation of our cells from their own mean was not more than 13, while the maximum deviation was only 31 microyolts. In the case of the Weston cells the figures were similar, but showed somewhat better agreement in every case; the difference between the mean of thirteen cells and the mean of the reference cells at the Bureau of Standards being in this case 4 microvolts, the average deviation of the cells from their own mean being 8, and the maximum deviation being 22. Some of the Clark and Weston cells were made in Washington by one of the writers and subsequently transported to Montreal. A means of direct comparison with the values of the cells at the Bureau of Standards was thus obtained. This comparison has recently been checked by a second inter- change of cells. We have also had in our possession six Weston cells made at the National Physical Laboratory in London. One of these was damaged in transit; the mean of the other five differed from the mean of our other cells by only 5 microvolts. Il. The Effect of Introducing Slight Simplifications into the Preparation of Materials.—About twenty-five cells were constructed in order to examine the effects of slight simplifications in their preparation. It was found that the ingredient of main importance is the mercurous sulphate, which must always be prepared with great care. When unpurified mercurous sulphate was used in a cell, the average electromotive force was found to be from 300 to 500 microvolts higher than that of the normal cell. The purification of the zinc and cadmium salts is not so important, and as the processes are somewhat tedious, especially in the case of cadmium sulphate, it is interest- ing to see what accuracy may be obtained with various samples of chemically pure commercial sulphates. It was found that no Clark cell made with this modification differed by more than 50 microvolts from the mean of our normal cells, while no Weston cell differed by more than 100 microvolts. Such cells are therefore sufficiently accurate for all practical work. The presence of basic oxide, oil, or small quantities of organic impurities was found to exert only a very small influence on the electromotive force. III. The Relative Value of Cells set up according to the Board of Trade Specifications and those set wp according to the Specifications of Wolff and Waters.—Ten Clark cells of the old ‘ test-tube crystal’ type were prepared from a number of different samples of chemically pure commercial materials, for the purpose of ascertaining how much they differed in voltage from those set up according to the modern specifications. The average electromotive force of these cells during the first seventy-five days, neglecting the first day, was 0:31 millivolts higher than the mean of our normal cells. The average deviation of these cells from their own mean was considerable, about 0:06 millivolts, which suggests that there might be a possible variation of three or four in the last figure of the mean for different batches of ten cells set up with different materials. It is therefore in good agreement with the value (0°00030 volts) given by Wolff and Waters. IV. The Ratio of the Electromotive Force of the Weston Cell to that of the Clark.—The determination of this ratio, which had also been obtained at the Bureau of Standards, was made with the object of furnishing a further check on the reliability of the comparison between our cells and those of the Bureau, and to give added assurance that no errors had been introduced by transportation. Five Clark cells were connected in series and placed in opposition to 398 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, seven Westons similarly connected. The difference between the two sets was then measured on a Kelvin-Varley slide by the usual potentiometer method. The ratio obtained was 0°716953, which differs from the ratio 0°716958, determined by Wolff and Waters, by only seven parts in a million. This difference, small as it is, is entirely accounted for by the small differences, as ascertained by direct comparison between our cells and those made at the Bureau of Standards, 8. On the Action of Alpha Rays upon Glass, By Professor E. Ruruerrorp, F,R.S, DEPARTMENT OF CospMicaL Puysics. The following Papers were read :— 1. Results of some Recent Terrestrial Magnetic Work. By Dr. L. A. Bauer. The first slides shown related to the results obtained from the general magnetic survey of the United States, chiefly executed under the author’s direction during the period 1899-1906. On the average, the three magnetic elements have been determined, with every possible care, at one station for every 973 square miles; hence the average distance apart between stations is thirty-one miles. The iso-magnetic lines reveal great irregu- larities, and it has become evident, from a preliminary analysis, that it would not be possible to establish a general formula for the earth which could even approximately represent the actual magnetic conditions observed, unless a prohibitively large number of terms were embraced in the series. This survey afforded opportunity for a test as to how closely the observed magnetic forces could be referred to a potential, or, in other words, as to the existence of possible vertical electric currents passing from the air into the earth, or vice versa, The line integrals were calculated around various closed circuits, one embracing the whole of the United States. The cbservational quantities could be represented by a potential to within about 3h part, whereas the observational error was about ;4, part. Hence there was, apparently, a small outstanding portion that might have to be referred to non-potential forces, such as vertical electric currents. The question as to the existence of such currents can further be tested by the recent magnetic work in the Pacific Ocean of the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington, and the calculations are now in progress. Further- more, by the end of 1910, in view of the work already accomplished and the results to be obtained from the ocean magnetic survey just begun in the Atlantic, it will be possible to make one or two complete circuits of the earth on the basis of freshly acquired data. Views of the vessel Carnegie, engaged in the ocean work, were shown, and the methods of observation briefly stated. Next, brief consideration was paid to various kinds of magnetic dis- turbances, e.g., the magnetic one associated with the Mont Pélée eruptions of May 8, 1902, and occurring simultaneously over the whole earth, and next the evidently purely mechanical one at the time of the San Francisco earthquake, April 18, 1906. The latter effect was propagated with the speed of the long seismic waves, and was recorded at the Coast and Geodetic. magnetic observatories at Honolulu, Sitka, Baldwin (Kansas), and Cheltenham (Maryland). The time of beginning agreed very closely with that given by the seismographs. In conclusion, a brief résumé was given of an investigation on the relation between solar activity and terrestrial magnetic activity conducted TRANSACTIONS OF SEGTION A. 399 in co-operation with Professor George E. Hale. One of the chief points of interest is the effects on the permanent magnetisation of the earth, which appear to be associated in some manner with changes in solar activity. The magnetic and solar data utilised embrace the period May 1906 to January 1909. It was found that the absolute magnetic effect, connected apparently with an increase in solar activity, is equivalent, in general, to a diminution in the earth’s mean intensity of magnetisation, amounting between the dates February 1, 1907, and February 1, 1908, to about soy part. It was shown that for a successful analysis it is necessary to embrace all the magnetic elements and to separate the observed effect into its component parts—that due to the change in the external system of forces and that to be referred to changes in the system of magnetic forces below the earth’s surface. 2. The Surface Movement of Air in certain Circular Storms. By J. I. Crata, M.A., F.R.S.E. The paper considered the curve traced by a particle of air which moves in such a way that the tangent to its path always makes a constant angle (a) with the circumference of a moving circle passing through the particle and described about a centre which is moving rectilinearly. The speed of the particle parallel to the circumference (V cosa) bears a given ratio (1/A) to the speed of the moving circle (U) so that U=AVcosa. This is an idealised case of ordinary cyclonic movement in nature. References to previous work were given as follows: Theoretical—(1) Dr. W.N. Shaw, F.R.S., ‘Q. J. R. Met. 8.,’ vol. xxix. 1903, p. 233, and ‘ Monthly Weather Review,’ vol. xxxi. 1903, p. 318; (2) Professor W. H. H. Hudson, ‘Rep. Brit. Assoc.,’ York Meeting, p. 483; (8) Mr. G. T. Bennett, wide (4) below, p. 98. Practical—(4) Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., and Mr. R. G. K, Lempfert, ‘The Life History of Surface Air-Currents ’ (London, 1906). he equation of motion relative to the centre is first studied and found to be when A<1,4#(1+A sin 6)=a exp. [-2tes tan’ ‘7 ] where A?+y42=1, and io 7 = (tan 39+ A)/u When A=1,7(1+ sin 6)=a exp. (2 tana/(1+ tan 46)] whett A>1, r(1+Asin 6)=a[(1+ tan 3A tan 46)/(1+ cot 34 tan 30) /*™ 7 14 Where cosec B = A, ~ The particular case studied by Mr. Bennett, when there is no incurvatire, is eisily derived by putting a=0, The curve is then given by the equation r(1+Asin 6)=a and is an hyperbola, a parabola or an ellipse according as Ais > = or <1. ; Some particular examples exhibiting thé general properties of the curves have been computed for values of A from 8 to 1/3, and of a from 0 to 45°, which include most of the cases of interest in practice. ! A difference may be noted between the trajectories when A>>1, und when A>1. In the first case all the trajectories finish in the centre, with the exception of the limiting case where there is no incurvature. In the second case some trajectories with small incurvatute do not finish in the centre, while if the incurvature is increased the fesultitig trajectories do so finish. These classes are separated by a parabolic trajectoty. The trajectories observed in practice by Dr. Shaw and Mr. Lempfert were then compared with those deduced theoretically, and found to be in satisfactory agreement with them. : This point of view supports Dr. Shaw’s statement that dppYoximatély circular storms cannot be satisfactorily explained as revolving vortices of air ¢arried along by currents of different velocities, 400 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. It is suggested that in future study the velocity of the storm centre should be taken as unity and the component air currents classified according to their velocities measured in terms of that unit. Expressions for the accelerations of the air particles are found, viz. :— Along the radius ie 406 ate —V cos a(V cosa+U sin @)/r Perpendicular to the radius... Gee —Vsina(V cosa+U sin 6)fr. The time along the relative curve is found to be given by :— t—t, =A(A +B sin 6+C cos 4)r/U, where A= —(1+k’*)(1—A?