bee Pay REPORT Of “LHE EIGHTY-FIFTH MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE MANCHESTER; 1915 SEPTEMBER 7—11 LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET 1916 Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W. CONTENTS. Page MOREA AND COUNCIL, 19] 5—1916;.......0cccoceccsssesessssaccesessesesedacenves iii POERS OK THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. :+..-..0cc0csscecsccecccsseccscorcnesecsnsies v TaBLes: Past AnNuaL MEETINGS: * Trustees, General Officers, &c. (1831-1915)... cess cseeseeeeneeneeees xxi Sectional Presidents and Secretaries (1901-1914) ..........ceeeee eee XXii Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates (1901-1914) xxx Evening Discourses (1901-1914)..............sscsecsesscecccecerescecseces XXX Lectures to the Operative Classes and Public Lectures (1901-1914) xxxii Grants for Scientific Purposes (1901-1914).......... SBnad Sow besestce . XXxiil Report oF THE CovNcIL TO THE GENERAL CommMirrer, 1914-1915 ... xxxix GENERAL UREASURER’S ACCOUNT, 1914-1915 ...0.....ccccsecssesesscncncecsss xliv AwynuAL Murrtines: PiLaces anp Dares, PREsIDENTs, ATTENDANCES, RECEIPTS, AND SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC MEMSHORERY (CU Sek LOM ED). cae ateme ccwe paces ahs tie vase Warens cx cegsauscasovacamsseoes . xlvi , a ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES............. SECS TOC eras SEE ee ee PE aCES xl viii Mancuester Meurine, 1915: ee CCA NCCT Uy Meeeteet te sanet es. cenaeeatee Arne cia ter ase oe eatate ceteits l Recon AleOfHGerss +. ieccasceucceemoi avec leases ownasatlcs vance eckibaetes li Officers of Conference of Delegates ...............0.ceceececnseeeeeeecs lii esearch (Oomimittees . vines dcccsaisc cecetsbedecevets Bakeries tae kcnemeeticcens liii Communications ordered to be printed 2m extenso ............ee0cee0es lxv Resolutions referred to the Council .............cccccsceeceeeeeeucse ak Lawes Ixv Resolution by the General Committec.................csscssescesesese lxv pymopsision Grants of MOnGYy ox. cies oisccsadeie [ois sencugrecsedatuvadendane lxv SMR EBEPL DE NUL Meee e ere ae gcc eviciore otemenaanies canes dace vars cranecuaeciavacetececesacds Ixvii Pupstic LECTURES IN MANCHESTER AND VICINITY...........:ssccesccecceceeeecs Ixviii * Particulars for early Meetings not furnished in the following Tables will be found in Volumes for 1911 and previous years. a2 il CONTENTS. Page ADDRESS BY THE PRusIDENT, PRoressorR ARTHUR ScuusTER, D.Sc., : Se.D., LL.D., Dr. 88 Sc., F.BR.S...0...ccteceeeceeeeecescerecessn eee seeersnes REPORTS ON THE SLATE OF SCIENCE, NC. ...c.cccesceeeeeeeeeeeseee Jcadsceewabee 27 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS : A.—Mathematical and Physical Science ...........c.sseeeeseeceeevers 357 = CHemiIstny, Wescta der eres sisncessveceseebee sis elec acieen > -'elciinyarenanee 368 C.—Geology ......cseccerssccnccsssvccccosconcenscsscnccssseececceconsreceses 4038 19) /A 010) Loken ps Ae apenoansasveonsecocec atctis Wienabtjae i bene itconis-eh ae eae 43 Bi Geoara phys saieves odes sdisescssecracacaess sc ocsesedancdvaeendde sed tondded 478 IR. —Biconomic Science and! Statistics a.....<0-s0cerses+ cieisecesespueeiece 495 Gr BIND ITC OMINP yaa seco nets rendesnsasonssrtrascarctacnepe aereresnanes 620 ETAT PUN OP OLOMY,s anete seeeelcteria des este tasulagl st clea eebisiunse os Uaiboe wi cntiia.ae 651 HGF SIO OO War ceieton acral ries ec lan lls cxjoieuin ol wah aide si asietia cease anmewmn Be 679 RG = DOLAMW i iis nse seiiesseslowsstiecins cnlsinealatieneaseacce smut «on deeneuecaeancnedsa 701 TE ——EIAUIGALION geater tas ects cine seceriduames aadmerecaaeeg eee j,. cet omeaeseeneM 7382 MRSA OTICUILUTE)..siuessacsasosreassseesdaetndelasseacsieos sha satin uacesmanaem 760 REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTED...............000008 781 MENT EDXZS eecstanee cae Se semen nInte mes BARE CE teste shinee Seatnee Re Reancuicsc cn aecahmecens ee 817 Tora OM MESUIB UT CAMLONS as vats at ent cece took. coe ee oee OU cor fs sans caem «oeeonieg 837 IFISTROR VVEEMIBERS WOCO; ctcmrdcigasespeatiie eon eehacn aie es antenna anaes oea eon Gene 1-103 LIST OF PLATES. Prates I.—-LV.—Ilustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations. Puates V. and VI.—Illustrating the Report on the Botanical and Chemical Characters of the Hucalypts. Puates VII. anp VIII.—Illustrating the Report on Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for School and University use. Prats IX.—Illustrating the Report on Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials. PuarEs X. anp X1.—Illustrating the Report on Archeological Investigations in Malta. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1915-1916. PATRON. HIS MAJESTY THE KING. PRESIDENT, Prorgsson ARTHUR SOHUSTER, D.Sc., Sc.D., LL.D., Dr. Bs Sc., F.R.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS. The Right Hon.the Lord Mayor of Manchester. The Right Hon, Lorp SHurrLeworTH, LL.D., Lord-Lieutenant of Lancashire. The High Sheriff of Lancashire. The Right Hon. Viscount Monr.eEy oF BLACK- BURN, O.M., D.O.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of Man- chester University. His Grace the DukE oF DEvoNSHIRE, G.C.Y.O., F.RS. The Right Hon, the EARL or DERBY, K.G, The Right Hon. the HARL or ELLESMERE, M.YV.O, The Right Hon. Viscount Bryce, D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S. The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of Manchester, The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The High Sheriff of Oheshire. The Worshipful the Mayor of Salford. The Right Rev. the Bishop of Salford, The Right Hon. Sir H. E. Rosco, Ph.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Right Hon, Sir WILLIAM Maruer, LL.D. The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Man chester. Sir EDWARD Downnsr, Bart., LL.D. Sir FRANK Forbes ADAM, O,I.E., LL.D. Alderman Sir T, THORNHILL SHANN, J.P. Professor HORACE LAMB, D.Sc., F.R.S. R. Novon BAkcLAy, Esq. PRESIDENT ELECT. Sir ARTHUR J, EVANS, M.A.,, D.Litt., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of Newcasile. His Grace the Duke oF NORTHUMBERLAND, K.G., E.R.S. The Right Hon. the EARL or DurHAM, K.G., G.0.V.0. The Right Hon. the EARL or CRAVEN. The Right Hon. the MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY, M.YV.O. The Right Hon, the EARL Grey, G.C.B., G.O.M.G., G.0.V.0. The Right Hon. ViscouUNT ALLENDALE. The Right Hon. LORD BARNARD. The Right Hon. LORD RAVENSWORTH,. The Right Hon. LorpD ARMSTRONG, The Right Hon. LorD Joicry. The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Durham, D.D. The Right Rey, the Lord Bishop of Newcastle. The Right Hon. J. W. LowTHer, M.P. The Right Hon. Sir EDWARD GREY, Bart., K.G., M.P. The Right Hon, W. Runciman, M.P. The Hon, Sir OHARLES Parsons, K.O.B., D.O.L., E.R.S. Sir Hueu BELL, Bart. Sir G. H. Purutrson, D.O.U. Principal W. H. HApdow, D.Mus. GENERAL TREASURER. Professor JOHN PERRY, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W. GENERAL SECRETARIES. Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. | Professor H. H. TURNER, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S, ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 0. J. R, HowarrTH, M.A., Burlington House, London, W. CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER. H. 0. STEWARDSON, Burlington House, London, W. LOCAL ‘TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. E. DARNELL. | J. H. B. Nosir. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. Professor P. PHILLIPS BEDSON, D.Sc, _ | E, W. FRASER SMITH. a8 lv OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL, ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. | Hanppovy, Dr. A. O., F.R.S. Bonk, Professor W. A., F.R.S. } HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S. BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, C.B. IM THURN, Sir E. F., K.O.M.G. BraAGG, Professor W. H., F.R.S. Morris, Sir D3 K.C.M.G. OuERK, Dr. DUGALD, F.R.S, Myres, Professor J. L., M.A. CROOKE, W., B.A. RUTHERFORD, Sir E., F.R.S. DENDY, Professor A., F.R.S. SAUNDERS, Miss E. R. Dickson, Professor H. N., D.Sc. STARLING, Professor E. H., F.R.S. Dixey, Dr. F. A., F.R.S. TEALL, Dr, J. J. H., F.R.S. Dixon, Professor H. B., F.R.S. THOMPSON, Dr. SILVANUS P., F.R.S. Dyson, Sir F. W., F.R.S. Wess, Professor F. E., D.Se. GrirFiruHs, Principal E. H., F.R.S. WoopwakD, Dr, A. SmiTH, F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL, The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dr. G. CAREY Foster, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (acting). PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOOIATION, | Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir W. Ramsay, K.O.B., S. | Sir E.Ray Lankester, K.0.B, ,F.R.S. | Sir EB. A. Schafer, LL at / Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S. Sir Oliver Lodge, D.S Sir J, J. Thomson, 0.M., Pres.R.S.| Prof. W. Bateson, MA a PRS 8. Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc. Dy F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, 0.M., F.R.S. Sir A. Geikie, K.0.B., 0.M., F.R. Sir W. Orookes, 0.M., ERS. Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir Norman Lockyer, K.0O.B.,F.R.. PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION. Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson. A. Vernon Harcourt, D.O.L., F.R.S, | Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S. Major P. A, MacMahon, F.R,S. Sir E. A. Schafer, LL.D., F.R.S. AUDITORS. Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. | Sir Everard im Thurn, 0.B,, K,0.M.G. Ons O-F ee BRITISH ASSOCEATION. [Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907, nith subsequent amendments. | —_—_—* Cuaprer I. Objects and Constitution. 1, The objects of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire with one another and with foreign philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind- which impede its progress. The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground occupied by other Institutions. 2. The Association shall consist of Members, Associates, and Honorary Corresponding Members. The governing body of the Association shall be a General Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and its affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by General Officers appointed by that Committee. 3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or longer, and at such other times as the General Committee may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be determined by the General Committee not less than two years in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. Cuaprer II. The General Committee. 1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the following persons :— (i) Permanent Members— (a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past and present Presidents of the Sections. Objects. Constitution. Annual Mectings. Constitution. vi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (6) Members who, by the publication of works or papers, have furthered the advancement of know- ledge in any of those departments which are assigned to the Sections of the Association. (ii) Zemporary Members— (a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections. (6) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre- sentatives, and other persons specially invited or nominated by the Council or General Officers. (c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies. (d) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in number—from Scientific Institutions established at the place of meeting. Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the General Committee shall be final. (i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Annual Meeting. (ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or during the Annual Meeting. Meetings. 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time to summon a meeting of the General Committee. Functions. 4, The General Committee shall (i) Receive and consider the Report of the Council. (ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations. (iii) Receive and consider the Report of the Committee of Recommendations. (iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less than two years in advance. (v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting. (vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea- surer, and Local Secretaries for the next Annual Meeting. (vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council. (viii) Appoint General Officers. (ix) Appoint Auditors. (x) Elect the Officers of the Conference of Delegates. (xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual Meeting. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. vii CuaprTer IIT. Committee of Recommendations. 1. * The ea officio Members of the Committee of Recom- mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the Association, the President of each Section at the Annual Meeting, the President of the Conference of Delegates, the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of the Association in former years. “An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section. Tf the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com- mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary. 2. Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub- mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con- sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted. Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be transmitted to the Council; and the Council shall take such action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report to the General Committee not later than the next Annual Meeting. Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub- Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom- mendations for their consideration and report. 3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble, for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the last day of the Annual Meeting. * Amended by the General Committee at Winnipeg, 1909, and Manchester, 1915. Constitution. Functions. Procedure Procedure. Constitution. Proposals by Sectional Committees. Tenure. Reports. vill RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CuHapTer LV. : Research Committees. 1, Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of money in aid of special research, which is made in any Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ; and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations. In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com- mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research, and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the Committee of Recommendations may include such recom- mendation in their report to the General Committee. 2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its eflicient working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary. Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to add to their numbers. 3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen- dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount required. All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary- not later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. 4. Research Committees are appointed for one year only. If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed in that year, application may be made through a Sectional Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment, with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money. 5. Every Research Committee shall present a Report, whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub- mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of the Annual Meeting. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1X 6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted as from time to time may be required. Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants. The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer a statement of the sums that have been received and ex- pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains un- expended ; provided that a Research Committee may, in the first year of its appointment only, apply for leave to retain an unexpended balance when or before its Report is presented, due reason being given for such application.* When application is made for a Committee to be re- appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount desired. In making grants of money to Research Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices of the Association, without special permission from the General Committee. 7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct. Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap- paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or for other specific purposes. All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall be deposited at the Office of the Association. * Amended by the General Committee at Dundee, 1912. GRANTS. (a) Drawn by Chairman. (bd) Expire on June 30. (¢) Accounts. and balance in hand. (d) Addi- tional Grant. (e) Caveat. Disposal of specimens, apparatus, &e. x RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CHAPTER V. The Council. Constitution. 1. The Council shall consist of ea officio Members and of Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com- mittee. (i) The ex officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi- dents of the Association, the President and Vice- Presidents for the year, the President and Vice- Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting. (ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the previous year. Functions. 2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con- flict with the functions of the General Committee. In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next Annual Meeting. The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report, and to consider other matters to be brought before the General Committee. The Council shall nominate for election by the General Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General Officers of the Association. Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in March, when the nomination shall be made from the names on the list. The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to time determine. Taek oe es THE COUNCIL. x 3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same Elections. time as that of the Officers of the Association, (i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re- election in the ensuing year : (a) Three of the Members who have served for the longest consecutive period, and (6) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near London, have attended the least number of meet- ings during the past year. Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the order of retirement above set forth. (ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee, in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three Members of the Association whom they recommend for election as Members of Council. (iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com- mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the election of the other Members of the Council takes place. Any member of the General Committee may propose another member thereof for election as one of these two Members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed, they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands, unless five Members at least require it to be by ballot. Cuapter VI. The President, General Officers, and Staff. 1. The President assumes office on the first day of the The Presi- Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address. ue He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he inducts his successor into the Chair. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa- tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented by a Vice-President or past President of the Association. 2. The General Officers of the Association are the Genera] General Treasurer and the General Secretaries. hea eas ‘xil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ; and they shall report such action to the Council at the next meeting. The General 3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the Treasurer. General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs of the Association. The General 4. The General Secretaries shall control the general Secretaries. organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to the General Committee and the Council for conducting the correspondence and for the general routine of the work of the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance. The Assistant 5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the Bee gee pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre- sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his duties which relates to the finances of the Association. The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore- said : (i) with the general organising avd editorial work, and with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with the control and direction of the Office and of all persons therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com- mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations, and of the General Committee. Assistant 6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as Bb euren Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the routine work of the duties of his office. The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other work as may be delegated to him. Cuarrer VII. Finance. Financial 1. The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall Statements, receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after ie ia ga a ik i FINANCE. xill June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the General Committee a balance-sheet of the Funds of the Association. 2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited, annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee. 3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay- ments authorised by the General Committee or by the Council. 4. The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf, part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit of the Association in the books of the Bank of England, either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest- ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem- porary investment as may seem to him desirable. 5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable, from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of his office, the President of the Association for the time being and one of the General Secretaries shall be jointly empowered to sign cheques on behalf of the Association. Cuapter VIII. The Annual Meetings. 1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and shall have power to add to their number. 2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom- mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers shall be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to receive subscriptions. 3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under- take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the;work of the Sections, Audit, Expenditure. Investments. Cheques. Local Offi- cers and Committees. Functions. X1V RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, CuapTer IX. The Work of the Sections. THU 1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans- SECTIONS. acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time to time by the General Committee. It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica- tions addressed to that Section. Sectional 2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or Officers. more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet- ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section from the date of their appointment until the appoint- ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual Meeting. Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section, and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual Meeting is held. Rooms. 3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall] not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. SECTIONAL 4, The work of each Section shall be conducted by a COMMITTEES. Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :— Constitution. (i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office. (ii) All past Presidents of that Section. (iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee, thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the meeting : Provided always that— Privilege of (a) Any Member of the Association who has served on ener: the Committee of any Section in any previous year, and who has intimated his intention of being present at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of that Committee at their first meeting. Daily (2) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above Eee uaeion: set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting, and shall publish daily a revised list of the members. THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. XV (c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the Section, in addition to those previously appointed by the Council. 5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com- mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional Committee at its next meeting. The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi- dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points of order that may arise. The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans- mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the Sectional Committee. 6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own members to be members of an Organising Committee, with the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of the ensuing Annual Meeting. Each Organising Committee shall hold such meetings as are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro- visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the Sectional Committee. Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other- wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance- ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may arise out of the proceedings of the Section. No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted on its Minutes. Additional Vice-Presi- dents. EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS Of President and of Recorder, Organising Committee. Sectional Committee. Papers and Reports. Recommen- dations. Publication, Copyright. XV1 RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read also in any other Section. No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close of the Annual Meeting. Tt shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com- mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the Association, and the communications made to the Section at its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge on the state and progress of which reports are required: to make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether, and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa- tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu- tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government. The appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV. No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com- mittee, 7. Papers ordered to be printed in extenso shall not be included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of the Council. 8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com- mittee to be printed im ewtenso in the Annual Report shall be vested in the authors; and the copyright of the reports of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee shall be vested in the Association, ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES, xvii Cuaprer X. Admission of Members and Associates. 1. No technical qualification shall be required on the part of an applicant for admission as a Member or as an Associate of the British Association ; but the Council is empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect. * Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association, any infringement of which on his part may render him liable to exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of admission already issued. It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ; and they shall report such action to the Council at the next meeting. 2, All Members are eligible to any office in the Association. (i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual Reports of the Association. (ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year the sum of One Pound. Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay, _ without intermission, their annual subscription. An Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any particular year shall lose for that and all future years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports of the Association gratis. He, however, may resume his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent Annual Meeting by paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. (iti) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission, the sum of One Pound. * Amended by the General Committee at Dublin, 1908, Applications. Obligations. Condition and Privileges of Member- ship. Correspond- ing Members. Annual Sub- scriptions. The Annual Report. AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES. XViil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Associates shall not receive the Annual Report gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in the Association. (iv) Ladies may become Members or Associates on the same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady’s Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment of One Pouad. 3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the General Committee, on the nomination of the Council. They shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership. 4. Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual Meeting. Annual MemlLers not attending the meeting may make payment at any time before the close of the financial year on June 30 of the following year. 5. The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded gratis to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it. Annual Members whose subscriptions have been inter- mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report at two-thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a year shall be entitled to purchase, at the same price, the volume for that year. Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can only be issued by direction of the Council. Cuaprer XI. Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates. Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows: 1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves- tigation and publishes the results may become a Society affiliated to the British Association. Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate, who must be or become a Member of the Associa- tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference of Delegates. He shall be ex officio a Member of the General Commitiee. (ii) Any Society formed for the purpose-of encouraging the study of Science, which ‘has existed for three years and numbers not fewer than fifty members, may become a Society associated with the British Association. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. X1X Each Associated Society shall have the right to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con- ference. Such Delegates must be or become either Members or Associates of the British Association, and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed by the Affiliated Societies, except that of member- ship of the General Committee. 2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of June preceding the Aunual Meeting at which it is intended it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society. 3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an- nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie- ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com- mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre- sponding Societies as they may consider desirable. (i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or before June 1, such particulars in regard to the Society as may be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee. (ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association a list of the papers published by the Corresponding Societies during the preceding twelve months which contain the results of local scientific work conducted by them—those papers only being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of one or other of the several Sections of the Association. 4. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti- tute a Conference, of which the President,* Vice-President,* and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be ex officio members of the Conference. * Amended by the General Committee at Manchester, 1915, Applications, CORRE- SPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE, Procedure CONFERENCE or DELE- GATES. a2 Procedureand Functions. Alterations. XX RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Association, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take part in the discussions. (ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to submit Resolutions to the Committee of Recom- mendations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee. (iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda- tions to be made to the General Committee bearing on matters in which the co-operation of Corre- sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com- petent for the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates to invite the authors of such recom- mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference in order to give verbal explanations of their objects and of the precise way in which they desire these to be carried into effect. (iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Conference, in order that they may be able to bring such re- commendations adequately before their respective Societies. (v) The Conference may also discuss propositions regarding the promotion of more systematic ob- servation and plans of operation, and of greater uniformity in the method of publishing results. CuaprerR XII. Amendments and New Rules. Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com- mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at the last meeting of the General Committee. Xxi TRUSTEES, GENERAL OFFICERS, &c., 1831-1915. TRUSTEES. 1832-70 (Sir) R. I. MurcHison (Bart.), | ERS. | 1832-62 JoHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S. | 1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S. | 1872— {Sir J. Luppock, Bart. (after- 1913 | wards Lord AvEBURY), F.R.S. 1881-83 W.SPOTTISWOODE, Hsq.,Pres.R.8. 1883— Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S. 1839-44 F. BAILY, Esq., F.R.S. 1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards Lord) 1844-58 Rev. G. PEAcocK, F.R.S. PLAYFAIR, F.R.S. 1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. 1898-1915 Prof.(Sir) A.W.RUCKER,F.R.S. 1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S. 1913- Major P. A. MAcMAnON, F.R.S. : 1915— Dr. G. CAREY Foster, F.R.S. GENERAL TREASURERS. 1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq. 1891-98 via sue A. W. RUCKER, 1832-62 JoHN TAYLOR, Hsq., F.R.S. 1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODH, Esq., F.R.8. 1898-1904 a ac C. Fostsr, F.R.S. 1874-91 Prof. A.W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S. | 1904- Prof. JouHn Perry, F.R.S. GENERAL SECRETARIES. 1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, 1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,and Capt. F.RS. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S. 1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, 1872-76 Capt. D. Gatton, F.R.S., and F.R.S., and F, Batty, Esq., Dr. MICHAEL FostER, F.R.S. F.R.S. 1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.8., and 1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.R.S. ¥.R.S., and R. I. MURCHISON, 1881-82 Capt. D. GAuron, F.R.8., and Ksq., F'.R.8. Prof. F, M. BALFourR, F.R.S. 1837-39 R. I. MurcHIson, Hsq., F.R.S., | 1882-83 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S. and Rev. G. PEAcocK, F.R.S. 1883-95 Sir DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S., 1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.R.S., and A.G. VERNON HARCOURT, and Major E. SABINH, F.R.S8. Ksq., F.R.S. 1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E.SABINE,F.R.S. | 1895-97 A. - VERNON HARCOURT, ee A 1850-52 General HE. SABINE, F.R.S., and F.R.S., and Prof, 4H. J. ¥. ROYLE, Esq., F.R.S. ScHirer, F.R.S. 1852-53 J. F. ROYLE, Hsq., F.R.S. 1897— f_Prof: SCHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir 1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S: eet W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S. 1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S8. 1900-02 Sir W. C. RoOBERTS-AUSTEN, 1861-62 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S. F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scott, 1862-63 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S., and F.R.S. Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S. 1902-03 Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S., and 1863-65 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.B.S., and Major P.A.MAcMAHON, F.R.S. F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S. 1903-13 Major P. A. MAcMAHON, F.R.S., 1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S. and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN, 1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and F.R.S. Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. 1913— Prof. W. A. HERDMAN, F.R.S., 1868-71 Dr. T. A. Higst, F.R.S., and Dr, and Prof. H.H.TURNER, F.R. s. T, THOMSON, F.R.S. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES, &c.: 1831-1904. 1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary. , 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 1832 Prof. J. D. ForBus, Acting | Secretary. Secretary. | 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A., 1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S. Secretary. 1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. | 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting 1881 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting | Secretary. Secretary. | 1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. 1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Esq., M.D. ASSISTANT SECRETARIES. 1878-80 J. E. H. GorDon, Esq., B.A. 1904-09 A, SILVA WHITE, Esq. 1909- O.J.R. Howarrna, Esq., M.A. Xxil PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association, 1901-1914 (The List of Sectional Officers for 1915 will be found on p. li,) Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries (Rec. = Recorder) SECTION A.1—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 1901. Glasgow ... 1902. Belfast 1903. Southport 1904, Cambridge 1905. SouthAfrica 1906. York......... 1907. Leicester... 1908 Dublin 1909. Winnipeg 1910. Sheffield ... 1911, Portsmouth 1912. Dundee 1915. Birmingham 1914. Australia.. ...|Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S. Major P.A. MacMahon, F.R.8. —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. Prof. J. Purser,LL.D.,M.R.LA. —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.—Dep. of Astronomy and Meteor- ology, Dr.W.N. Shaw,F.R.S. | Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Sw0- | Section of Astronomy and Cosmical Physics, Sir J. Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.R.S. Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A..,| F.R.S. Principal E. H.Griffiths, F.R.8. Prof. A. E. H. Love, M.A.,) ¥.B.5. Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. ...... Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S.... Prof. E, W. Hobson, F.R.S.... Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.85. ... | Dr. H. F. Baker, F.RB.S. ...... Prof. F. 'T. Trouton, F.R.8.... | H. S. Carslaw, C. H. Lees (Rev.), W. Stewart, Prof. L. R. Wilberforce. H. S. Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A. Larmor, C. H. Lees (fec.), Prof. W. B. Morton, A. W. Porter. D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees (Rec.), J. Loton, A. W. Porter. A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees (#ec.), Dr. W. J.S. Lockyer, A. W. Porter, W. C. D. Whetham. A. R. Hinks, 8. 8. Hough, R. T. A. Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H. Lees (Rec.). Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker, A, R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter (Rec.), H. Dennis Taylor. E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter (Fee.). Dr. W. G. Duffield, Dr. L. N. G. Filon, E. Gold, Prof. J, A. McClelland, Prof. A. W. Porter (Rec.), Prof, E. T. Whittaker. Prof. F. Allen, Prof, J. C. Fields, E. Gold, F. Horton, Prof. A. W. Porter (ec.), Dr. A, A. Rambaut. H. Bateman, A. 8. Eddington, E, Gold, Dr. F. Horton, Dr. 8. R. Milner, Prof. A. W. Porter (Rec.), H. Bateman, Prof. P. V. Bevan, A.5. Eddington, E. Gold, Prof. A. W. Porter (#ec.), P. A. Yapp. Prof. P. V. Bevan, E. Gold, Dr. H. B Heywood, R. Norrie, Prof. A. W. Porter (Rec,), W. G. Robson, ¥. J. M. Stratton. Prof. P. V. Bevan (#ec.), Prof. A. 8. Eddington, E. Gold, Dr. H. B. Heywood, Dr, A. O. Rankine, Dr. G. A. Shakespear. Prof. A. §S. Eddington (Ree.), E. Gold, Prof. T. B. Lyle, F.R.S., | Prof. S. B. McLaren, Prof. J. A. Pollock, Dr. A. O. Rankine. 1 Section A was constituted under this title in 1835, when the sectional division was introduced. The previous division was into ‘Committees of Sciences.’ PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). XX Date and Place 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910, 1911. 1912. 1913. 1914, 1901. 1902, . Glasgow ... 2. Belfast...... . Southport . Cambridge South frica| Leicester ... Dublin ...... Winnipeg... Sheffield ... Portsmouth) Dundee Birmingham Australia... Glasgow ... Belfast seeeee | Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S..... .| Prof. A. Senier, M.D. Secretaries Presidents (Rec. = Recorder) SECTION B.2—CHEMISTRY. Prof. Percy F. Frankland, W. C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson, E.R.S. __ W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose (Ree.). Prof. KE. Divers, F.R.S.......... \R. F. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope (Ree.). 'Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen- derson, J. Ohm, Prof, W. J. Pope (Ree.). Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen- | derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof. W. J. Pope (Ree.). |W. A. Caldecott, Mr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G.G. Henderson (fee.), C. F. Juritz. Dr, E. F.Armstrong, Prof. A.W. Cross- ley, 8. H. Davies, Prof. W. J. arg (Ree.). Okey ade 1D, pon bee Prof. A W. Crossley (Rec.), J. H. Hawthorn, | Dr. F. M. Perkin. .. Dr. K. F. Armstrong (Ree.), Dr. A. | McKenzie, Dr. F, M. Perkin, Dr. J. H. Pollock. Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S. Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr. T. M. Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin, J. W. Shipley. |Dr. HE. F. Armstrong (Ree.), Dr. T. M. Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin, W. HE. S. Turner, Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc., F.R.S. een eeenes eeaee George T. Beilby Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan, F.R.S. Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. ... Prof. F. S. Kipping, F.R.S... J. E. Stead, F.R.S. fee ee een eeee |Sub-section of Agriculture— Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr. E. J. Russell. Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr. | ©. H. Desch, Dr. T. M. Lowry, Dr. F. Beddow. Dr. KE. F. Armstrong (fee.), Dr. C. H. Desech, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. J. K. A. D. Hall, F.R.S. Prof. J. Walker, F.R.S. ...... | Wood. Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S....| Dr. E, F. Armstrong (Ree.), Dr. C. H. | Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. H. McCombie. Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S....... D. Avery, Prof. C. Fawsitt, Dr. A. Holt (Ree.), Dr, N. V. Sidgwick. SECTION C.32— GEOLOGY. John Horne, F.R.S. ............,H. L. Bowman, BH. W. Monckton (Ree.). Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon, H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton F.R.S. (Rec.), J. St. J. Phillips, H. J. Seymour. 2 «Chemistry and Mineralogy,’ 1835-1894, * “Geology and Geography,’ 1835-1850. XXiv PRESIDENTS AND SECKETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). : Secretaries Date and Place Presidents (Ree, = Recorder) 1903. Southport |Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A.,)H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter, M.Sc. J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton (?ec.). 1904, Cambridge |Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. ...... H. L. Bowman (Rece.), Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas, H. Woods. 1905. SouthAfrica | Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc.,|H. L. Bowman (Rec.), J. Lomas, Dr. E.R.S. Molengraaff, Prof. A. Young, Prof. R. B. Young. 1906. York......... G. W. Lamplugh, F.RS.......)H. L. Bowman (Reec.), Rev. W. L. Carter, Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas. 1907. Leicester ...!Proz. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....| Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rev. W. L. Carter, Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas ( Ree.). 1908. Dublin...... Prof. John Joly, F.R.S. ......| Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas (Rec.), Prof. S. H. Reynolds, H. J. Sey- mour. 1909 -Winnipeg...|Dr. A. Smith Woodward, |W. L. Carter (Ree.), Dr. A. R. Dwerry- F.R.S. house, R. T. Hodgson, Prof. 5. H. Reynolds. 1910. Sheffield ...| Prof. A. P. Coleman, F.R.S...| W.L. Carter (#ec.), Dr. A. R. Dwerry- house, B. Hobson, Prof. 8. H. Reynolds. 1911. Portsmouth|A. Harker, F.R.S. ............+66| Col. C. W. Bevis, W. L. Carter ( Rec.), Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. S$ | H. Reynolds. 1912. Dundee ...|Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S. ...... ‘Prof. W. B. Boulton, A. W. R. Don, Drew A. R: Dwerryhouse (Rece.), Prof. §. H. Reynolds. Prof. W. 8. Boulton, Dr. A. R. ara here (Rec.), F. Raw, Prof. S. H. Reynolds. 1914, Australia ...|Prof, Sir T, H. Holland, F.R.S.| Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse (Fece.), E. ¥ Pittman, Prof. S. H. Reynolds, Prof. . W. Skeats. 1913. Birmingham | Prof. E. J. Garwood, M.A. ... | | | | | SECTION D.4A—ZOOLOGY. 1901. Glasgow ...| Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S. J. G. Kerr (Ree.), J. Rankin, J. Y. ; Simpson. 1902. Belfast...... |Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ... Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y. Simpson (ec.). 1903. Southport | Prof. 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S.... Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft, A. Quayle,’ Dr. J. Y. Simpson (Rec.), Dr. H. W. M. Tims. 1904. Cambridge | William Bateson, F.R.S....... Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster, Prof. J. Y. Simpson (#ee.), Dr. H. W. M. Tims. 1905. SouthAfrica|G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S. ...... Dr. Pakes, Dr. Purcell, Dr. H. W. M. Tims, Prof. J. Y. Simpson ( Rec.). 1906. York.........|J. J. Lister, F.R.S. ........... Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster, | Oxley Grabham, Dr. H.W. M.'Tims | (Rec.). 1907. Leicester ...| Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A........00| Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster, | | KH. E. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims | (Ree.). 1908. Dublin...... Dr. 8. F. Harmer, F.RB.S....... ‘Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster, Prof. A. Fraser, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (Rece.). 4 * Zoology and Botany,’ 1835-1847 ; ‘Zoology and Botany, including Physiology,’ 1848-1865 ; ‘ Biology, 1866-1894. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). XXV EEE Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries (Rec. = Recorder) Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. ... C. A. Baragar, C. L. Boulenger, Dr. J. Pearson, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (Ree.). Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster, T. J. Evans, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (Ree.). Dr. J. H. Ashworth, C. Foran, R. D. Laurie, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (Rec.). Dr. J. H. Ashworth, R. D. Laurie, Miss D. L. Mackinnon, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (Rece.). Dr, J. H. Ashworth, Dr. C. L. Boulenger, R. D. Laurie, Dr. H, W. M. Tims (Rec.). Dr. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. T. 8. Hall, Prof. W. A. Haswell, R. D. Laurie, Prof. H. W. Marett Tims (Rece.) H. N. Dickson (Rec.), HE. Heawood, G. Sandeman, A. C. Turner. ...|G. G. Chisholm (Rec.), EH. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A. Lindsay. E. Heawood (Ree.), Dr. A. J. Her- bertson, EH. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C. Underwood. E. Heawood ( Rec.), Dr. A. J. Herbert- son, H. Y. Oldham, H. A. Reeves. A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers, Dr. A. J. Herbertson (Rec.), H. Y. Oldham. E. Heawood (Rec.), Dr. A. J. Her- bertson, E. A. Reeves, G. Yeld. E. Heawood (Rec.), O. J. R. How arth, E. A. Reeves, T. Walker. W.F. Bailey, W. J. Barton, O. J. F Howarth (fee.), E. A. Reeves. G. G. Chisholm (Ree.), J. McFar- lane, A. McIntyre. Rey. W. J. Barton (fec.), Dr. R. Brown, J. McFarlane, KH. A. Reeves. J. McFarlane (Rec.), EH. A. Reeves, W. P. Smith. Rey. W. J. Barton (Rec.), J. McFar- lane, E. A. Reeves, D. Wylie. Rev. W. J. Barton (Rec.), P. E. Mar- tineau, J. McFarlane, H.A. Reeves. J. A. Leach, J. McFarlane, H. Yule 1909. Winnipeg... 1910. Sheffield ...| Prof. G. C. Bourne, V'.B.S. ... 1911. Portsmouth} Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, C.B. 1912. Dundee ...|Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S. 1913. Birmingham | Dr. H. F. Gadow, F-R.S....... 1914. Australia ...| Prof. A. Dendy, F.R.S.......... SECTION E5—GEOGRAPHY. 1901. Glasgow ...{Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.G.S. ...... 1902. Belfast...... Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. 1903. Southport...|Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B., E.R.S. 1904. Cambridge | Douglas W. Freshfield......... 1905. SouthAfrica| Adm. Sir W. J. L. Wharton, RN: K-GIB;, ERS. 1906. York. ....... Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie, K.C.M.G., F.RB.S. 1907. Leicester ...|George G. Chisholm, M.A. ... 1908. Dublin...... Major KE. H. Hills, C.M.G., R.E. 1909. Winnipeg... |Col. SirD. Johnston,K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E. 1910. Sheffield ...| Prof. A. J. Herbertson, M.A., Ph.D. 1911. Portsmouth |Col. C, F. Close, R.E., C.M.G. 1912. Dundee .,./Col. Sir OC. M. Watson, K.C.M.G. 1913. Birmingham | Prof, H. N. Dickson, D.Sc. 1914. Australia...|Sir CO. P. Lucas, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. Oldham (fec.), F. Poate. 5 Section E was that of ‘Anatomy and Medicine, 1835-1840; of ‘ Physiology ’ (afterwards incorporated in Section D), 1841-1847. and Ethnology,’ 1851-1868 ; ‘Geography, 1869. It was assigned to ‘ Geography XXvi PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). Date and. Place Presidents Secretaries (Rec. = Recorder) SECTION F..—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. 1914, 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. Glasgow ... Belfast Southport Cambridge SouthAfriea eeenee Winnipeg... Sheffield ... Portsmouth Dundee Birmingham Australia... Glasgow ... Belfast Southport Cambridge SouthAfrica Leicester ... 8 ‘ Statistics,’ 1835-1855. Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., F.RB.S. .|E. Cannan, M.A., LL.D. ...... E. W. Brabrook, C.B. ......... Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D....... Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D., D.Se. A oe Bowley Mea. ccc.ccwescwse Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A.....;. W. M. Acworth, M.A. ......... Sub-section of Agricultwre— Rt. Hon. Sir H. Plunkett. Prof, 8. J. Chapman, M.A. ... Sir H. Llewellyn K.C.B., M.A. : Hon. W. Pember Reeves Smith, | Sir H.H. Cunynghame, K.C.B. Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A. Prof. E. C. K. Gonner Sein |R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E. so Pot. J- Perry silvia) canseceus ...|Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. T. Maccall, |C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.H. Hon. ©. A. Parsons, F.B.S. ... Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff, G.C.8.I., K.C.M.G., R.E. J. A. Ewing, F.R.S. .......0.4.. Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S. W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan (/tee.), 8. J. Chapman. A. L. Bowley (Rec.), Prof. S. J. Chapman, Dr. A. Duffin. A. L. Bowley (Rece.), Prof. 8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G. Lloyd. J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley (Rece.), Prof. 8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg. R. 4 Ababrelton, A. L. Bowley (Rec.), Prof. H. E. S. Fremantle, H. O. Meredith. Prof. S. J. Chapman (Rec.), D. H. Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, B. S. Rowntree. Prof. 8. J. Chapman (#ee.), D. H. Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, T.S. Taylor. W.G. 8. Adams, Prof. 8. J. Chap- man (#ee.), Prof. D. H. Macgre- gor, H. O. Meredith. A. D. Hall, Prof. J. Percival, J. H. Priestley, Prof. J. Wilson. Prof. A. B. Clark, Dr. W. A. Mana- han, Dr. W. R. Scott (fee.). C. R. Fay, H. O. Meredith (Rec.), Dr. W. R. Scott, R. Wilson. C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.), H, A, Stibbs. C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.), E. Tosh. O. R. Fay, Prof, A. W. Kirkaldy, Prof. H. O. Meredith, Dr. W. R. Scott (Ree.). Prof. R. #. Irvine, Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy (Rec.), G. H. Knibbs, Prof. H. O. Meredith. SECTION G.7—ENGINEERING. |H. Bamford, W. E. Dalby, W.A. Price (Ree.). |M. Barr, W. A. Price (ec.), J. Wylie. ~ W. A. Price (#ec.). J. B. Peace, W.T. Maccall, W. A. Price (Ree.). W. T. Maccall,W. B. Marshall (Rece.), Prof. H. Payne, HE. Williams. W. T. Maccall, W. A. Price (Rec.), J. Triffit. Prof. E. G. Coker, A. C. Harris, W.A. Price (Rec.), H. E.Wimperis. 7 ‘Mechanical Science,’ 1836-1900. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). XXvll Date and Place Secretaries Presidents (Rec. = Recorder) 1908. 1909, 1910. 1911, 1912. 1913. 1914. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906, 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912, 1913 1914, Dublin ...... Winnipeg... Sheffield Portsmouth Dundee Birmingham Australia... Glasgow ... Belfast Southport.. Cambridge SouthAfrica’ Leicester ,.. Dublin ..... Winnipeg... Sheffield Portsmouth Dundee . Birmingham Australia ... ... Dr, A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. |Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A. ...| W. Crooke, B.A. Dugald Clerk, F.R.S. Sir W. H. White, K.O.B., F.R.S. ..|Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Brot dee piles; is. D.; D.Se. A PLOtrA. Vane) OCr.. ccnavecs« Prof, Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng.... Prof. EH. G. Coker, D.Sc........ .| Prof. HE. G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly, W.A. Price (ee.), H. E. Wimperis. KE. E. Brydone-Jack, Prof. EH. G.Coker, Prof. KE. W. Marchant, W.A. Price (Ree.). F. Boulden, Prof. E. G. Coker (Rec.), A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis. H. Ashley, Prof. E. G. Coker (ec.), A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis. Prof. E. G. Coker (fec.), A. R. Ful- ton, H. Richardson, A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis. Prof. KE. G. Coker (ec.), J. Purser, A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis. Vrof. G. W. O. Howe (Rec.), Prof. H. Payne, Prof. W. M. Thornton, Prof. W. H. Warren. SECTION H.2—ANTHROPOLOGY. Prof. D. J. Cunningham, F.R.S. . Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S.... |. BalfoursiMeAg cc cssacexess eve Dr, A. C. Haddon, F.K.8. E. Sidney Hartland, F.8.A.... D. G. Hogarth, M.A...........55 | Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A. seeeee Pewee ween eeeene W. H. R. Rivers, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Prof. G, Elliot Smith, F.R.8, Sir Richard Temple, Bart. ... Sir E, F. K.C.M.G. Dr. a im Thurn, C.B., |W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F. Gemmill, J. L. Myres (Rec.). .|R. Campbell, Prof. A. F, Dixon, J. L. Myres (Rec.). |E. N. Fallaize, H. 8. Kingsford, E. M. Littler, J. L. Myres (Rec.). W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N, Fallaize, H.S. Kingsford, J. L. Myres (Rec.) .|A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, H. 8. Hartland (Rec.). G. A. Auden, HE. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kingsford, Dr. F. C, Shrubsall. C. J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrub- sall. ...|H. N. Fallaize (Zec.), H. 8. Kings- ford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, L. E. Steele. H. 8. Kingsford (Rec.), Prof. C. J. Patten, Dr. F, C. Shrubsall. HE, N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kings- ford, Prof. C. J, Patten, Dr. F.C. Shrubsall. i. N. Fallaize (Rec.), HU. S. Kings- ford, E, W. Martindell, H, Rundle, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. D. D. Craig, E. N. Fallaize (#ec.), E. W. Martindell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. HE. N, Fallaize (Rec.), E. W. Martin- dell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsal!, T. Yeates. Prof. R. J. A. Berry, Dr. B. Malin- owski, Dr. R, R. Marett (Ree.), Prof. J. T. Wilson. 8 Hstablished 1884. XXVili Date and Place PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). Presidents Secretaries (Ree. = Recorder) SECTION I.°—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExPerimMEenraL PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsycHOLOGY). 1901. Glasgow .,.{Prof.J.G.McKendrick, F.R.S. 1902. Belfast ...|Prof. W. D. Halliburton, F.RB.S. 1904. Cambridge | Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, F.R.S. 1905. SouthAfrica| Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S. ... 1906. York......... Prot. HSGotch, KIR:S. ....+000. 1907. Leicester...|Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ...... 1908. Dublin...... |Dr. J. Scott Haldane, F.R.S. 1909. Winnipeg...| Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.... 1910. Sheffield ...! Prof. A. B. Macallum, F.R.S. 1911. Portsmouth! Prof. J. 8S. Macdonald, B.A. 1912. Dundee ...|Leonard Hill, F.R.S. ......... 1913. Birmingham Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins, F.R.S, 1914. Australia... | Prof. B. Moore, F.R.S.......... 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Glasgow Belfast Southport W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof. W. H. Thompson ( Ree.). J. Barcroft, Dr. W. A. (Rec.), Dr. C. Shaw. J. Barcroft (Rec.), Prof. T. G. Brodie, Dr. L. E. Shore. J. Barcroft (Rec.), Dr. Baumann, Dr. Mackenzie, Dr. G. W. Robert- | son, Dr. Stanwell. |J. Barcroft (Rec.), Dr. J. M. Hamill, Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Dr. D. 8. Long. Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft (Ree.), Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Dr. A. Warner. Prof. D. J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring, Prof. J. 8. Macdonald, Dr. H. E. Roaf (Rec.). Dr. N.H. Alcock (Rec.), Prof. P. T. Herring, Dr. W. Webster. Dr. H. G. M. Henry, Keith Lucas, Dr. H. E. Roaf (fece.), Dr. J. Tait. Dr. J. T. Leon, Dr. Keith Lucas, Dr. H. E. Roaf (Rec.), Dr. J. Tait. Dr. Keith Lucas, W. Moodie, Dr. H. #. Roaf (Rec.), Dr. J. Tait. C. L. Burt, Prof. P. T. Herring, Dr. T. G. Maitland, Dr. H. E. Roaf (Rece.), Dr. J. Tait. Prof. P. T. Herring (Rec.), Prof. T. H. Milroy, Prof. W. A. Osborne, Prof. Sir T. P. Anderson Stuart. Osborne SECTION K.!°—BOTANY. ... | Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ... ... Prof. J. R. Green, F.R.S....... A. C. Seward, F.R.S. sen eeneee Cambridge Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ...... Sub-section of Agriculture— Dr. W. Somerville. Work s28. Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ... ® Established 1894, 'D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan, G. F. Scott- | Elliot, A. C. Seward (Rec.), H. | Wager. _A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell, | H. Wager (Rec.), R. H. Yapp. |H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager | (Rec.), R. H. Yapp. 'Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager (Rec.), T. B. Wood, R. H. Yapp. SouthAfrica Harold Wager, F.R.S. .........!R. P. Gregory, Dr. Marloth, Prof. | Pearson, Prof. R. H. Yapp (fec.). _Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof. | A. G. Tansley (Rec.), Prof. R. H. Yapp. 40 Established 1895. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). = xxix Secretaries Date and Place Presidents (Rec. = Recorder) 1907. Leicester ...| Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ...|W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G. Tansley (fec.), Prof. R. H. Yapp. 1908. Dublin...... Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S....| Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory, A. G. Tansley (Rec.), Prof. R. H. Yapp. 1909. Winnipeg...| Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, C.I.E.,/Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. D. T. F.R.S. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof. R. H.Yapp (Rec.). Sub-section of Agricultwre—|W. J. Black, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof. Major P. G. Craigie, C.B. J. Wilson. 1910. Sheffield ...| Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S. |B. H. Bentley, R. P. Gregory, Prof D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof R. H. Yapp (ece.). 1911. Portsmouth | Prof. F. E. Weiss, D.Sc. ...... C. G. Delahunt, Prof. D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, Prof. R. H. Yapp (fec.). Sub-section of Agriculture—|J. Golding, H. R. Pink, Dr. E. J. W. Bateson, M.A., F.R.S. Russell. 1912. Dundee ...|Prof. F. Keeble, D.Sc.......... J. Brebner, Prof. D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan (Rec.), Dr. C. E. Moss, D. Thoday. 1913. Birmingham | Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S. ..|W. B. Grove, Prof. D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan (fec.), Dr. C. E. Moss, D. Thoday. 1914, Australia...| Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ...| Prof. A. J. Ewart, Prof. T. Johnson (Ree.), Pref. A. A. Lawson, Miss EH. N. Thomas. SECTION L—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 1901. Glasgow ...|Sir John E. Gorst, F.R.S. ...!R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y. | Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof. | H.L. Withers (Rec.). 1902. Belfast ...|Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.8./ Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller (Rec.), R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Prof. H. L. Withers. 1903. Southport ..|Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B., Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller E.R.S. | (Ree.), Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H. |_ L. Snape. .|J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory, | W. M. Heller (Ree.), Dr. OC. W. | Kimmins, 1905. SouthAfrica| Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L., A.D. Hall, Prof. Hele-Shaw, Dr. C.W. M.P. Kimmins (Rec.), J. R. Whitton. 1904, Cambridge |Bishop of Hereford, D.D. 1906. York......... Prof. M. E. Sadler, LL.D. .. . Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller | (ee.), Hugh Richardson, 1907. Leicester ...|Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. . .W. D. Begar,. Prof. R. A. Gregory | (Ree.), J. 8. Laver, Hugh Rich- | ardson. 1908. Dublin...... Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ....... Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar, | George Fletcher, Prof. R. A. | Gregory (fec.), Hugh Richardson. 1909. Winnipeg...| Rev. H. B. Gray, D.D.......... W. D. Eggar, R. Fletcher, J. L. | Holland (Ree.), Hugh Richardson. 1910, Sheffield ...|Principal H. A. Miers, F.R.S.|A. J. Arnold, W. D. Eggar, J. L. Holland (Ree. ), Hugh Richardson. 1911. Portsmouth|Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon, a hee D. Eggar, O. Freeman, J. L. D.D. Holland (Rec.), Hugh Richardson. Xxx Date and Place 1912. Dundee 1913, Birmingham 1914. Australia ... 1912. Dundee 1913. Birmingham 1914. Australia .. ..| Prof. J. Adams, M.A. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-14). Presidents Secretaries (Rec. = Recorder) serene nes Principal E.R.S. Profs de Permty. Hen O-p asscsoan. E. H. Griffiths. D. Berridge, Dr. J. Davidson, Prof. J. A. Green (Rec.), Hugh Richard- son. D. Berridge, Rev. 8. Blofeld, Prof. J. A. Green (Rec.), H. Richardson. P. Board, C. A. Buckmaster, Prof. J. A, Green (Rec.), J. Smyth. SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. .|T. H. Middleton, M.A.......... | Prot T. B. Wood, M.A. sae De PHall WR Si, enssscctaee Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr. A. Lauder, Dr. E. J. Russell (Rec.). W. E. Collinge, Dr. C. Crowther, | J. Golding, Dr. E. J. Russell (Ree.) |Prof. T. Cherry, J. a (Ree.), Dr. A. Lauder, Prof. R. D. Watt. CHAIRMEN anp SECRETARIES or taz CONFERENCES OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 1901-14.! (For 1915, see p. lii.) Date and Place Chairmen | Secretaries | | 1901. Glasgow ... F. W. Rudler, F.G.8. .........| Dr. J. G@. Garson, A. Somerville. 1902. Belfast...... Prof. W. W. Watts, F.G. BS ..|H. J. Bles. 1903. Southport.. W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ......... \F. W. Rudler. 1904. Cambridge Prof. H. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. |F. W. Rudler. 1905. London ... Dr. A. Smith Woodward,| fF. W. Rudler. / ERS: 1906. York......... Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B....| F. W. Rudler. 1907. Leicester... H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... F. W. Rudler, 1.8.0. 1908. Dublin...... Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S....... W. P. D. Stebbing. 1909. London ... Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...|W. P. D. Stebbing. 1910. Sheffield ... Dr. Tempest Anderson......... W. P. D. Stebbing. 1911. Portsmouth Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....|W. P. D. Stebbing. 1912. Dundee ... Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ...|W. P. D. Stebbing. 1913. Birmingham Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,|W. P. D. Stebbing. F.R.S. 1914. Le Havre... Sir H. George Fordham .|W. Mark Webb. EVENING DISCOURSES, 1901-14. (For 1915, see General Meetings, p. li.) Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse 1901. Glasgow ... 1902. Belfast 1903. Southport... Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S....... Francis Darwin, F.R.S8. ... | Prof, J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.... Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S. Dr. R. Munro eee eee e ee eeeeene Dr, A. Rowe see eee ence seen enenes of the |The Inert Constituents Atmosphere. The Movements of Plants. Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity. Inheritance. Man as Artist and Sportsmanin the Palzolithic Period. The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its Teachings. ! Hstablished 1885. EVENING DISCOURSES. 0.0.61 Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse 1904. Cambridge 1905. South Africa: Cape Town Durban Pietermaritz- burg. Johannesburg Pretoria Bloemfontein.. Kimberley Bulawayo... TOG, Work:.s.....2 Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S.... Ripple-Marks and Sand-Dunes. |Prof. H. ¥.-Osborn ........... Paleontological Discoveries in the Rocky Mountains. saat Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.... |W. J. Burchell’s Discoveries in South | Africa. |C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. ......|Some Surface Actions of Fluids. .../ Douglas W. Freshfield......... ‘The Mountains of the Old World. | Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. Marine Biology. Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S.... Sleeping Sickness. Ae HOE ARS vail dns ses ametee te oe The Cruise of the ‘ Discovery.’ Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.8.... The Distribution of Power. | ProtsJ.|O; Ampold, .....s5cs.es0 Steel as an Igneous Rock. ...{A, HE. Shipley, F.R.S. ......... Fly-borne Diseases: Malaria, Sleep- ing Sickness, &c. pA eb eMEIUICS | se tadvesnigciisiseeanac ‘The Milky Way and the Clouds of Magellan. ... Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S. ......, Diamonds. eroted). Db. POLben.....ccssasasecs The~ Bearing of Engineering on | Mining. |D. Randall-Maclver............ The Ruins of Rhodesia. | Dr. Tempest Anderson......... Volcanoes. ‘Dr, A. D. Waller, F.RB.S. ......|The Electrical Signs of Life, and | their Abolition by Chloroform. | 1907. Leicester ...; W. Duddell, F.R.S. ............ The Ark and the Spark in Radio- telegraphy. DENA ADIREY 2 .cicisovaccest- Recent Developments in the Theory of Mimicry. 1908. Dublin...... Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...|Halley’s Comet. Prof. OW. MLD AVIS si cc..5.0058 |The Lessons of the,Colorado Canyon. 1909. Winnipeg...) Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S....|The Seven Styles of Crystal Archi- tecture. 1910. Sheffield ... 1911. Portsmouth 1912. Dundee 1913. Birmingham 1914, Australia: | Adelaide Melbourne Sydney ... Brisbane Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.| Our Food from the Waters. ‘Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.... |The Chemistry of Flame. Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S. |The Pressure of Light. Prof. W. Stirling, M.D. ...... Types of Animal Movement.? D:-G. Hogarth .......0...ccese0e New Discoveries about the Hittites. ‘Dr. Leonard Hill, F.R.S........ The Physiology of Submarine Work. Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ... Links with the Past in the Plant World. .. Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S. ... | Radiations Old and New. Prof. A. Keith, M.D....:........ ‘The Antiquity of Man. Sir H. H. Cunynghame, K.C.B. Explosions in Mines and the Means of Preventing Them. Dr. A. Smith Woodward, |Missing Links among Extinct E.B.S. | Animals. | Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S...,'|The Ether of Space. Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...|Ancient Hunters. Prof, E. B. Poulton, F.R.S .... Mimicry. Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S.__.... Greenwich Observatory. Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F,R.S. Primitive Man. Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S. ... Atoms and Electrons. Prof. H.K. Armstrong, F.R,S. |The Materials of Life. Brof, G. Wi. O: Howe? <....- 4 |Wireless Telegraphy. Sir E. A. Schafer, F.R.S....... | Australia and the British Associa- tion. SEO pular Lectures,’ delivered to the citizens of Winnipeg. 2 Repeated, to the public, on Wednesday, September 7. XXXi1 LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES, 1901-11. Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Lecture 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1910. 1911. Glasgow ... Belfast...... Southport... Cambridge.. Dublin...... Sheffield ... Portsmouth H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... ‘Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ...... Dr) to: HIG ©. casesscsecsssoene DIT AILOH Arr MHL. S: cccsas se Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.6. Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S....... Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S. C. T. Heycock, F.R.S. ......... Dr. H. R. Mill eee e ne eneeeeeneeee ‘The Movements of Men by Land | and Sea, |Gnats and Mosquitoes. Martinique and St. Vincent: the | Eruptions of 1902. 'The Forms of Mountains. The Manufacture of Light. |The Growth of a Crystal. |The Crystallisation of Water. Metallic Alloys. | Rain. PUBLIC OR CITIZENS’ LECTURES, 1912-14. (For 1915, see p. lxviii.) Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Lecture 1912. Dundee 1913. Birmingham 1914. Australia : Perth Kalgoorlie Adelaide Melbourne Sydney ... Brisbane eos ELOt bee MOOTe, DiSC. cascesees Prof, E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ...... Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ... Dr. Vaughan Cornish ......... Leonard Doncaster, M.A. Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. . Frederick Soddy, F.R.S....... ..| Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. Prof, A. 8. Eddington, F.R.S. Balfour: MAC. ca. asessearee Prof. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ... C. A. Buckmaster, M.A. ...... Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. ... Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. . Prof. B. Moore, F.B.S..:....... Prof. H. H. Turner, P.R.S. ... Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ... Science and National Health. Prices and Wages. The Sun. The Decorative Art of Savages. The Panama Canal. .../Recent Work on Heredity and its Application to Man. ..|Metals under the Microscope. The Evolution of Matter. Why we Investigate the Ocean. Stars and their Movements. Primitive Methods of Making Fire. Electrical Action of the Human Heart. Mining Education in England. Saving and Spending. Making of a Big Gun. ..| Explosions. Brown Earth and Bright Sunshine. Comets. Decorative Art in Papua. GRANTS OF MONEY. XXXlil General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for Scientific Purposes, 1901-1914. 1901. La sods Electrical Standards ......... 45 0 0 Seismological Observations... 75 0O O Wave-length Tables............ 414 0 Isomorphous Sulphonic De- rivatives of Benzene ...... 35 0 0 Life-zones in British Car- boniferous Rocks ............ 20.0 0 Underground Water of North- : west Yorkshire ............... p0P Os .0 Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0 Table at the Zoological Sta- PLOMSON ADIOS: .ccceveseessccrers 100 0 0 Table at the Biological La- boratory, Plymouth ......... 200 30 Index Generum et Specierum EINALIUIN...,.:c20sressesesese doy OnsO Migration of Birds ............ 105 10..0 Terrestrial Surface Waves... 5 O QO »Changes of Land-level in the Phlegrzan Fields............ 50 0 0 Legislation regulating Wo- MEN'S LAbDOUL......60...000006 15 0 0 Small Screw Gauge............ 45 0 0 Resistance of Road Vehicles BORUTAOHION rezivesaaveces cesses 75 0 O Silchester Excavation ......... 1OF04 0 Ethnological Survey of MUHA An eacecesaechieonscuxcoest 30 0 0 Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0 O Exploration in Crete ......... 145 0 0 Physiological Effects of Pep- “LE 6 ceneqnadaonppepsencous sapere. 30 0 0 Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 15 11 Suprarenal Capsules in the eee case <.:5-,.te oe 100 0 0 Heredity Experiments......... 10 0 0 Feeding Habits of British Birds: 3. Aeeeerae eee OP 0) Index Animalium............... (om 0-20) Investigations in the Indian Ocean meres: seigeeieisaseeaiereeers 35 0 0 Gaseous Explosions ............ 75 0 0 Excavations on Roman Sites mn Britainie: ckvens ese eee 5 0 0 Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0 Researches in Orete ........ asret UMNO nO GENERAL STATEMENT. res: The Ductless Glands ......... 35 0 0 Electrical Phenomenaand Me- tabolism of Avwm Spadices 10 0 0 Reflex Muscular Rhythm...... 10 0 0 Angestheticss.cnccssteecnmneners 25 0 0 Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 27 0 0 Structure of Fossil Plants... 5 0 O Botanical Photographs......... 10 0 0 Experimental Study of Hered tiv... ss-ccaseenseseveaee <3 Oss OO Symbiosis between Tur- bellarian Worms and Alge 10 0 0 Survey of Clare Island......... 65 0 0 CurriculaofSecondary Schools 5 0 O Corresponding Societies Com- MItbCelcc.ccinedeessuscsoesteeee 21 0 0 £1,014 9 9 1910... Measurement of Geodetic Arc in) outh: Atricaeecsesesccentes 100 0 O Republication of Electrical Standards Reports ......... 100 0 0 Seismological Observations... 60 0 0 Magnetic Observations at Halmouth' 43.5. .c0oeess ee 25 0 0 Investigation of the Upper AtmOSpheLe. «sccs-osececscases 25 0 O Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub- BUANGCES' (pis. essen ace coven nent 25 0 O Dynamic Isomerism.......... - 35 0 0 Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines ............ cis) LODmOMLO Electroanalysis ..............4+ «~~ 10,50) 0 Faunal Succession in the Car- boniferous Limestone in the British lisles' (..7...cseseuenee 10 0 0 South African Strata ........ BarOn0 Fossils of Midland Coalfields 25 0 0 Table at the Zoological Sta- tion at Naples ............... 100 0 0 Index Animalium............... 7 0 0 Heredity Experiments ......... 15 0 0 Feeding Habits of British Birds) ...scsccssarasseae eee 5 0 0 Amount and Distribution of Jncome is. .ssecseesuens Soi: PO) Gaseous Explosions ............ for.Or 0 Lake Villages in the neigh- bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 O Excavations on Roman Sites In Britaln.. eee eens eee O00 Neolithic Sites in Northern GYEECO seer a tecernerceerr es srcrane ONO. O The Ductless Glands ......... 40 0 0 Body Metabolismin Cancer... 20 0 0 Anzesthetics) .ccr.ujsyedsersses so 25 0 0 Tissue Metabolism ............ 25 0 0 Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 18 17 0 Electromotive Phenomena in Plants ..... Cas AL Cone ates me O° O 0 Structure of Fossil Plants ... 10 0 0 Experimental Study of IGredibycsrsepessesccasttsesene. 80 © 0 © ee ee | el ee GRANTS OF £ s. da Survey of Clare Island......... 30 0 0 Corresponding Societies Com- MUUGSS ..5.0eesesenie ebtowactaebsans 20 0 0 £963 17 0 1911. Seismological Investigations 60 0 0 Magnetic Observations at TU pICIEY CUTIE Dy 4 -peceddondacodacs 25 0 0 Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere ..,.....sseseeeeee 25 0 0 Grant to International Com- mission on [Physical and Chemical Constants ......... 30 0 0 Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub- BELEN tec iscisnistseas cis cjessiesaieats 20--0 0 Dynamic Isomerism ...,........ 25 0 0 Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines Scntanncch orapace 15 0 0 Electroanalysis ..........essseee. 1S) Or 40 Influence of Carbon, &e., on Corrosion of Steel............ Lay OE FO Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 2 0 0 Mammalian Fauna in Miocene Deposits, Bugti Hills, Balu- GES DAMES scReaccdsceonss's secs io, 0) 0 Table at the Zoological Sta- tion at Naples ............... 100 0 0 Index Animalium ............... (iss AT) (0) Feeding Habits of British ISTIC) “Sas peeguenc ase Sneseeesaae 5 0 0 Belmullet Whaling Station... 30 0 0 Map of Prince Charles Fore- teu Glemctiaareesnattade cued: Seadeos 30 0 0 Gaseous Explosions... ...... 9077050) Lake Villages in the neigh- bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 O Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0 Artificial Islands in Highland JL@ ES aateeeeepeesesoceoeaceeasar LOWOF GC The Ductless Glands............ 40 0 0 PATIESCNEGIGS s ZOE TORO Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 25 0 0 Electromotive Phenomena in HAATIGS so occhesgcasssscecseres tee 1O TORO Dissociation of Oxy-Hzmo- ODIs ca eveseetienacntts 25 0 0 | Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0 0 Experimental Study of . IELCNCUIGY arescstet sce avesscs ceca 45 0 0 | Survey of Clare Island......... 20NOn sOi! Registration of Botanical HAHOLOLTAPNS) eanetere.k-ssace 10 0 0 | Mental and Physical Factors | involved in Education ...... 10 0 0 Corresponding Societies Com- ALLE G Haase tereteante earns =poabe 20 0 O | £922 0 0 | 1912. | Seismological Investigations 60 0 0 Magnetic Observations at Falmouth ........ccseeeeeeees 25 0 0 MONEY. XXXVil Bersales Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere .....s:00 es ceeeee 30 0 0 Grant to International Com- mission on Physical and Chemical Constants......... 30 0 0 Further Tabulation of Bessel HM GULONS siete acu ccetudcacteucannue 130 Annual Table of Constants and Numerical Data.............. 40 Oalculation of Mathematical Tables .........0---e-000 -00-. 25 PAGMAIAIE ESOIMECTISHD ~ (pie ainsic's cnn ee, svinnlea sa geiebiet'via sisiivan ae ee 40 Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines ............ee.00- 20 Study of Plant Enzymes. ........ecsereces, cacces 10 Ohemical Investigation of Natural Plant Products .. 50 Influence of Weather Conditions on Nitrogen Acids in Rainfall 40 Non-Aromatic Diazonium Salts .........cce ee ceeeeseeeeeee . 5 Biology of Abrolhos Islands ........+. sleinialsla/asiavelmainalsinsisieiste's 40 Collection of Marsupials...........eeeees alana ea hace wafie’siem cet CLO Survey of Stor Fjord, Spitsbergen ScBsS 5 50 Antarctic Bathymetrical Chart . 100 Fatigue from Economic Standpoint > 30 Gaseous Explosions.,... an@anoone ds 6 Baars 50 BELGESPPSURIDULLOMS: La cratelsis/ eles e cictele’sin alates ae ciaisidials«ln/eiatals cialis 50 Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury Mwai 20 Age of Stone Circles ....... e/a cineieieiatererata at midis aie Weiteten ee 10 Paleolithic Sihe tM eTsO Vie ele anielelaintele'siua's asic \sis’e w wip 'elslela/tep 50 IRCAVATIONA IIMA bas cieele ainlalesisicje(eaicie aiaih cieiaic we'sieinelsidle e = «fe peli Gazetteer and Map of Native Tribes in Australia ............ 20 Electromotive Phenomena of the Heart ........ 0 essseeeees 20 Metabolism of Phosphates aie 20 Structure of Fossil Plants.... ine 6 IBN YBIOLO MY OIELered thn satiessetieisicinneisine lel clelclsiala/eieleiacccarcistel store 45 Renting of Cinchona Botanic Station, Je amaica AAO OO CEIG 25 Influence of Percentages of Oxygen ........eeceeeeeeeeeeees 50 AvinpralenOyca dace: Bic cs asa aamelalel scares ajclakale'e@ sieraeie x ne 25, Sections of Australian Fossil Plants ......... aJavjaarctatcale etaeinem atop Influence of School Books on Hyesight ..........0.eeeeeeeees 5 Scholarships, &c,, held by University Students .. 3 Character, Work, and Maintenance of Museums .. Corresponding Societies Committee .....+..ee eee ee ee ees Loos Grants made from:)* Caird Hund vecdervesccsecsvecwesesse aaa as Balance at Lloyds Bank, Birmingham Diels (with accrued Interest) (including Sir James Caird’s Gift, Radio-Activity Inves- LID AGLON, Ol ol OOO) ass *| 1898, Sept.7 . .| Sir W. Crookes, ERS. . a 281 19 1899, Sept.13. Sir Michael Foster, K.C. B., ‘Sec.R.S.... 296 20 | 1900, Sept. 5 Sir William Turner, D.O. is FBS...) 267 13 ¢ Tickets of Admission to Sections only. [Continued on p. xlviii. ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS. xlvii at Annual Meetings of the Association. | | Sums paid Old New Kemet | ena on account Annual | Annual nintes Ladies |Foreigners; Total | girinc the |, f Grants Year Members | Members / ‘Metin for Scientific | S| Purposes | = = — — — 353 | — | — 1831 = — — _ — _ — | -- 1832 = = _— — — 900 — — 1833 =— — — — — 1298 _ | £20 0 0 1834 —= = — —_ — _ — 167 0 O 1835 = 3 == — — 1350 — 435 0 0 1836 nae | = — — _ 1840 _ 922 12 6 1837 — — — 1100* _— 2400 — 932 2 2 1838 a — — —- 34 1438 | _ 1595 11 0 1839 — — — — 40 1353), — | 154616 4 1840 46 317 —_ 60* — 891 = | 1235 10 11 1841 75 376 33t 331* 28 1315 —_ 1449 17 8 1842 71 185 — 160 — — _— 1565 10 2 1843 45 190 9 260 — — | — 98112 8 1844 94 22 407 172 35 1079 S| — 831 9 9 1845 65 39 270 196 36 857 | — 685 16 0 1846 197 40 495 203 53 1320 | _ 208 5 4 1847 54 25 376 197 15 819 |£707 0 Of} 275 1 8 1848 93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0} 15919 6 1843 128 42 510 273 44 1241 | 1085 0 O | 345 18 0 1850 61 47 244 141 37 | 710 6207 0) 0; | 9 39l a3 7 1851 63 60 510 292 9 1108 =| 1085 0 0| 304 6 7 1852 56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0} 205 0 0 1853 121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854 142 101 | 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855 104 48 | 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856 156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857 111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 61818 2 1858 125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859 177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 76619 6 1860 184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0/1111 510 1861 150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0| 129316 6 1862 154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 1863 182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0} 128915 8 1864 215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0} 1591 7 10 1865 218 105 960 771 11 2303 | 2469 0 0; 175013 4 1866 193 118 1163 771 7 2444 | 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0 1867 226 117 720 682 45f 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0 1868 229 107 678 600 17 1856 |1931 0 0} 1622 0 0 1869 303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0} 1572 0 0 1870 311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0O/| 1472 2 6 1871 280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0} 1285 0 0 1872 237 99 796 601 11 1983 | 2120 0 0/ 1685 0 0 1873 232 85 817 630 12 1951 (1979 0 0} 115116 0 1874 307 93 884 672 7 | 2248 | 2397 0 0; 960 0 0 1875 331 185 1265 712 25 | 2774 | 3023 0 0O/| 1092 4 2 1876 238 59 446 283 11 } e295 | 1268 0 0| 1128 9 7 1877 290 93 1285 674 Lie le e2brS 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878 239 74 529 349 13 | 1404 | 1425 0 O | 1080 11 It 1879 171 41 389 147 12 | 915 | 899 0° 0 | Zak: .7. 7 1880 313 176 1230 514 24 | 2557 | 2689 0 0| 476 8 1 1881 253 79 516 189 21 | 1253 1286 0 0} 1126 111 1882 330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0)| 1083 3 3 1883 317 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 | 1855 0 0|1173 4 0 1884 332 122 1053 447 6 2203 =| 2256 0 0/1385 0 0 1885 428 179 1067 429 11 2453 | 2532 0 0| 995 0 6 1886 510 244 1985 493 92 3838 | 4336 0 0/| 118618 0 1887 399 100 639 509 12 1984 | 2107 0 0/} 1511 0 5 1888 412 113 1024 579 21 2437 «© 2441 0 Oj 1417 O11 1889 368 92 680 334 12 1775 |1776 0 0} 78916 8 1890 341 152 672 107 35 1497 | 1664 0 O | 102910 0 1891 413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892 328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0); 90715 6 1893 435 69 941 451 17 |} 2321 2175 0 0) 58315 6 1894 290 31 493 261 22 | 1324 1236 0 0} 97715 5 1895 383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0/1104 6 1 1896 286 125 682 | 100 41 1362 1398 0 0 | 105910 8 1897 327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0} 1212 0 0 1898 324 68 | 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 0} 1430 14 2 1899 297 45 | 801 482 9 1915 | 1801 0 0) 107210 0 1900 t Including Ladies. § Fellows ofthe American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting. [Continued on p. xlix. xlvili ATTENDANOES AND RECEIPTS. Table showing the Attendances and Receipts | | | * : Date of Meeting | Where held Presidents ate ae 1901, Sept. 11...... GASP OW sects. sse Pr of. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R. S.. 310 37 1902, Sept. 10...... | Belfast ...... ....| Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. ......... 243 21 1903, Sept. 9 ...... | Southport ... “"" Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,F.RS.| 250 21 1904, Aug. 17...... | Cambridge...... ..... Rt. Hon, A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. | 419 32 1905, Aug. 15....., South Africa "| prof. @. H. Darwin, LL.D., FBS. ...| 115 40 1906, Aug. 1 sa OD Ravest seeks ce .| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL. D., F.B.S.| 322 10 | 1907, July 31. Leicester .. Sir David Gill, K.C.B., PRS. oy, 276 19 | 1908, Sept. 2 Dublin .., . Dr. Francis Darwin, ERS. 294 24 1909, Aug. 25.,...,. Winnipeg .., .| Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, ERS. 117 13 1910, Aug. 31 ...... Sheffield..... .... Rev. Prof. T, G. Bonney, F.R.S. ...... 293 26 1911, Aug. 30...... Portsmonth ... Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.0.B.,F.B.S. | 284 21 1912, Sept. 4 ...... Dundee ......... a APLOLAE) Awechater msbw., <-sreecessecs 288 ta | 1913, Sept. 10 ...... Birmingham ws. Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S..... ae 376 40 | 1914, July- Sept... .| Australia ........ .... Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. .... 172 13 1915, Sept. 7 ...... ‘ Manchester ,. ......... Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. 242 19 § Including 848 Members of the South African Association. tt Grants from the Caird Fund are not included in this and subsequent sums. ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES AT [The total attendances for the years 1832, Average attendance at 79 Meetings : 1858. Average : Attendance Average attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during June, between 1833 and 1860 . : . 1260 Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during July Ys between 1841 and 1907 . : 1122 Average attendance at 32 Meetings beginning during ‘August, between 1836 and 1911 . A 1927 Average attendance at 37 Meetings ‘beginning during September, between 1831 and 1913 ; fe lees Attendance at 1 Meeting held in October ; Cambridge, 1862 . : : ele Meetings beginning during August. Average attendance at— 4 Meetings beginning during the Ist week in August( Ist- 7th) . 1905 5 ” ” » ” 2nd ” ” ” ( 8th-14th) . 2130 9 ” ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” (¢ 15th—21st) . 1802 14 »”» ” ” ” 4th ” » ” (22nd-31st) . 1935 —) es SSC ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS. xlix at Annual Meetings of the Association—(continued), Sums paid Old New IN | peru on account Annual | Annual feted Ladies |Foreigners) Total Afra of Grants Year Members | Members| ©!*%°S | Macks ae for Scientific | cHng Purposes | 374 131 (| 246 20 1912 £2046 0 0 /£920 9 11 1901 314 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0| 947 0 0 1902 319 90 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 0 | 845 13 2 1903 449 113 1338 | 317 121 2789 2650 0 O | 887 18 11 1904 9377 411 430 181 16 2130 2422 0 0/928 2 2 1905 356 93 817 352} 22 1972 1811 0 0} 882 0 9 1906 339 61 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 0 | 757 12 10 1907 465 112 1166 222 =| 14 2297 2317 O O |1157 18 8 1908 290%" | 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 0/1014 9 9 1909 379 | 57 563 123 8 1449 1439 0 0} 96317 0 1910 349 | 61 414 81 31 1241 1176 0 0} 922 0 0 1911 368 95 1292 359 88 2504 2349 0 0 | 845 7 6 1912 480 149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 0 0} 978 17 1ft 1913 139 | 4160] 539] — 21 5044] 4873 0 0 |1086 16 4 1914 | 287 | 116 628* 141 8 | 1441 1406 0 0 j1159 2 8 1915 ** Tncluding 137 Members of the American Association. fl Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see Report, 1914, p. 686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to att2nd the Meeting of L’ Association Frangaise at Le Havre. * Including Student’s Tickets, 10s. (see Report of Council, iv. p. xli). THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1913. 1835, 1843, and 1844 are wnknown.| Meetings beginning during September. Average attendance at— Average Attendance a Meetings beginning during the Ist weekin September( 1st- 7th). 2131 » ” ” ” 2 nd ” ” ” ( 8th-14th). 1906 " 35 " A Tee OLG ges ee » (15th-2lst). 2206 2 S ae sn a euler ees » (22nd-30th). 1025 Meetings beginning during June, July, and October. Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd week in June (15th-21st) . : 1079 Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week in June (22nd-20th) . 1306 Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning during the Ist week in July (1st-7th) . 710 Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in July (15th-21st) ; 1066 Attendance at 1 Meeting (1907, July 31) beginning during the 5th week in July (29th-31st) . 1647 Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October 1) beginning “during the Ist week in October (1st-7th) . “ ' - : = eee liGk 1915, ce 1 GENERAL MEETINGS. GENERAL MEETINGS AT MANCHESTER. On Tuesday, September 7, at 8.30 p.m., in the Free Trade Hall, Pro- fessor W. Bateson, F.R.S., resigned the office of President to Professor Arthur Schuster, F.R.S. The following telegram from the Right Hon. Sir Henry Roscoe, F.R.8., was read :— My best wishes for the success of the Meeting. I greatly regret that I cannot be present to support my distinguished friend, the President. I send my love to Manchester. The following letter from the Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S., forwarded by Sir Henry Roscoe, was also read :— Admiralty, Whitehall: September 2, 1915. My pBAR Sim Henry Roscon,—I am sorry that pressure of public business makes it impossible for me to attend the Meeting of the British Association at Manchester. I should have particularly valued an opportunity of taking a share (as past President) in its labours: partly because the scene of these is a city with which I was long and closely connected, partly because I should like to have borne testimony (if that be required) to the patriotic zeal with which the Royal Society, of which your distinguished President is Secretary, have placed all their scientific resources at the disposal of the Government for the purposes of the War. Although the Association meets this year in circumstances which deprive the gathering of much of its social charm, I am sure that its scientific labours will be not less fruitful than in years gone by. With every good wish for its success, Believe me, Yours sincerely, (Signed) ARTHUB JAMES BALFOUR On taking the Chair, Professor Arthur Schuster moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that the following message be forwarded to His Majesty the King :— We, the members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, this day in our 85th Congress assembled, humbly beg to express our devoted loyalty to Your Majesty’s perscn and to Your Majesty’s Government in this crisis of our national affairs. Landing in Australia at the moment of the declaration of war, we witnessed the extraordinary manifestations of loyalty which were displayed throughout that great Commonwealth. During our earlier visits to Canada and South Africa a like spirit of loyalty and imperial fellowship found expression in the cordiality of the reception given to us. By these visits we have endeavoured to strengthen the bonds which unite all parts of Your Majesty’s Empire. We beg leave on the present occasion to assure Your Majesty that the Associa- tion as a whole and every individual member thereof are whole-heartedly anxious to devote all their energies to assisting Your Majesty’s Government in the task of bringing the War to a victorious conclusion. SCHUSTER, President. Professor Schuster then delivered an Address, for which see page 3. On Wednesday, September 8, the following reply was received from His Majesty the King, and was communicated to the members assembled at the various sectional meetings :— The President of the British Association, Manchester. I have received with much satisfaction the message you have forwarded on behalf the members of the British Association testifying to their loyalty to the Srown and to my Government in this time of national crisis. The outbursts of loyalty which the members of the Association witnessed in their past visits throughout Australia, Canada, and South Africa have been gloriously demonstrated by those imperishable deeds achieved on the heights of Gallipoli, in the trenches of Flanders, — * GENERAL MEETINGS li and upon the waterless plains of German South Africa. In gratefully accepting the resolution that the Association one and all will do everything in their power to bring the War to a final victory, I recognise with deep appreciation the valuable services which are being rendered to this end by the men of science. GEORGE R. I. On Wednesday evening, September 8, at 8 p.m., the Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor of Manchester held an Evening Reception in the Manchester Municipal School of Technology. On Thursday, September 9, at 8.380 p.m., in the Free Trade Hall, Mr. H. W. T. Wager, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘The Behaviour of Plants in response to Light.’ On Friday, September 10, at 8.80 p.m., in the Free Trade Hall, Pro- fessor R. A. Sampson, F.R.§., delivered a discourse on ‘A Census of the Skies.’ After the above discourse (the occasion being the concluding General Meeting), the following resolution was unanimously adopted on the motion of the President :— That the cordial thanks of the British Association be extended to the Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor and Corporation of the City of Manchester for their hearty welcome, to the Governing Bodies of the University and other institutions which have kindly placed their buildings and resources at the disposal of the Association, to the firms which have thrown open their works to the inspection of members, and, finally, to the honorary local officers and their able assistants, and to the General and Executive Committees and individual members thereof, for the admirable arrange- ments made for the Meeting under exceptional and trying circumstances. OFFICERS OF SECTIONS AT THE MANCHESTER MEETING, 1915. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. President.—Sir F, W. Dyson, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents,— Prof. HI. Lamb, LL.D., D.Se,, Be US Prof, Sir E. Rutherford, D.Sc., F.R.S. ; Prof. H. H. Turner, ,M. A., M.Sc., F.R.S (Recorder) ; E. Gold, M.A.; A. O, Rankine D.Sc. svar Makower, MA, psc: SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. President.— Prof. W. A. Bone, D.Se., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prof, W. J. Pope, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.; Prof. W. P. Wynne, D.Sc., F.R.S. Secretaries.— A. Prot, D.Sc. (Recorder) ; oon: Desch, D.Sc., Ph.D. ; IL. F. Coward, D.Sc. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. President. relist Grenville A. J. Cole. Vice-Presidents—Rey. Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S.; Hon. Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.; Prof, E. J. Garwood, FRS.; Major Sir T. H. Holland K.C.LE., ERS. ’ Secretaries. — Vie Lower Carter, M.A. (Recorder); Dr. W. T. Gordon ; Dr. D . M. S. Watson ; Dr. G. Hickling. SECTION D,.—ZOOLOGY. President.—Prof. E. A. Minchin, M.A., F.R.S. (én absentia). Vice-Presidents,— Prof. A. Dendy, D.Sce., F.R.S.; AL. E. Gadow, M-A., Ph.D. F.R:S# Prof. S. J. Hickson, F.RS. eaeien 7e8. aN H, Ashworth, D. Se. (Bhear der); F, Balfour Browne, M.A., F.R.S.E.; R. Douglas Laurie, M. A.; ; J. Stuart Thomson, Ph.D. c2 lil OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1915. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. President.—M ajor H. G. Lyons, D.Se., F.R.S. (in absentia). Vice-Presidents.— Prof. H. N. Dickson, D.Sc.; H. Nuttall, M.P.; G. G. Chisholm; Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S.; H. Yule Oldham. Secretaries—J. McFarlane, M.A. (Recorder) ; Prof, R. N. Rudmose Brown, D.Sc. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—Prof. W. R. Scott, M.A., Litt.D. Vice-Presidents.—Sidney Arnold; R. Noton Barclay; Prof. E. C. K. Gonner; Sir Charles Macara. Secretaries.—Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy, M.A., M.Com. (Recorder); E. J. W. Jackson ; B. Ellinger. SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. President.—H. 8. Hele-Shaw, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. E. G. Coker, M.A., D.Sc.; Prof. Gisbert Kapp, M.Sc., D.Eng. ; Right Hon. Sir Wm. Mather; Dr. Edward Hopkinson; Robert Matthews; de Courcey Meade ; Prof. J. E. Petavel, F.R.S. Secretaries.—Prof. G. W. O. Howe, D.Sc. (Re- corder); J. Frith, M.Sc.; W. Cramp, D.Sc. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. President.—Prof. ©. G. Seligman, M.D. Vice-Presidents—Prof. W. B. Anderson ; Prof. R. 8. Conway; Sir Laurence Gomme, F.S.A.; Sir Everard F. im Thurn, C.B., K.C.M.G.; Sir Richard Temple, Bart., C.I.E. Secretaries. N. Fallaize, B.A. (Recorder); F. C. Shrubsall, M.A., M.D.; J. 8. B. Stopford, M.B., Ch.B. SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Prof. W. M. Bayliss, D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. Benjamin Moore, D.Sc., F.R.S.; Prof. W. Stirling, M.D. Secretaries.—Prof. P. T. Herring, M.D. (Recorder) ; C. L. Burt (Sec. Sub-Section Psychology); J. Tait, M.D., D.Sc.; F. W. Lamb, B.A., M.D. SECTION K,—BOTANY. President.—Prof. W. H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prof. F. O. Bower, D.Sc., F.R.S.; Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G.; Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S.; Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S.; H. W. T. Wager, F.R.S. Secretaries C. E. Moss, D.Se. (Recorder) ; D. Thoday, M.A.; R. 8. Adamson, M.A., B.Se. SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. President.—Mrs. Henry Sidgwick. Vice-Presidents.—Principal E.. H. Griffiths, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.; Prof. J. Perry, LL.D., F.R.S. Secretaries —Prof. J. A. Green, M.A. (Recorder); D. Berridge, M.A.; H. Richardson, M.A.; F. A. Bruton, M.A. SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. President.—R. H. Rew, C.B. Vice-Presidents.—A. D. Hall, M.A.,, F.R.S. ; T. H. Middleton, C.B.; Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A.; Prof. S. Coppenz (Louvain) ; Prof. W. Somerville, D.Sc.; Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. Secretaries.—Prof. C. Crowther, M.A., Ph.D. (Recorder) ; A. Lauder, D.Se.; T. J. Young, M.Sc. CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Chairman.—Major Sir T. H. Holland, K.C.1.E., F.R.S. Vice-Chairman.— W. Whitaker, F.R.S. Secretary. W. Mark Webb. ‘ 4 ; RESEARCH COMMITTEES. li LIST OF GRANTS: Mancusster, 1915 ResearcH CoMMITTEES, ETC., APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE aT THE MancuesteER MEETING: SepremBer, 1915. 1. Receiving Grants of Money. | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee Grants Szction A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. £ s.d. Chairman.—ProfessorH.H.Turner. ; 130 0 0 | Seeretary.—Mr. J. J. Shaw. Mr. J. E. Crombie, Mr. Horace Darwin, Mr. C. Davison, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professors H. Lamb, J. W. Judd, and C. G. Knott, Sir J. Larmor, Profes- sors A. E. H. Love, H. M. Mac donald, R. Meldola, J. Perry, and H.C. Plummer, Mr. W. E. Plummer, Professors R. A. Samp- son and A. Schuster, Dr. G. T. Walker, and Mr. G. W. Walker. Seismological Observations. Annual Tables of Constants and | Chairman.—Sir W. Ramsay. 40 00 Numerical Data, chemical, phy- | Secretary.—Dr. W.C. McC. Lewis. sical, and technological. Calculation of Mathematical | Chairman.—Professor M. J. M.| 35 00 Tables. Hill. Secretary.—Professor J. W. Nichol- son, Mr. J. R. Airey, Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Professor Alfred Lodge, Pro- fessor L. N. G. Filon, Sir G. Greenhill, Mr. G. Kennedy, and Professors E.W. Hobson, A. E. H. Love, H. M. Macdonald, G. B. Mathews, and A. G. Webster. Section B.—CHEMISTRY. Dynamic Isomerism. Chairman.—Professor H. EH. Arm- | 20 00 strong. Secretary.—Dr. T. M. Lowry. Professor Sydney Young, Dr. Desch, Sir J. J. Dobbie, and Dr. M. O. Forster. The Transformation of Aromatic | Chairman.—Professor F. S. Kip- | 10 0 0 Nitroamines and allied sub- ping. stances, and its relation to | Secretary.—ProfessorK.J.P.Orton. Substitution in Benzene De- | Sir S. Ruhemann and Dr. J. T. | rivatives. Hewitt. liv / RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee The Study of Plant Enzymes, particularly with relation to Oxidation. Correlation of Crystalline Form with Molecular Structure. Study of Solubility Phenomena The Influence of Weather Con- ditions upon the Amounts of | Nitrogen Acids in the Rainfall | and the Atmosphere. Research on Non-Aromatic Diazo- nium Salts. To report on the Botanical and Chemical Characters of the Eucalypts and their Correla- tion. Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Com- pounds. SECTION To consider the preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils. Chairman.—My. A. D. Hall. Secretary.—Dr. E. F, Armstrong. Professor H. E. Armstrong, Pro- fessor F. Keeble, and Dr. E. J. Russell. Chairman.—Professor W. J. Pope. Secretary.—Professor H. E, Arm- strong, Mr. W. Barlow and Professor W. P. Wynne. Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm- strong. Secretary.—Dr. J. V. Eyre. Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Professor A. | Findlay, Dr. T. M. Lowry, and Professor W. J. Pope. Chairman.—Professor Orme Mas- son. Secretary.—Mr. V. G. Anderson. | Mr. D. Avery and Mr. H. A. Hunt. Chairman.—Dr. ¥'. D, Chattaway. Secretary. Mr. P. G. W. Bayly and Dr. N. V. Sidgwick. Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm- | strong. | Seeretary.—Mr. H. G. Smith. Professor G.T.Morgan. Dr. Andrews, Mr. R. T. Baker, Pro- | fessor F. O. Bower, Mr. R. H. Cambage, Professor A. J. Ewart, Professor C.B.Fawsitt, Dr. Heber Green, Dr. Cuthbert Hall, Pro- | fessors Orme Masson, Rennie, and Robinson, and Mr. St. John. Chairman.—Sir J. J. Dobbie. Secretary. — My. E. E. C. Baly. Mr. A. W. Stewart. C.—GEOLOGY. Chairman.—Professor P. ¥, Ken- dall, Seerctary.—Mr. W. Lower Carter. Professor W.S. Boulton, Professor G. Cole, Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Professors J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Holland, G. A. Lebour, and S. H. Reynolds, Dr. Marie C. Stopes, Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. J. E. Marr, Dr. A. Vaughan, Professor W. W. Watts, H. Woods, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward. Mr. | | | | Grants £8. a. 10 00 10 00 5 00 20 00 8 10 0 30 00 10 00 10 00} RESEARCH COMMITTEES, 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland. To excavate Critical Sections in the Palzozoic Rocks of England and Wales. To excavate Critical Sections in Old Red Sandstone Rocks at Rhynie, Aberdeenshire. To investigate the Flora of Lower Carboniferous times as exem- plified at a newly discovered locality at Gullane, Hadding- tonshire. SECTION To investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Bel- mullet Whaling Station. Chairman.—Professor Grenville Cole. Seeretary.—Professor T, Johnson. Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward. Chairman. — Professor W. W. Watts. Secretary. — Professor W. G. Fearnsides. Professor W. S. Boulton, Mr. E. 8. Cobbold, Professor H. J. Gar- wood, Mr. V.C. Illing, Dr. Lap- worth, and Dr. J. E. Marr. Chairman.—Dr. J. Horne. Secretary.—Ur. W. Mackie. Drs. J. S. Flett, W. T. Gordon, G. Hickling, R. Kidston, B. N. Peach, and D. M. 8. Watson. Chairman.—Dr. R. Kidston. Secretary. —Dr. W. T. Gordon. Dr. J. S. Flett, Professor E. J. Garwood, Dr. J. Horne, and Dr. B. N. Peach. D.—ZOOLOGY. Chairman.— Dr. A. B. Shipley. Secretary.—Professor J. Stanley Gardiner. Mr. R. M. Barrington, Professor W. A. Herdman, Rey. W. Spots- wood Green, Mr. E. $. Goodrich, Dr. S. F. Harmer, Dr. E. W. L. Holt, and Professor H. W. Marett Tims. Section E.—GEOGRAPHY. To investigate the Conditions determining the Selection of Sites and Names for Towns, with special reference to Aus- tralia. | Chairman.—Sir C. P. Lucas. Secretary—Mr. H. Yule Oldham. | Mr. G. G. Chisholm and Professor J. L. Myres. ly Grants Bs 9... i070 20 00 Psy 10) (0) 8 00 25 00 15 - ONG lvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATIST The question of Fatigue from the Economic Standpoint, if pos- sible in co-operation with Sec- tion I, Sub-section of Psycho- logy. Industrial Unrest. Replacement of Men by Women in Industry. The Effects of the War on Credit, Currency, and Finance. To investigate Engineering Prob- lems affecting the future Pros- perity of the Country. Members of Committee Grants Chairman.—Professor Muirhead. Secretary.— Miss B, L. Hutchins. Miss A. M. Anderson, Professor F, A. Bainbridge, Mr. E. Cad- bury, Professor 8S. J. Chapman, Mr. P. Sargant Florence, Pro- fessor Stanley Kent, Miss M. C. Matheson, Mrs. Meredith, Dr. C. S. Myers, Mr. C. K. Ogden, Mr. J. W. Ramsbottom, and Dr. Jenkins Robb. Chairman. — Professor A. W. Kirkaldy. Secretary.—Mr. Egbert Jackson. Sir Hugh Bell, Professor S. J. Chap- man, Archdeacon Cunningham, Mr. W. J. Davis, Mr. Alfred Evans, J.P., Professor E. CG. K. Gonner, Mr. Howard Heaton, Sir C. W. Macara, and Professor W. R. Scott. Chairman.— Professor W. R. Scott. | Seeretary.—Miss Enfield. Miss Ashley, Mr. C. W. Bower- man, M.P., Archdeacon Cun- ningham, Mrs. B. Drake, Miss Franklin, Professor E. ©. K. Gonner, Mr. St. G. Heath, Pro- fessor Hobhouse, Mr. Egbert Jackson, Mrs. Pember Reeves, and Mr. J. A. Seddon. Chairman,—Professor W.R. Scott. | Seeretary.—My. J. E. Allen. ’ Professor C. F. Bastable, Sir Brabrook, Professor | Edward Dicksee, Professor F. Y, Edge- worth, Mr. b. Ellinger, Mr. A. H. Gibson, Professor E.C. K. Gonner, Mr. F. W. Hirst, Pro- fessor Kirkaldy, Mr. D. M. Mason, M.P., Profesor J. S. Nicholson, Sir R. H. Inglis Palgrave, Mr. E. Sykes, and | Mr. Sidney Webb. Section G.—ENGINEERING. Chairman.—Dr. H. 8. Hele-Shaw. Secretary.—Professor G. W. 0. Howe. Professor EH. G. Coker, Sir R. Had- field, Sir W. Mather, Mr. W. Maw, and Mr, C, B. Stromeyer, ICS. £ 3.da. 40 00 20 00 90 00 25 00 10 00 RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Recewwing Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee The Investigation of Gaseous Ex- plosions, with special reference to Temperature. To report on certain of the more complex Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials. | Chairman.—Dx. Dugald Clerk. Secretary.— Professor W. E. Dalby. | Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Bur- | stall, Coker, and H. B. Dixon, Drs. R. T. Glazebrook and J. A. Harker, Colonel H.C. L. Holden, | Professors B. Hopkinson and | J. HE. Petavel, Captain H. Riall | Sankey, Professor A. Smithells, Professor W. Watson, Mr. D. L. | | and Mr. Chapman, 1315 2G Wimperis. Chairman.—Professor J. Perry. Secretaries. — Professors H. G. Coker and J. E. Petavel. | Professor A. Barr, Dr. Chas. Chree, eee Iie A. R. Fulton and J. J. Guest, Gilbert Cook, Professor | W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing, | | Professor L. N.G. Filon, Messrs. lvii Grants £ 50 H. L. Callendar, E. G. | 40 Professors J. B. Henderson and | A. HK. H. Love, Mr. W. Mason, | Sir Andrew Noble, Messrs. F. | Rogers and W. A. Scoble, Dr. T. | E. Stanton, and Mr. J.8. Wilson. Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age | of Stone Circles. To investigate the Physical Characters of the Ancient Egyptians. To excavate a Palxolithic Site in Jersey. To conduct Archeological Inves- tigations in Malta. Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read. Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour. Dr. G. A. Auden, Professor W. Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Pro- fessors Boyd Dawkins and J. L. Myres, Mr. A. L. Lewis, and Mr. H. Peake. Chairman.—Professor G. Elliot Smith, Secretary.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Dr. F. Wood-Jones, Dr. A. Keith, and Dr. C. G. Seligman. Chairman.—Dr. R. R. Marett. Seeretary.— Mr. G. de Gruchy. Dr. C. W. Andrews, Mr. H. Bal- four, Dr. Dunlop, Professor A. Keith, und Colonel Warton. Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres. Secretary.—Dr. T. Ashby. Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A.C, Haddon, | and Dr, R. R. Marett. 25 25 10 s. d. | 00) 00 00 00 00 00 Iviti RESEARCH COMMITTEES, 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee To report on the Distribution of Bronze Age Implements. Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres. Secretary.— Myr. H. Peake. Professor W. Ridgeway, Mr. H. Balfour, Sir C. H. Read, Pro- fessor W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr. R. R. Marett, and Mr. 0.G.5. Crawford. Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY. The Ductless Glands. Further Researches on the Struc- ture and Function of the Mam- malian Heart. Chairman.—Sir E. A. Schiifer. Seeretary.—Professor Swale Vin- cent. Dr. A. T, Cameron and Professor A. B, Macallum. Chairman.— Professor C. 8. Sher- rington. Secretary. — Professor Kent. Dr. Florence Buchanan. Stanley Srotion K.—BOTANY. The Structure of Fossil Plants. Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity. The Renting of Cinchona Botanic Station in Jamaica. Chairman.—Professor F.W.Oliver. Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss. Mr. KE. Newell Arber, Professor A.C. Seward, and Dr. D. H. Scott. Chairman.—Professor F.I’. Black- man. Secretary.—Mr. R. P. Gregory. Professors Bateson and Keeble, and Miss H. R. Saunders. Professors R. Buller, F. W. Oliver, and F, E. Weiss. Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. To inquire into and report upon | Chairman.—Dr. CO. 8. Myers. the methods and results of research into the Mental and Physical Factors involved in Education. Secretary.—Professor J. A. Green. Professor J. Adams, Dr. G. A. Auden, Sir E. Brabrook, Dr. W. Brown, Mr. C. Burt, Professor E. P. Culverwell, Mr. G. F. Daniell, Miss B. Foxley, Pro- fessor R. A. Gregory, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Professor W. McDougall, Professor T. P. Nunn, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, Professor H. Bompas Smith, Dr. C. Spearman, | and Mr. A, E. Twentyman. Chairman.—Professor F.0.Bower. | Secretary.—Professor R. H. Yapp. | 20 00 20 00 12 10 0 20 00 RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | The Influence of School Books upon Hyesight. To examine, inquire into, and re- port on the Character, Work, and Maintenance of Museums, with a view to their Organisa- tion and Development as In- stitutions for Education and Research; and especially to inquire into the Requirements of Schools. lix Members of Committee Chairman.—Dr. G. A. Auden. Secretary.—Mr. G. F. Daniell. Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Professor R. A. Gregory, Dr. N. Bishop Harman, Mr. J. L. Holland, Dr. W. HE. Sumpner, Mr. A. P. Trotter, and Mr. Trevor Walsh. Chairman.—Professor J. A. Green. Secretaries.—Mr. H. Bolton and Dr. J. A. Clubb. Dr. F, A. Bather, Mr. C. A. Buck- master, Mr. M. D. Hill, Dr. W. E. Hoyle, Professors H. J. Garwood and P. Newberry, Sir H. Miers, Sir Richard Temple, Mr. H. Hamshaw Thomas, Grants £ 3s. a. 5 00 Professor F. E. Weiss, Mrs. J. White, Rev. H. Browne, Drs. A. C. Haddon and H. S. Har- rison, Mr. Herbert R. Rathbone, and Dr. W. M. Tattersall. The Effects of the ‘Free-place’ | Chairman.—Mr.C.A.Buckmaster.} 10 0 0 System upon Secondary Educa- | Seeretary.—Mr. D. Berridge. tion. Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Miss S. A. Burstall, Miss L. J. Clarke, Miss B. Foxley, Dr. W. Garnett, Pro- fessor R A. Gregory, Mr. J. L. Paton, Professor H. Bompas Smith, Dr. H. Snape, and Miss Walter. | CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker. mittee for the preparation of Secretary.—Mr. W. Mark Webb. their Report. Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E, H. Griffiths, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr, A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and the President and General Officers of the Association. to or j=) o lx RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 2. Not receiving Grants of Money.* | Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Section A—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere. Radiotelegraphic Investigations. To aid the work of Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia. *Determination of Gravity at Sea. The Study of Hydro-Aromatic Sub- stances. Chemical Investigation of Natural Plant Products of Victoria, Research on the Utilization of Brown Coal Bye-Products. Fuel Economy; Utilization of Coal; Smoke Prevention. Chairman.—Sir Napier Shaw. Secretary.—Captain E. Gold. Mr. C. J. P. Cave, Mr. W. H. Dines, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Sir J. Larmor, Professor J. HE. Petavel, Professor A. Schuster, and Lieut.-Col. W. Watson. Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge. Secretary.—Dr. W. H. Eccles. Mr. 8. G. Brown, Dr. C. Chree, Sir F. W. Dyson, Professor A. 8. Eddington, Dr. Erskine-Murray, Professors J. A. Flem- ing, G. W. O. Howe, H. M. Macdonald, and J. W. Nicholson, Sir H. Norman, Captain H. R. Sankey, Professor A. Schuster, Sir N. Shaw, Professor S. P. Thompson, and Professor H. H. Turner. Chairman.—Professor H. H. Turner. Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield. Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. 8. Lockyer, Mr. F. McClean, and Professors A. Schuster and H. H. Turner. Chairman.—Professor A. E, Love. Secretary.—Professor W. G. Duftield. Mr. T. W. Chaundy, and Professors A. 8. Eddington and H. H. Turner. Section B.—CHEMISTRY. Chairman.—Professor W. H. Perkin. Secretary.—Professor A. W. Crossley. Dr. M. O. Forster, Dr. Le Sueur, and Dr. A. McKenzie. Chairman.—Professor Orme Masson. Secretary.—Dr. Heber Green. Mr. J. Cronin, and Mr. P. R. H. St. John, Chairman.—Professor Orme Masson. Secretary.—Mr. P. G. W. Bayly. Mr. D. Avery. Chairman.—Professor W. A. Bone. Secretary.—Mr. E. D. Simon. Professors P. Phillips Bedson and G. T. Beilby, Mr. E. Bury, Mr. J. Cobb, Mr. J. B. Cohen, Professor H. B. Dixon, Mr. Th. Gray, Dr. H. 8. Hele-Shaw, Messrs, L. T. O’Shea, J. E. Stead, and R. Threlfall, and Professor W. P. Wynne. * Excepting the case of Committees receiving grants from the Oaird Fund. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. lxi 2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Section C.—GEHOLOGY. Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the Western Midlands. The Collection, Preservation, and Sys- tematic Registration of Photographs of Geological Interest. To consider the Preparation of a List of Stratigraphical Names, used in the British Isles, in connection with the Lexicon of Stratigraphical Names in course of preparation by the Inter- national Geological Congress. To consider the Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous, and Permian Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere. Chairman.—Mr. G. Barrow. Seeretary.—Mz. L. J. Wills. Dr. J. Humphreys, Mr. W. Campbell Smith, Mr. D. M. 8. Watson, and Pro- fessor W. W. Watts. Chairman.—Professor BE. J. Garwood. Secretaries —Professors W. W. Watts and S. H. Reynolds. Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, and Messrs. C. V. Crook, R. Kidston, A. S. Reid, J. J. H. Teall, R. Welch, and W. Whitaker. Chairman.—Dr. J. E. Marr. Secretary.—Dr. F. A. Bather. Professor Grenville Cole, Mr. Bernard Hobson, Professor Lebour, Dr. J. Horne, Dr. A. Strahan, and Professor W. W. Watts. Chairman.—Professor T, W. Edgeworth David. Seeretary.—Professor E. W. Skeats. Mr. W.S. Dun, Sir T. H. Holland, Pro- fessor Howchin, Mr. A. HE. Kitson and Mr.G.W. Lamplugh, Dr. A. W. Rogers, Professor A. C. Seward, Dr. D. M.S. Watson, and Professor W. G. Wool- nough. Section D.—ZOOLOGY. Nomenclator Animalium Genera et | Sub-genera. An investigation of the Biology of the Abrolhos Islands and the North-west Coast of Australia (north of Shark’s Bay to Broome), with particular reference to the Marine Fauna. To obtain, as nearly as possible, a Repre- sentative Collection of Marsupials for work upon (a) the Reproductive Apparatus and Development, (d) the Brain. Chairman.—Dr. Chalmers Mitchell. Secretary.—Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing. Dr. M. Laurie, Professor Marett Tims, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward, Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herdman. Secretary.—Professor W. J. Dakin. Dr. J. H. Ashworth and Professor F. O. Bower. Chairman.—Professor A, Dendy. Secretaries.—Professors T. Flynn and G. E. Nicholls. Professor E. B. Poulton and Professor H. W. Marett Tims. lxii RESEARCH 2. Not receiving Grants COMMITTEES. of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee *To aid competent Investigators se- lected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work at the Zoolo- gical Station at Naples. To summon meetings in London or else- where for the consideration of mat- ters affecting the interests of Zoology or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre- spondence the opinion of Zoologists on matters of a similar kind, with power to raise by subscription from each Zoologist a sum of money for defraying current expenses of the Organisation. To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth. Zoological Bibliography and Publica- tion. Section H.—G To aid in the preparation of a Bathy- metrical Chart of the Southern Ocean between Australia and Antarctica. Chairman.—My. E. 8. Goodrich. Secretary.—Dr. J. H. Ashworth. Mr. G. P. Bidder, Professor F. O. Bower, Drs. W. B. Hardy and §. F. Harmer, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Sir EH. Ray Lankester, Professor W. C. McIntosh and Dr. A. D. Waller. ? Chairman.—Professor 8. J. Hickson, Secretary.—Dr. W. M. Tattersall. Professors G. C. Bourne, M. Hartog, W. A. Herdman, A. Dendy, and J. Graham Kerr, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, and Professors HE. B. Poulton and J, Stanley Gardiner. Chairman and Secretary.—Professor A. Dendy. Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor J. P. Hill, and Mr. E. S. Goodrich. Chairman.—Professor E. B. Poulton. Secretary.—Dr. F. A. Bather. Drs. W. E. Hoyle and P. Chalmers Mitchell. EOGRAPHY. Chairman.—Professor T. W. Edgeworth David. ; Secretary.—Captain J. K. Davis. Professor J. W. Gregory, Sir C. P. Lucas, and Professor Orme Masson. Srction G.—ENGINEERING. To consider and report on the Stan- dardization of Impact Tests. Chairman.—Professor W. H. Warren. Secretary.—Mr. J. Vicars. Mr. G. A. Julius, Professor A. H. Gibson, Mr. Houghton, and Professor Payne. Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To investigate the Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society. To conduct Anthropometric Investiga- tions in the Island of Cyprus. To prepare and publish Miss Byrne’s Gazetteer and Map of the Native Tribes of Australia. Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins. Secretary.—Mr. Willoughby Gardner. Professor W. Ridgeway, Sir Arthur J. Evans, Sir C. H. Read, Mr. H. Balfour, and Dr. A. Bulleid, Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres. Secretary.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Dr. A. C. Haddon. Chairman.—Professor Baldwin Spencer. Secretary. Dr. R. R. Marett. Mr. H. Balfour. * See note on page Ix, RESEARCH COMMITTEES. lxili 2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee | | | The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photo- | graphs of Anthropological Interest. To conduct Archzological and Ethno- logical Researches in Crete. To conduct Excavations in Haster Island. The Teaching of Anthropology. To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia. To investigate and ascertain the Distri- bution of Artificial Islands in the lochs of the Highlands of Scotland. To co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain. | | Chairman,—Sir C. H. Read. | Seeretary.— | Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. E, Heawood, and Professor J. L. Myres. Chairman.—Mr. D. G. Hogarth. Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres. Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Sir A. J. Evans, Professor W. Ridgeway, and Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Chairman.—Dr. A. C. Haddon. | Secretary.—Dr. W. H. R. Rivers. Mr. R. R. Marett and Dr. C. G. Seligman. Chairman.—Sir Richard Temple. Secretary.—Dr. A, C, Haddon. | Sir BE. F. im Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Dr. C. G. Seligman, Professor G. Elliot Smith, Dr. R. R. Marett, Professor P. E. Newberry, Dr. G. A. Auden, Pro- fessors T. H. Bryce, A. Keith, P. Thompson, R. W. Reid, H. J. Fleure, and J. L. Myres, Sir B. C. A. Windle, and Professors R. J. A. Berry, Baldwin | Spencer, Sir T. Anderson Stuart, and | H.C. Stirling. Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway. Secretary.—Mr. A. J. B. Wace. Professors R. C. Bosanquet and J. L. Myres. Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins. Secretary.—Prof. J. L. Myres. Professors T. H. Bryce and W. Ridgeway, | Dr, A. Low, and Mr, A. J. B. Wace. Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway. Secretary.—Professor R. C, Bosanquet. | Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. Willoughby Gardner, and Professor J. L. Myres. Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY. To acquire further knowledge, Clinical and Experimental, concerning Anzs- thetics—general and local—with special reference to Deaths by or during Anesthesia, and their possible diminution. Electromotive Phenomena in Plants. Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. Secretary .— Dr. Blumfeld, Mr. J. A. Gardner, and Dr. G. A. Buckmaster. Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. | Secretary.—Mrs. Waller. Professors J. B. Farmer, T. Johnson, and Veley, and Dr. F. O’B. Ellison. lxiv RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued. Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee To investigate the Physiological and Psychological Factors in the produc- tion of Miners’ Nystagmus. The Significance of the Electro-motive Phenomena of the Heart. | Chairman.—Professor J. H. Muirhead. Secretary.—Dr. T. G. Maitland. Dr. J. Jameson Evans and Dr. C. §S. Myers. Chairman.—Professor W.D. Halliburton. Sceretary.—Dr. Florence Buchanan. _ Professor A. D. Waller. Metabolism of Phosphates. The Dissociation of Oxy-Hemoglobin | at High Altitudes, Colour Vision and Colour Blindness. Calorimetric Observations on Man in Health and in Febrile Conditions. | The Binocular Combination of Kine- matograph Pictures of different Meaning, and its relation to the Binocular Combination of simpler Perceptions. Section K. To carry out a Research on the Influ- ence of varying percentages of Oxy- gen and of various Atmospheric Pressures upen Geotropic and Helio- tropic Irritability and Curvature. The Collection and Investigation of Material of Australian Cycadacez, especially Bowenia from Queensland | and Macrozaunia from West Australia. | To cut Sections of Australian Fossil | Plants, with especial reference to a | specimen of Zygopteris from Simp- | son’s Station, Barraba, N.S.W. | The Investigation of the Vegetation of Ditcham Park, Hampshire. | Chairman.—Professor W. A. Osborne. Secretary.—Miss Kincaid. Dr. Rothera. Chatrman.—Professor E, H. Starling. Secretary.—Dr. J. Barcroft. Dr. W. B. Hardy. Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling. Seeretary.—Dyr. Edridge-Green. Professor A. W. Porter, Dr. A. D. Waller, Professor C. S. Sherrington, and Dr. F. W. Mott. Chairman.—Professor J. 8. Macdonald. Secretary.—Dr. Francis A. Duffield. | Dr. Keith Lucas. Chairman.—Dr. C. 8. Myers. Secretary.—Mr. T. H. Pear. —BOTANY. Chairman.—Professor l’. O. Bower. Secretary.—Professor A. J. Ewart. Professor F, F. Blackman. Chairman.—Professor A. A. Lawson. Secretary.—Professor T, G. B. Osborn. Professor A. C. Seward. Chairman.—Professor Lang. Seeretary.—Professor T. G. B. Osborn. Professor T. W. E. David and Professor A. C. Seward. Chairman.—Mr. A. G. Tansley. Secretary.—Mr. R. 8. Adamson. | Dr. C. E. Moss and Professor R. H. Yapp. Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. changes in, Regulations—whether Legislative, Administrative, or made | by Local Authorities — affecting | | To take notice of, and report upon | | Secondary and Higher Education. | Chairman.—Professor H. E. Armstrong. Secretary.—Major E. Gray. Miss Coignan, Principal Griffiths, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Sir Horace Plunkett, Mr. H. Ramage, Professor M. E. Sadler, and Rt. Rey. J. E. C. Welldon. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. lxv Communications ordered to be printed in extenso. Section A.—Mr. G. Hardy: On Prime Numbers. Section B.—Discussion on Smoke Prevention. Section B.—Discussion on Homogeneous Catalysis. Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action. From Section A, That the Committee of Section A places upon record its high appreciation of the assistance rendered to the investigation of the value of gravity at sea by the Directors of Messrs, Alfred Holt, of Liverpool, during the voyage of the British Association to Australia in 1914. The Association is indebted to them for the generous installation of a special refrigerating chamber for the purpose of this research, and for placing at the disposal of the experimenter (Dr. Duffield) the whole of the resources of the Blue Funnel steamship Ascanius; in this respect the help of Captain Chrimes, Chief Engineer Douglas, and Refrigerating Engineer Latham deserves particular mention. The Association regrets that the outbreak of war prevented full advantage being taken of the facilities so kindly made available by Messrs. Alfred Holt, but it is none the Jess grateful for their valuable and whole-hearted co-operation. That a copy of the above Resolution be forwarded to Messrs. Alfred Holt. From Section B. To recommend to the Council that the proceedings of Section B, together with the reports of research committees, including any reports on special branches of chemical science, be published separately from the Annual Volume of Reports. At its meeting on September 9, the General Committee unanimously adopted the following resolution, and ordered that it should be forwarded to the Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the Presidents of the Boards of Education and of Agriculture and Fisheries :— That the British Association for the Advancement of Science, believing that the higher education of the nation is of supreme importance in the present crisis of our history, trusts that His Majesty’s Government will, by continuing its financial support, maintain the efficiency of teaching and research in the Universities and University Colleges of the United Kingdom. Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated for Scientific Purposes on behalf of the General Committee at the Manchester Meeting, September 1915. The Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for Grants are prefixed to the respective Committees. Section A.—Mathematical and Physical Science. £ *Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Observations ......... 130 *Ramsay, Sir W.—Tables of Constants ............seceeecceeee 40 *Hill, Professor M. J. M.—Mathematical Tables ............... 35 (Jel kop apres} oloooR GW APEIOU LOR WAUEC us srevs nsec wicesine began ecteeanecesiye deo s £205 * Reappointed. 1915. d lxvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES. : Bee) Brought forward ......0sc-essss secre succes ceseepecscer ees 205 0 Section B.—Chemistry. *Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ... wi 2088 *Kipping, Professor F. $.—Aromatic Nitroamines ............ 10 0 *Hall, Mr. A. D.—Plant Enzymes ...... sovessincs gal OpeO * Armstrong, Professor H. E. Solubility Phenomena ......... 5 0 *Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Eucalypts ... ....... 30 0 *Masson, Professor Orme.—Influence of Weather Conditions on Nitrogen Acids in Rainfall and Atmosphere... . .. 20 0 *Pope, Professor W. J.—Crystalline Form and Molecular Structure ...... cu 10 0 *Chattaway, Dr. F. ‘D.—Non-aromatic Diazonium Salts ...... 8 10 Dobbie, Sir J. J.—Absorption Spectra, ke. ................... 10 0 Section C.—G@eology. *Cole, Professor Grenville.—Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorean ...... (ie) *Watts, Professor W. W.—Critical Sections in Paleozoic Rocks ...... eave ORO *Kendall, Professor P. F.—List of Characteristic Fossils ...... 10 0 Horne, Dr. J.—Old Red Sandstone Rocks at Rhynie......... 25 0 Kidston, Dr. R.—Lower Carboniferous Flora at Gullane ... 8 0 Section D.—Zoology. *Shipley, Dr. A. E.—Belmullet Whaling Station .............. 25 0 Section E.—Geography. *Lucas, Sir C. P.—Conditions determining Selection of Sites an ames|for, Dowiata, o5.90! fhicsecieens Nqseactcwe pews 15 0 Section F.—Economic Science and Statistics. *Muirhead, Professor J. H.—Fatigue fromm Economic Stand- POUL, Jo rs.c roamnel qe alte thensps ances ads Kirkaldy, Professor A. W.—Industrial Unrest’) aes 20 0 Scott, Professor W. R.—Women in Industry .. 90 0 Scott, Professor W. R.—Effects of War on Credit, ‘&e. 25 0 Section G.—Engineering. *Perry, Professor J.—Complex Stress Distributions ............ 40 0 *Clerk, Dr. Dugald.—Gaseous Explosions ....... 50 0 Hele- Shaw, Dr. H. §. —Engineering Pr oblems ‘affecting Prosperity of the Country. Warne toda sataenndentceln,chcaeis > Saaeen eae 10 0 Section H.—Anthropology. *Read, Sir C. H.—Age of Stone Circles ............... 00. ce ees eee 25 0 *Smith, Professor G. Elliot.—Physical Characters of Ancient Egyptians ails COMME Aaa et ions dlls a tee Sh ede els ee eetete mame 15 0 *Marett, Dr. R. R.—Palsolithic Site in Jersey .................. 25 0 *Myres, Professor J. L.—Archeological Investigations in Malta ........ 10 0O *Myres, Professor J. L.— Distribution of Bronze “Age Tmple- ments Sasa Sei iate hat re deere sd daaiess es ao) 0) SSaxried, LOr Wald... yates see iiws cccescnyces seaccavtdeegel OO 10 * irate ooo © ocooo oococo o i=) oo oococo i=) Ou S vO SONS SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. lxvil oy = 8s ds EROW PHDIMOM WATER ce ckericiuataceisisctectsisesiatsecas. “190 10-0 Section I.— Physiology. *Schafer, Sir E.—Ductless Glands ......... 0. .ccececseaeeeeeeeesss 20 0 0 *Sherrington, Professor C.S.—Mammalian Heart ............ 20 0 0 Section K.— Botany. *Bower, Professor F, O.—Cinchona Station, Jamaica ......... 1210) 10 *Oliver, Professor F. W.—Structure of Fossil Plants ......... 20 0 *Blackman, Professor F. F.—Heredity ............csccceoesceeeee 45 0 0 Section L.—Education. *Green, Professor J. A.— Museums ...............ceccne cee cseaneues Lo Ore0 * Auden, Dr. G. A.—School Books and Eyesight..,.............. 5 0 0 *Myers, Dr. C. S.—Mental and Physical Factors ................ 20 0 0 Buckmaster, Mr. C. A.—‘ Free-place ’ System ................45 F090. Corresponding Societies Committee. *Whitaker, Mr. W.—For Preparation of Report ............... 25 0 0 Dota Hivsssenscavcecesas) LAOS RIORNO * Reappointed, CairD Funp. An unconditional gift of 10,000/. was made to the Association at the Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of Dundee. The Council in its Report to the General Committee at the Bir- mingham Meeting made certain recommendations as to the administra- tion of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the Report, by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913. The following allocations have been made from the Fund by the Council to September 1915 :— Naples Zoological Station Committee (p. 1xi).— 501. (1912-13) ; 1007. (1913-14) ; 100/. annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Com- mittee’s report. Seismology Committee (p. lii).—1000. (1913-14); 1007. annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report. Radiotelegraphic Committee (p. 1x).— 5007. (1913-14). Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles (in collaboration with the Royal Society).—2501. Committee on Determination of Gravity at Sea (p. 1x).—1001. (1914-15). Mr. F. Sargent, Bristol University, in connection with his Astro- nomical Work.—101, (1914). Crganising Committee of Section F (Economics), towards expenses of an Enquiry into Outlets for Labour after the War.—100I. (1915). Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of 1,000V. to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity. xviii RESEAROH COMMITTEES. Pusiic or Citizens’ Lectures. During the Meeting the following Citizens’ Lectures were arranged in co-operation with the local branches of the Workers’ Educational Asso- ciation in Manchester and the neighbourhood : — MANCHESTER. September 8th at § p.m. in the New Islington Hall, Ancoats, Pro- fessor F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., on ‘ Evolution and Wav.’ September 9th at 8 p.m. in the Central Hall, Oldham Street, Dr. Vaughan Cornish on ‘ The Strategic Geography of the War.’ September 10th at 8 p.m. in the Albert Hall, Peter Street, Dr. Walter Rosenhain, F.R.8., on ‘ The Making of a Big Gun.’ SALFORD. September 9th at 8 p.m. in the Royal Technical Institute, Salford, Dr. Walter Rosenhain, F'.R.8., on ‘The Making of a Big Gun.’ September 10th at 8 p.m. in the Royal Technical Institute, Salford, Professor W. Stirling on ‘ Curiosities and Defects of Sight.’ OLDHAM. September 9th at 8 p.m. in the Equitable Co-operative Hall, Mr. A. R. Hinks, F.R.S., on the ‘ Daily Uses of Astronomy.’ September 11th at 8 p.m. in the Industrial Co-operative Hall, Pro- fessor Benjamin Moore, F.R.S., on ‘ Health Conditions in the Modern Workshop.’ Bouton. September 10th at 8 p.m.in the Victoria Hall, Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J., on ‘Formation of the Sun and Stars.’ RocHDALE, ‘ September 6th at 8 p.m. in the Town Hall, Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S., on ‘Some Lessons from Astronomy.’ 3 za) ¢ Ak nS - ADDRESS BY Proressor ARTHUR SCHUSTER, D.Sc., Sc.D., LL.D., Dr. ts Sc., F.R.S. PRESIDENT. The Common Aims of Science and Humanity. Unver the influence of the diversity of pursuits imposed upon us by the conditions of modern life, different groups of the community— men of business, men of science, philosophers, or artists—have acquired detached and sometimes conflicting interests. Each group, impressed by the importance of its own domain in the life of the nation, and focussing its vision on small differences and temporary rivalries, was in danger of losing the sense of mutual dependence. But in the shadow of a great catastrophe it has been brought home to us that the clash of interests is superficial, and the slender thread of union which remained has grown into a solid bond. What is the fibre from which the bond is twined? Patriotism may express its outward manifestation, but its staple is the mental relationship which remains continuous and dominant even in normal times, when each of us may peacefully go to earn his living and enjoy the course of his intellectual life. Outwardly the community is divided into heterogeneous elements with mental attitudes cast in different moulds, and proceeding along separate roads by differing methods to different ideals. Yet as we eliminate the superficial, and regard only the deep-seated emotions which control our thoughts and actions, the differences vanish, and the unity of purpose and sentiment emerges more and more strongly. Mind and character, no doubt, group themselves into a number of types, but the cleavage runs across, and not along, the separating line of professions. Were it otherwise, the British Association could not perform one of its most important functions—a function not, indeed, originally contem- plated, but resulting indirectly from the wise and democratic provisions in its constitution, which enabled it to adapt itself to the changing needs of the time. Our founders primarily considered the interests of scientific men ; their outlook was restricted and exclusive, both as regards range B2 4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. of subject and membership. In the words of Sir David Brewster, who gave the first impulse to its formation, it was to be ‘an Association of our nobility, clergy, gentry, and philosophers.’ The meetings were intended to promote personal intercourse, to organise research, to advocate reform of the laws hindering research, and to improve the status of scientific men. The right of membership was confined to those who already belonged to some learned society, and William Whewell, one of the principal supporters of the movement, even suggested that only authors of memoirs published by a learned society should be admitted.1. He emphasized this proposal by the recommendation 2 ‘in some way to avoid the crowd of lay members whose names stand on the List of the Royal Society.” The reform of the Patent Laws and the introduction of an International Copyright were suggested as subjects suitable for discussion, not apparently from the point of view of general advantage, but merely in the interests of one section of the community. Whatever the objects of the founders of the Association may have been, it is obvious that questions of public importance could not be permanently excluded from meetings the success of which depended on the interest stimulated in the community. The Statistical Section, which owed its origin to the visit, at the first Oxford Meeting (1832), of Quetelet, the Belgian astronomer and economist, was the first to assert itself by engaging in a discussion of the Poor Laws. Whewell deeply resented this violation of academic neutrality: ‘it was impossible,’ he wrote, ‘ to listen to the Proceedings of the Statistical Section on Friday without perceiving that they involved exactly what it was most necessary and most desired to exclude from our Proceedings,’ * and again: ‘ Who would propose (I put it to Chalmers, and he allowed the proposal to be intolerable) an ambulatory body, composed partly of men of reputation and partly of a miscellaneous crowd, to go round year by year from town to town and at each place to discuss the most inflammatory and agitating questions of the day? ’* Fortunately for our Association, this narrow-minded attitude dia not prevail, and our records show that while not avoiding controversial and even inflammatory subjects, we have been able to exercise a powerful in- fluence on the progress of science. The establishment of electric units, universally accepted throughout the world, originated in the work of one of our committees; the effort which led to the foundation of the National Physical Laboratory, one of the most efficient and beneficial 1 Others were allowed to join on recommendation by the General Committee, It was only in 1906 that this restriction, which had become obsolete, was removed. 2 Whewell’s Writings and Letters, vol. ii. p. 128. 8° Loc. cit., p. 289. - : 4 It is much to be desired that the documents relating to the early history of the British Association should be published in a collected form. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 5 organizations in the country, received its first impulses from us; and the organization of the first world service for the systematic investiga- tion of earth tremors was established by the late Dr. Milne, working through one of our Committees. The success of these enterprises alone is sufficient to show that we are not merely a body promoting social intercourse between men of science and the rest of the community. Nevertheless, it may be admitted that our efforts have been spasmodic, and the time has arrived to consider whether it may be possible to secure not only a greater continuity in our work but also its better co-ordination with that of other scientific organizations. The present juncture affords the opportunity, and the changed conditions, which in the near future will affect all our institutions, render it indeed incumbent upon us once more to adapt ourselves to the needs of the times. Proposals for a move in that direction have already been made, and will no doubt be carefully considered by the Council. In the meantime, I may draw your attention to the important discussions arranged for by our Economic Section, which alone will justify the decision of the Council not to suspend the Meeting this year. It must not be supposed that, even in the early days of the Associa- tion, Whewell’s ideas of its functions were universally accepted. It is pleasant to contrast the lamentations of the omniscient Pro- fessor of Mineralogy with the weightier opinion of the distinguished mathematician who then held Newton’s chair at Cambridge. At the concluding session of the second meeting of the Association Babbage expressed the hope ‘ that in the selection of the places at which the annual meetings were to be held, attention should be paid to the object of bringing theoretical science in contact with the practical knowledge on which the wealth of the country depends.’ ‘I was myself,’ he said, “particularly anxious for this, owing as I do a debt of gratitude for the valuable information which I have received in many of the manufac- turing districts, where I have learned to appreciate still more highly than before the value of those speculative pursuits which we follow in our academical labours. I was one of those who thought at first that we ought to adjourn for our next meeting to some large manufacturing town ; but I am now satisfied that the arrangement which has been made will be best adapted to the present state of the Association. When, however, it shall be completely consolidated I trust we may be enabled to cultivate with the commercial interests of the country that close acquaintance which I am confident will be highly advantageous to our more abstract pursuits.’ Since then, as we all know, our most successful meetings have been held in manufacturing centres; but it should be observed that, 6 PRESiDENT’S ADDRESS. while Babbage laid stress on the benefit which would accrue to pure science by being brought into contact with practical life, scientific men of the present day have more and more insisted on the services they, on their part, are able to render to the industries. The idealistic motive has thus given way to the materialistic purpose. Both aspects are perhaps equally important, but it is necessary to insist, at the present time, that the utilitarian drum can be beaten too loudly. There is more than one point of contact between different activities of the human mind, such as find expression in scientific pursuits or commercial enterprises, and it is wrong to base the advantages to be derived from their mutual influence solely, or even mainly, on the ground of material benefits. I need not press this point in a city which has given many proofs that a business community may be prompted by higher motives than those which affect their pockets. It was not for utilitarian objects that repeated efforts were made since the year 1640 to establish a University in Manchester ; it was not for reasons of material gain that the Royal Institution and Owens College were founded; nor was it because they increased the wealth of the district that the place of honour in our Town Hall has been given to Dalton and Joule. When we glance at the various occupations of the working parts of a nation, comprising the student who accumulates or extends knowledge, the engineer who applies that knowledge, the geo- logist or agriculturalist who discloses the store of wealth hidden in the soil, the commercial man who distributes that wealth, it seems as if we ought to be able to name the qualities of intellect and tempera- ment which in each pursuit are most needed to carry out the work successfully. But on trying to define these qualities we soon discover the formidable nature of the task. Reasoning power, inventive power, and sound balance of judgment are essential attributes in all cases, and the problem is reduced to the question whether there are different varieties of these attributes which can be assigned to the different occu- pations. Among all subjects mathematics is perhaps the one that appears most definitely to require a special and uncommon faculty. Yet, Poincaré—himself one of the clearest thinkers and most brilliant exponents of the subject—almost failed when he attempted to fix the distinguishing intellectual quality of the mathematician. Starting from the incontrovertible proposition that there is only one kind of correct reasoning, which is logical reasoning, he raises the question why it is that everybody who is capable of reasoning correctly is not also a mathematician, and he is led to the conclusion that the characterizing feature is a peculiar type of memory. It is not a better memory, for some mathematicians are very forgetful, and many of them cannot add PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 7 a column of figures correctly ; but it is a memory which fixes the order in which the successive steps of reasoning follow each other without necessarily retaining the details of the individual steps. This Poincaré illustrates by contrasting the memory of a chess-player with that of a mathematician. ‘ When I play chess,’ he says, ‘ I reason out correctly that if I were to make a certain move, I should expose myself to a certain danger. I should, therefore, consider a number of other moves, and, after rejecting each of them in turn, [ should end by making the one which I first contemplated and dismissed, having forgotten in the meantime the ground on which I had abandoned it.’ ‘ Why, then,’ he continues, ‘does my memory not fail me in a difficult mathematical reasoning in which the majority of chess-players would be entirely lost? It is because a mathematical demonstration is not a juxtaposition of syllogisms, but consists of syllogisms placed in a certain order; and the order in which its elements are placed is much more important than the elements themselves. If I have this intuition—so to speak—of the order, so as to perceive at one glance the whole of the reasoning, I need not fear to forget its elements: each of these will take its right place of its own accord without making any call on my memory.’ * Poincaré next discusses the nature of the intellectual gift distinguish- ing those who can enrich knowledge with new and fertile ideas of discovery. Mathematical invention, according to him, does not consist in forming new combinations of known mathematical entities, because the number of combinations one could form are infinite, and most of them would possess no interest whatever. Inventing consists, on the contrary, in excluding useless combinations, and therefore: ‘ To invent is to select—to choose.’ . . . ‘The expression ‘‘ choose ”’ perhaps requires qualifying, because it recalls a buyer to whom one offers a large number of samples which he examines before making his choice. In our case the samples would be so numerous that a life- time would not suffice to complete the examination. That is not the way things are done. The sterile combinations do not even present them- selves to the mind of the inventor, and those which may momentarily enter his consciousness, only to be rejected, partake something of the character of useful combinations. The inventor is therefore to be compared with an examiner who has only to deal with candidates who have already passed a previous test of competence.’ All those who have attempted to add something to knowledge must recognize that there is a profound truth in these remarks. New ideas may float across our consciousness, but, selecting the wrong ones for more detailed study, we waste our time fruitlessly. We are bewildered by the multitude of roads which open out before us, and, like Poincaré 5 Science et Méthode, pp. 46 and 47. 8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. when he tries to play chess, lose the game because we make the wrong move. Do we not all remember how, after the announcement of a new fact or generalization, there are always many who claim to have had, and perhaps vaguely expressed, the same idea? They put it down to bad luck that they have not pursued it, but they have failed precisely in what, according to Poincaré, is the essence of inventive power. It may be bad luck not to have had a good idea, but to have had it and failed to appreciate its importance is downright incapacity. An objection may be raised on the ground that before a selection can be made the ideas themselves must appear, and that, even should they arrive in sufficient numbers, the right one may not be among them. It may even be argued that Poincaré gives his case away by saying that ‘ the sterile combinations do not even present themselves to the mind of the inventor,’ expressing in a negative form what may be the essence of the matter. Moreover, a fertile mind like that of Poincaré would be apt to place too low a value on his own exceptional gifts. Nevertheless, if Poincaré’s more detailed exposition be read attentively, and more especially the description of how the discoveries which made him famous among mathematicians originated in his mind, it will be found that his judgment is well considered and should not be lightly set aside. New ideas seldom are born out of nothing. They most fre- quently are based on analogies, or the recollection of a sequence of thoughts suggested by a different branch of the subject, or perhaps by a different subject altogether. It is here that the memory comes in, which is not a memory of detail, but a memory of premises with their con- clusions, detached from the particular case to which they were originally applied. Before we pronounce an adverse opinion on Poincaré’s judg- ment, we must therefore investigate what constitutes novelty in a new idea ; but the subject is too vast to be dealt with here, nor can I attempt to discuss whether an essential distinction exists between mathematical invention and that more practical form of invention with which, for instance, the engineer has to deal. If Poincaré, by this introspective analysis of his own powers, has dimmed the aureole which, in the eyes of the public, surrounds the mathematician’s head, he removes it altogether by his definition of mathematics. Accordirg to him, ‘ mathematics is the art of calling two different things by the same name.’ It would take me too far were I to try to explain the deep truth expressed in this apparently flippant form: physicists, at any rate, will remember the revolution created in the fundamental outlook of science by the application of the term ‘energy’ to the two quite distinct conceptions involved in its sub- divisions into potential and kinetic energy. Enough has been said to show that the peculiar powers necessary OO PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 9 for the study of one of the most abstruse branches of knowledge may be expressed in terms which bring them down to the level at which comparison with other subjects is possible. Applying the same reasoning to other occupations, the same conclusion is inevitable. The commercial man, the politician, and the artist must all possess the type of memory best suited to concentrate in the field of mental vision their own experiences as well as what they have learned from the experience of others; and, further, they must have the power of select- ing out of a multitude of possible lines of action the one that leads to success: it is this power which Poincaré calls the inventive faculty. The argument must not be pushed too far, as it would be absurd to affirm that all differences in the capability of dealing successfully with the peculiar problems that occur in the various professions may be reduced to peculiarities of memory. I do not even wish to assert that Poincaré’s conclusions should be accepted without qualification in the special case discussed by him. What is essential, to my mind, is to treat the question seriously, and to dismiss the vague generalities which, by drawing an artificial barrier between different groups of professions, try to cure real or imaginary defects through plausible though quite illusory remedies. All these recommendations are based on the fallacy that special gifts are associated with different occupations. Sometimes we are recommended to hand over the affairs of the nation to men of business; sometimes we are told that salvation can only be found in scientific methods—what is a man of business, and what is a scientific method? If you define a man of business to be one capable of managing large and complicated transactions, the inference becomes self- evident ; but if it be asserted that only the specialized training in com- mercial transactions can develop the requisite faculties, the only proof of the claim that could be valid would be the one that would show that the great majority of successful statesmen, or political leaders, owed their Success to their commercial experience. On the other hand, every method that leads to a correct result must be called a scientific method, and what requires substantiating is that scientific training is better than other training for discovering the correct method. This proof, as well as the other, has not been, and, I think, cannot be, given. When, there- fore, one man calls for the conduct of affairs ‘ on business lines ’ and the other clamours for scientific methods, they either want the same thing or they talk nonsense. The weak point of these assertions contrasting different classes of human efforts is that each class selects its own strongest men for comparison with the weakest on the other side. Where technical knowledge is required, the specialist should be con- sulted, but in questions of general policy he is seldom the best guide. The most fatal distinction that can be made is the one which brings 10 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. men of theory into opposition to men of practice, without regard to the obvious truth that nothing of value is ever done which does not involve both theory and practice. While theory is sometimes overbearing and irritating, there are among those who jeer at it, at any rate, a few to whom Disraeli’s definition applies: the practical man is the man who practises the errors of his forefathers. With refined cruelty Nemesis infects us with the disease most nearly akin to that which it pleases us to detect in others. It is the most dogmatic of dogmatics who tirades against dogma, and only the most hopeless of theorists can declare that a thing may be right in theory and wrong in practice. Why does a theory ever fail, though it may be sound in reasoning ? Tt can only do so because every problem involves a much larger number of conditions than those which the investigator can take into account. He therefore rejects those which he believes to be unessential, and if his judgment is at fault he goes wrong. But the practical man will often fail for the same reason. When not supported by theoretical knowledge he generalizes the result of an observation or experiment, applying it to cases where the result is determined by an altogether different set of conditions. To be infallible the theorist would have to take account of an infinite number of circumstances, and his calcula- tions would become unmanageable, while the experimenter would have to perform an infinite number of experiments, and both would only be able to draw correct conclusions after an infinite lapse of time. They have to trust their intuition in selecting what can be omitted with impunity, and, if they fail, it is mainly due to the same defect of judgment. And so it is in all professions: failure results from the omission of essential considerations which change the venue of the problem. Though theory and practice can only come into opposition when one of them is at fault, there is undoubtedly a contrast of character and temperament between those who incline more towards the one and those who prefer the other aspect: some like a solitary life at the desk, while others enjoy being brought into contact with their fellows. There have at all times been men predestined by nature to be leaders, and leadership is required in all branches of knowledge—the theoretical as well as the more active pursuits; but we must distrust a man’s own estimate of his power to convert his thoughts into acts. In the ordinary affairs of life a man who calls himself a man of action is frequently only one who cannot give any reasons for his actions. To claim that title justly a man must act deliberately, have confidence in his own judgment, sufficient tenacity of purpose to carry it through, and sufficient courage to run the unavoidable risks of possible failure. These risks may be trivial or they may be all-important. They may PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 11 affect the reputation of one unit of creation or involve the whole life of a nation, and according to the greatness of the issue we shall honour the man who, having taken the risk, succeeds. But whether the scale be microscopic or interstellar, the essence of the faculty of blending theory and practice is the same, and both men of books and men of action are to be found in the philosopher’s study and the laboratory, as well as in the workshop or on the battlefield. Modern science began, not at the date of this or that discovery, but on the day when Galileo decided to publish his Dialogues in the language of his nation. This was a deliberate act destined to change the whole aspect of science, which, ceasing to be the occupation of a privileged class, became the property of the community. Can you, therefore, deny the claim of being a man of action to Galileo, can you deny it to Pasteur, Kelvin, Lister, and a host of others? There are, no doubt, philosophers who cannot manage even their own affairs, and whom it would be correct to call pure theorists, but that proves nothing, because their defect makes them worse philosophers as well as worse citizens. In his Presidential Address, delivered to this Association in 1899, Sir Michael Foster summarized the essential features of the scientific mind. Above all other things he considered that its nature should be such as to vibrate in unison with what it is in search of; further, it must possess alertness, and finally moral courage. Yet after enumerat- ing these qualities, he arrives at the same result which I have tried to place before you, that there are no special peculiarities inherent in the scientific mind, and he expresses this conclusion in the following words : ‘ But, I hear some one say, these qualities are not the peculiar attri- butes of the man of science, they may be recognized as belonging to almost everyone who has commanded or deserved success, whatever may have been his walk in life. That is so. That is exactly what 1 would desire to insist, that the men of science have no peculiar virtues, no special powers. They are ordinary men, their characters are common, even commonplace. Science, as Huxley said, is organized common-sense, and men of science are common men drilled in the ways of common-sense.’ This saying of Huxley’s has been repeated so often that one almost wishes it were true, but unfortunately I cannot find a definition of common-sense that fits the phrase. Sometimes the word is used as if it were identical with uncommon sense, sometimes as if it were the same thing as common nonsense. Often it means untrained intelligence, and in its best aspect it is, I think, that faculty which recognizes that the obvious solution of a problem is frequently the right one. When, for instance, I see, during a total solar eclipse, red flames shooting out from the edge of the sun, the obvious explanation is that 12 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. these are real phenomena caused by masses of glowing vapours ejected from the sun; and when a learned friend tells me that all this is an optical illusion due to anomalous refraction, I object on the ground that the explanation violates my common-sense. He replies by giving me the reasons which have led him to his conclusions, and, though I still believe that I am right, I have to meet him with a more substantial reply than an appeal to my own convictions. Against a solid argument common-sense has no power and must remain a useful but fallible guide which both leads and misleads all classes of the community alike.® The difficulties of assigning special intellectual qualities to groups of men within one country are increased when we compare different nations with each other. Some of the so-called national, or more pro- perly speaking racial, characteristics are undoubtedly regulated by the laws of heredity, but there are many others which seem to depend entirely on education and training; and, if I select one as an example, it is because it figures so largely in public discussions at the present moment. I refer to that expedient for combining individual efforts which goes by the name of organization. An efficient organization requires a head that directs and a body that obeys; it works mainly through discipline, which is its most essential attribute. Every in- stitution, every factory, every business establishment is a complicated organism, and no country ever came to prominence in any walk of life unless it possessed the ability to provide for the efficient working of such organisms. To say that a nation which has acquired and maintained an Empire, and which conducts a large trade in every part of the world, is deficient in organizing power is therefore an absurdity. Much of the current self-depreciation in this respect is due to confusing a true organization with that modification of it which to a great extent casts aside discipline and substitutes co-operation. Though much may be accomplished by co-operation, it is full of danger in an emergency, for it can only work if it be loyally adhered to; otherwise it resembles a six-cylinder motor in which every sparking-plug is allowed to fix its own time of firing. Things go well so long as the plugs agree; but there is nearly always one among them that persists in taking an independent course and, when the machine stops, complains that the driver is inefficient. The cry for organization, justifiable as it no doubt often is, resolves itself, therefore, into a cry for increased discipline, by which I do not mean the discipline enforced at the point of the bayonet, but that accepted by the individual who voluntarily subor- ® Since writing the above, I find on reading Professor J. A. Thomson’s ‘ Intro- duction to Science’ a similar criticism of Huxley’s dictum. Frof. Thomson’s general conclusions are not, however, in agreement with those here advocated. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13 _ dinates his personal convictions to the will of a properly constituted authority. This discipline is not an inborn quality which belongs more to one nation than to another; it is acquired by education and training. In an emergency it is essential to success, but if it be made the guiding principle of a nation’s activity, it carries dangers with it which are greater than the benefits conferred by the increased facility for advance in some directions. If there be no fundamental difference in the mental qualifications which lead to success in our different occupations, there is also none in the ideals which moye us in childhood, maintain us through the difficulties of our manhood, and give us peace in cld age. I am not speaking now of those ideals which may simultaneously incite a whole nation to combined action through religious fervour or ambition of power, but I am speaking of those more individual ideals which make us choose our professions and give us pleasure in the performance of our duties. Why does a scientific man find satisfaction in studying Nature? Let me once more quote Poincaré 7 :— “The student does not study Nature because that study is useful, but because it gives him pleasure, and it gives him pleasure because Nature is beautiful; if it were not beautiful it would not be worth knowing and life would not be worth living. I am not speaking, be it understood, of the beauty of its outward appearance; not that I despise it—far from it—but it has nothing to do with science: I mean that more intimate beauty which depends on the harmony in the order of the component parts of Nature. This is the beauty which a pure intelli- gence can appreciate and which gives substance and form to the scintillating impressions that charm our senses. Without this intellec- tual support the beauty of the fugitive dreams inspired by sensual impressions could only be imperfect, because it would be indecisive and always vanishing. It is this intellectual and self-sufficing beauty, perhaps more than the future welfare of humanity, that impels the scientific man to condemn himself to long and tedious studies. And the same search for the sense of harmony in the world leads us to select the facts which can most suitably enhance it, just as the artist chooses among the features of his model those that make the portrait and give it character and life. There need be no fear that this instinctive and unconscious motive should tempt the man of science away from the truth, for the real world is far more beautiful than any vision of his dreams. The greatest artists that ever lived—the Greeks— constructed a heaven; yet how paltry that heaven is compared to ours! And it is because simplicity and grandeur are beautiful that we select Loe. cit. p. 15, 14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. by preference the simplest and grandest facts, and find our highest pleasure, sometimes in following the gigantic orbits of the stars, some- times in the microscopic study of that minuteness which also is a grandeur, and sometimes in piercing the secrets of geological times which attract us because they are remote. And we see that the cult of the beautiful guides us to the same goal as the study of the useful.’ ‘ Whence comes this harmony? Is it that things that appear to us as beautiful are simply those which adapt themselves best to our intelli- gence, and are therefore the tools which that intelligence handles most easily; or is it all the play of evolution and natural selection? In that case, those races only survived whose ideals best conformed with their interests, and while all nations pursued their ideals without regard to consequences, some were led to perdition and others achieved an empire. One is tempted to believe that such has been the course of history, and that the Greeks triumphed over the barbarians, and Europe, inheritor of Greek thought, rules the world, because the savages cared only for the sensual enjoyment of garish colours and the blatant noise of the drum, while the Greeks loved the intellectual beauty which is hidden beneath the visible beauty. Tt is that higher beauty which produces a clear and strong intelligence.’ If the mathe- matician’s imagination is fired by the beauty and symmetry of his methods, if the moving spring of his action is identical with that of the artist, how much truer is this of the man of science who tries by well- designed experiments to reveal the hidden harmonies of Nature? Nor would it be difficult, I think, to trace the gratification inherent in the successful accomplishments of other intellectual pursuits to the same source. Though Poincaré was, I believe, the first to lay stress on the connexion between the search for the beautiful and the achievement of the useful, the esthetic value of the study of science had previously been pointed out, and well illustrated, by Karl Pearson in his ‘ Grammar of Science.’ As expressed by him: ‘it is this continual gratification of the esthetic judgment which is one of the chief delights of pure science.’ Before we advance, however, any special claim for the pursuit of science based on these considerations, we must pause to think whether they do not equally apply to other studies or occupations. For this purpose, the nature of the esthetic enjoyment involved must be remembered. We do not mean by it, the pleasure we feel in the mere contemplation of an impressive landscape or natural beauty, but rather the enjoyment experienced on looking at a picture which, independently of what it may be trying to imitate, has a definite beauty due to its contrast of colours or well-balanced arrangement. We have in one case a number of pigments covering a space of two dimensions, and in PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15 the other the natural object in three dimensions made up of entirely different materials and showing an infinite variety of detail and appear- ance. By itself alone either a mere photographic reproduction, or a geometrical arrangement of colour and line, leaves most of us cold; though both have their own particular beauty, the art consists in bring- ing them into connexion. Bearing in mind the esthetic value of the relationship of the work of our brain or hand to external facts or appearances, it might easily be shown that what has been said of science equally applies to other studies, such as history or literature. We may even go further, and say. that any occupation whatever, from which we can derive an intellectual pleasure, must possess to a greater or smaller degree the elements of combining the useful with the beautiful. In order to trace in detail the part played by purely emotional instincts in directing the course of our lives, we should have to study the causes which influence a child, free to select his future pro- fession. Having eliminated secondary effects, such as early associations, or the personal influence of an inspiring teacher, we should probably be brought to a standstill by the dearth of material at our disposal, or led into error by taking our own individual recollections as typical. Nevertheless it is only through the record of each man’s experience that we may hope to arrive at a result. If every man who has reached a certain recognized position in his own subject—it need not be pre- eminence—would write down his recollections of what led him to make the choice of his profession, we might hope to obtain facts on which a useful psychological study might be based. Scientific men as a class are not modest, but they share with other classes the re- luctance to speak of their early life, owing to a certain shyness to disclose early ambitions which have not been realized. It requires courage to overcome that shyness, but I think that we need feel no shame in revealing the dreams of our childhood and holding fast to them despite the bondage of our weakness, despite the strife ending so often in defeat, despite all the obstacles which the struggle for existence has placed in our path. In some form they should persist throughout our lives and sustain us in our old age. But the account of our early life should be simple, detached from any motives of self-depreciation or self-assertion, and free from any desire to push any particular moral or psychological theory. We want to trace the dawn of ambition, the first glimmering in the child’s mind that there is something that he can do better than his fellows, and reminiscences of early likes and dislikes which, though apparently disconnected from maturer tendencies, may serve as indications of a deep-seated purpose in life. It may be difficult to resist the temptation 16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. of trying to justify one’s reputation in the eyes of the world; but it is worth making the effort. The only example that I know of such an autobiographical sketch is that of Darwin, which is contained in his ‘ Life and Letters,’ published by his son, Sir Francis Darwin. The ambition of a child to be better, cleverer, or more beautiful than its fellows is in the main, I think, a wish to please and to be praised. As the child grows up, the ambition becomes more definite. It is not a sordid ambition for ultimate wealth or power, nor is it an altruistic ambition to do good for the sake of doimg good. Occasionally it takes the form confessed to by Darwin, when he says: ‘ As a child I was much given to inventing deliberate falsehoods, and this was always done for the sake of causing excitement.’ This desire to be conspicuous was, in Darwin’s case, consistent with extreme modesty, amounting almost to a want of confidence in himself, as appears in this passage: ‘I remember one of my sporting friends, Turner, who saw me at work with my beetles, saying that I should some day be a Fellow of the Royal Society, and this notion seemed to me to be pre- posterous.’ We next come to the stage where a child is attracted by one subject more than another, and, if his choice be free, will select it for his life’s career. What guides him in this choice? If it be said that a boy gravitates towards that subject which he finds easiest, we are led to the further question why does he find it easiest? It is on this point that more information is required, but I am inclined to answer in accordance with Poincaré’s views that it is because its particular beauty appeals most strongly to his emotional senses. In questions of this kind every- one must form his own conclusions according to his personal recollec- tions, and these convince me that the emotional factor appears already at an early age. It is the strong attraction towards particular forms of reasoning, more perhaps even than the facility with which reasoning comes, that carries us over the initial difficulties and the drudgery that must accompany every serious study. I have already alluded to the different tendencies of individuals either to prefer solitary reflexion or to seek companionship. Almost in every profession we find men of both types. Darwin’s autobiography furnishes a good example of the man who prefers to learn through quiet reading rather than through lectures, but to many men of science the spoken word is inspiring and contact with congenial minds almost a necessity. From our present point of view the most interesting passages in Darwin’s autobiography are those indicating the esthetic feeling which, like Poincaré, he connects with scientific research. Referring to his early studies we find this passage: ‘I was taught by a private tutor PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 17 and I distinctly remember the intense satisfaction which the clear geometrical proofs gave me. I remember with equal distinctness the delight which my uncle gave me by explaining the principle of the vernier of a barometer.’ To a man who apparently had no pronounced facility of mastering mathematical difficulties this feeling of satisfaction is especially remarkable. The combination of scientific ability with leanings either to music, or art, or poetry, is very common, and examples are to be found in almost every biography of men of science. It is difficult indeed to name an eminent scientific man who has not strong leanings towards some artistic recreation: we find the poetic vein in Maxwell and Sylvester, the musical talent in Helmholtz and Rayleigh, and the enthusiastic though amateurish pictorial efforts of less important men. That the similarities are to be found also in temperament may be noticed on reading Arnold Bennett’s article on “The Artist and the Public,’ * where many passages will be seen to be applicable to students of science as well as to writers of fiction. If we look for distinctions between different individuals, we may find one in their leanings either towards the larger aspects of a question or the microscopic study of detail. The power of focussing simul- taneously the wider view and the minute observation is perhaps the most characteristic attribute of those who reach the highest eminence in any profession, but the great majority of men have a notable predilec- tion for the one or other side. Though it is indispensable for a scientific man to study the details of the particular problem he is trying to solve, there are many who will lose interest in it as soon as they believe they can see a clear way through the difficulties without following up their solution to its utmost limits. To them detail, as such, has no interest, and they will open and shut a door a hundred times a day without being even tempted to inquire into the inner working of the lock and latch. There is only one feature in the operation of the intelligence by means of which a sharp division may possibly be drawn between brain- workers showing special capabilities in different subjects. In some per- sons thought attaches itself mainly to language, in others to visualised images, and herein lies perhaps the distinction between the literary and scientific gift. Those who, owing to external circumstances, have resided in different countries are sometimes asked in what language they think. Speaking for myself, I have always been obliged to answer that, so far as I can tell, thought is not connected with any language at all. The planning of an experiment or even the critical examina- tion of a theory is to me entirely a matter of mental imagery, and hence the experience, which I think many scientific men must have shared, that the conversion of thought into language, which is necessary when 8 English Review, October 1913. 1915. c 18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. we wish to communicate its results to others, presents not only the ordinary difficulties of translation but reveals faults in the perfection or sequence of the images. Only when the logic of words finally coincides with the logic of images do we attain that feeling of con- fidence which makes us certain that our results are correct. A more detailed examination of the instinctive predilections of a child would, I think, confirm Poincaré’s conclusion that a decided pre- ference for one subject is in the main due to an unconscious appeal to his emotions. It should be remembered, however, that the second step of Poincaré’s philosophy is as important as the first. The mere emotional impulse would die out quickly, if it were not supplemented by the gratification experienced on discovering that the search for the beautiful leads us to results which satisfy our intellect as well as our emotions. There may still be bifurcations in the second portion of the road. Some may rest content with achieving something that supplies the material needs of humanity, others may be inspired to search for the deeper meaning of our existence. There remains therefore some justification for the question why we persist in studying science apart from the mere intellectual pleasure it gives us. It was once a popular fallacy to assume that the laws of Nature constituted an explanation of the phenomena to which they applied, and people then attached importance to the behef that we could gauge the mind of the Creator by means of the laws which govern the material world, just as we might trace the purpose of a human legislator in an Act of Parliament. As this archaic interpreta- tion was abandoned, philosophers went, in accordance with what politicians call the swing of the pendulum, to the other extreme. We can explain nothing, they said—in fact, we can know nothing—all we can do is to record facts. This modesty was impressive and it became popular. I know, at any rate, one scientific man who has acquired a great reputation for wisdom by repeating sufficiently often that he knows nothing, and, though his judgment may be true, this frame of mind is not inspiring. Asa correetive tothe older visionary claims, which centred round the meaning of the word ‘explain,’ the view that the first task of science is to record facts has no doubt had a good influence. Kirchhoff laid it down definitely that the object of science is to describe Nature, but he did not thereby mean that it should be confined to recording detached observations: this would be the dullest and most unscientific procedure. Description, in the sense in which Kirchhoff uses it, consists in forming a comprehensive statement gathering together what, till then, was only a disconnected jumble of facts. Thus the apparently quite irregular motions of the planets as observed from the earth were first collected in tabular form. This was a necessary ee eee * PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19 preliminary but was not in itself a scientific investigation. Next came Kepler, who by means of three laws summed up the facts in their main outlines, and the description then took a more refined form, sub- stituting half a page of printing for volumes of observations. Finally, Newton succeeded in predicting the planetary movements on the assumption of a gravitational attraction between all elements of matter. According to Kirchhoff, the chief merit of this discovery would lie in its condensing Kepler’s three laws into one hypothesis. This point of view is not necessarily opposed to that of Poincaré, because it is exactly the simplicity of Newton’s explanation that appeals most strongly to our esthetic sense, but there is an important difference in the manner of expression, for however beautiful an idea may be, it loses its effect by being placed before us in an unattractive form. This criticism also applies to Mach, according to whom the object of science is to economize thought, just as it is the object of a machine to economize effort. Logically, this definition is justified, and it may be the best that can be given, if we prefer using a technical expression to confessing an emotional feeling. But why should we do so? Is it not better to recognize that human intelligence is affected by sentiment as much as by reason, and is it not a mistake for scientific men to dissociate themselves from the rest of humanity, by placing their motives on a different, and, at the best, only superficially higher, level? When an adventurous spirit, for instance, desires to organize an expedition to unknown regions of the world, we try to induce our governments to provide the necessary funds by persuading them, and incidentally ourselves, that we do so because important scientific results may be expected from the expedition. This may actually be the case, but we are mainly affected by the same motives as the rest of the community: if the truth be told, we are as curious as others to know what every corner of the earth looks like, and we join them in wishing to encourage an enterprise requiring perseverance and involving danger. I fully realise that the wish to justify one’s own work in the eyes of the world will always lead to fresh attempts to find a formula expressing the objects which we desire to attain. Enough, however, has been said to show that the definition must take account of senti- ment, without insisting too much upon it; nor can we hope, in view of the variety of intellectual and emotional pleasures which combine to create the charm of science, to include all points of view, but if I were forced to make a choice I should say that the object of science is to predict the future. The wish to know what lies before us is one of the oldest and most enduring desires of human nature; often, no doubt, it has degenerated and given rise to perverted and ignoble longings, but its og 20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. accomplishment, when it can be achieved by legitimate inquiry, is a source of the purest and most satisfying enjoyment that science can give. We feel that enjoyment each time we repeat an old and perhaps hackneyed experiment. The result is known beforehand, but be it only that we expect the colour of a chemical precipitate to be green or yellow, be it only that we expect a spot of light to move to the right or left, there is always a little tremor of excitement at the critical moment and a satisfying feeling of pleasure when our expectation has been realized. That pleasure is, I think, enhanced when the experi- ment is not of our own making but takes place uncontrolled by human power. In one of Heine’s little verses he makes light of the tears of a young lady who is moved by the setting sun. ‘ Be of good cheer,’ the poet consoles her, ‘this is only the ordinary succession of events: the sun sets in the evening and rises in the morning.’ If Heine had been a man of science, he would have known that the lady’s tears found a higher justification in the thought of the immutable and inexor- able regularity of the sun’s rising and setting than in the fugitive colour impression of his descent below the horizon, and that her emotions ought to be intensified rather than allayed by the thought of his resurrection in the morning. There are in everybody’s life a few unforgettable moments which, at quite unexpected times, vividly rise in his mind, and there are probably some in this Hall who have experienced such moments at the beginning of a total eclipse of the sun. They have probably travelled far, and gone through months of preparation, for an event which only lasts a few minutes. The time of first contact is approaching, in a few seconds the moon is about to make its first incision in the solar disc, and now the observer’s thoughts come crowding together. What if there were a mistake in pur calculations? What if we had chosen a spot a few miles too far north or too far south? What if the laws of gravitation were ever so little at fault?—But now at the predicted time, at the very spot so anxiously watched, the dark moon becomes visible, and’ the feeling of relief experienced concentrates into one tense instant all the grati- tude we owe those who have given precision to the calculations of celestial movements and handed us the key of prediction in a simple law which can be written down in two lines. It is this simplicity of the law of gravitation, and its accuracy, which some day may show limitations, but has hitherto withstood all tests, that gives to Astronomy its pre- eminence over all sciences. Indeed, if we classify the different sections into which science may be divided, I think it may be said that their aim, m so far as it is not purely utilitarian, is always either historic or prophetic; and to the mathematician, history is only prophecy pursued in the negative direc- PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 21 tion. It is no argument against my definition of the objects of science, that a large section of its subdivisions has been, and to some extent still is, mainly occupied with the discovery and classification of facts; because such classification can only be a first step, preparing the way for a correlation into which the element of time must enter, and which therefore ultimately must depend either on history or prophecy. Latterly men of science, and in particular physicists, have given increased attention to the intrinsic meaning of the concepts by means of which we express the facts of Nature. Everything—who can deny it?-—is ultimately reduced to sense impressions, and it has therefore been asserted that science is the study of the mind rather than of the outside world, the very existence of which may be denied. The physicist has thus invaded the realm of philosophy and metaphysics, and even claims that kingdom as his own. ‘Two effects of these efforts, a paralyzing pessimism and an obscure vagueness of expression, if not of thought, seriously threatened a few years ago to retard the healthy progress of the study of Nature. If the outside world were only a dream, if we never could know what really lies behind it, the incentive which has moved those whose names stand out as landmarks in science is destroyed, and it is replaced by what? By a formula which only appeals to a few spirits entirely detached from the world in which they live. Metaphysicians and physicists will continue to look upon science from different points of view, and need not resent mutual criticisms of each other’s methods or conclusions. For we must remember that most of the good that is done in this world is done by meddling with other people’s affairs, and though the interference is always writating and frequently futile, it proves after all that our interests converge towards a common centre. According to Poincaré, the pleasure which the study of science confers consists in its power of uniting the beautiful with the useful ; but it would be wrong to adopt this formula as a definition of the object of science, because it applies with equal force to all human studies. [ go further, and say that the combination of the search for the beauti- ful with the achievement of the useful is the common interest of science and humanity. Some of us may tend more in one direction, some in another, but there must always remain a feeling of imperfection and only partial satisfaction unless we can unite the two fundamental desires of human nature. I have warned you at the beginning of this discourse not to beat the utilitarian drum too loudly, and I have laid stress throughout on the idealistic side, though the most compelling events of the moment seem to drive us in the other direction, and the near future will press the needs of material prosperity strongly upon us. I must guard 22 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. myself, therefore, against one criticism which the trend of my remarks may invite. At times, when the struggle for existence keeps masses in permanent bondage, in a society in which a multitude of men and women have to face starvation, and when unfortunate, though purely accidental, surroundings in childhood drive the weak into misery, is it not futile to speak of esthetic motives? Am I not, while endeavouring to find a common bond between all sections of the community, in reality drawing a ring round a small and privileged leisured class, telling them these enjoyments are for you and for you alone? Should I not have found a surer ground for the claims of science in its daily increasing necessity for the success of our manufactures and commerce ? I have said nothing to indicate that I do not put the highest value on this important function of science, which finds its noblest task in surrendering the richness of its achievements to the use of humanity. But I must ask you to reflect whether the achievement of wealth and power, to the exclusion of higher aims, can lead to more than a super- ficial prosperity, which passes away because it carries the virus of its own doom within it. Do we not find in the worship of material success the seed of the pernicious ambition which has maddened a nation, and plunged Europe into war? Is this contempt for all idealistic purposes not responsible for the mischievous doctrine that the power to possess confers the right to possess, and that possession is desirable in itself without regard to the use which is made of it? I must therefore insist that if we delight in enlisting the wealth accu- mulated in the earth, and all the power stored in the orbs of heaven, or in the orbits of atomic structure, it should not be because we place material wealth above intellectual enjoyment, but rather because we experience a double pleasure if the efforts of the mind contribute to the welfare of the nation, which includes spiritual as well as material prosperity. When Joule taught us to utilize the powers at our disposal to the best advantage he did it not—and his whole life is a proof of it—to increase either his own wealth or that of the nation, but because, brought up in commercial life and deeply imbued with the deep insight and genius of science, he found his greatest delight in that very combination of esthetic satisfaction and useful achievement which Poincaré has so well described. And again, when another of our fellow-citizens, Henry Wilde, showed how elec- trical power can be accumulated until it became an efficient instrument for the economic transmission of work, he found his inspiration in the intellectual gratification it gave him, rather than in the expectation of material gain. I am drawing no ring round a privileged class, but maintain that the hunger for intellectual enjoyment is universal, and urge that everybody should be given the opportunity and leisure of PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 23 appeasing it. The duty to work, the right to live, and the leisure to think are the three prime necessities of our existence, and when one of them fails we only live an incomplete life. I should have no difficulty in illustrating by examples, drawn from personal experience, the power which the revelations of science can exert over a community steeped in the petty conflicts of ordinary life; but I must bring these remarks to a conclusion, and content myself with the account of one incident. An American friend, who possessed a powerful telescope, one night received the visit of an ardent politician. It was the time of a Presidential election, Bryan and Taft being the opposing candidates, and feeling ran high. After looking at clusters of stars and other celestial objects, and having received answers to his various questions, the visitor turned to my friend: ‘And all these stars I see,’ he asked, ‘ what space in the heaven do they occupy? ’ ‘ About the area of the moon.’ ‘ And you tell me that every one of them is a sun like our own?’ Eves.” “And that each of them may have a number of planets circulating round them like our sun?’ aeves.' “And that there may be life on each of these planets?’ “ We cannot tell for certain, but it is quite possible that there may be life on many of them.’ And after pondering for some time, the politician rose and said: “Tt does not matter after all whether Taft or Bryan gets in.’ Happy were the times when it could be said with truth that the strife of politics counted as nothing before the silent display of the heavens. Mightier issues are at stake to-day: in the struggle which convulses the world, all intellectual pursuits are vitally affected, and Science gladly gives the power she wields to the service of the State. Sorrowfully she covers her face because that power, acquired through the peaceful efforts of the sons of all nations, was never meant for death and destruction; gladly she helps, because a war wantonly provoked threatens civilization, and only through victory shall we achieve a peace in which once more Science can hold up her head, proud of her strength to preserve the intellectual freedom which is worth more than material prosperity, to defeat the spirit of evil that destroys the sense of brotherhood among nations, and to spread the love of truth. rer 5. “4 i a ban ve HOR: rap res tg é eee ii oe Biba ABTS ge NE CaF ley’ i’ age cick ise! Evie: aeret Zhi fits a 4 * xi anathe is > uy COM Bes, ma x Site? er ete? rm oak, Ge ‘nha REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. tye Ee eek oe ae eer Oe 8 i 2b S ay ae ‘ ' - ; th< 2 ae. & i Pus ea “ aa ie ape tere. 40) uy — 5 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. The Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hint (Chairman), Professor J. W. NicHouson (Secretary), Dr. J. R. AtRey, Mr. T. W. CuHaunpy, Mr. A. T. Doopson, Professor L. N. G. Finon, Sir GEORGE GREENHILL, Professors . W. Hopson, ALFRED LopcE, A. BE. H. Love, and H. M. MacpbonaLp, Mr. H. G. Savipae, and Professor A. G. WEBSTER. Or the grant of 30]. given to the Committee, 25]. has been expended on the special purposes for which it was allocated—turther calculations in connection with the I, Y, and K Bessel functions, the particular calcula- tions selected being in accordance with the frequency of requests for these Tables received by the Secretary from workers in physical science and engineering. The order of calculation is being arranged in accord- ance with the real urgency of the Tables, and the stage is now coming in sight at which the Committee will be able, as authorised already by the Association at the appropriate time. to publish, under the auspices of the Association, a volume of fairly complete Tables of the more im- portant transcendental functions. The remaining 5/. of the grant has been returned to the Association, but the Committee desires to make application for it again, and also for the continuance of the grant of 30/. for the ensuing year. The un- usual circumstances of the past year temporarily hindered the work, so that the Tables for which this particular part of the grant was estimated are still incomplete, but they are well in hand, and some expense has already been incurred in connection with them. The present Report contains some Tables of which Dr. Airey has been in charge, divided into three sections: (1) The Bessel functions J,({x) for various orders and arguments which will be apparent from the Tables themselves, their most valuable portions being the entries for which order and argument are approximately the same. These Tables indicate the characteristic tendency towards zero when the order exceeds the argument, as in the formule of Nicholson and Debye, which, how- ever, were not employed in the numerical work. (2) The Neumann functions of types G and Y to a large number of significant figures. These are sufficient to form the basis of a rapid calcula- tion of complete sets of Tables for functions of these types of any order. (3) Continues the calculation of the functions of type Y from (2) as a basis. The Committee is greatly indebted to Dr. Airey for taking charge of this important work. The functions ber z, bei x introduced by Lord Kelvin, together with their derivates, are of great importance in connection with alternating currents. In the Report for 1912, the Committee published Tables of these functions and their derivates, calculated by Professor Webster. They are now able, in Table IV. of the present Report, to give the neces- sary supplement to these Tables—the real and imaginary parts of K,(« «), with their derivates—the work having been kindly undertaken and carried through by Mr. H. G. Savidge. For a very complete and general] account of the mathematical properties and uses of these functions, reference may be made to a paper by Dr. Alexander Russell (* Phil. Mag., 98 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. April 1909; and Russeli’s ‘Alternating Currents,’ 2nd Edn., vol. 1, chap. VII.). For the convenience of those who frequently require such Tables, the following summary of some other important Tables of Bessel func- tions and Zonal Harmonics may be useful : (1) Jo(z) and J,(x); range x = 0 to 15:5, interval 0:01, to 12 places (Gray and Mathews’ Treatise). (2) J,(z) from = 0 upwards (integral) to from 16 to 60, according to «: for integral values of « between 1 and 24, to 18 places (7bid.). (3) Ji{z) = 0; first 50 roots, to 16 places (ibid.). (4) Further Tables of roots of Bessel functions (Airey, ‘ Proce. Phys. Soc.,’ vol. 23 (1911), p. 219). (5) J,(w); Tables for calculating phase and amplitude (A. Lodge, ‘Brit. Ass. Rep.,’ 1907, pp. 94, 95; 1909, p. 33). (6) I,(z):; range = 0 to 5:1, interval 0:001, to ninth decimal figure, with first difference (Lodge, ‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.,’ 1893, p. 229). (7) I,(z); range, &c., as in (6) (ibid. 1896, p. 99). (8) I,(z); range « = 0 to 6, interval 0:2, n = 0 to 11 (integral) (‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.,’ 1889, p. 29). (9) Y.(z), Yi(x), Go(z), Gila); range x=0 to 16, interval 0-1, to 7 figures approximately (Airey, ‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.,’ 1913, p. 116). (10) K,(x) and K,(x) ; range x = 0 to 12, interval 0-1, to many figares (Aldis, ‘ Roy. Soc. Proc.’ (1898), vol. lxiv., p. 203). (11) K,(z); range «= 0 to 5, interval 0°2, to 5 figures (Isherwood, ‘Manc. Mem.,’ vol. 48 (1904), No. 19. (12) ber x, bei x, ber’ z, bei’ x; range = 0 to 10, interval 0-1, with first seven differences (Webster, ‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.,’ 1912, p. 57). (13) Definition, properties, and tables of ber x, ker 2, &c., and allied functions (Russell and Savidge, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ April 1909 and Jan. 1910). (14) Exact Tables of P,(u) from n=1 to n=7, »p=0 to p=1, interval 0-01 (Glaisher, ‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.,’ 1879, p. 49). (15) Po(u) to P,(u); four-figure Tables at 1° interval (Perry, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ Dec. 1891, p. 512). ' (16) P,(cos 0) to P.o(cos 8), 6 = 0° to 90°, interval 5°, 7 figures (Lodge, ‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol. 203 (1904), p. 100). The Committee has in course of preparation some sine and cosine Tables proceeding by fractions of radians instead of degrees. A large demand for these Tables has always existed, and, in particular, they will be of very great value for the rapid calculation of large classes of im- portant transcendental functions from their asymptotic series. Those in hand at present are the sine and cosine of angles from 0:01 to 1-60 radians by intervals of 0-01, and from 0:0001 to 0:0100 by intervals of 00001, These Tables will be comparatively short, and the calculations are proceeding to 10 significant figures. Table I. The Bessel Functions, J,(x). These functions have been tabulated by Meissel to eighteen places of decimals for integral values of x from 1 to 24. From the values of J(z) and J,(x), the following supplementary tables have been calculated to six places of decimals from 7 = 0-2 to 6-0 by intervals of 0-2, the actual computation being carried to ten places, and from 6:0 to 16-0 by intervals of 0-5 to ten places from results obtained to twelve places. ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. Tables of the Bessel Functions J,(x). Jia) |= 078 or 0-6 0:8 1-0 n=0 | +0°990025 | +0: 960398 +0°912005 -+0°846287 -+-0°765198 1 | +0-099501 | +-0-196027 +0:286701 | -+0:368842 +0-440051 2 -£0-004983 | +0:019735 +0-043665 +0°075818 — +-0°114903 3 | +0:000166 | +0-001320 +0-004400 -++0-010247 _ +0-019563 4 | +0-000004 | +0-000066 +0:000331 +0:001033 | +0-002477 5 +0:000000 | +0-000003 +0:000020 -+0:000083 +-0-000250 6 = | = +0:000001 | -+0:000006 | +0-000021 7 — | — — — | +0-000002 Ia) |w= 12 | 14 16 18 | 2°0 n=0 | +0°671133 | +0°566855 | +0:455402 ..0°339986 | +0°223891 1 +40-498289 -1.0°541948 | +0-569896 | +0:581517 +0:576725 2 +40°159349 | +0-207356 | +0-256968 | +0-306144 | -++0-352834 3 | +40:032874 | +0-050498 | +0-072523 | +0-098802 | +0-128943 4 | +0-005023 | +0:009063 | +0-014995 | +0-023197 | +0-033996 5 | -+0:000610 | +0-001290 | -+0-002452 | +0-004294 | +0:007040 6 | +0-000062 | +0-000152 | +0:000332 | +0-000657 | +0-001202 if +0-000005 +0:000015 -+0:000038 | +0-000086 | +0:000175 8 = | +0:000001 -+0-000004 | +0-000010 | +0-000022 9 — | — —_ +0-000002 In(z) |e= 22 a4 | 2°6 2'8 3:0 n=0 | +0:110362 +0-002508 | 0-096805 | —0-185036 | —0-260052 1 +0:555963 | -0°520185 | -+10-470818 | -0-409709 | +0-339059 2 | +40-395059 -10-430980 +0:458973 -+0-477685 | +0-486091 3 | -+£0°162325 -£0:198115 | +0-235294 +0-272699 | +0-309063 4 | +40-047647 | +0-064307 | +0-084013 +0-106669 | +0:132034 5 | +0-:010937 +0:016242 | +0°023207 | +0-032069 | +-0:043028 6 | --0:002066 -+0:003367 | +0-005246 -+0:007863 | +0°011394 7 +0-000332 ~ +0-000593 +0-001005 | +0-001631 | +0-002547 8 --0:000046 --0:000091 | +0:000167 +0:000294 | +0:000493 9 +0:000006 | +0-000012 | +0-000024 +0-000047 | +0:000084 10 +0:000001 ~— +-0-000002 -+0:000003 = +0-000007 | -++0-000013 ul a a ee We ee Tea one008 In(z) | w= 82 3-4 3°6 3'8 4-0 n=0 | —0320188 | —0-364296 | —0-391769 | —0-402556 | —0:397150 1 | 0261343 | +0-179226 | +0-095466 | +0-012821 | —0-066043 2 | +0-483528 | +0-469723 | +0-444805 | +0:409304 | +0-364128 3 | -+0:343066 | +0:373389 | +0-398763 | +0-418026 | +0-430171 4 | +0-159722 | +0-189199 | +0-219799 | +0-250736 | +0-281129 5 +0:056238 +0:071785 | +0:089680 | -+0°109840 +0°132987 6 | -+0-016022 | -+0-021934 | -+0-029311 | +0-038316 | +-0-049088 7 -+-0°003845 +0-005630 | -+0°008024 | +0:011159 +0°015176 8 +0:000798 +0:001248 | +0:001894 | +-0-002797 +0:004029 9 --0°000146 +0:000244 | +0:000393 | -+-0:000616 +0:000939 10 -+-0°000024 +0-000043 | +0-000073 , +0-000121 +0°000195 11 +0-°000004 +0-000007 | +0:000012 | +-0:000021 +0-000037 12 — -+0-000001 | +0:000002 | +0:000004 | +0:000006 30 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Tables of the Bessel Functions J,,(x)—continued. Tn(a) z= 42 4-4 46 4°8 50 n=0 —0°376557 —0°342257 | —0°296138 | —0°240425 | —0-177597 1 —0'138647 —0°202776 | —0°256553 | —0°298500 | —0°327579 2 +0°310535 +0°250086 | +0°184593 | +0°116050 | +-0°046565 3 -+0°434394 +0°430127 | -+0°417069 | +0°395209 | +0°364831 4 -+-0°310029 +0°336450 | +0°359409 | +0°377960 | +0°391232 5 -+0°156136 +0°181601 | +0°207991 | +0°234725 | +0°261141 6 -+-0°061725 -+0:076279 | +0:092745 | +0°111051 | +0°131049 7 +0:020220 +0:026433 | -++0-033953 | +-0-042901 | +0:053376 8 -+-0°005674 +0:007827 | +0-010591 | +0:014079 | +0-018405 9 +0:001395 +0°002027 | +0:002885 -+0-004027 | -+0°005520 10 -+0:000306 +0:000467 ; +0:000699 | +0:001023 | +0-001468 1l +0-000060 +0:000097 | +0:000152 | -++0:000234 | +0:000351 12 +0:000011 -+0:000018 | +0-000030 | +0-000049 | -+0:000076 | 13 -+-0°000002 +0:000003 | +0-:000005 | +0-000009 | +0-000015 Tr(a) p= iO | 54 | 56 | 58 | 60 n=0 | —0°110290 —0°041210 | +0:026971 | -+0:091703 | +0°150645 1 —0°343223 —0°345345 | —0°334333 —0°311028 —0-276684 2 | —0:021718 | —0-086695 | —0°146375 —0:198954 | —0-242873 3 +0°326517 +0:281126 | +0°229779 | +0°173818 -+0°114768 4 -+0°398468 +0°399058 -+0°392567 +0°378765 | -+-0°357642 5 +0°286512 | +0°310074 -+0°331031 | +0°348617 -+0°362087 | 6 +0°152515 | +0°175147 +0°198559 +0°222298 + 0:245837 | 7 +0:065447 | +0°079145 +0:094452 | +0°111310 | +0:129587 8 +0°023689 +0°030044 -+0°037571 +0°046382 -+0°056532 9 +0°007441 -+0:009873 -+0°012893 +0:016641 | +0-021165 10 -+0:002069 +0-002868 | +0:003870 | +0:005261 | +0-006964 ll +0:000517 +0:000747 | +0:000930 +0:001500 -+0-002048 | 12, | -+0:000117 -+0-000177 | +0:000262 | +0:000380 , +0-000545 | 13. | -+0-000024. -+-0:000037 | +0:000057 +0-000088 | +0-000133 In(z) ys (HE | 7:0 7:5 8:0 n=0 | +0°2600946056 -+0°3000792705 | +0:2663396579 --0-1716508071 1 —0°1538413014 | —0:0046828235 | +0°1352484276 | +0°2346363469 2 —0°3074302368 | —0°3014172201 | —0-2302734105 —0-1129917204 3 —0°0353465366 —0-1675555880 | —0-2580609132 | —0°2911322071 4 +0°2748026645 -+-0°1577981447 | +0°0238246800 —0-1053574349 5 -+0°3735652006 | +0°3478963248 | +0-2834739052 -+0-1857747722 6 -+-0°2999130288 | -1-0-°3391966050 | +-0:3541405269 +-0:3375759001 iu +0°1801203909 | -+0:2335835695 | +-0:2831509379 | +-0°32058907S80 8 -+0°0880385825 +-0:1279705340 | -+0°1744078905 | -+0:2234549864 9 -++0:0365899659 | +-0:0589205083 | +-0:0889192285 | +0°1263208947 10 +-0:0132874770 +.0-0235393444 | -+0-0389982579 | +0-0607670268 BI +0°0042945787 | +0:0083347614 | +0:0150761259 | +0-0255966722 12 | +0:0012480202 | -+0:0026556200 -+-0°0052250447 | +0-0096238218 13 —0°0003135057 | +0-0007702216 | +0°0016440171 | -+0°0032747932 ON THE CALCULATION Tables of the Bessel Functions J, (x)—continued. OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 31 In(x) z= 85 9:0 9°5 100 n=0 +0°0419392518 | —0-:0903336112 | —0-1939287477 | —0°2459357645 1 +0°2731219637 | +0°2453117866 | -+0°1612644308 | -+0:0434727462 2 +-0°0223247396 | +0°1448473415 | +0°2278791542 | -+0°2546303137 3 —0:2626162039 | —0-1809351903 | —0°0653153132 | -+-0°0583793793 4 —0°2076773541 | —0:2654708018 | —0°2691309309 | —0°2196026861 5 -+-0°0671551647 | —0:0550388557 —0°1613212602 | —0:2340615282 6 --0°2866834302 | +0:2043165177 | -+0:0993190781 | —0°0144588421 rd -+-0°3375743838 | +0°3274608792 | -+0:°2867769378 | -+0°2167109177 8 --0°2693214373 | +0°3050670723 | -+0:3232995671 | -+0:°3178541268 9 +0°1693836158 | +0°2148805825 | -+0°2577275962 | +0:2918556853 10 +-0:0893732784 | +0-1246940928 | -+0:1650264047 | +0-2074861066 ll --0:0409064511 | +0°0622174015 | -+0:0896964138 | -+0°1231165280 12 +0:°0165022421 | +0:0273928887 | -+-0:0426916061 | -+0-0633702550 13 -+-0:0056881149 | +0-0108303016 | -+0:-0181560647 | -+0:0289720839 Jn(v) | c= 10°56 11:0 115 12°0 n=0 —0°2366481945 | —0-1711903004 | —0:0676539481 | -+0°0476893108 1 —0°0788500142 | —0-1767852990 | —0:°2283786207 | —0-°2234471045 2 +0°2216291441 | +0°1390475188 | +0°0279359271 | —0-0849304949 3 +0°1632801644 | -++0°2273480331 | +0:°2380954649 | +0°1951369395 4 —0°1283261931 | —0-0150395007 | -++0-0962877937 | -++0°1824989646 5 —0°2610525019 | —0-2382858518 | —0-1711126519 | —0:0734709631 6 —0°1202952374 | —0°2015840009 | —0-2450838970 | —0°2437247672 7 -+0°1235722307 | +0:0183760326 | —0-0846270668 | —0°1702538041 8 +0°2850582116 | -++0°2249716788 | -+0°1420596418 | +0:0450953291 9 +0°3108021870 | +-0:3088555001 | +-0:2822752641 | +0:2303809096 10 +0°2477455375 | +0-2804282305 | +0°2997625107 | +0°3004760353 ll -+0°1610940750 | +-0°2010140099 | -+0:2390508414 | +-0-2704124826 12 +0:0897849053 | +0:1215997893 | +0°1575521425 | +0-°1952801827 13 +0°0441285657 | -+0°0642946213 | +0-0897536298 | +0°1201478829 Jn(x) m= 19:5 13°0 13°5 14:0 | n—0 +0°1468840547 | +0°2069261024 | +0-2149891659 | +0-1710734761 ] —0°1654838046 | —0-0703180521 | +0:0380492921 | +-0°1333751547 2 —0°1733614634 | —0-2177442642 | —0-2093522337 | —0-1520198826 3 +-0°1100081363 | +0:0033198170 | —0-1000795836 | —0-1768094069 4 -+0°2261653689 | +0°2192764875 | +-0-1648724188 | +-0-0762444225 5 +0°0347376998 | -+-0°1316195599 | -+-0°1977817577 | +-0:2203776483 6 —0°1983752091 | —0-1180306721 | —0-0183674131 | +0:0811681834 i —0:2251779005 | —0-2405709496 | —0-2141083471 | —0-1508049196 8 —0:0538240395 | —0:1410457351 | —0-2036710209 | —0-2319731031 9 +0°1562831300 | +0:0669761987 | —0-0272791962 | —0-1143071982 10 -++0°2788717466 | -+0-2337820102 | +-0°1672987593 | +-0-0850067054 ll +0°2899116646 | +-0-2926884324 | +0-2751292100 | +0:2357453488 12 +0°2313727831 -++0°2615368754 | +0°2810599533 | +0:°2854502712 13 +0°1543240789 | +0°1901488760 | +0:2245329292 | -+-0-2535979733 32 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Tables of the Bessel Functions J,,(x)—continued. In(x) c= 145 150 15'5 | 16:0 0 +0°0875448680 | —0-0142244728 | —0-1092306509 | —0:1748990740 1 +0°1934294636 | +-0°2051040386 | -+0-1672131804 | -+0:0903971757 2 —0°0608649420 | +0-0415716780 | +0°130806545] +0°1861987209 3 —0°2102197923 | —0-1940182578 | —0-1334566526 | —0-0438474954 | 4 —0-0261220608 | —0:1191789811 | —0°1824671848 | —0-2026415317 5 -+0°1958076209 | +-0°1304561346 | -+0-0392800410 | —0-0574732704 6 +0°1611617993 | +-0°2061497375 | +-0:2078091468 | -+-0:1667207377 7 —0:0624323387 | +0:0344636554 | +0°1216044597 | +0°1825138237 8 —0°2214412987 | —0-1739836591 | —0-0979728606 | —0-0070211420 9 —0'1819166806 | —0-2200462251 | —0-2227377352 | —0-1895349657 10 —0:0043863048 | —0°0900718110 | —0-1606903157 | —0°2062056944 11 -+0°1758666050 | +0-0999504771 | +0-0153953923 | —0:0682221524 | --0°2712183952 | +0°2366658441 | +0°1825418403 _ +0:1124002349 13° -+0°2730466008 | +0°2787148734 | +0-2672500378 ' +0:2368225048 | — _ bo Table I. The Neumann Functions G(x), G(x), Yo(x), and Y,(z). The Neumann Functions or Logarithmic Bessel Functions, Go(z) and G,(x), were calculated to twelve or more places of decimals for values of the argument 6°5 to 15:5 from their asymptotic expansions. Go(z) = — Nee [ Pota) sin (« — 1) + Qo(x) cos (« — | and = G,(z) = + AS [pe cos (« — 1) — Q,(z) sm (« —_ | If the calculation be restricted to the convergent part of P(x), Qo(z), &c., the value of Go(6°5) can be found to about seven places of decimals, but it is possible to transform the divergent part of any one of these series and express it as a fraction of the least term of the convergent part of the series.‘ The fraction or ‘converging factor’ is a function of x in descending powers of the variable, the absolute term being }. By this means, Go(6°5), &c..can be calculated to about twelve or more places of decimals. The functions Y,(z) and Y,(x) were then found from the relations Yo(~) = (log 2 — y) Jo(x) — Go(a), &e. Tables of the Neumann Functions G)(x) and G,(a). « | Go . G, Bee Gr / G, es = | E . | | ees hes aot 6°5 | +0°2721285804 | +-0-4305415662 | 11°5 | +0-3537937737 —0-0910159402 70 | +0:0407617621 | +0:4754285799 | 12:0 | +0:3538019433 | +-0-0896912423 7-5 | —0°1842752790 | +0°4070381044 | 12°5 | +0-2689428043 -+0:2416485683 8:0 | —0°3511067345 | +0:2482807927 | 13:0 | +0:1228486263 -+-0-3299951047 85 | —0:4244371900 | +0°0411056655 | 13°5 | —0-0472448553 -+.0°3361864328 | 90 —0°3925996476 | —0°1638569516 || 14:0 | —0-1997936195 | +4-0°2617651055 | 95 | —0°2689370228 | —0-3191542396 | 14°5 | —0-2989255117 +-0° 1273006187 | 10-0 | —0-0874480651 | —0:3911525137 | 15-0 | —0:3227425615 | —0-0331023775 | 10°5 | +0°1060764611 | —6-3671017435 | 15:5 —0-2680483997 |—0-1803056510 | 11-0 | +0:2652247562 | —0-2571480569 | | ' Annales de U Ecole Normale Supérieure, 1886; Archiv der Math. und Physik, 14, OE . ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 8 I 09 op 09 o9 09 O9 OD CD ED ODIO NNN MEH SOSSSOSSS | Yo Tables of the.Newmann Functions Y,(x) and Y,(2). —0°2454213266 | +0°5273274052 —0°2962466600 | +-0°4885254644 —0°3430028852 | +0°4460183107 —0°3853417720 | +-0°4002554688 | —0°4830735596 | -+0°2482186095 —0°5052074159 | -+-0°1942861461 —0°5331138832 | +0:0846015427 —0°5388332402 | +0:0298674819 a6 Ms Yo —2°2943345812 | —10°1399073252 | 4-1 | —0°1331722948 —1'5834211860 | —5-2095168052 | 4:2 | —0°1909188721 —1-1547246989 | —3-5848063074 | 4°3 —0°8406007621 | —2-7746616109 44 —0°5894501822 | —2-2832968788 | 4°5 —0°3788760747 | —1:9465804215 | 4°6 —0°1973368285 | —1-6948398823 | 4°7 | —0°4229611239 —0:0382373343 | —1:4937048735 | 4°8 | —0°4556066658 +0°1024583688 | —1°3244416941 4-9 +0°2273442324 | —1-1761105040 5:0 +0:3381522214 | —1:0420112190 5:1 | —0°5219048840 | -+0°4360781497 | —0°9179113341 52 +0°5219761866 | —0°8010928444 | 5:3 | +0:5964807906 | —0-6898134973 | 5-4 | —0°5391120024 ++0°6600863177 | —0°5829704614 || 5°5 | —0°5340482919 +0°7132004847 | —0°4799053721 | 56 © —0°5237877109 +0°7561813379 | —0°3802657536 5°7 —0°5085214159 +0:7893631174 | —0-2839158153 | 5:°8 | —0-4884837051 | +0:8130746390 | —0°1908735689 | 5:9 —0-4639493697 +0°8276522282 | —0:1012655792 | 6:0 —0-4352306154 | +0°8334488985 | —0-0152936185 6°5 | —0°2419754186 +0:8308405095 +0:0667906385 | 7:0 —0:0059731175 +0°8202297417 | +0°1447052444 | 7:5 | +0°2151524392 +-0°8020483338 | +0°2181535173 8:0 | +-0°3710064727 -++-0°7767578849 | +-0°2868365398 85 | +0°4292992711 +0°7448495748 -+0°3504634353 || 9:0 | +0°3821271351 | +0°7068429107 | -+0°4087597225 | 9°5 | +0°2464545691 | | +0°6632837280 | +0:4614743384 | 10-0 | +-0:0589363592 +0°6147415401 -+0°5083854239 | 10°5 | —0°1335114449 +0°5618063930 | -+0°5493050123 | 11:0 | —0°2850711072 | | +0°5050853059 +-0°5840829410 | 11:5 —0°3616369985 | | +0°4451982191 -+0-6126099179 | 12:0 | —0°3482732493 | +0°3827739309 | -+-0°6348198099 | 12:5 — —0°2519143132 +0°3184455929 | +0°6506912753 || 13-°0 | —0-0988593697 +-0°2528462007 | -+0°6602488398 || 13°5 | +-0:0721688752 | +-0°1866039774 -+0°6635633127 | 14:0 | +-0°2196264269 +0°1203377889 | +-0°6607516305 | 14°5 | +0°3090747209 +0:0546524956 -+.0°6519761906 | 15:0 | +0°3210934968 —0°0098655002 -+0°6374437509 | 15°5 | +-0°2553851248 —0°0726526231 | -+0°6174037456 Table II. The Newmann Functions Y,(x). 33 v1 +0°5921462686 +0°5619996237 | -+0°3517074948 +03008618391 +0°1395766012 —0°0241284674 —0-0769027972 —0°1279897534 —0°1769452265 | —0°2233504152 | —0:2668153484 | —0°3069819855 | —0°4483766215 —0°47597 14667 —0°3913585492 —0°2210790454 | —0'009442222% +0°1922963189 +0°3378498695 +0°3961923750 +0°3579605418 | +0°2366530692 | +0°0645396606 —0°1155958038 —0°2608333566 —0°3381471830 —0°3317753207 —0°2463027216 —0:1048760479 +0-0568803996 +0°1996909285 | From the foregoing values of Yo(v) and Y,(x) functions of higher order were computed by means of the recurrence formula Yautz) = ¥,(e) - Vaal) The calculations were carried as far as the tenth place and verified by the relation 1915. Tnasl2) Yala) = Iy(2) Vault) = © 34 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, © Tables of the Neumann Functions Y,,(2). [ Yr(z) | a= 02 0-4 06 0-8 | 1-0 n=0 —1:583421 | —0-840601 | —0:378876 | —0-038237 | +-0-227344 1 —5:209517 | —2°774662 | —1:946580 | —1:493705 | —1:17611]1 2 —_ _ —6'109725 | —3-696025 | —2:579565 3 ra ae SS 5 pal gs ee —9"142150 Y,(z) |a= 12 14 te aol“ aoe | 2:0 n=0 +0:436078 +0:596481 | +-0:713200 | -+-0°789363 | -+0°827652 1 —0°917911 —0°689813 | —0°479905 | —0°283916 | —0°101266 2 —1:965930 | —1°581929 | —1°313082 | —1:104825 | —0:928918 3 —5'635190 | —3°829983 | —2°802800 | —2:171251 | —1°756570 4 2 in ti a —9:197418 | —6-132679 | —4:340792 Yi(c) | a= 22 24 2°6 2:8 30 | Bet) n=0 +0°830841 +0°802048 -+0°744850 -+0°663284 +0°561806 1 -+-0°066791 -+0°218154 -+0°350463 | +0°461474 | +0°549305 2, —0°770122 —0°620254 —0-475262 | —0°333659 | —0:195603 3 —1-467012 | —1:251910 | —1-081636 | —0-938130 | —0-810109 4 | —3-230820 | —2-509521 —2-020821 —1-676620 | —1-424615 5 —10°281425 —7-113159 | —5:136275 | —3°852213 | —2:988865 6 = — | = | = —8'538267 Yn) | a= 382 a4 | 36 38 4:0 | n=0 | 40445198 +0°318446 +0°186604 +0°054652 | —0-072653 _ 1 -++0°612610 -+0°650691 -+0°663563 -+0°651976 | +0°617404 2 —0:062317 +0:064314 | +0°182042 -+0°289019 | +0°381354 3 —0°690506 | —0:575028 | —0°461294 | —0:347745 | —0-236049 / 4 —1-232382 | —1-079069 —0-950866 | —0:838091 | —0°735428 — 5 —2°390449 —1:963958 | —1:651741 | —1-416657 | —1:234807 | 6 —6°237771 | —4-697278 | —3:637304 | —2°889953 | —2°351590 © 7 — | — '—10°472604 | —7-709510 | —5-819964 Yilr) |a= 42 4-4 4°6 | 48 50 n=0 —0°190919 | —0-296247 | —0-385342 | —0-455607 | —0°505207 1 +0'562000 | +0-488525 | +0-400255 | +0-300862 | -+0:194286 2 +-0°458538 | +0:518304 | +0:559366 | +0°580966 | +0:582922 3 —0°125297 } —0-017340 | +0-086150 | +0°183276 | +0-272051 4 —0°637533 —0°541950 | —0°446997 | —0°351870 | —0°256460 5 — 1:089052 —0:968023 | —0°863535 | —0°769727 | —0°682388 6 —1:955449 —1:658102 | —1:480254 | —1:251727 | —1°108315 yi —4:497915 —3°554073 | —2°867562 | —2°359592 | —1:977569 8 _— —9°650312 | —7:297109 | —5°630415 | —4:428878 ‘s tena Tables of the Newnann Functions Y,,(x)—continued. ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES, Y n(x) C= 5D | 54 5°6 | 5'8 6:0 n=0 | —0:533114 | —0-539112 | —0:523788 | —0-488484 | —0-435231 1 | +0-084602 | —0-024128 | —0-127990 | —0-223350 | —0-306982 2 | +0:565653 | +0-530176 | +0-478077 | +0-411466 | +-0:332903 3 | +0-350516 | +0:416851 | +0-469473 | +0-507120 | +0:528918 4 | —0-161211 | —0-067008 | +0-024930 | -+0-113141 | +-0-196014 5 | —0-598533 | —0-516122 | —0-433859 | —0-351064 | —0-267565 6 | —0-989815 | —0-888773 | —0-799678 | —0-718423 | —0-641956 7 | 1685654 | —1:458930 | —1-279737 | —1:135329 | —1-016347 8 | 3548485 —2:893638 | —2:399665 | —2-022027 | —1-729521 9 | —9-239761 | —7-114812 | —5:576448 | —4-442676 | —3-595708 10 ze He gees | ae = —9-057603 Yn(x) os 6°) 6'5 70 75 8:0 n=0 —0:435231 | —0-241976 | —0-005973 | +0-215153 | +0-371006 1 —0:306982 | —0-448377 | —0-475971 | —0-391359 | —0-221079 2 +0-332903 | +0:104013 | —0-130019 | —0-319515 | —0-426276 3 4+0°528918 | +0-512385 | +0-401675 | +0-220951 | +0-007941 4 +0°196014 | +0:368957 | +0-474312 | +0-496275 | -+.0-432232 5 | —0-267565 | —0-058284 | +0:140395 | +0:308410 | +0-424291 6 —0-641956 | —0-458624 —0-273747 | —0-085062 | +0-098132 7 —1:016347 | —0-788408 | —0-609676 | —0-444510 | —0-277093 8 —1°729521 | —1-239484 | —0-945604 | —0-744689 | —0-583045 9 | —3:595708 | —2-262630 | —1:551706 | —1-144160 | —0-888997 10 —9:057603 | —5-026261 | —3:044496 | —2-001295 | —1-417198 11 za ue —7-146856 | —4:192626 | —2-653998 12 ws Ss ei '—10-297074 | —5:881296 13 ae ses = / = es BV) oc) 8D 90 9°5 10°0 10°5 7 +0°429299 | +0-382127 | -+0-246455 | +0-058936 | —0-133511 1 | —0-009442 | +0-192296 | +0-337850 | +0:396192 | -+-0-357961 2 | —0-431521 | —0-339395 | —0-175328 | +0-020302 | -+0:201694 3 | —0-193626 | —0-343138 | —0-411672 | —0-388072 | —0-281125 4 | +0-294843 | +0:110636 | —0-084675 | —0-253145 | —0-362337 5 | +0:471126 | +0-441481 | +0:340367 | +0-185556 | +0-005058 6 | +0:259423 | +0:379899 | +0-442956 | +0:438701 | --0°367154 7 | 0104882 | -+0-065051 | +0:219157 | +0-340885 | -0-414547 8 | -0-432170 | —0-278709 | —0-119988 | +0-038539 | +0:185575 9 | —0-708614 | —0-560533 | —0-421242 | —0-279223 | —0-131766 10 |° —1-068425 | —0-842358 | —0-678155 | —0-541141 | —0-411460 11 | —1:805327 | —1:311373 | —1-006452 | —0-803058 | —0-651967 12 | —3-604185 | —2-363220 | —1-652577 | —1-225587 | —0-954566 13 | —8371196 | —4-990547 | —3-168479 | —2-138350 | —1:529898 D2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Tables of the Newmann Functions Y,,(«)—continued. (v7) |e= 120 115 0. | dae 13:0 0 —0°285071 —0°361637 | —0°348273 | —0-251914 | —0-098859 1 --0°236653, +0°064540 | —0:115596 —0'260834 | —0°338147 2 -+0:328099 +0°372861 | +0°329007 , +0:210181 | +0-046837 3 —0°117344 +0°065151 | +0°225265 -+0:328091 | +0°352558 4 —0°392105 —0°338869 | —0°216375 | —0-052697 | +0:115883 5 —0°167823 —0°300886 | —0°369515 | —0°361817 | —0:281246 6 -+0°239539 +0:°077229 | —0:091554 | —0:236757 | —0:332226 7 +0°429138 -+-0°381473 | +0:277960 | +0°134531 | —0:025424 8 -+0°306637 +0°387173 | +0°415842 | +0-387431 | +0°304846 9 -+-0:016879 +0°157203 | +0:276495 +0-361381 | -++0°400619 10 —0:'279016 | —0°141117 | —0-001099 | +0-132958 | +0°249857 11 —0°524181 | —0°402623 | —0:278327 | —0:148649 | —0-016223 2 —0°769347 —0°629119 | —0°509167 | —0°394580 | —0:277312 13 —1:154393 —0°910321 | —0-°740007 | —0-608945 / —0°495738 Y n(z) = ~ 135 14:0 145 15:0 15°5 0 +0:072169 +0°219626 | +0:309075 | +0°321093 | +0°255385 1 —0°331775 —()'246303 | —0:104876 | -+0°056880 | +0-199691 2 —0°121321 —0°254813 | —0°323540 | —0°313509 | —0°229619 3 +0°295828 -+-0°173499 | +0:015624 | —0°140483 | —0°258947 4 -+-0°252800 +0°329169 | +0°330005 | +0:257316 | +0-129378 5 —0:146021 +0°014598 | +0:166448 | +0:277718 | --0°325723 6 —0°360964 —0°318742 | —0:215213 | —0-072171 | +0-080766 a —0-174836 —0°287805 | —0°344556 | —0°335455 | —0-263194 8 -+0°179653 +0:030937 | —0:117461 —0°240920 | —0°318490 9 -+-0°387757 +0°323162 | +0:214943 | +0:078473 | —0-065570 10 -+0°337357 +0°384557 | +0°384288 | +0:335088 | +0°242345 1] +0°11203] +0°226205 | +0:315109 | +0:368311 | +0:378272 12 —0°154788 —0-029092 | +0:093808 | +0°205101 | +0°294558 13 —0°387210 —0°276077 | —0-159840 | —0:040149 | +0-077818 Table IV. (Mr. Savidge’s Table.) Tables of the Functions ker x, kei x, Cher a) 3 . (kei x), A aint kera + tkeia = Kj(av;). Ay ker x kei a ker’ x | kei’ # 0 oles =“O:7853982 oo] ves | 0 ‘1 +-2-4204740 —0°7768506 —9:9609593 -+-0°1459748 ‘2 41-7331427 —0°7581249 —4-9229485 +-0-2229268 = -++1:3372186 —0°7331019 —3°2198652 +0°2742921 4. +-1:0626239 —0-°7038002 —2°3520699 -+-+0°3095140 3A from 6 a.m, to 1 p.m. and 3c from 1 p.m. to 7 P.M. On February 15, 16, 17 and 18, 167 points of rain were recorded, of which only 3 points fell on the 15th. On February 23, 1915, and strays were of strength 3a from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. On February 24 129 points of rain fell. This conclusion is borne out in other ways by some of the records forwarded to the Committee. There is evidence that north-west winds on our Atlantic coasts, especially in the winter, are associated with strong strays at Irish stations and at sea. The atmospheric convection produced by the land may be sufficient to account for this. Mr. R. Ricci, of the Marconi Company, who has made reports on two trips round the world, during which he made especially careful daily observa- tions, states that in mid-ocean strays are, as a rule, very few and feeble both in the day and in the night; but that when the edge of a mountainous continent is approached strong, and even continuous, strays are normal. In this something must depend on the direction of the prevailing wind relative to the land—a matter that will be inquired into later. It may be mentioned here as very significant that the months of the greatest X storms in the Mediterranean are shown by the records to be September and October, the months of cyclonic weather. As a whole the statistics show that there appear to be two kinds of X storm occurring in the day-time: (1) Those produced by convec- tive conditions in the atmosphere within, perhaps, a hundred miles of the station, which may be termed local X storms; (2) Those originating at a distance. Regarding the first class, they may occur almost simul- taneously over a whole continent, but this is only because convective conditions happen to be ruling all over that area. Stations not too far outside the boundary of such a region also receive many strays, but apparently their distance must be limited to within 200 miles of the disturbed regions. In general, we may conclude that the ob- servation of strays in the day-time constitutes a method of feeling the fringe of a region of convective weather, and so anticipating thunder and rain a day or two in advance, Of course, this ability to prophesy the advent of thunder weather is well known and is as old as wireless telegraphy itself; but hitherto it has been thought that the electric dis- charges at a great distance were responsible for the strays heard at the station attempting to prophesy. The present analysis indicates, rather, that at any rate in the day-time the strays are frequently due to very local discharges, often too weak to give noticeable lightning or thunder, but definitely indicative of an approaching period of instability in the atmosphere, The second kind of X storm is not of strictly local origin, but is sometimes traceable in the stray observations made hourly at the Malta ON RADIOTELEGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS. 43 station of the Eastern Telegraph Company, and the Sierra Teone station of the African Direct Telegraph Company. There is evidence that on certain occasions the same cause is affecting both stations though they are separated by 2,500 miles, mostly across mountain and desert. As regards disturbances observed at night-time, these are also fre- quently very local and due to convective weather, but there is probably a greater proportion of non-local storms than appears in the day records. In this connection may be noted a report from Australian stations that the worst and most continuous type of disturbance (apart from local thunder storms) occurs on calm nights when the sky is blue and starry. As a contrast to the prevalence of strays during convective weather may be instanced the fact, reported by Lieut. E. R. Macpherson from Sierra Leone, that a very dry wind which blows periodically for several days on the West Coast of Africa causes an almost complete cessation of strays immediately it starts and allows of their resumption immediately if stops. On the other hand, the monsoon period on the same coast is one marked by great X storms. Correlation of Records at Distant Stations. The daily records of strays received at the above-mentioned stations in Malta and Sierra Leone have been examined carefully for the period August 1914 to May 1915 inclusive. This period has been treated in four sections of two and a half months each. It will be sufficient to give the following figures, which refer to the night hours 10 P.M. to 9 a.m., Greenwich mean time :— M. indicates Malta, S. L. indicates Sierra Leone. | Mean M. . ; : 14:13 14:24 12°85 13°70 Probable error . ; +64 +°67 +57 +:°53 Mean S. L. . ° 28°68 19-90 | 14°87 26°31 Probable error . .| +:'69 +78 | +°68 +-68 Standard Deviation, M. . 8:34 8660 7:28 6°78 es Bs 8. L. 894 | 10°17 | Hritivaae | 8-79 Correlation Coefficient . O18 | 036 0-14 — 0°25 Probable error . oe | +:075 | +:°067 +:075 +:073 Graphic Records. Many observers have made for the Committee precise observations of individual strays by making, on lines graduated to represent time, marks corresponding to each stray as heard in the telephones, the zero of time being fixed by aid of radiotelegraphic time signals within range of the observer. Comparison of the records made in the British Isles has shown that on an average night many of the strong strays are heard by all the observers, and on days free from X storms the same remark applies. Coincidences have also been noticed between pairs of American stations not too widely separated. The analysis for very distant stations has not yet been carried out except for a very few in Europe. For example, in the month of June 1914, coincidences have been traced in the strays heard at Southampton and Dresden, Gibraltar and Dresden, 44. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Guildford and Malta. A proper investigation of the meteorological conditions accompanying or determining the periods when strays are heard simultaneously at places very wide apart has not yet been made. Auroral Displays and Strays. By the kindness of General Geo. P. Scriven, Chief Signal Officer of the United States Army, the Committee have been able to obtain reports from Officers in the Wireless Telegraph stations of Alaska concerning the presence or absence of any connection between auroral displays and disturbances due to natural electric waves or atmospheric discharges. At six stations special observations have been made during the later months of the past winter. Various types of aurora were watched, but nearly all the observers reported that the appearance or disappearance of auroree caused no unusual disturbances. The best months for such observations in Alaska would, it is stated, be October and November. The systematic work had not then been started, but one telegraphist reports that during this period of more brilliant display the only thing noticed in the radiotelegraphic apparatus was a trifle more electrical disturbance than occurred when there was no aurora. The 27-day Period of Magnetic Variations. Such of the radiotelegraphic records as were suitable for the purpose have been analysed with a view to detecting a 27-day period in the cases: days with many strays, nights with many strays, nights with few strays. No trace of this period or of any nearly equal period has as yet been found, but the matter cannot be regarded as settled till more numerous and more continuous records are available. The Committee desire to express their cordial thanks for the help extended to them by the Government Departments, companies, and private individuals named below. The list refers to those whose co- operation has been of importance in the matters described in the preced- ing pages, and does not include the names of those who have helped in other investigations. The assistance of the latter will be duly acknow- ledged in future Reports. ; The British Admiralty and Post Office; the Colonial Office; the Governments of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand ; the War Depart- ment and the Navy Department of the United States of America; and the Telegraph Department of the Dutch East Indies; the Marconi Companies in England, Canada, and the United States and the Marconi International Marine Communication Company ; the Eastern Telegraph, Hastern Extension, and African Direct Telegraph Companies ; H. Bark- hausen, W. G. Cady, EB. T. Cottingham, D. O. Davies, E. H. Dixon, H. D. Evens, J. P. Fennelly, A. Gorham, F. Kilbitz, J. R. Lamming, L. H. Lomas, F. A. Love, E. R. Macpherson, T. J. Matthews, W. E. Nicoll, F. E. Norris, R. Ricci, D. Rintoul, C. Ross, A. Hoyt Taylor. ON ESTABLISHING A SOLAR OBSERVATORY IN AUSTRALIA. 