+k’*)/k = —A(1-V°+#)/k C=a(1—a?+ k?) and k? = tan?a(1—A?). The coordinates of the path in space are then found to be x= Ut+r cos 6 =[A(A+B sin 6+ C cos 6) + cos 8]7 + const y =r sin @ together with the equation for 7 in terms of 6. ; The particular case, studied by Dr. Shaw, where U=V and a=0 is then deduced, in the form (Yo— Y)(2Yo + 9)? = Syor*. 3. The Distribution of Atmospheric Pressure in Canada. By R. F. Stuparr. 4. On the Size of Hailstones observed during a Storm in Western Canada. By J. W. Surerey, B.A. The author took the opportunity of recording the size and shape of hailstones that fell during a recent storm in the foot hills of the Rockies, some of which were larger than hen’s eggs. At the centre of one hailstone a small black fly was found. 5. Some Resulis of Stellar Parallax Investigations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. By Dr. A. A. Rampavt, F.R.S. Within the last six years the astronomical equipment of the Radcliffe Observatory received an important addition in the shape of an equatorial instru- ment carrying two telescopes of 24 inches and 18 inches aperture respectively, the focal length of both being 22 feet 6 inches. A full description of the instrument will be found in ‘ Engineering’ for December 21, 1906. Preliminary observations haying shown the suitability of the instrument for work of high precision, it was determined to apply it to the investigation of stellar parallax, adopting Kapteyn’s photographic method. The immediate object of the research was to demonstrate the feasibility of a photographic ‘ Durchmus- terung’ for parallax extending to stars of the 13th or 14th magnitude. For this purpose nine regions of the sky were selected in consultation with Professor Kapteyn, and of these forty-six complete photographs, each consisting of twelve separate exposures, have been obtained. The work of measuring and discussing these plates is still in progress, but in this paper an account is given of some of the results already obtained. Five plates representing the region surrounding the star L1 5761 were sent to Professor Kapteyn and were measured and discussed by him at the Astronomical Laboratory, Groningen. This star is of magnitude 8:0, and its place for 19050 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 401 is R.A. 342" 49*-97, Decl. + 25°69" 163, It has a large proper tiotion—viz., —0*018, —0’88 in R.A. and Decl. respectively. The separate results deduced from the five plates are as follows :—0’004, + 0'"114, 0':072, +0’051, +0192, from the mean of which we have as the parallax of this star, relatively to seventy-five comparison stars of mean magnitude 11:0, : + 0085 + 0'-022. The mean probable error of the parallax of one of the comparison stars as derived from the five plates is +0013, At a later date two plates, 6B and 54B, representing the region around Weisse 6", 128 were sent to Professor Kapteyn at his request. The magnitude of this star is 8:4, and its position for 19050 is R.A. 6°9™55s-05, Decl. + 44°-44"43'"4, It has a proper motion of —0::028 and —0’"33 in R.A. and Decl. respectively. The separate results deduced by him from these two plates are +07°136 + 0018 and +0’067 + 0''-020, or, taking the mean, we haye as the parallax of this star: +0'7102 + 0'-013. For the probable error of the parallax of one of the 166 comparison stars we have, using Kapteyn’s notation (see Groningen Publications No. 12); No. of Plate Ps P, p,’ 6B + 0-018 + 0’""032 + 0’-028 54B + 0:020 + 0°035 + 0°027 The remainder of the plates will be measured and discussed at the Radcliffe Observatory and some progress has already been made with this work. The results for the double star, L1 6888 and 9 ( = 5 443) appear of sufficient importance to lay before the Section. This is a double star the components of which are of the magnitudes 8°5 and 8°8 respectively, and have a large common proper motion amounting to +0*053 in R.A. and —1/-24 in Declination. In this case the parallax factor is only 2°21—the normal factor being 4—and we find p3= +0032, p, = + 0'055, and p,’= + 0-080. On this plate there are 191 stars suitable for measurement. Grouping them according to magnitude, we find the following results : Mean Parallazes. Limits = * No. of M Parallax Stars ag. Brighter than 8-5 +0'110 5 85— 95 + 0:067 7 9-5—10°5 + 0-017 | 25 Fainter than 10°5 —0:010 154 The central star 3 443 is most probably a binary system, and taking the mean of the results found for the separate components, we have as the parallax of this system relatively to 189 comparison stars—z = + 0':10 + 0'”-02, 6. Two curiously similar Spectroscopic Binaries. By J. 8. PuasKerr and W. E. Harper. 1909. DD 402 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. MONDAY, AUGUST 30. Discussion on Positive Electricity.* Opened by Professor Sir J. J. Tuomson, F’.R.S. The following Papers and Reports were then read :— 1. The Law of Distribution of Stellar Motions. By A. 8. Eppineton, M.A., M.Sc. Professor Schwarzschild’s hypothesis accounts for the existence of two favoured directions in the distribution of the proper motions of the stars by assuming an ellipsoidal modification of Maxwell’s frequency law, so that the frequency of a stellar velocity (wu, v, w) is proportional to E—g?u?—h* (0° +?) He has shown how to determine the constants of the ellipsoid from the observed statistics of the numbers of stars moving in the various directions. The method can be extended so as to make use of the mean proper motions of stars, instead of the numbers of stars moving in the various directions, as the observed data. This can be done quite rigorously; but by making an approximation (which is always amply sufficient in practice) the following simple rule results: the radius of the velocity-ellipse in the direction @ is the geometric mean between the mean P.M. of stars moving in the direction 6 and the mean P.M. of stars moving in the direction 6 + 180°. In this way it is easy to determine the velocity-ellipse for any region. For the seven regions of the stars of Groombridge’s cata- logue, I find the following values of the ratio of the minor and major axes of the velocity-ellipses (1) derived in this way and (2) derived from the numbers of proper motions. Mean P.M.’s ... °59,°56, *76, *82, -65, ‘53, -66, respectively. Mean ‘65 No. of P.M.’s ... °59, °58, ‘70, ‘81, ‘72, -61, -72, respectively. Mean ‘68. The agreement region for region is very satisfactory, and there appears to be no systematic difference between the results derived from the two kinds of data, Another development of Schwarzschild’s theory which it seemed worth while to investigate is the consideration of a velocity-ellipsoid having three unequal axes, in place of the spheroid which has hitherto been considered. It was conceivable that some of the discordances of the various determina- tions of the vertex might be reconciled in this way; but the special interest of the discussion lies in the question whether the distribution of stellar motions has a special relation to the galactic plane. It is now fairly well established that the greatest axis of the velocity-ellipsoid lies accurately in the galactic plane; but, apart from this preference for a particular axis in the galactic plane, is there a preference of stellar motions for the galactic plane in general? If the distribution of the stars is comparatively limited in the directions of the galactic poles, it might be expected that their velocities in these directions would be, on the average, smaller. We should then have a velocity-ellipsoid with three unequal axes, of which the least would point to the galactic poles. On comparing observation with theory, the evidence, though inconclusive, appears to be unfavourable to the hypothesis of an appreciable deviation of the velocity-ellipsoid from the form of a prolate spheroid. * Published in Hngineering, Sept. 17, 1909, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 403 2. The Variation of the Specific Heat of Mercury at High Temperatures. By Professor H. T. Barnes, D.Sc. In 1902 the author communicated to the British Association the preliminary results of an investigation of the variation of the specific heat of mercury with temperature between 0° and 100° C. Since then the work has been carried over a wider temperature interval, and it has been possible to extend the curve of variation towards the boiling-point of the mercury. In the older work the continuous method of calorimetry was used, including much of the apparatus employed by the author in his measure- ments of the specific heat of water. Thus the thermometers were’ the same, as well as the Clark cells and resistance standards. It should be possible, then, to express the specific heat of mercury with considerable accuracy quite independent of any values assumed for the electrical standards. The specific heat of mercury above 100° C. was also obtained by a continuous method, and therefore possessed the advantages of steady temperature conditions. A stream of mercury was heated while flowing through a fine steel tube in the vapour of some suitable organic substance possessing a steady boiling-point up to the desired temperature. It then passed directly into the calorimeter, which was provided with an inflow and outflow tube fitted with thermometers. Directly through the heart of the mercury passed a fine glass tube, through which a stream of water at room temperature flowed. Thermometers in the water gave the rise of temperature, which with the flow gave a measure of the heat taken out of the mercury. The temperature fall in the mercury, together with a knowledge of the flow, gave a measure of the cooling effect produced, and hence, after correcting for heat loss, of the specific heat. By this method the flows were arranged so that the mercury was seldom cooled more than 40° C., while the water was not warmed more than 10° or 15° C. Thus the average specific heat could be determined at the high temperature over a comparatively small interval of temperature, while the heat extracted by the water could be measured over a temperature interval in which the specific heat of the water was accurately known. The heat loss was determined by special experiments with no water flowing. This was found to be proportional to the mean temperature of the mercury in the calorimeter. Having deter- mined the heat loss for several mean temperatures between 100° and 200° the curve was plotted, and for each calorimeter the heat loss was read off for any intermediate mean temperature. Differential platinum thermometers were used to obtain the temperature, except in some of the experiments when sensitive mercury thermometers were placed in the water inflow and outflow. The readings of these mercury thermometers were reduced by direct comparison with a platinum thermometer. The author has recalculated all of his older observations, and these results have been reduced to the normal hydrogen scale. The results obtained by the later work have been reduced to the same scale. It was not possible to obtain such accuracy in the later work as characterised the observations by the electrical method at the lower temperatures. This was partly due to want of water jacketing and to the impossibility of airanging a vacuum jacket about the calorimeter. Lagging was employed of asbestos string, wound on carefully, and glass wool. The observations check out to one or two parts in 1,000, and it is unlikely that the curve is in error by more than that, if as much. All of the observations at the lower range taken by the electrical method with water and vacuum jackets are of much greater accuracy. It is very unlikely that they are in error by more than one or two parts in 10,000. DD2 404 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. The results of this investigation are chiefly interesting in showing that the specific heat of mercury passes through a minimum value at about 140° C. and increases fairly rapidly up to the boiling-point. In this respect it resembles water very closely, which possesses a minimum point at 37° C., or at about the same relative position between the freezing and boiling points in the two cases. Specific Heat of Mercury at various Temperatures. Actual Observations. Electrical Method Water-cooled Method Specific heat Specific heat Temp. Pract Temp. cecrsdtell LPio8 Os 2°93 0:033489 159-65 0:03287 4-45 0:033460 160°46 0:03297 18°37 0:033318 222°85 0:03291 24:52 0:033261 224-46 0:03304 31:68 — 0:033194 225-49 0:03299 32°44 0:033185 252-73 0:03309 36°59 0:033178 253°06 0:03309 45:00 0:033085 261°57 0:03321 53°39 0:033040 268'23 0:03318 65:22 0:033007 83°89 0:032931 3. The Relation of Vocal Quality to Sound Waves. By T. Proctor Haun, M.A., Ph.D., M.D. An apparatus for making enlarged tracings of sound waves from a cylindrical graphophone record, the magnification ranging from 150 to 2,500 times, was described. In the sound waves two elements are distin- guished, impulse and resonance, which are illustrated by waves from the cornet, violin, bugle, &c. Vocal waves are found in groups regularly repeated. Each group contains a single impulse frem the vocal cords, together with one or more sets of resonance waves produced by vibrations of the air in the vocal tubes. Pitch is determined by the number of impulses per second—i.e., by the number of wave groups—and is not affected by the character of the waves within the groups. The vowel quality of vocal sounds is not perceptibly affected by the number or form of the resonance waves, but is dependent upon their periodicity. The rate of the resonance waves may be calculated from the length of the air tubes upward from the vocal cords. The calculation shows, for example, that the sounds m, n, ng, all contain a resonance wave whose period is about 530. The mean rates found from measurements of the enlarged waves are for m 550, for n 535, for ng 580. The observed rate for the sound of ‘a’ in the word ‘ great’ is 420, and for the sound of ‘a’ in ‘ mat’ 770 waves per second. The investigation is continued. 4. Electric Splashes on Photographic Plates. By Aurrep W. Portsr, B.Sc. The author exhibited lantern slides of the figures obtained by develop- ing photographic plates over which electric discharges had been allowed to spread. These were in extension of a series shown to the Physical Society of London last November. Splashes with different gases surround- ing the plate prove, from their great dissimilarity in the case of ‘ negative’ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 405 splashes, that the surrounding gas practically determines them. In the case of ‘ positive’ splashes the surrounding gas has very small influence. If the pressure of the surrounding air is reduced, the appearance completely changes. At a pressure of about 17 cms. in air the negative splash has a very definite appearance, showing two new dark spaces with triangular ‘squirts’ of discharge extending between them. The radical difference between positive and negative discharges is very pronounced. If a triangular or rectangular electrode is placed on the plate, the branched figures obtained tend to leave at the corners of the plate when this electrode is made positive, but to leave at the sides (and at right angles thereto) when it is the negative terminal. The effects of a magnetic field and of a blast of air over the plate were also exhibited. 5. The Photographic Action of Alpha Rays. By T. Kiyosurra. 6. On Secondary Radiation by Gamma Rays on Different Metals. By Professor A. S. Eve. 7. On the Active Deposits from Actinium in Uniform Electric Fields. By W. T. Kennepy, M.A. In es paper an account was given of some measurements on the amount of active deposit from actinium obtained at different pressures on two parallel plate electrodes provided with guard rings and placed about 2mm. apart. The deposits were obtained on both electrodes under a field of 250 volts. As the pressure was decreased from atmospheric the amount of active deposit on both electrodes gradually increased, passed through a maximum value, and finally at low pressures rapidly decreased. The maximum activity was obtained at different pressures for the two electrodes, in each of the gases hydrogen and carbon dioxide and in air, and the maximum cathodic deposit was found to be about 2°7 times that obtained on the anode in each of the gases. The total deposit on the two plates obtained in air at varying pressures was found to be approximately the same, whether an electric field was applied or not. The total active deposit was also found to be increased on both electrodes when potentials higher than the sparking ones were applied. The relative coefficients of diffusion for the emanation from actinium were found to be—Carbon dioxide, 1; air, 13; and hydrogen, 42. 8. The Effect of Light on Sulphur Insulation. By F. W. Bares. During a series of experiments on the ionisation of the air in closed vessels, the author used an electroscope in which the leaf system was supported on sulphur insulators. When an attempt was made to calibrate the instrument, large variations in the rate of leak were noticed, which seemed to depend on the intensity of the light falling on the leaf system. A series of experiments was then undertaken to discover whether any such definite relation existed. It was found that the average day-rate of leak was greater than the average night-rate, that bright sunlight falling on the insulator increased the rate very greatly, while even partially excluding the light decreased it perceptibly. By intercepting some of the sun’s rays by means of either cobalt blue or red glass the rate of leak was much lessened, and by totally 406 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. excluding the light from the insulation the day-rate of leak was reduced to practically the same as the night-rate. : The theory that this change of rate of leak was due to a rapid and violent change in the rate of ionisation of the air in the vessel was early abandoned, for it was found that by merely causing the sunlight already shining into the vessel to fall directly on the sulphur insulation a great increase in the rate of leak was obtained, although there was no more sunlight entering the electroscope than formerly. The theory that sulphur is affected in much the same way under sunlight as zinc is under ultra- violet rays was also abandoned, for it was found that positive and negative charges leaked equally fast under similar conditions. An electroscope was constructed with a guard-ring about the sulphur insulation which was on the exterior of the vessel, and thus completely exposed to the light. In daylight, when the guard and the leaf carried charges opposite in sign, the leaf lost its charge, and in time acquired a charge similar in sign to that on the guard; but when both guard and leaf carried the same kind of charge, the charge on the leaf increased if initially less than that on the guard, but decreased if initially greater. On the other hand, at night either kind of charge leaked away from the leaf, even with the guard charged, which was undoubtedly due to the ionisation of the air in the vessel. The conclusion is that sulphur in the presence of light becomes to a slight degree a conductor of electricity, and the greater the intensity of the light, the greater the conductivity; and, further, that the leak due to ionisation is less than that due to the increase in the conductigity of sulphur, exposed even to ordinary daylight. It is necessary, therefore, that great care should be taken when measuring small electrical changes with . instruments having sulphur insulation to keep light from falling on the sulphur. A series of preliminary investigations in which amber and ebonite were used as insulators indicated a slight increase in the conductivity of ebonite in strong sunlight, but amber did not show any such effect. The importance of the effect of light on insulation was so great that the writer purposes investigating thoroughly with these and other materials in order to find its extent, and also, if possible, to discover the exact nature of the change produced by light on sulphur. 9. The Charge on Gaseous Ions. By 'T. Franck and Dr. W. Wrstpuau. J. S. Townsend! has shown that by X-rays doubly charged ions are generated. Recent experiments made by the author ? lead to the conclusion that these doubly charged ions are only a small part of the total ionisation, and that generation in an electric field, contrary to Townsend’s view, has nothing to do with their formation. The coefficient of diffusion of the ions generated by X-rays, as measured by the method of Townsend,* may be reduced to half the value of singly charged positive ions by placing some wire gauze in the way of the ions, which causes a kind of fractionated diffusion, more of the easily diffusing singly charged ions being lost in the holes than of the double ones. If we assume that practically all singly charged ions have been removed by the wire gauze, the coefficient of diffusion of the double ions is thus found to be half that of the single ones. From the point of view of Rutherford’s cluster theory of the ions, this 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. May 1908. 2 Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 11, 146, 1909; 11, 276, 1909. ° Phil. Trans. (A.) 193, 129, 1900, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 407 result indicates that the doubly charged ions carry double mass, while it would agree as well with the new theory of Sir J. J. Thomson and Wellisch, from which follows that a double charge reduces the coefficient of diffusion, even when the mass remains unaltered. In this case the co- efficient of diffusion may be still smaller than the measured value. Witha, 8, y rays and point discharge no doubly charged ions were found, In the case of point discharge, the formation of big charged complexes, due t» chemical processes, was proved to occur. 