45 Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chair- man), Professor W. G. DUFFIELD (Secretary), Rev. A. L. Cortisz, Sir F. W. Dyson, and Professors A. 5. EDDINGTON, H. F. Newatu, J. W. Nicuouson, and A. SCHUSTER. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tue visit of the British Association to Australia was made the occasion for further representations to the Commonwealth Government of the urgency of Australia’s co-operation in the work of solar observation. The previous report of the Committee contained the official announce- ment from the Commonwealth Government that in the scheme for the organisation of services in connection with the Seat of Government at Canberra provision had been made for the study of Solar Physics. The Prime Minister received a deputation of members of the Committee upon matters relating to the institution of this work in the Common- wealth. Professor Orme Masson, in introducing the deputation, referred to the world-wide interest taken in the movement to establish a Solar Observatory in Australia, and to the fact that so many British astronomers had joined the party to Australia in spite of the counter- attractions of a total solar eclipse in another part of the world. ~The Astronomer Rovat said that he had, with others, urged upon Mr. Batchelor the importance of sun work in Australia where suitable facilities existed for its study apart from other astronomical questions. Australia was most favourably situated geographically ; he hoped that the visiting astronomers would be able to leave Australia with the assurance that, as soon as the war was over, the Observatory would be a going concern. Professor TurNER stated that one of the prime factors in determining his acceptance of the Commonwealth’s invitation to visit Australia was the prospect of assisting in founding a Solar Observatory in that country; he stated that, though a promise of an observing station in New Zealand had been made, solar radiation could not be undertaken there, and, further, there was urgent need for solar physics investiga- tions to be made further north. They had been regarding the sun too long as a permanent source of light and heat; all the tendencies of modern science went to show the opposite—that it presented variations, an inquiry into which might be of immense value to agriculture. Dis- cussions with his astronomical colleagues had been embarrassed by the war, which had made it seem doubtful whether it was the right moment to ask anybody for anything at all; but while it was obvious that immediate action might be impossible, it seemed undesirable to lose the opportunity of putting on record the views of visiting astronomers and their enthusiasm for this great project. He hoped that the present observatories in Australia would not be disturbed. 46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Professor Appor said that prior to ten years ago no knowledge existed of the energy of the sun, or of the intensity of its radiation. Its variation ranged to as high as 5 and 10 per cent. Solar observa- tories had been established in California and Algeria, and they should be multiplied in different parts of the globe. In Australia there was a clear, unvarying transparency in the air which was particularly adapt- able. It was hoped that the work would be extended to South America, Africa, and India. The approximate cost of installing radiation appara- tus at the Australian station was 2,000]., and the maintenance about 1,300/. a year. Sir OttverR LopceE urged that if the work was to be attacked in Australia it should be done thoroughly, and emphasised the desirability of associating laboratory work with that of solar observation. The British Association for the Advancement of Science had for many years strongly supported the institution of solar research in Australia, and it was a matter of great satisfaction that there was now a prospect of the fulfilment of the international scheme. Professor DurriELD outlined the support already accorded by the Commonwealth towards the scheme for the institution of solar work in Australia, referring in particular to the support given by Mr. Mahon and Mr. Deakin, the latter of whom in 1909 offered 1,5007. per annum towards this institution if the equipment were forthcoming from other sources. The Commonwealth had subsequently accepted the telescope offered by Mr. Oddie, of Ballarat, and the Farnham telescope. The former had been installed at Canberra and the latter had now been brought to Australia, and, on receiving the assurance that the Govern- ment intended to proceed with the project at an early date, the instru- ment would be handed over to the Commonwealth. A sum of money amounting to upwards of 1,5001. had been sub- scribed towards the purchase of other apparatus for the Solar Observa- tory ; this had been offered to the Commonwealth, but for some reason had not been accepted. Should there be any disposition on the part of the Commonwealth to undertake to make use of this apparatus, the offer of it would be repeated. He did not believe that the institution of a Solar Observatory in New Zealand should deter the Commonwealth Government from undertaking this work, since both institutions were required. The Hon. Aurrep Deakin (late Prime Minister of Australia) stated that he was in sympathy with the objects of the deputation. When the matter was brought before him on a previous occasion he had supported it, as other speakers had stated. He was not sure what the Prime Minister would feel should be done in view of the situation created by the war, but trusted that all that was possible would be done to further this scheme. Mr. Josepu Cook (the Prime Minister), in reply, said that he would like to accede to the wishes of the deputation at once; it appeared to him that the matter was one deserving of attention, and if times were normal he would not hesitate to have a sum placed upon the Estimates for the establishment and upkeep of such an institution. It had been part of the policy of the Government to consider whether they could do ON ESTABLISHING A SOLAR OBSERVATORY IN- AUSTRALIA. AT away with the State observatories and combine them all in one central observatory for Australia; he would like to hear the reasons why that should not be done. Present war obligations precluded voting large amounts; he would see, however, how far the matter could be carried, and would promise that one of the last things to be set aside on the score of economy would be the suggestion made by the deputation. In addition to the speakers, Professors E. W. Brown, A. 8. Edding- ton, and J. W. Nicholson supported the deputation, and Mr. Baracchi, Government Astronomer for Victoria, wrote a letter strongly emphasis- ing the need for solar research in the Commonwealth, and expressing the opinion from personal observation that Canberra would prove a suitable site. The Secretary of the Committee was subsequently invited to discuss the matter with the Prime Minister, with the result that estimates were drawn up for making a beginning of the institution. These and the offer of apparatus mentioned at the deputation were the subject of discussion at a Cabinet meeting, the outcome of which was the following letter :— COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. Prime Minister. Melbourne, Aug. 20, 1914. Dear Sir,—With reference to our interview relative to the question of establishing a Solar Observatory and to the offer made by you to hand over immediately to the Commonwealth one Farnham 6-inch tele- scope—the Commonwealth paying freight and packing charges—also later on to present to the Commonwealth one spectroheliograph and one pyrheliometer, both of which have yet to be purchased with funds collected and in your charge, I desire to inform you that the Common- wealth Government has much pleasure in accepting the instruments so kindly offered, and appreciates the public spirit of the donors. No guarantee, however, can be given when a Solar Observatory will be established beyond saying that when times are more favourable the instruments will be erected in an appropriate building and observations conducted. Meanwhile the instruments will be carefully housed and looked after. Yours faithfully, (Signed) JosmpH Cook. Professor W. G. Duffield, D.Sc., Sydney. Upon receipt of this letter Professor Duffield handed over to the Commonwealth the Farnham telescope, which had been offered in 1908 by the late Mr. W. E. Wilson on behalf of the trustees of the late Lord ‘Farnham. The telescope has been temporarily housed at the Melbourne Observatory by the Commonwealth authorities. Subsequent to Mr. Cook’s relinquishing office the present Govern- ment, under Mr. Fisher, has taken over the obligations entered into by Mr. Cook and Mr. Deakin, and has defrayed the cost of freight, package, _ and repair of the Farnham telescope, and also has made provision for an Evershed spectroscopic attachment, amounting in all to 1001. Other activities by members of the Committee were displayed by a 48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, a discussion following upon the reading of the last Report of the Com- mittee in Melbourne, which was reported in the Australian papers; and by a vigorous reply to a newspaper criticism by the Chairman. The Gommittee also wishes to draw attention to the valuable report upon the site of the Observatory at Canberra written by Mr. Baracchi, of which a brief account was read to the Association in Melbourne. Though the war will necessarily delay the institution of the Solar Observatory at Canberra, the Committee trusts that its efforts have met with a measure of success. Determination of Gravity at Sea.—Interim Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor A. EK. H. Love (Chairman), Professor W. G. Durrirenp (Secretary), Mr. T. W. Cuaunpy, Sir F. W. Dyson, Professor A. 5. EDDINGTON, and Professor H. H. Turner. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Iv was decided by the Committee of Section A that advantage should if possible be taken of the voyage to Australia for the 1914 Meeting of the British Association to undertake a series of observations upon the determination of the value of gravity over the ocean. The main object of the research was to test the compensation theory, or theory of the isostatic layer, in regard to the distribution of matter in the superficial portions of the earth. The Secretary to the Committee undertook to make an attempt to solve the problem, and upon the advice of the Chairman wrote to Professor Hecker, who had previously undertaken some important researches in this respect. Professor Hecker advised that six months’ preparation would be insufficient to enable an experimenter to accumulate the apparatus and become aw fait with the technique of the method which he had em- ployed in 1901 and 1904—.e., the comparison of a mercurial barometer with a boiling-point apparatus for determining the atmospheric pres- sure. But after consultation with Professor Helmert he invited the Secretary to test a new piece of apparatus which he had had constructed for the determination of gravity at sea, and which he had not previously had the opportunity of testing. This depends upon balancing a column of mercury against air enclosed in a vessel and maintained at a con- stant temperature. The Secretary regretfully accepted Professor Hecker’s dictum concerning the undesirability of attempting to repeat the experiments by the boiling-point method, but gratefully accepted his offer of the opportunity to test the new piece of apparatus. A feature of the new method being the constancy of the temperature of the air reservoir, it was necessary to carry out the experiments in the refrigera- tor of a vessel. The Secretary was fortunate in obtaining the permis- sion of Messrs. Alfred Holt & Co., of the Holt Line of steamships, to make use of the refrigerator on board the Steamship Ascanius, which was sailing from Liverpool on June 22, 1914. By invitation, he in-— spected the refrigerating chambers on a sister ship, as the Ascanius ON DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 49 was then in foreign parts, and Messrs. Holt, who accompanied him, offered very kindly to install a special chamber upon the Ascanius um- mediately upon her return to home waters, ior the purpose of these experiments. ‘This generous offer was accepted and a chamber built which was capable of separate temperature regulation and fitted with certain necessary conveniences for the research. [t 1s not proposed, in the Interim Report, to describe this laboratory—that is reserved for the main Report, which, it is hoped, will be completed shortly. In order to gain a first-hand knowledge of the method of using Hecker’s apparatus, it was decided that the Secretary should visit Professor Hecker’s laboratory in Strassburg as soon as the necessary calibration of thermometers and general overhauling of the apparatus had been accomplished. Unfortunately this took longer than was expected, as four new thermometers had to be made, and Professor Hecker was not able to wire that all was ready until three weeks before the date of sailing. After five days with Professor Hecker the Secretary returned to England, bringing with him the barometers and ther- mometers and leaving five cases to be despatched direct to the Ascantus. The glass parts were safely conveyed by hand to Reading, and subse- quently to the ship in Liverpool. It was extremely unfortunate for the success of the experiment that there was no time for assembling and testing the apparatus before the ship sailed. Although Messrs. Holt placed their joiner and two carpenters at the continuous disposal of the experimenter for three days before the ship sailed, and though Dr. Sadler had come from Reading to assist in this work, it was not found possible to get the apparatus installed and the final adjustments made before the ship sailed. At first the variations in the temperature of the special chamber afforded some trouble, but, thanks to the kind collabora- tion of Captain Chrimes and the chief engineer, Mr. Douglas, it was arranged with the refrigerating engineer, Mr. Latham, that the tempera- ture of the chamber should be adjusted at intervals of about twenty minutes during the day-time and one-hour intervals during the night. The results of this frequent adjustment will be shown in the final Report. Tt does credit to Mr. Latham’s devoted attention. The Committee — records its appreciation of their services to the captain and engineers of the Ascanius and to Messrs. Alfred Holt for having placed all their ‘resources at the disposal of the experimenter. Unfortunately, Hecker’s apparatus did not prove satisfactory, because it was discovered late in the voyage that all four barometers had developed leaks. [t was hoped at the time that these leaks had only developed during the rough weather which preceded their discovery, but subsequent careful ex- amination of the results has shown, unfortunately without any possible doubt, that the barometers were never air-tight. This is perhaps not _ very surprising considering that each barometer includes six metal to metal joints, three glass to metal joints, and one glass tap, and that the strains at sea are very considerable. After a consultation with some of the members of the British Association on the Ascanius, it was decided that the only hope of making successful use of Hecker’s apparatus was to coat each barometer with a heavy layer of wax. During the comparatively calm weather which preceded the ship‘s 1915. E 50 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, arrival at Fremantle two of the barometers were opened and closed again, and sealed with all the wax which could be found on the ship. The remaining two were similarly treated at Fremantle with paraffin wax purchased at that port. Disappointed at the nugatory results of these experiments, the Secretary, who had previously made arrangements to return via Suez, now decided to abandon that route and to repeat the experiments on the homeward voyage round the Cape of Good Hope on board the Ascanius, as the captain and engineers ex- pressed their willingness to assist. Unfortunately these arrangements had also to be abandoned, because, with the arrival at Adelaide, came the news of the outbreak of war, and the ship was eventually requisitioned by the Government It was not possible to obtain permission to return with the troops and to make use of the refrigerator, so it became necessary to find some other means of returning with the apparatus. Up to the time of the British Association meeting in Melbourne the work had been done by Dr. Duffield upon his own responsibility, but, at that meeting, the Committee was formed of which this is the Interim Report. The Committee expressed its hope that if possible the experiments should be carried out on the return journey, so after numerous inquiries and interviews with shipping authorities the Secretary was given permission to install his apparatus in the refrigerator of the R.M.S. Morea. The Committee is indebted to the Superintendent of the P. and O. Company in Sydney for en- couraging this research, and to the purser of the Morea (Mr. Owen Jones), but it was the goodwill and the assistance which the ship’s butcher and his mate gave on the voyage which rendered it possible under very adverse conditions to take advantage of the permission which had been given and to make an attempt to carry out this research upon the homeward voyage. In the first place it was necessary to construct a laboratory in the depths of the ship’s refrigerator (which was approached by three nearly vertical ladders). This was accomplished by the ship’s carpenters through the courtesy of the Chief Officer ; the wiring for the electric fan and lights was carried out by the Electrical Engineers of the ship. The next care was the packing up and removal of the apparatus from the refrigerator of the Ascanius and its conveyance to the Morea. The breakables were carried by hand and the heavier parts by carrier. The whole operation lasted one week, and the transference was successfully accomplished. The barometers were unsealed, opened, closed, and re- sealed and heavily coated with wax in Sydney harbour. During the homeward voyage, as during the outward one, observations were made on an average three times a day, and the films were developed on the voyage. Unfortunately, the same facilities for controlling the tem- perature were not available on the Morea, and on some occasions the fluctuations were very remarkable. Another disadvantage, as far as this experiment was concerned, was the vibration, which threw the surface of the mercury into a constant state of agitation and which could not effectively be damped; nevertheless, observations usually of an hour’s duration were carried out three times a day during the whole voyage. It was regarded as unfortunate that the experiments could not ON DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 51 is one of the many researches which have suffered on account of the favourable conditions as attended their conduct on the Ascanius. This is one of the many researches which have suffered on account of the war. In addition to the main line of attack it was considered of interest to repeat a method which had been used in 1866, when the readings of mer- curial and aneroid barometers were compared. Mr. Whipple, of the Meteorological Office, has described the aneroid which the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Co. kindly lent the experimenter for this occasion (vide ‘ Journal Royal Meteorological Society ’) and the Meteorological Office kindly lent a dial mercurial instrument. A criticism of this method will appear in the main Report. Messrs. Cossor constructed to the design of the Secretary a third piece of apparatus in which, as in Hecker’s method, a column of mercury was balanced by the pressure of air in a reservoir, but it was arranged that the volume of air could be kept constant by introducing into or removing from the vertical column a quantity of mercury whose volume could be measured. In spite of the efforts of the Secretary and of Dr. Sadler, whose assistance in installing the apparatus in the refrigerator laboratory is very gratefully recorded, it was not found possible to get this last piece of apparatus into working order before the ship sailed; during the voyage this was accomplished, but the working loose of a glass tap, though bound with an india-rubber band, let air into it, causing the glass to break. Experimenters with glass apparatus may be warned that on board ship the constant vibra- tion imposes conditions foreign to those pertaining to their laboratories ashore. Through the courtesy of Professor Kerr Grant, of the Adelaide University, the workshop of the Physical Laboratory of that institution was placed at the disposal of the Secretary for the repair of the apparatus, but in spite of the efforts of Mr. Rogers, the head of the workshop department, whose skill as a glassblower enabled him to reconstruct the apparatus, it was not found possible to get it adjusted before the time came to re-embark upon the homeward voyage. In conclusion, it is to be feared that results capable of determining the fluctuations of gravity over a large surface of the globe have not been obtained. The most that can be hoped for is that local variations, such as obtain when one passes from deep water into a shallow harbour, may have been at favourable times determined. It cannot, however, be doubted that the experience gained of the different kinds of apparatus, and of the various errors to which they are liable, will be of service in some attack upon the problem which it is hoped that the Committee will undertake in the near future. RE 2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. cr bo Seismological Investigations.—Twentieth Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman), Professor J. Prrry (Secretary), Mr. C. VERNON Boys, Mr. Horace Darwin, Mr. C. Davison, Sir F. W. Dyson, Dr. R. T. GuazeBRook, Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor J. W. Jupp, Professor C. G. Knott, Sir J. Larmor, Professor R. Metpoua, Mr. W. E. PuumMMeEr, Professor R. A. SAMPSON, Professor A. ScuustTER, Mr. J. J. SHAW, Sir NAPIER SHAw, and Dr. G. W. WALKER. [Puates I., I1., T1., IV.] CONTENTS. I. General Notes, Accounts OE peel ust, ee Oh) eee ee a ee II. Stations (Destruction of Instruments at Cocos) . 2 . < - : . 54 Ill. Seismic Activity in 1911, 1912, 1913. (Discussion deferred) . Pie Pee) IV. Distribution of Milne’s Epicentres, 1899-1910. . . 2) Get egies ebb: V. Improvements of the Milne Seismograph . . . . ‘ing Sop) YoiigemeIeRD D Vi. The Milne-Shaw:-Seismograph ~~ +. =~ oy ts nt en ee VIL. The Milne-Burgess Seismograph oP ee ge a Ee eS VIII. Diurnal Wanderings of the Traces. ; ‘ P ; : : é . 58 IX. Insect Disturbances of Seismographs . ‘ tere Pye tets Jake 66 X. The Identification of 8: Suggestion of a New Phenomenon Y . . . 67 XI. Correction of Tables deferred F : ee eS Pama seemie soet na( 3 XII. Shide Bulletins . sites: 3 : ; : . ; F 5 : . 74 XIII. New Method of Computation KS Baste See iE te oe 6 ; ar Le ee XIV. Standardizing a Milne-Shaw Seismograph : : é ; . : . 74 I. General Notes, Stations, and Registers. THE Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of 60l. in addition to the annual grant of 100]. from the Caird Fund already voted. The two years which have elapsed since the death of John Milne provide a sufficient experience for an approximate budget for carrying on the work he had organised, with such natural developments as are mentioned helow and had already been initiated by him. The accounts for one year stand thus: Receipts. Expenditure. (1) Brit. Assoc. Annual Grant . £60 | (A) Salaries Sigs, | oe EEO aD (2) » Printing eee Oo 4B) SPrinting take eee oh meee BO (S)eGray Nandi Se ae 2.26404) (GC) Rent: °5.0. + aha e: a 20 (4) Royal Society . ¢ ‘ . 200 | (D) Shide Statio - : é epeacnlGD: (5) Brit. Assoc. (Caird Fund) - 100 | (E) New machines, &c. . . . 65 Dotaliony sea ee tae 70: 4 £470 On the receipts side the items are arranged in historical order. Item (1) dates practically from the appointment of the present Committee (as the fusion of two former Committees of the Association) in 1895 (Ipswich). The first grant to the Committee was 801. Subsequent grants have fluctuated in amount, but the average annual grant in the twenty years 1895-1914 is almost exactly 60/., which has been the uniform grant since 1908. When observing stations had been established over the globe ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. ne and it was desirable to print the information received from them in circulars for prompt distribution, the Association sanctioned additional expenditure on the printing of these circulars, which has in recent years been separately mentioned and has stood at the figure quoted—7Ol. This does not quite cover the cost of the modern bulletins. Item No. (3) is the annual income from a sum of 1,0001. in Canadian Pacific 4° Stock, presented by Mr. M. H. Gray in aid of Milne’s work. Since some years before Milne’s death, the Royal Society have pro- vided, either from the Government Grant Fund or in some other way, an annual sum of 200/. in aid of the work. They have continued this grant during the past two years, but are in no way committed to its future continuance. On Milne’s death the Council of the British Associa- tion decided to make an additional grant of 100/. annually from the Caird benefaction. It will be seen that the available income is not only small but some- what precarious. It is quite insufficient to pay the salary of a competent Director, which would in itself amount to more than the whole sum available. Moreover, items (1), (2), and (4) depend on decisions made from year to year by bodies which are not committed for their future continuance. Assuming that continuance for the present, the work can be carried on as described below with voluntary superintendence. For completeness it should perhaps be mentioned that a sum of 1,0002. will ultimately be available for seismological work in accordance with Milne’s bequest. On the expenditure side item (A) chiefly represents the salaries of three people who carry on the work at Shide, viz., Mr. J. H. Burgess (1267. a year), who was already working under Milne’s direction. He has a printing business in Newport which claims a portion of his time ; the rest he has given enthusiastically to seismology. It is practically owing to him that the continuity of the work remained unbroken by Milne’s death. Mr. 8. W. Pring (601. a year) is also in business, but spends his evenings at the Observatory. His interest in the work began through his knowledge of Russian and other languages, which made his help valuable in translating seismological documents, especially the important pamphlets in Russian; but he has gradually made himself acquainted with the whole of the work, so that he can take charge of it on occasions when Mr. Burgess is unavoidably absent. His daughter, Miss K. Pring (361. a year), gives practically all her time to the work during the day ; she is chiefly occupied with the large amount of clerical work involved in copying the records received on to the cards, arranging the cards for the bulletins, proof reading, &e. This leaves 18. out of the 240. entered, chiefly travelling expenses of the present Director, who visits Shide five or six times a year; the remainder being paid to a charwoman for cleaning, &c. Item (B). The ‘Shide Circulars,’ which simply reproduced the in- formation received from each station, have been replaced by Bulletins which analyse the results. Expense has been minimised by printing only the results for considerable earthquakes, but even then it is difficult to avoid exceeding slightly the grant definitely available for printing. Item (C). The rent for the Observatory was fixed by Mrs. Milne’s trustees, after consideration of the legal aspect of the question. The 54 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Observatory is annexed to the house in which Mrs. Milne continues to reside, and the Committee has to acknowledge gratefully her kind occa- sional attention to Observatory matters. The assistants who work in the Observatory all live at a distance, and arrangements are sometimes much facilitated by the help of some one residing on the spot. Items (D) and (E) are not readily separable because during the past two years part of the work at Shide has been to experiment with new instruments, as described below. Looking backward, item (H) covers expenditure on three or four new machines ; the first, constructed by Mr. Shaw at Milne’s request and delivered soon after his death, was satisfactorily ‘damped’ but had not sufficient magnification. To get more magnification, Mr. Shaw preferred to make a new machine rather than alter the former. Meanwhile, Mr. Burgess, with the kind help of Mr. A. E. Conrady, devised another type with optical magnification (instead of mechanical as in Mr. Shaw’s), which is being tried side by side with the former. Finally, a Milne-Shaw machine has been made for trial at Eskdalemuir alongside the Galitzin and Wiechert machines. Looking forward it is hoped that at least some such sum as item (i) may be available annually for replacing the existing Milne machines, which scarcely meet modern requirements. The conditions under which many of them were established will be found described in the 1898 Report (Bristol), p. 179. The original Shide instruments were provided from the Government grant; later an improved twin-boom Milne was provided by the generosity of Mr. Yarrow; the Victoria (B.C.) instrument from the British Association grant (Toronto, 1897), which also provided half the cost of the Mauritius instrument. Other machines were provided by various Governments, observatories, and individuals, but it seems doubt- ful how far their aid can be again invoked in this way, at any rate until the advantages and working of an improved type of instrument have been demonstrated by a number of good examples. II. Stations.—Destruction of Instruments at Cocos. A letter, dated April 1, 1915, from Mr. Walter Judd, Electrician- in-Chief of the Eastern Extension, Australasia and China Telegraph Com- pany, informed us that: ‘ the Seismograph installed at our Cocos Station was destroyed by the landing party from the Emden last November.’ On April 12 a further letter from the General Manager communicated the following telegram from the Company’s Manager at Singapore : ‘ Meteorological insts. destroyed by Emden, Singapore advised 27 March, Straits Government intend replace.’ Probably the replacement must wait for more peaceful times. The Cocos installation dates from 1909, and is due to the generosity of the Company. New Station at Newport (I. Wiyht)—In recent bulletins it will be noticed that besides the Shide Station, one at Newport is quoted. This is the station of Mr. W. H. Bullock, a builder in Newport, who did much work for Milne, became keenly interested in Seismology on his own account, and has devised an instrument of his own, with Milne suspension, smoked paper drum and high magnification. It shows the beginnings of the various phases very beautifully. At present there is no damping beyond the friction of the point on the smoked paper, which is effective for small movements, but not for large. Mr. Bullock is experimenting with electro- British Association, 85th Report, Manchester, 1915.] [Puate I. Harthquakes recorded by Milne, 1899-1910. Small Islands, which might be mistaken for dots, have been omitted. Illustrating Report on Seismological Investigations. [Zo face page 55. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 55 magnetic damping, and if he is successful it is proposed to order an instrument from him for use at Shide. Jt will be especially useful (1) in showing when there has or has not been an earthquake, for guidance in changing the paper of the photographic machines, and (2) for showing to the numerous visitors to Shide the working of a seismograph without disturbance of the photographic machines. In both respects it will replace the large ‘lamp-post* machine formerly set up by Milne, but discontinued as too cumbersome. Time Signal at Shide.—On the outbreak of war, the wireless apparatus used for receiving the time signal from the Eiffel Tower was dismounted in accordance with instructions from the Post Office, and for some months it was difficult to obtain correct time. In December 1914 a small transit instrument, lent by the Royal Astronomical Society, was set up on a disused seismograph pillar near tbe south window and adjusted as well as possible with a view restricted to altitudes less than 45°. With the kind help of a few telephone exchanges from the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, this sufficed to give clock errors until May'1915, when the Post Office permitted the re-erection of the wireless apparatus. From May 20 this has accordingly been in use again, and has confirmed the accuracy of the transit determinations. On July 23 a storm blew down the aerial, but it was re-erected next day. While the apparatus was dismounted and clock error being found by the small transit, Mr. J. J. Shaw visited Shide for regulation of his seismograph, and incidentally compared the Shide clock with his watch, of which he knew the error and rate. To his surprise a large discrepancy developed between the two, and it became clear that the watch was at fault. The cause was traced to the suspension of the watch during the night, which allowed of its vibrating as a pendulum. Attention was drawn to this matter by Lord Kelvin many years ago, but the magnitude of the possible error has scarcely been realised sufficiently. Mr. Shaw recalled attention to the matter, which is of considerable practical im- portance, in a short paper to the Royal Astronomical Society (‘ Mon. Not.’ Ixxv., p. 583). III. Seismic Activity in 1911, 1912, and 1913. Milne carried the list of origins to the end of 1910. From the be- ginning of 1914 the origins of the larger earthquakes have been specified in the monthly bulletins, at first adopted from the Pulkovo determina- tions, and later, when it became clear that these could often be profitably corrected,° adopted from special determinations made at Shide. The corrections are partly due to errors of the tables, estimated approximately at the end of the last Report, but still underrevision. Itseemed desirable to await these corrections to the tables before undertaking the com- putation of origins for 1911-13; but these will shortly be commenced. IV. Distribution of Milne’s Epicentres, 1899-1910. In the last Report a map of the world was given on an octahedral projection, the precise selection of which had been suggested by the study of the epicentres tabulated by Milne for the years 1899-1910. The work of plotting the individual epicentres on this map had not then been completed. When complete (as shown in the acompanying illustra- tion) it showed that the root-idea of the map did not fit the facts in its 56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. original form. The edges of the eight triangles form three great circles at right angles, and it was expected that the epicentres would cluster about these edges. But only one of these great circles, GKECA, fulfils this expectation. Of a second, LKFCD, it was already remarked in the last Report that it was not at present a conspicuous line of earthquake activity, but that the geographical features characterising it (the Red Sea, Italy, the Alps, the American Lakes, California) suggested such activity in the past. The principal change required by the hypothesis as stated in the last Report concerns the third great circle, which is formed by EF and the boundaries of the map. For this we must clearly substitute a great circle LFW, with ZD, which falls midway between the two now discarded. This makes the general hypothesis really simpler than before, substituting two circles, still at right angles, for the three formerly suggested, and retaining many of the important features of symmetry. The two circles retained have been indicated by a triplet of lines. (A thick line would have obscured some of the epicentre dots.) The third circle cutting both these at right angles would be along DF, then F to the South Pole, and South Pole to L. There is something to be said for including this in the system, but it does not account for much that is not already accounted for by the other two, so that for the present we may omit it. We could, of course, suit the great majority of epicentres better by drawing, instead of FL, some line nearer to E; and, instead of FW, some line nearer to ©. This means leaving the great circle and sub- stituting some small circle. ‘ Libbey’s Circle,’ which was drawn by Milne on the earthquake maps in the Reports for 1903-1909, is approxi- mately a small circle parallel to WFL, at about 20° from it, and would suit the facts very well. But the elementary simplicity of the hypo- thesis is then lost, and it seems preferable to retain the simple form above indicated for comparison with future facts; and perhaps even with a revised version of the facts already used, for the determinations repre- sented on the diagram are of different values—in some cases well estab- lished, in others very uncertain. V. Improvements of the Milne Seismograph. Section IV. of the last Report is devoted to a discussion of the times recorded by different seismographs for the beginning of P and 8. It is shown that while the probable error of the Milne instrument is dis- tinctly greater than that of modern instruments, the favourable geo- graphical distribution of these pioneer seismographs renders them still capable of giving valuable information. At the same time it is clear that the time has arrived when it is desirable to give the Milne seismo- graphs (a) a higher magnification ; (b) some form of damping. The former consideration is put first because seismology is at present very definitely concerned with the determination of the times of arrival of P and 8S. Not only do the tables for these times of arrival require corrections, but it seems probable that the phenomena themselves are not always rightly identified. 1t was pointed out that at distances from Prate II i9ts Juer 31 SHIDE, Ew MILNE-BURGESS| rang jo =i ISR ai ee lta Waves, oR MAX {j “ r {i CS a ener FAIS Th MAN anh Whoa: TNL ' u Wilh AAU } ’ HN Aad ay NNn Nv Meahh WOW VEN WW YE YY VV VE MV YS SMV YY Nehari win enema vnree An e er ee emne . RA VARA mr ee A SS Sta La oosoaitrilauay lip purisaloy Manel geal an)us09) Senn Vly fait) mney iat eoba ot ave ovemeaT ni fasts Mocord reprodticed fall sae Illustrating Roport on Seismological Investigation > weet ¥ ee ee eee ne ee sn a ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 57 the origin exceeding 90°, PR is often reckoned as P; and it seems at least possible (see Section X.) that some hitherto unrecognised phenomenon is sometimes mistaken for S. This was foreshadowed in the last Report from the fact that, though the magnitude of S$ is usually much greater than that of P, so that its identification might be presumed to be much easier on the whole, nevertheless the probable error of the observed time of arrival of S is considerably greater than that of P. If some other phenomenon is liable to be mistaken for 8, this larger probable error is easily explained. Briefly, the proper interpretation of the seismograph trace is essentially dependent on a proper identification of the times of arrival of P and 8; so that for the present attention may be profitably concentrated on this problem. It is important to increase the magnifica- tion considerably, because the waves of P are particularly small and difficult to pick up ; further, it becomes necessary to provide such magnifi- cation that these small movements shall not be blotted out when damped. The importance of damping is second only to magnification, for probably much of the uncertainty in reading § is due to the inability of free pen- dulums to record the change in character of the ground movement in this hase. ij As remarked above, two new forms of the Milne pendulum have been constructed for trial by Mr. J. J. Shaw and Mr. J. H. Burgess, and brief notes on the details are given in the next two sections. VI. The Milne-Shaw Seismograph. (Note by Mr. J. J. Saw.) This is a new type of seismograph with high magnification, combined with absolute damping. The magnification is approximately forty times greater than the standard Milne. It is an established fact that only fully damped machines give any approximation to a true record of the ground movement; moreover, with damping, the various phases, P, Pr, 8, Sr, and Max, are much more readily determined ; this will be realised by comparing the undamped mo with those of the Milne-Shaw for Nov. 24, 1914, illustrated on ate II. The Milne-Shaw gives a record strictly comparable with that of a Galitzin,* but with this distinction, that the latter depends upon and gives a measure of the velocity, whereas the former gives a direct measure of the amplitude of the ground movement, and does not involve the use of a galvanometer. The general principle of tae apparatus is to multiply the movements of a short damped boom by reflecting a beam of light by means of a pivoted lens of half a metre focal length. The boom (16 inches long) carries a mass of 1 lb., together with a damping vane which moves in a strong magnetic field, and brings the boom to rest after each excursion. __ The outer end of boom is coupled to an iridium pivoted mirror, which it rotates in an agate setting; by this means 300 multiplications of the ground movements are obtained. The definition in the trace is a special feature in this machine, The source of light illuminates a vertical cylindrical lens, and the image created is reflected and refocussed by the pivoted reflecting lens on to a second cylindrical lens placed hori- * Compare illustrations Plate II, and page 70. 58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—19]5. zontally, which again refocusses the light into a small intense point. This point falls midway upon a slit 003 in. wide and only the middle portion is permitted to pass to the film, which is in immediate contact with this slit. Perfect definition is produced in this way, with the result that waves of not more than two or three seconds period are shown quite distinctly on paper moving only 8 mm. per minute, thereby securing both high efficiency and economy. Special calibrating and adjusting devices were necessary with such high magnification. This has received special attention, and tilts of 1/100 of a second of are can be applied and registered by a beam of light on a distant calibrating scale. All such operations are performed at a distance from the column, the motion being transmitted by a long flexible cable, ‘so that the movements of the observer shall not enter into the amplitude shown in the trace. VIL. The Milne-Burgess Seismograph. (Note by Mr. J. H. Burcsss.) The Milne-Burgess machine is a modification of the Milne horizontal pendulum, the cluef differences being a magnification of 100, about 75 per cent. of artificial damping, and an increased rate of travel. The registration is photographic. A collimator with a 2 in. objective and 21 in. focus is mounted to produce a real image of an illuminated glass rod 1 mm. thick at a distance of 10 ft. from the object glass. The illuminated line is reflected by means of a piece of sextant mirror attached to the boom just bebind the balanced weights through a hole in the wall on to a recording box in another room. In front of the drum a plano- convex cylindrical lens of 4 in. focus is fixed. Behind this lens is a fine horizontal slit, and in this way the reflected line of light is brought to a focus on the recording drum. The drum has a circumference of 40 in. by 6 in. wide, and travels at the rate of 480 mm. per hour. Accurate time-marks are put on the trace every minute by an electric shutter operated by the Observatory clock. The boom has balanced weights and is artificially damped by means of a copper plate attached to the end of the pendulum which moves between four magnets as shown in the sketch. The induced currents produced when the plate moves retards the motion, and in this way about 75 per cent. of damping is introduced. By the employment of stronger magnets ‘periodicity could be obtained. VILL. Diurnal Wanderings of the Traces. The introduction of a high magnification has brought with it an inconvenience in the unsteadiness of the trace. The trace at Bidston, which with the Milne instrument was a series of smooth lines at equal intervals on the paper, became at once, with the Milne-Shaw, a series of rippling lines crowded in two places and wide in between, the unequal spacing being obviously due to tidal action, and the ripples, the period of which is of the order of 10 sec., being such as appear to disturb all highly magnified traces. At Bidston these ripples appear definitely to be due to wind ; at any rate ona windy day they are largely increased, as will be seen from the portion of the trace for Dec. 4, 1914, given in the illustration, The gusts on this day went up to eighty miles an hour. British Association, 85th Report, Manchester, 1915.] [Prats IIT, Wes aes, na ae ‘i a: sel WV | i ‘ ‘" at! t Fs ‘a ; Ai Ra RAG Ny Va so gl " Aut, Raa } fy us eles io BL Ny fal ‘nisin aie hb i : Mai ii ial} wl Ua vi Ah Mis Aus th tea belo rm ltd i i Wl al iy js on a Witt \, ‘way (ip | wig ' mn thy, Mi wy! fan ity ‘hai, nme Wate ey | fi 1 haath, ra sttaty ! ttl tf Ma Ae staat ‘ ne! Ty y ui Waly, ah ail i Ny WW rn} ia ij iw ur ay j ial nt nt uth He ull! ai! ui fa Ae Ni wer ‘ym i Ha nM 1 le ne ty Va ati Iwi i ut a Aa “ Hy Wet ‘sac nly By hy " ty! Gelli oy iN iat Hatt shiny pans a men i ‘ 4 y. Hn WY Naty rape H ‘val see a‘ Ania igh ull Wy " my AN uaF a ‘i Niet i! nt sna ‘\ ‘vit Fe iw wih oe tit i wit a Ua attyt yt WY Ni a We \ chal We ‘ fyi ‘ar ‘ (te a { Ni i rT q hy wi ali i i Bidston. Portion of Trace of Milne-Shaw HR on a Windy Day, December 4, 1914. Illustrating Report on Seismological Investigations. [To face page 59. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 59 The diurnal wandering at Bidston is small—much less conspicuous than the tidal or semi-diurnal. At Shide, as described more fully below, the semi-diurnal change is scarcely noticeable, while the diurnal is large and is related to temperature. In view of the investigation which follows, inquiry was made of Mr. Plummer as to what the temperature conditions were, He kindly installed a thermograph and sent the trace for two days, July 31 and August 1, 1915, which showed that the diurnal varia- tion was on one day less than 1° F. and on the next about 1°.5, the external range on the first day being 8° and on the second 14°. If this may be interpreted to mean that the whole chamber is well shielded from the effects of external temperature, the absence of a marked diurnal effect is explained. At Shide the Milne-Shaw and Milne-Burgess instruments are side by side on separate piers. Their booms are in opposite directions, and when the lines on one are crowded together those on the other are widely separated. There is no conspicuous tidal or semi-diurnal inequality, but there is a very large diurnal inequality, which, though far from con- stant in its action, usually crowds together the M.-B. trace and expands the M.-S.,so that it is apt to run off the drum and be lost. It will be neces- sary to introduce some modification to meet this disability ; and, in order to investigate its character and possibly to trace its cause, a number of corresponding traces in March 1915 were measured. The quantities tabulated in Table IJ. below are the measures corrected for the known travel of the drum, so as to represent displacements of the trace from its normal position. The reading at 11 a.m. is adopted as the zero, the paper usually being changed at about 10 a.m. The numerical sums of the displacements are given at the feet of the columns, as a very rough indication of the relative sensitiveness of the instruments. The totals are 3,338 for the Milne-Shaw and 1,268 for the Milne-Burgess, which are approximately in the ratio of the magnifica- tions, viz., 300 and 100. But we shall find that this ratio is not repro- duced in the systematic wanderings. TABLE II. Displacements of Trace, in Units of 0:01 in. Mar. 10. Mar. 16. Mar. 17. | Mar. 29. Mar. 30. Heur | yg. M.-B.| M.S. M.-B.| M.S. M.-B.| M.S. M.-B,| M.S. M.-B. ul One Ole .80 @| 0 MY ae ane 0 13 —b4 —4/—2 —16|—-2 —4/—74 +1)-— 55 —2 15 —115 +3)|-—25 —32|-—54 —14| —128 +13 | — 80 — 1 17 —135 +16 | —33 —39| —73 —21 | —125 +22 | —106 + 2 19 | —132 +30| —35 —38|—71 —18! — 96:.+33 | —113 +13 21 —114 +36| —25 —35|—53 —9|— 44 +37 | — 88 +21 23 —100 +43; —19 -—31| —39 —1/+ 14 +88 | — 73 +26 1 |}—92 448|—7 —27|—-29 +1/!+ 69 +483 | — 47 +26 8 |— 80 +55/+11 -—26; — 9 0} +133 +23 | + 3 +18 5 — 79 +60) +29 —32/ 413 — 7] +136 +16) + 50 +7 7 — 538 +70/ +383 —35| +27 —12)/ +103 +15 | + 44 +3 9 | — 53 +79 | +42 —39 | +27 —24 + 56 4+13|/— 38'-—1 gue 1007 444) 261 349] 420 111) 978 244 | 672 120 60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, We may now form the first harmonics for these sets of twelve readings, which are as follows :— Tape III. ae Milne-Shaw. | Milne-Burgess. — Rz/Rsg | Op — 63 | / ics iaey k. h. | Mar. 10} — 44 cos (@ — 20:4) + 30 cos (@— 3°8) +067 | +74 | | Mar. 16, — 34 cos (@ — 189) | - 6 cos (8 — 10:2) +0°18 (+15°3) | | Mar. 17| — 47 cos (9 — 18-9) + 6cos(@— 25) | +013 | (+ 76) | Mar. 29; —131 cos (@ — 16°6) + 17 cos (@ — 22°7) | +0°13 + 61. Mar. 30; — 76 cos (@ — 18°5) | -+ 14 cos (8 — 23-7) +0°18 +52 — | Means | — 66 peters +026 | + 62 The coefficient for the M.-S. machine is given with reversed sign, to make it directly comparable with M.-B. It will be seen that the mag- nitude of the displacement is much less for the M.-B. machine, though the ratios are not very consistent. A slight correction may be required for error in estimating the hourly travel. This error cannot be large, but there may be (a) Error in estimating the pitch of the screw, which gives a spiral character to the trace. Thus for the M.-B. machine the screw was seen to have 17 turns in 4 inches. This estimate could not be so much as half-a-turn in error, and since a day uses 12 turns only, we may put the limit of error as less than 12 in our units of hundredths of an inch. Now if we form the first harmonic for the numbers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ib we find —4 sin 6@—1 cos 6. Applying this correction with the sign appro- priate to making the ratios of M.-S. to M.-B. more accordant, and apply- ing an equal correction to M.-S., guided by the same consideration, we get Taste I[la.—Being a possible correction to TABLE III. Milne-Shaw Milne-Burgess Rs/Rs Oz-Os + 43 cos (0—326°) | —26 cos (8@— 71°) 0:60 | 105° / | + Sl cos (02922) | — 8 cos (@—198°) 0:26 [266] | + 45 cos (@—304°) — 2 cos (@— 18°) 0:04 74 | +127 cos (@—264°) | —17 cos (@—288°) 0-13 24 ++ 73 cos (@—293°) —13 cos (@—356°) 018 63 It will be seen that there is no great improvement in accordance of the ratios, while the phases are conspicuously more discordant. (6) Errors may also arise from the drum not revolving in an exact hour or two hours. These again are not likely to be large, and their general effect would be as for case (a). (c) Or there may be a real travel of the index during the day, owing to gradual change of temperature, for instance. If we treat this as a uniform change, its general form is still the same as case (a). Coming to the phases, we see that there is a difference of about 90°, or 6 hours. The inference appears to be that the effect is not due to tilt of the ground, which should affect both instruments at about the same time, but an effect of temperature which acts promptly on the M.-S. instrument but much more slowly on the M.-B. The fact that ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 61 Mr. Shaw specially designed his instrument (with a thin metal cover, &c.) so that it might take up the temperature quickly supports this view. But the magnitude of the lag in M.-B., viz. 6 hours, is somewhat surprising, and to test its reality the numbers of Table II. were treated in a different way. Subtracting each constituent from that which follows it, we get the movements for each two hours, and can study the corre- spondence. It will be convenient to reverse M.-B. for this purpose. TasiE LV.—T'wo-hourly Movements of the Instruments, Mar.10 | Mar.16 | Mar.17 Mar.29 | Mar.30 Reversed Reversed Reversed Reversed) Reversed M.-S. M.-B. lee M.-B. | M.-S. M.-B. | M.-S. M.-B. | M.S. MB. | heh. —— =A | Sait eat ae 11-13 | —54 + 4 |} — 2 +15 —25 + 4) —74 — 1} —55 + 2 13—15 | —6l1 — 7) —23 +17 —29 +10 | —54 —12 | —25 +4 1 15-17 | —20 —13 —8 +7) —-19 +7) 2 —9 —26 — 3 W199 | +3 —14;—2 —1}+2 — 8) +29 —I1|—7 —11 19—21 | +18 —6 +410 —3 +18 — 9} +52 — 4) +25 — 8 21—23 +14 —7 +6 —4 414 — 8/} +58 —1,+4+15 — 5 23— 1 +8 —5 +12 —4 +10 — 2) +55 + 5 | +26 0 1— 3 +12 —7 +18 —1 +20 +1) +64 +410) +60 + 8 3— 5 +1 —5)/+18 +6 422 +7 +3 +7) +37 +11 5— 7 |'+26 —-10' +4 43/414 +5 —33 +1/)—6 +4) n=19 Oe S19 sO) P12 +2|-47 +4 |p Now, if we try the effect of associating the movement of M.-S., (a) with the contemporary movement of M.-B., (6) with the reading of M.-B. two hours later, (c) with the reading of M.-B. four hours later, and so on, we get, on grouping the results, the means shown in Table V. Taste V.—Lffect of Associating M.-S. with M.-B. of Various Times Later. Corresponding Movement of M.-B. after time h. h. h, h h h M.-S. 0 2 4 6 8 | 10 65—M.S./8 =O |) —3 =a —10 ~9 —5 —§ 251 —24 | +3 | =1 —4 —6 —5 —2 —3 0 Tae ee ee ay ar ah ge 0 42 et +4 | -—8 —8 —5 | 0 0 +4 —1 +12 | —8 —1 — 1 0 +2 +3 | —1 +22 | --3 0 + 3 +4 +5 +2 +1 +54 | +5 4-6 + 5 +5 +3 +2 —2 Inspection of these figures indicates that the best correspondence is somewhere between 4 h. and 6h. later, and nearer 6h. than4h. But it was clearly desirable to have more light on the matter, and, as the next step, a thermograph was installed in the stable which forms the Observatory. It was not a very good thermograph, having been rather roughly treated in some mining experiments ; but it gave a pretty fair indication of the temperature for several weeks. The readings May 4-10 and May 31-June 10 were selected for discussion. The traces were 62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. measured with care and discussed at length, but a brief summary will suffice here : May 4-10. The mean temperature first rose and then fell, But it will be convenient to consider first the mean diurnal inequality which came out in degrees Fahrenheit, h. 1°4 cos (8 — 20°8) § being expressed in hours. The late hour for the maximum, nearly 9 o’clock in the evening, raises hopes that we may be able to separate the effects of internal and external temperature. The first harmonics for the two machines were mm. h. Milne-Shaw 24-2 cos (@ — 18:0) Milne-Burgess 5°6 cos (@ — 2('3) The former measures and coefficients were inadvertently expressed in units of 0:01 in. ; converted into mm., the former mean values are 16°8 and 3:8. These are smaller than the 24:2 and 5-6 now found, but the ratios, 4:4 and 4:3, are very nearly the same. The phases, however, do not differ by nearly so large an amount. M.-B. follows M.-S. by 2°3 h. only instead of by 6 h. as found in Table V. It will be seen, moreover, that while the maximum of M.-B. falls near that of the thermograph, M.-S. precedes the thermograph by a large interval—nearly 3 hours. Now, if the disturbance of the instruments is due to some temperature effect outside the Observatory—tilt in the valley, for instance—the time of maximum would be different from that of the thermograph. For instance, if 1t depended on the Sun’s altitude, the maximum should fall at noon. If the effect is a composite one, the maximum would fall somewhere between noon and 20°8h. (internal maximum), as it does in fact. We have thus a presumption of a com- posite character. The presumption is strengthened by the magnitude of the coefficients ; —1° of temperature corresponds to 4:0 mm. for M.-B. and actually 17-7 mm. for M.-S. It seems unlikely that these movements, especially the latter, can be due directly to the 1° change in internal temperature. It seems much more likely that they are due to the much larger external changes, of which the 1° internal change is only a fraction. Further evidence in this direction is afforded by the changes of the mean from day to day, which can be formed when the diurnal change is eliminated. These were formed for every available day in the two periods May 4-10 and May 31-June 12, and it will suffice to give the mean results : j | Mean | Observed Daily Travel of Calculated ae cae | Change of | | _ Temperature | Milne-Shaw |Milne-Burgess| Milne-Shaw Milne-Burgess E | mm. mm, mm. mm. 4 +41 — 57 +56 | —72°6 +16°4 3 +16 — 65 +3'2 —28°3 + 64 5 0:0 —16°6 +07)" | 0-0 0-0 4 —372 — 71 —86 +56°6 —12°8 ———— << ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 63 Under the heading ‘ Calculated’ are given the daily travels for the temperature change calculated with the coefficients 17°7 mm. and 4:0 mm. for 1° as found above from the diurnal inequalities. The M.-B. machine shows only about half the calculated travel ; the M.-8. machine no sensible travel at all. It should be mentioned that the zero of the latter is adjusted every morning, but this does not affect the above figures, which are deduced (partly by estimation) from the undisturbed daily traces. A test experiment was made on July 29 as follows: At 10 a.m. a stove was lit in the Observatory in order to cause a rapid rise of temperature. At 12.30 p.m. the stove was removed and a large block of ice was introduced in order to cause a sudden fall. "0 NOON 1I3°0 14°0 150 160 17°0 Temperature Experiment at Shide, July 29, 1915. The readings of the thermograph and the corresponding wanderings of the two machines are shown in the diagram. It will be seen :— _(a) That neither machine responds to the rise of temperature in any- thing like the degree suggested by the diurnal coefficients. The total rise of temperature is over 10°, and we should expect deflections of 177 mm. a 40 mm. respectively ; instead of which we get about 19 mm. and mm, 64 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—191). (b) The Milne-Shaw begins to fall about 15 minutes after the thermo- graph, and falls pretty rapidly ; the fall had not stopped when the observations were closured, and it is clear that the coefficient deduced from the fall would be greater than that found from the rise. (c) The disturbance of the Milne-Burgess machine is much more complex. There are waves on the rise, and the main maximum which follows that of temperature by nearly an hour is followed by another 1} hour later, and again another at 43 hours after the temperature maximum. There may be others later still. A reasonable explanation is that the warmth reaches different parts of the instrument at different times, the separate parts producing separate maxima. This would fully account for the curious discrepancy between the former results, and the large range of values for the interval between M.-B. and M.-S. We have only to suppose that sometimes one part of the instrument is pre- dominantly affected and sometimes another. The main conclusion is that internal temperature can only be re- sponsible for a part, and probably only a small part, of the diurnal de- flections of the instruments. The main cause seems to be external, and is probably the daily opening and shutting of the valley to which Milne drew attention many years ago. Before.leaving these deflections, a word or two may be said as to the tidal effects, so conspicuous on the Milne-Shaw machine at Bidston, but almost hidden by the temperature effects at Shide. Some trouble was taken to disentangle them, and it was found that the lunar tide could be identified by means of the progressive phase. For the Milne-Burgess instrument the coefficient was about 1mm.; but it is mixed up with temperature effects which may vary widely in character. The tidal coefficient for the Milne-Shaw instrument at Shide is not very much larger than 1 mm.—perhaps 2 mm. at most. But the material available at the time of the discussion was not large and further investigation is desirable. Finally, some particulars may be given as to the deflections at other stations, where the simple Milne instruments are in use. The magnifica- tion being small, the disturbance of the trace by either temperature or tide is not noticeable to a casual glance; but if careful measures are made of the travel at every 2 hours (or 4 hours in some cases) through- out the day, the general nature of the movements can be detected. Such information may be of value in arranging for the setting up of instruments of higher magnification. The diurnal changes were deduced from the means for all the days measured ; as also the semi-diurnal changes. As regards the lunar tide, the simplest way of detecting it is to form the differences between readings for 2 days separated by any con- venient interval from 4 days to 11 days; for in 74 days the lunar semi- diurnal tide reverses itself, maxima falling on the former minima. We thus get twice the effect by the subtraction. If the interval of 7 or 8 days is not available, the factor will not be so large as 2, but is easily calculated from the relation Cos (9—a)—cos (6+ a) = 2 sina sin 6. For 74 days, a—90°; for 4 days,a=4 x 90°/74 = 48°. British Association, 85th Report, Manchester, 1915.] [Pate LY. PANNE enna! AAA! vt — WA, pil 5 Mewar apentatitass a WWE AY SV TIEN Sie Fic. Ae St. Helena, May 21-22, 1915. The effect of insects on a seismograph at St. Helena. This continued for ten days. 1915. [Opened June 11, 21, 23.] 22 23 () ae —eeeensneenrs SR oe Bad DISTURGANCE DUE TO SPIDERS. BIDSTON. JuNe& 12TH 1915. a — 7. wey NS en A en PEC TINE SR ST ee a aS EEG ES [Closed June 12, 21, 16.] Fie. B. The work of a spider on the seismograph at Bidston. He continued for eight days, until removed. Illustrating Report on Seismological Investigations. [To face page 65. a ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 65 Hence the factors are as below :— Days 2 3 4 5 6 tt 8 9 10 Factors 0:8 1:2 15 en 19 2-0 2-0 19 if An example may make the method clearer. The actual readings of the Seychelles records are given in columns 2, 3, and 4 of Table VI. The unit is G 01 in. / TaBLE VI. +e, Differences July Differences (betecn Benita | Le. : | Terms for diurnal 12 15 | 18 15-12 18-15 || terms 10 0 0 0 O | 0 0; +3 (Q-|) S8y)) 12 14 17 25 + 3 Se |) ee Pe ele AR etek) 14 33 31 42 == ¥ +11 — 5} +6 | +3) +5 16 65 50 59 =15 +9 | —10| +7 | —5| +2 18 96 78 80 —18 +2 | —14} +8 |) —4| —6) 20 120 100 105 —20 eres. | Sell] |) Ey) egy | eet 22 139 122 130 ==iN7) ae ll) SST | Se Se |) aa 0 155 145 154 —10 +9 | —16| +8 1) 46) +1 2 177 166 177 =i +11 |) —13 | +7 || +2 | +4 4 199 187 POP Ait Teal) seal tb ali 6 } EAL | ct a 6 228 221 220 = —1 | —3] +4 || —4| —5 8 255 253 253 | —2 Oo arse Ll esa In the next two columns the simple differences between July 12 and 15, and between July 15 and 18, are shown. These are clearly affected by diurnal terms, 7.e., the diurnal terms differ for different days, as we might expect. To bring out the lunar terms more clearly we remove the diurnal terms, including a suitable constant. The terms found (by harmonic analysis) are shown in the next two columns, and finally the corrected differences, which show the semi-diurnal terms clearly. Analysing these harmonically (as we could of course have done without removing the diurnal terms), we find :— For July 15-July 12: in. in. h. 0-048 cos 2 (6—28°) =0°048 cos 2 (¢— 11°9). For July 18—July 15: 0-045 cos 2 (8@—52°) = 0-045 cos 2 (¢ — 13.5), where @ is the hour angle measured from 10h., or ¢ is the time in hours measured from 0 h. The hour of maximum has thus advanced 1°6 h. in the 3 days. A purely lunar tide would advance 2°4 h. in 3 days. The discrepancy is partly accidental, partly due to a semi-diurnal tem- perature effect, which can only be detected or eliminated by a longer series of observations. But we can clearly separate the lunar effect by its advancing phase if we have a long enough series of days. We proceed to give a few results for stations which had sent films to Shide for examination. The measures were made in hundredths of an inch, and the travel of each trace is about 0:23 in. per 2 hours. The figures below, being deduced from only a few days’ records, must not be taken too seriously, 1915. . 66 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. but will serve to give an idea of the magnitude of the quantities involved. : Coeffi- Station aie ot ee Diurnal and Semi-diurnal changes | cient of lunar tide in. h. in. h. in. Ascension. | 1911, Feb. 20-28] °014 cos (@—19°5) +°005 cos 2 (@—0°0) | “004 Cocos . | 1911, Sept. 5-22] 114 ,, 20°0 +:026 » ddd 028 Eskdalemuir, | E.-W. . | 1911, Feb. 1-22] 002 ,, 22°5 +°021 5 3°0 “000 Do., N.-S. | » 0005S, 22:0 +008 - 50 -000 Fernando Noronha | 1913, Jan. 13-21] :081 _,, 19:0 +:009 5 6:0 “005 Helwan, E.-W. . |1911, Feb. 1-9 | :001 ,, 7:0 +:000 i — | ‘000 Do., N.-S. a 002 _—=C,,, 12:0 +:000 35 — | :000 Malta . | 1911, July 1-9 | 004 ,, 180 +:000 Be — | 000 Seychelles 1911, July 10-19] °035_,, 12:0 +:050 3 4-0 "045 St. Helena | 1915, Feb. 18-27] -016_,, 17:0 +:007 st 25 | :004 zs 1915, May 15-25 | 007 __,, 15:0 +004 3 3°5 009 | It will be seen that Eskdalemuir, Helwan, and Malta show no lunar tides ; Seychelles and Cocos have large tides, as well as large diurnal effects. It may be presumed that 0-001 in. = 0'01 approximately, but in most cases no more precise scale value can be recovered from the records. IX. Insect Disturbances of Seismographs. An inquiry from St. Helena suggests that it may be useful to other observers to print a note on the disturbances caused by insects. Mr. J. J. Shaw has kindly drawn up the following : A difficulty which is frequently met with in practical seismology is to keep the seismograph free from the various insect interferences. An imprisoned moth or fly will often keep the boom in a state of unrest for several days at a time; but a much more serious nuisance is the ubiquitous spider; he not only makes havoc with the trace, but also ties up the boom, and very greatly destroys the sensitivity of the apparatus. It is useful to be able to decide from the trace whether the trouble is of the first or second order; because if of the second it is not sufficient to get rid of the spider, but the web must also be removed. There is an advantage in making an artificial disturbance each day by standing for about 15 seconds on a selected spot near the side of the masonry column; a suitable time is just before changing the film, as the boom is then at rest. This will give a standard deflection which can be compared day by day whereby any loss in efficiency is quickly detected. The decrement curve at the commencement of the film is also useful in identifying the cause of these troubles. In instances of the first type the prisoner periodically sets the boom in motion, and occasionally leaves it to come to rest, when the trace will be seen to con- tinue in alignment with its previous position. Confirmation may be looked for in the unimpaired efficiency indicated in the decrement curve. If, however, the disturbances produce permanent displacements in the trace they are probably caused by a spider, or perhaps a moth, whose ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 67 wings have been singed in the lamp, and which has fallen down the light aperture and become wedged between the slit plate and the floating vane ontheboom. Ineithercase the decrement curve and standard deflection will show considerable deterioration. A piece of glass over the light aperture is a partial remedy ; but more effectual is the addition of about 2 lb. of naphthalene (C,)H,) well distri- buted throughout the cases. Herewith are given illustrations of first-order trouble from St. Helena and spider trouble from Bidston. The Bidston apparatus is a fully damped Milne-Shaw type and has no decrement curve, but the standard deflection fell from 27 mm. to 9 mm. as a result of the webbing of this spider, X. The Identification of 8: Suggestion of a New Phenomenon Y, As shown in the last Report, there are accidental deviations of observation of Sfrom the times assigned by the tables. The mean of the errors discussed is (+0.73 minutes or) +44 sec. for S, and (£0.31 minutes or) £19 sec. for P. This is the more remarkable since the amplitude of S is usually much greater than that of P, so that there ought to be less uncertainty in reading. The suspicion is aroused that there is some other phenomenon liable to be mistaken for $8; and that many of the errors are due to these mistakes. A suggestion of this kind is put forward by Dr. G. W. Walker in his “Modern Seismology,’ but is apparently vitiated by an oversight. On p. 41, after considering the first reflected wave PR,, he next considers a wave which travels as P to the point of reflection and as 8 subsequently ; he points out that there is a lower limit to the possibility of such a wave which he determines as A=110° or 12,000 km. ; and he proceeds : “Now, it has been observed that special difficulty attaches to the identification of S just when A is about 12,000 km. Thus with an earth- quake in the northern Philippines, which are about 11,000 km. from this country, S usually comes out very clearly, while in the case of an earth- quake in the Caroline Islands, about 12,000 km. from us, § is most in- distinct, and the tendency is to put it rather late. The result we have obtained throws some light on the matter.’ The oversight which vitiates this explanation is that Mr. Walker is dealing at the moment with the hypothesis of a homogencous earth, which he soon shows to be quite untenable. His figures are those for a homogeneous earth, and are quite inapplicable to the actual earth. The lower limit he mentions does indeed exist, but instead of being at A=110° it is about A=35°. It is readily found numerically by using the existing tables printed on the last page of the Shide bulletins for 1914. Thus when A=40° the times given for a wave to travel S. S. Si: as P for 1° and S for 39°= 15 +832 —847 P for 2 and § for 38 = 31 +818 =849 P for 3 and S for 37 = 47 +804 =851 Pfor 4 and § for 36 = 62 +790 =852 P for 5 and § for 35 = 77 +775 =852 P for 6 and § for 34 = 92 +760 =852 Pfor 7 and § for 33 =106 +744 =850 P for 8 and §S for 32 =121 +728 =849 P for 9 and S for 31 =136 +711 =847 &e. &e. 68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. The sum of the times increases to a maximum of 852 sec., where there is an accumulation which marks the trace (P|S,) and then diminishes again. Since the time for S$ to travel 40° is by the same tables 847 sec., this P,S, is later than 8; and it is easily found to be always later. For instance, at s. s. A=90° we have S=1454 P,S,=1507 A=100 Er S=1556 PS, =1625 A=110 59 S=1648 PS, =1738 But in the above calculation for A=40° the distance travelled as P is only a few degrees ; and as we diminish the value of A this distance contracts to zero, marking the limit determined by Mr. Walker in the simple case of a homogeneous earth. The fact that P,S, is always later than § is an additional reason why it cannot explain the mistakes in identifying S, which require a pheno- menon sometimes preceding §, as will be seen from the examples quoted below. But there is scarcely need of an actual example; on general principles it is pretty clear that something preceding S is more productive of mistakes than something which follows ; for there is a strong tendency to read the earliest movement in the suitable neighbourhood. Now, if the phenomenon is to precede §, it seems clear that it cannot travel partly as P and partly as 8, since even P,S, is later than 8. We cannot assign a smaller share to § than is represented by P,S,, except no share at all. We are thrown back on P. A single reflection of P is well known as PR,, and there is no difficulty in considering two, three, or more reflections of P. But when the appro- ptiate neighbourhoods in the trace are examined, there seem to be no conspicuous indications there ; certainly nothing likely to be mistaken for 8. The suggestion now put forward is that of a large number of reflections of P. When the number is large, the time of arrival tends to be inde- pendent of the precise number, since the times near the origin, whether for P or §, are sensibly proportional to the arcs. The printed tables give an initial velocity to P of about 1° per 155s. The facts collated below suggest that this should be altered to 1° per 14°98. and this will be adopted for use provisionally. No large departure from the printed tables is involved—the time at 4-0° would be 59°68. instead of 62s. as printed ; but the times will be assumed for a moment to be accurately proportional to the arcs, at this rate. On this supposition it is clear that a total arc of 60° is described in the same time by s. s. 15 reflections of 4° each=15 x 59:°6=894 30 es 22° 4, =30 x 29'°8=894 60 ~ » 1° ,, =60x 14-9=894 And indeed that any number of reflections greater than 15 have the same total time of travel according to the tables. The simultaneity is only limited by the accuracy of our assumption that the time near the origin is directly proportional to the arc. There is a difficulty attending this supposition of a theoretical kind. It is remarked by Mr. G. W. Walker on p. 45 of his ‘ Modern Seismology ’ that ‘it is impossible to propagate along a plane boundary .. . longi- tudinal waves with displacement parallel to the surface.’ Now, when ——— ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 69 the P waves are many times reflected they must travel so close to the surface as to approximate to this impossible type. On the other hand, C. G. Knott (‘ Physics of Earthquake Phenomena,’ chap. x.) gives, from theory, a total reflection of longitudinal waves at grazing incidence. The theoretical difficulty may disappear on scrutiny ; if not, some other explanation must, of course, be found. But that now offered seems to fit the facts mentioned below, and is therefore put forward for considera- tion. It amounts to suggesting waves (Y) travelling close to the spherical surface with practically the initial velocity of P, which we take as 14-9. per degree. The times would thus compare with those of S as below: A= 60° 70° 80° 90758 LO0r 1102: L202 s. Ss. s. s. s. Ss. s. Y= 894 1043 1192 1341 1490 1639 1788 S= 1103 1226 1343 1454 1556 1648 1729 Y—S=—209 —183 —151 —113 —66 —9 +59 Mr. J. J. Shaw suggested the name ‘ polychord’ for the phenomenon considered ; and the letter Y from this term may be used to designate it. It will be seen that Y crosses S near A=110°. But in the last Report certain corrections were suggested to the printed tables. It is not yet advisable to alter the figures used, as discussion is proceeding ; but we may indicate in brackets the result of the corrections suggested, which are as below: A=—8 #15 SSR ADe POD ASO 552 G52 MISS 2eB5, S959" 10K? Ss. Ss. Ss. s. s. s. s. s. s. Ss. Correction P= 0 O04, 2.0) 0 0 —l —3 —8 —15 —24 Correction S= +5 Q -—4 -—8 —l1l —l14 -—I17 —24 -—35 —50 The comparison of Y with 8 would, with these corrections for 8, stand as follows : A=e 60? 9) 70% 80%) 90% 200° 110? s. s. Ss. s. s. s Y= 894 1043 1192 1341 1490 1639 (S)= 1090 1210 1323 1424 1514 1588 Y—(S)=(—196) (—167) (—131) (—83) (—24) (+51) The point of crossing is thus shifted about 8° nearer the epicentre. The plan of giving corrected figures in brackets will be followed below. The example which first suggested this hypothesis was the Eskdalemuir trace for the earthquake of November 24, 1914, to which attention was drawn by Mr. J. J. Shaw. The lettering on the rough trace shown in the illustration is his. See also Milne-Shaw record Plate II. At the time of examination of this trace no other material was available, and a brief summary may first be given of the argument as it then stood. It is natural to identify a with P and y withS. The distance of the epicentre corresponding to S—P=12h. 16 m. 55s.—12h. 6 m. 43s.=612s. would then be A=:81:3° (84:1 corrected tables). The time for PR, would then be 12h. 10 m. 16s. (12h. 10m. 30s.). But PR, can almost certainly be identified with @ at 12h. 10m. 54s.*—much later than either the uncorrected or corrected time. Similarly, the time for SR, does not fit the trace at all. If, however, we identify S with 8 at 12h. 17 m. 45s. we then have * This is the reading published by Eskdalemuir. 70 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF ScIENCE.—1915. S—P=662s. and A=90-8° (94:8°). The time for PR, would then be 12h. 10m. 35s. (12h. 10 m. 56s.). For SR, weshould get 12 h.24m. 31s. a~M Ww M 12 13 HM _M M M io” : a a’ 6 B ane I6 li" 2) M M M 19" 20" 14 15 INN JL rr—0—W r ig” il\ Ai Be ae” : yl 5 : C Eskdalemuir (Galitzin) N.S. Component, November 24, 1914. and there is a notable disturbance on the trace here (though it has not been considered necessary to reproduce that part of it in the diagram). This argument has been much strengthened since the records of other stations became available. These were collated by Mr. Burgess in the ordinary course of the work at Shide in July 1915 without any knowledge of the suggestion here made. The epicentre selected by him is 21:5° N. 141° HK. distant 97:3° from Eskdalemuir; and the MS. sheet prepared for the Shide Bulletin with this epicentre shows residuals in § of over 100s. not only for Eskdalemuir and Dyce (Aberdeen), but for Padova, Paris, and other stations. It would appear that y has been taken instead of 6 at such stations, for the above epicentre, though possibly a few degrees in error owing to the conflicting information, suits the near stations (Zi-ka-wei, Batavia, and the Japanese stations), as well as Pulkovo, too well to be so far wrong as must be the case if y were 8. But if 6 is 8, what is y? Taking A=-(94°8°) as above, the time for the polychord is 94:8 14-9 seconds=1413 s., following P by (606 s.), and thus affecting the trace at (12h. 16m. 49s.). The Eskdalemuir reading for § (7.e., for y) is 12h. 16m. 56s. The full details for this earthquake, which is not at present fully discussed, will be printed in the Shide Bulletin ; but the following figures will show approximately the nature of the results : Epicentre 24° N., 141° E. Time, 1914, Nov. 24, 11h. 538 m. 15s. | Station. Inst. A P 0=C S O-C “instead of 8. osm: <8: s. | h. m. 8. s. 8. | Zi-ka-wei . W 187 1158 2] (+22) | 12 1 36 | (+26) _ | Batavia W 419 12 130! (+ 5) | 12 7 48 | (+ 5) ee | Pulkovo . . G 792 12 5 28| (+ 4) | 12 15 17| (+ 8) +142) | Dyce (Aberd.). Ma 93:2 12 6 24] (—10) | 12 16 31 (—58) | (+ 8) | Eskdalemuir G 95:0 12 6 43 0 | 12 16 56 | (—50) | (+ 6) Padova V 967 12 651 @> 1917 6 | (—55). |, (— . Sea | Bidston MS 967 12 652| + 1 |1217 6/| (—54) | (— 10) Paris . G 983 12 6 59 QO | 12 17 14) (—60) | (— 15) a a a a a a ee ee ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 71 Another example is afforded by the earthquake of June 25, 1914, details of which have already been published in the Shide Bulletin for June. Let us first take the following residuals : P | On 541 s o-c h m. s. S. hs tims ‘s: Ss. | Eskdalemuir BLS) 2a +18 19 32 55 +10 West Bromwich. 19 21 17 | +21 19 31 45 — 58 It is clear that if Eskdalemuir is even approximately correct, the § for West Bromwich is sensibly in error. Now, the West Bromwich trace shows, following the printed S at 19 31 45, another disturbance about 45s. later, say at 19 32 30, which is probably the true 8. The printed A for West Bromwich is 100:3°, for which Y—(S) would be only —22s. according to the figures above given. But the position of the epicentre is subject to revision. The printed distance 100-3° would sive S—P=11 m. 45s. (11 m. 22s. corrected), whereas the West Bromwich trace suggests the smaller value 11 m. 13s., corresponding to 4=(98°3°) say: for which Y—(8)=(—35s.). For this earthquake the S residuals for Florence, Aachen, Barcelona, Dyce, Honolulu, &c., all accord with a mistake of Y for 8. On noticing the above discrepancy between Eskdalemuir and West Bromwich, inquiry was made of Hskdalemuir, and on April 23 Mr. Richardson kindly replied ‘the time stated (for S) in our tabulation was the correct one for a certain disturbance on N.-S. But on unravelling the H.-W. trace it is seen to contain a disturbance about a minute earlier. Photo. prints are being sent to you herewith.’ A rough tracing of the three records is given in the illustration. It will be seen that Y is small on the N.-S. component ; large on the H.-W. component, and quite noticeable (though § is absent entirely) on the vertical component. These facts seem to accord with a wave of P character, for the epicentre is nearly due east of Eskdalemuir, the azimuth (from the north point) being 82:6 if we accept the epicentre of the June Bulletin (4:5° S., 99° E.). A thrust from this direction would be 7-7 times as much to the W. as to the 8. Now measurements of the traces give for the first three south movements in millimetres +8-5, —12°0, +9-0; and for the corresponding west movements, +57, —72°5, +65. Dividing the latter by 7:7 we get +7:4, —9-4, +8°4, which are all a little smaller than the former. The ratio (57+-72°5-+-65) /(8-5+-12:0+-9:0)=6°6 in fact, giving an azimuth for the epicentre of 81:5° instead of 82°6°. The epicentre determined at Eskdalemuir (1°S., 102° E.) gives azimuth 78°, so that the correspondence is thus well within the limits of acci- dental errors of various kinds. It would be interesting to check this ratio from the § movements, which ought to be, and are, large in the upper trace where Y is small, and small in the lower trace. But, un- fortunately, they are masked in the lower trace by the end of the Y move- ments; at any rate this is a reasonable interpretation of the trace. In fact, the epicentre is in a particularly favourable azimuth for separating Y from §, and the sentence above quoted from Mr. Richardson’s letter takes on a new significance when this is realised. If the azimuth had been nearer 45° or one of the other octants, Y and § might have been mixed up in both traces, and the beginning of Y would probably have been read as the beginning of 8, The possible eflect of this confusion 72 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915 on the construction of the tables in use requires very careful considera- tion, and is an additional reason for deferring the proposal of definitive corrections. Indeed, it seems probable that these cannot be made without a somewhat extensive study of the traces themselves in addition to the collation of the times published by the various observatories. There is one further point to be considered—the depth of the focus below the surface. If this be at IZ (see page 73) and CKc be the chord perpendicular to the radius OEK, then all other chords through E are ¥ S " a2" M 30 34 N-S: 1 =ground to N ie 33", 20. 34™ 31" F -W: T-ground tok oen aot 30" ay" 53” AA AN \\Wey ny, VERTICAL ‘t= ground up Eskdalemuir, June 25, 1914. longer than cC, and occur in pairs sich as a@HA and BEB. Waves travel- ling from E by either the path Ea or EB would on reflection travel by consecutive steps all equal to aA or bB. Hence, cC represents the mini- mum step for waves emanating from E, and is larger as E falls further below the surface. It seems possible that if E is too near the surface (or perhaps above it) these nearly tangential reflected waves cannot occur, and we get no ‘ polychord’ or Y phenomenon. This may explain why it has only occasionally attracted notice. Both the epicentres ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. (he above considered are out at sea. It will be interesting to note whether there is a difference between sea and land epicentres in the matter of Y ; but this examination has not yet been made. In this connection such earthquakes as that of July 4, 1914, may be significant. It is noted in the Shide Bulletin that a shock at 17h. 46 m. 30s. was followed some 100 seconds later by another at another epicentre (12° away); but the curious thing is that the nearer stations (Manila, Batavia, &c.) have recorded the second quake and not the first. The suggestion now offered is that the first focus was on or even above the surface ; that the path of waves from it has a limiting (mini- mum) depth, and therefore a limiting (minimum) radius for affected stations, while the second focus was below the surface and was not restricted. If such limits do exist, their application to the possible formation of Y is tolerably obvious. XI. Correction of Tables deferred. Provisional corrections to the tables for P and S were given at the end of the last Report and are repeated above (p. 67). But the tables printed on the last page of the Shide Bulletins will be used for the present, until a fuller discussion has been made. Meanwhile, the above pro- visionul corrections are made use of in determining epicentres, and they 74 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. can be used in studying the residuals. Thus, in the quake of July 4, 1914, the following residuals : Station. Machine. A (O—C) for P. (O—C) for S. Graz ime actives W 98°8° —6s. —16s. Zagreb.) 6h Ww 99°4° —8s. —25 s. are to be considered subject to corrections +19s. and +41s. approxi- mately (change sign of tabulated corrections, which apply to the C in O—C). Similarly, those for Pulkovo —9s. and —28s. are subject to corrections (A=85:2°) + 8s. and +24s. XII. Shide Bulletins. : From January 1914 the Shide Bulletins have been arranged with a view to the ultimate discussion of the best material. Earthquakes not observed at many stations appear only on the ‘ chart’ as in the pre- vious year’s records; but for the better observed earthquakes, whereas for 1913 the recorded times were printed without discussion, from Janu- ary 1914 they have been compared with calculated times. Epicentres were at first adopted from the Pulkovo determination simply; but as it was found that these were often sensibly in error (owing partly to the errors of the tables) fresh determinations of epicentre have been recently made at Shide. The preparation of these bulletins has very considerably increased the work at Shide ; but it is hoped that the extra work is profitable. XIII. New Method of Computation. Some of the labour has been abridged by the adoption of a new method for calculating the distance of a station from an epicentre. If (I, d) be the longitude and latitude of a station, (L, D) those of the epicentre, and if we put a=cosl cosd = sin 1 cos d c=sind A= cos L cos D B=sin L cos D C= sin D then the formula used is 2 versin A = (a—A)’+(b—B)?+(c—C)?. The quantities a, b, c are constants for the stations and have been tabu- lated. A, B, C are readily formed for each epicentre. A table of squares to 4 figures is amply sufficient to give the (a—A)?, &c., and a table has been formed of 2 versin A which saves even the division by 2. A fuller description of the process and the table for 2 versin A will be found in ‘Mon. Not. R.A.S.,’ Ixxv. p. 530. XIV. Standardizing a Milne-Shaw Seismograph. [This section is kindly contributed by the Superintendent of the Meteorological Office. It was written by Mr. L. F. Richardson, of Eskdalemuir, and was completed on September 3.] This instrument (No. 3) was set up at Eskdalemuir, in July 1915, by ue J. J. Shaw. A description of it will be found in Section VI. of this eport. The pivoted mirror and the link which connects it to the boom are both very light, and in the first instance the instrument has been re- garded as a simple boom connected to a massless multiplying device. The theory of such a boom is set out in most text-books on seismology. : | ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 75 The magnification of impulsive horizontal displacements of the ground may be found in two ways :— (1) The easier way is to obtain it from the period of undamped oscillation, together with the sensitivity to static tilt (‘ Modern Seismology,’ by G. W. Walker, page 23). According to Mr. Shaw’s advice, when observing the period, the damping magnets were entirely removed, not merely tied up to the pillar, lest their weight should bend the latter. The period came to 9°88 secs. for small swings, 10-08 for large ones, and 9:9 has been taken in the subsequent calculation. The arrangements provided for determining tilt are very convenient. The pitch of the tilting screw, the distances between the feet and the lengths of the path of light, were all measured, and the scale of tilt thus verified to } percent. The sensitivity to static tilt was found to be 6°8,mm. on the paper per 10-® radian. Now the magnification for sudden lateral displacements is (cms. on paper) x 47” . (radianstilt) x g x (period 71h comes to 282. (2) As a check, the same magnification was calculated independently from the lengths of the levers and the radius of gyration of the boom about its pivot. In the sketch, BR is the boom pivoted at R. CB isa link, CD a lever pivoted at D, and D is also the mirror. P is the photo- graphic paper. Lengths of Levers.—The small length CD was measured by a travelling microscope. The distance from the mirror D to the photo- graphic paper was diminished by 4 of the thickness of the cylindrical lens. The length of the equivalent mechanical pointer was taken as ae 2 (DP eS (BR), and came to 30:0 metres. Here K is the thickness of the cylindrical lens. p Fie. 1. Radius of Gyration.—To find this, the moments of inertia about the pivot R of the several parts were measured separately, added up, and divided by the total mass. The moment of inertia of the boom was found from the position of its centre of mass, together with its period of vibration, when hung up vertically by a short thread attached at W and set to oscillate about a horizontal axis through R. The heavy dumb-bell shaped mass was at first pivoted upon the boom, as in some Milne instruments; the intention being to diminish the moment of inertia. The gain in this respect is less than 20 per cent. of the whole moment of inertia of the moving system. On the other 76 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. hand, it was found that the freedom of the dumb-bell set up undamped oscillations of the light spot ; so Mr. Shaw clipped the mass rigidly to the boom. The moment of inertia of the dumb-bell about its centre of mass was measured by hanging up the dumb-bell by a bifilar suspension and observing its time of oscillation. In this way the radius of gyration 1 of the whole moving system about the point R was found to be 11:66cms. The magnification for impulses of lateral displacement ist = ie 257. There is an unexplained discrepancy of 10 per cent. between this figure and 282, which might be sought for in the neglected action of the multi- plying lever. This was not quite perfectly balanced. In the tilting experiment it remains untilted. In drawing fig. 2 the mean of 257 and 282 has been used. Magnification for Long-continued Sinusoidal Waves of Lateral Displacement.—When the period is infinitely short, this is the same as the magnification for impulses. The diminution of the magnification with increasing period of the earth-wave is determined from the period of the pendulum and the degree of its damping, according to the well- known formula (Walker’s ‘ Modern Seismology,’ page 5). To obtain the damping, a piece of a soft iron nail was attached to the boom. A small solenoidal coil of wire was fixed on the pillar so that the iron was half inside the coil. By passing a momentary electric current through the coil the boom was set in motion. Care was taken that the applied force did not continue for more than a small fraction of the quarter-period of vibration. As the solenoid had no fixed iron core, there were no after- effects. As one has to measure the ratio of successive swings, this ratio 5 Reriod of the Earth Wave in seconds Fig. 2. Milne-Shaw Seismograph, No. 3. July 26, 1915. The full-line curve gives the magnification for long-continued sinusoidal waves of lateral displacement. Undamped free period of pendulum 9°9 secs. Damping ratio of successive swings on opposite sides of zero 45:1. The crosses are from the Galitzin instrument. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. ra must not be too large. The measurements were made on the photo- graphic record, and gave 45:1 for the ratio of successive displacements on opposite sides of the zero. From these data the curve in fig. (2) was plotted. Comparison of the Magnification with that of a Galitzin Instrument having Galvanometric Registration.—This was done by selecting a point of time at and near which the natural disturbance was of a regular sinusoidal character on the seismograms of both the Milne-Shaw and Galitzin instruments. The two instruments were in the same room (though on separate piers) and their booms were parallel to one another, so that we may assume that the ground motion was the same for both. The amplitude and period of the Galitzin chart were measured, and from these and from the known constants of the Galitzin instrument the amplitude of the ground motion was deduced. Dividing this quantity by the amplitude on the Milne-Shaw record we get the magnification of the latter instrument. The figures so obtained have been represented hy the crosses in fig. 2. The agreement of the crosses, with the curve obtained by consideration of the Milne-Shaw instrument alone, is nearly as good as could be expected, considering the uncertainties involved in measuring the small amplitudes of 1 or 2 mm. on the Milne-Shaw record. The constants of the Gulitzin instrument were obtained in May 1915 by the method of tapping the boom (Galitzin’s ‘ Lectures,’ ch. vi. § 3) and differ only slightly from those obtained in previous years. Direction on the Paper—The boom is suddenly pulled to the west. The light spot therefore moves as if the ground had been jerked to the east. This test is made on every sheet. Lag of Maximum.—tThe usual theory of lag begins by assuming that the ground is in a regular and constant state of simusoidal motion. Hach wave is by hypothesis exactly like its neighbours, and therefore it is impossible to distinguish one wave from another, and the lag is indeter- minate as to an arbitrary number of whole wave-lengths. This is the only arbitrariness. The theory usually ends, however, in a formula which gives the tangent of the angle of lag, and the angle is therefore unspecified as to a whole number of half wave-lengths. On going back and examining the sine and cosine of the angle of lag this uncertainty disappears, in so far as it concerns the phase relations of the quantities represented by the symbols in the theory. But there is still a practical uncertainty of half a wave-length until we have connected the symbols to our practice in reading records, by defining the relation of east and west ground-motion to up and down the record. The definition here adopted is that when all is at rest and the ground suddenly moves, then the initial displacement of the trace on the developed photographic record is conventionally said to be in the same direction as the initial motion of the ground. The actual test is made by pulling the boom in the opposite direction, as stated above. Now the equation of motion of a ‘ critically aperiodic ’ boom is d eatin 40 (+2) o= poemmaceat yal Ltr where @ is the angle turned through by the boom. Here x is the displacement of the ground. n and I are positive constants. 78 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, For sudden motions we may neglect » in comparison with ~ and we dt have left §=— al. So that the standard relation of signs is + 6 with — z. For very slow motions we may neglect . in comparison with n, and we have left n?0 = — &/l. Now let —x=sin pt, then 0 = — #/nl? = — © sin pt. Thus 6 lags half a wave-length behind —z. The sign of either side of equation (1) may be changed without affecting this result. Galitzin gives a numerical table for this lag (‘Seismometrische Tabellen,’ Tabelle VI.), as a function of the degree of damping and of the periods of the pendulum and ground. But as he gives the lag as zero for waves of very long period, instead of half-a-wave as found above, it is clear that he has adopted a different definition of the direction on the paper, and that his definition would give the reversed sign to sudden motions if it were applied to them, 30 nas wN Ss | x Ss wea Log of trace behind ground in seco. ° 0 10 Period of Earth Wave in seconds Fic. 3. Lag of Milne-Shaw Seismograph, No. 3. July-August 1915. which probably is not intended. In preparing fig. 3, the lags in Galitzin’s Table VI. have therefore been increased by half the seriall of the earth- wave. _In order to make an observational comparison between the lag of the Milne-Shaw instrument and that of the Galitzin instrument with galvano- ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 79 metric registration, it was necessary to examine the theory of the latter, when the direction on the paper is defined by means of sudden motions from a state of rest. By analysis similar to that given above it may be shown that the numbers for the lag of the galvanometer behind the pendulum, given by Galitzin in his Table VII, are also based on a definition differing by half-a-period from that here taken. So that the sum of the lags given in Galitzin’s Tables VI. and VII.—that is to say, the lag of the galvanometer behind the ground—is inagreement with the definition here taken. Ofcourse, itis arbitrary as to a whole number of wave-lengths. In fig. 3 the crosses indicate the lag found for the Milne-Shaw in- strument, taking the lag calculated for the Galitzin instrument as correct. The Study of Hydroaromatic Substances.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor W. H. PERKIN (Chairman), Professor A. W. Crosstey (Secretary), Dr. M. O. Forster, Dr. H. R. LE Sustor, and Dr. A. McKENZIE. 1. Bromozylenols obtained from dimethyldihydroresorcin.’ The transformation of certain hydroaromatic substances into bromoxylenols, alluded to in the last Report,” has now been completed. 2. Derivatives of Isopropyldihydroresorcin.’ The preparation and properties of 1l-isopropylcyclohexan-3-o0l and 1-isopropyleyclohexan-3- one, briefly referred to in the last Report, have been described in detail. 3. Dihydric Alcohols obtained by the reduction of substituted dihydroresorcins.* It has been shown that 1:3-dibromo-derivatives of the saturated cyclohexane hydrocarbons may be used for the preparation of substituted cyclohexadienes.* It would appear that a more expedi- tious method of preparing these substances would be from the dihydric alcohols, which, on theoretical grounds, should be easily obtained by the direct reduction of the dihydroresorcins, CMe, CMe, HC CH, Ace HC CH, HO.C\ /C0 HO. HC CH . OH CH CH, but though many attempts have at various times been made to bring about these reactions, in some cases resulting in the isolation of small quantities of the desired substances, it is only comparatively recently that conditions have been worked out for the preparation of the dihydric alcohols in quantity. Knoevenagel * obtained small amounts of phenylcyclohexane-3: 5- 1 J.C.8., 1914, 105, 165. 2 Reports, 1913, p. 135. 3 J.C.8., 1915, 107, 171. 4 J.C.8., 1915, 107, 602. 5 J.C.8., 1998, 92, 629. 6 Annalen, 1895, 289, 167. 80 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. diol (I) by the reduction of phenyldihydroresorcin with sodium and alcohol, and the only other paper CHPh H,C CH, HO. HC CH . OH CH, (1) dealing with this subject is one by Zelinsky and Uspenski,’ who also employed the same reducing-agent. Numerous experiments haye con- firmed the fact that sodium and alcohol give the best results, and the yields are highest when the reaction is carried out energetically by heating in an oil bath to 110°, as stated by Zelinsky and Uspenski. ‘he amounts of the dihydric alcohols produced vary considerably with different dihydroresorcins, as is seen from the following table :— Yield per Cent. Methyldihydroresorcin . 7 - : 3 : 43 Dimethyldihydzoresorcin “ : : 5 . 66-68 Trimethyldihydroresorcin . : - : : 20 Tsopropyldihydroresoicin : ; : : ; 40 Phenyldihydroresorcin . - ‘ 2 2 . 47-50 This is partly due to the nature of the dihydroresorcins themselves, but also to the fact that the reactions are somewhat complicated, and it is interesting to note that, in all cases, small quantities of the corre- sponding monohydric alcohols are formed. For example, 1:1-dimethyl- cyclohexan-3-ol (II) from dimethyldihydroresorcin (ITI). CMe, CMe, xX HC CH, Foam $3 H.C CH, HO. oN co H.C / OH . OH CH CH, (III) (II) Further, owing to the unsymmetric structure of all the molecules except that of dimethyldihydroresorcin, isomeric forms of the diols are produced, the separation of which is always tedious and sometimes has been found impracticable. The dihydric alcohols are crystalline compounds, neutral to litmus, readily forming dibenzoyl derivatives and not absorbing bromine in chloroform solution. In many properties they strongly resemble glycols, as they possess a sweet taste, are easily soluble in water, and not readily soluble in ether. 4. 1:1-Dimethylcyclohezane. In a paper entitled gem-dimethyl- hexamethylene,* Zelinsky and Lepeschkin describe the preparation of 1:1-dimetiiyleyciohexane from 1:1-dimethyleyclohexan-3-one, which was obtained from acetylmethylheptenone.* These authors conclude that 7 Ber., 1913, 46, 1436 8 Journ. Russ, Phys. Chem. Soc., 1913, 45, 613. 9 Bull. Soc. Chim., 1899 (3), 21, 546. ON THE STUDY OF HYDROAROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 81 their hydrocarbon possesses physical properties identical with those of 1: 1-dimethylcyclohexane prepared from dimethyldihydroresorcin,’® but state that it gives on treatment with bromine in presence of aluminium bromide, tetrabromo-p-xylene, melting at 256°. Recent work has shown that 1:1-dimethylcyclohexane may be prepared from acetylmethyl- heptenone as a starting-point. This hydrocarbon, on treatment with bromine in presence of aluminium bromide, does not give tetrabromo-p- xylene, as stated by Zelinsky and Lepeschkin. Further, 1 :1-dimethyl- cyclohexane on treatment with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids gives the two isomeric trinitro-o-xylenes, melting at 72° and 115° re- spectively, which proves that, as in so many instances already recorded, the methyl group has again wandered into an ortho and not a para position. Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. ArmMstrone (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry (Secretary), Professor SypNEY Younc, Dr. C. H. DEscH, Sir J. J. Dopsiz, and Dr. M. O. Forster. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) a’-Chloracamphor.' Durine the past year the principle of dynamic isomerism has been applied in preparing, in a pure state and in considerable quantity, the first member of a hitherto unisolated series of halogen derivatives o° camphor. a-chlorocamphor, as Kipping found in 1905, becomes iso- dynamic with the stereoisomeric a’-chlorocamphor when alkali is pre- sent; when the alkali is removed the isomerism again becomes static, and the isomerides can be separated by ordinary methods of fractionation. a’-chlorocamphor presents several points of special interest :— First. It lies on the borderland between the more labile and the wholly stable forms of isomerism ; if proper precautions are taken, the a’- compound can be kept an indefinite time, but if carelessly handled (e.g., if crystallised from a medium containing traces of alkali) it may at any time revert to the less soluble and therefore more stable a- com- pound. Second. When brominated it gives a mixture of stereoisomeric aa-bromochlorocamphors in exactly the same proportions as when a-chlorocamphor is brominated, 7.e., the position taken up by the bromine is not affected in the least by the position which the chlorine atom occupies. This remarkable result is in agreement with Lapworth’s view that in the bromination of ketones it is an enolic isomeride that is first attacked ; more generally we may conclude that at some stage in the bromination a and a’-chlorocamphor give rise to some identical intermediate product. Third. In complete contrast with their behaviour on bromination, 10 J.C.8., 1905, 87, 1487. ! The experiments on a’-chlorocamphor have been made by Mr. Victor Steele, and are described in detail in a joint paper recently communicated to the Chemical Society. 1915. G 82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,-—1915. a and a/-chlorocamphor give on nitration the pure chloronitrocamphor directly derived from the chlorocamphor employed; thus a-chloro- camphor gives a-chloro-a’-nitrocamphor, whilst a/-chlorocamphor gives an excellent yield of a'-chloro-a-nitrocamphor. The latter compound had already been fractionated out in small quantities from the mixture of stereoisomers which is obtained by chlorinating a’-nitrocamphor ; but, as a’-chlorocamphor can be prepared and nitrated on a large scale, the nitro- derivative will now be available in much larger quantities. This fact may be of considerable importance, since the reduction of the chloronitro- compound may give the long-sought but still unknown a-nitrocamphor. Fourth. a'-chlorocamphor appears to lose hydrogen chloride much more readily than the o- compound. If this decomposition should involve the removal of a hydrogen atom from the nucleus, an entirely new chapter in the chemistry of camphor may be begun. In view of the large amount of work that is waiting to be done in this and in other directions, the Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant sufficient to defray the cost of extending the experiments to the B and w derivatives of camphor. The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Sub- stances and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Deriva- tives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. S. Kippine (Chairman), Professor K. J. P. ORTON (Secre- tary), Dr. S. RuHEMANN, and Dr. J. T. HEWITT. Very little work has been possible in the circumstances throughout the year owing to preoccupation with other more pressing duties, and to the departure for military and other like services of the senior students, who would have carried out the experimental part of the investigation. The work, of which’a short report follows, is therefore to be regarded as purely of a preliminary character. The Relation of the Velocity of Chlorination of Aromatic Compounds to Constitution. | (With D. C. Jonss.) The measurement of the velocity of chlorination of a number of acylanilides, acylchloroanilides, and acyltoluidides and acylxylidides * showed that the velocity of the reaction was highly sensitive to: (a) the nature of the acyl group; (b) the nature of a substituting group, chlorine or alkyl, present in the substance ; (c) the position of the substituting group. It has been our intention to extend these observations by studying the influence of substituents other than chlorine and alkyl, for example, bromine and the nitro- group; and to compare with the amino- and the acylamino- group, -NHAc, such other ortho-para- directing groups as hydroxyl, alkoxy-, and alkyl. * Orton and King, Reports, 1911; Zrans. Chem. Soc. 1911, 99, 1377. Se ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF AROMATIC NITROAMINES, 83 It is hoped that by study of a number of substances of suitable constitution the relative activities of directing groups in chlorination might be expressed as numerical values. The investigation is not of the simplest, for direct measurement in the case of an aniline or phenol, and so forth, is rarely possible owing to the very great speed of entrance of the first and often further chlorine atoms. Derivatives in which other groups, such as the nitro- group, are present, must be used in order to obtain a measurable rate of chlorination. Holleman has, in recent years, made attempts to compare the activities of direct- ing groups by nitrating compounds which contain two directing groups and then estimating the proportion of the different nitro- derivatives in the product. By this means he has arrived at certain relations, which can be expressed numerically. Our method has the advantage of being simpler in manipulation, and should at least yield more direct values. Experimental Method.—The method of experiment? has now been thoroughly tested and has not been modified in these later experiments. (1) The Effect of the Nitro- Growp.—A nitro- group in the para position with respect to the directing group greatly inhibits chlorina- tion; the effect is still more marked when the nitro- group is in the ortho- position. In the case of pheno!s the nitro- group appears to have some definite specific action; phenols are chlorinated with very great speed, but chlorination of o- and p-nitrophenols, especially of the former, is very slow. o0- and p-nitroaniline, on the other hand, are chlorinated at speeds which differ little from those observed with the corresponding monochloroanilines. Although the amino- group is a far more active directing group in chlorination than the hydroxy- group, this result would indicate that a free hydroxy- group is not present in o- and p-nitrophenol. (2) Alkoxy- Groups as Directing Groups in Chlorination.—Measure- ments have shown that the methoxy- and ethoxy- groups have a quite unexpectedly high activity in chlorination. The entrance of the first chlorine atom into anisole, C,H;.OCHs, and into phenetole, C;-H;.00.H;, is ‘instantaneous.’ The values of the velocity-coefficients, ky, for the second chlorine atom, together with those of the corresponding phenols, are given in the table. ku = o-Chlorophenol ... 57 Chloroanisole Se p-Chlorophenol ... 32 Chlorophenetole ... 3:0 Acetanilide BAG p-Chloroacetanilide 0-2 The alkoxy- groups are less active than the hydroxy- groups, but their value is brought out by a comparison with acetanilide and p-chloroacetanilide. For acetanilide ky is 40, whilst for anisole and phenetole it is too rapid for measurement (‘ instantaneous ’), that is, over 1,000; and for p-chloroacetanilide the value is 0°2 as compared with 1°5 or 3:0 for the ethers. This high activity of the methoxy- and ethoxy- groups accounts for the high values observed by us * in the chlorination of acetoanisidide ? Orton and Jones, Reports, 1910; Orton and King, loc. cit. * Orton and King, Joc. cit. 84 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. ky = 60) and acetophenetidide (ku=90), in each of which are two directing groups, alkoxy- and acetamino-. Moreover, the products of the chlorination should in these compounds be a mixture in which the chloro- compound formed under the influence of the alkoxy- group would largely predominate, thus: O Alk Cl NH Ac O Alk ae NHAc its Cl NHAc As nothing at the time was known of the activity of the alkoxy- groups in directing substitution, we 4 took the monochlorophenetidide, which we isolated only by repeated crystallisation of the first product, to be 5-chloroacetphenetidide. The relatively greater activity of the ethoxy- group would indicate that the chloro- derivative in larger proportion is the isomeric 2-chloroacetphenetidide. Professor J. F. Thorpe has, moreover, recently prepared the 5-chloroacetphenetidide and demonstrated its constitution undoubtedly, and has further shown that the compound which we isolated is 2-chloroacetphenetidide. (3) A Comparison of the Amino- and Hydroxy- Groups.—A direct comparison between the amino- and hydroxy- groups in their activities in directing chlorination is not very easy to obtain; the speeds of entrance of the first and second atoms of chlorine into aniline and phenol are very high; the introduction of the nitro- group, which lowers the speed of chlorination, is not permissible owing to its specific effect, mentioned in the foregoing, on the hydroxy- group. Moreover, a further difficulty in obtaining an exact relation arises from the great difference in the activities of the two groups. The most trustworthy method is found in the measurement of the rate of entrance of the third chlorine atom into 2:4-dichloroaniline and 2 :4-dichlorophenol respectively. The value of ky 18.4° for the aniline is about 600, and that for the phenol approximately 0°16. Summary.—The amino- group far surpasses all other groups in activity in chlorination of aromatic compounds, and is followed by the groups, hydroxy-, alkoxy-, and acetamino- in the order given. NH, > OH > OAlk > NHAc. The Committee ask for reappointment, and for a grant of 101. for the year 1915-16. “Orton and King, loc. cit. — ON THE STUDY OF PLANT ENZYMES, 85 The Study of Plant Enzymes, particularly with relation to Oxidation.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. D. Hatt (Chairman), Dr. E. F. ARMSTRONG (Secretary), Professor H. E. Armstrona, Professor F. KEEBLE, and Dr. KE. J. RUSSELL. In the last communication to the Royal Society on Lipase, by Armstrong and Gosney, reference was made to experiments with the seed of Cheli- donium majus. Further work has been done with this seed to deter- mine its synthetic activity. The results are in harmony with those published in the interval by Bournot, who was the first to recognise the high lipoclastic activity of the seed. A good deal has been made, during the year, of a discussion by van Slyke and Cullen of the work done with urease, which had led Armstrong and Horton to conclude that the action of ‘this catalyst was not subject to the ordinary mass-action law but practically linear in rate over the greater part of its course. Van Slyke arnplifies the ordinary mass-action equation by a term representing the time occupied in the decomposition of the hydrolyte by the enzyme and claims that the results are in accordance with such ‘ mass-action equation ’; but as the mass-action term is admitted to be of no practical account, the argument he develops practically falls to the ground, leaving the position much as it has been stated by HE. F. and H. EH. Armstrong. The work of the Committee has been extended in various directions during the year but with no very definite results, as it has been impossible to carry on systematic work. Correlation of Crystalline Form with Molecular Structure.— Report of the Commuttee, consisting of Professor W. J. Pore (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG (Secretary), Mr. W. Baruow, and Professor W. P. WYNNE. Dvnrine the year, in addition to a limited amount of crystallographic work, a beginning has been made in determining the molecular volumes of compounds in close crystallographic relationship. The following results are given as examples. It will be seen that there is a fairly regular relationship between the salts :-— Molecular Volumes of Sulphonates. noe ais Co Be tary Oa Benzenesulphonate : A 300°95 298°39 294-73 294°84 Toluene-p-sulphonate . : ’ 338°14 334-19 330°74 320°80 p-Chlorobenzenesulphonate . : 340°03 337°97 a 31758 p-Bromobenzenesulphonate . _— 343°47 33948 p-Iodobenzenesulphonate . : 356°32 358°53 On discussing the crystallographic results in the light of these mole- 86 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. cular volume measurements, it appears that throughout the series of salts the morphological alteration in the passage from the benzene- sulphonate to the other salts falls on the axial ratio a: b, the ratio c: b being scarcely altered. This unexpected result is being followed up. Plant Products of Victoria.