10, The Recombination of Ions in Air at Different Temperatures. By Dr. P. Pures. Langevin has shown that McClung’s original experiments on this subject were quite spoiled by diffusion owing to the electrodes being too near together, and to the intense ionisation which existed at the surface of the electrodes, L. L. Hendren has shown experimentally that diffusion is almost negligible at the temperature of the laboratory and at atmospheric pressure if the distance between parallel electrodes is at least 2 ems. and the ionisation is uniform between them. In the present experiment Langevin’s method for finding the recombina- tion is adopted. The rays produced by a single discharge in a Rontgen bulb ionise a layer of air between two parallel electrodes, one of which is connected with a Dolezalek electrometer, and the other raised to any desired potential. The parallel electrodes are about 3 cms. apart, and the layer of ionised air about 1°5 cm. thick, thus leaving spaces of about ‘75 cm. between the surfaces of the ionised layer and the electrodes. Under these circumstances, it is probable that diffusion may be safely neglected, but in any case more rapid diffusion would here make the recombination appear slower. ° The electrodes are surrounded by a jacket through which vapours from liquids boiling at known temperatures may be circulated. In essence the experiment consists in measuring the charges received by the electrometer when different fields are established between the electrodes. This is done first at the temperature of the laboratory and then at the temperature of the boiling liquid. From a comparison of the two series of readings, the ratio of the coefficients of recombination at the two temperatures may be calculated, the coefficient at the temperature of the laboratory being taken as unity. The following results have been obtained up to the present, and they show that a decreases somewhat rapidly with a rise of temperature : Temperature a Mr, Erikson’s values 15° C, 1-00 ; 1:00 100 “50 BL 155 40 405 178 "36 *38 (extrapolating a little) Since completing the above experiment, Mr. Erikson has published a paper on the same subject. Using ionisation from radium, and with an entirely different method, he gets almost identical results. These are shown in the third column of the table for comparison. 11. The Terminal Velocity of Fall of Small Spheres in Air. By Professor Joun ZauEeny and Li. A. McKnenan. To test Stokes’s formula for air, the size, density, and the terminal velocity of fall of some spherical spores were determined, 408 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, The following results were obtained : . Velocit Substance Radius Density eee 2 aeconditle to Voges Stokes's formula em. : cms./sec, Lycoperdon . 0:000207 1:44 0:0465 0:0757 Polytricum . 0-000478 1:53 0:228 0°417 Lycopodium , 0 00158 1175 177 3°52 12. Report on the Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory. See Reports, p, 36. 13. Report on the Geodetic Are in Africa,—See Reports, p. 87, 14. Highth Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Kites.—See Reports, p. 87. 15. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards, See Reports, p. 38. 16. Report of the Seismological Commitlee.—See Reports, p. 48. 17. Report of the Committee to aid in Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia,—See Reports, p, 66. TUESDAY, AUGUST 31. Discussion on ‘ Earth Tides.’ Opened by Professor A. E. H. Love, F.R.S. Lord Kelvin showed (1863) that, if the earth could be regarded as hcmogeneous and absolutely incompressible and possessed of the same degree of rigidity as steel, the oceanic tides of long period would be reduced, owing to the yielding of the earth, to about two-thirds of the theoretical heights which they would have if the substance were absolutely rigid. Sir G. Darwin (1881) estimated the actual height of the fortnightly tide as about two- thirds of the theoretical height. Attempts to measure directly the lunar disturbance of terrestrial gravity were made by several observers, and recently Dr. O. Hecker, by using two horizontal pendulums mounted in an underground chamber, has demonstrated the existence of the corporeal tide, and has shown that the actual deflexion of such pendulums is about two- thirds of what it would be if the earth were absolutely rigid. This result means that, besides the tide-raising force of the moon (F), there act on the pendulum other forces arising from the deformation of the earth. These forces are (i) the component of undisturbed gravity tangential to the deformed surface, denoted by hF'; (ii) a genuine disturbance of gravity, consisting in the attraction of the tidal protuberance and other related a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 409 changes of the attraction of the mass of the earth, denoted by kF. The results obtained by Darwin and Hecker, and confirmed by Schweydar, show that the two numbers h and k are connected by the equation h—k=1}. From this result alone we cannot determine either h or k, and so cannot determine the actual height of the corporeal tide without having recourse either to hypothesis or to new observations. If we adopt Kelvin’s hypothesis, we find k=%h, and thence h=§8, k=i, and the corresponding estimated height of the corporeal lunar tide is about 46 cm. If, however, we bring in the fact of observation, discovered by Dr. S. C. Chandler, viz., that the period of variations of latitude (about ten months if the earth were absolutely rigid) is actually about fourteen months, we can determine k in terms of known quantities. Variations of latitude imply an adjustment of the earth’s figure to rotation about an instantaneous axis which does not quite coincide with a principal axis. The corresponding inequality of ‘centrifugal force’ has the same effect as a certain external force pro- ducing a deformation of the earth and a genuine disturbance of gravity. If the force in question is denoted by F, the genuine disturbance of gravity may be denoted by kF, where the coefficient k is necessarily the same as in the tidal problem. It has been proved independently by Sir J. Larmor and the author that k& is about 74. It thence appears that h=# approxi- mately, and that the height of the corporeal lunar tide is about 33 cm. The earth would accordingly appear to be more rigid than Lord Kelvin estimated it to he, a result confirmed by the interpretation of seismographic records. DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL Puysics, The following Papers were read :— 1. The Lengthening of Loaded Wires when Twisted, By Professor J. H. Poyntine, F.R.S. An analysis of a pure shear, taking into account quantities of the order e?, where ¢ is the angle of shear, shows that there may be a pressure perpendicular to the planes of shear proportional to «?. If this applies to a twisted wire and the pressure is not applied the wire should lengthen on twisting. The author described experiments on steel, brass, and copper wires, all of which when loaded sufficiently to take out kinks showed a lengthening d/ =, sa°6°/7, where a is the radius, J the length, 6 the angle of twist, and s is for steel about 1, for copper and brass about 1°6,! 2. The Angular Momentum in a Beam of Circularly Polarised Light. Ly Professor J. H. Poyntine, FBS, From the analogy of a shaft revolving uniformly and transmitting strain and energy with the ‘natural’ velocity ./ rigidity + density the suggestion is obtained’ that the angular momentum given per second to a normal receiving surface by a beam of circularly polarised light of wave-length A and energy E per c.c, is EA/2e, ——_- -—_—- 1 See Proc. Roy. Sac., A, vol. 1xxxii. p. 546. * Ibid. A, vol, lxxxii, p. 560. 410 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 3. The Effect on the Persistence of Vision of Fatiguing the Hye with Red, Orange, and Yellow. By Professor Frank AuuENn, Ph.D. In order to determine the persistence of vision a sectored disc is rotated in front of the slit of a spectrometer at such a speed that the flickering of the colour is made to just disappear. This critical speed is very accurately measured electrically by means of a chronograph. A persistency curve can then be obtained which is shaped like a parabola with its apex at the point corresponding to the brightest part of the spectrum. If the eye is constantly fatigued with some colour and the persistency now measured, the two per- sistency curves when plotted together show some peculiar and characteristic differences. When the eye is fatigued with red light of wave-lengths 680 and 670, the fatigue curve differs from the normal only in the part corresponding to red. When the eye is fatigued with green, the two curves differ in the green alone. But when the fatiguing colour is any part of the spectrum between wave-lengths 577 and 650, the curves differ in both red and green. When, however, the wave-length 660 is used as the fatiguing colour, the two curves coincide completely. This means that the funda- mental red sensation is at least beyond wave-length 660, and that yellow and orange cannot be simple primary sensations. 4. A New Method of Measuring the Luminosity of the Spectrum. By Professor Frank ALLEN, Ph.D. The principle upon which this method depends is that the persistence of a colour sensation on the retina is a function of the luminosity of the colour only. Two Nicol prisms are mounted in front of the spectrometer slit. It is so arranged that in the eyepiece one sees two small adjoining patches of light, one white, the other all colours of the spectrum in succession. The white light is of such low intensity that its persistence is the same as that of very weak violet light. By rotating the polariser the intensity of the spectrum colours is reduced to that of the standard white. The intensity of the light going through the Nicols being proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between their principal planes enubles the luminosity to be determined. A sectored disc rotating in front of the slit interrupts both white and coloured lights at the same time, thus enabling the persistence of the flashes of light to be measured. 