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor ORME Masson (Chairman), Dr. HEBER GREEN (Secretary), Mr. J. Cronin, and Mr. P. R. H. Sr. Joun, charged with the Chemical Investigation of Natural Plant Products of Victoria. Tue work of the Committee has so far been devoted to the study of the essential oils of native shrubs and trees, and has been carried out partly in the laboratory and partly in the field. (1) An experimental still and a new pattern of condenser have been designed and constructed for the distillation of the essential oil from foliage. They will take a charge of over one hundredweight of leaves and are specially adapted for the experimental requirements in the bush. (2) A new pattern of standard flask has been devised and con- structed of fused quartz for quantitative fractional distillation of oils in the laboratory. It is proposed to investigate the applicability of electric heating in connection with this apparatus. (3) Samples (generally of several hundredweight lots) of important native oil-bearing plants have been collected from various parts of Victoria, partly by taking special trips and bringing sacks of foliage to Melbourne, and also by taking the still into the bush, where a camp was made for about a month and the oils distilled from the plants in their native habitat. In this way reliable material has been obtained for about twenty species, and although two research assistants engaged in the work have received other appointments, the investigation of these oils is being proceeded with in the laboratory. (4) Investigations have been completed with regard to two oils, and the results are about to be communicated to the Royal Society of Victoria for publication. In the case of several others the results will soon be completed, whilst for some species more material is required. (5) Of the 501. granted to the Committee by the Association and paid over to its Chairman last year, 241. has been spent up to the present. It is proposed to expend the balance on further apparatus and chemicals. The Committee has the honour to apply for reappointment, as the work is being continued. a i lk i a ee INFLUENCE OF WEATHER ON ACIDS IN RAINFALL. 87 The Influence of Weather Conditions upon the Amounts of Nitrogen Acids in the Rainfall and Atmosphere in Australia.— Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor OrmE Masson (Chairman), Mr. V. G. ANDERSON (Secretary), Mr. D. Avery, and Mr. H. A. Hunt, appointed for the Investigation thereof. Tue work undertaken by this Research Committee is a continuation of the work commenced by Mr. V. G. Anderson, who has shown in a paper read before the Chemistry Section at Melbourne, and published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society ’ (Vol. xli., April 1915, pp. 99-116), that certain relations exist between the Thursday Island @P! Darwin @ Alice Springs @ Carnarvon @Hergott Springs Bathurst e fir tek As Penola @fallarat @ Canterbury An Outline Map of Australia, showing approximate positions of Collecting Stations, 1915. amounts of nitric and nitrous acids in the rainfall, and the weather conditions prevailing at the time the rain-water is collected. Anderson’s investigations were confined to rain-water collected near Melbourne, ibut in the present work it was thought advisable to collect samples of the rainfall from all parts of Australia. With this end in view this Committee has expended the grant entrusted to it in establishing series 88 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. of collecting stations at suitable places in the several climatic zones of Australia. The voluntary services of a number of qualified and experi- enced observers have been secured. The number of stations at present established is sixteen, and these are distributed over the Continent as shown in the attached map (1). Samples of rain-water are now being collected at each station every day on which rain falls. A great deal will depend on the amount of care bestowed upon the collection of the samples of rain-water. In the choice of agents for collecting the samples the Committee was guided by the advice of one of its members, Mr. H. A. Hunt, Commonwealth Meteorologist, who was able in nearly every case to recommend, from personal knowledge, a resident observer possessing exceptional qualifications for this work. The Committee wishes to place on record an acknowledgment of its indebtedness to the following lady and gentlemen who are so ably and enthusiastically assisting it in carrying on this work: Miss J. Heinrichsen, Ballarat, Victoria. S. Hebbard, Esq., Technical School, Sale, Victoria. A. H. Bisdee, Esq., Wihareja, Steppes, Tasmania. W. M. Lee Bryce, Esq., The Resident Magistrate, Thursday Island, Queensland. F. Fairley, Esq., M.I.E.E., F.R.M.S., Woombye, Queensland. Dr. H. Priestley, Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine, Townsville, Queensland. R. Gordon Edgell, Esq., Bradwardine, Bathurst, New South Wales. E. J. Cook, Esq., P.M. Hergott Springs, South Australia. Simon Ockley, Esq., Comaun, Penola, South Australia. W. A. Doran, Esq., P.M. Eucla, Western Australia. G. R. Kirkby, Esq., P.M. Carnarvon, Western Australia. Major ° T. Wood, The Resident Magistrate, Broome, Western Aus- tralia. G. G. Lavater, Esq., A.R.V.I.A., Narrogin, Western Australia. Dr. Mapleston, Port Darwin, Northern ‘Territory. J. McKay, Esq., P.M. Alice Springs, Northern Territory (Central). Each observer is provided with a glass rain-collecting gauge and a set of specially prepared stoppered bottles in which the samples are forwarded. A set of instructions has been drawn up for the guidance of observers in collecting the samples. A copy of these instructions, together with the several enclosures for the use of observers, is appended to this report (Appendix A). The samples of rain-water are being sent to Melbourne by post. The postal charges, which are naturally very heavy, are being defrayed by the Commonwealth Meteorologist, with the sanction of the Minister of Home Affairs. The Committee desires to express its appreciation of this unsolicited and valuable concession. Special packages had to be devised for sending the bottles through the post. After repeated trials a double cardboard box lined with corrugated paper was found to be satisfactory. Samples are being sent regularly through the post from stations upwards of three thousand miles distant from Melbourne, but up to the present time no breakages have occurred. In order to deal with the large number of samples to be examined, INFLUENCE OF WEATHER ON ACIDS IN RAINFALL. 89 the laboratory equipment previously used by Anderson has been added to, provision having been made for the simultaneous evaporation of sixteen samples of water in a specially designed electrically heated water-bath. The methods employed are those used in the previous research, and which are described in a recent number of the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society.’ During the period between Septemiber 1914 and March 1915 the activities of the Committee were confined chiefly to organisation, includ- ing the establishment and equipment of collecting stations, and involving a considerable amount of correspondence with observers and others. On March 15, however, the preliminary arrangements were sufficiently far advanced to permit of samples being collected regularly at all stations, and since that date the scientific work of the Committee has been carried on uninterruptedly. In order that the seasonal variations might be studied, and that the results may be of real value, samples should be collected and examined from all stations until March 1916. During the progress of the experimental work the results, as soon as they are completed, will be correlated with the meteorological data. Tn this aspect of the work it will be necessary to draw largely upon the publications of the Meteorological Bureau, particularly in regard to the daily isobaric charts of Australia. The observers are provided with forms for the purpose of making notes of the weather conditions on days when rain is recorded. Sample forms, together with other forms used in tabulating the results, are appended (Appendix B). Up to the present time no work has been done by the Committee upon the direct determination of the amount of nitrogen peroxide in the atmosphere. The difficulties connected with this work are very con- siderable owing to the exceedingly small proportion of this gas normally present in air. However, it is thought that these difficulties may be overcome, and it is the intention of the Committee to proceed with this phase of the work as soon as possible. Additional apparatus will he required for this purpose. A list of apparatus in the possession of the Committee is appended (Appendix C). This Interim Report is submitted with the request that the Committee be reappointed with a further grant of 201., for the purpose of carrying on the investigation outlined in the foregoing pages. APPENDIX A. ‘Ithaca,’ Victoria Avenue, Canterbury, Vic. : Feb. 17, 1915. Dear Sir, The following are enclosed for use in connection with the work of the Research Committee on Nitrogen Acids in Rain-water :— 1. A descriptive list of the apparatus supplied ; 2. A list of general instructions ; 3. A list of the names and addresses of the Observers who are co-operating with the Research Committee ; 4. A map showing the approximate positions of the observing stations ; 5. A drawing showing the method of setting up the collecting gauge; 90 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. 6. A copy of an abstract of the paper read before the Chemistry Section of the British Association Meeting at Melbourne ; 7. Twelve one-penny postage stamps to be used for sending the monthly weather returns to the Hon. Secretary at the above address; 8. A stamped and addressed envelope. I have despatched to you by parcel post parcels’ containing apparatus as per descriptive list enclosed. Will you kindly let me know immediately you receive them the condition in which they arrive, and whether or not there are Map showing approximate positions of Collecting Stations. breakages or shortages? The stamped envelope is provided for this purpose. Any suggestions as to modifications to suit local conditions will be welcomed by. the Committee. Will you please commence collecting the samples of water on March 15 or as soon after as possible? Kindly note that parcels may only be posted without prepayment when they are addressed to the British Association Research Com- mittee, c/o Commonwealth Meteorologist, Central Weather Bureau, Melbourne. All communications directed to my private address must be prepaid as usual. am, Faithfully yours, Hon. Secretary. APPARATUS AND ACCESSORIES. 1. Rain-collecting Apparatus. This consists of three parts, as follows :— (a) A glass funnel, 7 inches in diameter ; (b) A glass receiving bottle with a capacity of about 44 pints ; (c) A wooden stand. 1 Five. "Sw INFLUENCE OF WEATHER ON ACIDS IN RAINFALL. 91 Setting up the Collecting Apparatus. The stand should be placed in a suitable position and the spikes provided for the purpose driven firmly into the ground through the holes in the base of the stand. This method of fixing will serve in most cases, but in localities where wind-storms of extreme violence are not unusual it will be advisable to secure the stand by screwing it down to pegs of wood which have been driven into the earth. The pegs should be about 2 inches by 2 inches in section and at least 12 inches long, and sharpened at the end. The accompanying diagrams show the method of setting up the apparatus and the two methods of securing it. 2. Sample Bottles. These are small glass-stoppered bottles which have been carefully washed out with purest distilled water, and then allow to drain. They should not be unstoppered until samples of rain-water are about to be placed in them, and then the stopper should be replaced as soon as possible. They are con- tained in specially designed cardboard boxes lined with corrugated strawboard, in which they may be sent through the post office, either singly or in batches, without danger of breakage. To each bottle has been attached a blank label. Regular supplies of sample bottles will be forwarded as required. 3. Glass Wool. A plug of this filtering medium should be placed at the apex of the col- lecting funnel and should be renewed as often as it becomes soiled through exposure. 4, Bottle Brush. This brush is intended for cleaning the funnel and receiving bottle, and must not on any account be used for other purposes. It should be hung in a con- venient place and be kept free from dust and other substances which would contaminate the collecting apparatus. 5. Stationery and Sundries. (a) Printed forms for recording weather conditions on rainy days; (6) 1 dozen envelopes ; (c) 25 addressed parcel tags for returning samples; (d) Wrapping cord. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. Observers should note that it is of prime importance to guard against the introduction of impurities into the rain-water. The Committee wishes to receive the water as nearly as possible in the condition in which it falls to earth. Contamination is more likely to occur before, or after, a fall than while the rain is actually falling. Dust and smoke particles, grass-seeds, insects, bird-droppings and the like, are likely to foul the funnel and receiver during dry spells, and if these are not completely removed before the rain falls the results of the chemical examination will be misleading. Much may be done in minimising this source of error by selecting a suitable position for the collecting apparatus. The Position of the Collecting Apparatus. In choosing a position for the collecting apparatus avoid proximity to buildings, trees, and roads. The rain should be free to fall into the funnel from all points of the compass. The site should, if possible, be enclosed in such a manner as to prevent access by domestic and other animals. An ideal position would be at the centre of a large enclosed grass-plot. The apparatus should not be very far removed from the official rain-gauge, as the measure- ments made in the latter will be made use of in the research, no measurements being made in the former. Preparing the Apparatus. _ Before placing the funnel and receiver in position they should be rinsed out with rain-water, and allowed to drain for five minutes. Rain-water collected during a very heavy downpour is suitable for this purpose, especially if the 92 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. first portions of the shower are rejected. Failing this, good tank-water will do, but hard mineral water, or water that is at all discoloured, should on no account be employed. On request a large bottle for storing a supply of pure RQ ASS Hinged cover Vy ) -Glass wool plug 4/ iff ff) A L ff b t/ /, y yy / y Y { Vj Y/, VY) y iy Vj / i, /j; d ry i as SSS SESS ie So Wik IN Wy VW Ng ve y AY Wy WS MW, WM YZ f) 42 LX a | Attachment to wooden nf Ordinary method of pegs driven into ground Setting up -/ron spikes ariven into ground Scale of /aches - PLAN \ +2. 8. €. 5) (68. eee eet it ee Showing arrangement of pegs } t-te ee - ee -- eas Sone = eee aaSt > = Sacco WN SN \S SS rain-water will be forwarded. Washing out with water should be repeated each day when there is a probability of rain. When draining the glass-ware care should be taken not to allow any part of the funnel or the neck of the bottle to come into contact with the soil. INFLUENCE OF WEATHER ON ACIDS IN RAINFALL. 93 Removal of the Sample. At nine o'clock each morning the rain-water (if any) in the receiver should be mixed thoroughly by swirling. A sample bottle should then be filled to within one-half inch of the stopper. The remainder of the water may now be emptied out or, if the amount is large, it may be stored for rinsing purposes. If there is not sufficient rain-water in the receiver to fill the sample bottle send the whole of it. The label on the bottle should now be marked for identifica- tion purposes with : 1. The name of the observing station; 2. The date; 3. The rainfall, as measured in the official rain-gauge. In replacing the stopper of the sample bottle impart to it a screwing motion, with a slight pressure inwards, until it grips firmly. This will prevent leakage during transit. Recording. On each day when rain has fallen observations of the weather conditions during the previous twenty-four hours should be recorded on one of the forms provided for this purpose. At the end of the month the form should be for- warded to the Hon. Secretary of the Committee. When no rain has occurred during any month the form should be marked ‘ No rainfall recorded’ and be forwarded as usual. Observers are invited by the Committee to note and place on record any special features of the weather immediately preceding or accompanying falls of rain. When compared with the composition of the rain- water these observations may lead to important conclusions. Packing and Forwarding. The bottle containing the sample should be replaced in its box, a printed return tag attached, and the package posted at the first opportunity. Each forwarding tag should be marked with : 1. The name of the collecting station ; 2. The date of posting. Should six samples have accumulated before the departure of the next mail they may be placed together in a large box and sent as a single package. The Committee is indebted to the Commonwealth Meteorologist for arranging to have all postal charges in connection with this research paid at Melbourne. Names and Addresses of the Observers who are co-operating with the Research Committee of the British Association engaged in investigating the Influence of Weather Conditions upon the Amounts of Nitrogen Acids in Raw- water in Australia : Queensland, W. M. Lee Bryce, Esq., The Residency, Thursday Island. F. Fairley, Esq., M.I.E.E., F.R.M.S., Woombye. _ - Dr. Henry Priestley, Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine, Towns- ville. New South Wales. R. Gordon Edgell, Esq., Bradwardine, Bathurst. Victer‘a. Miss Jean Heinrichsen, Ballarat. S. Hebbard, Esq., Technical School, Sale. Tasmania, Athol H. Bisdee, Esq., Wihareja, Steppes. South Australia. E. J. Cook, Esq., P.M. Hergott Springs. Simon Ockley, Esq., Comaun, Penola. Western Australia. W. A. Doran, Esq., P.M. Eucla. G. R. Kirkby, Esq., P.M. Carnarvon. : Major G. T. Wood, The Residency, Broome. G. G. Lavater, Esq., A.R.V.I.A., Narrogin. Northern Territory. Dr. Mapleston, Darwin. J. McKay, Esq., P.M. Alice Springs. 94 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. APPENDIX B. Collecting Station at Weather Conditions (on days when rain was recorded) during the month of 191 Summary of ‘Weather Conditions during 24 hours ending at 9 a.m. on the day the rain was collected. | Wind | Temperature Pressure | | ; General Date Rainfall | , h Same {Previous : a ee Velocity, Max, Min. Day Day Remarks | | 9a.M. | 9AM. Collecting Station at Month of 191 SS a a a a aT Nitrogen 4 | Dat Besatall Nao) Remarks ane (inches) | Milligrams Pounds per Product per N(ous) 100 Litres 1000 acres | EE EEEEEIESEEEe Collecting Station at Month of 191 | Nitric Nitrous | Fede a | Nitrogen Nitrogen | Nitrogen | Rati Nuamialklee iniosls jal » 20 co) 66 8 14 Senay 3 60 1 30 Mat) 3 60 8 15 » 20 Q 63 11 31 ec!) 3 58 11 Bo ol anins i 24 ® |49 4] TasLe II.—B. musculus L. List of Specimens. | if Number | Date when | g Total || Number | Date when| Total of ae Measured = Length | of Whale! 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A : le us JO dt 8€-ST || T&L 9L-9T 9T-ST £9-S1 gpoeatds 03 qnous jo dry, 70 Ht 70 /0 70 70 0 6 | 6» 09 jee oP pao Cree BD. OF BR ee SS ee ee ‘ul “9 | “ul “9y “ul "4 “ul J “Ul “ay —s ~ | = —___—_— — a 1| ah, a . . a i 5) & 3 F) . . . . . . . . xag T ‘ON | > ON € ‘ON Z ON T “ON ee ee an emweeere ne Ren pis "9190.109 ‘J ‘engnaenut 7 __.suotyzodorg ’X Wavy, 1915. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. 146 IL-€ OL-G GE-E ma €1-€ a 1B at it | ND BOTG Asan BoIN) GS-01 81-01 €@-11 = €S-01 = Oe ee ete 8 etd Uap CCBL pe Al OL:8 68-8 1Z-01 => GG.8 — ‘ 5 5 + + + —* yorzesut ro1zeqsod 09 dry, 08-11 LL-TT 96-1 a 08-21 — * 5 s + 2 ¢ + YorZesur rorze}Ue 09 dry, quart 4qstt qysr4 qysia —uy [e10joed jo s}yUoUoINSBoT[ 7 68-06 96-2 LLO6I =| — LEB 91-61 pet Ake * + diy 09 diy ‘saxng jo UPI FG-1 oar 86-1 SOE: 68-1 GL-3 “ey eee) es ee CLOL BO Bye np Esko Cl LI-Z a 18-6 €8-1 96-6 OF-G st ts sss ga Siey [eorjsea ‘uy [esto 6¢-¢ ane GL-9 96-€ G3-9 FF-G Tal SLE ee se oe rr yysuey ‘uy [es10g, 08-4 6-6 — 6F-€ 96:2 66-2 ? : : 3 * YQpReiq 4seyvois “Uy [e10J0Eg S¢.OL 89-6 96-1 6L-21 61-I1 81-01 ; ys 5 + + ug peroyood jo YySueT UeTpeT CE-6 €¢-8 69-6 Té-8 88-8 86-8 ° * uosesut ro110}s0d 03 dry ‘uy je1ojoed Jo YASUeT 08-IT LL-IT 98.1 ¥G-F1 | 91-81 OL-ZI * + ‘woZesut 1or10}Ue 0} diy ‘uy [e10j0ed jo yASUET IPT WL WL gusta Wl quart GL-FF SL-€P 06-FF LI-1¢ $E-6P 86-8F * * -SNOTIqUIN JO UTSTeUE 1OTLa}UB 0} SoxNG JO YOON TL-96 CP-LS 89-86 99-6§ 66-08 60-66 : * + snug jo UIsIvUT IOL1eysod 0} saxNF JO [OJON 06-9 = L8-G F1-8 8¢.9 ¢9.9 : 3 ainjiede ree Jo pula 1ot1eyUR 09 oAo JO 91} UA—) 10-81 — Ge-LI LL-61 GO-1Z 16-3G D 3 9 * 9X0 Jo o1ztta0 03 Mel jo sishydursg LL-9T 66-91 g¢-L1 19-81 1-61 9L-61 Py ‘+ + + gfe Jo 013490 04 ynous jo dry, PPTL 0S-SL 6F-FL 9L-9L | 10-GL L8-FL : * uy [¥s1op Jo Wor}AesUL 10L.10480d 03 ynous jo dry, L9-1§ IE-8 €L-1€ £0-9€ | 0Z-GE PL-FE : : Oy) [e10j0ad zo UOMLESUT LOTIa}s0d 0} ynous jo dry, 8-11 Petal PIReT 80-81 | 6L-ST LL-SI 2 s c : apoeatds 0} ynous jo dry, % % % % | % % a ig 9 ie: Gre eR MICtOL- > Depeda tee O ee en Mg MS ite rattan! Py PCT INOS ‘ul “9 ‘ut “4g “ur “4 ai ‘4y0| ur “ag “at ay 2 (4) 3 3} 3} | 2 £ yy Sa 7 CRA eae Th usd asd Ney ¢ SNY@} JO XG &@ “ON GG ‘ON 8 ‘ON ST ON | OL ‘ON 8 ON See eee cine War el an TION Cut OTOL ULLUNT *suolqzodor1g—‘sosn4a,q—'snjposhyd "g—ITX Wavy], NOMENCLATOR ANIMALIUM GENERA ET SUB-GENERA. 147 Nomenclator Animalium Genera et Sub-Genera.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. CHALMERS MITCHELL (Chairman), Rev. T. R. R. Sreppine (Secretary), Dr. M. Laurie, Professor’ Maretr Tims, and Dr. A. SMITH WoOoDWARD. Tue war with Germany precluded the Committee from remitting any money to Berlin, and we have no recent knowledge as to the progress of the compilation. Accordingly we have not applied to the Treasurer for payment of the grant, which, by the rules of the Association, now lapses. J The Committee asks for reappointment without a grant. The ‘Nomenclator’ was so far advanced, and promised to be so useful to systematic zoologists, that the Committee desires to be in a position, when peace comes, to inquire into and report on what has happened to the work, and to consider if any useful steps could be taken in this country. Marsupials.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Denby (Chairman), Professors 'T.. FLYNN and G. H. NicHouus (Secretaries), and Professors EK. B. Pouuron and H. W. Marerr Tims, appointed to obtain, as nearly as possible, a representative Collection of Marsupials for work upon (a) the Reproductive Apparatus and Development, (b) the Brain. Tue sum of 1001. granted to this Committee was placed in the hands of Professor Masson, of Melbourne. 50]. of this was paid over to Professor Flynn in September last, and Professor Masson kindly under- took to make arrangements for further payments as required. The Chairman has received information to the following effect from Pro- fessor Flynn :— It has not been possible to do more than just commence the work of the Committee, and on that account we ask that the unexpended balance of the grant may be retained. It is necessary to point out that if the grant is to be economically used, it should be spent principally during the breeding season of Marsupials, since only at that time can material be got which fulfils both objects of the grant. The main breeding season of Marsupials in Tasmania is during late June and July, and for Monotremes in Sep- tember and October. In other words, as regards Marsupials, the first breeding season since the receipt of the grant is only now commencing, and, in the case of the Monotremes (for any organised attempt on which the grant arrived too late last year), the breeding season does not occur for another three months. Tt has, however, been necessary to obtain reproductive organs in the resting stage, and, in accordance with this, collections of the follow- ing genera have been made:—Dasyurus, Sarcophilus, Bettongia, ‘ L 2 148 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Potorous, Dromicia, Perameles, Halmaturus, Pseudochirus, Vulpecula, Phascolomys, Ornithorhynchus, and Echidna. The total expenditure to date is 211. 17s. 6d. An endeavour has been made to keep skins and skulls of as many animals as possible, and it is confidently expected that the value of these will be equal to a con- siderable amount of the grant. The Committee desires to retain the balance of the grant, and applies for reappointment. Biology of the Abrolhos Islands.—Interim Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman), Professor W. J. Dakin (Secretary), Dr. J. H. ASHwoRTH, and Professor F. O. BowEr, appointed for the investigation of the Biology of the Abrolhos Islands and the North-West Coast of Australia (North of Shark’s Bay to Broome), with particular reference to the Marine Fauna, Owr1ne to the war and several other unforeseen circumstances, the departure of the expedition for the Abrolhos Islands has had to be delayed. Owing to delays in the mail it was near the end of May before intimation was received from the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society that a grant for the purposes of the Abrolhos in- vestigation had been passed. Without this the full programme could not have been carried out. Everything has now been arranged, and, unless some extraordinary developments take place through the war, the expedition will leave Perth on November 1. Equipment has been ordered to the amount of 341. out of the British Association grant of 401., but no accounts are to hand, and nothing has yet been paid out. The Committee asks for reappointment for the coming year without further grant. Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.— Report of the Comnuttee, consisting of Mr. E. 8. GoopricH (Chairman), Dr. J. H. AsHwortuH (Secretary), Mr. G. P. BripDER, Professor F. O. BowrEr, Dr. W. B. Harpy, Dr. S. F. Harmer, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lan- KESTER, Professor W. C. McIntosH, and Dr. A. D. WALLER. Tue British Association table at Naples has not been occupied during the current financial year. In April 1914, Mr. J. Mangan, of the Government School of Medicine, Cairo (now Professor of Zoology in Galway), applied for the use of the table from Sept. 12 onwards for four or five weeks, and he was appointed to the table for that period. On Sept. 4, however, he wrote from Cairo as follows: ‘ As all leave has been stopped in the Government service here, I have had to cancel my plans for working during September and October at the British Association table at Naples. . . . Will you please convey to OCCUPATION OF A TABLE AT THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 149 the Committee my thanks for the facilities so kindly offered to me, and my regret that I cannot avail myself of them?’ Mrs, Pixell-Goodrich has published (‘ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ yol. 61, pp. 81-104, pl. viii., 1915) an account of the researches on ‘The Life-history of the Sporozoa of Spatangoids ’ which she carried out in part while occupying the British Association table at Naples in the spring of 1914, Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, con- sisting of Professor A. DENDY (Chairman and Secretary), Sir BE. Ray LANKESTER, Mr. E. S. GoopricH, and Professor J. P. Hitn, appointed to nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth. Mr. J. S. Dunxerty, to whom the use of the table was granted for one month in 1914, reports as follows: ‘ At Plymouth last summer I was collecting material from fishes’ _gall-bladders for the study of Myxosporidian life-histories. I obtained some very good material, especially of Ceratomyxa drepanopsette, which supports, so far as I have examined it, the theory of Myxo- sporidian Cytology put forward in a paper at present printing in “* Hdin- burgh Proc. R.S.,’’ entitled ‘‘ Agarella gracilis, a new species of Myxosporidian from Lepidosiren paradoza.’’ Unfortunately the war has intervened and I am unable at present to continue my research work, but I hope to continue my investigation of the material, and to publish the results thereof after the war.’ _ Since the last meeting only one application for the use of the table has been received. This application was granted, but the applicant subsequently withdrew owing to his employment on munition work. The Natural History of the Isle of Man.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor W. A. HeRDMAN (Chairman), Mr. P. M. C. Kermope (Secretary), Dr. W. T. CALMAN, Rey. J. Davipson, Mr. G. W. LampnuGH, Professor E. W. MacBrips, and Lord RAGLAN, appointed to make a Survey thereof. Tue Committee regret to report that under the conditions caused by the war they find it impossible now to carry on their proposed investigation of the Natural History of the Isle of Man, and, as they see no prospect of so doing for some considerable time, they think it better that they should not be reappointed at the forthcoming meeting of the British Association. 150 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for School and University use.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. IL. Myres (Chairman), Rev. W. J. Barton (Secretary), Pro- fessor R. L. ArcHER, Dr. R. N. RupmMosze Brown, Mr. G. G. CHISHOLM, Colonel C. F. CLosg,* Mr. G. F. DANIELL, Professor H. N. Dickson, Mr. A. R. Hinks, Mr. O. J. RB. HowaktH, Colonel Sir D. A. JoHnston, and Mr. E. A. REEVES, appointed to inquire into the Choice and Style thereof. [Puates VII. anv VIII. ] - Part I. Tue Committee was appointed at the Dundee Meeting of the Asso- ciation, and presented an interim Report at the Birmingham Meeting, dealing mainly with the contents and arrangement of a School Atlas for senior and for junior students, and suggesting a number of points on which an expression of teachers’ opinions was desired. Copies of this interim Report have been distributed widely among school teachers, as well as to members of the Geographical Association, and some interesting criticisms and suggestions have been received, for which the Committee desires to express its thanks. The Secretary and other members of the Committee have taken various opportunities of meeting geographers and teachers informally at meetings in London and in the provinces, and of learning their views at first hand. Many suggestions gathered in this way are embodied in the Committee’s Report. , The paragraphs which follow, dealing with the choice and arrange- ment of maps in an Atlas, or in a systematic series of wall maps, are reproduced with modification from the interim Report. Those, on the other hand, which deal with problems of style and draughtsmanship are new, and represent the principal task of the Committee in the last two years. The grant made by the Association for experimental cartography has been of the greatest value, and the thanks of the Committee are due to the Royal Geographical Society for facilities for the preparation of specimen sheets, the most important of which are reproduced here. Contents and Arrangement of a School Atlas. While not desiring in any way to stereotype the contents of a School Atlas, the Committee submits its syllabus of maps as a concrete example of what may fairly be included in such a publication. The needs of junior and senior students differ widely, and it was found necessary from the outset to deal with them separately. But throughout the inquiry it has been the object of the Committee to provide as far as possible for a Senior and a Junior Atlas which should be consistent in their general plan and execution. * Retired from Committee at the outbreak of war. [Puate VII. rt ‘ ans a MUSE Ge SU ‘ ~— & BrLt58S British Association, 86th Report, Manchester, 1915.) (Poste VIL 25° STYLE AND SIZE OF TYPE FOR A JUNIOR SCHOOL ATLAS, NOTE—Typs of the smallest size shown on this map should not be used for a Junior School Atlas. Pee rerkdhjer@ S Ly Ate | i Geno, ae ; fone gS ” “5 Sicily eh sua BY Man Tilustrating the Report on Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for School and University Uso. eRe a NE i 55 a c nal —— = ¥ = [Prare VIII. STYLE AND SIZE OF TYPE FOR A SENIOR SCHOOL ATLAS NOTE—Type of the smallest size shewn on this map should not be used for a School Atlas. — ty J\ Jor " PbS ki ) \ uot \, eer Ske [oem e = : i Bitoni ie ae | ; == : il a | pase ixD, err. all Illustrating the Report on Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for School and University Use. [0 flow Pte V1 ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS, 151 Senior School Atlas. ‘Royal ’ paper (25 X 20 in.) will give a map 104 X 8} in. on the single page. Double-page maps would, of course, be best mounted on guards ; but this arrangement is too costly for a School Atlas, and the practical difficulty is best overcome by printing such maps as two single pages with an overlap, and binding them as usual. It is essential that all the maps should be readily comparable. In particular, all world maps should be on the same projection. As few scales should be employed as possible. All the Continents should be shown on the same scale; unless, as below, a double scale is used for Europe. For larger-scale maps simple multiples of this scale are recommended, as will be seen from a comparison of the lists which follow. For questions of scale, projection, lettering, and other points of style and draughts- manship reference should be made to the second half of this Report. In maps of climate the annual distributions are less useful for teaching than the seasonal, and it would be a great gain if the summer and winter conditions were represented on maps of the North and South Hemispheres. It will be noted in the appended list that the double- page maps of the Continents each allows for two insets; for India three seasons should be represented. Maps representing the distribu- tion of population have high value; geological and vegetation maps should be included if possible, but are not essential. Historical and economic maps belong to special atlases or to text-books, and should be excluded from the School Atlas. It will be enough to indicate the busier regions, industrial and agricultural, if these do not emerge sufficiently clearly from the population map. It has been suggested that world distribution maps would be better placed at the end than at the beginning of an Atlas. , List of Maps. World Maps. (1) Maps of a selected region, to exhibit scales, methods of showing relief, &c. _ (2) Hemispheres, heights, depths: section along 45° N. (3) Hemispheres, political: inset River Basins. (4) Hemispheres, population, density: Races inset. (5) Polar Regions: Land and Sea Hemispheres. (6) Vegetation: Ocean Currents. (7) Commercial Highways and Development. (8) Temperature: January, July, Annual Range. (9) Pressure and Winds, two or four months. Rainfall: seasonal. Europe. (10) Europe (20 millions), physical. Inset (40 millions) ; tempera- ture: January, July. (11) Europe (20 millions), political. Inset (40 millions); rainfall, seasonal. (12) (a) Population, density; languages. (b) Minerals and manu- facturing regions. 152 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Map Ia. The European areas to be shown are enclosed by broken lines (Maps 13 and 17a) and continuous lines (Maps 14, 15, 17z, and 18). (13) Mediterranean (10 millions). (14) Central Europe (5 millions). (15) Italy and Balkans (5 millions). (16) Alps. (17) (a) N.W. Europe (10 millions). (b) Spain (5 millions). (18) (a) France (5 millions). (b) British Isles (5 scam (19) Large-scale maps; e.g., position of Vienna. America. (20) (a) North America (40 millions), physical. Inset (80 millions) ; temperature: January, July. (b) North America (40 millions), political. Inset (80 millions) ; rainfall, seasonal. ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 153 (21) (a) U.S.A. (20 millions). (b) Atlantic Coast (10 millions). (22) Canada (20 millions), and Special Areas. (23) South America (40 millions), political. South America (40 millions), physical. Asia. (24) Asia (40 millions), physical. Inset (80 millions); temperature : January, July. (25) Asia (40 millions), political. Inset (80 millions); rainfall, seasonal. (26) Southern Asia (20 millions). (27) China and Japan (20 millions); Palestine. (28) India, political (large scale); climate. Australasia. (29) (a) Oceania, including East Indies (40 millions), political. (b) Australia (20 millions), physical. (30) (a) East Australia. (b) New. Zealand, larger scale. Africa. (31) Africa, physical (40 millions). Political (40 millions). (32) South Africa (20 or 12 millions). Insets, West Africa, Egypt, temperature, rainfall. British Isles. England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, physical and political (2 millions). Special regions, A, B, C, D, E, 1: 500,000. Special regions, a, b, c, 1: 200,000. It appears from our inquiries that there is a real demand for large- scale maps of special regions in the British Isles, which could best be met by special editions for different populous areas. Junior School Atlas. In a Junior School Atlas for each Continent one map (physical, with political boundaries shown in red) would meet all needs. Maps 4 and. 5 would be combined; also 8 and 9 (temperature and rainfall only). For 26 and 27, India, China, and Japan (20 millions) might be substituted, and the following maps omitted, viz., 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21p, 22, 29a, and 30a, together with 184 if France were shown on Map 14. The Committee is unable to make any recommendation with reference to an Atlas for University use, feeling that a University student should have access to and familiarity with a wider variety of maps than could he included in one volume. Panu If: Style and Draughtsmanship. The chief criticisms of existing School Atlases are directed against excess of names, impurity of colour, and indistinctness of lettering. 154 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Map Ib. Edin burgh ° Glasgow Lake District o Birmingham A, B, C, D, E are areas, some of which might be shown by double-page maps on a large scale (e.g.,1: 500,000) ; a, b, c, single-page maps of holiday areas on a still larger scale (say 1 : 200 000), ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 155 Most Atlases still err on the side of excess of names, though in some quarters there has been great improvement of late. The Atlas should be provided with a place index, giving latitude and longitude of important sites not named on the plates. This would enable the student to add the names which he requires for his own purposes, on a blank outline. The use of such blank maps has increased greatly in recent years, and it is desirable that a School Atlas should be so published that its maps may be obtained also singly, both fully coloured and also in outline. Where both orographical and political maps of one region are pro- vided, no names but those of physical features should appear on the orographical map. The maps should have as little as possible in common beyond the outline, rivers, and railways. Colour. The ‘layer-system’ is almost universally used for the expression of relief in School Atlases. Intermediate heights may be shown by conventionalised hachuring. Contours on such maps can give but little idea of form, and are not recommended except when required in print- ing, as to bound the colour bands. In nearly all the Atlases examined the colours were found to be too deep. The Committee confidently recommends that the colour-scheme adopted for the International Map 1 : 1,000,000 and based on the teaching of physiological optics be followed as closely as possible for all physical maps. For the sea, deepening shades of blue should be used, not white, the depths being indicated in feet rather than in fathoms; for lakes, the same blue as for the shallowest sea. Rivers and river names should be in blue. Red lines which stand out well from the background can be used to show political frontiers on an orographical map. Colour indicating relief should not be interrupted at the frontiers but carried to the margin of the map. Reference should be made to an article on ‘ Relief in Cartography ’ ( Geographical Journal,’ March and April, 1914) by Captain (now Major) H. G. Lyons, D.Sc., F.R.S., to whom the Committee is indebted for much help and advice. Gloss. It is important that no glossy inks or super-calendered paper should be used for a School Atlas. ‘The reflections from a glossy surface are apt to injure eyesight, partly by interfering with binocular vision. Maps, coloured or uncoloured, can be produced without extra expense on paper from which the specular reflection at 45 degrees does not exceed the diffuse reflection (see Section L, reports on ‘ The Influence of School Books upon Eyesight,’ 1913 and 1915). Lettering. Four styles of lettering are used on the Maps II. and III. printed in this report: (a) The North-west quarter is entirely sans-serif except 156 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. for the names of States; (b) the South-west quarter is the ordinary Roman and italic with strong serif; (c) the North-east quarter is entirely Roman with the exception of water-names and the names of physical features (the principal point of comparison between (b) and (c) lies in the smallest town names, which in (6) are italic and in (c) Roman) ; (d) the South-east quarter is like (a) but entirely sans-serif. There are more names and the letters are smaller. With reference to size, Map II. shows letterings generally suitable for a Junior School Atlas, Map III. letterings generally suitable for a Senior School Atlas. The smallest type (in the South-east quarter) is in each case too small for use in the appropriate Atlas. With reference to style, for the larger sizes the best style is one approaching sans-serif. The italic when used for the larger sizes, or with too frequent distribution in any size, is apt to produce a dazzling effect. On the other hand, italic by its obliquity gives a larger letter for a given height, and this increase of size is particularly advan- tageous with smaller names; it also affords a useful model for students to copy in manuscript. A sparing use of italic for small names is there- fore recommended, together with a sans-serif style for all permissible sizes. Note.—The maps are published for purposes of illustration only. They are in no respect models, nor has the Committee dealt with the orthography of names. Projections. Few varieties of projection should be employed in a School Atlas. For Hemispheres, Clark’s Minimum Error Projection is best; the Globular Projection is to be avoided. For Continents and for the larger countries, Zenithal Equal Area; for the smaller countries a simple conical development. The excessive distortion of Mollweide’s Homolo- graphic Projection makes it unsuitable for school use. From the body of the Atlas, Mercator’s Projection shouid be excluded; it can, however, be effectively employed as an Index Sheet. It is an excellent lesson in distortion to plot carefully on a Mercator’s Projection the areas covered by the individual maps of the Atlas. We consider that Hemisphere maps should be much more freely employed, since they are the most accurate representations (except the globe) of the Karth’s surface. Where practicable, they should be used to exhibit world dis- tributions of all kinds. It has been stated already that the scales employed should be few and as a rule simple multiples one of another. On each map the scale should be clearly stated. In the margin should be indicated other towns in the same latitude and also (on maps of wide extent) the area of a quadrilateral of the network. Tt will be noted that the projection in Maps II. and III. has been divided into two halves. The Western half shows a map bounded by meridians and parallels. Its advantages are evident, and it is suggested that the map of Europe should be bounded in this way, to serve as a warning that a vertical line on the map does not necessarily run North and South. The utility of carefully designed insets occupying the margin far outweighs any distraction which they may cause to the eye. ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 157 Conventional Signs. In general, conventional signs should not be multiplied or created ad hoc. The few recognised signs are sufficient, unless to indicate any new feature, such as a first-class wireless telegraphy station, or the employment of river water for power or irrigation. The limit of navigation on a river may well be shown by an anchor. The solid black dot for town sites has advantages over the fine open circle, as better revealing concentration of urban population. Larger towns require a larger dot or a dot within a circle. Railways and canals should be shown by single lines of a distinctive character; a fine single black line should be avoided. On large-scale maps a symbol is required for roads also, since motor traffic has restored their significance. Words or conventional signs indicating the distribution of economic production are strongly deprecated. If economic factors must be ex- hibited on a general map, solid colour or shading should be used to show the concentration of industrial population, or the locality of high pro- duction of two or three commodities of first importance. Black and white maps in school books (textual maps) should not attempt to supersede Atlas maps, but should be confined to their function of illustrating statements in the text. Mechanical shading is often either too coarse or too light. The use of large areas of solid black should be cautiously exercised. White letters on a black ground, and black letters on a shaded area, too often tend to print obscurely. The size of type, if intended to be read, should be as carefully considered as in the Atlas, and additional allowance should be made for imperfection in reproduction. Over-reduction in the camera from the original drawing is one of the commonest faults in block-maps, and owing to limitations imposed by the size of the page, the fault lies usually in the drawing. In general a textual map must be simple and not attempt to show high detail, and features tending to mutual obscuration should not be shown on the same map. Thus the same phenomenon for different seasons or associated phenomena (e.g., isotherms for January and July, or isotherms and isohyets) should not be shown on the same map—the particular examples cited apply equally to coloured maps. But this rule is not rigid. It is sometimes difficult to compare the phenomena shown on two maps (e.g., the climatic and the form divisions of a large country) when the two might have been exhibited on the same map without obscurity. Wall Maps. The recommendations of the Committee in regard to the style of a School Atlas apply almost without modification to wall maps. The scales employed should be as few as possible, and should be simple multiples of each other. This is more easily arranged in a set of wall maps than in an Atlas, because there is here no necessity that the maps should be of uniform size, or that the amount of margin should be uniform throughout the series. For the same reason, it is far less necessary that the map area should be foursquare, especially in maps of continents and oceans, where every effort should be made to emphasise the fact that the objects represented lie upon a spheroidal surface. Awkward blank areas in the margin, which would be dis- 158 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. tressing in an Atlas-page, are invaluable for supplementary letterpress in a wall map; though they should never be so far filled up as to prevent the map itself from standing out boldly on the sheet. The far larger scale of a wall map is no excuse for the introduction of minute detail or a crowd of names. A wall map is essentially a diagram. The use of wall maps without names, or with only a few names or initials appended to town-dots or the mouths of rivers, is greatly to be encouraged. Some French wall maps are printed in duplicate, back to back, with the names on one side, and the physical features and town-dots, unnamed, on the other. Even more than in the Atlas, colour shows relief better than con- tours. Inclined illumination from the North-west gives, in skilful hands, an almost pictorial effect. The colours of a wall map should not, however, be too bright or deep, with the single exception of the scarlet which is appropriately used for all kinds of arbitrary lines. Wall maps are often too elaborate and costly. The paper must, how- ever, be good enough to stand occasional cleaning with breadcrumb or soft indiarubber. The use of inferior paper has led to the current practice of varnishing the surface. Varnish has fatal effects upon a map. The reflected light from the surface makes the map useless to a large class in a well-lighted room and actually diminishes the amount of light from the printed and coloured surface below. There are very few kinds of varnish in use which do not turn brown or yellow with age. It should always be remembered that the wall map is intended to supplement, but not to replace, the Atlas. Most wall maps fail by attempting too much. Gaseous Explosions.—Interim Report of the Committee, con- sisting of Dr. DuGALD CLERK (Chairman), Professor DALBY (Secretary), and Professors W. A. Bone, F'. W. BURSTALL, H. L. CAuuenpar, E. G. Coker, and H. B. Drxon, Drs. R. T. Guazeprook and J. A. Harker, Colonel H. C. L. HonpEN, Professors B. Hopkinson and J. E. PETAVEL, Captain H. Rratt Sankey, Professors A. SMITHELLS and W. Watson, Mr. D. L. CHapman, and Mr. H. E. WIMPERIS. . Ow1ne to the war, the completion of the equipment of the new laboratories of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, already referred to in the previous report, has been seriously delayed, and the investigation of many problems of importance has had to be post- poned. Also, many of the members have been engaged on work for the Government, so that researches on questions under consideration have been either prevented or interrupted. It is not possible, therefore, to present a report to the Association this year. The general work of the Committee, however, has gone on; and during the session three meet- ings were held at the City and Guilds (Engineering) College, at which the following Notes were presented and discussed :— Note 36, by Dr. Harker, on ‘A Method for the Determination of the Specific Heat of the Working Fluid of a Gas Engine at High Temperatures.” , PaaS 1 ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 159 Note 37, by Mr. E. Grirrirus and Dr. J. A. Harker, on ‘ A Method for the Determination of the Specific Heat of Gases at High Temperatures.’ Note 38, by Dr. Watson, on ‘ The Variation of the Mean Temperature of the Cylinder Contents with the Change of Fuel-Air Ratio for an Engine using Petrol, Benzol, and Alcohol.’ Note 36.—At the first meeting of the Committee this session there was some discussion on the problem of the determination of the specific heat at high temperatures of the working fluid of the gas engine by some more direct and, if possible, more continuous method than those hitherto employed by members of the Committee, and the object of the Note was to suggest a method which might fulfil these requirements. Note 37 deals with this problem also, and describes a method which has been roughly tested by the authors and which appears to have important possibilities. Note 38 is an account of an investigation on temperatures reached in the cylinder of a small high-speed four-cycle engine using different fuels, accompanied by a figure giving the results of the experiments. The Committee recommend that they be again reappointed, and ask that a sum of 50]. be granted to them for the ensuing session. e Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. PERRY (Chairman), Professors E. G. Coker and J. EK. PErAveEt (Secretaries), Professor A. Barr, Dr. C. CHREE, Mr. GILBERT Cook, Pro- fessor W. E. Datsy, Sir J. A. Ewinc, Professor lu. N. G. Fiton, Messrs. A. R. Futton and J. J. Gusst, Professors J. B. Henperson, F. C. Lea, and A. EK. H. Love, Mr. W. Mason, Sir ANDREW Nose, Dr. F. Rocers, Mr. W. A. ScoBLE, Dr. T. E. Sranton, Mr. C. E. StRoMEyER, and Mr. J. 8. Winson, to report on certain of the more Complex Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials. Tue Report presented at the Australian Meeting of the British Asso- ciation called attention to the desirability of obtaining complete and systematic data with regard to three definite materials—namely, a mild steel, an axle steel (carbon 0°3 per cent.), and a nickel steel alloy. The Committee obtained a stock of one ton of mild steel early in 1914, but owing to the outbreak of war further supplies of the other materials are not yet available. The physical properties of the mild steel now in the possession of the Committee have been the subject of several in- vestigations, and a chemical analysis made at the National Physical Laboratory has been furnished by Dr. Stanton as follows: C=0'132 per cent. Si=0°028_,, S=O0-01 708s, P=0:028 sez, Mn=0°300_,, 160 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. The material, which is from a single melting, shows the influence of the subsequent rolling as may be observed from some preliminary tensile tests furnished by Mr. Cook, Table I. Tensile Tests of B.A. Mild Steel as received from the makers. TaBLeE I. Nominal diameter of bars, inches . . ts #B 14 15 Actual diameters of bars,inches . . 385 811 1068 | 1°324 machined Yield stress in tons per square inch. . 23°95 19°35 15°80 13°40 Maximum stress in tons per square inch 26-40 24°40 23°40 22-40 Percentage elongation on 8 inches . 22-2 33°5 33°7 376 on 6 in. Percentage elongation on 2 inches... 27°5 55:0 58°5 66°5 Percentage contraction of fracture... 69°8 69°8 65°6 66:2 Professor Dalby has also investigated the properties of a specimen of this steel, cut from a rod 17s in. diameter, with an apparatus! in which the load and extension are recorded automatically upon a photo- graphic plate. The diagram so obtained is shown in fig. 1, together with the numerical results of the test. Table of Data. Original diameter of specimen . . 0°564in. Area=0-25 sq. in. Diameter at fracture . . . . 0°324in, Area=0°0825 ,, Stress at yield point . =18 tons per sq. in. Ultimate stress reckoned on ‘original section |. =248 eS Actual stress of fracture . ; ACS see =53'8 a Percentage reduction ofarea . . . . . =67°4 Distance between gauge points . . . .. =5°00 in. Extension on length of 5 in. 5 ey eee Te =1-53 in. Elongation on length of 5in. . . =30°6 per cent. Corresponding elongation for a standard. length of 10 diameters= 5°64 in. . 4 = 29-7 per cent. Young’s Modulus (E) in pound and inch units. S =30°3 x 10 Photomicrographs made by Professor Dalby and Dr. B. P. Haigh show that the structure is of a usual type for steel of this composition. The experiments prove that the influence of rolling is considerable and that comparable results cannot be obtained without annealing by some standard method which will bring the material to a uniform molecular structure for all sizes of bars. It has been suggested that the bars should be heated at a tempera- ture of 900° C., and cooled in the air. Mr. W. A. Scoble has made an investigation of one of the sizes of bars after heating to 900° C. in an electric furnace, and allowing them to cool in position. An account of his results is given in Appendix A. An investigation of the effects of alternating stress has also been made by Dr. B. P. Haigh and is described in Appendix B. 1 An optical load-extension indicator, together with some diagrams obta:ned therewith. Proc. R. S. 1912. Lcad-extension diagrams taken with the optical load-extension indicator, Proc. R. S. 1913. Load in tons, ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 161 Dr. F. C. Lea and Mr. C. E. Stromeyer have joined the Com- mittee during the year. The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 1001. APPENDIX A. Report on Static Tests of a Mild Steel received from the British Association Stress Committee. By Mr. W. A. ScosBte. The preliminary tensile tests made by Mr. Cook showed that the vield stress varied from 23°95 tons per square inch for the * bar Fia. 1, by rt r i" Extension in inches, to 13°40 tons per square inch for the lis-inch bar. To compare the results of static tests on the different bars it was clear they should be brought to a uniform condition, or the advantage of having them of the same steel would be neutralised. At this time the question of annealing had not been raised, but the specimens for which the test results are given below were all subjected to the following treatment. The specimens were cut from a +é-inch round bar, placed in an electric furnace and heated with the furnace to a temperature of about 900° C. The bars were allowed to cool inside the furnace. Tension Test.—The specimen had screwed ends and was turned down to 0°499-inch diameter. There was a very slight indication that the strain increased more rapidly than the stress. The extensometer used was of special design, and the measurement of elongation was certainly correct to within 0°5 per cent. Yieldstress . . . «. . +. ~ . 410-04 tons per sq. inch. Maximum stress . . . . . . 20-89 ,, br pe Elongation on 5 inches (10 diameters) . 36 per cent. Reduction in area at fracture . . . 69-6 percent. * E’ 28,800,000 lbs. or 12,850 tons per sq. inch. 5. 162 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Bending Test.—The specimen was turned to 0°4365-inch diameter and subjected to a uniform bending moment. ‘The deflection was measured on a length of 4 inches by a sensitive piece of apparatus supported on the specimen. { Bending moment at first pele; . 168 Ibs,-inches. Maximum stress 5 3 . 9-18 tons per sq. inch, Final bending moment . 260 lbs.-inches. { Stress, assumed uniform over section 8-37 tons per sq. inch. “EB” from straight portion of curve 30,400,000 Ibs. per sq. inch. 13,900 tons per sq. inch. Torsion Tests.—The diameter of the test piece was 0°4367 inch, and the twist was measured on a length of 4°47 inches. A torque-twist Benoine. “ TORSION. 2 “Terave or Benoinc Moment. Las-ins. Fia, 2. curve is given in fig. 2. The curve deviates from the straight line at a torque of about 120 Ibs.-inches (3°27 tons per square inch) and complete yield takes place at 240 Ibs.-inches (5°31 tons per square inch on the assumption of uniform stress distribution). This result was considered to be unsatisfactory, and another torsion test was made on the specimen which had already yielded slightly by bending. There appeared to be no straight line portion to the torque- twist curve, a time effect was measured at 110 lbs.-inches (3°0 tons per square inch), and final yield took place at 210 lbs.-inches (4°65 tons per square inch on the assumption of uniform stress distribution). These results present certain difficulties. The tension test was satisfactory and the data obtained are what would be expected from the grade of steel and from the tests made by Mr. Cook. The _ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 163 elastic limit and yield point appeared to coincide at a stress of 10 tons per square inch. Judged by the first yield the steel is weaker under a bending load (9°18 tons per square inch), but the point is clearly defined on a carefully plotted load-deflection diagram. There was a considerable creep when the skin stress would be 12 tons per square inch, assuming Hooke’s Law to hold. The final stress was evidently between 14°2 (Hooke’s Law) and 8°37 tons per square inch (uniform distribution), and it appears that 9°2 tons per square inch is yery approximately correct for the yield point stress by bending. The torsion results deserve special notice. The first yield apparently took place at 3°27 tons per square inch skin shear stress, and the test piece gave way and was twisting slowly but continuously when the skin stress was between 6°54 (Hooke’s Law) and 5°31 tons per square inch (uniform distribution). The stress difference at first yield appears to be much less in torsion than under bending or tension, but the flow stress difference for torsion is greater than for tension, and probably also greater than for bending. It appeared probable that the point on the torque-twist curve where the straight portion ends was not the point at which yield occurs, possibly because strain was not propor- tional to stress even when the material was elastic, but such an assumption is confused by the fact that strain was never proportional to stress in the second torsion test. In the latter case it is im- possible to locate a yield point, but the final flow shear stress was between 5°71 (Hooke’s Law) and 4°65 tons per square inch (uniform distribution), a result which gives a stress difference in good agreement with that from the tension test. APPENDIX B. Report on Alternating Stress Tests of a Sample of Mild Steel received from the British Association Stress Committee. By Dr. B. P. Haiau. The material supplied was in the form of ¥-inch rolled bar, and was described as ‘ dead-mild’: its tensile strength was approximately 26 tons per square inch, with an elongation of about 21 per cent. on an 8-inch specimen, % inch in diameter. The results of two tensile tests are given below, column A giving the figures obtained in a preliminary test made by Mr. Cook, and column B those in a very slow test, lasting over 30 minutes, made at Greenwich :— A B Diameter of specimen (turned) . . . . 0°385 0°374 Yield stress, tons/sq. in. Beene) He ANEEAE NS 23°95 21:0 Maximum stress, ditto. . . . . . 26°4 25:2 Elongation, percent. . . - +. +. + 22-2 on Gin. 20°5 on 8 in. Reduction of area at fracture, per cent. . : 69°8 71°4 A Brinell test, in which a standard 10 mm. ball was pressed upon a longitudinal section of the bar, with the standard load of 3,000 kg. gave an impression having a diameter of 5°78 mm., indicating a “ hardness number ’ of 104 kg. /sq. mm., equivalent to 66 tons per square inch. The M 2 164 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. ratio between the maximum stress of the tensile test and the hardness is 0°40 to 0°38, according to the value taken for the tensile test. The specimens used in the tests which are now described were not annealed, but were tested in the condition in which the metal was received. Alternating stress tests were carried out in a machine of the type described at the Dundee Meeting of the Association, 1912.2 In this machine the alternating stress applied to the specimen is obtained by combining two pulsating forces (derived from two-phase magnets) acting upon opposite sides of a single armature to which one end of the specimen is rigidly coupled. The inertia force required for the oscilla- tory acceleration of the armature is cancelled by the force of de- flection of a spring which is adjusted to suit the frequency of the test. The load applied to the specimen is determined by measuring the voltage induced in a fine wire secondary coil, wound close to the pole faces of the magnets. To standardise the machine, a phosphor- bronze specimen, fitted with an extensometer, and previously tested under steady stress, is inserted in the machine and stressed by the application of an assigned voltage at the desired frequency. The range of extension measured under alternating stress may be used as the basis of measurement, or, alternatively, the alternating stress may be con- verted to a steady stress by reversing the pull of one of the two mag- nets. Stroboscopic observations showed that the stress applied to the specimen varies very approximately in a sine wave, and it is estimated that the load range of stress can be determined with an accuracy within 1 per cent. Combinations of alternating and steady stress are obtained by extending or compressing the spring used for compensating the inertia of the armature. ‘The stiffness of this spring having been measured, the magnitude of the steady stress is determined by measure- ment of the deflection of the spring. The form of the specimens used in the alternating stress tests is shown in Fig. 3. The maximum stress is developed in the central cylindrical portion of the piece, about 4 inch in length, which is joined to the conical ends by gradual transition curves. The ends of the specimens are screwed, and the necessary precautions are taken to ensure that the test-pieces are free from initial stresses, either torsion or bending, due to the tightening of the grips. The tests may be arranged in seven series, and are summarised in the table given below. In the first series the stress alternated between equal intensities of tension and compression. In three series, II. to IV., steady stresses of tension were applied in combination with the alternating stress, and in the final three series, V. to VII., steady stresses of compression were combined with the alternating stress. The frequency of stress employed was the same in all series—viz., 2,000 per minute. The duration of the tests followed by fracture varied from a very few cycles up to 8 million. Other tests were continued beyond this number, in one instance to seventeen million cycles, without fracture. In Fig. 3 the range of stress is plotted on a base representing the ? See also Hngineering, November 22, 1912. 165 ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, oF 0l “uamtoedg jo wa07 ne S8a1]$| jo abuey ae a 166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF.SCIENCE.—1915. Steady component Series Tons/sq. in. Range of stress Tons/sq. in. Millions of cycles to fracture II. II. IV. V. VI. VII. Nil 4:95 9°87 —521 —9:35 —12:2 57:2 51:2 48-2 39°3 32°7 31°3 313 29°9 29°9 28°8 28°7 27°5 27°5 26-4 26°4 25°4 27:9 26°8 25°8 25°8 25°7 24:7 23°7 28°9 25°8 25°3 23°7 22°7 22°3 21°7 21°2 20°7 21°7 18-1 173 16°5 30°0 268 25°8 24°8 23°7 23°7 22°7 23°7 22°7 21°8 20°8 19°8 19-0 Approx, Nil Specimens became very hot 0003 0:08 0:056 0-16 0-19 0-80 0-41 unbroken after 7°2 0°24 0°64 0°66 1:20 1:22 unbroken after 8:1 do. do. 17°0 Approx. Nil. do. do. 0°67 0°89 0°96 0°91 unbroken after 4°6 do. do. 5:1 0:11 2:08 unbroken after 8°62 do. do. 14°1 Nil 0°13 0-96 1:06 3°14 unbroken after 8°4 do. do. 8:0 0-19 4-60 8°66 1°81 2°69 unbroken after 8°36 ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 167 numbers of cycles endured. It is clear that each series of experiments indicates a limiting range of stress below which the endurance increases with very great rapidity. It may be doubted whether even the longest tests indicate an absolute fatigue limit, but the asymptotes are at least sufficiently clear to indicate a fairly definite value. These values are summarised for the several series in the following table: Limiting range of Series Ac sres alternating steds ons per sq. in. I. Nil 26:0 II. 4°95 24°5 Ill. 9°87 21°5 IV. 12:80 175 V. —521 23°5 VI. —9°35 21°5 VII. —12:20 19°5 In Fig. 4, curve F, the limiting range of stress is plotted as a function of the steady stress applied to the specimen. It is interesting to note that, especially for the tension side of the diagram, the form of 3022 25 ee as 7 25 20 IZ 20 Naval. Brass >. Range of Alternating Stress 0 Steady Stress | Tons/Q” 20 10 0 10: Compression <—- ——~ Tension Fia. 4, the curve is approximately in accordance with the hypothesis expressed by ‘ Gerber’s parabola.’* Thus the results of the tests with combined alternating and steady stresses may be expressed by the formula finez=A/2+VP—ndt or f. =f?—mnAf * See Unwin’s Testing of Materials of Construction, p. 388, 3rd edition. 168 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, where frrax is the maximum permissible combined stress f, being the steady component of stress and A being the range of variation. f is the ultimate strength of the metal and nm the ratio between f and A (= -approximately unity for this metal), the stresses being in tons per sq. in. On the left hand side of the diagram, Fig. 4, representing the results obtained with combinations of alternating and compressive stresses, the curve deviates noticeably from the parabolic form, The 3622 -10 0 10 20 30 Tons/Q)” Es 10 Ala | ‘3 FE ae Fo: 30 Fic. 6. British Association, 85th Report, Manchester, 1915.) [Puate IX. Specimen A. Specimen B. Fie. 5, A.—Fractured after 672,000 cycles. Range of stress 23°7 tons per square inch combined with steady tension of 9°87 tons per square inch. B,—Extended immediately with the same stress of steady tension when range of stress reached 29-0 tons per square inch. . Illustrating Report on Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials. (70 face p. 169 ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 169 discrepancy is greatest with moderate loads and disappears when the magnitude of the steady stress is increased. At this stage, however, the metal is liable to yield in a ductile manner owing to the intensity of the steady stress, so that it is hardly practicable (or profitable) to continue the investigation with higher stresses. Fig. 4 shows also, by the curve D, a limiting range of stress beyond which ductile failure occurs instead of the characteristic fatigue failure. The exact position of the curve is difficult of determination, as the range of stress necessary to produce ductile extension depends on the rate of increase of stress in somewhat the same manner as the form of the stress-strain diagram depends on the rate of application of load. Thus fatigue appears to play a part in ductile extension as well as in brittle fracture, accelerating the development of strain. The two specimens shown in Fig. 5 clearly illustrate the two manners of failure. Thus specimen A fractured after 672,000 repeti- tions of a cycle of stress in which an alternating stress having a range of 23°7 tons per square inch was combined with a steady stress of 9°87 tons per square inch. Specimen B, loaded with the same component of steady stress, extended immediately with reduction of cross sectional area, when the range of alternating stress reached the value of 29 tons per square inch. Ductile failures occurred at lower ranges than this when time was given for the phenomenon to develop, thus the curve D is drawn through the ordinate at 25°2 tons per square inch range, no cases of ductile extension having been met with below this limit. On the com- pression side of the diagram the curve D falls so low that it intersects the curve F. Thus in the series of experiments made with a compres- sive stress of 12°2 tons per square inch, all the specimens failed in a ductile manner, some showing signs of cracks while others simply settled down suddenly without visible cracks. It is remarkable that the zone between the two curves F and D is no wider than is shown in the diagram. In Fig. 6 the maximum and minimum values of the stresses producing fatigue fracture are plotted on a base representing the steady component of the stress-producing fatigue. The elastic limit, yield stress, and maximum strength of the metal are represented by the points E, Y, and M on the line OM, passing through the origin and inclined at 45° to the axes. The full lines show the loci of the maximum and minimum stresses for the B.A. mild steel, while the dotted lines indicate, for the sake of comparison only, the corresponding results obtained with a sample of Naval Brass. (A dotted line in Fig. 4 likewise indicates the same results for Naval Brass.) The strik- ing difference between the forms of the loci indicates that a great deal of experimental work with different metals is still required before any general theory can be evolved. As indicated in the table which follows, the ratio between the semi-range of the limiting fatigue stress (with equal intensities of tension and compression) and the maximum strength of the metal is approximately 0°51. In other mild steels tested by the writer, the value of this ratio has varied between 0°5 and 0°6, the lower value being met with in annealed metal and the higher in cold-strained specimens. 170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, In structural steels containing higher percentages of carbon and posses- sing higher ultimate strengths, the value of the ratio falls to about 0°40. Hlastic limit)! 65) @ UEAREL ea nS cciaOr7 26 Vield:stres’: yp deastiivg. 9 fetal. ef sb dae) oe —PAcOaeOsRRe Maximum stress. «. - -e | 0) %& « » . =25:2=unity Semi-range of limiting alternating fatigue stress =13°0 0°515 Range of limiting pulsating fatigue stress, tension =21-0 0°833 Brinell) hardness 4 9 > et 20 Heit Or S660 A262 The Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Boyp Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. WiLLouGHBY G:ARDNER (Secre- tary), Professor W. Ripceway, Sir Arraur J. Evans, Sir C. Hercunes Reap, Mr. H. Batrour, and Mr. A. BULLEID, appointed to investigate the Lake Villages in the Neighbour- hood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society. (Drawn up by Mr. ARTHUR BULLEID and Mr. H. Sr. GEORGE Gray, the Directors of the Excavations.) Tue second part of the fifth season’s exploration of the Meare Lake Village by the Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society began on September 21, 1914, and continued until October 3. The ground excavated was situated in the same field and was con- tinuous with the work of previous years. The entire area occupied by the dwelling-sites in Field IV. has now been explored, with the exception of the ground covered by the shed and a space of three feet around it. When work is resumed it is proposed to move the shed into Field V. and complete Field IV. at the same time as the explora- tion of Field V. is proceeding. The digging of last autumn included the examination of portions of Mounds IX. and XII., and of the whole of Mounds XVI. and XX. Nething of marked importance structurally was found in or about Mounds XII., XVI., and XX., but the under-mentioned points of interest were discovered in MoundIX. The upper partof the mound was deriuded, and when looked at in section the clay floors appeared arranged in layers, rainbow-fashion. The summit of the arch down to the depth of the sixth floor was missing, and looked as if it had been washed or cut across horizontally before the flood-soil had been deposited. This mound contained, amongst other things, a very remarkable and complete series of superimposed hearths, nineteen in all, and a nearly complete circle of flat split oak wall-posts accom- panied by wattle-work. During the examination sectional and other plans, as well as photographs, were made of the most interesting and important features, as is customary. In May, after the last Report was sent in, the excavation of Dwelling-mounds XVIII. and XIX. was completed, but nothing of structural importance was noted. THE LAKE VILLAGES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF GLASTONBURY. 171 The Relics. Amber.—About one-quarter of a large orange-coloured clouded amber ring (A 3), which, when perfect, was 40 mm. in diameter. Bone Objects.—Perhaps the most interesting objects of bone found in the last excavations at Meare are the three pieces of worked scapule (B 81, 86 and 87). The heads and longitudinal spines have been cut down considerably, and little remains of the flat parts of the bone which have been intentionally removed. Two of these objects are perforated at the head. All of them are ornamented on the upper surfaces, (a) with two long rows of large dots and circles; (b) with transverse incised lines; and (c) with rows of circular depressions 3 mm. in diameter. A scapula of sheep, perforated at the head, was also found. Among the other specimens is a long needle (B 90), with a lop-sided eye countersunk on one side; a smooth and tooled rib-bone (B 82), rounded off at one end, and having two perforations at the other; another perforated rib-bone (B 84); a polished metacarpus of ox (B 88); an awl in fine condition (B 80); a perforated radius of sheep (B 85); and some miscellaneous and, for the most part, incomplete implements connected with weaving. Crucibles.—Two fragments of the usual type. Baked Clay.—Ball of clay with a hole which does not penetrate through. A few sling-bullets and fragments of loom-weights. White Metal.—A wheel-shaped disc, or amulet (Y 2), of white metal ;* external diameter 25°7 mm.; weight 53 grains. This open- work object consists of a ring, or wheel, with four curved spokes (each pair forming an ogee curve); it is ribbed all over on both sides. Déche- lette, in ‘ Manuel d’Archéologie Préhistorique Celtique et Gallo-Ro- maine,’ 1914, figures very similar rings (rowelles) having diameters of from 25 to 50 mm. They are common in the La Téne stations ; some of the ‘ wheels ’ have straight spokes (sometimes only four in number) ; and some of them are ornamented round the outer edge by cogged notches. They have been found in Marne and Bohemia attached to fibule— either fixed to the back of the brooch by means of a small chain, or merely looped on to the bow (see Déchelette, illustration, p. 1298). He has figured similar pendants belonging to the Bronze Age. Bronze.—The two fibule found last September are of considerable interest, one being of the earliest type, the other of the latest type found in the Lake Villages. (EE 9). Fibula of La Téne I. type 7—one of some forty examples of this type so far recorded as having been found in Britain. The specimen is 54°5 mm. in length from the head of the bow to the nose, but the brooch is not complete and the coil is broken. It resembles in outline the longest brooch of this type (86 mm.) found in Britain— viz., that discovered on Ham Hill, Somerset, in 1912 (Taunton Museum).* The Meare specimen is of a somewhat attenuated form, At first it was thought to be of silver, but has since been tested. This is the only specimen of white metal found in the Lake Villages. ? Two brooches of La Téne II. type were found at Glastonbury, but no specimen of La Téne I. * Figured in Proc. Som. Arch. Soc., LVIII. i. 121. 172 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. the vertical depth from the top of the bow to the bottom of the catch- plate being only 13 mm. The bow is ornamented with three parallel grooves arranged lengthwise which terminates in two slight transverse incisions at the catch-end. The tip of the retroflected end almost touches the front of the bow, at a point where there is a decided hollow in the bow. The up-turned end has two flat, circular enlargements ; all the other parts of the catch-plate and nose are ornamented with transverse ribbing. This brooch was found on the W. margin of the superimposed hearths in Mound IX., depth 3°5 ft. below the surface. (EE 10). Fibula of the first century a.p., showing a blending of Late-Celtic with Roman art, and having a hinge-pin; length 47 mm. The tapering bow and nose make an ogee curve. As in EE 9, two transverse grooves occur at the point where, in brooches of earlier type, the retroflected end was attached to the bow. This specimen was found in Mound XII., on the top floor, 1:2 ft. below the surface. A similar fibula was found on Ham Hill (Taunton Museum) and has been figured.* Last September Meare also produced an ornamented finger-ring of flat bronze (1 74); half a wire ring—not for finger (E 72); and a circular ring (E 73), external diameter 49 mm., the ends connected by means of a rivet (rivet missing, hole remaining). The greater part of this solid ring is ‘ lobed’ the whole way round the surfaces of the material. It belongs, perhaps, to the earliest La Téne period. Iron.—The iron objects found this season were few, and included the greater part of a sickle (I 52), pieces of rings, and a large ferrule of flat iron (I 83). Lead and Tin.—A rough leaden ring (L: 10), and a lump of galena (L 9). Glass Beads.—Fifty beads have already been found at Meare—twice as many as were collected in the whole of the excavations at Glaston- bury. Twelve were found last September, and they include a new type in black paste (G 50), ornamented with a row of large dots and circles in relief (the circles overlap one another). There are four small ring-beads of a yellow paste, a blue bead (G 39), a globular blue bead inlaid with yellow spirals (G 46), three of clear glass with yellow spirals, and two of clear glass with yellow wave-pattern. One of the latter (G 41) is drilled transversely from one side, but this hole does not meet the main hole of the bead. This new feature occurs also in the blue and yellow bead, the sides of which have two fairly deep circular depressions and traces of a third just begun. Kimmeridge Shale.—Parts of eleven armlets (K 35 to K 45), the material varying in thickness from 6 mm. to 19°5 mm. The greater part of the plain armlets K 37 and K 43 were found. Two pieces orna- mented with double oblique grooves, from Mound IX., may belong to the same bracelet. K 39 represents rather more than one-quarter of a large stout armlet (not lathe-turned), composed of shale measuring 19°5 mm. by 14 mm. Its moulded edges are ornamented, one with a zigzag pattern, the other with transverse hatching. “ Proc. Som. Arch. Soc., LVI. ii. plate facing p. 55, fig. 7. = i THE LAKE VILLAGES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF GLASTONBURY. 173 Weaving-combs of Antler.—The ten combs found last September bring the Meare collection up to fifty-six. The new specimens, HH 47 to HH 56, are for the most part in good condition, and three of them are perfect. Only five examples of what was then regarded as a rare type, viz., Type 2,° those with oval or rounded enlargements at the handle-end, were found at Glastonbury. Of the ten specimens now found at Meare, no less than seven are of this type (the longest measuring 7 inches in length; two of these are perforated through the enlargement. One is of Type 1, another of Type 4; the remaining one is broken at the handle-end. One of those of Type 2 (HH 56) has the enlargement ornamented with two large concentric circles with a central dot ; both margins of the handle are engraved with a row of eight large semicircles, each of which encloses the usual dot. Other Antler.—We have only nine specimens to record from the recent excavations, and these include two unworked tines of roe-deer (H 106 and H 107). Perhaps the most interesting object is the polished red-deer tine (H 105) into which an iron peg (projecting 55 mm.) has been driven 28 inches from the tip of the tine, causing the tine to split for a distance of 13 inch. An attempt had been made to drive the peg in nearer the tip. H 111 is part of a highly polished “cheek-piece.’ A small ferrule (H 110) with smooth convex sides was also found. A neat piece of work is half an antler ring (external diameter 384 mm.) carved into a twisted rope-pattern design (H. 108). Spindle-whorls.—Meare has already produced seventy-nine spindle- whorls, of which fourteen were found last September. The most interesting is the grey stone specimen (W 78) grooved round the sides and having radiating notches at the mouth of the hole on both surfaces (similar to a whorl from Glastonbury). The others are on the whole rather rude specimens, and were formed from lias and other stone and baked clay. Flint.—Two well-worked scrapers, and part of a small chipped and partly polished celt (F 56). Flint was also represented by a large - number of flakes, a few burnt flakes and scrapers, and two nodules (one of chert). Querns.—Sixty-four saddle and rotary querns have now been found at Meare, besides several fragments unnumbered. Fifteen of the specimens were found in September 1914, all, or nearly all of them, saddle querns. The rotary quern is comparatively rare at Meare. Other Stone Objects.—Of the fifty-three whetstones found in Mound IX. last year, one (S 50) showed much wear from sharpening; another piece (S 49) was deeply grooved by tools in two places; and the butt-end of a shapely specimen (S 57) was perforated for suspension, and the hole countersunk very neatly on both surfaces. Some of the hammer-stones discovered were well shaped (especially S 52, 53, and 55). Two hundred and ninety-three sling-stones (S 54) were found scat- tered over a small area in Mound IX.; the same dwelling produced 111 sling-stones in addition. Several small discoidal stones—perhaps intended for the manufacture of spindle-whorls—were found; also a few small smooth pebbles. Pottery.—Late-Celtic pottery has been no less plentiful than in 5 The types are described in Glastonbury Lake Village, i. 270, et seq. 174 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. former seasons, and includes a large number of ornamented fragments. Little of it has, however, been repaired or classified yet. A small unornamented pot (P 48), almost perfect, was found in Mound IX., and from the same dwelling we obtained a large black pottery vessel (P 50)—now restored from many fragments. It is hand-made, and in its original condition it must have been far from symmetrical. It is 124 inches in height. At an inch and a half below the rim the pot is encircled by a cordon, and below this the ornamentation takes the form of a bold wave-pattern also in relief and covering a width of two inches. The same pattern, not in relief but grooved, occurred at Glastonbury. P 51 from the top floor of Mound IX. is an interesting piece—a high foot-ring or hollow base of a vessel with a round hole or omphalos of a late and debased character, probably dating from near the end of the second century B.c. and similar to a few others found at Glaston- bury and Wookey Hole. Its nearest parallel is probably the late type from Hengistbury Head, figured in the Report on those excavations, 1915, plate xvii. fig. 14. Human Remains.—Fragmentary human remains from Meare number only ten; none were found in 1914. Tusks.—Several boars’ tusks were found, including two perforated specimens (T 16 and T 17). Animal Remains.—Plentiful, including several bird-bones and an otter’s skull. Knife-cut and gnawed bones were frequently met with, and in Mound IX. saw-marks were observed on eight horn-cores. The Committee are desirous that they should be authorised to act for the ensuing year on the part of the British Association, and that a grant of 20]. should be made in aid of the exploration so that the work may be resumed as soon as the war is ended. The exploration is mostly paid for by local effort, and will be discontinued during the war. The Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. AUDEN, Professor W. Ripceway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professors Boyb Dawkins and J. L. Myrss, Mr. A. L. Lewis, and Mr. H. PEAKE, appointed to conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Owine to the necessarily late date of the excavations at Avebury Stone Circle in 1914, it was not possible to present a full report of the work carried out at the meeting in Australia. An interim report was sub- mitted, but was not printed, and it was considered advisable to postpone the presentation of a complete Report for 1914 until it could be com- bined with that for 1915. During the 1914 excavations at Avebury, the object of the Committee was (1) to conduct excavations in the fosse immediately to the east of the entrance-causeway leading from Kennet Avenue, and to reach the original bottom of the fosse at this ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 175 point, with a view to exploring the lowest layers of silting and exposing the original surfaces of the fosse and causeway ; (2) to cut through the vallum so as to lay bare the old surface line. Mr. H. St. G. Gray was again employed to carry out the work under the general direction of the Committee. Careful survey-plans were made of this portion of the monument and of the portions excavated, and a number of photographs were taken. These were submitted together with the interim report. Mr. Gray’s report upon the work which he carried out is appended, and takes the place of the abridged account presented to the Australian meeting. The finds, although not as numerous as could have been desired, have so far borne out the impressions derived by the Committee from previous excavations both at Avebury and elsewhere (Arbor Low in Derbyshire and The Stripple Stones on Bodmin Moor, Cornwall). No trace of metal was discovered in the lowest layers of silting in the fosse, nor on the old turf line below the vallum, and the probability of the earthworks and stone circle at Avebury being referable to the Late Neolithic period is sustained by the recent evidence. At the same time, it is most desirable that the exploration of the original bottom-surface of the fosse should be prosecuted further, with a view to laying bare a larger extent of this surface and increasing the number of finds therefrom. The most reliable evidence as to the date of the monument is to be derived from the lowest layers of the silt in this gigantic ditch. In the hopes that further excavation work would be able to be undertaken, the trenches already cut were not filled up, but were left open, a fencing having been erected round this part to protect cattle and horses. The immense original depth of the fosse can thus be seen, as also the conformation of the east side of the entrance-causeway. This should prove of much interest to archeologists. Application was made at the Australian meeting for a further grant to enable this work to be carried out during 1915, and a sum of 2OI. was allotted. Owing, however, to the effects of the war, it was found that it would be impossible to secure the labour necessary for the work contemplated, and the Committee felt obliged to abandon the proposed plan of operations. It was recognised, moreover, that the continuance of the war rendered such work inopportune. Nevertheless, a very useful and important piece of work was carried through during the spring of this year. The very careful survey of the Avebury Circle, on a scale of 40 feet to the inch, which had been from time to time plotted out by Mr. Gray during the excavations in previous years, was cempleted, and has since been carefully mounted by Messrs. Stanford. This will prove to be by far the most reliable and complete plan of the monument, and the portions excavated are accurately indicated upon it, and can thenceforth be located with certainty. A small sum was drawn for this purpose from the British Association grant. _ In view of the unavoidable postponement of the important excava- tion work on account of the dearth of labour and on account of the serious troubles in which the country has been involved, the Committee ask that the unexpended balance of the grant made in 1914 may be credited to them, and that this may be increased to 401. in all, so that 176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, the proposed work may, if national circumstances permit, be efficiently carried out in the spring of 1916. Permission is also asked for, as previously, to apply for financial support from outside sources. This 13 rendered necessary on account of the very extensive excavations which are necessary before the lower strata can be reached. The results so far obtained amply warrant a renewed application for funds for the further exploration of this most important archeological site. In any case, a sum of not less than 151. will be required for filling in and making good the excavated areas at present remaining exposed, but it is hoped that means may be available to enable the inevitable filling in to be effected concurrently with fresh exploration. The Committee wish to express their thanks to Major L. D. C. Jenner, the owner, and to Mr. HE. A. Parsons, the tenant, for their permission to conduct excavations upon the selected portion of the monument, and to the former for the loan of materials. Thanks are also due to Dr. W. Wright, Mr. C. Reid, and Mr. E. T. Newton for their kindness in examining and diagnosing some of the finds. The Avebury Excavations, 1914. By H. St. Grorce Gray. I. Introductory Remarks. The following account of the work of excavation carried out at Ave- bury in 1914, under the general direction of the Committee, is a report upon two large cuttings, which, owing to their extent and the great depth of the fosse, could not be completed in the time at my disposal, although the digging was in progress from April 11 to May 5 (exclusive of the time occupied in filling-in that part of the vallum-cutting so far com- pleted). The writer is therefore placed at considerable disadvantage in arriving at any general conclusions, especially as very little of the lower silting has yet been removed from the comparatively large area of fosse which was under examination. For these reasons, this report will comprise a description of the excavations and the finds generally, the question of date and the comparison of this with previous work being deferred until the two cuttings, or at any rate the important fosse excavation, have been completely examined. A maximum number of sixteen men was employed, but we were generally working with from twelve to fourteen; one half of them had had previous experience at the Avebury excavations either for one or more seasons. The weather was remarkably fine except during the last day or two, but only an hour was lost owing to heavy rain. Sectional diagrams of the fosse and vallum were made as the work pro- ceeded, the position of the more important objects being clearly indicated. Twenty-three satisfactory photographs (half-plate) were taken during the season, and these, added to those taken between 1908 and 1913 (which number 86), not only show the progress and chief features of the excavations, but also include general views, together forming a somewhat complete photographic survey of Avebury. The reports already published ' on the excavations at Avebury deal chiefly with the investigations which were carried out in 1908, 1909, and 1911? in the 8.S.W. fosse on Lord Avebury’s property. 1 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1908, pp. 400-413; 1909, pp. 271-284; and 1911, pp. 141-152. ? The work of 1912 was confined to making the greater part of a survey-plan of Avebury, which will be completed this year (scale 40 ft, to the inch). ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES, 177 In 1909, as the termination of the S.S.W. portion of the fosse was not located at Cutting III. (close up to the road-hedge), its exact position evidently occurring under the present road into Avebury from Devizes and Marlborough, small trial-cuttings (Nos. IV., V., VI., and VII.) were made on the east side of the road and in proximity to the two large standing stones of the great outer circle. This led to the discovery of the southern entrance-causeway, the line of which is now repre- sented by the small plantation of beech-trees on Major Jenner’s pro- perty and a small part of the grass-field on Lord Avebury’s land between the beech-trees and the two large stones (the portals of the entrance-way into the central area). This causeway has already been described in the 1911 Report, but it will be desirable to repeat the chief features then revealed. As far as the solid causeway could be examined (and the trees were a hindrance to investigation), its ancient surface of solid chalk was reached at an average depth of 1'7 ft. below the present surface, and found to be about 24 ft. wide.° On the east side of the causeway the level of the solid chalk was found to recede gradually as if sloping off to join the upper margin of the end-wall of the §.S8.E. fosse, and taking the form of rough, slight ledges not very clearly defined. On the west side such obstacles as the wooden fence, the bank and hedge, and the modern road itself prevented any exact determination of the manner in which the 8.8.W. fosse finished and the causeway began. ‘The vallum now remaining nearest the causeway would appear to have obstructed the entrance-way from the Kennet Avenue, but this is not really so, for allowance must be made for the silting-down otf the material composing the vallum at its end, forming a talus, and for the fact that other beech-trees have been planted in this position, caused obstruction, and gathered round them a certain amount of decayed vegetable matter’ (Report, 1909). The work of 1914 was confined to a very large excavation (Cutting IX.) into the silting of the fosse on the east side and against the solid chalk causeway, and a cutting (No. X.) through the greater part of the S.S.E. vallum. The crest of the vallum in the position of the east end of Cutting IX. is about 31°5 ft. higher than the surface of the silting of the fosse, and the latter is 14 ft. below the central area (outer circle). There is a decided berme between the fosse and vallum in the position of the 1914 excavations.* II. General Observations on Cutting IX., through the S.S.E. Fosse, 1914. The fosse excavation marked out for examination measured 44 ft. in length, and the width was regulated by the line taken by the escarp $24 ft. is the distance which exists between the two remaining standing- stones of the great outer circle at the entrance to the central area. 4 This berme was noticed by the Rev. A. C. Smith in Guide to the Anti- quities of the North Wiltshire Downs, 1st edit., 1884: ‘The rampart for a considerable portion of its circuit shows an apparent terrace or ‘‘ berme’’ half- way up its side, though this is in reality only the original level of the ground upon which the excavated earth from the fosse was thrown up.’ 1915. N 178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. and counterscarp of the fosse. This part of the ditch being near the road had been used as a receptacle for all manner of rubbish and pots and pans, all of which had in the first place to be cleared, together with the stumps of many bushes. Then, with the owner’s permission, four young trees of some fifteen years’ growth were’ remoyed from this position and transplanted. Afterwards in the removal of the silting, even at considerable depths, the work was much impeded not only by the roots of the bushes and young trees, but also by those of many of the larger trees growing on the causeway. The first week was devoted to the removal of comparatively recent silting at the end of the fosse and along the eastern margin of the causeway down to the level of the surface of the silting at the east end of the cutting. On the completion of this work the true and enormous dimensions of the upper margin of the fosse and its termination against the side of the causeway was revealed. From the summit of the ancient entrance (eastern margin) to the brink of the true fosse—a distance of about 18 {t.—the solid chalk was found to fall gradually, with slight ledges cut at intervals as previously mentioned. From the brink, the solid chalk profile of the fosse—in other words the eastern face of the causeway—dipped downwards at an angle of 61°, its upper margin being nearly straight (and square with the line of the fosse), with a slight concavity towards the west. Following the brink of the fosse in this part it was found that its upper margin had a maximum width of 45 ft. From the true margin of the fosse at the west end a depth of 6°5 ft. of silting had to be removed before the level of the surface of the silting at the east end of the cutting was reached. In re-excavating the successive strata the same arrangement of concave seams of silting were met with as in the fosse cuttings described in the former reports. Almost needless to say, there was found to be a greater depth of mould and mixed silting at the west end than at the east end of the cutting, but an average section of the fosse showing the nature of the silting cannot be delineated until the remaining layers of silting have ultimately been removed.’ It is estimated that about five-eighths of the silting in this large cutting were cleared out at the close of the season’s work. After an infinite amount of patient labour a length of 4:25 ft. of the original floor of the fosse, at the west end and against the face of the solid causeway, was uncovered at the enormous depth of 29°5 ft. below the brink of the fosse, vertically measured, that is 35 ft. below. the top of the ancient causeway and approximately 54°5 ft. below the present crest of the vallum. Even with these dimensions it is difficult to realise the magnitude of this part of the re-excavated fosse without visiting the site. The bottom of the fosse in the part already uncovered was found to be fairly level, the width on the line of the causeway being 13 ft. The lower 7 ft. of the end-wall was inclined at an angle of about 719. * In the lower chalk-rubble silting in Cutting IX. there were occasional seams of mixed silting (fine chalk with some mould) which was much com- pressed and difficult to break up. There were more narrow seams of mould in the chalk-rubble in this cutting than in the others previously excavated. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 179 In the N.W. and §.W. corners of the re-excavated fosse were two shallow channels, or ‘ shutes,’ which appeared to be artificial and cut for a special purpose in the chalk wall; or they may be due to an unsuccessful attempt to square or round the corners uniformly. The channel on the N.W. extended from top to bottom of the fosse (tailing out at the bottom). That on the S.W. stopped about 12 ft. below the brink of the fosse, and was crossed by two or three slight ledges in the lower half. Ill. Human Remains found in the Silting of the Fosse. At a distance of 17 ft. from the east end and in the middle of the cutting, a contracted human skeleton (No. 214), fully adult but of small size, was uncovered at a depth of 5°8 ft. below the surface of the silting. The unexpected discovery was made in mould with very little admixture of chalk, at a time, unfortunately, when the surrounding ground owing to a drizzling rain was sticky and slippery. My absence at breakfast was also unfortunate, and on my return several of the bones had been removed and the skull had evidently been trampled upon before any part of it was actually seen by the workmen engaged at this spot. Some of the bones had been thrown back; these, how- ever, were collected, the picks were set aside, and the clearing of the interment and the surroundings was then carried out by Mrs. Gray and myself, with the assistance of one man. It was seen at once that the skeleton, although the bones were in sequence, was in a decidedly bad state of preservation, and the bones had considerably decayed in many instances. The flexed knees touched a large sarsen stone and the head was to south. The long-bones were much decayed, with the exception of the right tibia,* which, however, was fractured; it was carefully measured in the ground, the length being 286 mm. (114 in.), which, adopting Topinard and Rollet’s formule and taking the mean, gives a stature of only 4 ft. 3°88 in. for a female. She must therefore be classed as a dwarf.’ The skeleton was surrounded by twenty-three sarsen stones (measuring from 6 in. to 24 in. in length), not arranged in symmetrical order, but covering a roughly oval area about 7 ft. by 4 ft. One of the stones appeared to be half a ring-stone.® ® The tibia is not platycnemic, the latitudinal index being 731. ™ Dwarf skeleton from Dog Holes, Warton Crag, Lancs.—Four bones of this individual are sufficiently perfect for measurement, and these are a left tibia {length 305 mm.), a left fibula (length 292 mm.), a left radius (length 226 mm.), and a right humerus (length 258 mm.). In all probability the Dog Holes femora were about 365 mm. in length when perfect. Adopting Rollet and Topinard’s formule for calculating the height, we get an average height from the four bones for the dwarf of 4 ft. 43 in. The epiphyses are united, showing that growth was complete. Age about twenty-five years. There is apparently an absence of pathological conditions (7’rans. Lancs. and Cheshire Antig. Soc. xxx., 1913, 113-114). ® In the Roman stratum above, in various places but more or less over the position of the skeleton, lumps of sarsen had been met with; two pieces measured 18 in. in length each; another 27 in. by 18 in. by 7 in.; and another 21 in. by 18 in. by 7 in. Further west a large sarsen slab was found in the surface mould, length 47 in., max. width 24 in., max. thickness 11 in. (thin on all sides). The latter was probably split off one of the stones of the outer circle and shot over into the fosse. d N 2 180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. The calvaria of the skull was repaired as far as possible and has been examined by the kindness of Professor W. Wright, F.S.A., who reports as follows: ‘The cranium was evidently of oval shape and of considerable but not extreme length. The frontal bone was in two pieces owing to the persistence of the metopic suture. The other sutures of the calvaria were only beginning to be obliterated. The skull bones are remarkable for their thickness. It is interesting to note in the fragment of the occipital region the thick character ceases at the superior curved line. From a small piece of the frontal bone one gathers that the supraciliary eminence was not well marked. The mastoid processes are small. The remains also includes a portion of the right side of the body of the mandible. The lateral incisor, canine, and first and second bicuspid teeth are all considerably worn, particu- larly the first two and the second bicuspid. The first molar must have been lost during life as its socket is entirely closed. The skull belonged to an individual probably over thirty years of age and of the female ’ sex. Three human mandibles were found near the skeleton and at a slightly greater depth, and another in the N.W. part of the cutting. Between these remains and the human skeleton (No. 214) the chin regions of the mandibles permit of comparison. Professor Wright reports that ‘ they suggest a close relationship between the individuals, for they bear a close resemblance to each other. The chins, moreover, are strong and firm. The shape of the cranium (No. 214) in being long is in order, but it was probably not as long as the very long ones found in the chambered long-barrows.’ Tt will be convenient to give the details of the mandibles here: 191. Symphysial part of the mandible of a man (height at symphysis 30 mm.); no teeth remaining; in a weathered condition. ‘Its chief feature is the breadth and strength of the chin’ (W. Wright). Found in the lower part of the mixed silting (loamy chalk silt) and above the chalk-rubble in the N.W. part of the cutting. 212. The left half and the region of the angle of the right half of the mandible of a man; somewhat weathered, like the other fragments of lower jaws, Nos. 191. 217, and 222, as if they had been exposed upon the surface at some time. ‘ There is nothing noteworthy about this mandible unless it be that the age of the individual was probably from thirty-five to forty-five years of age’ (W. Wright). Found in the mixed silting near the human skeleton (No. 214), at a depth of 62 ft. below the surface of the silting. (Part of a lower jaw, No. 30, was found at a depth of 8:3 ft. in the chalk- rubble in Cutting I., Fosse, 1908.) 217. Part of a small mandible consisting of the chin and part of the right side, with the sockets of the bicuspid teeth remaining ; weathered. ‘It probably belonged to a female, and the chin, making allowances for the sexual differences, has the same conformations as that of specimens Nos. 191 and 214’ (W. Wright). Found near No. 212, in the mixed silting, at a depth of 68 ft. below the surface of the silting. 222. Part of the right side of the body of a mandible, the ascending ramus missing; of the teeth only the first and third molars remain. ‘The last molar is only slightly, if at all, worn, and therefore probably the specimen came from an individual whose age was something in the early twenties’ (W. Wright). Found in the mixed silting near the skeleton (No. 214), at a depth of 63 ft. below the surface of the silting. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 181 Associated with the human skeleton, the following antiquities were found (all bearing the same No. 214, except the saw, No. 211, and two fragments of pottery, No. 210): (a) Ball of solid chalk, rudely shaped and having an average diameter of 36°5 mm, (17% in.).° (b) Large flint core; all the surfaces are white. (c) Several flint flakes, one of which is burnt. (d) Metacarpus of sheep. (e) Nineteen fragments of prehistoric pottery, hand-made and of soft paste. There is no trace of ornament. Some of the pieces are black all through ; some black inside and reddish-brown outside. They represent fragments of more than one pot and vary in thickness from 6 mm. to 14 mm. Most of the pieces contain a small admixture of quartz grains, but for the most part they are very small. 210. Two fragments of prehistoric pottery, hand-made and badly baked, of a very soft paste and containing occasional grains of quartz and other sub- stances. This pottery is reddish-brown on the outer face and black inside. One of the specimens is a straight rim piece somewhat bevelled on the outer side. Found at a depth of 5°7 ft. below the surface of the silting, 4 ft. N.W. of the pelvis of the human skeleton. 211. Saw formed from a white flint, length 64 mm., having a dorsal ridge (giving a triangular cross-section). The longest edge, which is concave, is worked with fine serrations throughout its length. Found in the mixed silting under the skeleton (No. 214), and at a depth of 6°5 ft. below the surface of the silting. IV. Deposits of Burnt Material from the Fosse. At a distance of 0°5 ft. below the skeleton a patch of dark material was reached, consisting for the most part of burnt mould. This was found to extend to a depth of 7°5 ft. below the surface of the silting. The deposit was more or less in the shape of a mound of about 3 ft. in diameter, and it was evident that a fire had been kindled on the spot. The dark area was divided by a seam of 0°2 ft. of mixed mould and fine chalk at about 0°75 ft. from the top of the dark patch. Below the dark material yellowish-brown mould occurred, followed at a greater depth by chalk rubble. In this dark material the following objects were found (marked No. 247): (a) Part of a large flint hammer-stone. (6) A large quantity of burnt animal bone, mostly split up into small pieces. (Samples preserved.) (c) A human incisor tooth. (d) Astragalus of small ox. (e) Points of four tines of red-deer, much weathered. (f) Metatarsus of red-deer (not sufficiently complete for measurement). (g) A number of flint flakes, of which about one-half are burnt. _ (2) Some charcoal (identified by Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., as beech). It might be noted here that beech charcoal was also found in this cutting in the mixed silting against the south wall of the fosse, and also in the chalk-rubble at a depth of 12 ft. below the surface. V. Other Finds from the Fosse, Cutting IX. (excluding Picks). From the Roman and later strata.—(The Roman stratum was reached at a maximum depth of 4°65 ft.) Pig similar ball, not quite spherical, about 2 in. in diameter, was found at the Grime’s Graves in 1914 (see Grime’s Graves Report, 1915, p- 210). 182 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. 180. Ring of bronze, of bright-green colour due to patination. It consists of wire of circular section, 2 mm. in diameter; it is split transversely in one place, where the ends appear to have been notched. In external diameter the ring varies from 19°5 mm. to 205 mm. Probably Romano-British. Found on the 8. margin of the cutting on the top of the solid chalk wall a little below the surface mould. 192. Fragment of coarse black pottery containing a large number of small grains of quartz; apparently Romano-British. Found in the Roman stratum on the south side of the cutting. 193. Three fragments of Romano-British pottery of no special interest. Found as No. 192. 197. Whetstone consisting of an oblong piece of reddish-brown sandstone, measuring 87 by 76 by 21 mm., very smooth on one surface and artificially grooved obliquely. Found in the Roman stratum, depth 3°7 ft. below the surface. 201. Rim piece of a Norman or medieval pot, ornamented on the inner surface by a wave pattern common in the period. Found at the east end of the cutting, depth 1:5 ft. 205. Greater part of a bronze bracelet of bright-green colour, consisting of two strands of wire twisted, and tapering in size towards the ends. Of a common Roman type, which appears to have had a hook-and-eye fastening. Found in the middle of the cutting in the Roman stratum, at a depth of 4:25 ft. below the surface of the silting. From the Mized Silting. 177. Chipped flint knife, length 39 mm., maximum width 175 mm., of Neolithic type ; leaf-shaped outline ; slightly concave and unworked on one face; convex on the other face and finely chipped along both edges, the flaking covering most of this surface; white over the whole surface. Found in the fine mixed silting close against the 8.W. face of the fosse near the causeway, about 5 ft. below the brink. 183. Point of a tine of red-deer showing transverse cuts at the larger end. Found in the mixed silting close to the chalk ‘wall’ in the N.W. corner of the cutting. 187. Flake of dark bluish-grey flint, of irregular form, but having a consider- able amount of secondary chipping. ee ok on the side of the fosse at the N.W., near the top of the mixed silting. 213. Three points of tines of red-deer, somewhat weathered; two of them have indications of cutting near the tips. Found in the middle of the cutting in the mixed silting (which consisted mostly of earth in this part), depth 7 ft. below the surface of the silting. ~ 231. Two fragments of prehistoric pottery, hand-made and of coarse type. The larger fragment (12°5 mm. in thickness) is brick-red on the outside and black inside, and contains some very large rounded quartz-grains and splinters of flint, up to 6 mm. in length. ‘The chalk flint looks as if it had been intentionally crushed and added to the paste for stiffening. The quartz-grains probably came from Tertiary deposits. Samples of clay as coarse as this can often be found over the chalk downs. It may have been baked by piling brush- wood over the inverted pot. I see no sign of chalk or charcoal having been used in this paste’ (Clement Reid). The smaller piece is black except for the outer crust, which is yellowish- (o Heia) It contains no crushed flint, and is apparently very slightly baked’ . Reid). Found in the middle of the cutting at the bottom of the burnt material previously described, and above the chalk-rubble ; depth 7°7 ft. below the surface of the silting. No pottery was found in the fosse in 1914 at a greater depth than these fragments. 252. Rim piece of prehistoric pottery, hand-made and of coarse type (nearly as rude as the larger piece in No. 231). ‘ Soft paste stiffened with fragments of old pots and some grit. I cannot suggest origin without material to crush. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 183 Well burnt outside to rim; black and slacker baked inside, suggesting that the pot was inverted and fire could only reach outside’ (C. Reid). Found quite at the bottom of the burnt material, at a depth of 7°5 ft. below the surface of the silting. From the Chalk Rubble.—(Bone Objects). 223. Implement formed from a rib-bone of ox (or horse?), measuring 335 mm. (134 in.) in length on the outer curve. It is cut to a rounded and somewhat bevelled termination at one end, and the surfaces are rather smoother in this part than elsewhere. At the butt-end it is also slightly polished. Found against the solid chalk wall at the west end of the fosse near the bottom, and at a depth of 24°5 ft. below the brink. 225. Implement formed from part of a rib-bone of ox or horse; what remains measures 221 mm. (8§ in.) in length, but it is obviously broken at the butt-end. It is cut to a rounded termination at the complete end, but more pointed than in the case of No. 223, which it closely resembles. Found in a similar position to No. 223, at a depth of 25 ft. below the brink. Two similarly-worked rib-bones were found in Cutting VIII., in 1911, on the bottom of the fosse. (Report, 1911, Nos. 171 and 176.) 240. Small, slender, animal bone, broken off at both ends, but quite smooth; probably the shaft of a pin. Found on the bottom of the fosse at the west end of the cutting. VI. Picks and other Remains of Red-Deer Antler, found in the Fosse (Cutting IX.). As in former seasons, picks of red-deer antler were found in some numbers in the chalk-rubble, and especially near and on the floor of the fosse. Picks of this type have also been found in Britain in con- siderable numbers at the Grime’s Graves,!° Cissbury, and Maumbury Rings, and in smaller quantities at many other places, generally with prehistoric remains, but occasionally on Roman sites.1!_ Portions of antler picks—one piece being smoothed and charred at the handle-end— have recently been found in the great artificial mound at Marlborough College. Two very large antler picks found in the excavations at Avebury in 1894 !2 were disposed of in April 1915 at the Meux sale at Dauntsey House, near Swindon, and were acquired by the Wiltshire Archeological Society for Devizes Museum. Twenty numbered specimens were found in the fosse in 1914, as follows : 188. Parts apparently of two antlers (or if parts of the same antler they do not join). One consists of the greater part of the beam, part of the remaining tine reduced to a stump. The other part consists of the crown of an antler of three points, the lower one of which is considerably bevelled and worn at the tip. Found in the mixed silting in the N.W. part of the cutting, and 7°3 ft. deep below the brink of the fosse E. of the causeway. 189. Pick, well worn, consisting of the beam and burr of a shed antler, having only a very slightly developed indication of a bez-tine. The trez-tine has been reduced to a stump (more projecting than in the majority of the __ 3° 244 antler picks were found in the excavations at the Grime’s Graves in 1914. 147 of the specimens had also been used as hammers. ’ 11 Records of such finds have been brought together by Mr. Horace Sanders in Archeologia, \xii. 101, and by Mr. W. G. Clarke in the Report on the Excavations at CGrime’s Graves, 1914 (published 1915), p. 142, in which, however, no mention of the Avebury specimens is to be found. 12 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1908, p. 404. 184 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. picks). The brow-tine has become much worn and broken. The implement has been smoothed at the handle-end. The most pronounced indication of wear is seen at the back of the beam caused by hammering, which has reduced the thickness of the antler considerably in this position, and removed the burr. Total length 470 mm. (18% in.). ; Found in the mixed silting close to the causeway in the N.W. part of the cutting, depth 83 ft. below the brink of the fosse. ’ : 196. Part of a pick formed from a shed antler. The bez-tine remains as a fairly long stump; the brow-tine is broken but still bears traces of human work. The back of the head of the pick and the burr bear clear evidence of hammering. Length 344 mm. (13% in.). a Found in the mixed silting and rubble in the W. part of the cutting, depth 9°8 ft. below the brink of the fosse on the E. side of the causeway. 208. Pick damaged at the handle-end, having the bez- and trez-tines reduced to stumps, and the brow-tine broken off. This pick was formed from a large antler of a slain deer. Its most interesting feature is the large cavity at the back of the beam and head, the result of considerable wear from hammering. Length 394 mm. (153 in.). Found near the W. end of the cutting in the chalk-rubble, depth 12°8 ft. below the brink of the fosse on the E. side of the causeway. 209. Base of a large antler of a slain deer, with pedicle 3 in. in length. The burr is much worn down and the bez-tine is indicated merely by a stump. A good part of the brow-tine remains, but it has been broken. Found in the N. half of the cutting in the chalk-rubble, depth 17 ft. below the brink of the fosse on the HE. side of the causeway. 215, Shed antler, with the brow-, bez-, and trez-tines complete ; the crown of the antler is missing. It bears no signs of human work. Found in the middle of the cutting in the lower part of the mixed silting (yellowish-brown mould and chalk), depth 8°7 ft. below the surface of the silting. 216. Part of a pick consisting of the beam of an antler, the trez-tine reduced to a stump. The burr, brow-, and bez-tines broken off. At the back of the beam there are traces of a depression, the result of hammering. Found in the chalk-rubble in the N.W. quarter of the cutting close to the end-wall of the fosse, at a depth of 22 ft. below the brink. 218. Crown of an antler, one of the three points missing, the other two somewhat worn down and broken at the tips. It has the appearance of having been used as a rake. Found in the chalk-rubble in the N. half of the cutting, depth 18 ft. below the brink of the fosse on the E. side of the causeway. 219. Pick, almost complete, formed from a small shed antler having two tines, the upper one reduced to a stump and bearing slight traces of fire. The brow- tine has been considerably worn down by picking. The back of the burr has been broken off. Length 489 mm. (194 in.). Found in the chalk-rubble in the S. half of the cutting, depth 24°5 ft. below the brink of the W. end of the fosse. 224. Part of a pick consisting of the beam with the trez-tine remaining as a stump. The back of the beam is much worn by hammering. Found in the chalk-rubble in the S. half of the cutting, depth 25 ft. below the brink at the W. end of the fosse. 226. Pick, much damaged, consisting of a shed antler with brow-tine broken off ; the bez- and trez-tines reduced to stumps, the latter bearing indications of fire. The back of the beam and head of the pick bear distinct evidence of its use also as a hammer. ; eee in the chalk-rubble at the W. end of the cutting, 25 ft. below the rink. 227. Pick, almost complete (shed antler), the brow-tine reduced in length by wear and fracture ; the bez- and trez-tines reduced to stumps ; the latter and the handle-end are blackened in parts by the action of fire. There is evidence at the back of the head that the implement was also used as a hammer. Length 500 mm. (193 in.); circumference of the beam 159 mm. Found in the N. half of the cutting on the bottom of the fosse, against the end-wall and 29-5 ft. below the brink. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 185 228. Pick, almost complete (shed antler), the brow-tine bearing indications of considerable wear; the bez- and trez-tines reduced to stumps. ‘There is clear evidence of this implement having also been used as a hammer, like No. 227. Length 474 mm. (183 in.). } Found in the N.W. corner of the cutting on the bottom of the fosse, against the end-wall and 29°5 ft. below the brink. 229. Greater part of a much-worn pick formed from a shed antler. The brow-tine is much shortened by wear and fracture; the bez- and trez-tines reduced to stumps. This implement was largely used as a hammer and there is a deep cavity at the back of the beam penetrating one-half of its diameter ; the burr has also been broken away by hard wear. Length 350 mm. (133 in.). Found at the W. end of the cutting against the end-wall, on the bottom of the fosse, depth 29°3 ft. below the brink. 230. Pick formed from a large antler of a slain deer with pedicle, the burr much worn down at the back. The large brow-tine has been reduced in length by wear and the ‘tip’ is now quite blunt; the bez- and trez-tines have been shortened in the usual manner. Indications of fire are noticeable near the burr, at the base of the bez-tine, and at the handle-end. Length 521 mm. (20} in.) ; minimum circumference of the beam 165 mm. Found at the W. end of the cutting against the end-wall, on the bottom of the fosse, 29 ft. below the brink. 234. Part of a pick formed from a shed antler, the handle-end missing. The greater part of the brow-tine remains and bears indications of wear; the bez- and trez-tines reduced to stumps. The condition of the back of the beam and burr indicates that the pick, as in most other instances, was also used as a hammer. Found in the chalk-rubble in the N. half of the cutting, depth 20°5 ft. below the brink. 5 235. Pick, much damaged and in a very fragile condition, not preserved. Found close to No. 234, and at the same depth. 236. The greater part of the beam of an autler, bearing traces of fire, and perhaps part of a pick. Found at the W. end of the cutting, depth 25-5 ft. below the brink. 237. Pick formed from a large shed antler having the burr partly removed. The brow-tine is nearly complete, the tip in places being smooth from wear; the bez- and trez- tines reduced to stumps. Length 467 mm. (183 in.) ; circum- ference of the beam between bez- and trez-tines 170 mm. (6% in.). Found in the chalk-rubble in the S. half of the cutting, 165 ft. below the brink. 239. Shed antler, not worked, with short undeveloped bez-tine and only two ‘points at the crown. Total length 672 mm. (268 in.). Found on the bottom of the fosse at the W. end of the cutting, average depth 29 ft. below the brink. In addition to the above four much broken and decayed antler picks (or parts) were found in the chalk-rubble, at an average depth of 12 ft. below the surface of the silting; and a piece of the beam of an antler was found on the bottom of the fosse against the N. wall. VII. General Observations on Cutting X., across the Vallum, 1914. This cutting, measuring 15 ft. in width, was made on the §.S.E. and within easy distance of the fosse-digging—so that the two excava- tions could be watched simultaneously. At this point the vertical height from the surface of the silting of the fosse to the crest of the vallum was 32°65 ft., and from the middle of the berme to the top, 14°4 ft. About one-half of the berme was included in the excavation which extended southwards as far as the summit of the vallum, the length examined being 50 ft. The outer part of the vallum, comprising a length of 30 ft., remains to be excavated. The whole of the body of the rampart was found to consist of chalk- 186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. rubble with very little admixture of mould (in the form of seams). The old turf, or surface, line (humus), and the dark brown material immediately below it were found to be very clearly defined, and measured on an average 3°5 in. in thickness throughout the cutting. It ran almost level, and was reached at a depth of 14 ft. below the crest of the vallum. Upon this ancient material Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., who has examined a dried lump, has kindly reported as follows: ‘ Brown silty clay, with small splinters of flint and minute fragments of charcoal. The matrix is mainly an insoluble residue from the chalk, with the usual dark stain of mixed oxides of iron and manganese. It contains also some very fine quartz-sand, probably derived from Tertiary deposits. It is scarcely a soil, though it shows small roots; it is a subsoil into which some charcoal has been kneaded. It corresponds with the “‘ clay-with-flints.’’’ Samples of charcoal found in considerable quantity on the old surface line were also sent to Mr. Reid to be examined, and, like the pieces from the fosse, proved to be beech. VIII. Relics found in the Vallum (Cutting X.). We were fortunate in selecting a favourable position, for a number of relics were discovered on the ancient surface and elsewhere. Several of the fragments of pottery, mostly very small, were recovered from the old surface by breaking the mould up in the hands and sifting. Flint flakes were very plentiful; metals were conspicuous by their absence. One of the most interesting specimens is the finely-worked bone pin, No. 186. A fourpenny-bit of William IV., 1836 (No. 178), was found near the foot of the interior slope of the vallum in the turf mould, depth 0°4 ft. The following is a detailed catalogue of the objects found in the vallum cutting. All the depths are given vertically—below the turf immediately above. O.T.I..=Old turf line. Flint Implements. 190. Thin, sharp flake ; white. Found in the chalk-rubble, depth 6°5 ft. 198. Scraper of comparatively rough workmanship; grey flint with a white outer crust on the greater part of the convex surface. Found on the O.T.L., near the foot of the interior slope. 199. Scraper of an elongated horse-shoe shape, length 37 mm., the crescentic edge finely worked ; colour white, and pale grey in places. Found on the O.T.L., near No. 198. 200. Saw of light-grey flint, with finely-worked serrated edge almost straight (lergth 47°5 mm.). Found on the O.T.L., near Nos. 198 and 199. 204. Saw of light-grey colour, calcined; the serrated edge (length 28°5 mm.) is not so finely worked as in the specimens, No. 200 (vallum) and No. 211 (fosse). Found on the O.T.L., a little to the south of No. 200. 206. Scraper of greyish-white flint of a long narrow form, length 41 mm. The flake from which the implement was formed has a dorsal ridge giving a triangular cross-section. The crescentic edge (width 24 mm.) is bevelled and neatly chipped. Found on the 0.T.L., near No. 200. ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 187 207. Part of a neatly-chipped implement of white flint of which the base is missing. The business-end is considerably bevelled and worked on the convex side. Flaked on both surfaces. Found on the O.T.L., near No. 206. 221. Scraper (?) of white flint, thin, and of an irregular oval outline, 43 mm. by 46 mm.; it is bevelled and chipped on all sides but the base. Found on the O.T.L., at the N. end of the cutting under the berme (dividing the vallum from the fosse). 241. Long, narrow flake (length 61 mm.), of light-grey flint, the crust of which extends along one side of the back. At the junction of the flat side of the flake with the crust the specimen is slightly jagged, but this saw-like edge does not appear to be the result of secondary chipping. Found on the O.T.L., 4 ft. N. of the crest of the vallum, depth 13°7 ft. 242. Scraper of pale-grey colour; horse-shoe form, with a prominent bulb of percussion ; length 42°5 mm: ; the crescentic edge is roughly bevelled and worked. Found on the O.T.L., a little south of the foot of the interior slope. 245. Saw of white flint formed from a long flake with a dorsal ridge; the serrated edge (length 55°5 mm.) is somewhat irregular, and not so well worked as Nos. 200 and 211. Found on the O.T.L., under the body of the vallum and in the middle of the cutting. 255. Pointed flake of greyish-white colour with saw-like secondary chipping along one edge. Found on the O.T.L. Flint Flakes. There were also collected from the old turf line sixty-four flakes of light grey-and-white flint, four of which are calcined. Antlers, including a Pick. 181. Crown of a small antler consisting of two points; red-brown colour. Found in the chalk-rubble in the body of the vallum, depth 3 ft. below the surface. 184. Greater part of a small shed antler, red-brown colour. There is no positive evidence that this specimen was a pick, as the brow-tine is broken and the other tine some way up the beam has not been shortened ; but the end of the beam nearest the crown has been burnt in a similar manner to some of the handle-ends of more definite picks. a. in the chalk-rubble in the body of the vallum, depth 4 ft. below the surface. 232. Part of a small pick formed from a shed antler having a rudimentary bez-tine ; the brow-tine was badly fractured at the time of its discovery, but the point is worked and very smooth. Found in a slight ‘mound’ of mould (probably decayed turf), 0-2 ft. above the old surface under the crest of the vallum. 253. Complete tine of red-deer antler, smooth at the point. Found in the chalk-rubble in the body of the vallum. Bone Objects. 182. Small, flat piece of bone (length 33:7 mm.), rounded at the complete end, and of similar workmanship to the larger worked rib-bones, Nos. 223 and 225, found at the bottom of the fosse. Found in the body of the vallum, depth 6 ft. 186. Finely-worked pin, slightly curved, with faintly tooled and polished surface; length 86 mm. (38 in.), the shaft of oblong section, maximum dimen- sions 25 mm. by 455 mm. One end is finely worked to a sharp point of round section ; the other end is cut off slightly oblique to the line of the pin, and is bevelled on both the flat faces of the implement. Found in chalk-rubble in the body of the vallum, 3 ft. N. of the crest, depth 5'5 ft. . The writer has not yet come across a similar pin found with prehistoric remains in Britain. 188 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915 Pottery. 194. Two fragments of fairly well-baked black pottery, containing a good proportion of small grains of quartz-sand and some larger pieces measuring up to 45 mm. in length. Found on the O.T.L., near the foot of the interior slope. 195. Fragment of badly baked pottery, black on the inside and reddish- brown on the outside; it contains a small admixture of small quartz-grains. Found close to No, 194. 202. Fragment of black pottery similar to No. 194, and perhaps part of the same vessel. Found on the O.T.L., near Nos. 194 and 195. 203. Eight small bits of pottery, and a fragment of iron pyrites. The pieces belong to more than one vessel; three of the fragments appear to be parts of one pot only, 55 mm. thick. This ware is of a very coarse kind, some of the pieces containing grains of quartz up to 6 mm. in length. Found on the O.T.L., near Nos. 194, 195, and 202. 220. Twenty-two fragments of pottery of various degrees of coarseness—all undoubtedly prehistoric (perhaps Neolithic), and belonging to vessels varying in thickness from 45 mm. to 105 mm. They range in colour from a light reddish-brown to black. Some of this ware consists of very soft paste with only a small admixture of quartz-grains, but most of it is roughly made with large grains projecting from the weathered surfaces of the ware; the largest grain of quartz observable measures 4 mm. by 6 mm. They include one small piece of rim and two ornamented fragments belonging apparently to the same pot, which had an encircling shoulder or ridge with a hollow moulding probably below the shoulder, and similar in these features to the pottery, No. 167, found in Cutting VIII., Fosse, 1911; the type is described at some length in the writer’s 1911 Report.’* As far as can be traced, the two fragments are ornamented with oblique and parallel bands of punch-marks con- sisting of lozenge-shaped clusters of four impressed oval dots. Mr. C. Reid, who has seen one of the coarsest unornamented fragments, writes: ‘Thin well-burnt pottery, not local; the grit is all vein-quartz, and suggests Bristol Coal-field.’ Found on the O.T.L., at the N. end of the cutting under the berme (dividing the vallum from the fosse). 243. Six fragments of pottery, two being of thin reddish-brown ware and of comparatively fine texture. The other pieces, which are thick—black on one side and brown on the other—are very rude and of the coarsest possible description, and contain an admixture of large quartz-grains; in one fragment there are two pieces of quartz, measuring 43 mm. by 7°3 mm. and 4:2 mm. by 4:2 mm., which actually touch each other. The last described fragment has been seen by Mr. Clement Reid, who writes : ‘Not local; paste black, and sandy, and full of splinters of grit, with some large quartz-grains. The splinters look like Carl niferous Limestone chert, rather than chalk-flint, but there is not enough material to make certain. Perhaps from the Mendips.’ Found in a similar position to No. 220, but a little nearer the interior slope of the vallum. 244, Two fragments of pottery, one of which is black on the inside and brick-red on the outside, of fairly hard paste anit containing quartz-grains of no great size. The other fragment is of dark grey colour, fairly hard, and containing small quartz-grains with a small admixture of larger grains. Found on the O.T.L., under the body of the vallum, 10°5 ft. N. of the crest, depth 11'8 ft. 251. A few small fragments of badly baked pottery similar to No. 195, but apparently containing very little quartz-sand. Found on the O.T.L. IX. Animal Remains. Only the more interesting specimens were preserved. Those found 8 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1911, pp. 147, 150. ‘ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 189 near the surface and others in a very fragmentary condition were reburied. Some of the specimens have been kindly examined by Mr. EK. T. Newton, F.R.S. Cutting IX., Fosse. 238. One side of lower jaw of dog, and a number of teeth belonging to the other side also. The animal was about the size of a retriever. Found on the bottom of the fosse in the N. half of the cutting, and near the end-wall against the causeway. Near No. 238, also on the bottom of the fosse, several teeth of dog of similar size were found. 246. Occipital portion of skull of red-deer; height from the bastion to supraoccipital crest 89 mm. Found in the chalk-rubble, depth 11 ft. below the surface of the silting. 248. Metacarpus of red-deer, length 274 mm. ; least circumference 78 mm. Found in the Roman stratum. 249. Part of metacarpus of red-deer. Found at a depth of 6°5 ft. below the surface of the silting. 250. Metatarsus of red-deer, length 315 mm. (12! in.); least circumference 81 mm. Found at a depth of 8 ft. below the surface of the silting. A red-deer at the Royal College of Surgeons, having a metatarsus 103 in. in length, stands 44} in. at the withers. The Avebury stag, therefore, stood about 50 in. at the withers. 954. Lower end of femur of large ox. Found on the bottom of the fosse. Cutting X., Vallum. 179. Part of radius and other remains of ox (rather small). Found in chalk-rubble in the body of the vallum, depth 4 ft. 185. Greater part of tibia of young ox; the shaft is split obliquely—perhaps for the extraction of marrow. Found in chalk-rubble in the body of the vallum, depth 4:25 ft. 232. Shaft of tibia of ox, the heads broken off at both ends as if for the extraction of marrow. Found close to the O.T.L., with the small antler-pick also marked No. 232. 233. One end of femur of young ox. Found on the O.T.L., near No. 232. Four teeth of pig were also found on the O.T.I. Physical Characters of the Ancient Eqyptians.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Extior Smirx (Chair- man), Dr. F. C. SHrupsatt (Secretary), Professor A. Keto, Dr. F. Woop Jonss, and Professor C. G. SELIGMAN. Professor Elliot Smith’s Report. In last year’s Report of the Committee I referred to the fact that material of great historical importance! was being found by Professor Reisner at Kerma, near the Third Cataract, and that some of the skeletons had been sent to me in Manchester for examination. ince then a very large collection of human remains from the same site has ? Report of British Association, p, 228, B., ‘The Human Remains from the Kerma Basin,’ &c, 190 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. been received from Dr. Reisner; and, although most of this material has now been photographed and measured, the investigation of it is not yet sufficiently advanced to permit me to submit a final Report upon it. It is of sufficient importance, however, to justify an interim Report. In the Bulletin of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, April 1914, Professor Reisner has published a very interesting and fully-illustrated account of his excavations at Kerma, with a description of the circum- stances under which the human remains were found and the nature of the remarkable series of objects found with them. In this report the human remains are described as those of ‘a garrison which held the Northern Sudan in the Hyksos Period, about 1700 B.c.’ To appreciate more fully the nature of the material with which I have to deal I may be permitted to quote Dr. Reisner’s own account of the problem he puts to me to solve for him. ‘ By 2600 B.c. the Egyptian had already begun his exploitation of the Upper Nile, and had been led in military force as far as the province of Dongola, the richest area between the Assuan border of Egypt and the tropical Sudan. Gold he certainly brought away and cattle; ivory, ostrich feathers and eggs, ebony, skins, resins, spices and incense—all came through the province in trade if they were not produced here.’ Traces of the Old Empire fort and alabaster vessels bearing the name of Pepy I. were found at Kerma. ‘ During the period of depression in Egypt which followed the reign of Pepy II., it is probable that the Nubian tribe went their own way undisturbed. In the Middle Empire, however, the exploitation of Nubia by Egypt was resumed and placed on a more secure footing. Sesostris III. set up a boundary-stone at Kummeh, south of Halfa [Second Cataract], forbidding any negro to pass northwards by land or water except traders and official messengers. This stone marked the southern border of Egypt, but, as a matter of course, not the limits of Egyptian activity.’ [Inscriptions with the names of Sesostris I., Amenemhat I. and Amenemhat III., together with fragments of perhaps twenty-five Middle Empire royal statuettes, make it] ‘ quite clear that Kerma was held by the kings of Egypt during the Middle Empire. ‘Thus we come to the Hyksos Period itself. Much has been written about this period in Egypt, but our real knowledge is small. An un- identified race came in, apparently from Asia, conquered and held Egypt for perhaps a hundred years. But we do not know how far south they held it. . . [at Kerma] in the Hyksos period [there have come to light the remains of] a colony of men, not negro, and yet not using Egyptian furniture nor Egyptian burial customs. They razed the buildings of the Egyptians of the Middle Empire; they smashed the statues of Egyptian kings of the XII. Dynasty; and they made their graves in the débris of an ancient mud- brick structure. They were apparently a fierce and capable race. Their pottery, manifestly made locally, is the finest and most beautiful ever made in the Nile Valley. . . . Their burial customs are revolting in their barbarity. On a carved bed in the middle of a big circular pit the chief personage lies on his right side with his head east. Under his head is a wooden pillow ; between his legs a sword or dagger ; beside Do lal lll el Tl teal THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 19] his feet cowhide sandals and an ostrich feather fan. At his feet is buried a ram, with ivory knobs on the tips of its horns to prevent goring. Around the bed lie a varying number of bodies, male and female, all contracted on the right side, head east. Among them are the pots and pans, the cosmetic jars, the stools, and other objects. Over the whole is spread a great ox-hide. It is clear they were all buried at once. The men and women round about must have been sacrificed so that their spirits might accompany the chief to the other world. . . . I could not escape the belief that they had been buried alive. Who are these people? There are, it is true, a few negroes among the women; but the chief men are all broad-headed and straight-haired. If they are Egyptian, whence comes the strange pottery and the awful burial custom? It is hoped to submit the bones to Prof. Elliot Smith, who will without doubt be able to say whether the men were Egyptians or not. If they are neither Egyptians nor negroes, then there are many possi- bilities—Arabs, Libyans, a mixed band of adventurers from the north, or even Hyksos. The name of Sheshy, supposed to be a Hyksos king, is found on several of the seal-impressions. But it is not possible at present to reach any safe conclusion on the race of the men of Kerma.’ These free quotations from Professor Reisner’s report admirably and most lucidly explain the nature of the problems I am asked to solve. There is one possibility, not mentioned by Dr. Reisner, that at once suggests itself, especially when one examines the excellent photographs that illustrate the report. Seeing that this very spot had been occupied by an Egyptian town and fortress nine centuries earlier, and then again later on for several centuries before the time of the people whose identity is under consideration, obviously the first explanation which suggests itself is that we may have to deal with the descendants of the old colony of Pepy’s time reinforced with fresh Egyptian blood by new immigrations ranging from the time of Sesostris I. to Amenemhat IIL. at least. For the statement that these people were ‘not using Egyptian furniture nor Egyptian burial customs’ is apt to be misleading. The furniture and the burial customs, it is true, are not exactly identical with those of Egypt at any period: but no one who studies the burial customs and funerary equipment of other peoples can hesitate for one moment in deciding that these things and the Egyptian customs and furniture must be assimilated into the same generic group. My meaning will be made clear if we examine the archeological evidence. Burial upon a bed of the type found in these graves was not an Egyptian custom in 1700 B.c.; but it was so at the time when the first Egyptian settlement occurred at Kerma, perhaps a millennium previously; and the legs of the chairs and beds are characteristically Egyptian in design (see Reisner’s fig. 20); so are the head-rests and the sandals, and the Egyptian military decoration (‘order of the fly’). The exquisite black-topped, red-polished pottery is equally characteristically a proto-Egyptian ware, but carried to a much higher pitch of perfection by eighteen centuries of practice after the Egyptians themselves had been using their most expert craftsmen for other purposes. The barbarous addition to the burial customs of the Egyptians is the well- 192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. known negro practice of slaughtering the wives and retainers of the deceased. ?* In the light of such considerations the hypothesis that should first be tested is that an Egyptian colony, settled in Kerma in proto-Dynastic times, continued to cultivate its original Egyptian cultural heritage, which was modified on the one hand by the taint of negro barbarism and the influence of a succession of later Egyptian immigrants. I have put forward this tentative explanation of the archeological evidence advisedly, not merely because it naturally suggests itself as the most probable interpretation of the state of affairs found by Dr. Reisner, but also because the anthropological data, so far as I have investigated them, seem to favour this view. Amongst the human remains there is a considerable number of individuals conforming in every respect to the proto-Egyptian type, such as is found in pre- and proto-Dynastic cemeteries in Upper Egypt. These might well represent the descendants of the original Egyptian colony which was planted in Kerma during the Old Empire. There are also many representatives of that modification of the proto- Egyptian racial type for which I coined the distinctive expression “Middle Nubian’ (the people whose culture Dr. Reisner classified as his ‘C-group’). These were the people who constituted the normal population of Lower Nubia during the time from the Middle Empire until the country was overrun by Egypt in the New Empire: in other words, they were the distinctive inhabitants of Nubia during the time of the Kerma burials; and it would have been very surprising if they had not been well represented. Even in Lower Nubia they exhibited definite traces of some negro admixture; and in this respect the Kerma material agrees with the more northern remains of the same age. But in the Kerma material there is perhaps a greater variety of slightly negroid types than in Lower Nubia—a. state of affairs that is not surprising considering that it is nearer the negro domain. In fact it is remarkable that strongly marked negro traits are so infrequent as they are shown to be in material from such a southerly site. The most interesting remains that this cemetery has yielded are a minority conforming in every essential respect to the type from Lower Egypt which I illustrated in last year’s Report (p. 219, figs. 1, 2, and 3). It represents a type of mankind which made itself, apparent in Lower Egypt in proto-Dynastic times and spread up the river very gradually, until by the time of the Middle Empire the aristocratic population throughout Egypt was more or less permeated by the influence of admixture with such people. It is in the highest degree unlikely that the effects of such admixture could have become apparent at the Third Cataract before the Middle Empire. That it did so soon afterwards suggests—as, indeed, might have been expected—that the expeditions to the Sudan at that time were commanded by people of this aristocratic type. This is further confirmed by the results of 2 See my article ‘ On the Geographical Distribution of the Practice of Mummifi cation, &c.,’ Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 1915, p. 56. THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 193 the examination of the human remains, because the people who con- formed to the type in question were those buried in the most sumptuous graves and were obviously the most important people interred on this site. In my final Report I shall set forth the data in detail and return to the discussion of these questions. All that I have attempted to do at present is to indicate what seems to me to be the natural explanation of the facts and to state the prima facie case in support of it. Anthropometric Investigations in the Island of Cyprus.—-heport of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. L. MyYRzES (Chairman), Dr. F. C. SHRuBSALL (Secretary), and Dr. A. C. Havpon. Tur Committee has received a report from Mr. L .H. D. Buxton, who has been carrying out investigations on its behalf. Owing to the outbreak of the European war no field work has been possible in 1914, and Mr. Buxton has been with his regiment. He has forwarded a preliminary report on further investigation of material obtained in the autumn of 1913. Osseous Material. From a Bronze Age site at Lapethos were secured a number of skulls and skeletons, among which two types—a long head with well- developed glabella and retreating forehead (index 73), and the ordinary short high Cypriote type (index 77 and upwards), have persisted from the Bronze Age to the present day. Measurements of the Living. A large number of measurements of villagers have been obtained, which will be analysed in full in later reports. The following table shows the means of over fifty individuals in each group: Absolute Measurement. Villages == Hagios Sergios Levkoniko Lapethos Karabas Limnea Head Length... 1796 178-9 182°7 183°8 Head Breadth. . . 148°5 1492 150°4 147:0 Bizygomatic Breadth . 136°1 137-0 139°0 1369 Bigonial Breadth . . 108°6 106°3 110°6 109°8 Nasal Breadth Sar eat 33°8 35°7 34°6 34:2 Nasal Length. .. 51°6 51°4 50°2 49-7 Upper Facial Height . 674 | 69°2 67°8 65°4 Indices. Cephalic . 82-9 83°4 82:0 80°3 Bigonial . ae eee 79°7 775 79°6 80-1 CAs) co ricenhvect Gs 49°5 50°5 48°75 48°1 Nasal 65°5 69°4 68°8 68°8 1915. fo) 194 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. The stature is very uniform—1-66m. in all the villages. A complete list of the materials available for the anthropological history of Cyprus has been made. Exploration of the Pal@olithic Site known as La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey.—Keport of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. R. Marerr (Chairman), Mr. G. F. B. DE GrucHy (Secretary), Dr. A. KeitH, Dr. C. ANnprews, Dr. A. Dunuop, Colonel R. GARDNER Warton, and Mr. H. BALFOUR. Report of Work done in July 1915. Tue following must be regarded purely as an interim report. It covers only what was accomplished in July, whereas funds are available for carrying on the work during at least another month. When Section H meets in session, a supplementary report in MS. will be presented. This year there have naturally occurred many obstacles in the way of archeological research, and indeed it proved impossible to resume operations at Easter, as had been originally intended. At the close of the potato season, however, when the demand for labour temporarily slackens in Jersey, there was at length forthcoming the required amount of assistance of a manual kind, Mr. Ernest Daghorn being the contractor as before. Nor, again, in the matter of skilled investigation, was it easy to arrange for the sufficiently continuous attendance of a body of helpers. Yet, despite the paramount claims of war-seryice, a staff was enlisted who made up for any deficiency there might be in their numbers by devotion and sheer staying-power. In 1911 excavation proceeded along the western side-wall of the cave so as to bring to light a strip of paleeolithic floor extending some 25 feet inwards. It was decided this year to push still further back along this line, and, if possible, to reach the hitherto undetermined back of the cave. This is known as Working A. Further, in 1914 a trench was carried right across from the western to the eastern side-wall, a distance of about 40 feet. The portion of floor thus opened up lay eight feet from the entrance, and when work ceased last year, was flanked by precipitous walls of talus, that on the inner side being about 45 feet high, while the outer one averaged 25 feet. It was resolved, therefore, in regard to excavation in this direction, to undertake first the relatively easy and safe task of demolishing the talus on the outer side, and so clearing the cave along its whole breadth to the entrance. This was termed Working B. Lastly, it was thought desirable to attempt something on the inner side of the clearing, and to push back cautiously along the eastern wall, at any rate so far as an overhanging shelf of the live rock afforded some protection from the 1 See Archeologia, Ixiii. 204, where plants are given. ON THE EXPLORATION OF A PALAOLITHIC SITE IN JERSEY. 195 ever-threatening downfall of débris. This was distinguished as Working C. To consider, then, these three sets of operations in succession. Working A has not progressed very far, but will receive’ more attention shortly. An additional 5 feet of penetration has been accomplished with a breadth of 6-8 feet, bringing up the total distance cleared from the entrance to 30 feet. Some very heavy quarrying has been necessary here which has involved the use of dynamite, the upper portion of the débris consisting of large blocks wedged tightly against a rather shaky roof; so that it is necessary to proceed with great circumspection. Worked flints occur sparsely at about 2-4 feet above the bench-mark from which floor-level is measured ; there is very little bone to be met with. Working B has been highly successful, and the cave is now clear across its entire front. The central part of the talus which has just been removed proved to be almost sterile, but a richly implementiferous bed reaching from near floor-level to a height of 14 feet was found to exist under the ledge projecting some 12 feet outwards along the eastern side-wall. The spoil collected here in the shape of worked flints, together with cores and hammer-stones, must amount at least to a hundred- weight. There was found also a good deal of bone in fair condition, rang- ing in size from the minute remains of lemmings to a huge knuckle-bone belonging probably to a rhinoceros. It is noticeable that a spécially fine set of implements occurred near the very top of this bed, the form of these tending towards that elongated leaf-shaped pattern which has been termed ‘ hemi-solutrian.’ Thus it would almost seem as if we had to do here with a later and more evolved product of Mousterian art than is to be found in the lower deposits of this cave; though it is true that in other places where the implementiferous bed is much thinner, extending at most to a foot or two, there was no apparent correlation between quality of workmanship and stratigraphical position. Working C has also proved very fertile so far as it has been pushed under the projecting shelf of the eastern wall, namely a distance of 27 feet from the entrance. Here the presence of a former hearth was indicated by a quantity of burnt bone. Flint was plentiful, but tended to be of coarse pattern. So too along the opposite side-wall the quality of the worked flint would seem to deteriorate as we penetrate into the depths of the cave. A sufficient explanation is probably to be found in the fact that the finer work needed the better light. Further, at the angle situated about the centre of the cave where Working C passes into Working A, the removal of a large block weighing some eight tons revealed the clearest indication hitherto encountered of the way in which the intrusive cave-filling is related to the ancient floor of occupation. At this spot a definite line can now be traced, of irregular height, but averaging 6-8 feet over bench-mark. Below this line everything is cemented together into a compact breccia, whereas above it the rock- rubbish is quite loose. At the top of the solid mass occurs a sandy deposit about 1 foot in thickness which is finely laminated and has in places almost the consistency of sandstone. This is apparently quite destitute of bone-refuse or flint-chippings, though they occur again in the looserrubbish above it. Thus it would seem as if the ancient floor 02 196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. must have remained open to the winds of heaven for a long period after one Mousterian occupation, so that much dust was able to accumulate here before the cave was gradually sealed up by the stony shower from above. At the present stage of operations, before the determinable bones have been identified, and the flint implements sorted into types, there can be nothing more to report. Enough, however, has been said to show that results have so far fully come up to expectation. Approxi- mately 1,000 square feet of floor have now in all been cleared. Mean- while, the sheer mass of the finds, not to speak of their excellent quality, wellnigh beggars description. This has turned out to be one of the richest palzolithic sites in Europe. It only remains to add that the Chairman and the Secretary, who have throughout been in charge of the work, could have effected little of themselves seeing how every trowel-full of cave-earth must be minutely searched through, without the intelligent co-operation of many volunteer assistants. Noteworthy among these are Mr. R. de J. Fleming-Struthers, M.A., B.Sc., of Exeter College, Oxford, who has all along sojourned by himself in the little cabin overlooking the site which the Committee has hired as a storehouse of its treasures—a storehouse that needs a faithful warden; and the Rev. E. O. James, Cert. Phys. Anthrop., of Exeter College, who laboured indefatigably during the fortnight he was able to spare for the work. Among local helpers Mr. G. le Bas, B.Sc., Mr. H. J. Baal, President of the Archeological Section of the Société Jersiaise, Mr. E. F. Guiton, to whose skill in photography the explorers of this cave owe so much, and Mrs. Symons have perhaps taken the most active part in the work so far, but many others have lent a hand as their other duties permitted. Some of the older workers, it is to be feared, have been kept away from the cave itself by the nature of the approach thereto which has of late assumed a somewhat Alpine character; though not even the present system of break-neck ladders could deter Dr. Dunlop from visiting us, while the rest have rendered manifold aid from a distance. Finally, the quarrymen have toiled with a will and have, with the rest of the party, braved danger freely; for in these trenches too there are risks to be faced, the débris having already scored one direct hit (resulting in a slashed wrist) and brought home several ricochets. Considering the conditions, however, all has gone very well, and the experience of several years’ siege of this Mousterian stronghold ought to enable us to carry through our present instalment of work without any serious accident such as might mar an otherwise complete triumph. The Committee is aware that this is not the most favourable moment at which to apply for a further grant. Moreover, it may prove at the end of the present excavation that the most profitable portions of the cave have been worked out. Nevertheless, if the funds be forthcoming, there remains plenty of useful work on which they may be spent, since the inmost depths of the cave are quite untouched. For the rest, it would be in any case well for the British Association to maintain the Committee in being, so that it may carry the work to a finish whenever opportunity serves. ON THE EXPLORATION OF A PALAOLITHIC SITE IN JERSEY. 197 Report of Work done in August 1915. Shortly after the despatch of the Report for July a crisis occurred in the history of this undertaking. It became exceedingly doubtful whether operations must not be suspended altogether, owing to the dangerous condition of the roof. This is some forty-five feet high for the most part. Besides, it largely consists, not of live rock, but of detached blocks of granite of any weight up to ten or twelve tons, which are held in place simply by the clay that has been forced down between the fissures. A discharge of dynamite, however, cleared away everything that was not relatively stable on the side overhanging Working A. From within the breach thus effected our experienced quarrymen were then able to carry on the attack across the back of the cave, precipitat- ing avalanches of stones by means of long crowbars and grappling- tools. As a result our workings were smothered with mountains of débris, which it has cost at least a fortnight’s labour to remove. The roof, meanwhile, may be declared to be, for the time being, reasonably safe; and excavation has henceforth proceeded as merrily as before along the level of the implementiferous floor. It remains to take stock briefly of the progress of the three workings distinguished in the previous Report. Working A, after being cleared for another six feet along the western side-wall, i.e., up to thirty-six feet from the entrance, was barred by a projecting shelf of live rock. The upper part of this shelf coming first into view seemed to mark the inner limit of the cave. Nearer the floor, however, it turned out to be undercut by a cavity penetrating onwards at an angle of some forty-five degrees. How much further back this fresh extension of the cave may lead is at present a matter of pure speculation, the utmost probings having hitherto reached but ten or twelve feet, though without coming on any signs of the end. Appetite for further advance in this direction has been whetted by the discovery of implements, including one of the most perfect examples of the Mousterian ‘ point’ hitherto obtained, in the heart of the breccia with which this annexe of the cave is packed. Working B, which was carried across the entrance of the cave from the western to the eastern wall, was almost completed by the end of July. Up to the limit corresponding to the line of the roof overarching the entrance it has proved remarkably rich in relics of human occupation. Beyond this line, however, virtually nothing is to be found. It would seem, therefore, that the present roof marks the frontier of the ancient shelter, and that the theory of an original cave stretching from side to side of that gaping cleft in the cliffs into which La Cotte gives from the south must be given up. The only other possibility, and that a faint one, is that the floor descends sharply at this point; in which case remains of Man might yet be discoverable at a lower level than that which has been so far attained. Working C has not been pushed much further back along the eastern sidewall; but, by way of compensation, the débris forming a salient between Workings C and A has been steadily reduced, so that there is now clear floor throughout from the entrance to a depth of about thirty feet. Work in this direction has revealed the encouraging fact 198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, that the detritus is almost as rich in flint and bone at the centre as along the sides. Indeed, the sheer mass of the finds is well nigh over- whelming. The bone, moreover, is in fairly good condition; so that, for instance, a magnificent tooth of a prehistoric elephant has been rescued virtually intact. The flint implements found in the depths of the cave are on the whole of a relatively coarse and massive type, but some finer specimens occur amongst them; so that it would be dangerous to assume that this is an earlier industry which was covered up by falls of débris during Mousterian times, a shallow cave sufficing for the later generations. The simpler hypothesis is that the best pieces occur in the best-lighted parts of the workshop. It remains to acknowledge the assistance of a staff of volunteer searchers too numerous to allow of individual mention. Mr. P. H. Brodie, however, Rhodes Scholar of Worcester College, Oxford, deserves special thanks for having contributed an unbroken month of most useful work. In addition to the helpers referred to by name in the previous Report, Mr. Nicolle, Hon. Secretary of the Société Jersiaise, and Mr. Voisin have rendered yeoman service. The funds provided by the British Association have been ere now expended, but with the aid of the supplementary grant furnished by the Royal Society work will be continued, it is hoped, until the latter part of September. By that time a great part of the task will have been accomplished, but not all. Appendix to Supplementary Report. The Supplementary Report described operations up to August 31. Their end came with dramatic suddenness at 2.30 p.m. on September 3, when the roof of the cave collapsed. The recess newly discovered at the back of Working A had been opened up as regards its upper portions (which proved to be implementiferous) to a depth of fifty feet from the entrance. It was fully realised that this was a dangerous thing to do, since the roof from about twenty feet inwards from the mouth appeared to consist of loose material. Indeed, on the assumption that the cave-filling had descended through a more or less vertical funnel, the attempt was made last year to locate the top of this funnel on the north side of the cliff at a spot some seventy feet above the floor-level of the cave; and a tentative excavation at this point found loose material similar to that which seemingly composed the cave roof. It was thought extremely likely, therefore, that by undercutting to an extent of some thirty feet a column of heavy rock-rubbish at least twenty or thirty feet thick, there must eventually ensue a complete débdcle ; and of late an anxious watch had been kept on the roof for signs of * creep- ing.’ The first two days of September had proved remarkably prolific in the matter of finds, and even on the morning of September 3 about forty implements and some very fine pieces of bone were unearthed ; so that it was well worth while to try to carry on to the last. Suddenly dust and small stones began to drop from the roof on all sides, and it was obvious that collapse was a matter of minutes. There was just time to remove tools and other belongings when an avalanche of some five hundred tons of rock and clay descended with an overwhelming ON THE EXPLORATION OF A PALAOLITHIC SITE IN JERSEY. 199 roar, the nine persons who happened to be then at work in the cave taking to their heels with such good will that no one was hurt. When these ventured to return it was to see the sun shining down through a cavity some twenty feet in diameter on a vast pile of débris, completely obliterating the former workings. As further falls are to be expected, work has been closed for the year. When winter weather has done its worst with the exposed sides of the chimney it will be possible to decide on the wisest course of action in regard to this as yet unexhausted site. A view from the top of the chimney makes it clear that another fifty feet or so of pene- tration would have reached the north side of the cliff; so that it might seem the soundest policy to break in from this side, thus immediately tapping what was formerly the back part of the cave, and avoiding the task of dealing with the débris now encumbering the thousand square feet of floor already cleared. In the meantime there is such a mass of finds awaiting determination that those who have been working here remain as busy as ever. The Distribution of Bronze Age Implements.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor J. lu. Myres (Chairman), Mr. Harotp J. EK. PEAKE (Secretary), the Hon. JoHN ABERCROMBY, Mr. BE. C. R. ArnMstronc, Dr. G. A. AUDEN, Mr. Henry Batrour, Dr. GrorcE Correy, Mr. O. G. S. CRAWFORD, Professor Boyp DAwkxINs, Dr: H. S. Harrison, Mr. K. THurtow Leeps, Dr. R. R. Marett, Sir CHARLES HERCULES READ, and Professor W. RipGEway. No meeting of the Committee was held during the year, but the Secre- tary attended the meeting of the Association Francaise. held at Le Havre in July, 1914, and through the courtesy of Dr. F. Gidon, its President, was enabled to bring the objects of the Committee before the Section of Anthropologie. The idea was received very cordially by those present, especially by M. A. de Mortillet, and many offers of assistance were received. The order for the mobilisation of the French army, which was issued the following day, has prevented any further communication with our allies on this subject. Owing to the war it has been impossible to proceed with the forma- tion of the card index; nevertheless a considerable number of sketches and notes have been furnished by Miss Morey, Miss Minns, Lieut. O. G. S. Crawford (9th Batt. the Royal Berkshire Regt.), and 2nd Lieut. G. A. Curnock (4th Batt. the Rifle Brigade), while further information is expected shortly from Mr. W. Dale, F.S.A., and Mr. E. Thurlow Leeds. These notes refer to specimens in the museums of Newbury, Southampton, and Carisbrooke, as well as to those in several small private collections. Cards for the index, a box in which to store them, callipers, and scales are now needed, and the Committee seeks reappointment with a grant of 101. 200 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor RIDGEWAY (Chairman), Pro- fessor R. C. Bosanquet (Secretary), Dr. T. AsHpy, Mr. WILLOUGHBY GARDNER, and Professor J. Li. MyYREs, ap- pointed to co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain. THE Committee was reappointed in September, 1913, with a grant of 201. This sum was divided in equal shares between (1) the Committee of the Abergele Antiquarian Association, which in conjunction with the Cambrian Archeological Association is exploring the hill-fort in Parc-y-meirch Wood, Denbighshire; and (2) the Committee represent- ing the Society of Antiquaries and the Shropshire Archeological Society, which is excavating the Roman town of Uriconium (Wroxeter). Owing to the early date fixed for the delivery of reports in 1914 it was not possible for the excavators to present the results of work done that summer in time for the Australian Meeting, and the Committee therefore submitted an interim statement, explaining that fuller accounts of the results obtained on both sites would be presented in 1915. These are appended to the present Report. (1) Dinorben. Previous discoveries on the Denbighshire site were described by the excavator, Mr. Willoughby Gardner, in papers laid before the British Association in 1912 and 1913. The work of 1914 threw further light on the extent and character of the fourth-century occupation, but was chiefly directed to tracing the growth of the fortifications and endeavouring to correlate the successive entrances, ramparts, and ditches. It is now clear that the main south-east gate, with its successive roadways and guard-houses, was not the original entrance; an earlier gate, destroyed by fire, has been found embedded in the stone rampart a few yards to the east, and the road belonging to it has also been laid bare. An early rampart, corresponding with this gateway in its mixed stone-and-timber construction and showing still plainer evidence of a great conflagration, .has been traced under the guard-houses and main rampart on the west of the south-east entrance. The dissection of the enormous main rampart has been continued and the finding of revetment-walls gives a clue to two, if not three, periods of construction. The ditches which Mr. Gardner in his previous Report explained as perhaps constructed in the first century of our era, when native forts were hastily strengthened in view of Roman attacks, have been further explored ; wherever examined they show the same phenomenon, a filling of freshly quarried stone, the unmistakable débris of a stone rampart overthrown soon after its erection. Owing to the dearth of pottery and other characteristic finds, Mr. Gardner does not at present assign dates to the successive stages in the history of the stronghold. He has shown much ingenuity and patience in surmounting the natural obstacles presented by this exceptionally difficult site, and his plans, sections, photographs, and records of levels are full and accurate. The Committee hopes that he may be enabled to continue this very promising investigation. ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 201 (2) Uriconiwm (Wroxeter). The scheme for the systematic excava- tion of this Roman town was laid before the Association at the Birming- ham Meeting. The direction of the work is in the hands of Mr. J. P. Bushe-Fox, who had previously worked with distinction at Corbridge and at Hengistbury Head. Two detailed and well-illustrated Reports on the work of 1912 and 1913 have been issued by the Society of Antiquaries, and that for 1914 is in the press; the appended statement gives an interesting summary of the results gained during these three seasons in an undertaking that may fairly be described as of national importance. The Committee notes with satisfaction the rapid progress that is being made in determining the sequence and dating of Romano- British pottery, thanks to the careful records of stratification kept in recent years at Corbridge, Wroxeter, and other sites. The Committee asks for reappointment and for a renewal of its grant. Reports TO THE CoMMITTEE. I. Further Excavations in Dinorben, the ancient Hill Fort in Parc-y- meirch Wood, Kinmel Park, Abergele, North Wales, during 1914. By Wiiovucnpy Garpner, F'.S.A. The excavations in this hill-fort by the Abergele Antiquarian Association and the Cambrian Archeological Association, recorded in Reports of the British Association, 1912, pp. 611-12, and 1913, pp. 231-36, were continued during the summer of 1914. The excavators were again greatly assisted by a Research Committee of Section H of the British Association, whose Secretary, Professor R. C. Bosanquet, spent two days upon the site, and by the Association’s grant towards the cost. Work occupied about six weeks; ten labourers and a foreman were employed, as before, and much help was given by amateur assistants. To Colonel Hughes, the owner of the site, warm thanks are again due for continued interest and assistance in numerous ways. Operations were first directed to the massive dry masonry wall discovered in 1913, running crosswise in the thickness of the main rampart, 18 feet to the E. of the S.E. entrance. As the rampart stood 9 feet high and was 28 feet thick at this point from facing wall in front to casing wall at back, and both these walls were buried behind a further thickness of débris, the work was laborious. The bulk of the rampart consisted of rubble-stone, but approaching the ground-level many large slabs and roughly squared stones were encountered near the cross-wall. In places, especially towards the inner side of the rampart, quantities of burnt stone and calcined lime were also found, with fragments of charcoal here and there. At the foot of the wall a well-gravelled surface was uncovered, trodden hard like a road. The cross-wall was laid bare to its foundation, standing 8 feet high for a straight length of 16 feet. At its outer end this massive wall was found to be cut at right angles by the later built facing wall of the rampart, continuous with the side wall of the pre- 202 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. viously excavated §.H. entrance; at its inner end it turned off sharply 2 feet to the right and then curved round in its first direction for several feet further, forming a shallow recess. There was a groove from top to bottom of the wall at 11 feet from its outer end, 1 foot 6 inches wide and 1 foot deep, and at the foot of this groove there was a hole in the ground stiffened by stone slabs; this groove and hole were evidently for a wooden post built in at the time of construction. At the corner where the wall turned off 2 feet there was a similar post-hole in the ground, 1 foot 6 inches wide, apparently constructed of stones placed within a larger excavated hole. But both these post-holes were difficult of examination owing to the dangerous way in which the wall bulged over them. Opposite to these two post-holes, at a distance of 9 feet from the wall, two other large holes, cut out of the rocky ground, were subsequently unearthed; both contained many flat stones, either set upright or fallen within them, as if for post-holes; there were small pieces of charred wood, possibly remnants of a post, at the bottom of the N.W. hole. The gravelled road lying between these four holes was traced in an outward direction running beneath and beyond the later facing wall of the rampart; in an inward direction it also continued beneath the back walls of the previously excavated guard-houses and two inner casing- walls of the rampart. It had a width of about 9 feet throughout its course. Curiously, no side wall was found on the W. side of this road- way; one big upright slab embedded alongside the outer post-hole here seemed to be the only stone of such a wall in situ. But apparently many of the stones of a former wall were those which were found lying upon the roadway; others had probably been quarried for later con- structions. It seems clear, therefore, that the excavations have brought to light a ruined entrance of still earlier date than the successive entrances unearthed 18 feet W. in 1912 and 1913. This earlier entrance seems to have suffered forcible destruction by the throwing down of its western wall into the passage. Moreover, the quantities of burnt stones and burnt lime, with some charcoal, found in the lower strata of its ruins, point to a conflagration at the same time. It was noted that the burnt lime layer above the roadway extended beneath the foundations of the two successive guard-houses on this side belonging to the previously excavated S.E. entrances. The only relics found in this early entrance were pieces of broken bone of Bos trodden into the roadway, some charcoal, a broken ‘ pot boiler,’ and a small bone ‘scraper ’—-none of which are datable. This discovery under the rampart on the E. side of the first-found §.E. entrance made it desirable to examine the rampart on its W. side; and this more particularly because ditches 1 and 2 here were found, upon excavation last year, to curve inwards and to end at some distance before reaching the entrance. The rampart at this point is unfor- tunately very large and four big trees were growing upon it; these were felled and removed; but as the excavation of such a mass of material by barrow and plank in a difficult position would have been very laborious, it was decided to employ a ropeway carrier of the ‘ Mond’ ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 203 type (so successfully used in Egyptian excavations), modified to suit the present site. This only came to hand towards the close of our time and did not work upon the steep slope, necessitating a return of portions to the makers for alteration. Meanwhile a beginning was made upon this rampart from the back, some 25 feet from the 8.H. entrance. Here, in the interior area of the hill-fort and up the slope to the present crest of the rampart, fragments of black and red pottery were unearthed, at a depth of about a foot, similar to that found on the same horizon elsewhere. Then burnt lime began to appear, like that discovered in the earlier entrance to the E. ; and, finally, a mass of burnt stones and lime was cut through, some 5 feet thick against the rampart and tapering to nothing at a distance of 15 feet towards the interior area of the fort. Near the bottom of this mass and just above original ground level, a quantity of clay, burned red and hard almost like brick, was revealed, and mixed with and under this a great dea] of charred wood; some of the wood was as large as if the remains of considerable timbers. Here again, therefore, there would appear to be traces of some great conflagration, apparently belonging to the same period as the lesser traces of fire found in the early entrance. On following up these deposits of burnt lime towards the E., they were found to run beneath the foundations of the guard- houses on this side belonging to the entrances excavated in 1912 and 1913; again, therefore, marking an episode at some distinctly earlier date. Further explorations beneath this great rampart by aid of the rope carrier are looked forward to with interest. Turning again to the main rampart N.E. of the S.E. entrance, a cutting was made through it at a point 105 feet distant from the entrance. Its dry masonry outer facing wall, still standing 3 feet high, was discovered beneath fallen débris in 1912; its inner face was now found to be marked by a line of big stones with some pitching above, showing a rampart 23 feet thick. The core was of mixed construction and material, and apparently contained an earlier rampart, 15 feet thick, revetted also on its inner side with a stone wall 3 feet high. Before leaving the neighbourhood of the S.E. entrance excavated in 1912 and 1913, the gravel roads leading therefrom were further investi- gated. It will be remembered that three superincumbent roads were found in the entrance passage. The upper one, proved by relics to be in use in the fourth century, ran down the slope towards the E.S.E. ; at a distance of 45 feet from its outermost post-holes it crossed over the end of ditch 1, the whole length of which had been filled and hidden from sight by stony débris at some earlier date. The second road could not be distiaguished far beyond the entrance passage, and may have been a local reparation only. The lowest of the three roads, however, was found to run §.8.H. till it was crossed and covered by the end of rampart 3. This lowest road was from 12 to 15 feet wide and was made of small blue gravel laid, 6 inches thick at its centre, upon the original ground surface. Neither of these roads outside the entrance had any ‘pitching’ below or any curbstones at their sides. We thus obtain relative ages for ditch 1 on the E. side and rampart 3 on the W. side of the §.E. entrance. Noteworthy relics unearthed in these investigations 204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. were a bronze hook and eye bracelet, with dot and ring ornament, found 1 foot deep, and a small bronze crozier-shaped object, possibly the handle of a key, from about the same depth. Attention was next directed to the N. end of the stronghold, in continuation of the work previously done there. The buried entrance at the N.E. was further investigated. The position of this entrance was marked down in 1912 by the discovery of a stone-lined post-hole, and was further proved in 1913 by the excavation of a rock causeway leading up to it between the ends of two ditches. The ramparts here- abouts proved to be very ruinous, consisting of little more than rubble- core, with their facing-stones and much of their bulk thrown down into, filling and completely covering up, the ditches in front. When the débris which choked this entrance 5 feet deep was removed, it was found to be a passage about 10 feet long and 10 feet wide at right angles through the rampart. No side walls were found; presumably they had been removed when the entrance was destroyed; but four post-holes were unearthed, one pair at either end of the passage. Of these, the one at the right hand on entering was 2 feet deep and stone-lined, and the one on the left was cut in the rock and shallower; at the inner end of the passage, the one on the left was 2 feet deep cut in the rock, and the one on the opposite side shallower ; in the deeper one charred wood was found. The roadway ascending steeply through this entrance passage was of rock, the interstices of which were filled in with small blue gravel. At some date subsequent to the destruction and choking up of this entrance, another and a smaller one seems to have been cut through the débris. This was 10 feet long and only 4% feet wide; portions of its side walls of dry masonry remained standing ; two pairs of small shallow post-holes were found cut in the rock, one pair at its entrance and one pair half-way through its length. The roadway through this entrance appeared to be made of large rough gravel, overlaid several inches thick upon the rocky floor of the earlier entrance. At the inner end of this later entrance, the side wall turned at right angles to the left and was traced as a casing wall to the inner side of the rampart for some 12 feet; at this point it was crossed by another curving-wall built at a higher level. The only relics found upon the floors of these two entrances were many broken bones of animals consumed for food, some ‘pot boilers,’ and some charcoal, in this as in other respects corre- sponding with the lower floors of the S.H. entrance. At heights vary- ing from 2 to 3 feet above the lower floor, however, or 2 to 24 feet deep in the loose débris blocking the ruined entrance, fragments of Roman pottery, iron nails, Roman glass beads, and two coins of Constantine, all relics of the fourth century occupation of the stronghold, were unearthed. At a little above the same level, some foundations of a wall- facing ran across the outer end of the passage, showing that at this period there was no entrance here. Following up the roadway into the hill-fort, some 60 square yards of the interior area were next explored by careful riddling. Considerable quantities of Romano-British relics, including several coins, all similar to those found close by in 1913, were unearthed. These relics were ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 205 again very near to the present surface; they were for the most part covered by a foot of humus only. The main rampart at the S.W. side of the hill-fort was then investi- gated, together with some 55 square yards of the interior area adjacent —the whole of the latter with the riddle. Here, what had come to be known as our ‘ relic bed’ was again encountered, between 1 and 14 feet below the present surface. The bed extended from the level interior area almost up to the crest of the rampart, although objects upon the flat were far more abundant than upon the slope of the rampart. The relics found were practically a repetition of those already recorded from a similar level elsewhere in the hill-fort, with certain additions. These additions included part of a bronze penannular brooch, an interesting bronze gilt ornament (possibly a plate brooch), several earrings and other articles of coiled bronze wire, a bone toggle, a very small iron sickle, part of a horseshoe, a good flint scraper, and, among pottery, fragments of a red incense bowl with fringed rim, fragments of painted white mortaria with hammer-head rim, fragments and a rim of ‘ calcite’ or ‘ vesicular ’ ware and several portions of black bowls mended with iron rivets; the latter would seem to show that even the common pottery used here was imported from a distance, or it would hardly have been worth the trouble of repair by riveting. The rampart here was then cut through from back to front; there was no facing-wall, only a few stones in line which may have been the remnant of one. Some 30 feet behind these stones a low wall appa- rently marked the back of the rampart. The core was again found to be of mixed material, mostly dry rubble-stone with thick layers of clay in places; its construction ‘seemed to show a later and a larger rampart covering an earlier and a smaller one. Ata point 5 feet in front of the present crest and 4 feet below it, the top of a parallel dry stone wall was encountered ; this was excavated and found to stand 5 feet high; it was probably the back wall of the earlier rampart. Further, at 11 feet behind this wall and 10 feet below the present crest, the top course of yet another parallel wall was discovered on the closing day of our work ; this would seem to belong to a still earlier structure. We regretted the necessity of postponing its exploration, which will require the removal of a great weight of material in order to reach it. Many fresh cuttings were also made at various points in front of the rampart, in further investigation of visible ditches and ramparts and in search for other ditches suspected but hidden from view by débris. Two long cuttings approximately W.S.W. (on which side of the hill-fort it will be remembered that the main rampart is entirely thrown down) revealed three parallel ditches cut in the rock; two of these had been hidden from sight by fallen débris. These three ditches, like others previously excavated, were filled, the first completely and the second and third less so, according to the slope of the hill-side, with clean dry rubble mixed with some larger wall-facing stones. These stones lay upon the rocky bottoms of the ditches with hardly any silting below them, again showing that the main rampart must have been thrown down soon after these ditches were cut. Part of the rocky berm excavated between the site of the main 206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. rampart and the first ditch revealed an unexpected layer of clay and gravel beneath the superincumbent stones ; this was dug through, 2 feet thick, and beneath it, in each section, another and an earlier ditch cut in the rock, 5 feet deep and 7 feet wide, was brought to light. This ditch again was filled nearly to its brim with dry rubble stones, beneath which there was 1 to:3 inches of silting on the bottom of the ditch. These rubble stones must represent the ruins of a former rampart above of corresponding age; and the probable foundations of such a rampart were seen in the westernmost cutting. In one of the cuttings made in 1913 to the §.S.E., which had revealed previously hidden first and second ditches cut in the earth, some curious features were then noted beneath the second rampart; these called for further investigation when timber could be obtained to make the deep excavation safe. This year the cutting was dug deeper, with the result that below the artificially laid clay of the second rampart another and an older wide ditch, partly cut in rock, was here also brought to light ; this ditch was likewise found to be half filled with dry fallen rubble mixed with a few larger wall-facing stones, again showing the existence and the destruction of a stone rampart behind it of approximately similar age. Unfortunately, no datable relics were found in any of these earlier ditches or in connection with the earlier wall-facings. ‘ To sum up the work done in 1914. In addition to the finding of many relics and the gaining of further information about the occupation of the stronghold in the fourth century a.p., many important fresh discoveries have been made, which give glimpses of the structure of a previously destroyed hill-fort or hill-forts. To follow up these dis- coveries under huge masses of difficult and shifting stony débris, and to link up the facts already obtained to one another, much labour will have to be incurred. But the investigators are looking forward to continuing the work after the cessation of the War. Detailed records of excavations made in 1914 have been preserved, as before, in the form of plans, sections, and photographs. i. Excavations at Wrozeter, on the Site of the Roman town of Uriconium, 1912-1914. By J. P. Busuun-Fox, F.8.A. The Society of Antiquaries, in conjunction with the Shropshire Archeological Society, carried on extensive excavations at Wroxeter during the years 1912, 1918, and 1914. Wroxeter, the ancient Viroconium or Uriconium, is situated on the east bank of the Severn, between five and six miles south-east of Shrewsbury. The lines of its walls can still be traced enclosing an area of about 170 acres, and the town must have been an important centre in Roman-Britain, as it stood at the junction of two of the main roads, viz., the Watling Street from London and the south-east and the road from the legionary fortress of Caerleon in South Wales. There were also other roads running from it into Wales and to Chester. The town is referred to by the Ravenna geographer as Viroconium Corno- zy a ale ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 207 viorum, and was probably the chief town of that tribe which inhabited a district including both Wroxeter and Chester. That the site was inhabited soon after the invasion under Claudius in 48 a.pD. is evident. Coins and other objects of pre-Flavian date have been met with in some quantities, and there are tombstones of soldiers of the XIV. legion from the cemetery. This legion came over with Claudius and left Britain for good in the year 70 a.p. Wroxeter, situated on the edge of the Welsh hills and protected from attack on that side by the River Severn, would have formed an admirable base for opera- tions against the turbulent tribes of Wales, and it is more than likely that it was used as such in the campaigns undertaken by Ostorius Scapula in 50 a.p. and by Suetonius Paulinus in 60 a.p. The Welsh tribes were finally subdued before the end of the reign of Vespasian, and, the country becoming more settled, Wroxeter appears to have ceased to be a military centre and to have grown into a. large and prosperous town. It is in this period, namely the last quarter of the first century a.p., that the occupation began on the part of the site recently excavated. Very little of the earlier buildings remained, as they all appear to have been built of wood and wattle-and-daub, In the second century more substantial houses were erected, and in the course of the excavations the following buildings were uncovered. In 1912 four long shops with rooms at the back and open fronts with porticos on the street. In 1913 a temple which must have been of some architectural pretensions and contained life- size statues, of which several fragments were discovered. In 1914 a large dwelling-house consisting of a number of rooms with a large portico on the street and a small bath-house at the south side. The porticos of all these buildings formed a continuous colonnade by the side of the street. At the back of the large dwelling- house another structure was discovered. Unfortunately, it could not be entirely explored, as its west part was beyond the reserved area. It consisted of two parallel walls, 13 feet apart, which enclosed an oblong space with rounded corners, 144 feet wide and 188 feet long, to the furthest point excavated. No other building of this form appears to have been found elsewhere, and it is difficult to say for what purpose it was used, especially as part of it is still unexcavated. It is possible, however, that it may have been a place of amusement for games, bull- baiting, &c., and that the two parallel walls held tiers of wooden seats. The buildings that faced the street had been altered and rebuilt several times, the mixed soil being as deep as 8 feet to 10 feet in places, making the work of excavation very slow and laborious. For instance, in 1914 there was evidence of at least four different periods of buildings» on the same site. In the early period there were wood and wattle- and-daub houses. Over the remains of these in the first half of the second century three long buildings with open fronts or porticos similar to those found in 1912 were erected. About the middle of the second century these three buildings were incorporated in one large house with corridors, two courtyards, many rooms, some with mosaic floors, and others fitted with hypocausts. A bath-house with cold baths and hot rooms was situated at the south-west corner. Ata 208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. later period this dwelling was considerably altered, several of the rooms were swept away, and the central part of the building turned into one large courtyard with corridors on three sides. Two new hypocausts were inserted and extra rooms and a long corridor or verandah built at the back. Water was supplied to the houses by a water-main at the side of the road. By shutting sluice-gates it was possible to divert the water into side-channels, which ran through the houses flushing their drains, and discharged at the back into the river. Eleven wells were found during the excavations, vary- ing from 10 feet to 12 feet deep and stone-lined. A number of crucibles and some unfinished bronze castings, &c., have been met with, showing that metal-working was carried on on the site. There was also evidence of other industrial processes, such as enamelling and working in bone. A very large number of small objects have -been discovered during the excavations, such as cameos, en- graved gems—some still set in finger-rings—many brooches of different metals, enamelled ornaments, and a quantity of interesting articles in different metals, bone, glass, &c. The great quantity of pottery found may be judged by the fact that upwards of 900 potters’ stamps on Samian ware have been recorded. The coins number between 1,200 and 1,300, among them being a few British varieties. No coins later than the end of the fourth century have as yet been met with, and the town does not appear to have been inhabited after that date. What was the cause of its destruction or desertion is as yet uncertain, but it is hoped that future excavations will solve the problem. Detailed accounts of the excavations are printed in Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London, Nos. 1, 2, and 4. Archeological Investigations in Malta.—Report of the Com: mittee, consisting of Professor J. lu. Myres (Chairman), Dr. T. AsHpy (Secretary), Mr. H. Batrour, Dr. A. C. Happon, and Dr. R. R. Marett. Durine the year excavations have been carried out by Dr. Ashby in the ruins at Xrobb il Ghargin, and by Dr. G. Despott at Tal Herba and the Burmeghez Fissures. Reports on these excavations are appended. The whole of the grant has been expended on this work. The Com- mittee ask to be reappointed with a further grant of 101. for the purpose of carrying on the investigation of other important sites in the island. I. Xrobb il Ghargin. By Dr. T. Asupy. The ruins of Xrobb il Ghargin are as beautifully situated as any in Malta. The building which they represent was undoubtedly a temple or sacred edifice of the eneolithic period, and its site is an exceptional ene, on the edge of the cliffs near the extreme S.E. point of the island. British Association, 85th Report, Manchester, 1915.| [Puate X. \ Coast Site of Building. {Room A, looking North-west. Illustrating Report on Archeological Investigations in Malta. (To face page 208. ON ARCHAOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN MALTA. 209 To the N.E. runs a line of exceptionally white cliffs, which terminate in the treacherous reef of the Munshiar (saw); to the S, is a much smaller point of softer and yellower rock running eastward, in the upper strata (the harder white strata begin to dip), and followed to the S.E. by a flatter bit of coast, guarded by a disused redoubt and tower, Then the deep indentations begin again, and continue until Delimara Point, T:"“TORBA” FLOOR SS ee L.S.- LOOSE STONES : IF : =STANDING STONES Plan of Neolithic Remains at Xrobb-il-Ghagin on the East Coast of Malta, surveyed in May 1915, with its lighthouse, is reached. In the bay between the Munshiar and the redoubt, about 150 feet above the sea, is the building which forms the subject of the present paper. All the rock of this part of the island is soft, and the indentations are continually becoming deeper, while the cliffs are much undercut. A considerable portion of the edifice has thus fallen into the sea, and the collapse of the rest may not be very far distant, as it is deeply undermined. The existence of the ruins was discovered by Mr. Carmelo Rizzo, P.A.A., who 1915. P 210 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. noticed the presence of a considerable depth of red soil upon the light- yellow rock. Excavations were undertaken in December 1914 by Captain Laferla of the King’s Own Malta Militia, who uncovered the most important portion of the building. The plan was not completed, however, owing to lack of time, and supplementary work proved necessary. This ex- tended over ten days in May 1915, under my supervision. The remains of the structure need, as they stand, a comparatively brief description. We have, it seems, before us a sacred building of the eneolithic period—contemporary, that is, with Hagiar Kim, Mnai- dra, the Gigantia, and the other megalithic edifices of the Maltese islands. Owing to its situation it does not altogether conform to the normal plan, as far as we can judge from the existing remains; though the fact that much of it has fallen into the sea must always be taken into account. We seem, then, to have before us a central portion, consisting of (1) a semicircular chamber with a torba floor, with a shrine facing S.E. at its N.W. extremity; (2) a passage paved with large slabs of stone, which are on the level of the top of the low niche of the shrine, and are indirectly reached from the chamber A by a flight of steps leading into the chamber D on the 8.W. side of this passage; (8) a chamber at the N.W. end of this passage; (4) another chamber beyond D again. Mr. R. V. Galea has noticed that in this building only of the megalithic monuments of Malta the main chambers are semi- circular and not elliptical. On the N.E. side we have only the beginnings of walls, from which we cannot do more than infer the existence of other chambers here. But from the examination of the rest, it seems almost as if we might recognise in the central portion an arrangement identical with that which is familiar to us in the larger Maltese sanctuaries—two elliptical chambers joined together by a passage across their shorter axes, with a niche at the end of this passage, in a straight line with the main entrance. The portion of the building to the 8.E. of A is constructed on a fairly steep slope, and traces of steps connecting its different portions may be seen at various points. For the rest, however, it is much ruined, and the same is the case on the N. We may now proceed to describe the building in somewhat greater detail, beginning at the S.E. boundary-wall. This wall follows an irregular curve, and is built of rough stones of no great size. A con- siderable amount of pottery and some good flints were found just outside it (some in a burnt earth layer 1°00 down) as though they had been thrown out here from the interior of the building, the flints more especially at its extreme south point, where it turns to run south-west. Somewhat scanty remains of two flights of steps ascending through it to the interior of the building may be seen at two different points. They both served as means of communication with the upper part of the building, and apparently led to a passage which ran outside the lower (S.E.) wall of A. There are a good many standing stones in this portion of the building, none of them being preserved to any great height, so that British Association, 85th Report, Manchester, 1915.] [Prats XI. Niche in A. Illustrating Report on Archeological Investigations in Malta. [To face page 211. ON ARCHAOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN MALTA. 211 the arrangement of this part is not very certain. But there was no doubt a massive terrace wall below Room A with vertical slabs once preserved to some height, and forming a facade; and here, as elsewhere, there were, besides, tie-slabs at right angles to the direction of the facade. This facade had, as is usual, footing blocks, which may be seen at a, where they are 0°65 m. wide. Behind it was a space filled with loose stones, and then came the inner wallof A. The total thick- ness of this wall, without the footing blocks, was thus not less than 2°95 m. The most important part of the building is, as we have said, Room A. It is a semicircular room some 10 m. in diameter; the inner wall, the lowest stones of which are preserved, was about 0°65 m. thick. On the S.W. side there is a line of low slabs 0°55 m. wide along its inner side, which possibly served as a seat, as they are 0°28 m. above the floor.1 The room has a torba floor 0°'10m. thick; under it are stones and earth. In the earth a considerable amount of pottery was found, which is naturally of considerable importance for the determina- tion of the date of its construction. The rock-bottom is 0°67 to 1:00 m. down, The chord of the semicircle is occupied by the shrine, a dolmenic niche resting upon small pillars, and only 0°30 m. in height. It faces 35° E. of 8S. The covering stone measures 1°91 m. in length by 0°81 m, in depth, and 0°28m. in thickness; and the vertical front, which is slightly convex as regards its length, is finely pitted with round holes. The niche itself is curved, and measures 1:00 in width and 0°75 m. in depth; the wall is built of small stones, the joints of which are formed of clay, which is still well preserved. In the niche was formed a large circular ball of stone, 0°39m. in diameter, one side being slightly flattened. In front of the niche is a low threshold stone, broken into three pieces, and measuring 2°50 m. in length, 0°90 in maximum width, and 0°20 in thickness. The front edge of it slopes away slightly towards the torba floor. In the centre of this stone is a rectangular base measuring 0°47 m. long, 0°24 m. wide, and 0:08 m. high. The vertical front of it shows signs of pitting, and it has no doubt been a pedestal to carry some sacred object which was revered at this shrine. On each side of the shrine the threshold is continued by another block, that on the west having an incised line along the top of the vertical face. The total length is thus 419m. Behind and beside these blocks are standing stones. To the S.W. of the shrine is a flight of three steps 158m. wide, with a raised threshold block between the second and third step leading up between vertical slabs (and therefore probably roofed), to Room D, which is paved with torba,” the rock being about 047m. down. The lintel block of the shrine has the upper surface smoothed; in it are two very shallow depressions 0'13m. apart and 0°035 m. in diameter, which obviously bear some analogy to the pairs of holes connected by a small tunnel, which are frequently met with in the thresholds of the megalithic buildings of Malta. Beyond 1 15° E, of S. is a foundation of stones projecting 0-90 and 1-25 wide. 2 In it was a layer 0-04 m, thick of burnt earth, with a few small pieces of wood, P2 212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. this is another slab, and then a raised threshold block, exactly like that at c in Corradino South. Then comes a threshold divided into three parts, at each end of which are small, slightly raised areas* upon which wooden door posts may have rested; and then comes a smaller slab. So far, at least, vertical slabs are preserved on the N.E. side of this slab pavement, and their presence may perhaps be supposed on the N.W. The original height cannot be determined, as those on the N.E. are truncated; but it would seem clear that there was originally one upper dolmenic niche above the shrine as it is preserved. Beyond this point there is a recess on the N.E. side measuring 0°82 x 0°46 (the flocr block of it is 0°21 thick and lies above the slab pavement of the passage, and a burnt earth layer was found upon it). Behind and beyond it is the torba floor of another room, the greater part of which has fallen down the cliff, on the level of the main slab pavement ; and here is a strongly marked burnt layer with charred wood in it, while on the S.W. the torba floor of D must originally have come up to the slab pavement of the central passage. This is here composed of two large slabs 0°22 m. thick, running S.E. and N.W. Under them is a torba floor (scanty traces) 0°53 m. below the bottom of the block. After a space filled with broken stones, we reach two low steps. Between it and the upper block is a space 0°12 m. high, closed by small stones; then comes the upper block. There is a vertical slab on each side. The passage then narrows considerably, still having vertical slabs on each side. At the point where it does so, the paving block of the passage has a raised area 0°77 m. long, 0°36 m. wide, and 0°06m. high, which, no doubt, served as a base for a statue or baetylus. Beyond it is a smoothed block with a fine small edging round it, and a smoothed vertical face on the N.W. which must, however, have mainly been covered by torba. This narrow passage leads into another room with a torba floor. The side walls are of vertical slabs, but do not go down within 0.30 m. of the floor-level, being supported by a base of stones and earth. The block b is in situ, and in the recess on the S.W. of it a round slab of stone 045m. in diameter and 0°05 thick was found lying on the torba floor. The block c, on the other hand, has fallen from the side wall. The exploration of the mound behind (1) led to no definite result ; and it is probable that the building did not extend further in this direction, that the mound was piled up to support the back of (1), and that the stones to the W. of (1) have simply fallen. A little pottery was found about six feet down on an irregular sloping block of stone, which is probably a part of the rock. The soil has apparently been washed down the slope in the course of centuries. At the lower extremity of it is a straight wall of small stones, no doubt a field-wall, certainly having no connection with the megalithic build- ing. To the S.W. of the room is an area paved with torba, which rests 8 38 x 24 c.m. on 8.W. 45x17 on N.E, ON ARCHAOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN MALTA, 213 directly on the rock, which is 0°15 below its upper surface, It is confined on the N.W. by a curving wall, but its limits towards the S.W. cannot be fixed. To the S. of the building is a well. Lower down the slope are some very uncertain traces of walls of which nothing definite could be made. II. Tal Herba and Burmeghez Fissures. By Dr, G. Desporr. Tal Herba Quarry. This quarry, which is known to the people of the locality as ‘Il Barrira tal Herba’ or ‘Il Barrira tal Guzzu,” is situated on the right side of the road which leads from Luca to Micabiba or Mkabba, and is only about 200 yards away from the first houses of this last village. At present it is no longer a quarry, but has been filled with red earth and is being used as a field where crops are regu- larly grown. The fissures in this quarry are two, which we will call Fissure 1 and Fissure 2. Fissure 1.—This fissure was dug by me, assisted by my friend Mr. Carmelo Rizzo, the Engineer to the Public Health Department. As could be judged from a section of it which still remained when we first saw it, it was bell-shaped, very like the surface fissures at Burmeghez, which place is only at a short distance to the N.W. of this; human bones having been found in these fissures we naturally expected to find the same in the present one too. The original opening to this fissure was also similar to those of Burmeghez, being at the top, and had a diameter of two or two and a half feet. (When I say at the top, I mean in a vertical and not in a slanting position, like many of the openings to the other fissures.) The depth was a little over six feet, and its greatest width eight feet. At a distance which varied from two to three feet from the opening it was filled with the usual red earth, this being of a lighter colour at the surface. On our arrival at the place the workmen at the quarry presented to us some loose bones which looked very like heads of the limb-bones of an elephant. As these, however, were not found by us in situ, we decided to discard them, knowing, moreover, that such bones could be secured from a locality near Mkabba, known as Gaudia fissure. The first piece of bone we found in our digging was the right part of a mandible of a pig (Sus scrofa). A few inches further down the remains of a stag (Cervus elaphus var. barbarus) were found, and these con- tinued till a depth of about a foot; together with these was also found a part of a marine bivalve (Tapes decussata). At this place, i.e., at about one foot from the surface, a plastron from a carapace of a tortoise, probably a fresh-water species, was found, and to a depth of more than two feet these remains continued - amongst them we could identify six humeri of the same side, showing thus that the remains belonged to at least six individuals, and these must have varied in size from six to say eight inches. Some of the plastrons were still adhering together, but as they were so very friable and the earth of a rather hard consistency, it was very difficult to extract them whole. With the tortoises we found also the remains of 214 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1915, birds which varied from the size of a pigeon to that of a common fowl; to what species these belonged I could not make out, so I have sent them to Dr. Smith Woodward, of the British Museum of Natural History, for identification. In the remaining part, which varied in depth from one inch to about one foot (the bottom of the fissure being sloping), we found a part of the right tibia of the swan (Cygnus Falconerii) and more cervine remains, amongst which a good part of a shed antler, whose thickness at the base was one inch. All the animal remains at the bottom were in a much more frag- mentary state than those found further up. The only parts found in a good state of preservation were the above-mentioned antler and some cervine teeth ; amongst these were found two human ones, belonging to the upper jaw. I am not aware that in Malta human remains have been previously found associated with the above-mentioned animal remains. The dis- covery is thus one of great importance. The fissure just described leads to another further down; in this, however, no animal remains were found. j Fissure 2.—The original opening to this fissure, which is not more than eight yards apart from Fissure 1, is a crevice of the slanting type, and the fissure is quite different from Fissure 1, too; in fact, it is a straight crevice in the rock, which widens as it goes down; its direction is N.W. to S.E. The present entrance, which is a section of it, faces the S.E.; its greatest height just permitted one to stand up straight. The digging here was conducted by Dr. T. Ashby, who was assisted by Captain F. H. S. Stone, of the P. & O. s.s. Isis. The earth in this fissure, which was of the same quality as that in Fissure 1, was mixed almost to the bottom with the white dust of the Globigerina stone of the quarry. The animal remains which I could identify belonged to the stag (C. elaphus var. barbarus), a dormouse (Myorus meltensis), two species of swan (Cygnus Falconerti), and several species of birds which have not yet been identified; together with these were also found parts of the carapace of the tortoise which must have been not much smaller than the gigantic tortoise found at Corradino two years ago, and about which a full report by Professor N. Tagliaferro was published in the Bulletin of the Malta Historical and Scientific Society. All the doubtful bones from this fissure have been also sent for identification to the British Museum. Herba Fissure No. 2. Prof. Zammit and Mr. Rizzo did some more digging in Fissure No. 2, which extends still further in. The earth here continued to be of the usual red quality, and in it the animal remains belong to the stag, tortoise, swan, and birds which vary from the size of a pigeon to that of a duck or small goose. No remains of the Myorus were met with during this period of excavations. Some of the bones are in a very good state of preservation ; others, however, are so very friable as to make it almost impossible to extract ; others are in such a fragmentary state as to leave no hopes for identification. The remains of the smaller birds are identical with those sent to ON ARCHAOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN MALTA. 215 Dr. Woodward to be identified. I may also state that there is yet no sign of the end of this fissure. Herba Fissure No. 3. This fissure, which is only a few feet apart (to the N.W.) from the spot where Fissure No. 1 stood, promises to extend much more than any of the other two, so a trench about six or seven feet deep and about four or five feet square has been cut in it. For a couple of feet from the surface the earth is of the usual red type, mingled with stones and large pieces of stalactitic formations. In this layer the remains of stag in a most fragmentary state, and those of the same small tortoise met with in Fissure 1, are found in abundance, and, though the earth here is rather loose, the bones crumble to pieces as soon as touched. The remaining four or five feet of earth are also of the red quality, but mingled with a greyish clay which increases as it goes further down, thus giving a hard consistency, which towards the bottom in- creases to such a degree as to make the work rather difficult, and the Types of Slanting Fissures. animal remains almost impossible to extract. The bones here belong to the swan, stag, and probably a gigantic tortoise; remains of small birds are also met with. I have assisted in the digging myself and can state that the bones have been deposited in fragments, and many of them in such a bad state as to render identification quite impossible. In the last two feet of earth stalagmitic formations are also found in abundance, thus 216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. rendering the work even more difficult ; these, however, must have been carried into the fissure together with the bones. All the bones are found lying in such confusion that there is no doubt they have been carried into the fissure by some inrush of water. The shape of the fissure cannot at present be imagined, for, as already stated, it seems to extend considerably in all directions, and what has often been thought to be the bottom of it was only some large stone which has been also introduced there. The smaller specimens of avian remains belong to the species whose identification will also be due to the specialists of the South Kensington Museum. i Burmeghez Quarries.—These extensive quarries, known as ‘Il Barrieri ta Burmeghez,’ are situated at a short distance from the Herba Vi ry , kt Ce A : { lifts, f “ay wh, Oden, “ ANG ty Section of ‘ Herba Fissure 1.’ 1. Sus scrofa (pig). 2. Cervus elaphus var. barbarus (stag). 3. ditto ditto + Tapes decussata. 4. Tortoise and avian remains. 5. Swan, more ceryian remains, and human teeth. quarry, and can be also reached from the road which leads from the Marsa to Mkabba. Several of these quarries have been already con- verted into cultivated fields, but many are still worked, and in these fissures are continually met with. The Fissures.—These, which have been also dug by Dr. T. Ashby, are all situated at a great depth from the surface (perhaps fifty feet or more), and they are all of the slanting crevices type. The animal remains found in them, and which Dr. Ashby consigned to me for ex- amination, consist of the remains of the stag which must have been so common in those localities, and which Prof. Tagliaferro describes as a ON ARCHAOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN MALTA. 217 small variety of the Cervus elaphus var. barbarus, some equine teeth, a humerus of a tortoise of the same species as those found in Herba Fissure 1, and some limb-bones of small mammals. The Ductless Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir EDWARD SCHAFER (Chairman), Professor SWALE Vincent (Secretary), Professor A. B. Macauuum, Dr. L. E. SHoRE, and Mrs. W. H. THomrson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tue Secretary has been engaged upon several problems connected with internal secretion. In conjunction with Mr. Wheeler, he has investi- gated the effects of extirpation of the medulla of the adrenal bodies, leaving (as far as possible) the cortex undamaged. Account has also been taken, in some of these experiments, of the abdominal chromaphil body. The results obtained so far indicate that it is the cortex and not the medulla which is essential to the life of the animal. It seems likely that the adrenin function of the chromaphil tissues is only called into requisition in emergencies (as in certain emotional conditions [Cannon] ). Incidentally an inquiry into the action of hormones on the vaso- motor reflexes has led to a study of certain general aspects of such reflexes. The results are published in the Quarterly Journal of Experi. mental Physiology, vol. ix. The Secretary is reinvestigating the relation of the islets of Langer- hans to the zymogenous tissues of the pancreas. No definite con- clusions have yet been reached. Some points in the structure of the pituitary have also received attention (s.v., Practitioner, Jan. 1915, p. 16). Mr. A. T. Cameron has continued his investigations on the distribu- tion of iodine in plant and animal tissues. His new results confirm those previously published (J. Biol. Chem., 1914, 18, 335-80). The results below are for dry tissue. He finds that iodine is an invariable constituent of ascidian tests, the amount varying from a trace up to about 0°3 per cent. The endostyle contains no detectable quantity, and therefore, as regards iodine function, appears to differ from thyroid. The other tissues contain traces, which increase with increasing amounts in the test. The outer layer of the foot of the horse-clam and of the cockle contains iodine of the order 0°2 per cent. Iodine is an invariable constituent of the tubes of annelid worms, the amount (in absence of sand and calcium carbonate) varying in different species from 0°1 to 0°7 per cent. The worms themselves contain amounts varying from 0°01 to 0O°1 per cent. One species of diatom showed no detectable quantity of iodine, indicating that diatoms may not be a link in the cycle of iodine in sea-life. Some fresh thyroid material has been examined. The thyroid of the dog-fish, Squalus sucklii, contains approximately 0:2 per cent. iodine and the amount does not appear to vary appreciably at different seasons of the year. A case of goitre 218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. in this species has been reported on (Cameron and Vincent, J. Med. Res., May 1915), which is the first observed in salt-water fishes. -The thyroid of the rat-fish (Hydrolagus collictt, a holocephaloid) contains quantities of iodine varying from 0°5 to 0°75 per cent. (different samples). Several species of sea-birds have been examined. The thyroids of the surf scoter (2 specimens) contain 1‘1 per cent., of the pigeon guillemot 0°4 per cent., and of the marble murrelet 0°3 per cent. The thyroids of crows (Corvus corvinus), feeding largely on clams, contain 0°75 per cent. iodine. These are all high values. The increasing ratio, previously shown to exist between the weight of the dried thyroid and the weight of the animal, with increased development, is confirmed. For Squalus sucklii it is about 6 mg. per kg., for Hydrolagus collicii about 12 mg. per kg., and for the birds examined the average figure is 25 mg. per kg. The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 361. Electromotive Phenomena in Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. D. WALLER (Chairman), Mrs. WALLER (Secretary), Professors J. B. FARMER, T. JOHNSON, and VELEY, and Dr. F. O’B. ELLISon. The Electrical Measurement of the Vitality of Vegetable Tissues, Plumule v. Radicle. By A. D. Water, M.D., F.R.S., and A. M. Waturr. In pursuance of experiments described in a previous Report to the Association (Birmingham, 1913, p. 241) we have endeavoured to. estimate the relative vitality of the stems and roots of seedlings by measuring the voltage of the blaze-currents excited by single induction shocks.' We took for this purpose the seedlings of barley—Hordeum vulgare—applying the test to the separated plumule and radicle © respectively on the fourth and on the sixth day of germination on moist blotting-paper at a temperature of 18° to 20°C. As in previous experiments, we used two galvanometers in circuit in order to read upon one or other of their two scales values of first responses, whether these happened to be of low or high voltage, but we give our results reduced to one of the two scales, that, namely, in which 0°01 volt through 110° ohms give a deflection of 12 degrees. The distance between the unpolarisable electrodes upon which the plant is laid was kept as nearly as possible constant as 5 mm. The galvanometer connections (see fig. 1) were taken such that the injury-current in the plant from the cut end B to the tip A was positive, so that the first response to an induction shock in the same or in the opposite direction was directed from A to B (in the plant), i.e., in the negative direction. [We observe 1 The Report in question is itself a continuation of work first described in 1900. Waller, ‘An Attempt to Estimate the Vitality of Seeds by an’ Electrical Method,’ Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 68, p. 79, 1901. Also Waller, ‘ Signs of Life from their Electrical Aspect,’ John Murray, London, 1903. ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS. 219 the convention of reading deflections from left to right as ‘ positive,’ from right to left as ‘ negative.’] The plant was excited by a single-break induction shock first in the positive then in the negative direction, weak then strong, from a Berne induction coil with two Leclanché cells (=2°9 volts) in the primary circuit; for ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ shocks the secondary coil was set at 1,000 and 10,000 units of the scale. As will be seen from the pro- focols of experiment, the results of individual trials vary considerably in magnitude, a weak shock to one plant may produce a larger effect than that produced on another plant by a strong shock, and as a rule the effect of a second strong shock is considerably smaller than that of a previous strong shock. We have, therefore, taken average results of first trials, and have _not taken into comparison the results of second Fic. 1.— Diacram oF Circuit ror Trstine SEEDs. trials, especially when strong excitation has been employed. Such average values show clearly enough that the effects of strong excita- tion exceed those of weak excitation, and, as regards the particular question we set ourselves to answer by these experiments, the electrical response of a plumule (Hordeum vulgare is so far the only seedling we have examined) is of considerable higher voltage than that of a radicle —e.g., the former is considerably above 0°01 volt, the latter consider- ably below. In consequence of excitation the electrical resistance of the plant is diminished ; the diminution is attributable to the chemical dissociation which has given rise to the blaze-current; it is greater after strong than after weak excitation, and the increased conductivity appears to be in relation with the magnitude of the previous blaze-current. Thus we find for a plumule a diminution of resistance of 30 per cent. after a blaze-current of 0°04 volt, and for a radicle a diminution of less than 10 per cent. after a blaze-current of below 0°01 volt. But the point requires further investigation; we have not yet found means to dis- tinguish the possible effect of water-transport from that of dissociation 220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. in the increase of conductivity caused by electrical excitation. The value of such increase is expressed in the last column of the protocols as the numerical ratio between the deflections by 0°01 volt before and after excitation. Thus, e.g., in Observation IV., the deflections as given in columns 2 and 12 are 60 and 80 respectively, and the increase of conductivity is therefore expressed by the fraction $8 or 133. We give below the detailed protocols of typical observations, each consisting of ten tests, and a summary of other observations, each of which also comprised ten tests. Column 1 gives the E.M.F. of the accidental current or current of injury of the plant, measured by compensation. The prefixed sign + signifies that its direction in the plant is from B to A. In Observation II. its high value is due to the fact that B is a transverse section, i.e., the seat of known injury. The magnitude of such injury-current is in itself to some extent an indication of the degree of vitality. The blaze-currents (columns 5, 7, 9, and 11) are of opposite direction to the injury- current. Column 2 gives in scale degrees the observed magnitude of the galvanometric deflection by O01 volt. | Comparison of this deflection with the deflection by 0°01 volt through 1,000,000 ohms indicates the resistance in circuit. Columns 3 and 13 give in ohms x 1,000 the resistance in circuit before and after excitation. Columns 4 and 6 give in scale degrees the observed magnitudes of the blaze deflections in response to weak-break induction shocks in the + and — directions. Columns 5 and 7 give the calculated values of the E.M.F. indicated by the observed deflections of columns 4 and 6. Columns 8 and 10 give in scale degrees the observed magnitudes of the blaze deflections in response to strong-break induction shocks in the + and — directions. Columns 9 and 11 give the calculated values of the E.M.F. indi- cated by the observed deflections of columns 8 and 10. Column 14 gives the relation of the conductivity after excitation to that before excitation taken = 100. Thus the number 133 signi- fies that the conductivity has been increased 33 per 100. 221 ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS. “ie 8600-0 ~L00-0 £800-0 1800-0 = edvi0ay ae O8F eZ | OFF0-0— se— | 0FF0-0— sé— | 0800-0— 0c— | OFF0-0— | se— O8F 9% == 00F 0g | 00T0-0— og— | 0F00-0+ | e+ | 1800-0— jf i) pa 00% 0g = O8F S| 0810-0— = o&— | 0050-0+ | cet | 0240-0— og— | 8100-0— — O8F 9% 23 — = 009 03 | 0080.0— 9€— | £800-0— sI— | L900-0— ZI— | 800-0— | sI— L99 81 = O8t cz | L800-0— | 0— —- $970-0-+ set | BSt0-0— | se— | 8800-0+ o+ Beg £3 ss ILI OL 5100-0— oe. 0900-0+ | e+ £400-0— 0g— L000-0+ g+ ILI OL a LOI ZL | 0F00-0— L— | 2¥00-0-+ oe+ i) 0 i) yu LOT oh aad 008 OF | 8400-0— sI— | 9800-0— og+ | 0200-0— [es 0 qa SE 9g = Zoo £@ | $200-0— o— i) oO £220-0— | s%— | 0900-0— | zI— 009 08 — 00F 0€ | 0bZ0-0— 09- | O800°0— | sT— | 8800-0— | Ze— | 8600-0— | zI— O8F 8 = we oe ‘yous: | — o00'0r aise 2" ; Foo0%r | -toas | = o00'r ‘goa | + 000 ee om pang ‘fay ‘TIX ‘TIX ‘IX ‘x “xI ‘IIIA ‘TIA TA ‘A “AI ‘III ‘II I ‘uovurmsie3s jo Aep 49F ‘a40bjna mnapLoyy JO 8j9}0097—'] NOILVARASAO REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, 222 0g00-0—- | — | oL60-0- | — | orz00- | — | ose00-| — = oBvi0ay oor | 3 | $00-0— |} oI— | 0800— | ooI— | OF0-0- | os— | oF0-0- | os— | oog 03 | 0¢0-0+ 999 | St | OF00— | ot-- | 090-0— | o9— | 080-0- | os— | ogo0-— | os— | o00T ot | zz0.0+ oss | OF | 020-0— | o9— | 090-0—- | ost— | g000- | si— |- og00- | oo— | eee — of | og0.0+ OOF {6 010-0— Glia 070-0— 09— 020-0— 0&— 080-0— sp— 999 ST | 1#0-0+ 99T 09 ¢00-0— Se— 080-0— ogiT— 020-0— 00I— ¢30-0— SéI— 006 | 0g 120-0 oo | os | 2000- | sz— | 090-0- | s4t- | o800- sot— | ogo0—| sut— | oss | ge | er0.0+ 006 og L00-0— Gam 0S0-0— ailiss 070-0— | OFI— 0g0-0— SLI— 986 | GE €F0-01 eet | gh | 200-0— | o1— | 060-0—- | oos— | oF0-0- | os— | oF0-0— | ooz— | 002 | 09 | o€0.0+ cer | o2 | 8000- | oz— | $200- | oct— | oz00- ozi— | o800- ost— | 991 09 | 0F0.0+ osz | oe | g000- | oc— | oL00- | oxt— | $200- o9— | o00—| oo1— | oor % | 0900+ pau. * oo1 aK Ge geass “Ate ean age Le ARE ae pao'h oot ‘9 ‘uy SI GI IL or 6 8 L 9 a ¥ § G T (000‘0T) , 8u014g,, (000‘T) « BOM , ‘SUOISIAIP OT = SWYO oT Ysnoryy aoa [0.0 4q uoNoepep rsjeTIOURATBY) ‘MM G = Sepoljos[o US9MI9G BOULIST(T ‘uolyeulmies Jo Avp Ay uO yno enmNI{g ‘aunbyna uUunspLoyy— TI NOILVARASAO 223 ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS. ,SUOT4S , ‘uolyeulmies Jo Lep 449 = ‘aunbpna wnapLozy jO Sjo]}00Y— ‘]]] NOILVANASIO sol | FE | — | 02100 — 6900-0 — | {00-0 — | 0800-0 - oe | — |sLt00 z : ee a : 3 gII L¥E se | ser00— | or— e9¢00.0— | or— | 8600-0— | sc— | 0F000— zI— 00F og | 0gz0-0+ OIT 81Z e¢ | 2Z00-0— | II— 2000+ | ZI+ | $200-0— | ZI— | 0F00-0+ | oF OFS og | 0800-0+ ZII L9G ce | 3900-0— | gz— 08900-0+ | os+ | 0s00-0— | os— | 0800-0+ | sI+ 008 OF | 0F00-0+ OIl SIZ cg | $800-0— | Zr— -0800-0+ | t+ | B800-0— | 9I— | 0200-0— | or OFS o¢ | 0s00-0+ ora O8F og | ogto-0— | og— 0010-0+ | oct | osto-0— | oe— | 0600-0— | st— 009 03 | 0L¢0-0+ 001 08% cz | 0b20-0— | 09— 00F0-0+ | gze+ | 09000— | gI— | 0200-0— | g— O8F ez | 00z0-0+ 00 EFs Gg L910-0— | og— " ¢g00-0— og— | 8200-0— | OI— | $000-0— o— Shs ce | 0LZ0-0+ 00t 00% og | StEO-0— | re— | ost0-0-+ cp+ | 90000+ | st | 82000- Lt 00% 0g | OFT0-0+ SOL o83 ze =| £900-0— | sz— " ¢200.0- o1— | $200-0— | of— | 02000— | 8s— 008 oF | 00T0-0+ 001 oor | og | L9F0-0—- | os— £600-0— | sz— | 09000— | sr— | 0F000—- aI— 00% og | 00z0-0+ OM) OG Auaae Ob ate esa tain = | ge ig eit hl ee cob age ages FI $T as TI 6 8 L 9 g if g % T QsbIOAy (ca REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. 