5. The Effect of Low Temperatures on Fluorescence Spectra. By Professor Epwarp L. Nicnous and Ernest Mernritv. This is a quantitative spectrophotometric study, by methods previously employed by the authors and described in various papers, of the spectra of certain fluorescent substances at temperatures between +20° C. and —185° C. The bodies subjected to measurement were :— (1) A specimen of natural willemite in powdered form; (2) Commercial anthracene showing the green fluorescence bands of the impure preparation ; (3) An alcoholic solution of fluorescein ; (4) An alcoholic solution of resorufin. Excitation was produced by means of a quartz-mercury lamp any portion of the spectrum of which, dispersed through quartz, could be focussed on the surface of the fluorescent hody. The latter was placed in an enclosed TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 411 chamber to prevent the deposition of frost. Cooling was effected by liquid air applied from below to a metal tube at the upper end of which was the substance, while the lower end was submerged to various depths in a Dewar flask. Temperatures were determined by means of the resistance of a coil of pure copper wire surrounding the capsule containing the substance. The measurements consisted in comparing the brightness of the fluorescence spectra, wave-length by wave-length, with that of an acetylene flame which had previously been similarly compared with the spectrum of the light from an ideal black body of known temperature. The results are exhibited by means of three sets of curves. (1) Curves giving the variations of brightness of the fluorescence spectrum with wave-length at a given temperature. These show the form of the fluorescence bands, their changes in intensity and breadth and their shift in wave-length as the temperature diminishes. (2) Curves giving the variations of intensity of a given wave-length with change of temperature. (3) Curves giving the shift in wave-length of regions of equal brightness in the fluorescence spectra with change of temperature. 6. Absorption and Fluorescence of Canary Glass at Low Temperatures. By R. C. Gress. The specimen of glass studied was obtained from the Geophysical Laboratory at Washington, and was prepared according to the following formula: SiO, 70 per cent., K,O 24 per cent., CaO 6 per cent., to which 2‘5 to 3:0 per cent. sodium uranate is added. In order to study the absorption and fluorescence at low temperatures the glass, a rectangular plinth, was mounted in an unsilvered cylindrical Dewar bulb with proper screening, to avoid stray light. The observations were made with a Lummer and Brodhun spectro-photometer. For measuring the absorption an acetylene flame was placed so that by means of reflectors light could be made to illuminate the comparison slit, and also by another path to pass through the glass to the other slit of the spectro-photometer. A Cooper-Hewitt mercury lamp, placed so as to illuminate the surface of the glass parallel to the direction in which the light passed through the glass when studying the absorption, was used to excite fluorescence, the intensity of which was compared with that of an acetylene flame. The intensities of transmission and fluorescence were measured at five or six different temperatures, chosen at fairly regular intervals, from room temperature down to —175° C. Cooling was secured with liquid air, and the temperature measured with a thermo-junction by the potentiometer method. During any particular run through the spectrum the temperature was kept constant within two degrees. Extreme care was taken to eliminate frost or moisture from the surface of any of the glass through which the light passed. The glass shows considerable absorption throughout the spectrum, but the maximum occurs in the violet end and extends up to about ‘51. The decrease in temperature produces a decrease in absorption in all parts of the spectrum measured, the change being very slight in the yellow and red, while from ‘45 » to ‘54 » the transmission intensity increased from 15 to 25 per cent. The main fluorescence band extends from ‘48 to ‘59 p. At room temperature the fluorescence corrected for absorption shows a rather broad band with a slight indication of two maxima between ‘51 p and ‘535 p. The curve is steeper on the violet side than on the red. With decreasing temperature the fluorescence for the most part increases, the maximum ~ 412 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. increase being about 100 per cent. The two maxima just mentioned develop decidedly, so that at the lowest temperature reached the fluorescence shows two narrow overlapping bands, one with a maximum at ‘514 » and the other at “633 ». While the steepness of the curve increases on both sides of these bands, yet it is much more marked on the violet side, there being a slight decrease in fluorescence on that side at the base of the band for the lower temperatures. DEPARTMENT OF CosmicaL Puysics. The following Paper and Report were read :— 1. Seasonal and Storm Vertical Temperature Gradients. By Professor W. J. Humpnreys. 2. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Upper Atmosphere.—See Reports, p. 71. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 1. DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL Puysics. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Effect of Temperature Variations on the Luminous Discharge in Gases for Low Pressures. By Rost. F. Harwart. The apparatus used in this investigation consisted of a small glass bulb, in which two parallel electrodes were sealed. These electrodes were 5 mm. apart. Suitable tubes permitted the bulb to be evacuated, the pressures being measured with a McLeod gauge. The bulb was contained in an electric furnace, which could also be used as a container for carbon dioxide snow when measurements for discharges occurring at low temperatures were taken. Potentials required to produce a luminous discharge for pressures vary- ing from 0°2 mm. to 5 mm. were made, and for temperatures varying from —78° C. to 325° C. The gases operated upon were air, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Potentials required to maintain the luminous discharge under similar conditions were also measured. Families of curves showing the effects of temperature and pressure for potentials required both to produce and to maintain luminous discharge were given. They indicate that Paschen’s law holds approximately for the discharge in air until temperatures in the neighbourhood of 300° C. are attained. Here Paschen’s law does not hold even approximately. The effect of temperature variation on the potential required to maintain the discharge is much less than for the production of the initial discharge. 2. Diffraction of Hlectric Waves. By Professor H. M. Macponatp, F.R.S. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 413 3. The Instantaneous Propagation of a Disturbance in a Dispersive Medium, By Dr. T. H. Havenock. 4. The Relative Motion of the Earth and Aither and the FitzGerald- Lorentz Effect. By C. W. CHaMBrruain. To explain the negative results of the Michelson-Morley experiment to test the relative motion of the Earth and ether FitzGerald and Lorentz suggested that the motion of translation of a solid through ether produces a contraction in the direction of the drift, with extension transversely, the amount of which is proportional to the square of the ratio of the velocities of translation and of light. Analysis shows that the total effect of the relative motion of Earth and ather is a displacement of the interfering rays in the line of sight, and at right angles to the line of sight. The displacement in the line of sight should have been detected if it was not counteracted by the FitzGerald- Lorentz effect. The displacement at right angles to the line of sight does not alter the distance of the interfering rays from the focal plane of the telescope, and therefore does not shift the interference system seen in the interferometer. The displacement at right angles to the line of sight, which is not counteracted by the FitzGerald-Lorentz effect, should be detected by means of the Diffractometer—a combination of an interference system and a diffrac- tion grating. It is proposed to produce interference between two rays of light which have travelled paths at right angles to each other. The inter- fering rays will be received by a diffraction grating. If one of the paths of the interference system is made longer than the other, interference fringes may be made to appear either in the spectra to the right or to the left, when the lines of the gratings are parallel to the interference fringes. If the length of path of the interference system is 55 x10’, as in the Morley-Miller experiment, and a grating having 30,000 lines to the inch is employed, a shift of one interference band may be expected when the apparatus is rotated through ninety degrees, 5. On some New Methods under Trial for Tables of the Moon’s Motion. By Professor E. W. Brown, F.R.S. 6. A Cemented Triple for Spectroscopic Use. By Lieut.-Colonel J. W. Girrorp. It was my privilege to exhibit at the Dublin Meeting an apochromatic triple for astronomical purposes. This objective had an aperture of three inches, a focus of 375 inches, and the focal lengths equalised were for wave-lengths 7066 (He), 5067 (Pb), and 4678 (Cd). The method of obtaining the refractive indices of the glasses used and the formule used for calculations have already been described.! | With this objective it was difficult to trace any residual colour, the secondary spectrum having been very perfectly eliminated, but the ratio of aperture to focus was as great as 12°5. For spectroscopic purposes a greater light grip is desirable. This was obtained by a different combination of glasses, without, however, seriously sacrificing the practical coincidence of focus for all wave-lengths. The glasses employed were Mantois’s Borosilicate Crown, Schott’s 031393 Borosilicate Flint, and Schott’s 03187 Baryta Light Flint. The wave- lengths equalised for focus were 7682 (Kd), 5607 (Pb), and 4341 (H). 1 Proc. R.A,.S., vol. lxix. No. 2. 414 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. re With such a combination the ratio of effective aperture to focus reaches 7°5 as against 12°5 for the astronomical triple above referred to, or, in other words, it has nearly three times the light grip. It is likewise free from secondary spectrum, but the remaining tertiary spectrum becomes rather more prominent when, the mean force having been expanded to 60 feet, a focal curve is drawn. For ordinary powers it is still difficult to detect. The radii of the spherical surfaces for such a triple are quite moderate, viz. : Ist surface . ‘ . . e . . » 3961 2nd and 3rd s e « s e e . . Oo OUL 4th and 5th a> tos o s . e . 1771 6th . e s 7 t . « t « 27°174 and the greatest curvature sum is :— 1 Ff _ —5:535 —— = —-=—9 684. pw-1L 0572 pis Professor Hastings’s well-known requirements being that no one of the curvature sums should exceed 30. All inner surfaces are cemented. For spectroscopic purposes two of these triples (respectively for collima- tor and telescope) are placed at such a distance apart that their nodal planes are coincident, thus forming a symmetrical doublet. The lens shown was constructed for me by Messrs. Hilger, Ltd., of London. It is in use as a telescope lens, with power of 56 diameters, focussed on a test object, a suitable spectroscope not being at hand. Its aperture is 14 inch, its focus 114 inches. A doublet, designed for deer-stalking, of 15 inch aperture and 84 inches focus with a power of 40 diameters was also shown. 