224 982 a 6910-0 a 6L40-0 008 OF €£00:0+ | OI+ | 2990-0— 00€ OF €tt0-0— | F&— | 8880-0— L93 oF LSe0-0+ | 001+ | #FL0-0— 008 OF 00F0-0— | OcI— | $8g0-0— 008 OF 0010-0— | O&— | 00%0-0— 00+ 0€ £800-0— | Oct | €¢80-0— OFZ og 8L20-0— | 00I— | SgS0-0— 00€ OF eer0-0+ | cé+ | 0080-0— 00€ OF L910-0+ | OS+ | 02F0-0— ost | 08 £200-0+ FI+ | 8880-0— —- paue :" oor ‘Ate aise ‘ACS $T eT It ot 6 ‘moryeurmies Jo Lep 499 9§— 006— <— + ‘Oxy Bu0149 8 gét0-0 L9t0-0— L¢00-0— 0S¢0-0— L900-0— 8880-0— e80-0— L900-0— 0900-0— 0¢00-0— £800-0— “A .° L =F 6S10-0 = 966 og— | 00S0-0— | osT— 00F 8— | e810-0— | OF 00F OL— 13E0-0— 06— 83P 03— | 0200-0— 9= 00F OOI— | 0010-0— | 0f— 00F os— | L9t0-0— 0F— 00g #3— | 0920-0— | 06— £&& ZI— | 88000— | #I-— 00¢ 9— | 0200-0— 9 00F os— | 0200-0— | sI-— 002 ox t “Ox 000'T x Heo ‘At. HeoM | Use ‘auvbina wnepsoyy JO so[nMIN[G—A] NOILVYAUASAO ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS. 225 Hordeum vulgare.—Summary. R Weak Strong R Cond. x 1,000 Exe. Exe. x 1,000 (100) I. Radicle4 days . . . . 430 0:0037 00074 400 107°5 II. Plumule6days. . . . 404 0:0380 0°0470 283 139 III. Radicle6 days . . . . 370 0:0030 0:0069 344 107°5 IV. Plumule6days. . . . 396 # 0:0159 0°0479 286 138 Alterations of temperature give rise to considerable alterations of magnitude of blaze-currents and of electrical conductivity; it is not permissible, e.g., to compare effects observed at 15° and 25°; the observations reported above were taken within the range of 18° to 20°. Influence of Temperature.—During the years 1898-1900, when one of us was occupied with the examination of the physiological character of the blaze-current and of the physical conditions by which it is modified, systematic observations and records were taken of the in- fluence of temperature which at that time were not written up, and from which a representative experiment is now given in order to show the range of the temperature modification. . Time. Temp. Cond. See F en Cond. | 0 min. 19° 1-0 0:0163 volt. a ae 18 10 00138, ae 18 1-0 00130 ,, a; 22 13 00193, fa ist ae | 27 18 00192 ,, ets: 33 21 0:0095_,, 8. | 37 2:6 0:0023,, i, | 40 3-0 00016, | ie, . fo er 3-0 0 s > en 44 3-0 0 A bs a 630, 40 28 0:0005—,, BAN a, 36 2-4 0:0048 ee 32 2-0 0-0062, ,, Our work during the last year, 1915, has been directed towards determining whether Waller’s blaze-currents can be used as a practical test of the germination value of seeds. Our experiments have been carried on in collaboration with Mr. D. Finlayson, who sends us samples from his Seed-Testing Labora- tories, Wood Green, London, N. Our reports on seeds tested by Dr. Waller’s electrical method have corresponded exactly with Mr. Finlayson’s reports by his seed-germination method. 1915. Q 926 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. The seeds must be soaked a certain number of hours before they ripen sufficiently to give off their full blaze-current; dried peas require at least twelve hours’ soaking. An average blaze-current of ‘03 or ‘04 volt indicates a high-class pea BLAZE 0:02 VOLT x [ea as 6) / 3OMINUTES Fig. 2. of which 97 per cent. would germinate; individual peas out of the series tested would give ‘07 or ‘09 volt; others only ‘01 or ‘02 volt. The electrical test is much quicker than the germination test. If we find we can work rapidly enough, the method may be of use to the seed merchant who needs to know as quickly as lela the value of seeds in the market. We are still engaged in making a long series of tests on different varieties of seeds. The Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor C. S. SHERRING- TON (Chairman), Professor STANLEY Kent (Secretary), and Dr. FLORENCE BucHanaN, appointed to make further Re- searches thereon. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) THE original Committee consisted of Professor Francis Gotch, Chair- man, and Professor Stanley Kent, Secretary. This Committee was deprived of its Chairman by the death of Professor Gotch. Professor Sherrington was appointed to take his place. Dr. Florence Buchanan was added to the Committee at the annual meeting of the Association in 1914, The following Report consists of two parts. The first part deals with the work of the Committee for the year 1913-14. This was delayed last year owing to the fact that the Association met in Australia. ON THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 227 The second part deals with the work of the Committee for the year 1914-15. Part I. The work of the Committee since the date of the last Report’ has been concerned (a) with investigations undertaken in order to confirm the existence of conducting paths between the auricle and ventricle other than the auriculo-ventricular bundle, and (b) with an examination of the functions of such paths. With regard to the former, viz. the existence of conducting paths between the auricle and the ventricle other than the auriculo-ventricular bundle, it has been established that there exists on the right side of the heart a bundle of muscular tissue which forms a path of conduction between the auricle and ventricle, and which is capable of conducting impulses between these chambers in the absence of the auriculo- ventricular bundle. The evidence upon which this assertion is based is partly histological and partly experimental. By histological examina- tion it has been possible to establish the following facts. Serial sections cut through the auriculo-ventricular junction at a certain point show yenfricular muscle fibres approaching the junction from three direc- tions. These fibres are connected with fibres of auricular origin through a mass of modified tissue presenting characters similar to those seen in the sino-auricular and auriculo-ventricular nodes. The mass of modified tissue is well defined. It is usually of olive shape, and consists of a central mass in which the modification is well marked, with a peripheral portion which more nearly approaches normal inuscle in structure. With the peripheral portion on one side the ventri- cular muscle is connected, whilst auricular muscle is connected with the peripheral portion on the opposite side. On account of the character of the tissue and its resemblance to nodal tissue in other parts of the heart, it is called a ‘ node.’ From its position it is called for purposes of identification the ‘ right lateral node.’ This structure is so placed that impulses passing down the auricular wall would traverse the node before reaching the ventricle. If, as suggested many years ago,” impulses are conducted at a slower rate over the modified tissue of the heart than over ordinary cardiac muscle, there may be here, as in the case of the auriculo-ventricular bundle, an explanation of the pause which occurs between the auricular and the ventricular beat. It may be pointed out too that the sectional area of the path is at one point extremely small, and there is evidence in the work of Romanes, Gaskell, and others to prove that in such circumstances the rate of transmission is slow. The pause may, there- fore, be regarded as being due partly to transmission through modified tissue, and partly to transmission along a muscular path of narrow cross-section. The exverimental evidence of the existence of a path of conduction between the auricle and ventricle in this situation is of the following kind. Tt has been stated by many that auricular contractions fail to ; ' Annual Report, 1918, p. 258. * Journal of Physiology, xiv. No, 1, and xiv. Nos. 4 and 5. Q 2 228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. pass over the auriculo-ventricular groove to the ventricle as soon as a physiological section has been made through the septal connection (auriculo-ventricular bundle). I have found it to be the case, however, that the pulsations continue to be transmitted to the ventricle, in spite of the severance both of the septal connection and of the greater portion of the outer walls of the chambers, in those cases where the part remaining unsevered includes the particular tract of the heart already referred to as showing histologically the presence of the right lateral connection. Indeed, it has been possible to reduce this tract to very narrow limits, and I have found the following experiment to be uni- formly successful, provided the part remaining is situated at the exact spot described. An animal having been anesthetised and the thorax opened, a thin sharp pointed knife is passed through the heart at the level of the auriculo-ventricular junction, about half an inch from the right side, the edge of the knife being towards the left. The knife is at once carried across the heart towards the left, severing in its course the major part of the junctional tissues between the right auricle and the right ventricle, the septal connections, including the auriculo-ventricular bundle, and the whole of the connections between the left auricle and the left ventricle. In such circumstances the heart still continues to beat, and the two sets of chambers, the auricles and ventricles, maintain their co-ordination. By careful dissection it is possible to reduce the width of the bridge of tissue connecting the auricles and ventricles until it is no more than a couple of millimétres across, without in any way inter- fering with the co-ordinated action of the two sets of chambers. Sections made subsequently have shown that muscular fibres are present throughout the entire length of this bridge, and that they form a continuous tract of conducting tissue, connected above with the auricle and below with the ventricle. Any considerable narrowing of the bridge beyond this point—or a complete rupture of it—results in a cessation of the co-ordinated action, and a like result is obtained unless the situation of the bridge is very carefully selected. If, after a narrowing of the bridge to about two millimétres, the heart is allowed to remain until the automatic beats originating in the auricle cease and all the chambers are quiescent, it is still possible to excite beats artificially in either auricle or ventricle by appropriate stimuli, and it is found under these conditions that contrac- tions excited in the auricle pass through to the ventricle, whilst beats excited artificially in the ventricle pass through to the auricle and give rise to auricular contractions. The conclusions which may be drawn from the facts stated appear to be as follows:—The widely accepted statement that the auriculo- ventricular bundle constitutes the only path of conduction between the auricle and ventricle can no longer be upheld. Both histological and experimental evidence go to prove that an alternative path exists in the situation described. This alternative path can function and can preserve co-ordination between the auricles and ventricles after the septal connections (auri- a ON THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 229 culo-ventricular bundle) and the whole of the rest of the tissues connecting the auricles to the ventricles have been severed. Impulses are capable of passing over the newly described path either in the normal direction (auricle to ventricle), or in the reverse direction (ventricle to auricle). The connection of auricle to ventricle being through the tissue of the right lateral node, which presumably conducts impulses at a slower rate than ordinary cardiac tissue, the pause may reasonably be explained as being due to this circumstance. The pre- sence of such an alternative path has to be reckoned with in putting forward possible explanations of various anomalies of cardiac action. References. “ Observations on the Auriculo-ventricular Junction in the Mammalian Heart,’ Quart. Jour. Experimental Physiology, vii. 2. 193. “The Structure of the Cardiac Tissues at the Auriculo-ventricular Junction,’ Proc. Phys. Soc. Nov. 1913. Jour. Phys. xlvii. 4 and 5. “Sur le Systéme excitateur et conducteur du Coeur,’ Arch. des Mala- dies du Ceur. Paris. Jan. 1914. “The Right Lateral Auriculo-ventricular Junction of the Heart,’ Proc. Phys. Soc. March 1914. Jour. Phys. xlviii. 2 and 3. “Some Problems in Cardiac Physiology,’ B.M.J. July 18, 1914. “Tllustrations of the Right Lateral Auriculo-ventricular Junction in the Heart,’ Proc. Phys. Soc. June 1914. Jour. Phys. xlvii. 5. “A Conducting Path between the Right Auricle and the External Wall of the Right Ventricle in the Heart of the Mammal,’ Proc. Phys. Soc. June 1914. Jowr. Phys. xlvui. 5. Part II. During the past year attention has been directed principally to the working out of detail, and a considerable amount of material is practically ready for publication. The most important new fact put on record is perhaps that of the existence of considerable masses of muscle in the auriculo-ventricular valves. This will necessitate a review of the usual conception of the action of these structures. References. “On the Mechanism of the Cardiac Valves,’ Proc. Royal Soc. B. vol. 88, 1915. “Illustrations of Muscular Tissue in the Auriculo-ventricular Valves of the Mammal’s Heart,’ Proc. Phys. Soc. July 3, 1915. The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 501. The Renting of Cinchona Botanic Station in Jamaica.—Report of Committee, consisting of Professor F. O. Bowsrr (Chair- man), Professor R. H. Yapp (Secretary), and Professors R. Butter, F. W. Ontver, and F. E. WEIss. ‘THe Committee for ‘The Renting of Cinchona Botanic Station in Jamaica’ report that since the last meeting of the British Association 230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1915, the agreement with the Jamaican Government has been signed, pro- viding for the annual tenancy of the station, at a rent payable to the Jamaican Government of 25]. per annum, the tenancy to date from October 1, 1914. The grant of 25]. has been drawn from the Treasurer of the Association, and has been paid as the first year’s rent. Owing to the state of war, no application has been received for the use of the station by any British subject. But an application for its use having been made from Mr. J. Arthur Harris and Mr. Lawrence, of the staff of the Cold Spring Harbour Station for Experimental Evolution, and Mr. William Harris, F.L.S., Superintendent of the Jamaica Gardens, liaving supported it, the Committee agreed to grant the application. One reason for this was that during the tenure of the Cinchona Station by the New York Botanic Garden, Professor Bower and Mr. Drummond had both been hospitably given the use of the station. In view of the fact that the war has extended over the first year of tenancy for which the full rent has been paid, and that consequently no British applicant for use of the station had appeared, the Jamaican Government were asked if they could see their way to taking this into account in favour of the Committee. Further, the stringency of money during war may make a renewal of the grant by the British Association a matter of difficulty—or, at least, of the full amount of the grant. The Jamaican Government were invited to say what they might be willing to do in the circumstances. The Colonial Secretary has replied in the following terms :— Colonial Secretary’s Office, In case of reply please Jamaica, June 22, 1915. quote the date of this letter and the following Nos. : 7999, 7552. Srr,—In continuation of the letter from this Office, No, 7087/7552, dated the 1st instant, I am directed to inform you that the Governor has given considera- tion to the suggestion in your letter of May 2 on the matter of the remission of part of the rent for Cinchona Station, and that he would be glad to meet your wishes as far as possible. 2. His Excellency is informed by the Director of Agriculture that certain Botanists of the United States of America have sought to secure the use of the station. It may be possible to make the place available to them for the period in which it is not required by the British Association. If, therefore, a par- ticular time could be stated when your Association will not require the place it would facilitate consideration of the matter of adjusting the payment of rent to suit all concerned. 3. I am to add that as your Association will not make use of the station during the current year His Excellency is disposed to remit a moiety of one year’s rent, but before passing definite orders on the point would be glad to hear from you on the subject of the preceding paragraph. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, (Signed) R. W. JoHNSTONE, Ag. Colonial Secretary. Professor F. O. Bower, Department of Botany, University of Glasgow, 1 St. John’s Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. The Committee gratefully acknowledge the generosity of the Jamaican Government in thus proposing to remit the moiety of one ON THE RENTING OF CINCHONA BOTANIC STATION IN JAMAICA. 231 year’s rent. They think that the terms of the letter of the Colonial Secretary of June 22, 1915, should be accepted. They therefore ask that they be reappointed for the coming year, and that a grant of 121. 10s. be made to cover the rent at the reduced rate. They also report that an application for the use of the station by a British botanist for the summer of 1916 is in view, but naturally, as the applicant is of military age, it must be contingent upon the state of war. Sections of Australian Fossil Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. H. Lana (Chairman), Professor T. G. B. OssBorn (Secretary), Professor T. W. E. Davin, and Professor A. C. SEWARD, appointed to cut Sections of Australian Fossil Plants, with special reference to a specimen of Zygopteris from Simpson’s Station, Barraba, New South Wales. Tue Committee report that after some delay occasioned, by the disturb- ance of communication between Australia and the United Kingdom the specimen was sent to England for cutting. Extensive series of sections have been prepared involving a portion of the block, and have shown the specimen to be of unique interest. A preliminary account of its structure is presented by Mrs. Osborn to this meeting. The Committee ask for reappointment for another year without further grant, but with permission to carry forward the unexpended balance to allow the work to be completed. The Influence of varying Percentages of Oxygen and of various Atmospheric Pressures upon Geotropic and Heliotropic Irrit- ability and Curvature.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. O. Bowrr (Chairman), Professor A. J. Ewart (Secretary), and Professor F. F. BLACKMAN, appointed to carry out a Research thereon. Tue grant allocated at the meeting in Australia was drawn locally, and an account of its expenditure, and of the progress of the work, is contained in the following letter from Professor Ewart: The University of Melbourne. June 14, 1915. Dear Pror. Bowrr,—I enclose herewith statement of expenditure from British Association Research Grant, practically the whole of which has been expended. It took so long, however, to obtain all the apparatus required, that most of the work done has been of a prelimin- ary nature, such as determining the range of variation with different material, and material in various stages of development, the distinction between direct and indirect effects of altered pressure, the maximum pressures to arrest growth, and the minimum pressure to accelerate it. We have a basis to determine the influence of altered pressure 232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. on geotropic perception and response, and seem likely in time to oftain fruitful results. The work is slow because many precautions are necessary for safety and accuracy, and only one observation can be made at a time. We have now all the large apparatus needed, and as I have nearly 21. in hand, this will cover any minor expenses needed to complete the work, such as chemicals, repairs to valves, &c. With kind regards, I am, Very faithfully yours, AurreD J. Ewart. Pending the completion of the work, the Committee ask that they be reappointed, but do not apply for any further grant. Australian Cycadace@.—Report of the Committee, constst- ing of Professor A. A. Lawson (Chairman), Professor T. G. B. OsBorn (Secretary), and Professor A. C. SEwarp, appointed for the Collection and Investigation of Material of Australian Cycadace@, especially Bowena from Queensland and Macrozamia from West Australia. Tue Committee beg to report that progress is being made with the work, which, however, is impeded by the distances involved. It is requested that the Committee be reappointed for another year without additional grant, but with permission to carry over the unexpended balance. The Vegetation of Ditcham Park, Hampshire.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. G. TansuEy (Chairman), Mr. R. S. Apamson (Secretary), Dr. C. E. Moss, and Professor R. H. Yaprp, appointed for the Investigation thereof. FreLp work was carried on during the summer of 1914. The various lines of inquiry mentioned in the last.report were continued: experi- ments were performed with evaporimeters and wet and dry bulb thermometers, the soil studies were continued, and soil temperatures investigated further. Special studies were made on the following points :— (1) Chalk grasslands.—A somewhat detailed analysis was made of selected areas of chalk grassland on various parts of the estate. Parts of the surrounding country were also studied for comparison. Several quadrats were laid down and charted. Special attention was paid to the relationships of the subterranean parts of the plants, both to one another and to varying depths of soil. (2) Coppices on clay soil.—These received special attention, and a detailed floristic analysis was made of the various types. Quadrats have been charted for the detailed study of the coppice successional changes. The distribution of Mercurialis perennis and of Pteridium aquilinum is being worked out in detail. a a eae wares —- = ON THE VEGETATION OF DITCHAM PARK, HAMPSHIRE. 233 (8) Light relations.—These have been specially studied so far in the beech-woods. A first series of experiments has been carried out during the season, which give interesting and striking results. The enclosed areas have been charted in detail, and also photographic ‘records have been taken from marked positions. During the present season (1915) it has not been found possible to carry out field experiments. The Committee ask to be reappointed, without a grant. Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. F. BLuacKMAN (Chairman), Mr. R. P. Grecory (Secretary), Professor W. Bateson, and Professor F. KEEBLE. EXPERIMENTAL work has been satisfactorily carried on during the past year, and a summary of the results is given below. It is hoped that it will be found possible to renew the grant, and thereby enable the results to be carried further. SumMMaRY. Experiments by R. P. Grecory and H. B. Kiuxsy. The investigations into the genetics and cytology of the tetraploid races of Primula sinensis have been continued, and considerable progress has been made in the recognition and testing of the three different heterozygous types, AAAa, AAaa, and Aaaa. In cases where a single dose of the factor is sufficient for the perfect development of the character, these types can only be identified by the study of their progeny ; in self-fertilisation, the type AAAa gives no recessives among its immediate progeny, but some of its offspring give recessives in the next generation ; the type AAaa gives the ratio 15D:1R; while the type Aaaa gives the familiar ratio 3:1. All these types have now been identified experimentally. In the case of other factors the dominance is not complete, and among these cases there are some, notably in factors determining the shape of the leaf, the form of the corolla, and certain colour-characters, in which the tetraploid races produce heterozygous types unlike any types in the diploid races. The factorial constitution of these peculiar types is being studied, and very satis- factory progress has been made, especially in unravelling the complex of factors which, between them, determine the coloration of the flower. It was hoped that a report on this part of the work would have been ready for publication this summer, but circumstances connected with the war have rendered delay unavoidable. _ The phenomena of coupling and repulsion have been studied further, both in the diploid and in the tetraploid races. This work promises most interesting results, but has not yet progressed far enough to permit of any definite statement as to new ground gained. ; 234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Experiments by H. B. Kiupsy. The experiments on Beans (Phaseolus) and Marrows, begun three years ago, have been carried further. Interesting points have arisen in both cases, but further work is necessary for their elucidation. Experiments by A. E. GAIRDNER. Work on Wallflowers and on Tropzolum has been continued; the work on the Wallflower is approaching completion. Experiments by BE. R. SaunDERS. Further work has been carried out during the year on Foxgloves and Stocks. In the case of Foxgloves progress is necessarily slow, as two years are required for each generation. The further work has given indication that in respect of one of the characters investigated the species is eversporting, but a fuller analysis of the behaviour of individuals is necessary before a full statement can be made. Inci- dentally it has been found in the course of cross-fertilisation of heptan- drons with peloric plants that these two abnormal conditions are inherited independently. From the results obtained with Stocks it is hoped that it may be possible to show how an eversporting type may be synthesised from a true-breeding individual. Further progress has been made in the study of the inheritance of the half-hoary character, and in the identification of types required by theory but not met with in commercial material. With regard to the occurrence of doubles, the results obtained show - that the excessive percentage of doubles sometimes obtained by growers and quoted in their catalogues is probably due to unconscious selection, and that the actual output of doubles is not in excess of the theoretical estimate. PUBLICATIONS DURING THE YEAR. R. P. Grecory: ‘Inheritance in certain Giant Races of Primula sinensis.’ Rep. Brit. Assoc. Australia, Section K, 1914. “On Variegation in Primula sinensis.’ Journal of Genetics, Vol. 4, 1915. ‘ Note on Inheritance of Heterostylism in Primula acaulis.’ bid. E. R. Saunpers: ‘The Double Stock, its History and Behaviour.’ Journal Royal Horticultural Society, 1915. School-books and Eyesight.—Further Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. G. A. AUDEN (Chairman), Mr. G. F. DANIELL (Secretary), Mr. C. H. BoTHamMuey, Mr. W. D. Eacar, Professor R. A. Grecory, Mr. N. Bishop HARMAN, Mr. J. L. Hownanp, Dr. W. E. Sumpner, Mr. A. P. TROTTER, and Mr. W. T. H. WALSH, appointed to inquire into the Influence of School-books upon Eyesight. Srvcg presenting its report at Birmingham in 1913 the Committee has had correspondence with education authorities, school medical officers, teachers, publishers, and authors, and is pleased to report that ONJ[SCHOOL-BOOKS AND EYESIGHT. 235 widespread efforts are being made to secure the fulfilment of the Com- mittee’s recommendations, at least so far as books for young children are concerned. The Committee hopes that further progress will be made in regard to books for boys and girls over fourteen years of age. A diminution in the power of accommodation of the eye continues during this period of life, whereas at the same age there is good educational reason for an increased extent of reading and for the use of books containing a considerable amount of information. Hence visual defects frequently become evident at about the age of sixteen. The recom- mendations in the Committee’s typographical table issued in 1913 were based on a balanced consideration of the above facts, and it is important that the standard proposed for readers over twelve years should be insisted upon. Investigations have been made during the last two years in order to obtain an objective measurement of the gloss of paper, and the Committee is indebted to Mr. A. P. Trotter for designing a new form of gloss-tester, and for carrying out tests with books and writing-papers used in schools. The Committee observes :— (1) That glossiness of paper depends mainly on specular reflection, i.e., reflection as from polished metals ; such reflection is apt to interfere with binocular vision. The ideal surface for books would exhibit no specular reflection; all the reflected light would be scattered or diffuse reflection, equal in all directions and independent of the direction of the incident beam. Such absence of gloss is real sable in any fine white powder, such as magnesia, but not in printing papers. No harm to eyesight is, however, likely to accrue if the specular reflection is not exces- sive; hence the proportion of specular to diffuse reflection affords a suitable index of the glossiness of paper. (2) That a large proportion of school-books and writing-papers are satisfactorily free from glare at angles of incidence not exceed- ing 45 degrees. In most of these satisfactory books the specular reflection does not exceed the diffuse reflection when the light is incident at 45 degrees, the paper being viewed from the direction of the corresponding specularly reflected rays. (3) That when the specular reflection exceeds 56 per cent. (the diffuse reflection being then less than 44 per cent.), there is likely to be injurious glare. The risk is greater if the book is read in artificial light. The Committee therefore hopes that publishers will select for school- books papers from which the specular reflection at 45 degrees does not exceed the diffuse reflection. Books in which the specular reflection exceeds 56 per cent. of the total reflection (specular plus diffuse) must be regarded as potentially injurious to eyesight. Writing-paper for school use should not give more than 54 per cent. specular reflection at 45 degrees, since young writers often look obliquely at the paper. The Committee finds that coloured maps can be produced without extra expense or difficulty on paper conforming with the above rules. 236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. In some instances the effect of using suitable paper has been spoiled by the use of glaze in the colours or inks. The glossiness of paper is greatly influenced by the extent and particular method of calendering, and it is suggested that careful control of calendering will assist in obtaining the desired hardness and the even surface required, without introducing pernicious gloss. Mr. Trotter’s description of his gloss-tester is subjoined at the request of the Committee, since the recommendations in this Report. require that some standardising instrument should be available. An Instrument for Testing the Gloss on Paper and other Materials. The principle of the method is to illuminate a specimen of the paper or other material by light falling on it at an angle of, say, 45 degrees. The observer can examine the brightness of the specimen from a direction making an equal and opposite angle of 45 degrees. The effect of the gloss is then a maximum. He can also observe it from a direction nearly parallel with the incident light. The effect of the gloss is then a minimum. The instrument provides means for making these two brightnesses equal, and for comparing them. The instrument consists of a box 15 inches (300 mm.) long, 8 inches (203 mm.) wide, and of about the same height. In the bottom there is an opening 3% inches (85 mm.) by 12 inches (44 mm.). The box may be laid on the page of an open book, and the part of the paper seen through the opening becomes the specimen to be tested. A small electric lamp carrying a pointer can be moved on a slide between two mirrors A and B. The lower part of the box is divided by a thin partition. Half of the specimen is illuminated from one mirror and half from the other. Two eye-tubes are arranged at a and b for observing the specimen, the view being obtained alongside the edge of a mirror. In each eye-tube there are a pair of acute-angled prisms edge to edge, by which the view of the thin partition may be cut out of view. Let 100 be the total brightness, d the diffused brightness, and s the specular brightness. 100=d+s. The pointer attached to the lamp moves over a scale graduated from the formula 2=(10—/100—s)Li/2(10+ /100—s) where z is a length on the scale measured from the middle point, s the specular brightness at 45° expressed as a percentage of the total bright- ness, and L the total length from the middle point of the opening through which the specimen is seen, to one mirror, across to the other mirror, and back to the middle point of the opening. The whole instrument is bilaterally symmetrical, and, when the mirrors are properly adjusted, observations made from either end should give readings equidistant from the middle of the scale. When a flattened layer of fine white powder, such as ordinary whiting, is tested, it is found practically free from gloss. In other words, the reflection is wholly diffusive, and there is no specular reflec- tion. The brightness of the two halves is identical when the illumina- tion is identical. The pointer is at the middle of the scale when the ON SCHOOL-BOOKS AND EYESIGHT. 237 specimen is viewed from either end, and indicates s=o, the total brightness consisting only of diffused brightness d. If a sheet of paper is tested in this way, and is observed through eye-tube a, the brightness of the half illuminated by reflection from the mirror B will be due to the sum of the diffused brightness d and of the partial specular brightness s. The brightness of the half illuminated by reflection from the mirror A is due to diffused brightness only. The r) 2 3 4 SS Double Prism in Plan SCALE te —SJ INCVES GuLoss TESTING. lamp must therefore be brought nearer the mirror A to make the brightness of the two halves equal. If, when a balance has been obtained, the pointer stands at 66°6, this means that the bright- ness viewed from a direction nearly parallel to the direction of observa- tion consists of brightness s due to specular reflection, which is twice the brightness d due to diffused reflection, and, therefore, 66°6 per cent. of the total brightness. As a check, an observation may be made through the other eye-tube. When the specular brightness is more than 70 per cent. of the total brightness an imperfect image of the source of light begins to be formed. A bright glistening patch appears on one half of the specimen, and it becomes difficult to match this accurately with the brightness of pure diffused reflection. For this reason the method in its present form is not applicable to materials having a pronounced gloss. In adjusting the instrument it is laid on a mirror. The lamp is seen by reflection on one side of the partition, and when the lamp is moved it ought to appear to approach to or to recede from the eye in a straight line. The instrument should be used in a darkened room. The constancy of the candle-power of the lamp is immaterial; but it is advisable to use an evenly frosted bulb, as otherwise the asymmetry of the filament may introduce errors. The surface undergoing test should be quite flat. 238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. A millimetre scale may be substituted for the percentage scale. The percentage of specular brightness at 45°, when the pointer is zx millimetres from the middle of the scale, is then given by s=200L2/(3L+z2)?. Report of the Commuttee, consisting of Sir HENRY Miers (Chair- man), Professor Marcus Hartoa (Secretary), Miss Linian J. CLARKE, Miss B. Foxtey, Professor H. Bompas SmitH, and Principal GRIFFITHS, appointed to inquire into and report on the number, distribution, and respective values of Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Bursaries held by University students during their undergraduate course, and on funds private and open available for their augmentation. THe Committee has limited its work during the present year to the application for information to those institutions that had not sent answers to the questionary last year, and to obtaining revision of the compilation they had made from last year’s answers from those who had then replied. The complete set of answers thus obtained are now to be found in Appendix I. Appendix IT. is reprinted. As the Board of Education is now engaged on a wide inquiry which covers the ground of your Committee, we have not thought it desirable to extend our inquiries further. The information now obtained shows very clearly that the amounts allowed for scholarships can, in the immense majority of cases, be adequate for their beneficiaries to reap the full advantages of academic education only when they have friends or relations to assist them. This is most clearly shown by the reports from Oxford and Cambridge, where, thanks to the tutorial system, the authorities are in closer touch with the students than at newer institutions. A glance at the figures is enough to demonstrate this. In Great Britain the figures are somewhat inadequate; for many of the students enjoy benefits either from the Carnegie Fund or from local scholarships of which no account is taken by the colleges. In the colleges of the National University of Ireland there is a hard-and- fast rule that the county or municipal scholarships are not tenable with full college ones. We feel that there exists a need for greater elasticity in this respect, notably in the cases of exceptional merit, where it is especially desirable that the student should gain all that is to be gained from University life. We realise that while scholarships have one great function, that of enlarging the social area from which the supply of the learned pro- fessions is drawn, it would be well if funds were provided for private administration by the head of a college to meet the cases of brillant students in need of further help. This might be from special funds or from the private liberality of patrons: both provisions exist at the older Universities, the patrons in the latter case being old members of the college. In our newer Universities, we venture to think that wealthy citizens, proud of their own local college, might be willing SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 239 to play the same part. We would recall the fact that the governors of Dissenting and Jewish Theological Seminaries act very generally as sponsors to the students; and urge that the heads of our provincial Universities and colleges should set forth this mode of benevolence as one worthy of emulation everywhere, that the seat of a University college would honour itself by making the best provision for the worthiest of its students. We would recommend for general adoption the practice existing in some Colleges of inviting in advance confidential declarations from candidates that if elected they will not draw the emoluments, as a most desirable factor for enlarging the possibilities of scholarship funds. We consider that it is undesirable to supplement scholarships by loan funds which may cripple the recipient for the best years of his life, or turn him away from academic pursuits to more remunerative occupa- tion in order to attain liberty from pecuniary obligations. In this way the noblest aim of scholarships—to open the highest careers to the very best men, independent of lack of personal means—would evidently be hampered or defeated. The Committee desire again to express their warmest thanks to those who by their willing answers have enabled them to collect so much valuable information. APPENDIX I. QUESTIONARY AND ANSWERS. University College, Cork: March 11, 1913. DEAR On behalf of the above Committee I write to ask if you will very kindly furnish me with information in regard to the following questions :— I. The number, duration and respective values of Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Bursaries in your College ? II. Whether two or more such benefactions are tenable together ? III, Whether any limit is imposed on the maximum annual income derived from endowments of all kinds by a single beneficiary ? IV. Have you at your disposal any funds (a) of permanent endowment; or (b) of private benefaction to supplement Scholarships, &c., for the complete maintenance of students of exceptional promise ? V. (a) Have cases occurred in which successful candidates have been obliged to decline Scholarships, &c., on the ground of inadequate personal means ? (b) Have any deserving beneficiaries retired during their course through lack of adequate means ? : (c) Have such resignations been met by help from or through the College ; and if so in what way ? 4 VI. Will you very kindly add any further suggestions or information bearing on this matter ? I am, dear Faithfully yours, Marcus Hartoa (Secretary to the Committee). ANSWERS RECEIVED. Att Sours’ CoLLEGE, OxForD. I. Four Bible Clerkships, value consisting in lodging, tuition, and allowances eee orcring board during academical terms, tenable for three years. : . No. IIT. No. IV. A sum of 150/. per annum in aid of non-Collegiate students in cases of need on the recommendation of the Censox. V. (a) and (b) No cases. 240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD. I. Annual open, 4 minor Exhibitions of 401. ; 3 Exhibitions of 701. ; 7 Scholarships of 80/. Annual close, 1 Exhibition of 1801.; 1 Scholarship of 60/. Every fourth year, 1 close Exhibition of 40/. ; 1 Scottish Exhibition of 120/. The above are generally tenable for the full Undergraduate course (four years). Annual; 1 Exhibition of 100/. for Senior Undergraduates of the College for two years. II. No; except last Exhibition of 100/., a minor Exhibition of 401. is also tenable with close Scholarship of 60/7. when the candidate has taken a high place in the Open Scholarship Examination. III. No limit. Most scholars and some commoners hold subventions from School, County Council or City Companies, and a few gain University Scholarships. IV. A fund of 150/. per annum charged on College revenues, supplemented by private benefactions, amounting to an average of 3301. for the last ten years. This is used to help commoners as well as scholars who need a supplement. Exceptional! promise would be an additional inducement for grants, not a necessary condition. V. (a) and (b) Not aware of such refusals for the last twenty years, but they may have occurred earlier. After the death of two predecessors it became known that they had helped privately. (c) The fund under (IV.) would be applicable. Cases where a man has for family reasons to emigrate or begin earning money without completing his University career cannot of course be met. VI. ‘Given a man of health and ability sufficient to be successful in open com- petition, and of sufficient previous education, I believe that there is nothing to deter a poor man from a successful Oxford career. If there is any obstacle it must be found on the ‘‘ lower rungs of the ladder.”” I am told that opportunities differ con- siderably in different parts of the country.’ Form sent to the father or guardian of scholars elect at Balliol College, Oxford :— Dear Sie, Balliol College, Oxford. Under a system by which Scholarships and Exhibitions are filled by open competition, it will inevitably happen that they are sometimes gained by those who are not in need of the emoluments attached to them. You will have seen that this possibility is anticipated in the notice relating to Scholarships and the conditions of their tenure issued before the Scholarship Examination. If this is the case with Mr. who has been elected to a at this College and you think it proper that he should surrender the whole or any part of the emoluments to which he is entitled while retaining the status and other privileges of a , Lhave to inform you that effect will be given by the College to your wishes as to the application of such emoluments. Should you express no such wishes as to the application, any money which he may surrender now, or which: at any future time he may feel himself to be in a position to surrender or repay, will: be paid into a Fund established in the College for the assistance of those who require: assistance to avail themselves of the advantages of a University education. Any such renunciation of emoluments will be treated by the College as confidential, and those receiving the help you give will only know that it comes to them through a College Fund. T enclose a memorandum which will inform you as to College expenses. Will you kindly let me know what are your wishes in this matter ? I an, Sir. Yours faithfully, Master of Balliol College. BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD. I. (a) Open :—Scholarships of 100/.; number variable, about 16 of 80/.; un- fixed number of Exhibitions of 70/. (6) Restricted :—3 Scholarships of 801. ; variable number of Scholarships of 70/. ; 2 Exhibitions of 85/.; 3 Exhibitions of 401. II. Blank. III. No limit. TV. No funds specificelly set aside, but men whose College emoluments are supplemented by grants from school funds, &c., can sometimes support themselves. completely during their career. SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 241 V. (a) and (6) No. (c) VI. Scholarship Regulations contain proviso: ‘The holder of any Scholarship to which no pecuniary restriction is attached will be allowed to retain the status of a scholar without receiving the emoluments, should he express a wish to that effect.’ CurRist CHURCH, OXFORD. I. Open: 6 Scholarships of 80/.; 3 Exhibitions of about 85/. (money and allowances). Close: 3 Scholarships of 80/. All tenable for two years and renewable for two more by the Governing Body, and ultimately for a fifth in satisfactory circumstances. II. No. III. No limit for Scholarships. Candidates for Exhibitions must satisfy the Dean that they are incapable of coming to the University without financial assistance. IV. (a) Grants may be made from College Funds, not amounting in all to over 4001. in any one year, to scholars or commoners who need assistance. Such grants are in practice made for one year only, but are renewable. (b) There is a Poor Scholars’ Fund which depends almost entirely on private benefactions administered by the Dean. V. (a) and (b) I know of none. (c) Financial difficulties have been met under IV. VI. The statutes make a similar provision to Brasenose College. Exeter CoLLecr, OXFoRD. I. 11 Scholarships, open, of not more than 80/. and 1 of 1001. ; 8 close of not less than 60/. and 1 or more of not more than 1001. (all of which may be opened in default of the preferred class of qualified candidates); 2 Scholarships of 80/. for persons intending to take Holy Orders and needing assistance at the University. Various Exhibitions (mostly close), all limited to those needing assistance at the University. III. None by Statute, but by College policy. IV. No permanent endowment; but a deserving scholar who is poor can be helped by a grant from general College Funds or a special fund. VI. (a) Only Scholarships of less than 80. (b) None. Hertrorp CoLLEGE, OXFrorRD. I. Majority Scholarships, open to Churchmen only, 30 of 100/. for five years ; 10, varying from 401. to 80/., for four years, besides a number of Exhibitions. II. Not from College sources. III. No limit. IV. No. V. (a) Exhibitions only. Jesus COLLEGE, OxFoRD. I. Open Scholarships, 12; close Scholarships, 19 of 80/. to 100J. Exhibitions, several open and several close, of 30/. to 601. All granted for two years and renewable on satisfactory industry and good conduct for two more. II. No, but a grant from the Exhibition fund may be made to a scholar or exhibitioner. III. No statutable limit, but no grant is made out of the Exhibition Fund except to the really necessitous. IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund. 4 ) Only one case in forty years unable to come up on 60/. per annum. 0. (c) In extreme cases exceptionally large grants have been made from the Exhibi- tion Fund. Kesie Cotiece, Oxrorp. I. Scholarships of 80/., Exhibitions of 501. primarily for two years, though capable of being extended for two more. Il. No. III. No. IV. I have 200/. a year of permanent endowment that I can use in this way. V. (a) and (6) No cases. 1915. R 242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Lincotn CoLLEGE, OXFORD. I. Scholarships, about 17 of 80/. or 60/.; Exhibitions, about 10 of 40/., or more usually 301. II. No; but the value of a Scholarship may be increased, or an exhibitioner elected to a Scholarship. III. No limit ; the College is not always aware what other benefactions are held. IV. (a) There is a small fund applicable. (6) Occasionally private benefactions are forthcoming, or the College may grant remission of fees or other charges to deserving students. V. (a) Yes, occasionally. (b) and (c) I cannot recall such cases. VI. A similar provision to that of Brasenose College. MaGpDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD. I. 30 Scholarships and Exhibitions in variable numbers, according to needs and merits of candidate: tenable for not exceeding four years as a rule, in many cases for only three, never exceeding five. II. No; except in so far as additional grants are made from the Exhibition Fund, independently or in addition to Scholarships. III. No limit; but we take maximum annual income into account in awarding Exhibitions or grants. There are a certain number of Scholarships and Exhibitions given by the County Councils and by the City Companies, sometimes on the results of examinations, sometimes on recommendation, which are of very material assistance to students. IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund, which could in theory be used for complete main- tenance of students of exceptional promise. But practically speaking, it is not so used, as we always expect that the student should enjoy some other benefaction, or that friends should come to his aid. V. (a) I have known of no case. (b) Very seldom. (c) As a rule assistance has been given from the Exhibition Fund, supplemented by donations from private friends. VI. It not infrequently occurs that successful candidates decline to accept Scholar- ships in whole or in part because they do not need the whole assistance. I am in- clined to think that money given in Scholarships is at present too diffused, and that it is better for County Councils and others to concentrate their resources on a few candidates of marked ability rather than to spread them over a number of weaker candidates who often are not able greatly to profit by an University education. MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD. I. 20 Scholarships of 80/.; 4 Exhibitions of 80/., plus a limited number (about 2 a year) of 601., restricted to candidates in need of assistance at the University. All tenable at the outset for two years, renewable for two years if the holder has given satisfaction. A fifth is sometimes sanctioned for special reasons. Il. No. III. No. IV. An Exhibition Fund, including an annual subsidy not exceeding 400/. from the College, and the emoluments of vacant Scholarships and dividends from two bequests of about 60/. a year. V. (a) No resignations. The College gives help from the Exhibition Fund to very poor students who cannot live on their Scholarships. Only lately the holder of an Exhibition of 80/. received an addition of 50/. on the grounds of poverty and exceptional promise. But so large a grant is unusual. NEw CoLLEGE, OxrorD. I. 10 or 11 Scholarships of 80/. in each year, tenable for two years, renewable for two years, and in exceptional circumstances, for a fifth ; 6 Scholarships are restricted in the first instance, but, if the limited candidates do not show sufficient merit, may be thrown open for that competition. About 2 or 3 Exhibitions of 50/., tenable for two or three years, confined to those in need of assistance, not tenable with Scholarships. II. Tenable with outside Exhibitions (School, County Council, &c.). Wel - several private Exhibitions, usually of the value of 30/. a year, given to those men who may be in need of assistance, tenable with a Scholarship. —— es 6 —— ee er) = y tn uP SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 243 IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund; a loan fund. (b) A small private benefaction. VY. (a) I can scarcely remember any such case. (b) I can scarcely remember any deserving candidates who have had to retire during their course for lack of means, though a man who is not succeeding well might be allowed to retire. PEMBROKE COLLEGE, OXFORD. I. About 30 Scholarships and 2 or more Exhibitions, tenable for four years. Most of the Scholarships are of the value of 807., 3 of 100/., and about 4 of 601. II. No. ‘ III. No. IV. There is a College Exhibition Fund expressly intended for this purpose. V. (a) and (b) No. VI. In nearly every instance the emolument granted by the College is necessary to enable the student to come to the University. QUEEN’s COLLEGE, OXrorRD. I. 4 open and 1 close (which in defect of qualified candidates, is thrown open). Scholarships of 807. awarded annually, tenable primarily for two years, and renew- able, if holders are satisfactory, for two years; for special reasons, may be continued for a fifth. Two Bible Clerkships conferred, as vacancies occur, on deserving persons in need of assistance at the University, of 80/. (or 90/. if resident in College), on same tenure as Scholarships. 1 J. O. F. Scholarship of 90/. every fourth year, restricted to Churchmen, and 4 J. N. F. Scholarships of 100/. for five years, awarded as they fall vacant, restricted to Churchmen. Cuet. par. a candidate who stands in need of pecuniary assistance is to be preferred. Exhibitions, all close, 4 or 5 of 100/.; 1 of 100/. for two years, which may be extended to a third and to a fourth year; 1 of 42/.; 2 of 68/.; 2 of 25/.; 1 of 432.; 1 of 6/.; 1 of 5/. 5s.; 1 of 91. Most of these are restricted to poor and deserving students. All may be thrown open on defect of qualified candidates. Close, of 70. for seven years ; 2, 40/. for four years; 1, 331. for four years; 2, 60/. for four years ; 1, 621. for students of the College in their twelfth term (theological) for one year, which may be extended to a second; 1 of 50l. a year, and a benefaction of 101. ie No: Iii. No. A large proportion of our scholars and exhibitioners receive supple- mentary Scholarships from their Schools or County Councils or from the City Com- panies. A good many are completely maintained. IV. A small Exhibition Fund might very occasionally be available, but it cannot be advertised. V. (a) No. (b) No. (c) Difficulties have frequently been met by aid from the Exhibition Fund. Sr. Jonn’s CoLLEGE, Oxrorp. I. Open Scholarships, 13 of 807.; close Scholarships, 22 of 100J. (besides 4 open to members of the College of 4 terms standing of 80/., and only tenable for one or two years). All open Scholarships and 7 of the close, tenable for four years, which may be increased to five; 15 close Scholarships, tenable for five years, variable number (2 at present) of 80/., restricted to undergraduates of 4 terms. At present, 7 open Exhibitions of 40/. to 70/., tenable as open Scholarships; 5 close Exhibitions of 40/. to 80/., tenable as open Scholarships. Variable number (5 at present) restricted to undergraduates of 4 terms, of 201. to 60J. Il. Scholarships and Exhibitions not tenable together. III. No limit. TV. (a) The Exhibition Fund of not less than 600/. per annum. It is not usual to grant more than 60/. in one year to an individual. (b) A small fund of about 40/. in the hands of the President, sometimes augmented by private gifts to 70/., is usually distributed in gifts of about 10/. to deserving and needy undergraduates, not necessarily scholars or exhibitioners. R 2 244 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. V. (a) I cannot recall any. (b) I think not. (c) If such resignations were threatened, the College would certainly intervene in the case of a promising and deserving undergraduate. VI. I have only to add that this College has for many years past done its best to keep and encourage poor men. TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD. I. (a) 18 Scholarships of 80/.; 8 Exhibitions of 60/. to 70/.; 4 or more close Studentships of 55/. Scholarships and Studentships tenable for four years; Ex- hibitions for three or four years. II. No. III. No. IV. An Exhibition Fund from which payments can be made to members of the College who need assistance to complete their University course ; private benefactions from time to time. V. (a) Very rarely, as candidates usually know the probable expenditure required for a University course. (d) I remember none. (c) The College has not infrequently supplemented Scholarships by grants from the Exhibition Fund and by loans. VI. A considerable number of members of the University, including many of those who hold College Scholarships, have been awarded University Exhibitions by the Education Authority of the district to which they belong. Wanuam CoLLeGE, OXFORD. I. 14 Scholarships, 1 of 86/.; 13 of 80/., tenable, as a rule, for four years ; 14 Ex- hibitions of 23/. to 60/., tenable for four years. II. No, with four special exceptions. Ii. No. IV. (a) A fund of about 36/. in the Warden’s hands to assist deserving students. (6) Frequently some assistance from private benefaction. V. (a) and (b) I have never known of such cases. Sometimes deserving students get their Scholarships or Exhibitions supplemented by private benefaction. VI. Our scholars almost always come from homes where some help is needed for a boy to come to the University. During my thirty years’ experience I cannot recall a single case of a scholar or exhibitioner to whom the money was immaterial, and may also mention that in case of special need or desert help is given for residence during a fifth year. Each such case is decided on its merits. Lapy MarGarEt Habit, OxrorpD. I. 3 Scholarships of 60/. to 35/. awarded annually, all tenable for three years with possible extension to a fourth. II. and III. No. IV. There is a Loan Fund common to all women students in Oxford. VY. (a) Yes, occasionally. SoMERVILLE COLLEGE, OXFORD. I. Awarded annually 1 Scholarship of 50/. for three years. Awarded triennially 2 Scholarships of 60/. for three years, 2 Scholarships of 50/. for three years (with ossible extension for a fourth), and one of 40/. for three years. A few Exhibitions (1 to 3) of 202. to 30/. for three years (with possible extension to a fourth). Another Scholarship of 50/. is awarded without examination annually, usually to extend a three-years’ Scholarship to a fourth year. II. No. III. No. IV. (a) No permanent endowment. (b) Friends of the College have occasionally supplemented Scholarships privately. There is the Loan Fund (see Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford). V. (a) I don’t remember such a case. (b) One case. The scholar was (already) a graduate of another University, and the College thought it best in the scholar’s own interest that she should accept a good teaching post offered her and resign the Scholarship. VI. Ascholar or exhibitioner may, for the benefit of others who need assistance, relinquish the whole or part of the emolument, while retaining the title. fu: edd tnaeladl ed hea) Sy eT SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 245 Sr. Hucen’s CoLLeGE, OxrorD. I. Annually, 1 Scholarship of 257. ; biennially, 2 of 30/., 2 of 40/., all tenable for three years and renewable for a fourth. II. No. III. No. IV. None. V. (a) No. (b) and (c) Retirements would have occurred but for help through the College (private Loan Fund) or from the Loan Fund of the Association for the Education of Women in Oxford. Sr. Hinpa’s Hat, Oxrorp. 1. (a) Awarded annually 2 open Scholarships, tenable for three years (occasionally with extension to a fourth), 50/., 30/. (or 2 of 40/.). (b) In 1914 and every three years. Dorothea Beale Scholarship of 50/. for pupils of the Ladies’ College, Cheltenham, tenable for three years. (Two other Scholarships (non-competitive) are awarded at Cheltenham to pupils of the Ladies’ College, formerly, but now not always, every year, to be held at St. Hilda’s Hall: viz.,the Hay Scholarship of from 25/. to 45/. per annum for three years, and the 8. Hilda’s College Scholarship, of varying amount, same duration. ] (c) Exhibitions are occasional only. One of 30/. is now held for three years by a student who was third in the open competition. II. No. III. No. IV. (a) None, except above Hay Scholarship, which is under the control of the Ladies’ College, Cheltenham. (b) None except a small fund once given but now exhausted. None for complete maintenance of students. Some are assisted (to the maximum of 50/.) by an old Students’ Loan Fund, and they share with other women students in the benefits of the A.E.W. Central Loan and Grant Fund. V. (a) Candidates have stated that they could only accept the larger of the two open Scholarships in about 5 cases, but I do not think they proved the successful ones. If successful they have sometimes managed to get loans from their own friends or Scholarship grants from the London or other County Councils, and their acceptance of a Scholarship has been contingent on this. (b) Not actually. (c) In one or two cases of difficulty the Hall has met them by rooms at reduced rate. Reduced fees were frequent until 1904, when competitive Scholarships were established ; since then rare. Friends of the College have occasionally assisted in- dividual students to remain at College. VI. More Scholarships are badly needed, as many candidates of Scholarship or Exhibition standard cannot enter the Hall as commoners, and either go elsewhere as scholars to non-Oxford Colleges, or relinquish the idea of a University course. The paucity of Scholarships greatly increases the strain on girls who sit for several Scholar- ship examinations at different Universities in the same year. Curist’s CoLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. Average number of scholars and exhibitioners in residence, 40. Nominal value, 20/. to 80/.; but additional grants or reduction of fees, amounting to at most 201., are sometimes allowed privately in cases of poverty. Except there be dis- tinct evidence of idleness, the Scholarship is retained normally to end of third year, sometimes continued to fourth, and occasionally to fifth year. The total average annual amount of the last six years is 1,800/. II. No two open Scholarships or Exhibitions tenable together, but the value of a Scholarship may be increased. A close Scholarship, connected with a particular School, may be held with an open Scholarship. Ill. No. The amount of a student’s income from endowments of all kinds is, however, a factor in fixing the amount of his Scholarship, except in the case of those elected as coming into residence. - No. VY. Candidates for Scholarships awarded before residence has commenced are asked to state the minimum value they are prepared to accept, and if they do not 246 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. come up to the necessary standard for that value they are not elected. In very rare cases such a candidate has written to say he finds he cannot come into residence on account of his Scholarship not being adequate. VI. The fund for these benefactions arises partly from trust funds, liable to con- siderable fluctuations, but chiefly out of the corporate income, the amount payable out of this to the fund being one-quarter of the sum paid in the same year to the Master and Fellows; and this sum again has of later years been supplemented by grants from the Society. Our system has the great advantage of elasticity: the amount and duration of the Scholarship is within certain limits fixed by ourselves to meet the requirements of the special case. The present system works well. No rich men hold Scholarships, and in nearly every instance the benefaction is necessary to enable the student to come to the University. The cases in which an intellectually deserving candidate fails to obtain a Scholarship are rare indeed ; they hardly exist. It is most undesirable to attract by emolument poor men of ordinary ability. . . . The College badly wants funds for advanced students in specialised subjects. CLARE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. There are offered annually 9 Scholarships at entrance values from 80/. to 400. ; also Exhibitions of 30/7. In the first instance tenable for two years, but they are extended except in cases of idleness and want of progress. II. Certain close Exhibitions and special trusts can be held with a Scholarship. III. No. IV. Asmallfund is available. Research grants are also given. V. (a) Sometimes, but in such cases the emolument may be increased from the fund mentioned in the answer to ‘IV.’ (b) Practically never. (c) In deserving cases help has rarely failed to be forthcoming. Downine COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. Six Foundation Scholarships at least tenable till graduation standing of 501. to 801. ; a varying number of minor Scholarships and Exhibitions, tenable for one year, of 201. to 50/. II. No; but may be tenable with benefactions outside the College. Til. No. , IV. No. . V. (a) I can recall no case. (b) and (c) Additional aid from the College has prevented any actual retirement. EMMANUEL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I, The Foundation Scholarships: 4 Scholarships of 807. per annum; 10 of 601. per annum ; and 22 of 40/. per annum. (a) The Scholarships annually offered for competition before undergraduates come into residence are tenable for two years, and at the end of that time, subject to a favourable report upon the Scholarship and conduct of the holders, they may be continued or increased till the candidate has taken an examination qualifying him ior the B.A. degree. The tenure is sometimes prolonged, but rarely beyond the fourth year, Students continuing study longer being provided for by Studentships mentioned below. Scholarships are awarded to other undergraduates also, if they distinguish themselves in the Annual College Examinations. (6) 3 Exhibitions of 301. are offered every year for open competition, and others awarded upon the results of the Annual College Examination in the same way as Scholarships. (c) 2 Subsizarships also awarded every year to candidates who are in need of assistance, this need having to be satisfactorily proved by a statement of the parent’s income and an authentication by some person of standing who knows the parents. For these there is no restriction of age, and subject to a satisfactory report of their conduct and progress, the holders proceed to a full sizarship at the end of their first year. The Sizarships, subject to the same conditions, are tenable for two years, and are worth 45/. a year. (d) An Exhibition of 401. to a Student Teacher upon the results of the examination held in conjunction with various colleges by the Drapers’ Company, and if a number of good candidates present themselves, we generally award a second Exhibition of 30/. 1 OO CLS A oie 3 oa SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 247 (g) Besides these emoluments which are open to general competition, there are a few Exhibitions attached to particular schools, namely, Uppingham, Oakham, Derby, Ashby-de-la-Zouche, and Market Bosworth. But all with the exception of the Ash Exhibitions open to Ashby and Derby, are of small value. The Ash Exhibitions are worth 50/. a vear. II. The only case is that of the small close Exhibitions already mentioned which may be held with an open Scholarship. III. On open Scholarships a limit of 802. is imposed by Act of Parliament; no other limit is imposed, but it is very rarely that this amount is exceeded, though a candidate may have endowments from other sources. IV. The Tutors have at their disposal a small fund to assist deserving students, and recently a former scholar has established a small fund to assist Scholars and Exhibitioners who may have difficulties in completing their course without assistance beyond what they receive from Scholarships. V. (a) The only case known to me was that of an exhibitioner who announced from the beginning that he could come to College only if he was successful in obtaining help from his County Council, and this he failed to obtain. (6) I have known of no case of a deserving beneficiary retiring during his course through lack of adequate means. VI. The son of a poor man has now a better opportunity of entering Cambridge than he has had for many centuries past. In many small schools there seem to be now adequate means of preparation in mathematics and in some branches of Natural Sciences, but in such schools, if I may judge from my own experience, the literary education not infrequently leaves much to be desired, and on this side a good deal remains to be done in order to give satisfactory encouragement to those sons of poor men who have literary interests. In the circular regarding open Scholarships which is issued by the group of six Colleges to which Emmanuel belongs, attention is pro- minently called to the possibility of successful candidates being appointed to Honorary Scholarships without emolument, if they so desire. Applicants for Honorary Scholav - ships are, however, very rare. As the great majority of candidates are the sons of professional men, no doubt most parents cannot afford to relinquish the emolument. GONVILLE AND Catus CoLiEan. I. Scholarships offered annually : 3 of 801., 4 of 601., 4 of 40/., 3 or more Exhibi- tions. These are tenable normally for three years, but may be, and frequently are, extended to four years. In addition to the above there is a Salomon’s Scholarship for Engineering for 802. which is offered triennially, and a special Scholarship in Music. value 60/. There are also Scholarships for post-graduate research; these vary in number and value according to varying needs. At present there are: 1 of 150/., 1 of 120/., 1 of 1102., 2 of 1002., 6 of 502. Bursaries vary according to special needs. There are at present: 1 of 50/., 3 of 40/. (choral), 2 of 30/., 1 of 251. Il. Two benefactions are very rarely held together. III. Yes. 1800. ‘TV. So far as I understand the question, we have no funds for the complete main- tenance of students of exceptional promise. But the College habitually does privately help deserving students in need of pecuniary assistance. V. (a), (6), (c) No. Jusus CoLttecr, CAMBRIDGE. I. Entrance Scholarships are limited by Act of Parliament to 80/., and tenable for two years, but are ordinarily renewed and frequently increased in value. Scholar- ships (except some close Scholarships) are never less than 40/. and seldom exceed 80/. If. Trust and open Scholarships may in general be held together, but the total amount of benefaction received by any individual seldom exceeds SOI. III. No limit is imposed. I do not see how it-would be possible to do so. But in determining the value of any Scholarship regard is paid to the total income of the scholar and his parents’ means. Generally, this is only possible in the case of scholars already in residence. IV. No; but privately many scholars (and undergraduates who are not scholars) receive assistance from the College or the Tutor. V. (a) No, by the conditions: ‘Candidates are required to state the value (usually 248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. minimum) which they are prepared to accept, and are bound to accept any offer of the value they state.’ (b) Whether any scholars have ever retired for this reason I do not know; there has been no recent instance. (c) The College sometimes gives assistance to scholars and others. Kinae’s CoLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. At the present moment the following grades of emoluments are held by students : (a) Foundation Scholarships (48: 24 Eton, 24 open) awarded at entrance, some after (as Undergraduate Scholarships). The Laurence Saunders Scholarship also ranks as a Foundation Scholarship. Of these 42 are now held in the College, of which 29 are of the annual value of 80/. ; 5 raised by allowances to 128/.; 1 raised by allowances to 104/.; 1 reduced on prolongation to 40/.; 6 honorary. 21 of the scholars are B.A.s, 21 undergraduates. (6) Minor Scholarships varying in number. Ten are now held: 9 of the normal value of 60/., 1 raised by allowances to 841. (c) Exhibitions of various classes : i. Entrance Exhibitions restricted to candidates in need of pecuniary assistance in order to obtain a University education, normal value 40/., capable of augmentation up to 700. 3 ii. Exhibitions specially endowed of various values, viz., Price Exhibition (2) of 40/., capable of augmentation ; Vintner Exhibition (Natural Science) of 70/. ; Fielder (for Greek), tenable with another Exhibition, 327. ; Phillpotts, for son of a clergyman, 401. ; Morton, for a candidate for Holy Orders, 75/. ; Soley, for candidate nominated by Drapers’ Company, 701. iii, An Exhibition awarded annually to a member of the Cambridge Training College for Teachers, 30. iv. Ordinary Exhibitions awarded to undergraduates, of varying values. Of these, 22 are now held: 8 of the normal value of 40/. ; 2 with the Fielder of 72J. ; 6 augmented to 70/.; 1 augmented to 50/.; 1 Fielder held alone, 32/.; 4 30/. (d) One Studentship (Augustus Austen Leigh), tenable with a Scholarship, 75/. (e) Choral Scholarships varying in number: 4 are now held, of 80/. plus certain allowances, say 1041. Tenure.—The normal tenure of entrance Scholarships is two years ; prolongable for two years more in all. Tenure of undergraduate Scholarships: until the holder is of about four and a half years’ standing from entrance ; prolongable for two years more in all. Tenure of Exhibitions: (a) Entrance: two years, prolongable for a third ; (b) Fielder, Soley, Phillpotts, Morton: three years; (c) others: One year, prolongable. Tenure of Choral Scholarships: usually three years. II. The Fielder Exhibition is tenable with another Exhibition. III. No; but in considering augmentation of Exhibitions account is taken of emoluments from other public sources held by the Exhibitioner. IV. There is a fund, privately contributed and privately administered, for the assistance (not the complete maintenance) of needy students, not confined to Scholars or Exhibitioners. V. (a) No such case is known to me. (6) No. MaGpaLeneé CoLuece, CAMBRIDGE. I. Number variable of Scholarships and Exhibitions. At present 24 in residence, besides 6 Sizars and 4 Subsizars. Scholarships are of 40/. to 80/.; Exhibitions gene- rally of 30/.; tenure of both for two years, after which they may be prolonged and increased if the holders prove of sufficient merit. Sizarships are worth about 34/. and Subsizarships consist in the reduction of certain fixed charges, and admission to certain privileges at a given fixed charge. II. A Scholarship or Exhibition is tenable with a Sizarship or Subsizarship, or with a ‘ private Exhibition ’ of 25/. (see IV.). III. No. IV. (1) Trusts amounting to about 120]. per annum from which small benefac- tions are made annually to poor and deserving students. (2) Ordinands Fund of 50/. from which grants of 10/. are made to candidates for ordination requiring assistance. etcbtpemn oe ts ier SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 249 (3) A private Exhibition Fund, providing 12 Exhibitions a year of 25/.; but in no case do we provide for the complete maintenance of students. V. (a) Occasionally ; but it seldom, if ever, happens that a candidate of real ability is obliged to decline an emolument on such grounds, as they are gomally able to get additional help by means of School, or County Council, or City Company Exhibitions. (b) No, not to my knowledge. PEMBROKE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. Annually offered, 2 Scholarships of 80/.; 4 of 601. ; 4 of 50/.; and Exhibitions of 30/., all tenable for three years and renewable for a fourth. II. No. IIT. No. IV. A small fund is availaple. V. (a) No. (6) Only when sudden financial disaster has overtaken the parents. (c) Private liberality has never failed. PETERHOUSE, CAMBRIDGE. I. See University Calendar. Number annually offered varies. II. No; but grants in aid may be made from a fund for deserving students, but no grant would be made to an 80/. Scholar. IV. Two private funds for deserving students administered by the Tutor with the cognisance of the Master; and a fund for the encouragement of research from which grants are made to students after graduation. No funds for complete main- tenance of a student of exceptional promise. V. (a) Cases may have occurred. (b) I cannot remember any case. Trinity CoLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. Our emoluments are divided into two groups: (1) those awarded before residence is begun ; (2) those awarded to residents. (1) A number, at present twelve, entrance Scholarships are awarded each December. Their value is 80/. a year, and they are tenable for two years of residence unless the holder is elected to a Senior Scholarship. Entrance Scholarships may be prolonged for a third year. At present, ten Hxhibitions of 401. are also awarded annually before residence. Both entrance Scholarships and Exhibitions may be increased by allowances in remission of fees to 100/. a year in cases of pecuniary need. Other regulations about them will be seen by the circular enclosed. A certain number, at present twenty, subsizarships, tenable for three years, and worth about 35/. per annum in remission of fees. (2) Emoluments awarded to residents. The College maintains at least eighty Senior Scholarships. Their value is 100/. a year before graduation and 80/. afterwards. They are tenable till five and a half years from commencement of residence. : An unspecified number of Exhibitions of 401. a year tenable till graduation. II. Subsizarships are tenable with Exhibitions and with entrance, but not with senior Scholarships. Exhibitions are not tenable with Scholarships, except in the case of fourth year (post-graduate) emoluments. Il. No limit is placed on the total emoluments ; men often hold school or County Council Scholarships with our own. IV. We do not undertake the complete maintenance of students. But the tutors have a gift and loan fund from which private gifts or loans can be made to meet temporary cases of need. Y. (a) Those awarded entrance Scholarships or Exhibitions never decline them. Sometimes Subsizarships are declined, but there the standard is lower. (6) Retirement during the course is very rare or unknown. Help is constantly given from the Tutors’ Funds. (c) Answered above. Tutors’ funds for gifts and loans. Tronity Hari, CamBrings. I. About 300/. is awarded every year in Scholarships varying from 80/. to 40/. and Exhibitions of 30/. 250 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. II. No. III. No. IV. (b) A Fund bringing i in a small annual income for supplementing Scholarships and giving assistance in such cases as are referred to in V. (a) (0) (c). SELwyn CoLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. II. The endowed Scholarships may be supplemented from the Exhibition Fund if the scholar is regarded as reaching a higher standard, but two benefactions cannot be held together. III. No limit. IV. No. V. (a) ‘ Yes, from time to time. Now and then it has been possible to interest private individuals to come to the rescue before or after the candidate comes into residence ; but the College has no means at its disposal for the purpose.’ VI. ‘I should suggest that local authorities should be prepared to subsist all candidates from their area who have reached the requisite standard in an open competition, instead of making their support dependent on a further competition for a limited number of local Exhibitions.’ GIRTON COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. Foundation Scholarships: 1 of 80/. for four years, 1 of 44/., 3 of 407., 1 of at least 30/., 1 of about 16/. City Companies’ Scholarships: 3 of 60/.; Clothworkers’ Company (one awarded annually) ; (Skinners’ Company), one of 50/. One Gilchrist Scholarship of 507. awarded annually, tenable here or at Newnham College. Exhibitions : 1 of 30/. from Queen’s College, Chester ; 1 of 207. from St. Leonard’s School, St. Andrew’s. All the above, except the first, are tenable for three years ; and except the Cloth- workers and Gilchrist are awarded only every three years. Besides these, the College awards College Scholarships and Exhibitions each year. II. Students are not allowed to hold more than one Scholarship awarded by the College. No regulations are laid down with regard to Leaving or County Council Scholarships, which a student may hold apart from the College. IV. Scholarships or Exhibitions have sometimes been augmented privately, and also in some cases the Council has granted augmentation from College Funds. V. I do not know of any. NEwNHAM COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. I. 5 Scholarships of 50/. for three years and 2 of 35/., tenable for three years ; 1 of 50/., tenable for two or three years, and another of 50/., tenable here or at Girton College for three years; 1 of 100/. for first year’s students, tenable for three years; 1 of 40/. for one year for third-year students. A number of small grants, generally of 15/., tenable with or without Scholarships; 5 grants of 5/1. for books to students. All but one of above Scholarships are awarded annually. II. Only as stated above. III. No limit. IV. A Loan Fund, from which as much as 301. a year may be borrowed for three years. No other permanent endowment, though help may be given as stated above by means of the grants and Loan Fund and from private sources. V. (a) No such cases. (b) I believe not. (c) Such resignations would be met by help from the grants and Loan Fund. By means of these a student holding the smallest of our Scholarships, one of 35/., could make it up to 80/. (our fees are 90/.) with 15/. grant and 36/. loan. As a rule, however, we find that the students most in need of help have school Scholarships, and that their families are able to give them a little help. University CoLttiecr, Lonpon. I. 44 Scholarships, varying from 10/. to 150/.; tenure varying from one to three years— in two cases this may be raised to five.’ Two Exhibitions of 571. 15s., tenable for three years; 2 Bursaries of about 16/., tenable for two years. —_- ——————————— le Oe SCHOLARSHIPS, E''C., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 251 II. Permission must be obtained to hold two College Scholarships at the same time, and in the case of the A. entrance Scholarships, the following Regulation obtains : No student is permitted to hold an A. Scholarship concurrently with any other College Scholarship when the joint annual value of such Scholarships exceeds 501., except upon the special recommendation of the Professorial Board. IIT. No. IV. I have small sums placed at my disposal by friends of the College and mem- bers of the College Committee from time to time to help poor students, who are now greatly helped by County Scholarships. V. (a) I have only known of one since my tenure of office here for the last nine ears. ? (b) In two cases during my tenure of office. VI. I think it would be a good plan if all Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Bursaries were given practically as loans with the understanding that if and when a student, who had benefited from holding a Scholarship, found himself financially able to do so, he should return at least the sum that he had received. It has been done in one or two cases, but it should become a general policy and tradition. Kine’s CoLtecr, Lonpon. I. Studentships, 2 of 100/.; Scholarships (1 entrance), 1 of 30/. for one year (in alternate years); 2 of 25]. for two years; 2 of 30/. for three years; 2 of 25. for four years; 2 (to Students of the College), 1 of 201. for two years; 2 of 201. for one year (first and second year’s medical respectively) ; 1 of 20/. for five years (training of medical missionaries). Exhibitions, 2 of 25l. for two years (1 entrance). Theological, 6 Exhibitions of 50/., 5 Exhibitions of 20/., and a few Bursaries at the discretion of the Dean. II. Most of the above are entrance Scholarships, and not more than one can be held. The Regulations for the other benefactions make it impossible for more than one to be held at a time. Til. No limit. IV. No regular fund, but Scholarships are sometimes supplemented by private benefactors. V. (a) Yes, but not often. (b) Yes, but not often. (c) On rare occasions from general College funds. Kine’s CoLLEGE FoR WomEN, Lonpon. I. 2 Scholarships of 40/. for three years, each awarded once in three years; 1 of 30/1. for one year (to second year Arts Students not necessarily of the College) in entrance Scholarships in Classics of 251. for two years. Exhibitions of the value of 601. for three years are open. Five Bursaries in Theology, covering fees for one session, are given to members of the Church reading for Certificate or Diploma, and who show that they are in need of financial help. a Two Scholarships may and at present are held by a single beneficiary. II. No. IV. None. V. (a) No. (b) No. Had such a case arisen, I think that the College would undoubtedly have assisted. Gotpsmirus’ CoLLEcE. I. None, except when the London County Council award a free place. They are entitled to award 15 in consideration of their annual grant towards the maintenance of the College. Il. : III. Not by the College Authorities. IV. None. V. (a) Application for free places is made to the County Council. I am not, therefore, in a position to answer. (6) Not that I know of. 252 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Royat Hotitoway CoLiece. I. Scholarships, 4 of 60/., 7 or 8 of 501. at entrance, tenable fer three years. Bur- saries not more than 6 of 30/., tenable for three years. After not less than three terms’ residence, 3 at least of 301. for three years, and 1 of 601. for three years. II. If two (entrance and other) are held together, a reduction of 15]. is made. III. No limit. IV. None. V. (a) No successful candidate has declined a Scholarship, but there have been several cases where a successful candidate would not have been able to take up a Scholarship without the help she received, either from her school, or from a County Council or other awarding body. In the case of the smaller Scholarships, namely, Bursaries, it has happened in several cases that these benefactions have been de- clined as a candidate was unable to furnish the remaining amount required for the fees. (b) and (c) So far as I know, no deserving beneficiary has been allowed to retire from her course through lack of means; but there have been cases where this retire- ment would have been necessary if the students had not received help from a Loan Fund which has been established in connection with the College. VI. I think that there is great room for increase in the help given by local edu- cation authorities to promising girls in order to enable them to go to College. Where an examination for Scholarships is strictly competitive, as in the case of our own entrance Scholarship Examinations, and, I believe, the entrance Examinations of all other Colleges, and where the funds are strictly limited, only a small number can be helped by the College to take up their career. I feel sure that the British Association Educational Section could do much to educate public opinion in this very important matter. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. I. Entrance Scholarships, 1 of 60/.; 4 of 30/.; 4 of 507. tenable for three years ; 1 Scholarship, 60. for three years; 1 Fellowship (? post-graduate), 50/. for two years. Residence Bursaries, which reduce the fees of residence by 14 guineas, are given to students who are unable to pay the full fees. II. No two College Scholarships may be held together, but a College Entrance Scholarship may be held with a Scholarship or Exhibition from another source by special permission of the Council. Residence Bursaries are sometimes awarded to Scholars. IIT. The question has not arisen. IV. (a) No. There is a small ‘ College Fund’ supported by voluntary contribu- tions, from which grants are made to needy students, but these grants are not as a rule made to scholars. (b) Scholarships are occasionally supplemented privately, but in no case does this provide for a complete maintenance of the student. V. (a) and (6) Not during the last six years. WESTFIELD COLLEGE. I. 5 to 7 Scholarships annually of 351. to 501. for three years (last year 7 were awarded, each of 50/.); 1 permanent endowed Scholarship of 50/. for three years, offered every third year. II. No. III. No. IV. Private help is in many cases given to supplement Scholarships, and also to help students who do not hold Scholarships. I have arranged for this privately. V. (a) I believe that in some cases a Scholarship or Bursary has been declined where the winner has failed to gain another Scholarship elsewhere to supplement the one offered by the College. (b) I think not. Help has been arranged in case of need. (c) I have arranged privately for help by gifts or loans, and have received some gifts for this purpose from members of Council, old students, and friends of the College. VI. In the award of Scholarships the written examination is not the only test, although it is necessarily the chief one. University oF DurHAm (DurHAm Division). I. At entrance (annually), 5 open Scholarships (to men and women) of 70/.; 1 of 401. ; 3 of 30/.; 3 of 207. for one year, renewable for a second and third year; 1 of Be ee ae ode SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC , HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 253 701., 1 of 307., and 1 of 20/., for women only ; an Exhibition of 20/. for students of limited means ; 3 second year Scholarships of 30/., one restricted to those who do not hold any Scholarship or Exhibition, and 3 Exhibitions of 40/. and of 30/., given on the results of the Final Examinations in Theology ; also 1 of 40/. restricted to candi- dates for Honours in Theology. A number of close Scholarships and Exhibitions, ranging from 50J. to 8/., all for one year (except two for three years). If., IIT. No holder of a Foundation Scholarship can hold together with it any other Scholarships or Exhibitions (except two University and two close Scholarships for. Graduates) which will with it amount to as much as 100/. a year. V. (a) Occasionally, if awarded a Minor Scholarship. Armstrone CoL~LEcE, NEwcastLe (IN THE UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM). I. (a) At entrance, Exhibitions, 3 of 15/., 1 of 20/., each tenable for one year and renewable for a second year, subject to satisfactory conduct and progress ; 20 New- castle Corporation Exhibitions of free admission to Degree course for two years, renewable for a third under same conditions, and in very exceptional cases for a fourth year; with these may be provided Bursaries for successful candidates who, without such aid, would not be able to accept the Exhibitions; 2 Gateshead Corporation Exhibitions, giving free admission to Degree course (same conditions). County Council Scholarships and Exhibitions (restricted locally), 2 of 60/. ; 2 of 507. ; 2 of 40/., plus tuition fees, tenable for two years only ; 3 yearly Scholarships of 50/. each in Marine Engineering, each tenable for three years, restricted to candidates who can produce satisfactory evidence that the amount will enable them to pursue their day courses, and that they would be unable to do so without this aid; 3 yearly Scholar- ships of 50/. each in Naval Architecture under same conditions. (b) At close of first year, a Scholarship of 30/. or under for one year, plus remission of two-thirds of the class fees; 1 of 20/., with similar remission for three years; 1 Scholarship of 15/. for one year; 1 of 13/. 10s. for one year (renewable under condi- tions for a second). (c) At close of second year, 2 Scholarships of 40/. each for one year (with remission of fees), and other money rewards and prizes. II. The second year’s Scholarships and Exhibitions are not tenable with any other. Tue Victor1A UNiversiry, MANCHESTER. About 24 Foundation Scholarships, awarded by the University. A large number of entrance Scholarships, awarded by other bodies, varying from 25]. upwards; 12 Exhibitions of 15/. upwards ; numerous prizes of books and money. II. ‘No... Scholarship or Exhibition awarded by the University shall be held together with any other . . . Scholarship awarded by the University or with any County Council School, without the express permission of the Senate. In the case of students who hold other . . . Scholarships or Exhibitions of any kind the Senate shall have power to withhold, either in whole or in part, payment of any . . . Scholar- ship or Exhibition awarded by the University. In the case of . . . Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Bursaries awarded by a Hall of Residence no such permission is necessary (University Scholarships are frequently held with County Council Scholar- ships up to a maximum of 75/. by special permission of the Senate).’ ‘Ill. The Regulation stated above limits concurrent tenure, but there is no fixed maximum limit as to the amount a single beneficiary may hold laid down by the Regulations. IV. Not at present. A small sum is set aside for assistance to deserving students to enable them to complete their course in case of special need arising. V. (a) Yes, but not frequently. (b) I cannot recollect such a case. (c) Under very special circumstances a supplemental grant has been made from the Scholarship Suspense Account, or private loans have been given. University oF BirmincHamM. I. (a) On entrance, 15 of remission of fees plus maintenance not exceeding 30/. for four years (city residents) ; 2 of 25]. for one year; 1 of 24J. for two or three years (Wolverhampton students) ; 1 of 50/. and 1 of 40/. for three years (Faculty of Com- merce); 2 Bursaries of 45/. for three years (parents’ income not exceeding 1501.) ; and one of 13/. (residents of Smethwick) for one year, renewable. (6) Second and later years in Science, Arts, and Commerce, awarded mostly on In- termediate Examination, 1 Scholarship of remission of fees for three years (pupils of 254 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Technical School) ; 1 of 401. for three years; 1 of 25/. for two years, and 1 of 361. for 1 year (limited to pupils from King Edward’s Schools) ; 1 of 50/. and 1 of 401. for three years (Commerce) ; 1 of 37/. for one year (Science and Metallurgy) ; 4 Exhibitions of 30/. for one year. (e) Medicine, 1 of 211. for 2 years; 1 of 141. for one year (orphans of medical men); 4 of 101. 10s. for one year on results of second, third, fourth, and final examinations. II. No. IV. We have no funds at our disposal of a permanent kind to supplement Scholar- ships for the complete maintenance of students of exceptional merit. We provide. however, out of ordinary revenue for maintenance up to 30/. per annum, in respect of 60 University Entrance Scholarships, tenable by candidates resident in the city. (a) The amount to be expended in any year on Scholarships and Bursaries respectively in any year is in the discretion of the Committee, and is determined by the applications received. Bursaries may provide for complete maintenance ; their amount depends on the circumstances of the applicant and of his parents or guardians. (b) No. V. I do not remember any instances of (a) or (b). ; Tue UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS. I. Entrance Scholarships, 2 of 20]. and 1 of 21/. for two years; 3 of 40/. for two years for a third; 2 of 25/. and 1 of 35. renewable ; and a number of Scholarships F on the award of public bodies. The Leeds City Entrance Scholarship Fund is now utilised ‘ for the purpose of extending the courses of deserving and necessitous Leeds ; students attending at the University.’ TII., III. ‘ Power is reserved to declare a Scholarship vacant or reduce its value on the ground that the Scholar has previously or subsequently to his election acquired another Scholarship. In cases where students hold Scholarships the aggregate amount of which amounts to more than 75l., the Senate reserves power to reduce them to this sum.’ IV. I am not quite clear as to the intention of this question. We have no fund which is necessarily used as a means of supplementing Scholarships, but some of the Scholarships and other awards may be given to students already holding some other Scholarship. Special grants have also been given by the University to Scholarship holders. V. (a) (b) and (c) The information available is not sufficiently definite for a reply to be given to these questions. If such cases have occurred, they have been very rare. Special grants have been made to Scholarship holders by the University, and private help has sometimes been forthcoming. ‘ University OF SHEFFIELD. I. Scholarships and Exhibitions : 1 every year, tenable during whole Medical degree Course, 122/. total value. 8 every year, tenable for three years, 50/. a year. a % a 301. a year. { 15]. first year, plus fees remitted. 12 - aa “s 20]. second year PS | 251. third year ‘e { 10/. first year, 3 6 (annual) = a , 127. 10s. second year | 152. third year = 201. first year, 5 2 35 7 53 | 251. second year = | 302. third year i 4 every year = s 501. a year a 1 (triennial), tenable for three years, 501. a year. i ‘9 a ey 211. a year. 4 (annual), a » Fees of Degree Course remitted. i a tenable for one year, Fees in Engineering or Metallurgy remitted. 1 ” 3 3 201. 1 ce) 22 23 221. 6 Ms 50/. plus fees remitted. In addition, the Surveyors’ Institute offer 1 Scholarship of 60/. and 5 of 50/. for three years, tenable in this University. SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 255 UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. I. Post-graduate Scholarships, 3 of 30/. to 34/. for one year; 1 of 25/., for not exceeding three years ; 1 of 20/. for one year; ‘ City Scholarships’ consisting of the payment of all fees (varying in number and amount according to the applications and qualifications of candidates, and the Faculties they wish to enter), for one year renewable ; ‘City Bursaries,’ under same conditions, for maintenance, purchases of books or apparatus. 3,000/. a year (approximately) devoted to ‘City’ Scholarships and Bursaries. In the Faculty of Engineering, 4 entrance Scholarships carrying free tuition for at least three years; 1 research Scholarship, value 50/. for one year, with free tuition ; 3 entrance Scholarships from endowed Schools in the City (2 tenable only in the Faculty of Engineering), 30/. for one year renewable. Several Exhibitions carrying free tuition in the Faculty of Engineering. II. ‘ Not as a rule.’ III. No. IV. No, except as above. V. No. University CoLttege, NotringHam. I. 3 entrance Scholarships, each 30/. per annum, tenable for three years; a limited number of entrance Studentships, 12/. to 20/., tenable for three years, for those whose means are limited ; 1 Scholarship of 12/. for one year, and College Studentships (16 during 1912-13) of 107. to 18/7. awarded on results of Terminal and Sessional Examinations to College students who are in need of pecuniary assistance, tenable for one year, renewable. City Education Bursaries of 10/., with remission of College fees, averaging 18/. II. Under exceptional circumstances the College Council might sanction a Student- ship being held together with Scholarship. It is possible for holders of College Scholarships and Studentships to hold Scholarships awarded by another body during the same period. III. No. In awarding Scholarships, however, the pecuniary circumstances are in some cases taken into consideration. IV. No. VY. (a) Very few such cases have occurred. (b) The College Studentships are designed to meet such cases. University CoLLecr, REapine. I. Scholarships and Exhibitions: Major open Scholarships, 2 of 69/., 1 of 65/., tenable for two years, renewable for a third. Two minor open Scholarships of 201. to 24/. (7.e., remission of tuition fees) under same tenure. Scholarships given by Halls of Residence, ordinarily of 40/., under, same tenure (see IV. below). Two minor Scholarships of 20/. to 247. (i.e., remission of tuition fees), ordinarily for three years, for candidates educated in Reading. One Scholarship of 60/. for three years, for candidates from Reading School. Two open Scholarships in Fine Art, of 30/., for two years. Open Scholarships in Music, of 26/., about 2 awarded per annum, ordin- arily for three years. Exhibitions for the Secondary Education Course for women (complete or partial remission of the tuition fee of 20/., for one year), one or two per annum. Certain other Exhibitions and Bursaries of less value. Note.—In cases where Entrance Scholarships are held for three years, the holders are sometimes enabled to stay for a fourth year by means of a Secondary Education Exhibition or special assistance from a Hall of Residence (see IV. below). II. Not two College benefactions in ordinary circumstances. Comparatively small Exhibitions, however, may be awarded to students holding other Scholar- ships or Exhibitions. The Committee governing our Halls of Residence also occa- sionally make small supplementary grants to students who already may be holding Scholarships or Exhibitions, if the cases seem to make such a course desirable. III. We have no definite rule. ... In this institution, during many years, I have only known one case in which it could fairly be said that perhaps the candidate was receiving too much money. In that case, he was not receiving Scholarships from the College at all, but derived them from other quarters. IV. Our chief Hall of Residence for men has an endowment, the object of which is—provided that the working expenses of the Hall have been first defrayed —to enable Scholarships and Bursaries to be granted to students in residence 256 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. at the Hall. The full scheme is not yet in operation, but ultimately there shoulu pe, in a Hall of 77 students, about 6 scholars in receipt of about 40/. a year each, and possibly more holders of Exhibitions and Bursaries of smaller sums. We shall also be in possession quite shortly of an endowment to provide a Scholarship of 601. a year, tenable by a candidate from R. School. Apart from these instances, we have occasionally given Scholarships temporarily out of our College income, or they have been provided by special gifts. Iam not aware that we have ever given a Scholarship which involves ‘complete maintenance.’ In our opinion, such a course would be rarely desirable. V. I do not remember a case of (a) or (b). The College has frequently, on the other hand, assisted students who could not complete their College course without some special assistance in addition to that which they might already be receiving ‘from other sources. VI. It is not quite clear to me what the precise purport of these inquiries is. Consequently, I am afraid that the information I have given may not be of much use. The most important observation, based on experience, that I can offer on the subject of Scholarships would be this: that while entrance Scholarships serve a certain obvious purpose, far too much stress has been laid upon the importance of having a large supply of them, without giving sufficient importance to their duration. That is to say, it isof very little use for a local education authority or other body to give a Scholarship for two years unless it has quite clearly made up its mind that—except the candidate fails in conduct or progress—the Scholarship will be extended, not only for a third year, but for a fourth. Extraordinary difficulty is experienced in persuading local authorities to extend any Scholarship for a fourth year, and yet it is precisely that fourth year which, in the case of University students, is the most important of all. Over and over again at this College our students have been placed in a difficulty in the final year of their course. The difficulty arises in any kind of University course, but I will give an instance of which I have had two recent examples. Two women students, holding Scholarships from local authorities, successfully obtained their degree after probably in each case three years’ work, not more, and possibly less. These students wish to become teachers in secondary schools. Consequently, they wish to remain at the College for another year in order to go through a course of secondary training and get a certificate. Unless they do this, they will stand very little chance of getting posts for which trained candidates are in competition, and yet in both cases—the cases of the two Education Committees—opposition is shown to the extension of the Scholarships for these purposes. In one case, the Education Secretary writes to say that the course of secondary training appears to him to be similar to a course of preparation for a civil service examination, and, in his opinion, not a course for which a Scholarship should be continued. The same Secretary, I believe, puts into his advertisements for vacancies in the stafis of his county secondary schools that only trained candidates need apply. At this College we have recognised that the most imperative need of all is for Scholarships that would take effect during the third and fourth and even fifth years of a student’s stay with us. We consider that these are more important than entrance Scholarships, and that nothing would benefit a University institution more than for it to be known that, notwithstanding a comparatively small supply of entrance Scholarships, there is a probability that any hardworking and promising student will be enabled to complete a long course of study, including probably a period of post-graduate study. We have already decided that such funds as we possess available for such purposes will be used in accordance with these principles when the College becomes a University in two or three years’ time. University CoLLEGE, ABERYSTWITH. I. 37 Scholarships and Exhibitions, 1 of 54/.; 3 of 40/.; 1 of 35/.; 1 of 27/.; 4 of 301.; 1 of 201.; 2 of 151.; 14 of 10/.; 1 of 6. Of these, 1 is tenable for four years, 18 for three years, 12 for two years, 6 for one year. II. No two of these are tenable together, but students may hold them together with Scholarships from other sources outside the College. III. No limit is imposed on the annual income derived from emoluments of all kinds by a single beneficiary. IV. There is no benefaction for the complete maintenance of students of excep- tional promise. a ——— ee —. SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 257 V. (a) Cases have occurred. ‘ Occasionally the College can be of assistance by obtaining private aid, but as a rule this is not possible.’ (b) ‘ Cases have also occurred of deserving beneficiaries retiring during their course through lack of adequate means ; but in most cases they have taken posts in schools or otherwise, and have subsequently returned to College to complete their course.’ (c) ‘The Principal and Registrar have at their disposal a small loan fund from which they make periodical grants to deserving students, free of interest.’ University CoLLEGE, BANGOR. I. Entrance Scholarships, 1 of 40/.; 1 of 30/.; Exhibitions, 1 of 20/.; 4 of 10/., tenable in the first instance for three years, but may be extended for a fourth; and a number of limited Scholarships and Exhibitions, the highest of 30/., the longest tenure three years. II. ‘ No two College benefactions can be held together.’ Ill. No limit has hitherto been imposed. IV. We have no permanent endowment or benefaction for this purpose. There is, however, a ‘Loan Fund’ from which advances (repayable without interest) are made to students who are unable without such assistance to complete their courses. V. (a) We do not know of any case . . . great sacrifices are often made by the parents of students in order to enable their children to come to College, and in many cases friends in the locality from which a student comes render assistance. University CoLLEGE or SourH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE, CARDIFF. I. 59 Scholarships and Exhibitions: 6 of 10/., 1 of 15/., 12 of 171. 1s., 18 of 201., 11 of 25/., 2 of 271., 3 of 35/., 2 of 402., 3 of 50/., and 1 of 701. Of these 23 are tenable for one year (of which 14 are renewable), 2 for two years, 34 for three years. There are also 72 County Free Studentships (60 tenable for three years, and 12 for one year), covering fees at the College, to which maintenance allowances are attached by the counties concerned. These College Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Free Student- ships do not represent the annual awards to students at entrance, but the total number which may be held by all students in one session, and some of them are awarded for post-graduate work. II. and III. (1) Students may hold College Scholarships together with Scholar- ships from sources outside the College. (2) By order of the Council, no student may receive more than 50/. from the College in any one year. An Exhibition is reckoned as 10/. out of this sum. The above Scholarship of 702. is a Special Scholarship not coming within the terms of this order. IY. There is no benefaction for the complete maintenance of students of ex- ceptional promise. V. No case has come to our knowledge. There is a Loan Fund for assisting meritorious students which has been provided by subscriptions. Grants, free of interest, are made from this Loan Fund by the Principal and the Registrar. For the Bursaries, etc., at the Scottish Universities, see Parliamentary Paper 411, 11 Dec. 1912. The CarnEGie TRUSTEES grant assistance to students solely in respect of payment of class fees. University or St. ANDREWS. I. The value of Bursaries on entrance, as givenin the Parliamentary Paper, varies from 6/. 10s. to 50/. per annum, and their tenure varies from three to eight years. In addition to these, 7 Bursaries in the second year of 16l. 5s. to 30/., tenable for two or three years, and 2 in the fourth year of 20/1. and 45/. respectively, arc awarded. An additional entrance Scholarship of 30/. for four years has been founded for women students. Asa rule, the Bursaries on entrance run only for three years, in @ few cases for four; and 6 Scholarships of 801. for one year, 4 of 50/. for two years, and 1 of 50/. for one year, and 4 of 80/., tenable at Oxford or Cambridge for four years, are not included in the White Paper (some are post-graduate). II. Not as a general rule; but in the case of second-year Bursaries, they may i awarded to a student, notwithstanding he already holds a Bursary gained at en- Tance. 1915. 8 258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. III. No general rule imposing a limit. The rule just quoted to some extent secures that there will be no undue accumulation of Bursaries in one person. As regards outside Bursaries over which the University has no control, the case is pro- vided for by a rule that no one shall be entitled to hold a Bursary in the University with any outside Bursary yielding an annual income greater than 20/., and tenable during a period of three years. The University authorities may at any time alter this regulation. IV. There is a small fund raised some years ago to enable Foundation Bursaries to be supplemented. Two other funds left to the University without any reservation may be devoted to the augmentation of existing Bursaries. I do not remember any case, however, where money from any of these sources has been drawn upon for the complete maintenance of any student. Of course, in Scotland, the existence of the Carnegie Fund Trust for the Universities of Scotland, which up till recently practically paid the class fees due by a student qualified to obtain that benefit, forms a considerable supplement to the Bursary Fund. Students may have their fees paid and hold a Bursary of from 15/. to 40. a year, in which case the latter source of income provides for their maintenance. V. (a) and (b) I do not recollect such a case within my experience. Of course, the cases are numerous in which candidates who were relying on assistance from the Bursary Funds have been obliged, owing to their failure to obtain a Bursary or to some other financial casualty, to defer entering the University, or to leave the University midway in their career. No statistics and no definite note has been kept of such eases. I do not think that in the case of a student of exceptional ability it could easily occur. (c) The University is enabled, out of a fund made up of the income from Bursaries which from various causes have lapsed, to provide for the encouragement of students of small means where they are known to have merit; and that more particularly where, having struggled on through the curriculum for an ordinary degree, the student desires to obtain honours. The University Court have provided, to meet that case, for grants being made to students of the fourth and fifth year of study. Asa rule, the ordinary Bursary or University Scholarship at entrance runs only for three years, in a few cases for four. UntIversity CoLLEGE, DUNDEE. I. Bursaries, entrance, 12 of 15/. ; second year, 4 of 20]., 2 of 15J. Third, fourth, and fifth years each one of 20/., all tenable for one year only. Other Scholarships and Bursaries in the gift of other bodies or patrons tenable, held mostly at this College, are one of 601. for two years; 2 of 25]. for three years; 1 of 25/. to 301. for three years; 5 of 401. for three years. II. Asa rule not ; but exceptions are allowed in special deserving cases. III. This question is answered in the negative in reference to Answer II. IV. No. V. (a) and (b) No. VI. A Committee of the College Education Board is at the present moment in- vestigating the whole question of the awarding and tenure of Bursaries concerning the College, whose Report is expected before the close of the current academical year. UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. I. Reference only to Parliamentary Paper. For undergraduates are provided a large number of Bursaries of which few are over 40/. a year, 60/. being the highest ; tenable mostly for three or four years (the longest tenure is seven years). Exhibitions and Scholarships are all post-graduate. UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. I. Reference to Parliamentary Paper. Maximum value, 38/.; tenure one, two, or three years, mostly four years ; in addition to post-graduate Scholarships there are 280 Bursaries of the total annual value of 5,7507. A fund of 322/. is awarded each year in four sums to students who are in special need of pecuniary assistance to prosecute their studies at the University. II. No; but a student may hold a Bursary of the University along with such a Scholarship as the Ferguson, which is open to all Scottish Universities. III. No. IV. No. Y¥. (a) and (6) Not that I am aware of. g SSE reas 7s SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 259 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. I. Scholarships, &c. The total annual value of the University Fellowships, Scholarships, Bursaries and Prizes amounts to about 19,790/., viz., in the Faculty of Arts, 10,3001. ; in the Faculty of Science, 1,190/. ; in the Faculty of Divinity, 2,010/. ; in the Faculty of Law, 940/. ; in the Faculty of Medicine, 5,230/. ; and in the Faculty of Music, 1201. The Fellowships and Scholarships (chiefly for advanced students or graduates) number about 105. The years of tenure range from one to three or four, in one case (the Shaw Philo- sophical Fellowship) reaching five. The Bursaries, about 307, with very few exceptions, are tenable only by under- graduates in the respective Faculties : Faculty of Arts, 220 (several being tenable also in other Faculties) ; Faculty of Divinity, 40 ; Faculty of Law, 9; Faculty of Medicine, 38. Total 307. The annual values range from 10/. to 50/., the greater number being from 201. te 301. The period of tenure, in most instances, three or four years. II. Save in a few exceptional cases, it is not permitted to hold, at the same time, more than one University Scholarship or Bursary. Ill. No; although in a few instances eligibility for a Scholarship or Bursary is conditional upon total income not exceeding a specified sum. IV. (a) No. (b) The Carnegie Trust gives annual allowances towards payment of class fees, to students (irrespective of other benefactions being received) who fulfil certain condi- tions as to age, nationality, preliminary education, &c. The allowances in the various Faculties are as follows :—In Arts (ordinary), 9/. a year, for three years, or (honours) 91. a year, for four years; in Science, 12/. a year, for three years ; in Medicine, 151. a year, for five years; in Law, Divinity and Music, 6/. a year, for three years. V. This question seems hardly applicable to the conditions of the Scottish Uni- versities. Troity CoLLecEe, DuBLIN, AND UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN. I. 2 Studentships of 100/. a year each, tenable for five years. 