7. On Magnetostriction. By H. G. Dorsny, Ph.D. What I wish to present is the result of recent rather exhaustive experi- ments on magnetostriction on a series of eight steel rods of known chemical contents and tested in different physical conditions. I have found that the maximum elongation is a function of the carbon content, the curve being similar to a curve in the iron-carbon phase diagram ; also that there is a rather definite relation between the maximum elongation and the maximum susceptibility of any specimen of iron, and the results of other workers seem to fit my curve pretty well, The maximum retraction in a given field bears an inverse relation to Young’s modulus. I also show that a correction should be applied to the changes in length, and that this correction is of the same nature as the correction to be applied in magnetic work to correct for the demagnetising effects of the ends of the rods. The upper and lower limits of my experiments include practically all the results fotind in the fifty or more articles published since Joule’s discovery of this phenomenon in 1842, and thus tend to unify the rather chaotic condition of conflicting experimental results. 8. The Photographic Registration of Sound Waves. By Professor Drayron C. Minuer, D.Sc. For the quantitative study of the tone quality of musical instruments it seemed necessary to have photographic records of sound-waves which would be more accurate and more directly obtained than those heretofore used. ——, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ay 415 A minute mirror is mounted on a very small cylindrical steel staff which is capable of rotation in delicate jewelled bearings. A fibre is attached to the centre of a diaphragm, passes around a small pulley on the staff, and is kept taut by a spring. When a sound-wave impinges upon the diaphragm the mirror is given rotation proportional to the displacement of the diaphragm. The moving parts have a mass of less than 3 milligrams, and are so designed as to have a minimum moment of inertia. The radius of the pulley is 0°3 millimeter, and a moving photographic film is placed at such a distance that light reflected from the mirror to the film records the movements of the diaphragm magnified 2,000 times. The records exhibited showed: simple sine curves from tuning-forks, and the combination of these; the separate and combined curves from an organ- pipe and a whistle having a frequency of more than 3,000; the curves from a flute, and from a bell. The following records of spoken words are shown: one record of the words ‘sound-waves,’ one record of the words ‘Karl Fischer,’ five different records of the word ‘fish,’ and four different records of the words ‘Lord Rayleigh.’ The quantitative analysis of such records is in progress. DEPARTMENT OF CosmicaL PHysics. 1. The Highest Meteorological Observations in America. By Professor A. Lawrence Rotcu. Although numerous observations with ballons-sondes, extending to great heights above the interior of the American continent, were made by the author in 1904-7 at St. Louis,’ such data were not available in the eastern United States until last year, the maximum altitude at which the temperature was obtained, 7,040 metres, having been reached by kites flown from Mount Weather, in Virginia. By limiting the duration of the ascensions of the ballons-sondes, they were successfully used by the author at Pittsfield, Mass., about 150 miles from the Atlantic coast, in May and July, 1908. Three instruments of the four sent up were recovered, that on May 7 having an excellent record of temperature to a height of 17,700 metres, which exceeds by 650 metres the highest ascension at St. Louis. The warm stratum, described in the author’s previous paper, was penetrated further than ever before in America, the minimum temperature of —545° C. occurring at 12,500 metres, whereas —45°6° was recorded 3,000 metres higher, the stratum above being nearly isothermal, as shown by the spring ascensions at St. Louis. The height of the inverting layer and the minimum temperature agreed approximately with the averages for May over the interior of this continent. Two other ascensions from Pittsfield to 6,100 and 9,700 metres respectively, although they did not reach the great inversion, showed the characteristic stratification of the atmosphere, with a rise of temperature in the lower clouds and an accelerated fall of temperature with increasing height. 2. The Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere over the British Isles, July 27-29, 1908. By Dr. W. N. Saw, F.R.S. 8. Results of Twenty-five Registering Balloon Ascents from Manchester during the period June 2, 7 p.M., to June 3, 7 p.m., 1909. By W. A. Harwoop, M.Sc. The ascents were made in connection with the work carried on at the Howard Estate Observatory on Glossop Moor. The balloons used were of thin rubber, filled with hydrogen, and had a free lift of about 300 gm., ! Report, Dublin Meeting, 1908, p. 594, 416 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. giving a vertical velocity of ascent of about 3m.p.s. The instiuhents were the light meteorographs designed by W. H. Dines, F.R.S., and weighed, with the protecting case, about 60 gm. Table I. gives the average tempera- ture at different heights deduced from the nineteen records obtained. TaBLe I.—Average Temperature at successive Kilometre Levels during the period June 2,7 p.M., to June 3,7 P.m., 1909. Height. Temperature Height. Temperature Kilometres EG: Kilometres are. 0 11 10 —AT5 1 3 11 —49 2 0 12 —47 3 —4 13 —46 4 —85 14 —46°5 5 ~—15 15 —4T5 6 —22 16 —48°5 7 —28°5 17 —48 8 —35 18 —48 9 —42 Almost all the balloons fell within a range of 100 km. They were fairly uniformly distributed along a line between the points 80 km. N. 56° E. and 30 km. N., the early ones falling at the former, the later ones at the latter point. It is seen that the temperature fell rapidly to a height of about 10 km., the average gradient being 5°7° C. per kilometre. Above this height there was a sharp rise of temperature, but above 12 km. the changes were small. TaBLe Il.—Temperature at successive 2-Kilometre Intervals during the period June 2,7 P.M., to June 3, 7 P.M., 1909. Height in Kilometres Time r 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 7 rar : 191 | 74 |2o4,|=84. |—e& |—405|—4e-5 | 48 |Sedrel one ” e ame — =e a = Fa ra —~ Tz oa, a7 Bre: 109 | —o'5|-9:5 |~93 |-36 |~505|—46 |-47-5|—515| —= ” 8 . = ren =a =e oe — <= = = = Wee oe he ee Aa aah |. gag Lae |oge5 | = 12 midnight .| — == —= — — = a z= ae as Jam. .) 82 | ~4 12:5|=26 |-41 |~s52-5|/-49 |-51 |-525|—525 Boy 73 | ~2 |-96 |~205|-34 |—46-5|—48-5|—46-6|~48-5|—60 ae 75 | —1,.|=65. Heats | Se. | 46 |—45 Jl odg eee ae 6 ian 78 | ~35|—19-5|—24-5|—36-5|—48-5|/-46 |-46-5/—49 |—48-5 Be ee | | AS a Sa oe oo ee a Le 11 | 415/-6 |—20 |~31-5|—44-5|—495|—49 |~44-5|—435 10 Z 18. | 405/285 |-or |—a95|2455|47 |L4e5 See o) 12 noon 4 | 415|-55 |-175|-30 |-46 |=45 |49-6| een ae PM. « _ —_ — — a —_ — — — —a Tigh iets 146 | 41 |~95 |+196|~33 -|—445 |—45-5.|—43-5|4a5 | 45-5 Bo cee, 147 | 405|-8 |—20 |-34 |~485|—505|—455|—49 |L47-5 : A i 125 eco joe dies |—a4. |=a7-5l 48 | 50m | eee 6°. |. P86 OSs lar lBa7" }59-6)| 250 "| 2465 eee Ties 6) 1264 LOslSa0h Sos Near 55 | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 417 Table II. gives the values obtained at different heights at hourly in- tervals. The results itidicate a very considerable diurnal variation of temperature even at a height of 10 kin., but the irregularities are too great to allow very accurate deductions to be drawn. ‘The fact that the variation is similar at all heights up to 10 km., and that solar radiation has no appreciable effect on the highly polished instrument at low altitudes, seems to point to a real variation, as shown by the curves. On the other hand, the increase of the amplitude of the variation with increasing height appears to indicate that it is due to insolation. During the ascents the region was under the influence of an anticyclonic system of moderate intensity, whose centre was situated N.W. of Ireland. The pressure distribution changed but slightly during the period considered. 4. A Balloon Spectrograph. By Professor W. J. Humpnreys. 5. The Effect of Atmospheric Pressure upon the Harth’s Surface. By F. Navisr Denison, F'.R.Met.Soc. Since the year 1899 the author has taken up the study of slow-period movements of the Milne horizontal pendulum, which has been in constant operation here from 1899 to the present time, In order to make a thorough investigation of this phenomenon he has measured the photographic records from this instrument with a millimetre scale, and has noted the amounts and times of occurrence of all changes, including the diurnal and longer-period deflections. These observations have been entered into a specially designed register, and, as they are often of sufficient amplitude to necessitate the resetting of the boom by altering the levelling adjustment, they have been corrected to form a continuous record. By studying the earlier observations with the Victoria daily weather charts of the Pacific slope the author became convinced that most of these movements were due to meteorological causes. A daily curve of the pendulum’s movements for 1899 was plotted, and formed the material for a paper, entitled ‘The Seismograph as a Sensitive Barometer.’ This was read before the Royal Meteorological Society in June 1901. Later in the same year the author personally presented at the Glasgow Meeting of the British Association an illustrated paper upon the same subject derived from the plotted curves for 1899 and 1900 in con- junction with the weather charts of the Pacific slope. Acting upon the advice of Sir George Darwin, to obtain more data bearing upon this subject, and to install another horizontal pendulum to swing N-S, in order to study this direction of tilting in conjunction with the ‘Milne’ E-W pendulum, the author has succeeded in keeping a con stant record of the K-W movements, and in January 1907 he personally constructed a simple form of horizontal pendulum. This is set up on the solid rock in the basement of the Victoria Post Office; it swings N-S, and is about 500 feet from the E-W instrument. The accompanying diagram, which was part of a paper published by the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada in 1908, shows the daily move- ment of both pendulums, and the mean daily temperature from February, 1907, to January 31, 1908. The upper curve represents the movements of the E-W pendulum, whose period of vibration is fifteen seconds and its angular value 0°76. The intermediate curve shows the N-S movement, which, having a ten-minute period of vibration, is not so sensitive as the former instrument. The lower curve gives the mean daily temperature. There is a remarkable correspondence between the two pendulum curves— that is, when the E-W pendulum swings towards the west the N-S one 1909. EB TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. LS SANUARY wae NOVEMBER. “0 ar OCTOBER. a S a cS S = c=) g 4 ° ra x > Lp < w & Zz w 2 iJ > 2) z = 2 <] 2 a Z I On — < = Z ie) = & ° = = Ke 2 (2) iF: rn] ry EAST-WEST AND. NOR TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 419 moves towards the north, and when the easterly movement is pronounced the other instrument travels to the southward. Since the publication of these curves the author has succeeded in plotting a continuous daily record of the E-W pendulum from January 1, 1899, to December 31, 1908, a period of ten years, and has also made monthly and yearly tables therefrom. The following information has been gathered from the ten years’ study of this interesting subject :— The movements of these pendulums demonstrate a tilting of the earth’s surface in the direction where the atmospheric pressure is the greatest. For example, when the air pressure is greatest from California north-eastward to the Canadian prairie provinces, and lowest over British Columbia and the adjacent ocean, one pendulum swings towards the east and the other to the south. These movements are greatest during the stormy months of winter and least in summer, when the changes of air pressure are small throughout the Pacific slope. These pendulums often commence and continue to swing in a certain direction hours, and sometimes more than a day, before the barometers along the Pacific coast indicate the approach of great cyclonic and anti- cyclonic areas from the ocean. To arrive at the true connection of these pendulum movements and changes of air pressure, the former must be studied with the weather charts covering areas of from one to two thousand miles in extent, otherwise the local atmospheric conditions may appear to cause a tilting contrary to that indicated by the instruments. The loading of the Pacific slope during the winter months by heavy rains on the lower lands and vast quantities of snow upon the great mountain ranges of the interior may account for a small proportion of the easterly tilting. The ten years’ curves clearly demonstrate, however, that pronounced westerly swings occur when vast areas of high barometric pres- sure approach from the westward. The loading effect upon the coast due to a tidal action is only noticeable upon the records when little differences of air pressure prevail and during great tidal ranges. The remarkable absence of the tidal action is probably due to these instruments being situated upon the south end of Vancouver Island, where a fairly equal rise and fall of the tide occurs upon both sides of the island at about the same time. The diurnal range of a westerly swing in the morning and an eastward one in the evening is most marked during fine weather, and least when the weather is overcast. In order to obtain similar observations at other portions of the Pacific slope the author is pleased to state that Mr. T, 8. Shearman, our meteoro- logical observer at Vancouver, has at his own expense constructed two horizontal pendulums, and will shortly furnish daily readings from these instruments. Through the courtesy of the Chief Engineer of the Grand Trunk Pacific Company, of Prince Rupert, another instrument will shortly be installed there, and daily observations taken. Mr. T. R. Stockett, manager of a large coal mine at Nanaimo, has kindly consented to allow the author to install two instruments, one upon the surface and another 1200 feet below in this mine, and will furnish daily readings from them. ; These instruments the author is now personally constructing, and hopes to have all in operation before the great winter movements commence. In conclusion it is respectfully suggested that this subject be more fully studied by a special committee both upon this continent and at all stations where the Milne seismographs are installed. : EE 420 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. Section B.—CHEMISTRY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: Professor H. E. Armstrone, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. THURSDAY, AUGUST 26. The President delivered the following Address :— Ir is rccorded that after saying, on a certain occasion, ‘I shall not often give arguments but frequently opinions—I trust, with courtesy and pro- priety, etc.,’? a professor of world-wide reputation remarked, ‘A man’s opinions, look you, are generally of much more value than his arguments. These last are made by his brain and perhaps he does not believe the proposition they tend to prove—as is often the case with paid lawyers ; but opinions are formed by our whole nature—brain, heart, instinct, brute life, everything all our experience has shaped for us by contact with the whole circle of our being.’ Of his many charming utterances at the breakfast table, I would select this as one of the most noteworthy and just withal. Chemists especially need to take both opinions and feelings as well as arguments into account to appreciate more fully, perhaps, than is now customary the need of culti- vating and giving expression to that state of mind which is the main quali- fication of the expert—the state of mind which, let me insist, in the case of the chemist, is only to be acquired by constantly associating with and constantly handling substances in being and in the making, by constantly striving to become acquainted with their innermost nature and idiosyncrasies. It is safe to say that much of the subject-matter of our science cannot yet be quantified and probably never will be; 1t is even easy to overrate the value of quantitative measurements, as the processes studied, more often than not, are involved operations that can only with difficulty, if at all, be resolved into their factors. After an interval only a year short of a quarter of a century, it is my privilege again to occupy the chair of this Section and that, too, under con- ditions of special significance. The British Association has never before sought to carry the banner of science so far west into British Dominions— never before was it so clear that the progress of humanity is linked with the progress of science by an indissoluble bond: science defined in a word being knowledge; yet not mere word nor mere lip knowledge but systematised established knowledge—not assumed knowledge, although hypothesis often serves to guide inquiry and truth is arrived at only gradually and slowly by a series of rough approximations. Moreover, science is true knowledge of every kind—there is too often a tendency to give a narrow interpretation PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 491 of the word. One reason probably why the word does not produce any proper effect upon the average British ear is that it is not an English term but a mere adaptation from the Latin—a language which apparently cannot be engrafted upon our Saxon tissues; although, perhaps, it may be that we have so little feeling for it because we have been allowed to learn so little else in our higher schools: monotony of diet ever favours diminutive growth. Germans, I always feel, enjoy a great advantage over us in possessing the popular word Wissenschaft—in calling science the business of knowing, the business of gaining wisdom, of being wise. Coming as we do to Canada to advocate such a cause: to direct attention to the principles on which alone such a business can be learnt and con- ducted with profit—surely we may count on meeting with the support of the public at large; it is this we desire and claim—not merely the support of a few specialists; moreover, we do not ask for it in any way as a favour but practically demand it as a right—in no way, however, on personal grounds or with any display of arrogance but because we are persuaded that our message is of such infinite importance to the well-being of the community that it is our clear duty to make it of avail. Here it is that opinion, not argument, must count: the language of science is and must remain, in many ways, a strange one to the public; we must therefore ask that they entrust us with their confidence and allow themselves to be guided by the experience we have gained. We must be as the prophets of old: regardless of consequences, we must insist on the overthrow of the idols which a narrow priesthood still attempts to force upon society. We need always remember that, as my good friend the Professor expresses it— ‘Man is an idolater or symbol-worshipper by nature, which, of course, is no fault of his; but sooner or later all his local and temporary symbols must be ground to powder, like the golden calf—-word-images as well as metal and wooden ones.’ It is, as he says, ‘ Rough work, Iconoclasm—but the only way to get at Truth.’ Naturally I am constrained, on the present occasion, to take stock of the position of our science—to draw a comparison between the condition of affairs chemical when we met in Aberdeen in 1885 and their present state. No like period of human history has been more fruitful of advance; at the same time, no period illustrates more clearly the difficulties that lie in the path of progress—because of the innate conservatism proper to human nature. It was my privilege in 1885 to discuss a variety of problems which then seemed to be of special importance in relation to the subject of Chemical Change, our main province of study. I find the same problems dominant now—still unsolved but yet nearer solution. The history of progress, of discovery, during the intervening period is wonderfully rich in incident —how rich perhaps few realise, as it is obscured by a mass of blinding detail. If I attempt to bring some of the scattered threads together and in so doing dare to paint a picture which here and there may be startling in its outlines and implications; if I venture to follow the example set by one who has appeared as an autocrat as well as a professor and sometimes give my naked opinions: it will, I trust, be understood that I do so con- scious that the sketch I am presenting must be full of the faults to which all such attempts are subject. In my previous address two very different topics were considered—the Educational Outlook and the Theory of Chemical Change. In dealing with the former, I drew special attention to the need of creating an atmosphere of research in our colleges—then to the faulty curriculum of our schools and the need of introducing reforms into practically every branch of education, especially medical education. In the interval, considerable progress has been made by way of forming plans for the future, even a foundation stone 499 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. or two has been put in place, although scarcely ‘ well and truly laid ’—but the actual buildings are barely marked out. In point of fact, the needs to which I called attention in 1885 are our present and now most urgent needs. But of this more subsequently. In discussing chemical action, I commented on our failure to arrive at any understanding as to the conditions which determine the occurrence of chemical change—a failure all the more remarkable in view of the clearness of Faraday’s early teaching. Basing my remarks on the thesis which he pro- pounded in 1834 that the forces termed electricity and chemical affinity are one and the same, I discussed current views on electrolysis and arrived at a conclusion entirely adverse to the explanation put forward by Clausius that the conductivity of electrolytes was conditioned by the presence of a small proportion of separate ions; this was at a time when the views of Arrhenius were not yet spread abroad, although they had been communi- cated to the Swedish Academy ; I knew of them only from Ostwald. In justice to the attitude of complete antagonism which I have always main- tained towards the speculations of the Arrhenius-Ostwald school, I may point out here that in drawing attention to the views expressed by Arrhenius and Ostwald as to the correlation of chemical with electrolytic activity (and I was the first English writer who called attention to them), I took occasion to say: ‘ There cannot be a doubt that these investigations are of the very highest importance.’ In the interval, Ostwald has charged his test-tubes with ink instead of with chemical agents and by means of a too facile pen has enticed chemists the world over into becoming adherents of the cult of ionic dissociation—a cult the advance of which may well be ranked with that of Christian science, so implicit has been the faith of its adherents in the doctrines laid down for them, so extreme and narrow the views of its advocates. At last, however, the criticism which has been far too long delayed is being brought to bear and the absurdity of not a few of the propositions which the faith entails is being made evident ; it is to be hoped that we shall soon enter on a period in which common sense will prevail once more; that ere long an agreement will be arrived at both as to the nature of chemical change in general'and as to the conditions which determine it. The lesson we shall have learnt will be one of no slight import, if it but teach us the ever-present need of questioning our grounds of belief, if it serve to bring home to us the danger of uncontrolled literary propagandism in science, if it but cause us always to be on our guard against the intrusion of authority and of dogmatism into our speculations. Before attempting to deal with any of the problems which concerned us at Aberdeen I will first briefly pass the more salient features of advance in review. Few probably are aware how extraordinary is the command we now have of our subject. In 1885, in defending the tendency of chemists to devote themselves to the chemistry of carbon, I could speak of the great outcome of their labours as being the establishment of the doctrine of structure. Everything that has happened in the interval is in support of this contention. It is interesting that in a recent lecture* on the Physical Aspect of the Atomic Theory, the most prominent living exponent of physical theories has given a not unwelcome recognition of our right- mindedness in saying: ‘As time goes on it becomes increasingly difficult to resist the direct evidence for the simple view that, in many cases, chemical combination is not so much a fusion or intermingling of the combining atomic structures as rather an arrangement of them alongside one another under steady cohesive affinity, the properties of each being 1 The Wilde Lecture, 1908. By Professor Larmor, Sec.. R.S., Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society Memoirs. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 493 somewhat modified, though not essentially, by the attachment of the others; and that the space formule of chemistry have more than analogical significance.’ And again in the following passage, in which a far-reaching confession is made: ‘The aim of structural chemistry must go much deeper (than dynamical methods of treatment); and we have found it difficult, on the physical evidence, to gainsay the conclusion that the molecular architecture represented by stereo-chemical formule has a significance which passes beyond merely analogical representation and that our dynamical views must so far as possible be adapted to it.’ The remark made by Helmholtz in one of his letters, ‘that organic chemistry progresses steadily but in a manner which, from the physical standpoint, appears not to be quite rational,’ must be regarded as little more than a confession that he was out of his depth. When properly understood, nothing could be more rational and logical than the way in which our theory of structure has been gradually built up on an impregnable basis of fact, with the aid of the very simple conceptions of valency postulated by Frankland and Kekulé. Our security lies in the fact that the postulates of our theory have been tested in an almost infinite variety of cases and never found wanting; this is not to say they are applicable in all cases, but merely that whenever we are in a position to apply them we can do so without hesitation. Larmor refers to the habit of physicists of taking comfort in Helmholtz’s remark ; it will be well if instead they make them- selves acquainted with our methods and with the results we have won, with a minimum of speculative effort, by the cultivation of an instinct or sense of feeling which experience shows to be an effective guide to action. Now that physical inquiry is largely chemical, now that physicists are regular excursionists into our territory, it is essential that our methods and our eriteria should be understood by them. I make this remark advisedly, as it appears to me that, of late years, while affecting almost to dictate a policy to us, physicists have taken less and less pains to make themselves acquainted with the subject-matter of chemistry, especially with our methods of arriving at the root-conceptions of structure and of properties as conditioned by structure. It is a serious matter that chemistry should be so neglected by physicists and that the votaries of the two sciences should be brought so little into communion. The central luminary of our system, let me insist, is the element carbon. The constancy of this element—the firmness of its affections and affinities— distinguishes it from all others. It is only when its attributes are under- stood that it is possible to frame any proper picture of the possibilities which lie before us, of the place of our science in the Cosmos. As Longfellow sings of the sea in his poem ‘ The Secret of the Sea,’ ‘ Only those who brave its dangers comprehend its mystery ’—only those who are truly conversant with the root conceptions of organic chemistry are in a position to attempt the interpretation of the problems of our science as a whole or even to understand the framework upon which it is built up. And yet we continue to withhold the knowledge of the properties of carbon from students until a late period of their development ; indeed, when I insisted recently that - organic and inorganic chemistry should be taught as one subject to medical students,’ I was told that it could not be; that the attempt had been made with disastrous consequences. I trust that ere long the futility of such an attitude will be generally realised. It is remarkable how much our conceptions are now guided by geo- metrical considerations. The development by van’t Hoff of the Pasteur hypothesis of geometrical asymmetry has been attended with far-reaching **The Reform of the Medical Curriculum,’—Science Progress, January and April 1907, 424 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, consequences during the period under review, the completeness with which the fundamental properties of the carbon atom are symbolised by a regular tetrahedron being altogether astounding. Our present conception is that the carbon atom has tetrahedral properties in the sense that it has four affinities which operate practically in the direction of the four radii proceeding from the centre towards the four solid angles of a regular tetrahedron. More than analogical significance—to use Larmor’s expression—must be accorded to this symbol on account of its remarkable accordance with the facts generally, whether derived from the study of asymmetric optically active substances or from observation of the activity of ring structures of various degrees of complexity. Nothing is more surprising than the com- pleteness with which the vast array of facts included in organic chemistry may be ordered by reference to the tetrahedral model. In the future, when our civilisation is gone the way of all civilisations and strangers dig on the sites of our ruined cities for signs of our life, they will find the tetrahedron and the benzene hexagon among the mystic symbols which they have difficulty in interpreting ; if, like the ancient Egyptians, we made our tombs records of our wisdom, such symbols would long since have acquired sacred significance and probably the public would have learnt to regard them with awe and to respect them as totems. Chemists might at least wear them on aprons in imitation of the Freemasons; perhaps no two other symbols have so great a significance—they reach into life itself. It would seem that carbon has properties which are altogether special, the influence which it exercises upon other elements in depriving them of their activity is so remarkable. In their recent discussion of the relation of crystalline form to structure, in which valency is represented as a function of the volume sphere of influence exercised by an element, Barlow and Pope arrive at the remarkable conclusion that carbon is probably the only element the atom of which has a volume sphere of influence four times that of the hydrogen atom; although it combines with four atoms of hydrogen, silicon apparently has only half the volume sphere of influence of carbon. This may, in a measure, account for the very great dissimi- larity in behaviour of the two elements, which is most pronounced in their oxides, the single atom of carbon all but dominating two atoms of oxygen in carbon dioxide (which is consequently gaseous), whilst the atom of silicon in silicon dioxide in no way eclipses the two atoms with which it is associated but leaves both charged with residual affinity which enables them to form complex collocations of remarkable fixity in the fire. At bottom the differences between organic and inorganic nature are to be regarded as very largely the expression of this difference. Ropes of sand are proverbially treacherous: yet without sand, if silica had been a gaseous substance, our world might have worn a strangely different aspect.’ 1The solid model of silica which Barlow and Pope have constructed has very remarkable attributes, in that the oxygen atoms appear to be uniformly related and in intercommunication throughout its mass : so that a mass of silica, whatever its size, may almost be regarded as a single molecular complex.