70 Foundation Scholarships given at various stages, and tenable till M.A. standing, value 181. 9s. 4d. yearly, with exemption from Arts Fees (16/. 16s.), free Commons, say 30/., and half rent for rooms in College, say 5/., yearly. Non-Foundation Scholarships for women, at present 14, value 30/. yearly, under same tenure. In no case are these Scholar- ships to exceed five years. Senior Moderator Scholars, at present 30 of 10. yearly. Twelve Senior Exhibitions of 20/. and 4 of 15/. yearly, tenable for two years. 12 Junior Exhibitions of 20/. and 4 of 15/. a year, tenable for two years. 12 Roll Keepers, Markers, etc., from 7/. to 201. yearly, and Provost’s Marker, 45/. yearly. 30 Sizar- ships for men and women,' 5 Reid Sizarships, and at present 6 Sizarship Exhibitions, ee emerous other Exhibitions varying from 5/. to 60/. yearly. - Yes. III. No limit. IV. None for complete maintenance. V. (a) and (6) No. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, CorRK. I. Entrance Scholarships, College 12 (3 of 40/., 6 of 30/., 3 of 201.) for one year ; 3 Honan (for those whose financial position is such that it would be impossible te obtain a course of instruction for a University degree without this aid); 3 of 502., renewable up to a fifth year. Later years, Faculties other than Medicine and Engineering, 2 of 401. ; 2 of 301. ; 4 of 20/. for second year, renewable for third year. Engineering, 1 of 30/. for second year; 1 of 30/. for third year. Medicine, 3 of 30/. for second year; 3 of 301. for third year, 3 of 30/. for fourth year, renewable for fifth. Law, 1 of 10/., awarded at end of first year. Exhibitions may be awarded in every case to students of merit who have failed to obtain Scholarships. 1 Students of limited means, exempt from Arts Fees; men having Commons free of expense, and women an allowance of 30/. in lieu of Commons. s 2 260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. County Council Scholarships, tenable in the College :— Cork: 10 of 241., tenable for three years and renewable for a fourth or fifth; in- creasable from the Reserve Fund up to 50/. in such cases as may seem advisable ; 1001. per annum, rising in the third year, to be allocated to Bursaries of lesser value to promising students, not worthy of Scholarships. Kerry: 2 of 501.; 3 of 301. (restricted in respect of calling and means of parents) for one year, renewable for a second to a third year. Waterford: 3 of 501. and 1 of 30J. for three years (may be extended to fourth and fifth year). Other Scholarships are offered by the County Councils of Limerick and of Tipperary (North and South Ridings). II. No. But there are practically no outside ones that could be tenable with ours, except possibly from Trinity College, Dublin. IV. (a) Only in the case of the County Cork scholars, who may be helped from the ‘Reserve Fund’ ‘ where necessary ’ in the judgment of the President of the College. (6) No regular stream. VY. (a) and (6) Yes. (c) In some cases by private beneficence. VI. It is desirable that there should be at the disposal of the College a fund ear- marked to supplement Scholarships, &c., for the complete maintenance of students of exceptional merit. THE QuEeEn’s UNIVERSITY, BELFAST. I. (a) Foundation Scholarships, junior, 40 of 40/., tenable for one year; 3 of 40/., 6 of 30/., 4 of 20/., 3 of 15/. in the Faculty of Medicine; 3 of 20/. in the Faculty of Law, and 6 of 20/. in the Faculty of Commerce. Extra Scholarships may, in special circumstances, be offered for competition among Art(s?) Students entering upon their second or third year. (6) Private endowment, 1 of 20/., on entrance, for one year, renewable for a second and a third year; 3 Sullivan Scholarships of about 40/., for three years, on entrance, restricted to national teachers or assistant teachers ; 2 of 20]. for one year; 1 (Megaw) of about 40/. for one year (restricted to Christians) ; 1 of about 40/., payable in three annual instalments; 1 of 10/. and 1 of 5/. in Commerce, tenable for two years; 1 of about 271. for women, payable in three annual instalments; 1 Exhibition of 271. for Undergraduates in Arts; 2 entrance Exhibitions (Drennan and Tennent) of 51. each at entrance. (c) In addition to these the City and County Borough of Belfast offers annually 4 Scholarships of 40/. annually for three years (which may be extended to a fourth or fifth, in the case of exceptional merit or excellence), tenable by matriculated students of the University. Candidates must show that they are in need of assistance. (d) The following County Scholarships and Bursaries are also tenable at any Uni- versity in Ireland, all for three years, in the University of Belfast, Antrim, 2 of 401. ; Donegal, 2 of 45/.; Kildare, 4 of 50/. (Catholics excluded) ; Monaghan, 3 Scholarships of 50/. and 3 Bursaries of 251. (Catholics excluded) ; Westmeath (only tenable in the University of Belfast and the National University), 3 of 50/.; Wexford, 3 of 50/., and 3 Bursaries of 251. (Catholics excluded). II. ‘ Except where otherwise specified, no Scholarship can be held in conjunction with Scholarships or Exhibitions.’ A Sullivan or Megaw Scholarship, or a Drennan or Tennent Exhibition may be held with a Foundation Entrance Scholarship. V. (a) and (6) Not to our knowledge. ee a f » are © Ok ot hh al al tind ee SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 261 APPENDIX II. LIST OF TOTAL EMOLUMENTS HELD ON ENTRANCE BY STUDENTS IN THE UNIVERSITIES OF OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE. (Arranged in Order of Values.) A. Oxford. B. Cambridge. No Emoluments Accepted 1 £20 2 202” 2 25 3 217. 1 30 19 30.—«; 7 32 1 33s 1 33 l 40. 10 35 5 50% 10 40 21 60. 10 50 7 10) os 2 57 1 75 1 60 14 80. 45 65 2 82 10s. 1 67 1: 89. 4 70 5 90 11 74 1 100 19 75 3 105 4 80 15 106 3 85 3. 110 7 90 1l 115 1 91 2 117 14s 1 93 1) 120 15 95 1 121 1 100 16 , LG) rr + 105 2 126 1s. 6d. . 1 110 9 13 re 17 111 1 133 16s. 8d. 1 112 1 Owes th, 3 115 6 136. 1 120 6 140 10 125 3 143 1 130 8 145 1 135 6 150 12 138 1 151 1 140 ul 152 1 145 3 155 2 150 13 160 5 154 1 .170 6 155 2 180 5 160 5 185 1 164 1 230 2 170 1 — 175 1 Total 231 178 1 180 3 188 1 190 3 300 1 Total to bo —_ 1 Compiled from the detailed tables supplied on behalf of the Universities * Minutes of Evidence’ to the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, Jan. 9-24. 262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Museums.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. A. GREEN (Chairman), Mr. H. Botton and Dr. J. A. Cuupp (Secretaries), Dr. Bataer, Mr. C. Bucxmastsr, Mr. EH. Gray, Professor S. F. HARMER, Mr. M. D. Hi, Dr. W. EH. Hoyts, Professors EH. J. Garwoop and P. NEWBERRY, Sir RIcHARD TEMPLE, Mr. H. H. Tuomas, Professor F. EK. Weiss, Dr. JESSIE WHITE, Rev. H. Browne, Drs. A. C. Happon and H. 8. Harrison, Mr. Hersert R. RatTHBone, and Dr. W. M. TATTERSALL, appointed to examine the Character, Work, and Main- tenance of Museums. Tur Committee reports that during the year it has carried out extensive inquiries upon various aspects of museums in relation to Education. Sectional Reports upon the museum needs of school children, students, and the general public have been drawn up by sub-committees, and afterwards issued to all the members. Dr. F. A. Bather and Mr. H. H. Thomas attended the meetings of the Congrés de 1’Association Francaise at Havre, and conferred with French representatives upon subjects covered by the terms of reference of the Committee. Dr. Bather also communicated a paper upon the ‘Commission de 1’Association Britannique sur les Musées.’ Mr. H. Bolton and Dr. W. M. Tattersall visited the chief Australian and American museums during the course of their overseas journey to and from Australia last year. In every instance they received a warm welcome from their colleagues and all possible assistance in pursuing their inquiries. The American museums proved especially profitable, as 1m numerous cases a thorough co-operation has existed for years between the museums and every grade and kind of educational effort. A lengthy questionnaire was prepared by the Committee in the hope of its adoption by the House of Lords for departmental issue to allmuseums. Owing to the war, this was not possible, and the question- naire was therefore issued bythe Committee on its own responsibility to all provincial museums in the British Isles. About one hundred and forty replies have been received, and are now under consideration. A special questionnaire upon classical education in relation to museums has also been issued. A joint conference between the Committee and the Museums Associa- tion was held at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, on J uly 9, when Professor J. A. Green introduced the question of the museum in relation to schools. Attention is also being directed to the question of the relation of museums to universities. The Committee hopes to complete its labours during the course of the coming year, and asks to be reappointed with a grant of 151., and with the addition to its number of Sir Henry Miers, F.R.S. CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 263 Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous, and Permian Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere :—The Com- mittee consisting of Professor T. W. EDGEWoRTH Davin (Chairman), Professor E. W. SxKeats (Secretary), Mr. W. 8S. Don, Sir T. H. Hounanp, Mr. W. Howcain, Mr. G. W. LAmptuGH, and Professor W. G. WooLNouGH, appointed to consider the above. Report oF THE AUSTRALIAN MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE. rr A TaBLE (II.) of a suggested correlation of these rocks and also the following points were presented for discussion and report by the Hono- rary Secretary, Professor HE. W. Skeats, The University, Melbourne: 1. Is a single name desirable for all Australian Permo-Carboniferous rocks? i.e., should we abandon local terms such as Bowen, Gympie, Bacchus Marsh, &c. ? 2. If so, or if a comprehensive name in addition to local names is desirable, should the name be a general one, i.e., Permo-Carboni- ferous, Carbo-Permian, or Permian ? 3. If a local name be preferred, which name is most suitable? It has been suggested that since the Glacial series was first discovered by Selwyn in the Inman Valley in South Australia they might be called ‘ the Inman series’ or that a suitable aboriginal name from that district might be chosen. If the latter, what is a suitable name ? 4. Can we be certain that the prominent Glacial Conglomerate is always on the same geological horizon, i.e., is it everywhere con- temporaneous? The presence of two or more Glacial Conglomer- ates in Victoria and New South Wales suggests a repetition of Glacial conditions not necessarily with the same time-interval between them, since at Bacchus Marsh in Victoria several con- glomerates are intercalated among the shales and sandstones of the one series, while in New South Wales the Lower Marine prominent Glacial horizon is followed by the Greta series, and then Glacial boulders recur in the Upper Marine series. In other areas in Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, &c., where a Glacial bed rests unconformably on older rocks and is not con- formably overlain by fossiliferous rocks, we have no stratigraphical or paleontological guide and commonly assume, and are unable to demonstrate, that these widely separated occurrences are on the same horizon as those of Bacchus Marsh in Victoria and the Hunter River in New South Wales. Are we safe in making this assumption ? 264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. ; Th Correlation-Table of Permian, Permo-Carboniferous, and By Professor Kk. W. Sxeats, D.Sce., A.R.C.Se., = South Australia | Horizon New South Wales Victoria Queensland West Australia and Northern z Territory Permian t Schizoneura | Upper Bowen | Sandstones Series ? | of Bacchus Marsh ? | 7 | | Newcastle Collie River | Series with | | | Coal Series | Glossopteris | with | | c Glossopteris | | Dempsey | | Series | | East Maitland | | | or Tomago | Series | SSS feces peat ao | Upper Marine | | Carboniferous | Series with Glacial | Boulders | Greta Series | Gangamopteris| Lower Bowen Gascoyne | Victoria River with Ganga- Sandstone and Dawson Tae and Arnhem mopteris of Bacchus Coal Series Land Series Marsh and Minilya | (N. Terr.) with | Sones Glossopteris ? | Lower Marine | Tillites, &e., | Gympie Series with Lyons Tillites, &c., Series with of Bacchus with Conglomerate |ofHallett’sCove, Glacial Marsh Gangamopteris Inman Valley, Conglomerate | Derrinal, &c. at base &e. Rhacopteris- : : bearing Series | Avon River, Star Series Kimberley Mansfield, and with Series with Gasbonae ———— aaa Lepidodendron Lepidodendron? _ = arboniferous Lenidodendnarn San eet ? australe | volkheimianum- é d : -_ | Lepidodendron bearing Series austeala : Y Upper Mt. Lambie | Iguana Creek + Devonian ? Series Beds? with Cordaites } Norre.—Junctions between Devonian Junctions between Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous are conformable in South part Junctions between Permo-Carboniferous (Permian?) and Mesozoic are conformable CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. Carboniferous Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere and of India, F.G.8. (Secretary of Committee). Tasmania Knocklofty Series with Vertebraria indica ? | Sandy Bay | Series Mersey Series Glacial Series of Wynyard, Eaglehawk Neck, &c. New Zealand South Africa South America Antarctica India Wairoa Series? |Lower Beaufort; Schizodus Beacon Panchet | (Park), Kaihiki| Series with Series of Sandstone ? Series ? Series (Park)? | Pareiasaurus | Brazil with i} } and Mesosaurus Glossopteris | a Paes it ae SFT Le ee) Aorangi Series ‘) (Park) ? 9 A : l | | Maitai ) Series? 9 | 9 (inpart ad (Park) | | | | | | Beacon Sandstone ? Damuda : Series ? Ecca and : Kimberley (SantaCatharina Series with Series of Brazil | , Mesosaurus | H Tillites, &c., of Dwyka Series and Argentine with Orleans Glacial Conglomerate at base * Witteberg Series Bokkeveld Series ? and Carboniferous are conformable. of South Africa, discordant in North part of South Africa, and in New South Wales. in South Africa, India, and New South Wales (slightly discordant in places). | | Talchir Series . with Glacial | | Conglomerate at base 266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. 5. Is the correlation usually made with other areas in the Southern Hemisphere and with India surely and definitely established ? For instance, is the correlation suggested in the included table agreed to by members of the Committee? Reasons for agree- ment or disagreement are requested. 6. Are the relations between Devonian and Carboniferous rocks in the Southern Hemisphere everywhere conformable? If not, where do discordances occur ? 7. Further statements as to regions of discordance and of accordance of the junction between Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous rocks in Southern Hemisphere are requested. 8. In New South Wales (in places), in South Africa and in India, the Permo-Carboniferous merges into the Mesozoic apparently without break. This may also occur at Bacchus Marsh. This raises the question as to defining the upper limit of Permo-Carboniferous and its distinction from Permian. ELT. Discussion of the above Notes and Table by Professor T. W. Epcs- wortu Davin, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., &c. (Chairman of Committee). Question 1. Local terms such as Bowen (system name), Gympie (series name), Bacchus Marsh (stage or series name), might with ad- vantage be retained, as they are useful for describing local developments of rocks which while not necessarily synchronous (e.g., ‘ Bowen’ probably takes in far more than ‘Bacchus Marsh’) are to be grouped within the general term Permo-Carboniferous A single name to take in all local divisions (‘ Bowen,’ &c.) is desirable. Question 2. Permo-Carboniferous had better be retained for the present. It was suggested by R. Etheridge, Jun., in 1880 (see ‘ Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh,’ 1880, vol. v. p. 319), where R. Ethe- ridge’s report is recorded on the first collection of fossils sent to him by Dr. R. L. Jack. Unfortunately specimens from the Star beds (typically Carboniferous [T. W. E. D.]) were mixed up with Gympie and other typical Permo-Carboniferous fossils in this collection. Dr. Jack at this time thought the Star beds to be newer than the Gympie, but this view has now been given up, and the Star beds are considered older than the Gympie. But although the true Carboniferous (Star beds) are now eliminated from R. Etheridge’s original Permo-Carboni- ferous system, he considers that there is still a sufficiency of Carboni- ferous types in other true Permo-Carboniferous areas in Queensland to justify the retention of the term for all formations within the Common- wealth from the basal Glacial beds up to the topmost beds which contain any trace of the Glossopteris Flora. The recent discovery in the Seaham district of New South Wales of Glacial beds at the base of the Lower Marine series passing downwards into Rhacopteris (Aneimites)-bearing shales, with in one case a frag- ment of Aneimites in the shales associated with the lowest Glacial bed, CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 267 seems now further to justify the retention of the term Permo- Carboniferous. Question 3. If a general local name is to be given, the name ‘ Hun- terian ’ (from the type-area of the Hunter River) has a prior claim, and probably a stronger claim than any other, as (a) It was suggested for this application by the late Professor Ralph Tate (‘ Report Australian Association for the Advancement of Science for 1900,’ published 1901, p. 63 of his Presidential Address), and (b) The Hunter area is the first type-area in Australia (that is an area where the whole system from basal Glacial beds to top of the Newcastle series are developed) to be described. This description has been given by the Rev. W. B. Clarke (‘ Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales,’ &c.). As regards the term ‘ Inman Series,’ if it is intended to restrict it entirely to the Glacial stage of the Permo-Carboniferous system there are no serious objections to its use, but it seems to me that— (a) in view of the fact that no fossils whatever have as yet been found in these beds, and (b) that the former Government Geologist of South Australia (H. Y. L. Brown) was of opinion that the beds were of Mesozoic age, and that the present Government Geologist (L. K. Ward) still questions their age as being Permo-Carboni- ferous (v. his Geological Map in ‘ Handbook of South Aus- tralia’ prepared for the B.A.A.S. visit in 1914) and in view also of the fact that (c) there is more than one Glacial horizon in the Permo-Car- boniferous system —-it would be distinctly preferable to use the terms ‘ Inman,’ ‘ Bacchus Marsh,’ ‘ Wynyard’ stages or series, ‘ Lochinvar’ stages or series, “Lyons Conglomerate ’ stage, etc., for local developments of the basal Glacial beds. (Personally my opinion is that the Hallett’s Cove and Inman Valley beds are undoubtedly to be correlated with those of Bacchus Marsh.) Question 4. In regard to the contemporaneity of the Permo-Car- boniferous Glacial beds in various parts of the Commonwealth, there can, in my opinion, be no question that the Bacchus Marsh and Wynyard Glacial beds were absolutely contemporaneous. They both conformably underlie Gangamopteris beds, respectively at Bacchus Marsh Gangamopteris Sandstone Quarry, and between Wynyard and Preolenna (in North-Western Tasmania). Even individual tillite beds can, I think, be correlated with one another, in the cases of Bacchus Marsh and Wynyard. The Inman and Hallett’s Cove Glacial beds, in spite of the absence of fossils, can, I think, be quite safely considered as contemporaneous with those of Bacchus Marsh and Wynyard. The Lochinvar stage or series of New South Wales, like those of Bacchus Marsh and Wynyard, underlies Gangamopteris-bearing strata and graduates downwards conformably, at Seaham and the Paterson area in the Lower Hunter District of New South Wales, into the tuffaceous shales containing Aneimites (Rhacopteris). In fact C. A. Siissmilch IV. Correlation-Table of the Permian, Permo-Carboniferous, and By Professor T. W. E. Davin, Horizon Tasmania Victoria Rena fs ea New South Wales Queensland Southport Coal Measures Collie Creek | | Coal Measures | Newcastle | | Series Clermont | and Mt. Oygnet and | | _ Tolmie’s Neo-Permian | Adventure Bay | Coal Measures Ooal Measures i Dempsey | Series | Schizoneura | . Beds { Tomago : Bacchus Marsh | Series | Upper Marine | 1 | Upper Marine Series | Marine Beds of Series of | with a well-marked | Olermont and Preolenna, eic. | | Glacial Horizon Capella. 1,500 ft. above its Giossopteris base and a marine | Beds of Oakey boulder bed over Cr. and 2,000 ft. above the | St. Mary’s on : base of the Series |MackenzieRiver { Marine Beds of | Oakey Cr. and | St. Mary's Gangamopteris Gangamopteris| | Greta and Ashford | Dawson River Beds, Mersey | Beds, Bacchus | Coal Measures with | Anthracites and Fingal Marsh ) i Gangamopteris Paleeo-Permian} _ a4 z a hE = or Lower Marine | i Lower Marine Series | Gympie Series Permo- Series of with Eurydesma with marine Carboniferous Preolenna, cordatum fossils Pachydomus and Eury- | desma Beds of | | Maria Island, | etc. | Wynyard Glacial Series | Glacial Series Lyons Con- Glacial Beds of | Boulder Beds(? Glacial Beds oO Inman, glomerate and Lochinvar and of Windah on Bacchus Marsh Hallett’s Irwin River Seaham. MackenzieRive Coimodai, etc. Cove, ete. Boulder Bed | [Note: Aneimites (Rbacopteris) occurs in basal part of these Beds at Seaham. ] | Avon River © 3 Aneimites |StarSeries with Sandstones | & | (Rhacopteris)| Phillipsia, with Lepidodendron |2.2 | Beds or Series} Aneimites, Lepidodendrun Beds of ae with Cala- | Lepidodendron australe, Kimberley, |8.5 mites. australe, and Mansfield Limestones of | 5% \ Very massive | Rhynchonella Fish Beds. Mt. Marmion |30O Cen- pleurodon. Grampian Kimberley |S] glomerates. | (Possibly the Sandstones, a & | Arkose, Tuffs | L. australe and eg etc, | tb \and Rhyolites.| R. pleurodon Carboniferous Lepidodendron| Beds are 9 volkman- pper © | nianum Series Devonian) 2 with L. velt- I heimianum 8 Ulodendron, 5 ete. ©} Lithostrotion | 5 and Syringo- | E pora Lime- 4 stones with het. pe | Syringothyris | Iguana Ureek Kimberley | Burdekin - Beds and | Series | Limestone |_ Devonian Tabberabbera | (Mid. Devonian) Shales(?) | | | H i »s ‘ - yt ~ Carboniferous Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere and India. (C.M.G., D.So., F.R.S., ete. Northern A . | South Falkland 1 Territory New Zealand | India South Africa | aGriceiccl TainTiae Antarctica Possibly some | 8 Middle | Passa dois Beacon Sand- of the lower |5 | oe Beaufort with | Series with stone (in part) non-fossilifer- |5 3) 2 Dicynodon (?)| Lycopodiopsis t.e, the Coal ous beds of the |S $/2 3 aren Lower | derbyii and Measures with Maitai Group le ee ss re Raine Fl Beaufort with Mesosaurus Glossopteris Glossopteris belong here (3 45|@ 2 Glossopteris and) and Beardmore (Maitai Group |B5 aoa Schizoneura | Phyllotheca | Glacier, ismostly jb | 2% and numerous , Beds of Speed- | Granite Har- Trias-Jura) | 39 Eronetones Reptiles. Rio Bonito j|wellIslands, &c.| bour, &c. of | 2s Shal ae Ecca Beds and Shales with Ross Region ee eee Glossopteris, Glossopteris, Antarctica | Ses los 3 Gangamopteris Gangamopteris = a jag be a a oF ae é SB 89 an epidodendron ao (3-5 a eens Lepidodendron pedroanum i i: H's stage) pedroanum. | VEH'A Upper Dwyka 3 | Shales with | { Mesosaurus Marine Beds Lower Productus at Port Keats Limestone of Salt Range | | | | | Thin coaly Karharbari Coal Gangamopteris | lamine with Measures with obovata Beds Glossopterisand Gangamopteris Gangamoptcris | | Port Keats ' Salt Range Marine |Eurydesma Beds Beds with (E. globosum) Eurydesma of 8. W. Africa Boulder Beds of Dwyka Orleans Glacial Beds Salt Range and Conglomerates | Conglomerates | underlying Talchir Boulder |(GlacialSeries)| and Rio Nero | Glossopteris Beds with Gangamopteris, Boulder Beds Strata Gangamopteris is associated in Marine with tillite Shales. Sandy Tillites on 3 | | horizons. Total I | thickness | i Boe FS 2,300 ft. | Lower part of ‘Po Series’ with Oulm Flora, Aneimites, | &c., and Spiti Plant Beds Witteberg Series . Spiti Shales with } | | Phillipsia and / | | Syringothyris / / -cuspidata | | } / Muth Quartzites Devonian Marine Beacon S’stones and Limestones. Marine Series Quartzites of Granite Padaukpin of Lower with Spirifers | Harbour with Limestones. Amazon Valley Miidle Wetwin Shales Devonian Fish Remains 270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. has quite recently discovered a fragment of an Aneimites leaflet in a bed of shale actually in, but close to the base of, the Seaham Glacial series. Now, Aneimites is of true Carboniferous age, and may even belong to a Lower Carboniferous (Culm) horizon. At all events it cannot probably be newer than Upper Carboniferous, if as new. While the Gangamopteris horizon of the Lower Hunter links up the Lochinvar stage with that of Bacchus Marsh and Wynyard the occurrence of Aneimites in the base of the Glacial beds at Seaham in New South Wales suggests either :—(a) that in New South Wales the basal part of the beds is of true Carboniferous, possibly Middle or even Lower Carboniferous age, or (b) that Aneimites in Australia survived into later geological time than it did in Europe. The fact that on the whole it is distinctly above the Lepidodendron veltheimianum, L. volkmannianum, Ulodendron, and Syringothyris horizons, as well as much above the Lithostrotion and Syringopora limestones of the Lower division of Carboniferous rocks in the New England District of New South Wales, suggests that it is perhaps Post-Culm in age in New South Wales. The Glacial beds described by Professor Woolnough (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,’ vol. xiv. 1911, pp. 159-168) were certainly formed contem- poraneously with those of the Lochinvar-Seaham areas. In Western Australia the Lyons Conglomerate of the Gascoyne- Minilya-Wooramel areas and the Glacial beds of the Irwin River area are surely contemporaneous with one another. On the Wyndham River in the Gascoyne District thin boulder beds occur with marine Permo-Carboniferous fossils in the matrix and underlie limestones containing Aulosteges, Productus semireticulatus, Cleiothyris (Athyris) macleayana, &c. (the last in particular is a true Carboniferous ' type), as recorded by R. Etheridge, jun. Phillipsia grandis is also recorded (cf. F. Chapman, ‘ Australasian Fossils,’ p. 232) from the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of the Gascoyne district, but its exact horizon in regard to the Glacial beds is not defined. Again, at the Irwin River Glacial horizon, the Glacial beds (in that case 430 feet thick) underlie conformably limestones and ferruginous bluish shales containing Productus semireticulatus, Aulosteges, Spirifer musakhey- lensis, &c.,—marine forms which suggest a Glacial horizon consider- ably below that of the Greta Coal Measures (essentially Gangamopteris Coal Measures), The Western Australian Permo-Carboniferous Glacial horizon may, therefore, be provisionally correlated with that of Bacchus Marsh, Inman, Wynyard, and Lochinvar. In Queensland, B. Dunstan has recorded slates of Gympie (Lower Permo-Carboniferous age) at Windah, on the Mackenzie River, to the west of Rockhampton (‘Queensland Government Mining J ournal,’ April 15, 1901). For these boulder beds he suggests a Glacial origin. W. H. Rands has also recorded small boulders which he considered to be probably of Glacial origin in the Gympie beds at Gympie. (Quoted in ‘Geology and Paleontology of Queensland and New Guinea,’ by R. L. Jack and R. Etheridge, Jun., p. 77.) These boulders, mostly not more than one foot in diameter and enclosed in fine shale, may or may not have been transported by ice. The Windah beds are more suggestive of the action of floating ice and CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE, 27] may be tentatively referred to the Lochinvar Glacial horizon of New South Wales. R. L. Jack’s discovery of boulders, about two feet in diameter, near the base of the Middle Bowen formation (op. cit., pp. 150-151) does not make it clear whether these supposed ice- -rafted boulders occur below the Middle Bowen or are intercalated in them. They are stated to be associated with portions of trunks of coniferous trees, and, as Jack suggests, may have been dropped in heaps from the floating stumps of trees. Probably their horizon is equivalent to that of the Branxton beds of the Upper Marine series of New South Wales. If this correlation is correct the Bowen boulders are on a higher horizon than that of Bacchus Marsh, &c. Certainly at Branxton and West Maitland in New South Wales large boulders, in some cases from one to three tons in weight and occasionally well glaciated, are found on a horizon about six thousand feet above that of the Lochinvar Glacial horizon ; and in this thickness of 6,000 feet of strata, chiefly marine, are intercalated the Greta Coal Measures containing in the aggregate from 20 to 40 feet of coal. - Obviously, therefore, in the Lower Hunter area there are two distinct Glacial horizons, the Upper about a third of the way up above the base of the Upper Marine series and the Lower at the very base of the Lower Marine series. With the exception, however, of this case at Branxton and of the Irwin River, and of, perhaps, the Middle Bowen boulders, all the main Permo-Carboniferous horizons in Australia and Tasmania appear to lie at the very base of the Permo-Carboniferous system and can be safely correlated with one another. Question 5. In regard to the vast question raised in the Table of Correlation of the Permian, Permo-Carboniferous, and Carboni- ferous Rocks, of the Southern Hemisphere, the following notes are suggested :— Under table for New South Wales re ‘ Rhacopteris-bearing series,’ as Arber now refers Rhacopteris to Aneimites this series might be termed: Aneimites (Rhacopteris)-bearing series. I am inclined to the expression Pal@o-Permian, not as an exact synonym for Permo-Carboniferous, but as meaning something older than the Neo-Dyas (Zechstein) horizon, and not only as old as the Paleo-Dyas (Rothliegendes) but taking in some infra-Rothliegendes rocks which at the same time are newer than the Pennsylvanian of the Upper Carboniferous of North America. The term Permo-Carboniferous, on the other hand, while it takes in infra-Rothliegendes rocks should include some rocks which would be considered to be of Upper Carboniferous age. Provisionally it seems to me that we may adopt the following conclusions :— (1) That if we may interpret the phenomena of Paleozoic glacia- tions by those of Pleistocene, the glaciations of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres were so nearly, if not absolutely, synchronous, that they may be referred to the same series of rocks in either hemi- sphere. (2) If this be admitted, then the Squantum tillite (admitted by Professor Coleman, W. M. Davis, &c., to be undoubtedly a tillite) 272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915« and which is apparently statigraphically just above the Narragansett Bay Coalfields, is homotaxial with the Bacchus Marsh and Wynyard Glacial beds. (8) The Narragansett Bay Coalfields are of Pennsylvanian age, which extends to about the top of Carboniferous time. (4) Though unfortunately the stratigraphy of the Squantum tillite is yet somewhat in doubt, it is very improbable that it can belong to the Mississippian (Lower Carboniferous). The number (288 species) of Sharks, and their geographical distribution, as well as the geo- graphical range of the reef-forming coral isotherms show that a warm climate prevailed universally at that time. The sharks are still numer- ous (55 species) in Pennsylvanian (Middle and Upper Carboniferous time) and the great size and abundance of insects in the Pennsylvanian Coalfields confirms the evidence of the sharks as to the Upper Carboni- ferous climate in North America having been mild. (5) The minerals found in rocks of Zechstein age at Stassfurt such as lLangbeinite, Loweite, Vanthoffite, Kieserite and Sylvine also imply a warm or at least a mild climate for the Neo-Permian,* the evidence of reef-forming corals being also in accord. (6) Unless the Squantum tillite is of Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian age (an unlikely hypothesis), it must, as it is certainly not newer than Paleozoic, belong probably to a cold epoch intervening between the close of Pennsylvanian time and the commencement of Zechstein time. (7) According to Amalitzky, the whole of the Dwina system of Russia, which contains an abundance of Glossopteris and Gangamo- pteris, is wholly of Zechstein age, marine strata with Schizodus and Bakewellia underlying the whole system, so that even Gangamopteris in Russia ascends into the Upper Permian, but no higher as far as is known, for these Glossopteris-Gangamopteris beds are capped by marine strata containing the characteristic Zechstein fossils, Syncladia and Acanthocladia. Thus in Russia Gangamopteris, so much associated in the Southern Hemisphere with the Greta Coal Measures, is by no means associated with a European Carboniferous marine fauna, but on the other hand with an Upper Permian fauna. (Time, of course, must be allowed for the migration of the Glossopteris-Gangamopteris flora north-westwards from India to where the Dwina system is developed in the Muscovian area of Russia, but a whole period of geological time would scarcely be needed for such a migration.) (8) While unfortunately no development of the so-called Permo- Carboniferous Glacial horizon has been found beneath the Dwina system, it has been stated that in Westphalia the upper surface of the Westphalian Coal-measure rocks is striated and capped by a typical ground-moraine. Van Waterschoot Van der Gracht has republished G. Muller’s original figures of some of these striated pebbles, which he states cannot be confounded with pebbles showing pseudo-strie due — 1 Neues Jahr. 5 Feb. 1910, fiir Min. Geol. und Pal. XXIX. Beilage Band, Erstes Heft. E. Philippi, Ueber eine palaeoklimatische Probleme. Pee CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 273 to tectonic movements. At the same time the Government Geologist of the Netherlands admits that the scene of this discovery is in a much- faulted region, so that the evidence cannot be considered conclusive. (9) While the above considerations suggest a wholly post-Pennsyl- vanian and therefore Post-Carboniferous age for all our Australasian strata from the base of the Bacchus Marsh beds to the topmost of our Glossopteris flora beds, the survival in the West-Australian Permo- Carboniferous beds of Productus semireticulatus, Cleiothyris maclea- yana, &c., and the occurrence at Seaham in New South Wales of Aneimites in the basal portion of the Lochinvar Glacial series suggests an age as old at least as Upper Carboniferous, but in this regard the words of Diener are worth quoting.” On p. 144, Diener says: ‘ Bearing in mind the gradual passage from an Upper Carboniferous to a Permian fauna through the inter- mediate group of rocks, the question to be answered is which con- sideration is of the greater importance in defining the boundary between the two systems, the appearance of a new group of cephalopods which become of an unparalleled stratigraphical value in Mesozoic times, or the presence of a belated fauna composed of forms which are generally not well adapted for the characterisation of narrowly limited horizons ? ’ In my opinion, all the strata from the base of the Bacchus Marsh beds to the top of the Newcastle series of New South Wales will yet prove to be post-Pennsylvanian, and therefore post-Carboniferous in the European use of the term Carboniferous, and yet the lower part of the Southern Hemisphere Permo-Carboniferous strata may be infra- Rothliegendes. Nevertheless, the term Permo-Carboniferous had better be retained ~ for the present. Question 7. Discordance of junction between Carboniferous and _ Permo-Carboniferous in Southern Hemisphere, (A) Discordance. (1) At Ashford, near Inverell, in New South Wales, there is an immense unconformity (almost a right angle between the directions of bedding) between the Gangamopteris (Greta) Coal Measures and the Productus semireticulatus limestone series. (2) At Pokolbin, near Cessnock, in the Maitland district of New South Wales, there is a marked unconformity with strong overlap of the Lower Marine series on to the Aneimites series. (3) In the Nandewar Ranges, New South Wales, there is a strong unconformity between the Glossopteris Coal Measures of Newcastle (?) age and the Carboniferous strata. 2 Amer. Journ. of Sct. vol. xxii. Aug. 1906, ‘The Russian Carboniferous and Permian compared with those of India and America: a Review and Discussion,’ by Charles Schuchert. 1915. 7 274 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. — (B) Accordance. ; At Seaham, in the valley of the Williams River above Raymond Terrace in New South Wales, there appears to be a complete accord- ance between the Aneimites beds and the Lochinvar beds of the Lower Marine Permo-Carboniferous series. Mr. W. N. Benson records a similar accordance at Burindi in the New England district, New South Wales. Vy. Remarks on the Hon. Secretary's Communication by Mr. WALTER Howcun, F.G.S., University of Adelaide. 1. Where beds, in different localities, exhibit a close resemblance in their lithological and faunal features, suggesting contemporaneity, I think a common name is desirable. Local names, such as ‘ Bowen’ and ‘ Gympie,’ could be used simply in a geographical sense subordinate to some common term. (See under par. 3.) I should make an ex- ception, however, where, in the same geological system, beds of strongly contrasted features arising from differences of origin occur—as, for example, in a series laid down under conditions of land ice. 2. It seems desirable that a comprehensive name should be used to indicate homotaxial affinities. The homotaxy may be, to some extent, imperfect, as might be expected in the case of areas widely separated—but the advantage of having a term that conveys the idea of chronological position is very great, especially to students in other countries. I prefer Permo-Carboniferous to Carbo-Permian, in that it is already in common use. Whether ‘ Permo-Carboniferous’ or ‘ Per- mian’ should be adopted must be determined, I think, on the palzon- tological evidence. 3. Where a geological system includes very distinct, and even con- trasted, features in relation to the origin and modes of deposition of its several members, it seems the proper thing to use separate terms to distinguish the respective sections. It will be, of course, the type district that supplies the name in each case. Thus, in the Permo- Carboniferous (or Permian) system of Australia we have two entirely distinct sets of beds, a marine and lacustrine series, which has its greatest development in New South Wales; and, in addition, a thick series that has resulted from land glaciation in South Australia and Victoria. These are so distinctive that, I think, they should be separately recognised in the classification—for example, The Hunterian series. Permo-Carboniferous system. ‘ The Inman series. Some of the members of the British Association who visited the Permo-Carboniferous Glacial fields in South Australia suggested that some distinctive name for these beds should be adopted in Australia, as had been done in South Africa (Dwyka) and in India (Talchir). Professor W. M. Davis also wrote to me to the same effect after he Ne ae id ie CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 275 ‘had left Adelaide, and suggested that as it was in the Inman that the first evidences of glaciation were recognised in Australia, perhaps some native name appropriate to the locality could be selected for this purpose. With the assistance of Dr. Stirling I have paid some attention to the matter in examining the native vocabularies of the district. The tribe which occupied the valley of the Inman and adjacent coast was the Ramin’yere (accent on second syllable, and the following four letters in two syllables=ye-re). The name Inman is euphonious, and was used by Selwyn, and has the advantage of being on the map. Which of these two names should be selected for the purpose is a question that the Committee might consider. 4. The glacial beds of South Australia, now under consideration, can only be placed in chronological relationship with other glacial beds of Australia by inference. The grounds of such a reference are as follows :— (a) Stratigraphical evidence.—In all cases, and they are very numerous, where the base of the glacial beds come under observation they rest on a Cambrian floor ; and in several localities where the upper limits of these beds can be seen, they exhibit an eroded surface covered with the lowest members of the marine Tertiary. The stratigraphical limits are therefore post-Cambrian and pre-Tertiary. (b) Lithological evidence.—The general aspect of the beds, their degree of induration, as well as other stratigraphical features, show a close likeness to the Bacchus Marsh series. (c) Evidence by exclusion.—There is no known Glacial period that occurred in Australia that these beds can be reasonably correlated with other than the Permo-Carboniferous. It is scarcely likely that a glacia- tion on so large a scale as occurred in.the Inman Valley district should leave in Australia but one surviving evidence. Yet, although the circumstantial evidence is very strong, it cannot be regarded as demon- strated. With respect to the remaining questions, I have not had sufficient experience to warrant my expressing an opinion, hak Remarks on the Hon. Secretary’s Communication by Professor W. G. Wootnoucu, D.Sc., University of Western Australia. Questions 1, 2, 3. I prefer a general Australian name for the whole formation, with locally named subdivisions. For the general name, I think Hunterian is to be chosen, (i) because of priority of use, (ui) because of the extent and perfection of development of the beds in that district, (iii) because the relationships of the different members have been more completely studied and determined there than else- where. I oppose strenuously the use of any such general term as Permo-Carboniferous, Carbo-Permian, or Permian, because I am by no means conyinced that the beds in question are strictly homotaxial, ~ even, with beds of those names in different parts of the world. The T2 276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. VII. Modifications by On the Correlation-Table (II.) of Permian, Permo-Carboniferous, and | South Australia Horizon New South Wales Victoria Queensland West Australia and Northern Territory Schizoneura | Upper Bowen | ? Miningenew . Sandstones Series ? Marine Beds Permian of Bacchus | Marsh ? Newcastle Collie River Series with Coal Series Glossopteris | with Y Gangamopteris Dempsey In Irwin R. Series the Glacials Marine Beds and Coal | Measures form a continuous “Bast Maitland ascending series or Tomago In sandstones Series immediately overlying a coal seam are numer- ous glaciall Permo- Damen asian, : diangoll 7 Carboniferous oes ant boulders. Glacial The base of the Bawliars series is not i seen Greta Series |Gangamopteris| Lower Bowen Gascoyne | Victoria River with Sandstone of | and Dawson and Gangamopteris Bacchus Coal Series | Worramel and | Arnhem Land Marsh Minilya Series Bereenl Pa ith with Glossopteris ? Lower Marine Tillites, &c., Gympie Series Tillites, &., of Series with of Bacchus with Lyons Conglom.| Hallett’s Cove, Glacial Marsh Gangamopteris Inman Valley, Conglomerate | Derrinal, &c. at base &e. (See below ft) Rhacopteris- | Avon River Star Series Kimberley | Lepidodendron bearing Series Mansfield with Series with Beds of Carboniferous |Lepidodendrum and Grampian Sandstones ? Lepidodendron |Lepidodendron ?| MacArthur R. ? australe volkheimianum- _ With : bearing Lepidodendron ; Series australe Y .. | Iguana Creek Elvire R. Upper : pteeelyS 8 Beds? as Devonian ? eries ae Cardaites : Norg.—In Irwin River district of Western Australia there appears to be a lateritized land-surface ee + Sub-glacial Beds with a Gympie L% es CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 277 Professor W. G. Wootnoucu. _ Carboniferous Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere and of India by Professor E. W. Skeats. : Tasmania New Zealand South Africa South America Antarctica India ; Knocklofty | Wairoa Series |Lower Beaufort Schizodus Beacon Panchet | Series with (Park) ? with Series of Brazil| Sandstone ? Series ? Vertebraria | Kaihiki Series | Pareiasaurus with AN A indica ? (Park) ? and Mesosaurus Glossopteris Aorangi Series (Park) ? as * Maitai’ ar aa aT Series ?: i i i i (impart) ae ; ah Beacon i i Sandstone ? Damuda : Santa : Series Ecca and Catharina i Kimberley Series of Series Brazil with and i Mesosaurus Argentine : ; with Y i Orleans i : : : Glacial i : I Y Conglomerate : : G Tillites, &., at base i Talchir of Wynyard, i of i Series with | Eaglehawk Dwyka Series ? Glacial i | Conglomerate at base 4s Y Witteberg ih oA Abe | Series Bokkeveld | ; Series? cee cree ES AE i Tore gl Rae et ec a | ae a hg ARS OL aS Separating Coal Measures from Mesozoic. There is a slight, but decided unconformity. (W.G.W. | facies occur on the Macleay River. Pr 278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. adoption of any distinctive age-term, at the present time, is undesir- able, as future investigations may lead to more than one readjustment of our ideas, with the consequent inconvenience of alteration of nomen- clature. All these difficulties can be overcome by the agnostic attitude implied by the employment of a local name. I do not think all paleon- tologists have taken into account, to a sufficient extent, our great distance from other parts of the world, and the absolute certainty of mingling of different streams of biological migration, which here bring together apparently contradictory assemblages of organisms. 4. I am inclined to believe that the main epoch of glaciation was that represented by the Lochinvar Glacials of the Hunter River. 1 think that cold conditions continued throughout the period, with locally extended distribution from time to time, probably governed very largely by geographic accidents. On the Irwin River, for instance, we have distinct evidences of floating ice in the sandstones immediately above the coal seam, i.e., probably in the equivalents of the Greta series. The vast bulk and apparent continuity of the Glacial beds in South Australia and Victoria, I suggest, is due to the fact that these were essentially land areas at the period, and continued to be glaciated even at those times when local retreat of the ice cap prevented the wide distribution of glacial materials by floating ice. Local glaciers, which suffered from shrinkage to a less extent than others, may account for the apparent differences in age of the minor Glacial beds in different States. The recognition that on the Manning and Macleay Rivers of New South Wales the main glaciation is Lower Marine extends the geographical limits of the ice-action of that particular phase in Kastern Australia, while the beautiful sections of the Irwin River district in Western Australia are, at least, not unfavourable to the assumption of absolute contemporaneity. I am therefore inclined to answer yes to question 4. Question 5. With the slight modifications suggested on the accom- panying table (VII.), I agree with the correlation. 1am of opinion that for the reasons stated in my answer to 1, 2, 3-—namely, the mingling of migration streams—biological comparisons are less trustworthy than are the features of a great climatic revolution, in the correlation of beds in widely separated regions. Question 6. I am unable to answer definitely. Question 7. My paper, ‘ Preliminary Note on the Geology of the Kempsey District’ (‘Journ. and Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W.,’ vol. xiv. 1911, pp. 159-168), indicates the strong probability of conformable passage from Carboniferous to Permo-Carboniferous in the central coastal area of New South Wales. Question 8. I cannot express a very definite opinion. In August next I hope to examine the Irwin River area again with some care. I shall bear this question in mind then. CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 279 VIII. Discussion by the Hon. Secretary, Professor SKkEaTs, of the points raised by him, after reading the replies of Professor Davin, Professor Woo.nouau, and Mr. Howcuiy. 1. A single common name with local names used in a purely geo- graphical sense is advisable. For example, in Victoria, among rocks grouped as Permo-Carboniferous, are the Bacchus Marsh series, the Knowsley series, the Loddon Valley series, the Coleraine series, &e. Only at Bacchus Marsh is there definite paleontological and strati- graphical evidence of the age of the rocks, and it therefore is probably inadvisable to include them all under one local name and thereby tacitly assert contemporaneity between them, although all are probably Permo- Carboniferous. Professor David is, I think, incorrect in claiming that the Bowen series of Queensland includes more than the Bacchus Marsh series. The latter series appears to range continuously and conformably from the basal Glacial series through Gangamopteris-bearing sand- stones up to beds, probably of Triassic affinities, containing Schizoneura and Teniopteris Sweeti (McCoy). 2. The term Permo-Carboniferous is already firmly established, and I know no good reasons for changing it, especially as Carboniferous marine types in Western Australia and Carboniferous land plants (Aneimites or Rhacopteris) at Seaham, in New South Wales, are included in the series which otherwise, on the bulk of the paleonto- logical evidence, might apparently have been called Permian. 3. It seems inadvisable to apply a single local name to all the Australian occurrences of presumably Permo-Carboniferous rocks. Hunterian is a suitable name for the very complete marine and lacus- trine development in New South Wales. The Victorian sequence is, however, very distinct, being at Bacchus Marsh mainly fluvio-glacial, with several included tillites derived from Jand ice, while in other Victorian localities the tillite is alone represented or is predominant. In South Australia the Inman series, as it might suitably be called, consists largely of tillite. As there are two or more glacial episodes known in New South Wales and Victoria, and as in South Australia we have no definite stratigraphical and paleontological evidence of the age of the tillite, the giving of a single local name to the tillite (comparable with the term Dwyka, in South Africa) seems premature. 4. It cannot yet be proved that the prominent Glacial horizon at the base of the series is everywhere in Australia contemporaneous. In New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and Western Australia Glacial conditions recur higher in the series. In South Australia, as has been stated, no definite evidence of the age of the Glacial series has been obtained. Nevertheless, on the grounds put forward by Mr. Howchin, the prominent Glacial till is probably everywhere on approximately the same horizon. 5. It is believed that the correlation suggested (by E. W. Skeats) broadly expresses the facts of the relationships of the rocks considered 280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. in the Southern Hemisphere. Professor David’s more detailed corre- lation is, however, accepted apart from minor points. Carboniferous types of fossils have been recorded from part of the Maitai series of New Zealand. The Schizoneura beds of Bacchus Marsh apparently range up into the Trias, and conformably down into the Gangamopteris sandstones. It is questionable whether the term Permian in the original correlation and Neo- and Palewo-Permian in Professor David’s corre- lation are required. If we define the upper limit of the Permo-Carboni- ferous series as limited by the occurrence of Glossopteris, most of the rocks included in the Neo-Permian of Professor David’s correlation are Permo-Carboniferous. Professor Woolnough’s additions to the corre- lation are agreed to. Owing to wide geographical separation, as Pro- fessor Woolnough claims, differences in the assemblage of fossils in beds of the same age are to be expected, and the evidence of a climatic revolution, such as a Glacial episode, probably provides a better basis for correlation. We require to be certain, however, that over a wide area similar conditions as to height above sea-level and relations of land and sea obtained, and that no slow progressive shift in the areas of maximum glaciation occurred. We have not yet such complete evidence. Where, however, as in some areas, the facts of paleontology and of climatic revolution are associated together, the probabilities of the several occurrences in different areas being contemporaneous is greatly increased. 6. Confcrmable sequence in Victoria and South Africa. Other areas, relations are not known. 7. Conformable in south of South Africa, unconformable in north part of South Africa and in parts of New South Wales. The relations are unknown in Victoria, as the two series have not been observed in contact. 8. Permo-Carboniferous must be taken to include the whole of the Permian, and its upper limit in the Southern Hemisphere is the upper limit of the Glossopteris flora. At Bacchus Marsh the sandstones with Schizoneura and Teniopteris sweeti (McCoy) suggest a conformable passage up into the Trias. This appears also to hold in South Africa, in India, and in parts of New South Wales. In other parts of New South Wales a slight discordance occurs. IX. Summary of Views of the Australian Members of Committee. By the Hon. Secretary, Professor E. W. Sxxats. 1. There is general agreement that a single name for all the Aus- tralian Permo-Carboniferous rocks should be adopted while retaining local names already in use, in a geographical sense. 2 and 3. With respect to the questions as to whether the single name should be general or local, Professor David gives reasons for the retention of the term Permo-Carboniferous as the general name, while claiming that if a single local name be adopted the term Hunterian should be used on the grounds of priority and the complete development of the series in that part of New South Wales. Mr. Howchin prefers the term CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 28] Permo-Carboniferous to Carbo-Permian, but suggests that the term Hunterian series might be used for all the marine and lacustrine develop- ments in Australia, and that the term Inman series should be used for the products of land glaciation, while, if an aboriginal name for the latter series be thought desirable, the term Ramin’yere is appropriate. Professor Woolnough objects to the use of the term Permo-Carboni- ferous on the grounds of lack of proof of homotaxial relations with similar rocks in other parts of the world. He prefers a general Austra- lian name, and says Hunterian should be chosen for reasons stated above by Professor David. Professor Skeats maintains that Permo-Carboni- ferous is an appropriate general name already in wide use and expressing the admixture of certain Carboniferous types with a Permian fauna and flora. He does not agree to the use of a single Australian name, as the special developments vary in different areas—in New South Wales being maiuly marine and lacustrine, in Victoria mainly fluvio-glacial with several tillites, and in South Australia tillite, the product of land glaciation, is largely represented. He thinks it is premature to suggest a local Australian name (comparable with Dwyka in South Africa) to indicate the dominant tillite horizon, since in some States two or more horizons are known, and in South Australia the horizon is inferred and not proved. 4. In respect to the question whether the prominent glacial con- glomerate is always on the same geological horizon in Australia, there is general agreement that the probabilities are in favour of this view, while it can in most cases not be proved but only inferred. Professor David points out that the Glacial series of Wynyard in Tasmania, of Bacchus Marsh in Victoria, and of Lochinvar in New South Wales, can be correlated; that in Western Australia the Glacials contain Permo-Carboniferous fossils and underlie rocks containing some Car- boniferous types. Mr. Howchin maintains the inference that the South Australian Glacial series are of the same age as elsewhere in Australia, on lithological similarities, and because there is no other known Glacial horizon with which they can be correlated. Professor Woolnough believes that the lower main Glacial phase is probably everywhere on the same geological horizon, and that where differences of age are indicated in Glacial beds in higher parts of the series they may be the effects of local glaciations. Professor Skeats believes that the lower prominent Glacial series is probably everywhere contempo- raneous, though in several areas this cannot be proved, but may be inferred for the reasons suggested by Mr. Howchin. 5. In respect to the question as to whether the correlation of Permo- Carboniferous rocks in different parts of the world suggested in the correlation prepared by Professor Skeats is probably correct, Professor David agrees generally with the correlation, but amplifies it. He quotes evidence given by Amalitzky that in Russia the Gangamopteris flora is associated with marine Permian types, while the Squantum tillite of America appears to be, but has not yet been proved to be, post- Upper Carboniferous in age. Mr. Howchin has not discussed this or the later questions of correlation. Professor Woolnough agrees gener- 282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. ally with the correlation, suggests a few additions, and claims that correlation by evidence of a climatic revolution is probably safer than by evidence of fossils where widely separated areas are concerned. Professor Skeats accepts Professor David’s and Professor Woolnough’s additions and modifications to the correlation with certain minor reser- vations as to the probable horizon of the lower part of the Maitai series in New Zealand, and of the upper part of the Bacchus Marsh series as expressed in Professor David’s table. He agrees with Professor Woolnough’s remarks about correlation by evidence of a climatic revo- lution, provided that in the case of the formation of a Glacial series no marked inequalities of land level, or of the relations of land and sea, or evidence of slow migration of the areas of maximum glaciation, are involved. Where paleontological and lithological evidence of Glacial deposits are combined, the probabilities of the series in different areas being contemporaneous are much increased. 6. Are relations between Devonian and Carboniferous rocks in the Southern Hemisphere everywhere conformable? No replies have been received. Professor Skeats maintains the existence of a conformable sequence in Victoria and in South Africa, but does not know the rela- tions in other areas. 7. In respect to the question as to the areas of accordance and of discordance between Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous rocks, Professor David points to discordance at Ashford and Pokolbin in New South Wales, and at the Nandewar Ranges (between the Newcastle series and the Carboniferous); to accordance at Seaham and Burindi in New South Wales. Professor Woolnough refers to accordance in the central coastal areas of New South Wales, while Professor Skeats refers to accordance in the south of South Africa and discordance in the northern parts of South Africa and in parts of New South Wales. In Victoria the two series do not come in contact with each other so far as is known. 8. In respect to the question as to the upper limit of the Permo- Carboniferous and its separation, if any, from the Permian, Professor David and Professor Skeats agree that the upper limit is the upper limit of the Glossopteris flora,* while Professor Skeats claims that since rocks with the Glossopteris flora usually pass gradually into Mesozoic rocks, the Permo-Carboniferous series must be taken to include the whole of the Permian series. Note.—While M r, W. S. Dun has not directly contributed to this discussion, it 1s understood that he consulted with Professor David and agrees generally with his conclusions. ® This view is expressed with reference to the Southern Hemisphere only, since Boorerterte has been recorded from the Rhetic series in Tonkin, South China, and exico. ae a THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 283 The Question of Fatigue from the Economic Standpoint.— Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. H. MurrHeaD (Chairman), Miss B. L. Hurcuins (Secre- tary), Mr. P. SarGant FLoRENcE (Organising Secretary), Miss A. M. AnpgeRsoN, Professor BAINBRIDGE, Mr. E. CapBury, Professor §. J. CHAPMAN, Professor STANLEY KENT, Dr. Maituanp, Miss M. C. MarTuHeson, Mrs. MEREDITH, Dr. C. S. Myrrs, Mr. C. K. Oapen, Mr. J. W. RAMSBortom, and Dr. J. JENKINS Ross. Tue following Report has been drawn up by Mr. P. Sargant Florence. Besides this and in a measure incorporated in it are memoranda pre- sented to the Committee by Mr. J. W. Ramsbottom, Dr. Brown, Mr. A. Greenwood, Professor Bainbridge, and Miss B. L. Hutchins, and a subsidiary psychological investigation by Mr. C. K. Ogden. The latter includes a translation of Max Weber’s ‘ Zur Psychophysik der indus- triellen Arbeit’ (see Index D8) and a complete bibliography of the Psychology of Fatigue. ity CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE I, The Nature and Causes of Fatigue . ig cus lene, Bs 284 T.a. The Nature of the Wane ne ome tT ge iy 286 J.s. Conditions of Factory Hygiene . 292 TI. The Tests of Fatigue to be adopted. Output and Accident Time- Distribution . A : 295 IIT. How far do these Tests. vary with Fatigue ? 2a ia arate’ @~ cemata teen Shae ee 299 IV. How far do these Tests vary only with Fatigue? . . . . . 302 V. Characteristics of the Actual Time-Distribution . . . . . 305 General... “ 305 B. Particular. 1, For different conditions of factory hygiene “ 313 2, For different workers ayy ohne F 314 3, For different kinds of work . Bpor 315 4, For different factory organisatiors ane 320 VI. Statistical Tables and Diagrams . efter si deckd-) bed ei) da 323 Output Tables. Accident Tables. Diagrams of Accident. Table I. Days of the week IX. U.K. Reports I. Manufacture II. At Cadbury’s X. Iron and Steel II. Metals III. Tin-soldering XI. Massachusetts III. Textiles IV. Machine-sewing XII. Ohio IV. Building V. At Peek, Frean’s XIII. Mlinois V. Mining VI. Tin-labelling XIV. Belgium VI. Lumbering VII. Cotton XV. France, Germany, VIII. U.S.A. Reports Austria XVI. By Hours Worked XVIIL-XXIV. Single Fac- tories VII. Index of Documents and Books Quoted (Numbered and in Sections A, B, C, D). 984 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Section 1.—The Nature and Causes of Fatigue. If we define fatigue in general as a ‘ diminution of the capacity for work which follows excess of work or lack of rest, and which is recognised on the subjective side by a characteristic malaise,’ we at one and the same time put forward its most familiar symptom and its main external cause. This ‘ subjective sensation of malaise’ is found, according to Dr. McDougall’s address to the British Association in 1908, as a local sen- sation of fatigue particularly in the muscles, as a general feeling of tiredness or limpness, and also as the experience of sleepiness. But such sensations are no more than symptoms of the diminution of work- ing-capacity and not always even that. As Dr. Rivers has stated: ‘A distinction must be made between the sense of fatigue—the sensa- tions which supervene during the performance of work, and the lowered capacity for work executed. These conditions, which may be spoken of as subjective and objective fatigue respectively, do not always run parallel courses. In the performance of mental work especially, decided sensations of fatigue may be experienced when the objective record shows that increasing and not decreasing amounts of work are being done; and there may be complete absence of any sensations of fatigue when the objective record shows that the work is falling off in quantity, or quality, or in both.’ This insistence on the distinction between sub- jective and objective fatigue, however, does not imply that the one has no influence on the other. As Weber points out (see Index of Docu- ments D8), ‘ This psychically conditioned fatigue is by no means without its influence on working capacity . . . and in the long run it can undoubtedly cause an unfavourable general disposition which will ulti- mately find a physical expression.’ If excess of work or lack of rest figures in our definition as the antecedent to fatigue it must not make us overlook the physiological modus operandi of fatigue as distinguished from those quite external causes. During the last twenty years it has been found, in fact, that muscular fatigue is caused by the accumulation of the poisonous pro- ducts of activity and the exhaustion or diminished supply of the sub- stances necessary for the continuance of activity, ‘and,’ wrote Pro- fessor Lee in 1910, ‘there is every reason to believe that the main principles of muscular fatigue are demonstrable in the other tissues and organs of the body—that in them also fatigue is characterised, physi- cally, by a diminution of working power and, chemically, by both the destruction of energy-yielding substances and the appearance of toxic metabolic products.’ But, as Dr. Rivers has pointed out, ‘ however satisfactory these (physiological) definitions may be ideally, their appli- cation is wholly impracticable in the present state of our knowledge, even in the present case of the fatigue of isolated muscle and still more so in the case of general bodily fatigue or of mental fatigue.’ In studying fatigue from the economic standpoint it is of course the objective diminution of working capacity and the external causes found in industry that will be the prime consideration. Subjective fatigue will be of importance just so far as it influences objective fatigue. Physiological or ‘ internal’ phenomena will gain importance as inter- THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 285 mediate stages between external economic causes and external economic effects. Viewing the subject, then, objectively and externally, work and rest may be regarded as two forces affecting the organism oppo- sitely, and alternately producing by excess of one or other fatigue and recovery. If work or lack of rest should so far gain a permanent supremacy as to preclude all chance of recovery, then we may speak of chronic or accumulated fatigue, but in general we shall regard simple * fatigue ’ as the result of the work that preceded it and dating since the last rest, daily, weekly, or yearly. It is this ‘duration of work’ previous to any point of time that will in our conclusion be the main factor correlated to the degree of fatigue at that given time. As a preliminary to that, however, we must observe that there are many other factors influencing the degree to which fatigue may occur in any particular case. A strong individual on easy work and in pleasant surroundings may after five hours’ work be much less fatigued than is a weakling after three hours on hard work and in noxious surroundings. ‘From the economic standpoint and with the definition of fatigue we have adopted, however, these other factors will appear rather as ‘ predisposing conditions’ enabling excess of work or lack of rest to take effect to different degrees than as ‘ active’ determining causes. Attempts to enumerate all the conditions that are thus likely to influence fatigue have been made by Max Weber, Emil Roth, and other psysio- logists, and below we have classified their combined inventories, though it is only the particular influences that seemed both determinant and determinable that have been separately studied in Section V (B). 1. The Nature of the Work. See Section I.a. 2. The Surroundings or Environment of the Work. (a) Conditions of Factory Hygiene. See Section I.B. nee Ventilation. Light (Suitability and Cheerfulness). Room. Noise (Amount and Regularity). Smell. (b) Factory Organisation. A. The ‘ Incentive’ to Speed or Quality. 1. Type of Payment: By a Profit (a ‘ Surplus ’). By a Fixed Wage: Rate or Bonus. Time Basis. Piece Basis. 9. Honour, Sporting Instincts, &c. 3. Interest in the Work itself. 286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. B. Grouping and Subdivision of Labour. (c) Economic Organisation. (Weber—Index D8.) Cycles of Prosperity. dix: Relationship to Work (Cash nexus, Hobby, &c.). 3. The Nature of the Worker. Age. Sex. Skill and Training. Opinions (Weber). 4. The Habits of the Worker. . Sleep: length and times. Nutrition: nature and times. Drinking of Alcohol. . Clothing (e.g., its tightness—Roth Index Cl). . Sexual Relations (Weber). Recreation—especially Sundays. . By-occupations. . Getting to and from home. P The chain of causation can of course be followed further back. Light and temperature are determined by the time of day or night, temperature and humidity by the season, the climate, and the weather during which the work is proceeding; the opinions, skill and habits of the worker by his social environment, the religion, militarism, trade- unionism around him and the education, especially technical, through which he has passed. But these meteorological and social conditions form the background and need not be more than suggested. Section I.a. The Nature of the Work. The factor of ‘nature of work’ would in any case require detailed study where fatigue is being viewed from the economic standpoint ; but such a study is particularly necessary owing to the confusion of thought and the inconvenience of the terms used of the various charac- teristics of work affecting the worker. To give only one instance: ‘monotonous’ is sometimes applied to some objective quality in the work itself, sometimes to the feeling evoked in the worker. Indeed, we shall have to keep separated in our minds three distinct sets of notions: the state and feelings of the worker; certain definite charac- teristics of the work that alone or together evoke such affections; and the sort of occupations in which such characteristics are usually found. Now the work of most people can be analysed more or less into a series of separate but similar operations, each resulting in some ‘output’ or service; and each separate operation may in turn be more or less analysed, as Efficiency Engineers have done in ‘ Motion Studies,’ into the different actions (movements and postures, muscular or ner- vous) that it involves. With this conception in mind we shall be able to estimate more exactly the important ‘ evocative’ characteristics of different sorts of occupations, by putting to each the following questions : (2) What does the operation consist in? what are the separate actions involved ? IO Or B® co DO THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 287 (b) How do the actions fit together into the whole operation, i.e., how ‘complex ’ is the operation ? (c) How far are the acts similar in each recurrence of the whole operation, i.e., how uniform is the occupation ? (d) How frequently does each operation recur? (The frequency is measurable by the average output per hour or per day.) (e) How periodic or regular is the frequency of recurrence of each operation? (The regularity is measurable by the mean devia- tion from the average output per hour or day.) According to the characteristics elicited by the above questionnaire may be classified the different occupations or crafts involved in in- dustry and some estimate formed of what affections are evoked in the workman by each of such classes of crafts. We shall of course concentrate particularly on such as may be presumed to involve or lead to fatigue. (a) The actions (movements and postures, mental states, &c.) involved in different processes affect the psycho-physique either mus- cularly or nervously. ‘ Finicky ’ work like tying or wrapping up packets or assembling small parts tires the muscles of the hand; packing bulky goods into cases or lifting and carrying heavy weights and standing up to work generally tire the central muscles, and illustrations of such muscular oyerstrain were given by Miss Anderson, the principal Lady Inspector of Factories before the Departmental Committee on Physical Deteriora- tion, 1904, ‘ where enormously heavy weights were carried by young persons and by women in food-preserving works, bleach and dye works, glass, earthenware and china works, and various metal trades.’ These examples of muscular work become a ‘strain’ generally because the tax they impose on the body is concentrated or ‘ focussed ’ on one particular part; a part whose structure was evolved only to meet the calls of every-day life. This characteristic of ‘ concentrative- ness’ is also obviously involved in all activities calling upon the central nervous system. Now, such activities of the central nervous system as attending, controlling the muscles, making judgments, remembering and _per- ceiving (sensing and reacting) are activities often exercised in modern industry. Soldering, mending, and most skilled trades, for instance, exercise a judgment of ‘ quality ’ in the sense of a comparison with a standard kept in memory. Pasting on labels or cutting articles accur- ately to shape involves not merely ‘ sensitivity’ of the eyes, but the “judgment of distance’ and a control over muscles, and inserting articles in revolving slots like the paper in a rotary litho machine involves a ‘judgment of time.’ There is also perhaps a ‘ sense or judgment of amounts’ which is involved where, as in the Stogey In- dustry (Butler, ‘ Women and the Trades,’ page 85), ‘ emphasis is placed on close cutting,’ and to avoid wasting an unnecessary amount of leaf the rate of pay is more the more cigars are got out of the raw material. Piecing up the threads of cotton in spinning, and all machine-minding, whether it be the work of the machine or the 288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. machine itself that requires attendance, involve the activity of attention for a ‘cue’ difficult to perceive, and a quick reaction to the cue when it occurs. Certain portions of a whole operation often do not consist in action so much as in passive rests, ‘ waiting for the material to set’ perhaps. This ‘ non-persistence ’ is a characteristic here conditioned by the very nature of the work, and in so far unavoidable even by the most * efficient ’ of Efficiency Engineers. For different departments of the iron and steel making process figures were collected in the U.S. Report of the Conditions of Employment in the Iron and Steel Industry (Senate Doc. 110, 62nd Congress, Ist Session, vol. iii., page 345) to show ‘ the percentage of active work to idle; the actual time being measured by stop-watch to the one-tenth of a minute for an average of four or five days.’ It is explained that ‘ active’ means essentially ‘that the employee was engaged during the time shown in actually performing some particular function and not simply waiting for the completion of some process or for his fellow-worker to finish some particular job. Such time as this if it lasted more than a minute or two would be included under the head of idle.’ Since we give in full the daily distribution of Iron and Steel Accidents (Table X.) and of the output of Bessemer Converters (Table VIII.) we will reproduce here as an example this table of active time and its percentage of the whole time, which must to a large extent have conditioned the two ‘ daily distributions,’ cautioning the reader to the effect that these are American conditions differing very much from English. Americans generally work a longer day, but use more machinery. (See notes at foot of Tables.) Blast Furnace. REMARKS: Hours in Worker Active Time Kind of Work % Factory h.m. % Hard Mod. Light 12 Furnace Keeper wie es 229) O19) Sidra’ od ico Ta, 12) (First Helper; ©... -* 1). 99B6 83) S74 ET WG ape 12 Second Helper. . . . 915 77 669 66 265/(, 7° 12. Cinder Snappers .«.00<% 699.17 a7) 6401479 38c) woe 12 LorryMan. . . . . 739 64) Manipulating 12 Hoist Man. . . . . 7 28 62 | Controllers. 12 Hot BlastMan. . . . 805 67 382 25 47-2 { Spnalled Open Hearth. % 43 Quick. Many levers. 12 Charging Machine Operator . 5 06 12) Furst -Helperiites; ae i) causcrad ell, 127 12 Second Helper. . . . 5381 46 12 Third Helper - . 426° 37 12 Ladle Craneman 6 12 652 Ladle takes iron to hearth, 12 Steel Pourers COs hoe, 930 12 Brakeman Engineer. . . 558 50 12 Stripper Craneman . . . 425 37 Note from Report in 1902 to British I.T. Ass. Com. :—There is no pig-lifting, no hand-shovelling of stock. No hauling of charging barrows. All the tedious clay work around the hearth and incessant changing of tuyéres is done away with. EE THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 289 Rolling Mills. 4 Ist Plant 2nd Plant ous peg Nature of Work Time Active and % of whole time y h. m x h. m % 12 Pit Craneman RE arc ae 07 59 8 31 71 12 Bottom Makers . . . . 317 27 7 28 62 12 Rollers ge" a TE 10:03 84 8 36 72 12 Roughers 2 ADH ETO 60 7 20 61 12 Shearman . . . . . 9 54 83 7 31 63 12 ConveyorMen . . . . 954 83 7 08 59 12 Cranemen . . . . . 9 54 83 7 20 61 12 Scale Wheelers . . . . 1018 87 6 48* 68 12 Chargers. . YOM TIA TSHOO 42 10 27 87 12 Slab Car Operator mmc 510,30 88 8 34 71 12 Greasers. sm oistow sr L0%30 88 10 40 89 12 TableMen . . . . . 1015 85 10 45 90 12 Screwdown . . . . . 1030 88 11 16 94 12 Rotary Shearmen. . - 1050 90 10 55 91 * 10-hour day. Bessemer Converter. : Ist Plant 2nd Plant Hours in Nature of Work Time Active and % of whole time Factory eet ° 5 ae x 12 MEXORMEN ee es LOSE 87 7 34 63 12 First Regulator . . . . 11 04 93 9 37 80 12. VesselScraper . . . . 618 53 6 24 53 8 Vessel Men... : ao WH ef Seis 3145 4 37 38 12 Bottom Makers . ... . 9 30 79 917 77 8 Steel Pourers. . a ets 2 OOo 82 6 54 58 12 Stripper Men eater: sieedtce OC OU 67 7 45 65 12 Ladle-liners . . . . . 910+ 76 8 30 71 10 Stopper Makers . . . . 800 80 8 50 74 12 N.G. Engineers . ., . . 9 20 78 6 24 53 (b) On the results of combining several movements in one operation much light is thrown by the articles of Max Weber, translated for this Committee by Mr. C. K. Ogden, of Magdalene College, Cambridge (Index D8). ‘ Complex operations,’ like the stamping of tin sheets into boxes or the filling of such boxes by a machine whose movements are regulated at the will of the operative, are of extreme frequency in women’s industries to-day and involve in all cases: (1) the feeding of the machine or generally the placing of the materials in position; (2) the moving of a handle or pedal; (3) the taking out of the finished article, all of which movements—often engaging different limbs—have to be timed in succession. It should also be noted that a large proportion of the work in con- nexion with iron and steel making involves complexity of action. Thus all the ‘ Cranemen,’ ‘ Hoistmen,’ ‘ Operators,’ cited on the pre- ceding tables, have as their work the pulling of various foot-levers and handles which are to move the cranes, hoists, and charging machines exactly at the right moment and exactly to the right place; and, indeed, where, as is now particularly the case, machinery is being introduced extensively to transport the material about the factory—generally hung from cars on overhead runners—there the work of the ‘ carmen’ will much increase the proportion of complex work performed in industry as a whole. The importance of this question is shown by Weber, who quotes 1915. U 290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, Vogt as holding that ‘ operations involving will, memory, and associa- tion have a marked disturbing influence when they enter into combi- nation with other operations,’ and also that ‘ operations which are par- ticularly closely related as regards the psycho-physical parts that they employ disturb one another in a particularly high degree ’; further that, though ‘after a certain period of habituation several combined pro- cesses can be made without any disturbing influence whatever,’ there will naturally be a corresponding increase in fatigue. (c) In the industrial world to-day there is the widest variation in the uniformity of any one worker’s occupation—i.e., in the similarity of the different actions in each recurrence of the whole operation. Machine-tending, for instance, involves constant nervous attention perhaps, but the muscular action varies continually according to what it is that goes wrong with the machine. In agriculture also a man’s occupation is not uniform, nor yet in lumbering and transport—for soil and roads, plants, animals, and goods are always varying. Similarly in all organising and policing work the people dealt with vary. In building, ‘ navvying,’ mining and stevedoring, repairing and washing, also, work is not altogether uniform, for there is a continual adaptation to different situations. In all assembling or fitting together by hand, too, there are generally certain slight dissimilarities in the parts which must alter the workers’ actions in each recurrence of the operation. Soldering tins by hand is a further case of non-uniformity, due here to the necessity of reaching a certain standard even at the expense of added vigilance and added movements, and this applies all the stronger to the work of pure inspection. But wherever the conditions of place are the same and the material used homogeneous, as in working with a machine on machine products, there will be found the quality of uniformity in the occupation. (d) In studying here the frequency of the recurrence of any ‘ unit’ operation we must concentrate on the frequency due to the simplicity of the work or to the (most economical) speed of the machine rather than any addition to such frequency induced by special systems of pay- ment. These would be studied under Incentive (Factory Organisation). It has been one of the results, if not the aim, of the industrial Divi- sion of Labour to simplify or ‘ specialise’ the task of every individual so that he may become an adept by its frequent repetition. While in the old days the housewife boiled her jam but once a year, there are now factory hands that boil and boil day after day ; while in work on a machine that must repeat its motions every minute or so, such as a metal-stamping press, the frequency can be reckoned in ‘ output per hour.’ There are still processes, however, that have remained of small ‘frequency.’ The iron blast-furnaces are only tapped every four hours according to Mr. Farrell (Pres. of the U.S. Steel Corporation), and there is only one furnace to be tapped by each gang. In the open- hearth and Bessemer steel-making processes a gang goes from one hearth or converter to another, but the actual operation occupies con- siderable time in each case. Other infrequently recurring processes are found in tanning and in most ‘ finishing’ trades where much time must be spent in bringing the article up to the desired pitch of perfection. THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 29] (e) The intervals of recurrence of the whole operation is very irregular in the piecing up of the spinner and all machine-tending; but it is particularly irregular in dealing with people, as the tram- conductor, policeman, and telephone operator have to do. For the telephone operator, for instance, there is a ‘curve of work’ which depends mainly on the demands of the business and social world, and is of a shape well known to all telephone-company managers. In New York City, for instance, demand is at its maximum between 10 and 12 in the morning, and has a lesser maximum in the middle of the afternoon. Recurrence is fairly regular in iron and steel smelting and very regular in all machine-feeding operations, such as stamping and pressing where the machine is continually running independent of the operator’s will. The whole question of the affections evoked by different kinds of work, apart from the particular actions involved, may be summed up in tabular form in three columns, the first showing the relevant conditions of material, machinery, and organisation, the second the evocative characteristics of the work produced by such conditions, namely : Great or little Complexity (C & c), Great or little Uniformity (U & u), Great or little Frequency (F & f), Great or little Regularity (R & r), and the third, the affections (states or feelings) of the worker evoked by these characteristics, that may be supposed to lead ultimately to general fatigue. Relevant Material Condition qualities often Worlers’ Affections that result produced Material : Aa Natural sect iho ees aon ur B. Machine-made . . . . UR Lack of Interest. COS EUUINAY S fbe ot yikes inet’, flerect pels ur Worry (Interest). Machine : Machine acting at will of worker . UFC Worry. Monotony (Bore- Machine continually running : dom). (a) Insertion of material or ‘feeding’ by the worker. . FR _ | ‘Drivenness.’ (6) Attendance by worker only { a) yee eS Industrial Organisation : Great Specialisation er rline 045 UF Monotony. Efficient ‘ Routing ’ Sitihaia Ms R ‘ Drivenness.’ Monotony in the worker would thus seem to be caused by a com- bination of great uniformity and great frequency of recurrence in the work; Worry by complexity of actions in combination with great frequency and little regularity of recurrence; Care (or strain of atten- tion) by a combination of great frequency and little uniformity; the helpless feeling of being driven by a combination of great frequency and great regularity of recurrence; and Lack of Interest by that com- bination of great uniformity and great regularity usually coupled with U2 292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. a complete absence, due to factory or economic organisation, of intelli- gibility or purposiveness in the work. These unpleasant and ultimately fatiguing affections vary for different people, and some can be overcome by certain adaptations. Thus the sense of being driven can be overcome if the worker can fall into the rhythm of the machine (cf. Biicher, ‘ Arbeit und Rhythmus,’ and Max Weber’s ‘ Psychophysik’ (Index D8). Again, seemingly uniform and frequently recurring work is pleasant to some workers, though it would cause monotonous feelings to others, according to Miinsterberg (‘ Fatigue and Efficiency,’ pp. 190 ff.), and nearly all indi- viduals can to a certain extent automatise uniform and frequently recurring action, and by thus enabling themselves to keep their minds off their work can prevent monotonous feelings. This at any rate is the case with such proficient knitters as the Hausfrau, who can work and read simultaneously, and girls in the factory who can work and talk. How far so-called monotonous work will really evoke feelings of monotony—t.e., of ‘ boredom ’—would seem to depend very largely on individual tastes and individual powers, and at the same time it may be observed that uniformity prevents all anxiety, responsibility, or worry on the part of the worker, since there are never any new decisions to make or old decisions to regret. The question whether uniformity tends, therefore, to ‘ build character ’ or the reverse is, unfortunately, outside our scope. Section I.3.—Ventilation, Humidity and Temperature, and other ‘ Conditions of Factory Hygiene.’ The latest research has resolved different ‘ degrees of Ventilation’ as simply different degrees of Heat and Moisture combined. To quote Professor Lee :1 “Much experimentation has shown that the evil results of confine- ment in improperly ventilated rooms are caused not by the presence of toxic products of respiration, but by the heat and the humidity combined. Paul found that with human beings enclosed in a hot and humid experimental chamber, the unpleasant symptoms began to appear within a few minutes, and before there was time for the accumulation of supposed poisonous gases. When the air of the chamber was put into motion the temperature of the skin fell, the unpleasant symptoms disappeared very quickly, and the subject felt as if fresh air had been supplied. When the subject had been confined for a considerable time, and the symptoms had become well developed, the breathing of pure air through a tube passing from the subject’s face through the wall of the chamber to the outside brought no relief. When, on the other hand, an outsider with his body surrounded by fresh air breathed from a tube the vitiated air of the chamber, no unpleasant symptoms appeared. Such facts make it clear that the symptoms are due to the action of the vitiated air, not on the lungs but in the skin.’ We may therefore concentrate our attention on the effect of tem- perature and humidity, Prof. Lee thus summarises the effect of 1 Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 6, 1914, p, 245, THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 293 damp and warm conditions in a disinclination or actual inability to perform active muscular work :? ‘ Beginning as a mere inertness, accompanied by sleepiness, which may readily be resisted for a time, it may pass.into a genuine condition of fatigue, and ultimately into the exhaustion of heat-stroke. Haldane says of the Cornish miners of tin and copper: ‘‘ They do not.... seem to be able to do more than a limited amount of work. The leisureliness of all work in the mine is in very striking contrast to what may be observed in any ordinary English colliery of about the same depth.’’ Pembrey, after studying the effects of warm moist temperatures upon himself, medical students, and soldiers, concludes: **The results show definitely that a man is much less efficient in a warm moist atmosphere. ... A man can do far more work with less fatigue at a low wet-bulb temperature than at a high one.”’ Pembrey and Collis, in speaking of the physiological effects of the warm moist atmosphere of cotton weaving, say: ‘‘ The natural ten- dency is for the nervous system to become less active, and for muscular work to be diminished. In a weaving-shed, however, the machine sets the pace, and the worker must neglect the dictates of his sensations, which are the natural guardians of his health and well- being... . It is not surprising, therefore, that at the end of a day’s work, many of the weavers complain that they have no energy left, have no great desire for food, and need only drink and rest.’’ Boycott says of mining in hot moist air: ‘‘ My observations on miners. . . lead me to conclude that their power of doing work under these cir- cumstances is quite simall.’’ Mr. Cadman, Professor of Mining in Birmingham University and late H.M. Inspector of Mines, gives more detailed observations to the effect that from about 25° C. (779 F.) wet-bulb reading, exertion begins to be accompanied by depression, and disinclination to work increases rapidly with an increasing wet-bulb temperature. At 27°8° C. (82° F.) ‘‘if clothes be removed and maxi- mum body surface exposed, work can be done providing current of air is available.’’ At 29°49 C. (85° F.) ‘‘ only light work is possible ’’; and ati 35° C. (95° F.) ‘‘ work becomes impossible.’’ Stapff observed in the construction of the St. Gothard tunnel that the labourers, working in an atmosphere often completely saturated with moisture, and with a temperature rising at times beyond 30° C. (86° F.) as measured by the dry-bulb thermometer, experienced not only great discomfort, but in- difference, enervation, weariness, and exhaustion.’ As regards different temperatures separately from humidity, a chance of ncting their result on working capacity is given by changes of season and weather. In ‘ Harper’s Monthly’ for January 1915, under the heading ‘ Work and Weather,’ Prof. Huntingdon traces the variations in manual and mental work as the year proceeds. Combining various workers’ piece-earnings for the same weeks in the four years 1911-1914 in two Connecticut factories (one in 1911, the other in 1912-1914), Prof. Huntingdon found that the ‘lowest wages are earned during January, then there is a rather steady increase 2 American Journal of Public Health, vol. ii. p. 866 ff. 294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. —1915. through February, March, April, May, and the first half of June. A little after the middle of June the amount of work begins to fall off and continues to do so for the next two or three weeks. Then, through July and August, the curve remains at a lower level than in June, but much higher than during the winter, a somewhat surprising fact. About the end of August people once more begin to work fast, and they go on at an increasing rate until the middle of November. Then the rate begins to fall, but recovers somewhat in December, and finally at the end of that month drops off very rapidly.’ Testing the course of mental work by the marks awarded students at West Point and Annapolis U.S. Military and Naval Academies, ‘approximately the same results’ were found. Prof. Huntingdon therefore suggests that ‘ the only satisfactory ex- planation of this seems to be that people’s energy varies 10 or 15 per cent. from season to season,’ and accordingly he correlates his yearly output curve with the variations in light, open-air life, and temperature that different seasons involve. But temperature he considers has far the greatest influence: ‘It certainly looks as if there were a close relationship between temperature and work, but curiously enough the relationship is in part the reverse of what most people would expect. Low temperature seems much more harmful, and high temperature less harmful than is com- monly supposed.’ Prof. Huntingdon then compares the output curve in the summer of each single year with the weekly mean temperature then prevailing, and finds that in general the summers of southern New England are less debilitating than the winters. It requires extreme summers, such as are experienced only once or twice in a century, to produce effects as harmful as those of an ordinary winter. Then, ‘ determining how fast people work on days having various temperatures, no matter in what month they come,’ Prof. Huntingdon finds that ‘ at very low tempera- tures both mental and physical work are depressed. On days with higher temperatures activity of both kinds increases, the increase being slight at first. Mental work reaches its highest point at a temperature of 48° I’., while physical work reaches a maximum at 59° F. for men and 60° F. for girls. Turning back to his yearly output curve, Prof. Huntingdon sums up that during the part of the year when the temperature passes beyond 45 and 70 degrees ‘ people’s work falls off sharply, and when the temperature approaches these limits work increases.’ One other feature of the curve is noted, however: ‘ between the limits (45° and 70° F.) (work) does not vary as one would expect, but tends to keep on rising all the time,’ and suggesting that this is because the temperature keeps changing, and change is a stimulus. Prof. Huntingdon compares the work done in single days with the degree of temperature by which they differed from the preceding day; he finds . that when the temperature drops, provided the drop is not excessive, ‘human activity is decidedly stimulated.’ A further chance of comparing the result on working capacity of THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 295 different temperatures is afforded by the alternations of day and night, though in this case many other factory conditions are introduced as factors, such as the difference of sun and artificial light and differences in noise and room. There may also be important differences of habits and skill between night and day workers. From the economic stand- point, however, it is well worth while recording some researches on the comparative effect of day and night—firstly on accidents, then on output. Referring to the work of Dr. Walter Abelsdorf’s ‘ Die Unfallhau- figkeit in den gewerblichen Betrieben wihrend der Nachtschicht ’ (Leipzig, Vogel, 1910) the Chief Factory Inspector’s Report for 1910 says: ‘It has been found in Germany that the industrial accident rate (calculated in proportion to the ascertained numbers at work) is less by night than by day. In explanation of this it is suggested that at night there are relatively fewer untrained workers, less crowding and interruption, less transport of material, and more leisurely and careful work, with correspondingly reduced output. Exceptions were met with, however: thus, there was a higher accident rate by night than by day in the machine-making industry in the Diisseldorf and Potsdam districts, and in chemical works in the former district, but not in the latter.’ These findings are not supported, however, by the experience of a large American iron- and steel-making plant published and exhibited at the San Francisco Exhibition, 1915, by the U.S. Department of Labour. In each department the accident-frequency rate was as follows : Department Accident Rate Day Night Blast Furnace . , : 3 5 . 204 229 Steel Works . : 5 ‘ oa cls 224 Rolling Mills. 2 : ; 5 . 150 160 Mechanical 3 ‘ P - 76 129 389 Yards. 5 , : é . 139 399 Other Departments . é Z ; . 69 227 For Total Plant . 142 214 It is important to bear in mind, however, as will be pointed out in Section IV., that bad lighting may have a direct effect in causing accidents without affecting working capacity ; so that.the conflict in the conclusions of students may well be attributable to differences in the standard of lighting in the factories where they investigated. As regards the output of night and day compared, the Curtis Pub- lishing Co., of Philadelphia, very kindly presented records of the hours spent by a single worker on pressing ten thousand ‘ good impressions of the Saturday Evening Post. The average hours thus spent by fifty- three day men was 5°04 per man; by forty-six night men 4°78 per man. According to this, therefore, working capacity would seem slightly higher at night than during the day. Section II.—The Tests of Fatigue. To measure the results of fatigue accurately the ‘ test ’ chosen should (1) vary as the fatigue varies (e.g., be a result of fatigue), and (2) vary with the fatigue only (e.g., not be a result of other factors). 296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, . The tests here used particularly are: (1) The output of work, (2) the accidents occurring in the course of work. In addition to the main tests of output of work and accidents, scientific use has been made of some other tests, which fall into three groups: (1) Tests allied to the output of work test, such as the output of elec- trical or other power during working time, and the labour costs of the factory. (2) Tests allied to the accident test, such as the proportion of mistakes or spoilt goods in the product. (3) Medical tests of the after-effects of work, such as the prevalence of sickness and particularly nervous disorders attributable to overwork, and the comparison of blood-pressure and breathing (cp. Roth) and of cutaneous discrimination (ep. Griesbach) before and after spells of work. This enumeration almost completes the non-laboratory tests of fatigue capable of statistical treatment. They are non-laboratorial in the sense that they are records (tests 1 and 2) of facts or of the results of facts (test 3) occurring in ordinary life. In the laboratory, on the other hand, either the fatigue itself is artificially produced or the tests specially invented, and thus certain circumstances of ordinary life are removed and the factors to be studied isolated; but though the ‘ analysis ’ or explanation of results may thus be facilitated, yet different factors besides fatigue are introduced such as a high average tension and suggestibility in the ‘ subject,’ and these may make the conclusions inapplicable to industry. All the non-laboratorial tests enumerated are capable of statistical treatment in that their discoveries can be stated numerically as certain quantities of one statistical unit. On the other hand, opinions of managers and foremen or inspectors or doctors in answer to ‘ question- naires ’ as asked by Hisner, Bloch, Levenstein, and others, though they may suggest what statistics to collect, can hardly themselves be treated statistically. The collection of these non-laboratorial statistics must always wait on the chance occurrence of events that permit comparisons to be made. Of such ‘ chances ’ there are for industrial output and accident statistics and some of the ‘ medical tests ’ two types. One chance of finding statistically the influence of the factor of ‘ previous duration of work’ on ‘ output’ (or use of power) on acci- dents (or proportion of mistakes) and on the workers’ health, is by dividing the working day into equal parts—the hour is generally the most convenient part—and by recording the output and the accidents occurring in each part, or the state of health after each part. Fatigue, it is presumed, will show itself, if anywhere, in the latter part of each working period (spell, day, or week); a comparison of the output, accidents and health in and after the later with those in and after the earlier parts will then show the influence of such fatigue as occurs in the course of the working periods. Tt is this test of the ‘ distribution ’ over the working period of output and ‘ accidents ’ that we are here mainly using and discussing. This dis- THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 297 tribution may be represented either by tables giving actual numbers for each hour or part-period, or by diagrams measuring the time along their base and the amount of output or accidents vertically therefrom. The special advantage of diagrams is that sets of figures may be compared that have differently delimited hours, by measuring the amounts at slightly different points on the base. To enable the distribution of output over the working-day to be treated statistically a unit of output must be found, in quantities of which the statistics may deal. This unit must (1) be similar in quality throughout the day, (2) be small enough to enable at least two such units to be produced during the day. In short the output must be ‘repetition’ work. Processes thus suitable for statistical record are found especially where a machine is used adapted to only one kind of work and possibly provided with an automatic register of the amount of work done. Where output does not lend itself to statistical compilation owing to heterogeneity (absence of Condition 1), the piece wages earned on the output might be recorded as affording a common denominator for the different kinds of output. The accuracy of this denominator would, as Weber points out, depend on how closely the piece rate for each kind of output was estimated exactly proportionately to the comparative effort required of the worker in each case (including under effort con- centration rapidity and attention on the part of the worker). But where scientific management is not yet adopted, piece rates are settled empirically from results rather than by psycho-physical analysis, so that the time distribution of piece-rate earnings is at best a somewhat rough equivalent of output. In statistics of accident distribution, the statistical unit is the in- dividual ‘accident.’ This may be either every case treated or given first aid to as at Messrs. Cadbury’s and Hans Renolds’ or only the cases reported to Government ‘ certifying’ surgeons and inspectors. What- ever definition of accident is adopted does not matter in statistics of the daily distribution, so long as the definition is the same throughout the day. aptier chance of finding statistically the influence of the cause ‘ previous duration of work’ on the output and less easily on accidents occurs where the duration of the working day has been changed—where there has been a ‘ change in hours’ either by way of a reduction through reorganisation, strike, or trade depression, or of an increase through overtime, &c. Here are compared the output or accidents per hour (or other unit of time) or the state of health, before and after the change. The importance of this comparison is that it makes it possible to seek the causes of accumulated fatigue (see Section I.). On the other hand, when such comparisons are made between different and sometimes dis- tant periods, other factors besides duration of work are liable to have altered, or may even have been purposely altered with the change of hours of work. To attribute all differences in results to differences in duration of work becomes, therefore, scientifically speaking, more difficult. In the following table of double entry are grouped some of the separate statistical investigations that have been made into Industrial 298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, Fatigue up to the present. The method of grouping is (1) by kind of test adopted (in rows horizontally), (2) by kind of comparison made (in columns). The letter and number in brackets refers to Index of Documents, pp. 63-67. Comparison Adopted. Distribution over. Working Total before and after Change Time : in Working Time Output H. Marsh (D6) . Abbé at Zeiss’s Optical Works (C8). See below. U.S.A. Reports -_. | Fromont at Engis Chemical (i) Stamp Pressing (B5). Works, Liége (C2). See (ii) Bessemer Converter below. (B6). Calcutta Factories (C6). Pieraccini (D5) U.K. War Office and Ad- Weber (D8). miralty (C4). Power used E. Roth at Siemens and | Abbé at Zeiss’s Optical Works Halske (C1), (C8). "3 | Costs Associated Efficiency En- <9 gineers (C7). oS} Commonwealth Steel Co. Ss (C5). 3 Sir Wm. Mather at Salford & Tron Works (C3). See below. Accidents . U.K. Chief Factory In- spectors’ Reports (B2). Departmental Committee on Accidents (Bl). U.S.A. Reports (B5 and 6). American States Reports (B7-11). Belgium (B3). Bogardus (D7). Imbert (D2-4). Germany (B4). | Mistakes . | Pieraccini (D5) . | Kennedy (in 1843). See below. Sickness Fromont (C2). See below. | The following is a brief account, prepared by Miss Hutchins, of the results of the more important of the ‘Change in Working Time’ Comparisons. In 1843 J. L. Kennedy, an investigator appointed by the Children’s Employment Commission, gave special study and attention to the industry of calico cloth printing; and obtained information from a firm who told him they had tried to run the mill fifteen hours a day and had so large an amount of spoiled work that they were compelled to shorten hours. When they did so, the proportion of spoiled work fell, and the output was increased. Kennedy saw that machine tending was not, as had been supposed, purely mechanical work, but that the productivity of the machine depended largely on the skill of the operative and on his power to concentrate his attention, a power which was evidently much lessened when suffering from great fatigue. _—. +t... oe | ee THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 299 In 1893 Messrs. Mather & Platt introduced the forty-eight hours week at the Salford Ironworks. This was avowedly an experiment to discover if hours could be shortened without endangering the trade, and the result was that with the forty-eight hours week production was actually increased relatively to the previous years when fifty-four or fifty-three hours had been worked. Another experiment had been made recently at the Engis Chemical Works near Liége. The company had a sick benefit fund which was constantly depleted, and the manager became alarmed. They tried the effect of introducing three shifts of eight hours. The output equalled the previous output of ten hours’ work, and the earnings, all piecework, equalled the previous earnings. The increase of output and wages per hour was about 33 per cent. The sick benefit accounts showed that under the old system expenditure had exceeded receipts; while under the new, receipts tended to exceed expenditure and that progressively. The effects on health and sobriety were remarkable, and the cost of production was reduced 33 per cent. per ton of roasted ore. Ernst Abbé, after becoming manager of the Carl Zeiss Works in Jena, reduced the working day from nine to eight hours. In the result it appeared the men earned by piecework on an average about 3 per cent. more than they had earned in the previous year working nine hours, and the earnings per hour increased in the ratio 100:116. The men were unconscious of any special effort, and were surprised to find their earnings increased. Abbé came to the conclusion that the in- creased efficiency was physiological rather than psychological. If the need of recuperation after exertion is neglected, the effect is like a daily recurring deficit, and means actual loss in industry. Section III.—Do the Tests Vary with Fatigue?—Are variations in fatigue indicated by variations in the amount of output and number of accidents ? That of the two tests we are mainly to use the output of work may be expected to vary and to vary inversely with fatigue is suggested by the very definition of fatigue as a diminution in the capacity for work. That the occurrence of accidents may also be expected to vary and to vary congruently with fatigue requires, however, some further proof. Accidents may be divided as to their causation into those in which the human element entered and those in which it did not; those whose causes were partly psycho-physiological and those whose causes were purely mechanical or otherwise ‘ external ’ to the victim. In the causation of many accidents the psycho-physiological state of the victim was probably one of the elements, though generally only as a condition enabling some mechanical cause to take effect. A dan- gerous psycho-physiological state may be either permanent or tem- porary, but in any case there is no reason why as a rule such a state should be more usual later in the working period than earlier unless it is connected with fatigue. Quite a few industrial accidents, however, are caused purely mechanically by explosions, electric shocks, to which might be added accidents due to animals; others are attributable to recklessness, to the 300 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. inexperience of a learner, and even, in America, to ignorance of the language. But these dangers, mechanical or social, are present to the same degree throughout the day, and, therefore, the resultant accidents are as likely to happen at one hour of the day as at another. In both divisions, therefore, accidents not due to fatigue will not alter the shape of the curve of accidents that were due to fatigue, but will simply make its ups and downs less steep. The effect of fatigue would therefore seem to be under-represented by the accident curve, but to what extent depends on the actual pro- portion of accidents that are not in any way attributable to fatigue. Bogardus examined the causes of 2,203 accidents in Illinois in 1910 individually, and found that only 173 per cent. ‘ were beyond the control of the injured.’ ‘This percentage of accidents would only include those purely mechanically or ‘ externally ’ caused (see above), and there must be an additional percentage of accidents due purely to psycho-physiological states other than fatigue. If we take particulars presented by the Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ Associations to the Departmental Committee on Accidents (Index B1), out of 1,362 accidents occurring in all depart- ments with over fifty accidents, i.e., Spinning Rooms (pp. 683 and 687), Cardroom (pp. 685 and 686), and Weaving (p. 687), the events causing accident may be classified broadly as follows where 219 ‘ mis- cellaneously ’ caused accidents are omitted. Fatigue Non-con- contributable tributable Knocking against machine - . 154 — Kicking spinning carriage slip . : . 134 _ Falling or making false step. - . 200 — Caught, ¢.g., trapped between rollers . 238 — Cut by tool in use, &c. . = : - 139 — Fainting - A . : : - 5 — Breakage (of strap, &c.) . 4 2 ._ 6 Cut or hit by falling object . - Oo = Splinters : - : : 2 Seat! _ Scalded and burnt . - : : see lS — Sprains, strains, and blisters. 4 — 69 Climbing on headstock . : : - 23 _ 1,068 75 Now out of these events only ‘ breakage’ and ‘ sprains, strains, and blisters ’ can have no element of fatigue in their causation, while ‘ cut or hit by falling objects’ may be caused purely mechanically or may be due to the fatigue of the injured’s fellow-worker. To all the other events the fatigue of the man injured himself may have contributed. For instance, a splinter is a physical material fact, but the worker’s not perceiving it and avoiding it is psycho-physiological. Again, to ‘climb on the headstock ’ may be reckless, but that such a feat should prove fatal at one particular time and not at another suggests on that occasion an element of fatigue. We may say, therefore, that broadly 93 per cent. of these cotton-trade accidents definitely had some psycho- physiological origin, and of these most were in all probability the result of fatigue. Similarly of industry as a whole, though some accidents are in no degree attributable to fatigue and result in smoothing down the THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT, 301 “time-distribution ’ curve of accidents, yet such accidents form a small proportion of all accidents, varying for different industries, but not likely to exceed 20 per cent. The exact psycho-physiological modus operandi by which the tests I shall mainly use, i.e., the output of work and the occurrence of accidents, may be expected to vary with fatigue (output inversely and accidents congruently) has been explained by Dr. Imbert, of Mont- pellier University, in a paper to the Congress of Demography and Social Hygiene held at Brussels in 1903 : “A result of the slowing down and decrease in the rapidity of the muscular contraction ’ (a physiological characteristic of fatigue) ‘ is that the speed of work, that is to say the quantity of work performed during a unit of time, will diminish as the expenditure of energy increases and fatigue becomes more intense. It follows that an estimate (l’appréciation) if not the exact measure of the speed of work should provide a method (procédé) and often a very simple one of discovering the existence of fatigue. ‘The occurrence of which an accident is the result sometimes takes place with such suddenness that the worker may fall a victim at the very moment when he perceives the danger that threatens him or even before he sees that danger. In other cases on the contrary, the occur- rence is less sudden, and the workman sees it coming and can often escape it (s’y soustraire) by a few rapid and energetic movements of retreat or protection. But it is then a question of making use of a movement which may not be more than a fraction of a second, and one may imagine from this how fatal the action of fatigue on the rapidity of muscular contractions and relaxation (reldchement) may be for the workman affected. * Moreover, to estimate with a full knowledge of the causes the ability (aptitude) of a worker to save himself from a danger that threatens him unexpectedly (inopinément), one must consider the phenomena of fatigue other than those of physical fatigue. The conscious perception of danger, indeed the realisation of those voluntary movements which can save us, is a complex act taking its origin in a peripheric excite- ment (visual, auditive, &c.) and its end in muscular contractions after intermediate cerebral operations. . . . From already numerous experi- ments it is found that we can measure the duration of such a complex phenomenon and that such duration is far from being negligible in regard to the question here considered, and that further the duration is influenced by certain circumstances. By experiments it has been established that for a whole act relatively simple the total reaction time is notably longer when the organism is in a state of physical fatigue.’ These quotations from Imbert suggest that while the output-rate is largely affected by fatigue directly. by the very diminution of speed, the accident rate, on the other hand, is affected through the channel of decreased ‘ nervous’ activity in attention, sensitivity, and speed of reaction to which Bogardus would certainly add the channel of less active muscular control. How far the output rate is also affected thus indirectly would depend on the nature of the work, and especially the nervous activities involved (see Section I.a), and channels through 302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. which fatigue would act here especially would be a weakened activity in judgment and memory. At any rate, it seems likely that the output and the accident time distribution do not test fatigue at quite the same points. It is interesting also to note that if it were possible to record a time distribution of the quality of work (as measured inversely by the number of errors each hour) it would follow the accident rather than the quantity of work distribution in measuring fatigue indirectly and especially through the channel of attention, muscular control, and judgment and memory. The importance of this suggestion is that since such time distributions of errors are very difficult to record, the accident distribution may be taken as an equivalent test of the effect of fatigue on quality. This whole discussion may be summarised, and here and there expanded in the following table: F decreases quantity of output ; Fatigue 1 Tee of increases accident immunity P and quality slightly. Tose Attention. Decrease accident immunity and Less Muscular Control quality mainly. Watinia { Loss of / Less Sensitivity, | Decrease accident 8u° | Intensity \ Longer Reaction immunity mainly. Less Judgment accident immunity, and Weaker Memory, | featent quality, output equally. Section IV.—Do the Tests Vary only with Fatique ? All the possible factors have been enumerated which besides previous duration of work might be causing fatigue. It must now be pointed out that besides fatigue there may be other factors causing variations in the output and accident distribution. Though Imbert shows that out- put and accidents may be expected to vary with the degree of fatigue, he cannot show that either I. output and accidents, II. the output only, or III. accidents only, do not also vary in amount with other factors besides fatigue. I. All the factors that may influence both output and accident distribution ‘ immediately ’ without the interposition of fatigue may be considered in two groups: A. Those factors which like fatigue itself are psycho-physical states in the worker. B. Those factors which are some outside condition or fact. A. For the full discussion of all the ‘ psycho-physical ’ component states which together with fatigue influence the ‘work curve,’ reference must be made to the translation of Weber’s ‘ Psychophysik ’ (Index D8). Of these ‘ states’ the most important for short working periods (the spell and the day) are ‘ Practice,’ * Spurt,’ and ‘ Incite- ment.’ In ‘ practice’ Weber sees the process which leaves ‘ the conscious will’and the power of attention’ free for application elsewhere, and THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 303 which ‘probably means a quite direct saving of energy through the removal of pressure from the central nervous organ.’ Its manifestation is the ‘ increase of facility, rapidity, certainty, and regularity of a par- ticular action or operation through its frequent repetition.’ The result on working capacity may be expected to be that ‘ at the beginning the increase in practice outweighs the early fatigue, so that the output curve as a whole moves upward,’ but ‘as the work continues the fatigue begins more and more to outweigh the increase of practice in its effect on the output.’ By Incitement (Anregung) Weber means a ‘ psycho-motor state’ which ‘arises in a purely mechanical manner from the work itself, and without the active intervention of the will,’ and he supposes that it ‘usually makes itself felt very shortly after work has begun, and after fairly short intervals, sometimes of about a quarter of an hour, suddenly vanishes away.’ As Dr. Myers points out, the result of the loss of incitement is familiar enough when we return to a task from which we have been called away, even for a few minutes. By Spurt (Willensantrieb) Weber means ‘ an impulse arising under special conditions and carrying sudden outbursts of energy.’ ‘ Its typical effect is seen in short sudden rises in the curve at the begin- ning of work, after disturbances and almost equally regularly towards the conclusion.’ It may be caused by the desire to earn more or to finish off well, or even by a smitten conscience, or by the desire to come up to a certain standard. . To these three component states we should like to add a fourth which the accident statistics collected will show to be extremely im- portant. Weber came very near to noting this new component by its absence, when he says ‘a man’s driving power (Antrieb) is ap- parently also influenced in a negative direction by the tedium (Lang- weile) of his work and (at the beginning) by the consciousness of a long day’s work before him.’ I refer to the excitement that accom- panies the anticipation of a rest, a change and food near at hand, with possibly also the satisfaction derived from work accomplished, the same frame of mind that makes schoolboys at the end of term exclaim with glee: ‘In two weeks where shall I be? Not in this acadamee . . .’ This factor, like incitement, is not a manifestation of the will, but contrary to incitement it is due not to something ‘in’ the work, but something ‘outside’ it. Indeed, as Mr. C. K. Ogden has suggested, ‘ excitement ’ seems a ‘ peculiarly appropriate name for this feeling,’ though if it is held too broad a term ‘ Anticipation’ or ‘ Relief ’ might be used, or even ‘ Rally.’ Fatigue and the four other states we have considered important do not necessarily influence the course of accidents and output in the same direction. Fatigue and practice have indeed an entirely opposite effect, fatigue tending to increase accidents and decrease output, practice to decrease accident and increase output; as Weber puts it, the output and accidents distribution will show the result of a ‘struggle between practice and fatigue.’ Further, incitement, spurt, and excitement all 304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOIENCE.—1915, side with practice, though their influence will be felt at different periods, and, as in the case of fatigue, output and accident distribution may each be somewhat differently affected. The external factors condi- tioning Practice, Spurt, Incitement, and Excitement are the same as those conditioning fatigue, z.e., Previous Duration of Work, Factory Conditions, the Nature of the Work itself and the state of the Worker ; though any great effect of Factory Conditions on ‘ daily’ Practice and Incitement is perhaps doubtful. The following chart may make clearer the Causal Relations :— Previous duration of work of certain workers in cer- phates : Which { Output decrease. tain processes among = ee results in { Accident increase. tain surroundings tain processes among cer- Incitement /{ results in | Accident tain surroundings Excitement decrease. Previous duration of work Practice i Output of certain workers in at niulitian’? | Which increase. B. The ‘ outside’ or non-psycho-physical condition which is of most importance as a factor in the time-distribution of both accidents and output without interposing fatigue is Lighting. As regards this ‘immediate’ effect of lighting on output the In- dustrial Commission of Wisconsin found that a steel plant by just changing its system of lighting could increase its output at night by over 10 per cent. As regards immediate effect of lighting on accidents: The National Electric Light Association have published a diagram correlating the monthly proportion of darkness, cloudiness, and sunlight in the city of New York with the monthly fatal accidents in 80,000 industrial plants for three years. In each ‘correlation’ the maximum is round January, and the minimum round July. Similarly the accidents per man are higher at night than by day (see Section I. in the case of iron and steel works). To a certain extent artificial and other weak lighting may increase accidents by fatiguing the eyes and attention, and hence lighting is included under the Conditions of Factory Hygiene likely to influence fatigue (Section I.); but to a larger extent the relation of accidents and lighting is ‘ immediate,’ the distribution of accidents over the day being influenced by the growing objective invisibility of danger-points. II. Factors besides fatigue that may influence the time distribution of output only are connected with the continuity of the work. If the work is not continuous: if the worker has to prepare his materials at the start of the day and clean up at the end, or if. in course of the day he must wait either because his materials have not reached him, or on account of his machine breaking down, or if at certain times during the day the work must go faster than at other times owing to short time orders, &c., then in so far it is the events of the factory or outside economic circumstances and not fatigue that is affecting the output istribution. ; pee Factors besides fatigue that may ee the distribution ver time of day of accident occurrences only are: b (i) The Maphitude of the Output.—The greater the output the THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 305 greater is the exposure to accident, since the more specialiy dangerous movements will have to be performed so much the oftener. A nicer test of fatigue than the absolute distribution of accidents would thus appear to be the distribution over time of accidents per unit of output. An absolute increase of accidents might be due to an increase of output, and that due in turn to spurt or some other check to fatigue, and thus an increase of accidents would measure decrease rather than increase of fatigue. Similarly an absolute de- crease of accidents might be due to a decrease of output, and that due to increase of fatigue. Unfortunately accident and output statistics are extremely difficult to correlate, since to secure sufficient accident data large numbers and long periods must be studied, while output data suitable to statistical treatment can only be secured here and there. Where output or work is likely to vary greatly during the day, as in the tramway, telephone, or shop service with their rush hours, the accident distribution alone is quite unreliable. Separate reference to these ‘industries’ is omitted from all statistical tables, though they are included under Total Industry. (ii) The Kind of Process. If at certain times of the day the workers studied are engaged in more dangerous work than at other times, as founders are in casting at 3 p.m. or so, then accidents will vary accordingly, without reference to fatigue. Section V.—Characteristics of the Actual Time-Distribution. A. GENERAL. We have now a sufficient grasp of the different causes of fatigue and of the relation of fatigue to the two tests we are using, output and accident time-distribution, to be able intelligently to consider the figures given in the tables on pages 323-344 with a view to finding the solution to our central problem: What is the exact correlation of fatigue with the previous duration of work performed ? First, however, a word in explanation of this phrase ‘ previous duration of work.’ The factory system that now prevails in manufac- turing industry has standardised among many other conditions of life the workers’ hours of labour. Except in a few continuous industries like iron and steel, the average ‘ employed’ factory hand works 53 or 6 days a week, 8 to 12 hours a day, and thus his very hours of work per week are standardised and often even ascertainable in ‘ Blue Books.’ The distribution of the hours into ‘spells’ of continuous work differs considerably between countries. In America a five-hour spell, then dinner, then four or five hours more is the rule; on the Continent of Europe short pauses often occur in the middle of the morning and afternoon; while in England the day generally consists of two hours work, half-hour breakfast, four hours work, one hour dinner, four hours work, tea. This general standardisation applies also outside the factory to the building trades in full, to agriculture, lumbering, and mining as regards day and week, but not as regards spell, since breaks in the work are made somewhat irregularly according to opportunity and feelings. In iron and steel manufacture, however, there are no 1915. x 306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. breaks in the work at all, meals being taken as the work proceeds. Agriculture, lumbering, mining, and iron and steel works will therefore be left for separate consideration, the term manufacture being used to exclude them, though it may be taken to include building. Industry as a whole, when mentioned, will include all these trades, and trans- portation and commerce into the bargain. Now, thanks to such standardisation of working times as large- scale industry has introduced, we may know at any given time of the day or the week just how long men in any given factory have been working since the beginning of the week, day, or spell. The output or accidents of that factory at all given times can therefore easily be correlated with the length or duration of work ‘ previously done.’ Few single factories, however, have analysed their output or accidents according to time of occurrence, and to supplement them we have to fall back on figures collected by Governments for a whole State within which the times of work are likely to differ considerably. Such ‘State accidents’ are delimited into hourly periods either by the exact hours (e.g., 7 to 7.59 or 7.01 to 8) or, as in. Massachusetts, by the half-hours (e.g., 6.30 to 7.80), but which of these periods corresponds to what hour of the working spell has only been roughly estimated from inquiries on the spot as to the usual working times. These working times are indicated at the head of each of our tables or in a note at the bottom. Accidents or output in hours which are cer- tainly not worked full are not quoted. By thus omitting the hours of meal-breaks in our tables and leaving a space instead, the spells of work are clearly distinguished. These tables, then, that follow on pages 323-344 show the output and accidents as distributed over the hours of spell, the spells ofa day, and in some cases the days of a week. A yearly distribution could not illustrate the result of (i.e., test) the fatigue of factory workers since they do not usually get a regular yearly holiday,’ and it is therefore impossible to correlate output accidents to any ‘ duration of work since start of year.’ There is no industrial year. To find the periodic fatigue as contrasted with the accumulated fatigue described in Section I., the only periods we can usefully compare are the days of the week, the spells of a day and the hours of a spell; with the questions in our mind—What is the weekly fatigue? the day fatigue? the spell fatigue? The answer to these primary questions jumps to our eyes. As far as the figures before us show, there is little weekly fatigue, little daily fatigue, but a great deal of spell fatigue. In this nearly all our statistics agree remarkably. The output and accidents of the different days that work full time never vary more than 10 per cent. from one another, and even then it is not always the later days of the week that have more accidents or the lower output. In Belgium in 1907 (Table XIV.), it is true, Saturday is by far the most fatal day of the week (attributable in some measure to cleaning machinery in motion), and in the case of the English Engineering T rades (Table IX.p), especially locomotive manufacturing and shipbuilding, 8 There are certain notable exceptions to this, such as the Lancashire wakes-week. ee ee ee THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 307 the comparative fewness of accidents on Thursdays and Fridays is explained by the fact that during slack trade men work in rotation, some only starting the week on Thursdays. But in all the weekly accident records of American States (Tables XI., XII.), the maximum of accidents per day seems to fall indiscriminately at any time of the week, and very often it is Monday. A most interesting point occurs, indeed, in comparing English, French, and Belgian with German and American weekly accident curves, in regard to the number of Monday accidents as compared with that of other days. Thus according to the ‘ Aemtliche Nachrichten des Reichsversicherungsamts 1910’ for Industrial Associations (mainly manufacturing), the proportion of weekly accidents occurring on each day of the week is as follows: Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday 1907 . 2:37 17-01 15-74 15-68 16-14 16-23 16-83 1897 . 2-15 17-45 16-67 15-71 15-71 15-34 16-97 which brings out Monday with the highest accident rate, and Saturday (especially as half-holidays are becoming more frequent) with the next highest, and the American figures agree on the whole with the German in the frequency of Monday accidents (Tables XI. and XII.). This has led many Germans and Americans to attribute such regular variations as there are in the weekly accident curve to practice at the start and fatigue at the end of the week; as we shall see, however, in the case of the single spell, practice has on accidents quite a negligible effect. A second school of thought has attributed the frequency of Monday accidents to the alcohol drunk on Sunday, and has even used the term ‘ Blue Monday.’ In Belgium (Table XIV.) it is Saturday that has highest accidents, though, if the early closing on Monday were allowed for, Monday would come second; and similarly Saturday’s accidents are highest, and. Monday’s about average in French figures collected by Dr. Imbert. But while Belgium and France thus occupy a middle position, England shows tlie exact opposite to Germany and America. It will be seen that, adding up cotton and the selected metal trades (Table IX.), accidents in England are highest on Friday, then on Tuesday, then Wednesday, then Thursday, and on Monday there are fewest accidents. England, France, and particularly Belgium, are by no means ‘temperance ’ countries, so that a new or at any rate a further ex- planation of the weekly accident curve seems required, not unconnected with the Saturday half-holiday. In England Sunday is spent in real rest, the drink or exercise—both fatiguing—being taken on Saturday afternoon; the result is that men start the week fresh and with few accidents. Abroad, just in proportion as Saturdays are worked full, and Sundays spent in work also, or in fatiguing recreations, so will Mondays have the first or second highest score in accidents. Comparing the same spells of different days, the afternoon hours have more accidents according to the French figures presented by Imbert (Index D2-4), but our figures agree with his only in the case of the Motor Companies (Tables XX.-XXII.) and German Industry (Table XV.), though in all the American State. figures the frequent, x 2 308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. but not universal, Saturday half-holiday may account for the compara- tively fewer afternoon accidents there. But apart from these in the English cotton industry (Table [Xa.), the Belgian industries, and the majority of single factories (Tables XVII.ff.), in all of which the comparison is fair, the accident rate seems slightly lower in the after- noon than in the morning. As regards output, there seems no general rule, and the question will have to be considered under the different varieties of work and conditions discussed in Section V.s. We have assumed that the break between the two main spells is of an hour’s duration. A clear exception to this is recorded, however, in Table XXII., where only half-an-hour is devoted to lunch. The result seems to be a very low accident rate in the hour immediately following the half-hour break, but after that an extremely rapid and continuous increase up to the last hour of the day, when half as many accidents again occur as in any hour of the morning. It is interesting to compare this curve with Miss A. M. Anderson’s evidence before the Physical Deterioration Committee to the effect that ‘in certain industries where it is the custom to allow only half-an-hour in the middle of the day for food very serious results are produced—in London, for instance—in the dress trades.’ But comparing the different hours of one spell we find in our tables variations up to 25 per cent. in the output, and almost up to 300 per cent. in the accidents (see Table [X.a, Cotton). This latter figure is all the more remarkable since, as was pointed out in Section II., those accidents that are due solely to mechanical causes are not likely to vary in amount throughout the day. The actual course or direction of the variations, however, differs very much for accidents and output respectively. In the case of output there is in every table an increase of the second over the first hour of the spell except for a very slight decrease in Table IV. (Machine Sewing) in the afternoon. This almost general increase is as much as from 24 to 38 in soldering, Table III. Col. 1 (a.m.), and from 85 to 106 in Hand Chocolate-covering, Table II. Col. 2 (a.m.) After the second hour of each spell there is generally a gradual decrease till the last hour, though in the third hour the output may be yet higher than in the second. In the case only of Apparatus- covering (Table II. Col. 1), and of the Cotton Trade (Table VII.), is the last hour’s output higher than that of the second hour of one of the spells, though in stamp-pressing (Table VIII.) the last half-hour is considerably higher in both spells. This general decrease is particu- larly marked in the case of soldering (morning spell Table IV. Cols. 1 and 2), where the second hour’s output was 38°42 at Jacob’s and 52°4 at Cadbury’s; the fifth hour’s output only 29°74 at Jacob’s and 43°7 at Cadbury’s. : The same general characteristics mark the course of the spell in the only other records taken of the hourly distribution of output made previous to this, those of Prof. Pieraccini, of Florence (Index D5), and of Dr. Howard Marsh, of New York (Index D6). Dr. Pieraccini studied six typesetters in one shop and four in THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 309 another, each for a day. The total number of lines they set when added together is distributed as follows: first hour 205, second 255, third 222, fourth 211; then after lunch and a rest of two hours, 241, 206, and 160. Only in its first-hour maximum in the afternoon does this differ from our usual distribution. Of Dr. Marsh’s three records one refers to workers on a time- wage, and thus introduces a novel element; but in the other processes, in three spells out of the five the total output of all the workers shows the usual short increase or stationariness followed by a long and gradual decrease; the two exceptions—magazine wire-stitching morning and evening spell—have no decrease, their total output remains on the whole stationary. It should be noted that in all the output tables we have collected the wages were wholly or partly paid by the piece, the gradual decreases in the output towards the end of the spell is presumably, therefore, not due to deliberate ‘slacking’: every slackening of effort would mean a loss of the workers’ earnings. In the case of accidents there is in every one of our twenty odd tables and graphs, except at Cadbury’s and H. Renolds’ (Tables XVII., XVIII.), a constant increase of accidents in the course of the first three hours of each spell, morning, afternoon, and before breakfast, unless of course there are pauses. This increase is particularly marked in cotton spinning, where the third hour has 665 accidents against the first hour’s 316 in the morning spell, and 536 against 222 in the afternoon spell. In some of the American and foreign tables for whole States the increase of accidents apparent between the first and second hour in the morning, though not between the second and third of both spells nor the first and second in the afternoon, is attributable to a certain extent to the fact that the first row of figures given does not always represent a full working hour. However, if from the ‘usual working-times’ given at the head of each table we make some rough correction, the general increase of accidents seems to hold good of the early morning hours, and if we look at the Wisconsin and German accidents classified according to the number of hours’ work already done, and thus free from uncertainty, we find this increase as much as 200 per cent. between the first and second hours of work (Table XVI.). After the third hour, accidents usually increase still further, but this depends rather on the total length of the spell, for we find that in whichever is the last hour of the spell (fourth or fifth) the accidents decrease, so that the accident distribution or curve may most accur- ately be said to reach its maximum on the penultimate hour of the spell. This increase up to the penultimate hour holds good so long as no mid-morning or mid-afternoon pauses occur, and where the last division of the spell is really a whole hour and not merely as in cotton (Table [X.a) and in Massachusetts (Table XI.) a half hour rated to the hour. But exceptions are found in the afternoon spells at Hans Renolds’ (Table XVII.) and at the Cadillac Works (Table XX.) in some of the Tables dealing with smaller numbers (Tables XVIII., XXIII., and XXIV.) and therefore the more liable to ‘ error,’ 310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. and finally in several of the figures originally collected by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Labour, namely those of Indiana manufactures (morning) (Diagram J.) and of the American Cotton Industry (Dia- gram III.). The divergence of this latter set of figures from the majority, how- ever, is to a large extent due to the unusual hourly limits adopted by the U.S. Bureau of Labour, e.g., from 10.01 to 11 instead of 10.00 to 10.59. This at first sight seems a trivial difference, but common- sense backed by experiment shows that factory, occupiers are inclined to return all accidents occurring between, e.g., 9.55 and 10.10 as 10— hence the importance of the question in which period to place the exact hour. The U.S. Federal method results in pushing back the maximum accidents. The decrease in accidents from the penultimate to the ultimate hour of the spell mentioned already varies in amount very greatly. It is slight in all the Illinois figures, only from 1,485 to 1,438 in the total (Table XIII. Col. 4) in the morning and from 1,382 to 1,327 in the afternoon ; but the decrease is very great insome single factories, notably Hans Renolds’, in the morning, from 375 to 252 (Table XVII. a.m.), the National Cash Register 308 to 181 (a.m.) and the Cadillac Motor Company from 152 to 88 in the morning, and in the afternoon (where the decrease sets in earlier) 200 to 116 to 94. That this falling-off is not entirely due to a fall in output, and, therefore, in the risk, may be seen by the fact that, even where output is humanly variable as in the processes in Tables II. to VIII., output never falls more than 15 per cent. from the penultimate to the last hour of spell.“ That this falling-off is not due merely to a fall in the number employed owing to lunch or the end of work coming sooner, is shown by the accidents of individual factories where the exact times worked were ascertainable, and are stated in Tables XVII. and follow- ing, but furthermore in all State-collected records most detailed inquiries were made on the spot to ensure that, in all figures of hourly accidents given, the number employed at each hour was the same unless other- wise stated. In short, in the last hour of the spell there is a true decrease in the accident rate per given number of men and per given amount of output, or, at any rate, a check to the increase. In the case of the statistics for whole States, the question of which is the last hour of the afternoon spell is rather hard to settle, since individual factories will quit work at different times, and though some indication is given by the heading over each table ‘ Usual Working Times,’ evidence for the afternoon decrease of accidents must be sought mainly from the figures of single factories where the exact times of work are ascertained (Tables XVII., XXIV.). The individual investigators of the time-distribution of accidents that have gone before us have failed to observe this decrease of accidents at the end of the spell. Bogardus, because he studied only 4 Account must be taken of the fact that our output tables only give processes under piece wage where there is little likelihood of slacking. However, even under time wage discipline and set standards and the speed of the machine would prevent any very much larger falling-off in output. OO ————— THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 311 the accidents of one year in Illinois (Table XIII. Col. 7), of which 246 happened to occur in the fourth hour of the morning spell, with 257 in the fifth ; while 227 occurred in the third and 260 in the fourth (and probably last) hour of the afternoon spell; Imbert because he was too intent on fatigue and failed to notice considerable drops at 11 a.m., at any rate, in some of the very curves he gives in his diagrams (Revue Scientifique, September 24, 1904, page 388) and Table XV.p. In the very last half-hour of the morning spell, it is interesting to note a rise of the rate of accidents over that of the preceding hour in almost every case where this period is separately recorded. In the English cotton industry this rise is from 623 to 651 in the morning and 512 to 615 in the afternoon (Table TX.a), and in the morning spell in Massachusetts (Table XI.a and B) while the pronounced rise for “Total Industry ’ may be due to some industries diverging from the normal lunch hour, yet there are rises of accident in the last half- hour of the morning in the Building, Wool, Rubber, Paper, Printing, and Autocar Industries, whose midday hours are fairly normal. Alluding to their accident statistics of metal-work, cotton (in U.S.A.), and Indiana and Wisconsin manufactures reproduced here respectively in Diagrams I., TII., and IV., the U.S. Federal Report (page 97) speaks of the ‘remarkable accord from group to group’: ‘Here are four sets of figures collected by different agencies in differ- ent parts of the Union at different times and covering different in- dustries, each agency working independently of the others. Yet the figures thus gathered show striking similarity.’ Yet these particular figures, as can be seen in the tables, are among the more irregular that we have recorded; and compared, for instance, with the Massa- chusetts, Illinois, Ohio, and individual factory accidents, differ among themselves quite considerably. In fact our figures agree with one another to such an extent, particularly those of accidents, that we are justified in speaking of a ‘ normal’ time-distribution of output and of accidents, or considered inversely, accident immunity. The shape of the output and accident-immunity curves for a five-hour spell may for purposes of illustration be summarised as follows: Hour of Spell Output Accident Immunity Ist ee sean ds small very great mdy se. Se Very preat great 3rd > 5 . 3 . great fair 4th - neh Ae, Leuipkain *small 5th witise dalcAstb his. set SELL fair * Where there are only four hours in the spell, strike out the last output, but the fourth accident hour. In seeking an explanation of this ‘ normal’ time-distribution of the accident rate and the output in a spell of manufacturing work, let us concentrate on the illustrative table. Here we find the four same degrees: very great, great, fair and small, succeeding one another in both the output and the accident-immunity column, though earlier in the spell with accidents than with output. Now both output and accident immunity vary inversely to fatigue; these four decreasing degrees, therefore, may well be measuring an increase in fatigue. 312 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. The only other possible cause that could by itself explain the rise in the accidents at any rate during the morning and afternoon is the drinking of alcohol before starting the spell. This explanation has been advanced by the Temperance Scientific Federation of Boston, and taken up by certain employers. To prove this contention, however, it would have to be shown firstly that the most debilitatmg effect of alcohol on control occurs just about four hours after its drinking, and not earlier or later, and secondly that such alcohol drinking is a regular habit among the workers. The first point is far from established either scientifically or from everyday—but not necessarily personal—experience. All that we can say for certain is that if alcohol is taken at all in large quantities, the attention and muscular control that avoid accidents are lost immedi- ately, and in the first hour. The second point can certainly not be established at all in some of our records. The women cotton-spinners (of Table IX.a), the picked men workers at Hans Renolds’, at the Motor Companies, at the National Cash Register Company, and the girls at Jacob’s and Cadbury’s and the Denison Manufacturing Company (of Tables XVIII. and following), are certainly not all drinkers, yet all of them show the same accident ‘ curve ’ as other and possibly hard-drinking employees. If it be only fatigue, then, that can explain the middle hours, what of the first hour of output and the fifth hour of accident immunity that are left over? Here the explanation must be different in each case, and such a difference may well be, since, as it was pointed out in Section III. p. 299, variations in accidents and output-are not always measuring the same psycho-physical activities. It is now con- tended that the small output in the first hour is due to ‘ practice’ and that the fair accident immunity in the fifth or last hour is due to anticipatory ‘excitement’ (see Section IV.), both pulling in an opposite direction to fatigue, and here more than overcoming the fatigue effects; that this excitement does not affect the output at the end of the spell, and that, contrary to all expectation, this practice does not affect the accidents at the beginning of the spell.* This con- tention, founded on the facts in the tables below, is backed by the somewhat theoretical suggestions of Section III. There it was ad- vanced that the main psycho-physical activity directly measured by output-rate variations was the changing of speed, and, by Weber’s very definition, practice is a removal of pressure from the central nervous organ manifested in an increase of facility, rapidity, certainty, and regularity; but, further, that the main psycho-physical activities specially measured by accident-rate variations were attention and muscular control, and on these activities of the central nervous system a ‘ psychomotor state’ of excitement would presumably be far more 5 Tf, as was suggested in Section II., a curve of errors or mistakes would run a similar course to the accident curve, it is interesting to note the conclusion of Binet et Henri in ‘La Fatigue Intellectuelle ’ that for adding and memorising the second hour of work, though faster, is less accurate than the first. Practice seems to decrease errors no more than accidents. Pieraccini’s curve of errors (Index D5) confirms this in the afternoon but not in the morning. THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 313 potent than a state like practice, that is removing pressure from the nervous centres. Now, if this explanation of the agreements and disagreements in the ascertained time-distribution of accidents and output respectively be correct, the following would be the psycho-physical diagnosis of a spell of factory work considered chronologically. First hour: Fingers, arms, body and mind after their rest are working slow, but sure. To increase the pace and even perhaps to concentrate attention is uphill work and a fight against subjective feelings of sloth. In an emergency, however, muscles could be per- fectly controlled. Second hour: Body and mind, getting into their stride again, are working very fast, but not perhaps so exactly. Feelings of sloth are conquered, but there is a terrible long prospect of work ahead. How- ever, as work is running easily, the mind may think of pleasanter things: attention scatters. Third or third and fourth hours: Body and mind running on, but attention lost. If any sudden danger threatens or emergency arises, it may not be quick enough perceived, and when perceived, muscles may not be quick enough to prevent an accident; they can continue rhythmically and automatically at the same work, but for any change of movements that may be suddenly called, there is insufficient control. Last hour (fourth or fifth): Body no longer running automatically with the same ease, an effort of the will required (spurt) to keep speed up; but the end is ahead, with food and rest; the attention awakes and control over the muscles is braced up—danger is better perceived and more quickly avoided. At the very end, however, even this new attention and control may tire, as indeed the whole body is tired, and only a rest can bring recovery. B. ParricuuaR. The agreement within the accident and output ‘ time-distributions or curves’ was sufficient to justify the use of the term ‘ normal distri- bution’ for industry in general and the discussion of its causation. Now, however, we may examine each time-distribution or curve given in the tables more closely, soas to describe any differences between them and to correlate such differences in the output or accident curves with differences in the conditions of each (see Section I.). The main con- ditions whose results our tables thus enable us to seek are: 1. Conditions affecting the factory hygiene and particularly tem- perature. 2. The nature of the worker: sex and age. 3. The nature of the work. 4. Factory organisation, 1. How far differences between the individual output and accident curves are attributable to differences in atmospheric conditions influencing the hygienic state of the factory may be gauged from Table XVII., where the accidents occurring at Hans Renolds’ are analysed into summer and winter accidents, 314 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. According to Professor Huntingdon (see Section I.s), temperature is particularly debilitating at its extremes of heat and cold; we should therefore expect the lowest output and most numerous accidents in winter between 8 and 10 a.m. and, if at all, 5 and 7 p.m. (earlier and later factories are not working full); in summer from about 12 a.m. to 3 p.m.; the whole year round, then, minima of output and maxima of accidents should occur round 9 a.m., 2 P.M., and 6 P.M. But, when we look at the accidents at Renolds’ (Table XVII.) we see clearly how the seasonal variations are only a minor factor when com- pared with fatigue from previous duration of work. In the total the maxima of accidents are not at 9 a.m., 2 p.m., and 6 p.m., but from 11-12 a.m. and 3-4 p.m., after three hours’ and one hour’s work respectively. Temperature, however, certainly appears as a modifier of the influence of fatigue from previous work ; in winter the cold hours 8-10 a.m. have a much higher proportion of the day’s accidents distri- buted to them than they have in the total; and similarly in summer the hour 3-4, though here it would not have been heat so much as the after-effects of heat, that would be potent. From the figures it is impossible to infer, of course, whether extremes of temperature modify the accident distribution by directly producing dangerous circumstances such as fingers numb from cold, or whether extreme temperature acts rather as an indirect influence on accidents by enabling a duration of work to result more surely in fatigue (see Section I.). 2. The second main condition whose results can be sought by com- paring different curves is that of the nature of the worker, and mainly his age and sex. In the accident distribution of the Illinois manufactures (Table XIII.) it has been possible to distinguish women’s accidents and also accidents to girls and boys under eighteen; in the accident distri- bution of the English cotton industry (Table [X.a and Diagram ITI.8) women’s accidents are also separately classed and _ similarly the accidents of boys of eighteen or under in the comparison of earlier and later ‘ work-hours ’ (Table IX.) in iron and steel and engineering. One divergence which women’s and boys’ curves show from the normal occurs in the women’s high accident rate in the morning as compared with the afternoon spell. In the English cotton industry (Table TX.a), the average of the hourly accidents in the morning spell and in the afternoon spell is for men respectively 261°8 and 239°6; for women 155°4 and 99°6; in the Illinois manufactures similarly, the hourly average morning and afternoon is for all workers 1,212°6 and 1,212°0, for women 28°80 and 24°25. The main divergence within the spell from the normal which women’s and boys’ accident curves show is the almost complete absence of the normal decrease in accident in the last hour of the spell. In the cotton trade, there is a continual increase of women’s accidents throughout all spells and similarly in the Illinois morning spell for women and boys, and there the boys’ accidents between 5 and 5.59 are particularly high considering how many leave work at five. THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 315 The divergence shown between men and boys in comparing the ninth hour’s accidents with the earlier hourly average of accidents (Table IX.B) seems to vary for the different industries. Thus, while in shipbuilding all males have in the ninth hour of work 143 per cent. the accidents they have in the first hour, boys only have 128 per cent. But in auto manufacture and iron and steel foundries boys have in the ninth hour 200 per cent. and 196 per cent. the accidents they have in the first hour, while males of all ages have only 132 per cent. and 153 per cent. It is only therefore in these industries that boys’ accidents diverge appreciably from the normal by rising still higher ; but the height of the rise is significant. The explanation of boys’ and women’s continued rise in accidents throughout the spell would seem to be either a lesser power of antici- patory excitement or a stronger fatigue overcoming this excitement. The women’s fewer accidents in the afternoon, however, would seem to exclude the stronger fatigue explanation for them. Lesser antici- patory excitement (therefore the only explanation left) may be some- thing psycho-physical in the woman, but more likely it is due to the fact that for most women the end of the factory spell does not mean hope of a rest and food, but the certainty of more work in the prepara- tion of food. 3. In examining how far differences in the output and accident time-distributions are attributable to differences in the factor ‘ Nature of the Work,’ reference must be made to Section I.a, which dealt specially with that factor. There it was advanced that there were certain characteristics in any single craft or process that were peculiarly important in evoking affections akin to fatigue in the worker. These characteristics were ‘ concentrativeness,’ ‘ persistence,’ com- plexity, uniformity, frequency of recurrence and regularity of recur- rence. A good opportunity of studying single occupations or crafts as apart from whole industries is afforded by our output figures in particular. It is to these figures that we turn, therefore, for the results of what we called the ‘ evocative ’ characteristics. First it must be observed, however, that, owing to the statistical necessity of securing a frequently and regularly repeated output (see Section IT.), the varieties of output that our tables exhibit cannot include infrequent and irregular operations. ‘The characteristics chiefly differentiating the processes are therefore (a) concentrativeness and persistence; (b) complexity; and, above all, (c) the degree of uniformity. (a) Movements concentrating or focussing their tax on local muscles are found in the processes of covering chocolates by hand (Table II. Col. 2) and in sandwiching and stencilling biscuits by hand (Table VY. Col. 4), and here in both cases we find the output closely following the normal distribution as far as the morning spell is concerned; but in the afternoon spell the output decreases very slowly, and in stencilling does not reach its maximum till the third hour. Moreover, in the case of the chocolate-covering, the output in the afternoon is higher generally than in the morning. This difference from the normal] distribution is attributable to the 316_ REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. fact that the small local muscles, though easily fatiguable, are also soon rested in the mid-day break and will either work better in the after- noon or will tire then less easily. Abbé (Index C8) found indeed that in the Zeiss Optical Works a reduction of hours increased the output per hour of the finer handwork less than of the coarser machine work. And here we may refer again to Dr. Marsh’s (Index D6) records of girls wire-stitching magazines; after a break from 5.30 to 6 ‘ there was a marked recovery and a maximum rate till 9.30’ (page 36). Machine-sewing also to some extent focuses work on the hands and fingers, and here again (Table 1V. Col. 3) we find a high afternoon output after the local fatigue has been given an hour to recuperate, particularly where the frequency of operation, t.e., the number of buttonholes to the hour, is very high and the fingers, therefore, have to be all the quicker. Of movements concentrating their tax on the central muscles, building may be cited in particular, and also all the pursuits included under mining, lumbering (forestry), and agriculture, though their hours of work are somewhat irregular. A useful output distribution would be impossible to collect in these industries, owing to the heterogeneous work and working conditions; but, failing this, separate accident curves from different sources have been collected and plotted in Diagram IV. for building, Diagram V. for mining, and Diagram VI. for lumbering and agriculture. The astonishing feature of these ‘ time-distributions ’ is their similarity to the normal curve for the more strictly manu- facturing industries (cf. Diagram I.). In building and mining, how- ever, there is an earlier decrease of accident in the afternoon spell, attributable, since the eight-hour day prevails here, to an earlier close of work. In lumbering and agriculture the dips in the German curve at 8-9 and 4-5 are probably attributable to short meal-breaks ; it should be noted that about half the work called lumbering is performed in sawmills with quite regular working hours and meal- breaks. Several examples of work that involves nervous concentration have their output and accident time-distribution recorded. Judgments of distance and of quality, including the activities of sensitivity, comparison with memorised standard, and muscular con- trol, are found in machine-sewing, where the material must be directed under the needle absolutely correctly (Table IV.) ; in tin-labelling, where the label must be pasted exactly square (Table V. Col. 2 and Table VI.) ; in soldering and in tin-straightening, where, as in all skilled work, a definite standard of quality must be obtained (Table III. and Table V.). Now, it is in all these processes that we find the output curve most normal. The afternoon’s output is somewhat less than the morning’s, but in both spells the maximum output occurs in the second, or, where the first period recorded is half an hour, as at Peak, Frean’s (Table V.), in the first hour and a half or second hour and a half. After this there is the gradual decrease of output, till the last hour’s output may only total about 80 per cent. of the maximum for the spell, less if it is the fifth hour (as general in the morning), more if it is the fourth hour (as general in the afternoon). The total of the records of output of the THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 317 three examples of soldering tins recorded at three different factories (Tables III. and VY. Col. 3) is as follows :° Hour of Spell Morning Hour of Spell Afternoon Ist . : . 11406 tins Ist . 4 . 119-43 tins 2nd. p . 167-44 ,, 2nd . é . 165-42 ,, 3rd . : . 159-59 ,, 3rd . 3 - 163-23 ,, 4th . : . 157-27 ,, 4th . = . 155-95 ,, 5th . . - 138-96 ,, and the average hourly outputs added together of the three examples of hand-labelling of tins recorded at two different factories (Tables V. and VI.) is as follows :’ pean ot Spell Morning Hour of Spell Afternoon st . < - 593-7 tins Ist . . . 602-6 tins 2nd . 3 - 669-0 ,, 2nd . : - 622-9 ,, 3rd. = . 687-9 ,, 3rd. 3 . 611-0 ,, 4th. s - 624-7 ,, 4th . (not given in one case) 5th . : - 5743 4, Great attention for, and quick reaction to, a cue is involved in much of the wool and cotton industries. A conclusive output curve for these industries is extremely hard to give, since, in nearly all processes, the machine sets the pace and the human element only enters in filling, tending, or emptying the machine; and the figures we have collected in Table VII. show the conflict between the human and the mechanical “work-curve.’ But it is interesting to find that (Table IX.) cotton and wool are the only large industries in Massachusetts in which accidents are by far more numerous on Friday, the last full working- day of the week, than on other days. A similar statement can be made of textiles in Belgium (Table XIV.) on Saturdays, and in England cotton accidents (Table XIV.p) increase regularly throughout the week quite in contrast to the engineering and foundry accidents. These figures, combined with the steepness of the rise in hourly acci- dents during all three of the English spells (Table [X.a and Diagram III.8), suggest cotton and textiles generally as including some of the most fatiguing processes found in industry. An example of work that is not ‘ persistent’ and involves a large proportion of rest or lack of activity is provided by iron and steel making, some average proportion of active time to full time in that industry being given in Section I.a. It should be added also in the words of Mr. R. A. Bull (Index C5) that ‘though the difficulties of the work are not constant but periodic, the work is distinctly arduous, physically and mentally, and carries a responsibility which puts a man’s nervous system in frequent high tension.’ This industry is also remarkable, however, in that the men at the blast-furnaces, Bessemer converters, open hearths, and in the rolling-mills take no breaks even for meals throughout a spell of eight to twelve hours; for this reason the iron and steel accident and output curves were not 6 Weighted roughly in proportion to numbers and days at work ; i.e. Cadbury’s +5, Peek, Frean’s 1, Jacob’s x3. 1 Table VI. Col. 1 is reduced to average per girl, but there is no other ‘ weighting, since numbers x days at work are not very different in each case, i.e. 8, 20, and 18. slg: -t REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. comparable with others in the discussion of industry in general (Section V.4a). But turning now to Table VIII. Col. 2 and Table X., we find that the normal course of the four- or five-hour spell is not reproduced in the twelve-hour spell. There is no gradual increase of accidents in the first three quarters of the time, nor gradual decrease of output in the last three quarters. On the contrary, there seems to be a series of waves. The total accidents by day increase up to a crest in the fourth-hour (9-10), decrease to a trough in the seventh (12-1), increase again to the ninth (2-3), and then decrease for the rest of the spell. By night crests occur in the second and ninth hours, troughs in the seventh and last hours. At the beginning of the night, however, there is additional repairing, and this may account for the early crest. To calculate how far these accident curves diverge from the normal, we might consider the twelve-hour ‘shift’ as a four-hour ‘ spell’ multiplied threefold. On this basis, the decrease in the last three hours corresponds strictly to the decrease in the last hour of a short spell due to anticipatory excitement, while the increase of accidents in the first four hours of the shift corresponds to the increase between the first and second hours of the spell, attributable to fatigue. The only hours not reconcilable are the fifth to the eighth (10 a.m.-2 P.m.): to correspond to the four-hour spell, accidents should be increasing; as a matter of fact, they form a trough in the curve. This trough may possibly be correlated with the midday or midnight meal, which would first produce a fall in accidents through anticipatory and then positive excitement while being taken; secondly a sudden rise while its digestion was conflicting with the work in hand. But that all these lesser forces should cloak or overcome the effects of fatigue must be attributed to the main peculiarity of this work, namely, the repeated intervals of rest at the end of each operation, which allow of ‘ recovery.’ In studying the separate departments of iron and steel works, it should be noted that the mechanical department and the yards usually have meal breaks, but betweenwhiles work actively all the time. In consequence, the fluctuations of their accident curve are more marked and are actually (not merely proportionately) more similar to the normal. So many different processes are included in these depart- ments, however, that special attention to the figures given is not worth while. In the output curve of the Bessemer converter (Table VIII. Col. 1) are seen the same waves up and down and even less regular. Here the effect of ‘non-persistence,’ especially combined as it is in this process with a relative infrequency in the recurrence of the operation (about three times to the hour), would make the factor practice of ~more weight than the factor fatigue and likely to last almost to the end of the day. This may account for the very gradual increase of output in each successive two-hour period, if we except 8-10 because of changes and repairs and 12-2 because of lunch and digestion during work. The general drop in the last two hours would on that supposi- tion be due to the final overcoming of practice by fatigue. (b) The most highly complex processes of those recorded in our THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 319 tables are the stamp-pressing, where levers have to be worked as well as material inserted and removed (Table VIII.), and complex to a lesser extent is the machine-sewing. In all these processes the afternoon output compared with the morning is higher than the normal, the average per afternoon hour compared with the average per morning hour being 40,676 to 40,047 in the stamping-press work, and 111°72 to 97°1 in the machine-sewing at Kettering (Table IV.). In other respects the curves differ, no doubt owing to the fact that stamping- press work is highly uniform but not concentrative, while machine- sewing is fawly variegated but tiring to the fingers (see above). In explanation of increase of output during the day for both these complex processes, it is interesting to note the following extract from Weber: “Experiments show . . . that fatigue sets in more slowly in the case of disturbed or complex work than where there is no disturbance ; indeed, in the hours at the end of a spell the output is often very much greater where work is disturbed than the normal increase which results from practice would lead us to anticipate. These results, which suggest that complex work is less fatiguing and more easily acquired by practice, are only apparently paradoxical. . . . The paradox is explained by the simple fact that the disturbed operation—that is to say, in the case of complex work, each of the individual acts into which it can be analysed—begins at a very much lower point in virtue of the disturbance. Hence the output increases with continuous habitua- tion and inner adaptation to the disturbance or to the other work very much more quickly, until it reaches its maximum, than is the case with uninterrupted operations. This is due to the fact that not only the results of practice, but also the gradual adaptation to the disturbance, make their influence felt and are only fully realised when the work is practically at an end.’ (c) Of great uniformity or repetitiveness is the work with the metal stamping-press, and of this particular process we are lucky in having both accident and output time-distribution. Covering chocolate by apparatus is also uniform in that the same rack is always handled instead of the individual chocolate creams, as in hand-covering. This process, however, is not general enough to yield sufficient accidents for useful statistical comparisons. Turning first to the output distribution in these uniform processes given in Tables VIII. and II., we find that in both cases ‘ the curve’ differs from the normal in increasing right throughout the spell, except, in each case again, for the last hour but one of the afternoon spell. In the last half-hour of the stamp-pressing spells the increase is sudden enough to be attributable to ‘ spurt.’ The two processes differ, however, in that the output is less in afternoon than morning with the apparatus-covering, but greater with the stamping-press. The explanation of the specially high afternoon output of stamping- presses was given under complexity, but the increase of output during the spell in both these uniform processes is due probably to the power 320 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. of most individuals to automatise processes that are uniform and frequent. ‘This means,’ to quote Weber, ‘that with frequent repeti- tion an ability is produced to perform an operation even without any conscious use of the will and of the power of attention for the requisite separate functions of the psycho-physical system, and finally the operation actually succeeds better without any effort of attention at all.’ Further, according to Weber, automatisation seems to be helped to a large extent by ‘ rhythmisation ’ of the work, ‘ because this considerably facilitates the carrying out of the typical reactions without articulated will-impulse.’ Great regularity as well as great repetition (uniformity) and great frequency is important, then, accord- ing to Weber, in increasing ease of work, and the time-distribution of the output of stamp-pressing and apparatus-covering which have these characteristics would seem to bear out this contention. Fatigue seems, except in the penultimate hour of the day, to be more than counterbalanced by a sort of prolonged practice. But to say, there- fore, that monotony would decrease fatigue would be to fall into the confusion of terms pointed out in Section I.a. It is only when so-called monotonous work does not evoke monotony that it becomes less fatiguing. Turning next to the accident distribution in the uniform process of stamp-pressing (Diagram II. and Table IX.c), we find that it does not differ from the normal distribution very materially except in the earlier onset and larger scale of the decrease of accidents at the end of each spell and in a somewhat greater accident-rate in the after- noon both shown in the American figures (Diagram II.). These divergences would suggest that, if anything, excitement in anticipation of a change is greater where the work is more uniform, and that the attentiveness and muscle-control which, as we have suggested, accident-distribution specially indicates become weaker than usual towards the end of the day when the work lacks variety. 4. Finally some attention must be given to the influence of differ- ent systems of factory management in diverting output or accident distribution from the ‘normal curve’; and for the question of human fatigue the most important part of any system of management is the devices to ensure speed in individual operations and in the operation or action of the factory as a whole. Hitherto we have regarded the speed of operation.as involved in the nature of the work, assuming that for any given process there was some average and standard human rhythm or some definite rate at which a machine was most economically and efficiently run. Yet this natural speed may, so to speak, be tuned up or down, and of late, to judge from working-class opinion, there has been a good deal of tuning up. The degree of tuning or ‘ speeding up’ of operations depends on the enforcement of discipline, on the ‘ incentive’ of remuneration (whether time-rate or some system of piece-rate), on the speed of automatic machines, or on mechanical devices such as moving bands propelling the work through the factory. ; Besides tuning up of speed of operation we must take account of a tuning up in the general action of the organisation, ensuring unremitting THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 321 flow of material with the use of every minute of a man’s work-time, and closer supervision with an increased demand on the man to come up to the standard. To isolate this factor of tuning up of efficiency, of the intensity of work, it is only possible to compare the output and accident of single factories; whole states will include all varieties of efficiency. But in comparing these single factories there are limitations, too, in the matter of their output distribution. If in comparing an output curve in a less intensive with one in a more intensive factory it was found that during a spell the latter did not drop so fast as the former, it might be an indication of less fatigue under the intensive system, but again it might be due to the greater incentive to keep up speed. In short, the significance of the output curve is, on this point, ambiguous. Turning to the accidents of single factories, however, we have a chance of useful comparison in the distribution at the Ford (Table XXI.), Cadillac (Table XX.), and Northway (Table XXII.) and at Hans Renolds’ (Table XVII.) Motor Companies. At each of these engineering works efficiency has been carried to a very high pitch as compared with Metal Working in general (Diagram IT.) or Auto manu- facture in general (Table IX.s). The distinctive feature of the accident curve in all these shops is the higher rate of accident in the afternoon than in the morning. Thus: Morning Afternoon Accident Rate per hour Accident Rate per hour Hans Renolds . 317 338 Ford Motor Co. . * 222 235°5 Cadillac ,, E . 121 141 Northway ,, 5 Pee Oo 98 On the other hand, in Metal Working generally (Diagram II.), if we except the Massachusetts curve, which includes Foundries with their regular afternoon casting, the afternoon rate of accident is lower than the morning, and similarly of the Massachusetts ‘ Auto’ Industry (Table XI.s, Col. 1). We may couple this contrast with that between the Iron and Steel Making and all other naturally more persistent industries. Both bring out the fact that scattered irregular pauses, be they due to the nature of the material or to a hitch in factory action, all tend to relieve the ‘ psycho-physique ’ and to put a check to fatigue. Bogardus is very right when he attributes present-day fatigue inthe factory in great part to ‘ unrelaxed tension.’ Further evidence of the fatiguing effect of intensity of work as apart from its extension and duration in time may be sought by comparing the accident rate in English industries in this present decade with former times when the work was more ‘ extensive’ but less intense. In this comparison, however, it is rather difficult to isolate the factor of intensity; other factors have changed, too, of which the amount of dangerous machinery and the guarding of that machinery are the most important. Since these two most important factors affect accidents 1915. Y o22 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. oppositely, however, and thus more or less cancel out, it would be worth while giving the rate of accident per 1,000 employed for two or three separate decades respectively if only it were certain that the standard of reporting were the same in each case. The Home Office Committee (Index Bl) appointed in 1909 ‘to inquire into the causes and circumstances of the increase in the number of reported accidents,’ collected many such statistics as suggested above, but found ‘ an almost unanimous expression of opinion from witnesses of all kinds that the fuller reporting which has taken place during recent years accounts for a very large portion of the increase’ (p. 9). But though the Acci- dent Committee was thus unable to secure statistical confirmation they report that ‘much of the increase (of accidents) was attributed to a general raising of the standard of effort in all spheres of life’ (p. 13). The new school of ‘scientific management’ in America has also devoted some thought to the fatiguing effect of ‘intense’ work. Mr. Knoeppel, for instance, in his book ‘ Installing Efficiency Methods,’ carefully distinguishes ‘ strenuousness’ from efficiency and holds that ‘any standard determined should be one that a man can attain day in and day out without injury to his health of body or mind’ (p. 109). This ‘ Standard Time’ is reckoned at about the mean of a man’s average and highest speed under unimproved conditions, with pro- vision for rest often amounting to 16 per cent. or 20 per cent. of the whole time and enforced by clock at intervals varying for different kinds of work. A familiar example of the efficiency of such a system occurs in F. W. Taylor’s ‘ Principles of Scientific Management.’ For ‘ heavy labour’ where the man’s strength is exerted by either lifting or pushing something which he grasps in his hands, it was discovered that for each given pull or push on the man’s arms it is possible for the workman to be under load for only a definite percentage of the day. For example, when pig iron is being handled (each pig weighing 92 lb.) a first-class workman can only be under load 43 per cent. of the day (p. 5). This scientific ‘law ’ was then applied at the Bethlehem Steel Works, and resulted in the men’s earnings (at a constant piece rate of 3,% cents a ton) jumping from $1.15 to $1.85 a day. To this now classical case of the pig iron may be added that of a machinist in the employ of the New England Butt Company, who was unable to complete his standard task per hour at a lathe turning metals till a notice was posted up bidding him rest twelve minutes after every forty-eight minutes’ work. Outside these individual studies, Scientific Management has perhaps not spent enough time searching scientifically for the laws of fatigue before setting its standard intensity of work; yet, if once these laws are discovered, then it is only to a really scientific management that we can look for the application of the discovery. In the hope of this con- summation to our labours the significance to industrial organisation of the researches chronicled above may be sketched roughly in the following sequence: 1st. The importance of the réle played by fatigue and other inner states of the individual worker. It is not a monopoly of mental work to be influenced in quantity and quality by the human disposition. For i de THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 323 the efficient management and organisation of factory and office, account must be taken of the human element just as much as of the material and the machine. 2nd. The importance of the rest-pause. A break in the work would seem to shed its influence all round; it causes a bracing excite- ment that avoids accidents beforehand and brings on after it a new lease of working capacity. More important than the length of working day seems the length of spell: the splitting up, the breaking up of con- tinuous periods of work. 3rd. The importance of the nature of the work in modifying the onset of fatigue. In uniform repetition work causing ‘subjective ’ feelings of monotony ‘ objective ’ fatigue seems far less effective than in the nerve-taxing work of attending to a loom or of labelling and soldering accurately in place. 4th and finally. The importance of taking account of and studying pene, and of adapting accordingly the hours of labour in each kind of work, Section VI.—Statistical Tables and Diagrams. TasLE I.—Datmy Ovrevt. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday % % % % % % A. 19:2 19°5 19-2 18:4 18°3 — B. 19:2 19°7 19:9 19°8 19°3 -- C. 93°61 96°45 100 96°79 98°64 99°54 D. 92°69 95°61 100 96°91 99°67 *99°18 A. and B. German-American Button Co., Rochester, N.Y. Daily output for six weeks in percentage of the week, the average time worked each day being exactly the same. The figures refer to the whole button-sawing department. A. For selected average weeks. B. For consecutive weeks. C, and D. Collected by Weber of Westphalian weavers Index D8. C. and (D.*) minding one or two looms, D. minding one loom only. 100 represents the maximum day. y¥ 2 324 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. TABLE IJ.—CHOCOLATE-COVERING OUTPUT. Messrs. Cadbury, Bournville. 10 couples and 4 individuals for 10 days, in September 1903. Conditions.—Normal. Dinners supplied at cost price. Workers.—Girls over eighteen. Surroundings.—Good. Payment.—Flat piece rate. The Process.—Apparatus work (in couples) : Handwork (singly). (1) Put middles on rack (weight 2 lbs.). (1) Dip middle in solution. (2) Dip rack in solution and shake. (2) Mark pattern with fork or (3) Reverse rack on paper. finger. (4) Fit in the misplaced chocolates. (3) Place in position on table. (5) Place paper on table to cool and fetch Posture: Sitting. more middles, Posture: Half-standing, half-sitting. Relative Hourly Variation. Average of hour’s output = 100. Hour of Day, Time Apparatus Hand Hour of Spell 9-10 88°3 (1) 85°5 (2) D1. Sk 10-11 93°9 106°5 D2 §2 j]-12 106°35 98°6 D3 «S83 12-12°30 118°4 (4) 88:6 (5) D3} 83h 1:30-2 96 (2) 101 (3) D4 §8} 2-3 98°55 107°6 D5 $813 3-4 94°4 107°4 D6 S824 4-5 97 103°2 D7 834 Notes.—Here (1) 15 mins., (2) 10 mins., (3) 5 mins. spent in ‘ preparations’ are averaged; and (4) 10 mins., (5) 5 mins. spent in ‘ clearing up’ are averaged. No clearing up included in the 4-5 figures since work ends at 5.30. Tasie III.—Smatt Try-Box SOLDERING OUTPUT. W. & R. Jacob & Co., Dublin. Cadbury Bros., Bournville. 10 workers for 10 days. ' 7 workers for 1 day. Sept. 1914. Feb. 1915. Workers.—Girls aged 17-25. Boys aged 15}. Work.-—Standing up. Sitting down. Pay.—Piece rate + standing wage. Day + piece wage. Surroundings.—Normal. Normal. Average rate of tins per hour per day. Clock Time Jacob’s (D voans E arell) Cadbury’s Clock Time 8-9 24°3*(a) D1 Sl 46°8 7°45-8°45 9-10 38°42 D2 S82 52-4F 8:45-9:30 10-11 35°29 D3 83 47-1 9-30-1030 11-12 35:03 D4 S84 44:4 1030-11-30 12-1 29°74 D5 85 43°7 11:30-12°30 2-3 26°62 D6 Si 45°1 1:30-2°30 3-4 37°39 D7 S82 48:7 2°30-3°30 4-5 37:06 D8 S83 42:9 3°30-4°30 5-6 34°93*(b) D9 S84 40°8 4°30-5°30 Notes.—*(a) 7 minutes averaged for preparation. (b) 6 minutes averaged for clearing up. + Averages to the hour, IAGRAM I.—AccIpENTS IN GENERAL MANUFACTURE. Sige van Be eee Be Tan : Fon 15607 2 be naar 144 | | | me af ff a coieaeen 4 _ a oe are 2 - ° S ° ° ° o ° a _--- eae im Ges AM. 9 (e} 1 za ° = =- N w +S 2) N © © o XN ib oa a °o N pb o @ = ° oO o o [o) °o °o o o °o a or Wx 2 8 _ co o @ = — nN w bh bs > o @o ro) ° o ; | Pott eeee Illinois 1910 (Bogard 326 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. TABLE IV.—MAciINE-SEWING OUTPUT. Linnel & Wallis, Kettering. June 1915. Queen Mary Workroon, Piccadily. Oct.—Feb. 1914-15. Conditions : Workers.—Girls aged 18-25. Surroundings.—Ordinary rooms, bared of furniture. Payment.—Piece rate (flat). Normal factory. Power-driven machine. Buttonholing. Foot-driven machine, Buttonholing. (1) Cutting the holes. (2) Buttonholing with Process.—¥oot-driven machine. Making flannel belts. (1) Running. (2) Cutting holes. } By (3) Affixing tapes. { hand. machine. (4) Stitching. (3) Snipping off threads. 10 belts worked at a time 3doz. holes worked through each sub-process.* at a time.* Range.—7 girls for a total of 55 3 girls for a total of 4 girls for three weeks . days. 44 days. each. Average output per day. No. of belts No. of holes No. of holes dime per hour per hour Time per hour 7.30-8 tt 8.30-9 + i 8-9 99.5 9-10 3.51 20 9-10 96.5 10-11 3°53 19°6 10-11 102°5 11-12 3°60 19 11-12 89°8 12-1 3°51 18°3 12-12.30 T 1.30-2 if 2-3 3°51 17-4 2-3 125-60 3-4 3°46 17°3 3-4 110°25 4.15-5.15 3°37 4-5—16°93 4-5 109°85 5-15-6.15 3°18 5-6—16°93 5-6 101°17 * The figures had thus to be compiled by converting time spent per unit of output (10 belts and 3 doz. holes) into rate of output per hour. This necessity has tended to smooth down short fluctuations, + Output not recorded. — oe ee wien. 328 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. TABLE V.—PrRoczssEes AT PrenK, Frean, & Co. April to June 1915. Work.—9 |b. Tin. Tin. 4&9lb. Tin. Biscuit. Cream Straightening.* Labelling. Soldering. stencilling and sandwiching. Numbers.—6 for 6 days. 3 couples, 6days. 6 for 6 days. 6 couples for 6 days. Workers.—Girls 21-24 Girls 20-28 Girls 17-24 Girls. years. years. years. Pay.— Piece-Bonus. Piece-Bonus. Piece- Bonus. Piece-Bonus. Surroundings.—Normal, Normal. Normal. Normal. Average rate per hour per day per individual : of tins. _—_—_———— of trays of biscuits. 8-8.30 ; : ao 148°4 31:8 : 8.30-9.30 . : . 1704 165°2 41°7 3°99 9.30-10.30 . . . 171:25 162°7 44:3 3°92 10.30-11.30 . . . 168°75 156°3 43°3 3°95 11.30-12.30 . . . 1386 147°3 41:0 3°62 DinMene oe ses = — _ 1,30-2.30 a : . 160°6 144 39°55 3°63 2.30-3.30 aie ye 70:9 157 43°51 3°78 3.30-4.30 5 : . 1654 150°2 43°47 3°87 4.30-5.30 sees, oe OT 150-7 43-0 5.30-6.0 hoe — 33°97 * Each tin has different-sized dents differently placed, all to be hammered straight with mallet and wooden anvil. {7 Output not recorded. TABLE VI.—OvtTruT. Hanp-LABELLING or TIN-BoxEs. Report of Mr. Greenwood to the Fatigue Committee, 1914. Total. Average. Hours of Day. 8 girls. 4 girls. One day. Average of 5 days. 7.30-8.30 : - c -. . 2,032 191-3 8.30-9.30 = ; : - . 2,123 238°4 9.30-10.30 : : : ms escoae 240 10.30-11.30 : verte ; . 1,922 228°2 11.30-12.30 S Athatetaype 5 . 1,663 21971 1.30-2.30 Ome 4 ee S921 218°5 2.30-3.30 5 Sales : . 1,956 2215 3.30-4.30 SARS) 8 . 1,938 218°6f 4.30-5.0 195 ~59 105 143 118 338 177 150 665 11-12 : 3 . 168 70 103 134 117 302 187 134 623 12-12.30 . : . 173 65 122 152 146 325 211 115 651 1.30-2 3 : . 86 24 28 50 16 136 40 46 222 2-3 A A . 102 36 62 80 57 182 95 60 335 3-4 ; : . 176 31 86 121 74 297 105 134 536 4-5 : : . 143 58 81 111 72 254 130 128 512 5-5.30 . 5 . 161 48 112 168 82 329 130 156 615 Norves. The number of accidents given in the Report as occurring between 8-9, 12-1, 1-2, and 5-6 is doubled to allow for the meal-times, which, as the Report of the Com- mittee itself states, take place from 8-8.30, 12.30-1.30, and 5.30-6. 12-5.30 accidents are multiplied by 6/5 to allow for Saturdays, except in (2) where Saturdays not included. * Full Timers. TasLte 1X.8.—FounDRY AND ENGINEERING TRADE ACCIDENTS. Iron and Steel Foundries in 1912. Automotor and Locomotive Mfg. in 1911. Shipbuilding in 1910. The figures are quoted from the Tables in the Annual Reports of the Chief In- spector of Factories referring to Accidents occurring from Monday to Friday, and reportable either to the Inspector only or to the certifying Surgeons and Inspectors. These tables class accidents according (1) to time of day when they occurred; (2) the working hour ‘round’ which they occurred (e.g., eighth hour would include accidents occurring after 74 hours work and before 84 hours work). These figures do not attempt to give the number of accidents per number em- ployed at each hour. Hours where few are working owing to meal-times or short- time are compared with full working hours when accidents will ipso facto be more frequent. The following corrections must therefore be made : (1) Omit all hours where factories may not be working full. Now, where England, Scotland and Ireland are all combined, the start may be any time from 6 to 8, break- fast from 8 to 10, dinner from 12 to 2, and the stop from 5 onwards. This leaves only the hours from 10-11, 11-12, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 as worth considering among the time of day figures. Among the working-time figures, the occurrence of meal-times is almost incalculable. The following plan, however, escapes uncertainties. Tf the working hours be divided into: A, the first half-hour and next hour, and B, the second to the eighth, and C, the ninth hour, it is certain that C will consist (see Note) of one full working hour, A of one and a half full working hours, and B of five and a half working hours where the ‘ two-break’ system is worked, of six where there is one break only (B = seven hours—one hour for dinner only or one hour and a THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 333 half for dinner and breakfast). To reckon the average per hour in each period, therefore, A will be divided by one and a half and B by six to five and a half (say, 52). a ies of depression dismissal of hands or weekly rotation of hands is resorted to in these trades rather than short-time every day. No ‘ correction’ need be made for this factor therefore. (2) Omit all accidents due to work which is regularly performed in one part of the day and not another, and is of special danger. This applies to casting in foundries which causes the accidents from molten metal reportable to Inspectors and Surgeons, In foundries, therefore, accidents reported to Inspectors only will be quoted. Note.—Unless work begins after 7.30, as in Manchester district, on Mondays. TABLE IX.s. I. Noumperr or ACCIDENTS IN ALL PROCESSES. Hour of Probable Working _ (1) (2) (3) (1+-248) (4) Da Hour of Day (D) Ship- Loco Auto Engineer- Iron and y: of Spell (8). building. Mfg. Mfg. ing. Steel Foundries, 10-11 D4 82 365 444 84 893 261 11-12 D5 S83 360 544 105 1009 337 2-3 D7 SI 239 230 66 535 ilgp! 3-4 D8 S82 345 429 111 885 276 4-5 DI $3 324 464 99 887 312 II. AVERAGE ACCIDENTS PER HovUR IN ALL PROCESSES. For All Ages. Hour of Work. A ith-+ lst Per hour 208 250 72 530 184. B 2nd-8th Per hour 294 380 85 759 256 a | %ofA 141% 152% 118% 143% 140% C 9th Per hour 298 395 95 788 281 % of A 143% 158% 132% 149% 153% Ages 13-18 years. A 3th+I1st Per hour 32 50 10 92 28 Per hour 41 79 20 140 47 peaod-Sth { % of A «198% ~——«d158% «200% -~—S—«d153%, 168% C 9th Per hour 41 74 20 135 55 % of A 128% 148% 200% 147% 196% Taste 1X.c.—MerTaL WorKING ACCIDENTS. The tables in the Annual Reports which correlate causation of accident with the hour of day, though generally denoting by ‘ causation ’ the description of the occurrence (e.g., explosions, catching of finger, &c.) rather than the conditions of the work, yet class together in Shipbuilding, Auto and Loco Manufacture, all accidents occurring on Metal Working Machines. When full hours are certainly worked, the accidents occurred as follows :— Accidents on Metal Working Machines only. Hour of Day Shipbuilding Auto Mfg. Loco Mfg. Total OSU ote ee oe ts oO) 23 80 190 eet ee es! TO 28 103 210 2-oe feo Me, . ./ fe. 60 18 50 128 Cate Ee i Be, TE 39 66 176 aoe oa, 4g EL. UE 35 108 220 334 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Taste [X,p.—AccrpENTS ON Eacu Day oF THE WEEK. U.K. Chief Factory Inspectors’ Reports, 1909, 1910, 191], 1912. Cotton Spinning (1908) Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Frid, Men . ‘ F . 197* 204 214 232 264 Women 3 ‘ é . 116* 131 136 151 218 (Ages 13-18 (full timers) 131 132 140 157 233) Foundries (1912) . 1,031 1,130 1,124 1,052 1,152 Shipbuilding (1910) . 570 592 579 534 543 Loco Mfg. (1911) 745 823 806 767 745 Auto Mfg. (1911) 193 181 166 207 194 Five industries . 2,812 3,061 3,025 2,943 3,116 * Note.—In records of the accidents occurring on each day of the week, the most important consideration in modification of the actual figures is the extent to which short-time or over-time prevailed regularly on some days of the week and not on others, Now, in the year in which the accidents of each industry were recorded the Reports themselves tell us, quoting the Labour Gazette, that there was a good deal of unemployment (i.e., involuntary idleness), indicating trade depression. This was especially the case with cotton in July, August, and October 1909, and at the Crewe Locomotive Works in 1911; but only in the former was there regularly less work on one day (Monday). TABLE X.—ACCIDENTS, Conditions of Employment in the Iron and Steel Industry. U.S. Senate, 62nd Congress, 1st Session, Doc. 110. Times of Work of each spell: 6 a.m.-6 P.M., 6 P.M.—6 A.M. No breaks for meals in Departments 1, 2, and 3. Workers: All men, ACCIDENTS, Day Spell. ; (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) All Iron ; Hours of Day Blast Steel- Rolling Me- Wards and Steel Furnace making Mills chanical Plants , 6-7 100 90 147 36 61 712 r 7-8 209 116 153 160 165 1587 i 8-9 238 138 317 224 209 1944 % 9-10 235 152 353 245 231 2242 10-11 210 167 312 236 188 1981 j 11-12 131 100 209 130 116 1268 ; 12-1 129 715 162 105 82 1003 1-2 224 142 327 221 184 1875 2-3 226 147 320 243 201 2042 3-4 239 141 304 197 198 1900 4-5 171 116 235 175 133 1462 5-6 89 80 175 74 77 838 Night Spell. 6-7 92 86 187 47 49 746 é 7-8 en ee Me Ce 8-9 104 «105 = -178 47 69 g27 | TRS es 9-10 121 83 165 54 70 782 reat pe 10-11 93 79 191 31 65 739 : 11-12 79 64 128 27 49 538 12-1 65 69 97 26 25 500 1-2 61 97 155 26 59 648 2-3 112 84 146 33 63 662 3-4 85 73 104 23 49 581 4-5 79 66 116 28 49 555 5-6 87 716 133 17 41 524 THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE. EGONOMIC STANDPOINT. 335 TaBLe XI.4.—AcciDENTs, Massachusetts.—Report of Industrial Accident Board. Total Industry and Building, Metals and Textiles. A. July—June 1912-13, Fatal and Non-Fatal Accidents incapacitating 1 day. B. July—June 1913-14, Non-Fatal Accidents only (yet unpublished). Times of Work.—Mfg. 6.45 or 7-12, 12.50 or 1 to 5.30. Saturday half-holiday often. Bldg. 8-12, 1-5. Building and Metal and Wo Hand Trades Foundries A. A. Do, ool Cotton A. B. Do. always. Total Industry, including Stores A. B. Wkly. no. of hrs. 44-48 54 ie 56 56 Men’s cases % 100% 99% 80% 7% — 915% 6.30-7.30 70 138 138 324 319 2,130 2.220 7.30-8.30 375 476 243 ©6632 648 5,869 6,376 8.30-9.30 739 687 364 824 833 8,655 9,203 9.30-10.30 1,174 879 494 1,040 1,168 11,857 12,940 10.30-11.30 . 41,008 851 386 996 971 10,956 12,204 11.30-12.00 (5) (1,160) (832) (418) (856) (1,908) (12,040 (12,918) 12-1 or 12.45 Lunch. 2 1.30 (c) (Oat “(eae ekor (0) (c) (c) 1.30-2.30 773 518 214 530 532 7,245 7,852 2.30-3.30 996 766 331 825 738 10,035 10,440 3.30-4.30 789 913 348 716 776(4) 9,171 9,776(a) 4.30-5.30 388 680 303 640 652(a) 6,959 7,225(a) Day of Week Monday 1,386 1,281 586 1,342 — 6,381 16,463 Tuesday 1,346 1,185 587 1,301 — 15,555 16,690 Wednesday 1,260 1,164 587 1,273 — 14,947 16,600 Thursday 1,170 1,167 578 1,297 — 15,093 16,045 Friday 1,213 1,234 651 1,400 -- 15,371 16,653 Notes. (a) Children, 4% or less of workers, leave at 4 or 5. 3. (6) Rate per hour. (c) Actual figures not averageable. Figures multiplied by 2. 8 hour day introduced October 336 TaBLE XI.B.—ACCIDENTs. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Massachusetts, July 1912—June 1913.—Report of Industrial Accident Board. Separate Industries with hourly max. of at least 100 accidents. Fatal and all non-fatal accidents causing over one day’s absence. Working Times (General) 6.45-12, 1-4 or 5. Work Wkly no. of hrs. Men’s cases % 6.30-7.30 7.30-8.30 8.30-9.30 9.30-10.30 10.30-11.30 11.30-12 (a) . 12-1 or 12.45 ? -1.30 1.30-2.30 2.30-3.30 3.30-4.30 4.30-5.30 Monday . Tuesday . Wednesday Thursday Friday Tan- Gas- , Print. nery Works Rubber Paper & Pub. 55-59 —-48(b) ? 60 48 & 42 98% 100% 92% 91:5% 88% 32 16 51 21 6 56 47 126 71 25 89 91 187 124 49 eel: 133 242 160 92 . 107 2-136)8 3200, «T25 103 . (88) (120) (264) (168) (T54) Lunch (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) 59 94 148 86 81 87 105 211 128 94 105 89 189 85 79 74 72 169 92 67 Notes. Elect. Supp. 48(b) ye 101 324. 412 527 470 (506) (c) 296 442 390 355 766 758 717 748 680 (a) Rate per hour. Actual figures doubled. (b) Stokers have 56-hour week or more, (c) Actual figures not averageable. Underlined are the spell-maxima for each industry, Shoes 54 82°5% 85 331 490 716 573 (662) (c) 394 539 497 268 832 827 802 788 745 INT. 337 mQ @ > As — = os . m wn H 3 ‘Oo s oO a a o> Q & = 6 0 Q ao a S S S S S N Sb a3 Hie a ‘ Pig ee > = = Rx ° . ' ’ 22 oS P| —# ; 2 ‘5 a om = MiSs As = Me . Ss as 3 o ty fo) Ce) 338 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCiENCE.—1915. TasLE XIJ.—AcciDEnTs. Ohio: Jan. 1-June 30, 1914, Industrial Commission, Dept. of Investigation Report No. 4. All accidents involving disability for one day or more. Workers.—Total Industry. All men, except in 512 cases women. Times of Work.—See Note (a). Coal: 8-hour shift usually. Work,—All trades having hourly maximum of over 100 accidents. Contractin Coal Potter Industr (Building)~ Metals, — Mining. Gigea ‘Total. No. of hrs. weekly. 60-54 60-50 7-— 7.59 104 736 74 51 71 1,478 8— 8.59 142 953 115 100 97 2,043 9- 9.59 210 1,296 151 140 106 2,768 10-10.59 222 1,291 182 150 126 2,997 11-11.59 (a) (158) (973) (129) (120) (71) 2,106 12-12.59 Lunch. 1l- 1.59 135 724 63 92 72 1,586 2— 2.59 174 1,057 102 137 118 2,317 3- 3.59 202 1,351 165 106 87 2,746 4-459. eho 1,155 119 (28) 79 2,161 Day of Week. Monday Seal 2,268 229 204 177 4,632 Tuesday 269 2,224 214 194 199 4,522 Wednesday 288 2,187 223 165 171 4,388 Thursday 283 2p 218 184 172 4,436 Friday 279 2,197 224 165 192 4,377 Nortes, (a) Quoted from Report, page 31 (see above). ‘Data are not available showing the number of men exposed to accidents, but there is no great variance during the period from 7.30-11.30 in the forenoon and from The uncertainty from 11-12 is due to the main industries of Ohio being on the border of Central and Eastern time. 1 to 5 in the afternoon.’ 7- 7.59 8- 8.59 9- 9.59 10-10.59 11-11.59 12-12.59 1- 1.59 2— 2.59 3- 3.59 4— 4.59 5- 5.59 1911 (Jan.-Dec.) ( 160 231 272 286 283 178 258 269 283 Taste XIJI.—Accrpents. Illinois.—Manufactures, excluding Contracting, but including Lighting, Posts and Laundries. All accidents causing one day’s absence. Usual working hours: 7-12 (few 11.30), 1 or 12.30-5. 1912 1913 1 May-Dec.) (Jan.-June) Teial 302 233 695 422 317 970 549 454 1,275 661 538 1,485 662 493 1,438 Lunch. 406 302 886 561 434 1,253 628 485 1,382 590 464 1,337 736 Women Bureau of Labour Statistics Report. v0 1911-1913 Bogardus All under 18 1910 16 79 29 150 30 193 40 246 42 257 22 Ill 32 156 38 227 37 260 28 The Bureau Reports tabulate separately fatal and non-fatal accidents and for 1912 and 1913 accidents compensated under the law, effective May 1, 1912, and those not thus compensated, These separate figures have been added for each year. Bogardus subtracts all accidents not in any way attributable to human agency ). See Index D7. (82 per cent. THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 339 Taste XIV.—ACCcIDENTS. Belgium.—Rapport Manuel de 0 Inspection du Travail, 1907, pp. 212-217. Usual working hours: 6-12, 1-7. Trades having 400 accidents or over. (a) Text. Build. Mech. Wood. Food. Chem. cures 6="7— *. te ds 18 20 14 24 6 167 7-8 . . 229 70 50 41 26 37 500 8-9 . (b) (168) (67) (65) (31) (37) (31) (454) 9-10. . 214 83 86 54 43 41 586 10-11. . 343 116 105 82 60 43 835 11-12... . 294 87 84 66 49 39 675 12-1 Lunch. ee inl 5 . 48 22 10 12 14 14 136 a pice . 152 62 52 46 35 23 403 3-4 . . 307 137 105 67 58 44 787 4-5 . (b) (190) (89) (56) (54) (37) (33) (504) 5&6 . . 216 63 73 70 54 41 568 i an iP Ays: 49 82 70 47 33 623 Monday . - 406 (c) 178 139 120 95 64 1,108 Tuesday. . 454 150 139 118 78 73 1,117 Wednesday . 454 159 143 122 86 70 1,129 Thursday . 402 150 132 83 101 81 1,051 Friday . . 418 126 135 101 84 71 1,035 Saturday . 524(d) 164 153 122 105 70 1,261 Novss. (a) Of total accidents in textiles, 1.949 occurred to men; 744 to women, (b) Breaks for meals usually occur in these hours. (c) Some factories close at 4 on Mondays. (d) Women and.boys cleaning machinery in motion. TaBLe XV.—ACccIDENTS. Germany.—Amiliche Nachrichten des Reichsversicherungsamts. A.—Industry in 1887 (a). B.—Agriculture in 1891. Austria,—C. General Workman’s Sickness and Relief Insurance, Vienna (0). ( Total pauses. 1-3 hrs. 1-14 at noon. Usual hours ee | 50 per cent. have Sat. halt-holiday. 6 or 7 A.M.—6 or 7 P.M. France (D.).—Imbert in Revue Scientifique, Oct. 21, 1905. All Industries. Hours certainly worked full 7-11 4.m., 2-5 p.m. (M. Le Roy.) A. B. Cc. D. (6-7) . ‘ > (DLL) (435) (187) At 6, 110 7-8. 5 z 747 794 437 Aten Ts 232 8-9. . sel 26 815 517 At 8, 305 9-10 . : . 41,421 1,069 716 At 9, 340 10-11 . . 1,857 1,598 505 Pause. At 10, 478 11-12 . : » 623 1,590 338 At 11, 292 12-1 Lunch HEN ok ‘ 982 745 331 At; “1, 132 2-38. : . 1,408 1,037 538 - At 2, 310 3-4. tte R986 1,243 700 At. 3, 42] 4-5. : . 2,016 1,178 508 Pause. At 4, 588 5-6. Pipa ers era) 1,306 418 At 5, 513 Notes. (a) The accidents in 1897 and 1907 have unfortunately been grouped into 3-hour periods during which the number of men fully at work is undiscoverable. (See U.S. Labour Bulletin 92.) (6) Goldmark, Part II. of larger edition, p. 205. - Z2 340 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Taste XVI.—AccIDENTs. Industrial Commission, Wisconsin. Amtliche Nachrichten des Reichsversicher- Jan. 1913—June 1914. ungsamts, 1910. Germany. 1907. Times of Work: 7-12, 1-5 or 6. 6 or 7-12,1-6 or7. Break at 4. Hour of Work. Ist. is 3 : z : 737 3,933 2nd . a : ‘. 3 . 1,030 6,885 3rd. 5 - : : . 1,692 7,351 4th . : ‘ ‘ 3 . 1,808 9.004 5th . : i : 5 . 1,698 9,739 6th . : 4 : 4 . 1,298 8,106 7th . ; , : . 1,334 6,462 8th . ; : 3 ; ~- LATS 6,903 9th . ; : b 5 . 1,546 6,817 10th . z . 5 3 - 1,216 6,041 10 and over. ; x . 459 8,533 Note.—American and German working times being less broken up by breakfast breaks than English (Section V.A), it is quite worth while reproducing these two attempts that have been made to record the accidents recurring in each ‘ working hour’ as distinguished from the clock-hour. In the Wisconsin figures (not yet published) the meal-hour, 12-1, has been sub- tracted from all the afternoon hours, in the German it would be included in the later ordinals. e Tarte XVII.—Accidents in the Manufacture of Driving Chains and Engineering. Hans Renold. Burnage, Manchester. Range.—Whole factory except Depts. 7 and 35, from Nov. 1910 to April 1914. Owing to changes in the factory hours, Monday accidents are omitted in 1910-1912. Saturday accidents from Nov. 1910 to May 1912 and all accidents in Dept. 2 from May 1912 to April 1914. Accident.—Covers all cases requiring first aid and reported to the matron in attend- ance at factory. Four Winters. Three Summers. Total. Hours of Day. Nov.-April 191C=14. May-Oct. 1911-14., 8- 9 : . DiI Sl 151 121 272 9-10 4 » D2 82 168 153 321 10-11 ‘ . D3 S83 169 195 364 11-12 = . D4 S4 197 178 375 12-1 4 . Dd Sd 147 105 252 2-3 : . D6 SI 176 159 335 3- 4 F . DT S82 177 195 372 4-5 " . D8 83 181 158 339 5- 6 ; . C9 S4 124 182 306 Corrections made.—(i) Where Saturdays are not omitted (see above), the after- noons (from 12 on in 1912 from 12.15 in 1913-14) are averaged by multiplying all afternoon figures by 6/5. (ii) From Jan. 1, 1913, work stops at 5.45; figures for 5-6 after that date are multiplied by 4/3. PA st Mae B7ine aan RARE: fe EE Eee e % LN & pos Daum oat arse ler 2 - n o 1S - - od Q >| oa E - - N N w w w + © N a ° a © nN a : o ° oO ° =} =} ° So ° ao aie sa eo | 9 hio - Ohi = lin (Coal) (Gos) B8 B7 342 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. TaBLE XVIII.—Cuoconate-MAxking ACCIDENTS. Cadbury Bros., Bournville. Range.—Whole of factory that is working at the hours specified below during the years 1909 to 1914 inclusive. Accident.—Covers all cases requiring ‘first-aid’ and reported to the factory medical staff. f Rates of Accidents per Hour.* Girls. Men and Boys. Starting at 8. Starting at 9.) Starting at6 withtwo breaks. Starting at 7.45. 6 —- 6.30 22* 6.30- 7.30 50 7.30- 8.30 49 8- 9 21 7.45-8.30 53* 9-10 19 23 9 —- 9.30 38* 8.30-9.30 52 10-11 28 13 9.30-10.30 5a ps. SESS eeeeeD 11-12 26 17 LOSSO=VE.3S0 25735 ben ok eee OD 12-12.30 38* 26* 11.30-12.30 TO) 5 ee. hy eee oe 1.30-2 14*+ 22*F 1.30- 2 a.m. 27*7 1.30-2.30 507 2- 3 14+ 24} 2 -3 59+ 2.30-3.30 83+ 3- 4 24+ 12+ 3-4 73T 3.30-4.30 84t 4- 5 24+ 20+ 4.30-5.30 907 5- 5.30 41* 17*+ * All figures are averaged up to the hour. + All afternoon figures are multiplied by 6/5 to allow for Saturday afternoon off. Other afternoons are also taken off occasionally, so that for comparison with the morning figures some further addition should be made. TABLE XI X.—AccIDENTS. National Cash Register, Dayton, Ohio. 1914 and 1915 till April. Hours of Work. ‘ Full’”—Till August 1914: 6.30-12; 1-5.15. Sats. till 11.45. ‘ Short.’—After August 1914: 7-12; 1-4.30. No Saturday work. Wages.—Piece rates. 6.45-7.44 . ~ Ibis 12.45-144 . . . I141* 7.45-8.44 . . . 180 1.45-2.44 . oy LO 8.45-9.44 . . . 259 2.45-3.44 . . . 273* 9.45-10.44 . . . 308 3.45-4.44 . . . 261* 10.45-1144 . . . 181 * Note.—All short time and Saturday afternoons have been ‘ averaged.’ TABLE XX.—ACCIDENTS. Cadillac Motor Company, Detroit, Mich. 9 months up to January 1914. Hours of Work.—6.30-11.30 ; 12.30-5.30. Sat. till 11.30. Workers.—All men. 6:30=12305 sopuercuee wel O7 12.30-1.30 .~ . . J25* 7.30-8.30 . . . 130 1.30=2:30 25 eee 8.30-9:30 =) 3 29 2.30-3.30 . . . 200* 9.30-10.30 . . . 152 3.30=4.30) J 20.) We) aLL6* 10.30-11.30 . . . 88 4.30-5.30 . . . 94* * Note.—Afternoon figures include an average for Saturday. So 10 ere eet pk a | : q | 5 330 ff " i. PAK - ae ae ai Se i “ my | zs Se notation. 344 1913 and 1914. TABLE XXJ.—AccIDENTs. Ford Motor Co., Detroit, Mich. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Hours of Work.—6.30 or 7-12 or 11.30; 12.30 or 12-3 or 3.30. (Kight-hour day for six days a week.) Workers.—Mostly men. Hour of Day 6.30-7.29 7.30-8.29 8.30-9.29 . 9.30-10.29 . 10.30-11.29 . 136 232 12.30-1.29 272 1.30-2.30 276 219 TABLE X XIJ.—AccIDENTS. Northway Motor and Manufacturing Co., Detroit, Mich. Hours of Work.—6.30-11.30; 12-5. Hours of Day 6.30- 7. 7 -8 8 -9 9 -10 10 -ll . 11 -11.30 Jan.—May 1915. 58 per hour 0 88 per hour Sat. till 11.30. Note.—Afternoon figures include an average for Saturday. TABLE X XIII.—AccIDENTs. Denison Manufacturing Co., Framingham, Mass. Hours.—April to October: 7.40-12; 1-6; Sats. quit 12. Nov. ,, March Work.—Cardboard-boxes, labels, fancy paper. Worker.—5 women to 3 men (machinists). 7.30- 8.30 . 8.30- 9.30 . 9.30-10.30 . 10.30-11.30 . 11.30-12.00 . 26 34 55 36 40* * Rate per hour. : 7.45-12; 1-5.30; Sats. quit 4. TABLE XXIV.—ACCIDENTS. Jacob & Co., Biscuit Mfg., Dublin. Hours.—8-1; 2-6. Workers.—Mainly Girls. 1913 sai } i ini} pence ee 1913 and 1914 (Jan.—Nov.). 2-1 25 1-2 89 2-3 101 3-4 119 4-5 154 1.00-1.30 . 34 1.30-2.30 36 2.30-3.30 42 3.30—4.30 35 4.30-5.30 33 f 1913 1914 2-3 } 7 Baty ae {13 os} 5 {i 5-6 15 THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 345 | Srerion VII.—InpEx or DocuMENtTs AND Books QuorTep. A. Goldmark, Josephine, Russel Sage Foundation. ‘ Fatigue and Efficiency.’ Large edition with Part IJ., ‘The substance of four briefs.’ Charities Publication Committee, New York, 1912. Besides the advocacy of practical legislative reforms, Miss Goldmark gives admirable summaries of all records, experiments, and investigations of the economic effects of fatigue, many references to which are made below. B. Records. Bl. United Kingdom. Departmental Committee on Accidents, 1911. Cd. 5540. Among the Minutes of Evidence the following relate positively and authoritatively to the question of fatigue. 9485-9512 Mr. Knott gives number of accidents in the Dyeing and Bleaching Industry for periods 9 4.m—1 P.m., 1 P.m.—4 P.m., and two halves of the week, and explains their features on the basis of fatigue and anticipatory excitement. 13180 ff., 5803 ff. . . . The influence of long hours and night work is discussed in increasing the rate of accident through fatigue. In- dividual cases are cited, particularly of young persons. Inthe Report itself are given all the accident time-distributions for the Cotton Industry quoted in Table [X.a and Diagram II., and fatigue is discussed on page 15; but since it was the alarming increase of accidents from year to year that called the Com- mittee the daily or weekly curve does not occupy them. B2. United Kingdom.—Chief Factory Inspectors’ Reports. Contain studies of accident time-distribution in selected industries, as follows :— 1909. Cotton Industry. ; 1910. Shipbuilding. 1911. Automotor and Locomotive Manufacture. 1912. Tron and Steel Foundries. Quoted Tables TX. A, B, ©, D. B3. Belgiwm.—Rapports Annuels de l’Inspection du Travail, 1907. Page 204 gives charts showing the number of accidents in the district of Ghent for each hour of each day of the week. See Goldmark, Part IT. (p. 202). Quoted Table XIV. B4. Germany.—Imperial Insurance Department. U.S. Bureau ot Labour Bulletin No. 92, ‘ Industrial Accidents in Germany,’ summerises the Jecennial ‘ Amt- liche Nachrichten des Reichsversicherungsamts’ for 1897 and 1907, quoted Table XVI. U.S. Commissioner of Labour, 24th Annual Report, summarises the ‘ Nachrichten’ for 1890, quoted Table XV. B5. U.S. Senate.—61st Congress, 2nd Session, Doc. 645, Women and Child Wage- earners.—Vol. XI., p. 99, gives accident and output time-distributions among press hands and in the metal trade generally (quoted Diagram IJ. and Table VIIT. respectively), and compares these with the accident-distribution in the cotton industry (quoted Diagram III.) and manufactures generally, in the States of Wisconsin and Indiana (quoted Diagram I.). BG. U.S. Senate.—62nd Congress, Ist Session, Doc. 110.—‘ Conditions of Employ- ¥ ment in the Iron and Steel Industry.’ Vol. IV. gives accident and output 7 time-distribution. Quoted Tables X. and VIII. ' B7. Illinois.—Bureau of Labour Statistics Reports: Industrial Accidents, 1911, Lh (1912, 1913. Quoted Table XIII. and Diagram I. B8. Massachusetts.—Industrial Accident Board Report (Ist), 1912-13. Quoted - Tables XI. a and B, and Diagrams II. and IV. B9. Minnesota.—Bureau of Labour 12th Annual Report. Gives number of accidents for each hour of day and night in Lumbering, Mining, and Manufactures separately. Quoted Diagrams I., V., and VI. B10. Ohio.—Industrial Commission Dept. of Investigation and Statistics Report: No. 4, ‘ Industrial Accidents, 1914.’ Quoted Table XII. and Diagrams IV, and V. 346 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, Bll. Washington.—Industrial Commission Reports. Give number of accidents for every half-hour of day. Greater proportion occur in ‘ Lumbering’ classed separately in 1912, under Industry in 1913. Quoted Diagram VI. B12. Wisconsin.—Bureau of Labour and Industrial Statistics. Fourteenth Bi- Cl. C3. C4, C6. ennial Report, 1909-10. Gives hourly distribution of manufacturing accidents. Quoted B5 and Diagram I. C. Experiments in Factory Organisation. Roth, Emil, ‘ Ermiidung durch Berufsarbeit.’ Fourteenth International Con- gress of Hygiene and Demography. Contains a comparison of the amount of electrical current used at Siemens and Halske before and after a change in organi- sation. When the hours of work were 7-8.30, 9-12, 2-4 and 4.30-6, and the worker brought his own food, there was a slow increase by practice, a maximum at 9.30-11.30, a fast falling off and less current in the afternoon than morning. When the hours of work were 7-8.30, 9-12, 12.30-2.30, 3-4.30, and food was provided, there was a fast increase by practice, a maximum at 9.15-11.45, little falling off, and current almost as high in the afternoon. Roth is careful to point out that a stricter discipline was enforced after the change that may explain some of the increase of current. . Fromont, L. G., at the Engis Chemical Works, Liége, ‘ Une Expérience In- dustrielle de Réduction de la Journée de Travail.’ Results on output and sick- ness of a reduction of hours ; for a summary see Goldmark, p. 63. Mather, Wm., M.P., ‘ The Forty.eight Hours Week: a yeax’s experiment and its results at the Salford Iron Works.’ Published in pamphlet form, Manchester, 1894, Gives comparison of wages-cost, lost time, and piecework before and after change from fifty-three to forty-eight hour week. For Summary refer to Goldmark, Part I., p. 138. ‘Board of Trade Labour Gazette,’ July 1905. Describes ‘ Reduction of hours in Government Factories and Workshops.’ An average reduction of 53 hours per week in work-places under the War Office and an average reduction of 24 hours per week in work-places under the Admiralty, reducing both to a 48-hour week and introduced in 1894. The output remained the same. . The Twelve-Hour Shift in the Steel Foundry. R. A. Bull, ‘Iron Age,’ Oct. 3, 1912. Compares in detail the materials spent and the quality and quantity of the product before and after a change from the 12-hour to the 8-hour shift at the Commonwealth Steel Co., Granite City, Ill. ‘The differences in most cases are slight, but the essential ones are in favour of the short shift.’ ‘The comparison indicates fully a more economical and efficient manipulation of both open-hearth and boiler furnaces.’ United States Bureau of Labour Bulletin No. 118, ‘ Ten-Hour Maximum Work- ing-Day for Women and Young Persons.’ On page 46 figures are given to show that in three factories in Calcutta where the numbers of hours worked were increased from 11} to 134 up to 144, there was a decrease of output as follows :— Hours per Day Per cent. of Production in 1906 over 1907 Production in Factory 1 Factory 2 Factory 3 134 hourswork . . over 144 work 8°87 15°85 4°49 133 ,, is : 5 Bs 17°32 26°54 5:04 139 O55 ae nS ; 55 5 9°14 22°19 4:56 124 ” ” . . ” oe = ine 10°96 12i ,, ASM e ‘ i 25 12-08 19°21 —_ 12 B eee “| on 29 10:09 15°65 5°68 I es ‘ 5 fe 4-61 9°36 17°17 C7. Associated Efficiency Engineers, New York, 1914, ‘ Efficiency Study of a Mill’s Work.’ This pamphlet ‘examines the expediency of operating only five days a week, with a shutdown on Saturday for cleaning up and mill repairs.’ It finds that the average tonnage per month under this ‘ five-day basis’ was only 2°3 per cent. below that attained on the six-day basis, the total manufacturing or ‘ conversion ’ cost 1:8 per cent. below and the ‘ conversion’ cost per ton ‘3 per cent. above; there is less depreciation on plant and increased efficiency from men and equipment, —o THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 347 C8. Abbé, Ernst, ‘Die Volkswirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Verkiirzung des In- dustriellen Arbeitstages.’ Published in ‘Gesammelte Abhandlungen,’ Part 3, Jena, 1901. Lecture I. compares the output and use of power in the Zeiss Optical Works, Jena, for four weeks under a nine-hour day system and for four weeks after the change to an eight-hour day in 1900. For summary refer to Gold- mark, Part I., p. 155. D. Investigations (Special Correlations). D1. Huntingdon, Prof. Ellsworth, ‘Work and Weather.’ Harper's Magazine, January 1915, p. 233. A summary is given in Section I.s. D2. Imbert, Prof. A., ‘Les Accidents du Travail et les Compagnies d’ Assurances.’ Revue Scientifique, June 4, 1904, p. 715. Gives the daily-curve time of 660 accidents in transport and manufacture combined in 1903. See Goldmark, Part II., p. 193. D3. Imbert, Prof. A., and M. Mestre, ‘ Statistique d’ Accidents du Travail.’ Revue Scientifique, Sept. 24, 1904. Gives diagrams illustrating the daily accident time-curve : A, For 660 Accidents in transportation, 326 in chemical works, and 189 in wood-working in the Dept. of Hérault, 1903. B, For 280 Accidents in building, etc., 149 in metals, and 237 in commerce and banking in the Dept. of Hérault, 1903. C. For 2,065 accidents in Industry in Dept. of Hérault. For 5,534 accidents in 9 Depts. of Toulouse district. D4. Imbért, Prof. A., and M. Mestre, ‘ Nouvelles Statistiques d’ Accidents du Travail,’ Revue Scientifique, Oct. 21, 1905, p. 521. Gives diagrams illustrating the accident time-curve : (A) For hours of day of 3,352 accidents in all industries in 5 Departments of Southern France in 1904. Quoted by Bogardus (Index D7). See Gold- mark, Part Il., p. 198. Quoted Table XV. (B) For days of week. In Belgian manufactures 1901-2 and 1902-3, and in 2,065 accidents in all industry in Dept. of Hérault, whose hourly occurrence was given in article of Sept. 24, 1904. D5. Pieraccini, G., ‘La Curva della Produzione Utile,’ First International Congress on Industrial Diseases, Milan, 1906. Gives some output and mistake time- distributions. For summary refer to Goldmark, Part I., p. 133. D6. Marsh, Howard D., ‘ The Diurnal Course of Efficiency.’ New York, The Science Press, pp. 99. On pages 33-41 is given the output for each hour of the day in the following operations, all of which Dr. Marsh personally supervised : 1, Hight girls, on piece wage, stitching magazines with wire for an average of eight days and a half with three evenings and a half. 2, Hight girls, on piece and time wage, making paper coin-cases for an average of five days and a half. 3, Six girls, on time wage only, numbering checks and ledger-lines for an average of one day and a third. Dr. Howard discusses the different effect on output of work requiring speed, accuracy, and strength ; of time and piece wages, and of the age of the worker. Being interested primarily in the psychology of the individual, he criticises the ‘ smoothing’ out of curves into types and pays great attention to the deviations of the individval curves from the average. D7. Bogardus, E. 8., ‘The Relation of Fatigue to Industrial Accidents.’ American Journal of Sociology, 1911, pp. 17, 206-222, 351-374. Bogardus sets himself the following problems, to each of which we append Bogardus’s own solution :— p- 211. (a) ‘The formulation of a law of the development of the fatigue processes which accompany continued work, in so far as they may be related to accidents.’ 348 D8. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. (p. 222) ‘ Uninterrupted muscular activity is accompanied by inaccurate muscular co-ordinations which increase irregularly and at a rate largely deter- mined by the speed and relative difficulty of the activity for the given individual.’ (b1) ‘ In what ways is the development of the fatigue process hastened in the case of present-day working people, and why; and what are the observable circumstances under which these processes result in accidents ?’ (p. 301.) ‘The chief industrial conditions leading up to and culminating in accidents are those of monotony and speed and of unrelaxed tension kept up for long hours.’ (62) What are the concrete immediate conditions preceding accidents—— The modus operandi of the general causes in bringing about accidents ?’ “ Of 2,666 accidents in Illinois, 1910, 17$ per cent. (463) were beyond con- trol of the injured ; 824 per cent. (2,203) avoidable by injured.’ (c) ‘Can the subjective fatigue processes be measured by means of con- trolled experiments in terms comparable to the observable conditions preceding accidents and thus be causally related to accidents ?’ In answer to this problem Bogardus invented an experimental instrument that seems to produce the actual conditions of industry extremely successfully. (zd) To test his theories ‘ objectively’ Bogardus then examines the hour at which those accidents in Illinois which were ‘ avoidable by the injured’ (see above) occurred ; this hourly distribution is quoted in Table XIII., Col. 7, of our Report. With these figures Bogardus then compares the similar accident time-distributions compiled in Germany (Index B4, Agriculture in 1891, and Industry in 1887), France (Index D4), Belgium (Index B3), Wisconsin (Index B12), and in American Cotton Industries (Index B5), finally adding up all the accidents figuring at the same hour of day. Such a comparison and “summing up’ of different countries, authorities, and industries seem to us somewhat arbitrary, since each of the countries and some of the industries (e.g. Agriculture) have different working hours and many of the authorities have adopted different plans of delimiting the hour. (ec) ‘To what extent do investigations of the causes of railway accidents, for example, by the Interstate Commerce Commission isolate fatigue as a cause of accidents, and have the Courts indicted fatigue as a cause of accidents ?’ In answer, some findings of the Courts are cited. Bogardus then advocates certain legislative and management reforms, and summarises his conclusions as follows :— The typical succession of events consists in :— (a) The development of fatigue. (b) The development of muscular inactivities due to this increasing fatigue. (c) Increasing number of accidents due immediately to this increasing loss of muscular accuracy. Weber, Max, ‘ Zur Psychophysik der industriellen Arbeit,’ in the ‘ Archiv fir Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik.’ Articles. I. Vol. 27 (1908), pp. 730 ff. II. and IIT. Vol. 28 (1909), pp. 219-277 and pp. 719-761. IV. Vol. 29 (1909), pp. 513-542. These articles by Weber fall into two parts; the first part, consisting of the first article and the beginning of the second, is an attempt to view Kraepelin’s psychological study of fatigue from the economic standpoint, and has been translated in full for the Committee by Mr. C. K. Ogden. In the second part Weber has, to quote his own words, ‘ given an illustration of how the figures are to be handled ’ (p. 241, 2nd article), so as to throw further light on the conclusions of Kraepelin, especially in regard to the following points : 1. The facts about the output curve and its most important determinants, 2. The analysis of the curve according to each of its component factors, and also so as to suggest further conclusions, and finally to attempt to trace ‘ how far differences in workers’ output is due to inherited ability and their cultural, social, and uccupational environment,’ THE QUESTION OF FATIGUE FROM THE ECONOMIC STANDPOINT. 349 With this purpose in view Weber studied the output of a Westphalian cotton- weaving establishment from the indications of registers on the looms, and he presents his records in the following tabulations :— 1. 2nd article, p. 249 :—The daily output of looms on similar work for 30 suc- cessive days. 2, ot », 249:—The daily output of one loom for 25 successive days. 3. 5 »» 252:—The output of each day of the week for 100 weeks. (Quoted in Table I. of this Report.) 4, = » 273:—A study of different individual workers, specifying their age and working habits, &c. (i) Their piece earnings. (ii) The daily variation of their output within the week, (iii) Their weekly output (average of 6 days). 5. 3rd article, p. 739 :—The length of training required for new kinds of work. p. 744 :—The degree of ‘increasing stability’ acquired by practice. These Tables, as Weber himself carefully warns us, are not sufficient to establish any conclusion, but are simply given for methodological illustration. In his fourth and last article Weber traces in great detail all the events occurring within a definite period in the life and work of specified individuals, choosing some women turners (Andreherin) as an example of hand-workers and some weavers as an example of machine-workers, and explaining according to actual occurrences the variations in their output, pay, practice, &c., &e. Many of the suggestions of Weber have been incorporated in this Report, particularly his enumeration of some of the conditions of fatigue (Section I.), 350 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—191). Prime Numbers. By G. H. Harpy, F.R.S. (Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso,) Tue Theory of Numbers has always been regarded as one of the most obviously useless branches of Pure Mathematics. The accusation is one against which there is no valid defence ; and it is never more just than when directed against the parts of the theory which are more particularly concerned with primes. A science is said to be useful if its development tends to accentuate the existing inequalities in the distribution of wealth, or more directly promotes the destruction of human life. The theory of prime numbers satisfies no such criteria. Those who pursue it will, if they are wise, make no attempt to justify their interest in a subject so trivial and so remote, and will console themselves with the thought that the greatest mathematicians of all ages have found in it a mysterious attraction impossible to resist. The foundations of the theory were laid by Euclid. Among Euclid’s theorems two in particular are of fundamental importance. The first (Euc. vii. 24) is that 2f a and b are both prime to c, then ab is also prime toc. This theorem is the basis of the whole theory of the factorisation of numbers, systematised later by Euler and by Gauss, and in particular of the theorem that every number can be expressed in one and only one way as a product of primes. The second theorem (Kuc. ix. 20) is that the number of primes is infinite : to this theorem I shall return in a moment. In modern times the theory has developed in two different directions. In the first place there is what may be called roughly the theory of in- dividual or isolated primes, a theory which it is difficult to define precisely, but of which a general idea may be formed by considering a few of its characteristic problems. How can we determine whether a given number is prime ? what conditions are necessary and what sufficient? Can we define forms which represent prime numbers only? Are there infinitely many pairs of primes which differ by 2? Is (as Goldbach asserted) every even number the sum of two primes? This theory 1 shall dismiss very briefly. We know a number of very beautiful theorems of this character. I need only mention Wilson’s theorem, Fermat’s theorem, and the extensions of the latter by Lucas. But on the whole the record of research in this direction is a record of failure. The diffi- culties are too great for the methods of analysis at our command, and the problems remain unsolved. Very different results are revealed when we turn to the second principal branch of the modern theory, the theory of the average or asymptotic distribution of primes. This theory (though one of its most famous problems is still unsolved) is in some ways almost complete, and certainly represents one of the most remarkable triumphs of modern analysis. The theory centres round one theorem, the Primzahlsatz or Prime Number Theorem ; and it is to the history of this theorem, which may almost be said to embody the history of the whole subject, that I shall devote the remainder of this lecture.* The problem may be stated crudely as follows: How many primes * A full account of the history of the theorem will be found in Landau’s Hand- buch der Lehre von der Verteilung der Primzahlen (Teubner, 1909). Ted en le ee ee Ri! a! s AQ ORS "ne ON PRIME NUMBEBRS. 351 are there less. than a given number x? More precisely, let x(x) denote the number of primes * not exceeding x: then what is the order of magni- tude of x(x)? The Prime Number Theorem provides a complete answer to this last question. It asserts that a(x) ae) log a’ that is to say, that x(x) and 2/(log x) are asymptotically equivalent, or that their ratio tends to 1 when z tends to infinity. The first step towards the proof of this theorem was made by Euclid, when he proved that the number of primes is infinite, or that 1(x) >co. Kuclid’s proof is classical, and can hardly be repeated too often. If the number of primes is finite, let them be 2, 3,5, . . ., P. The number 2. 3.5.... P + 1 is not divisible by any of 2, 3,5,...., P. It is therefore prime itself, or divisible by some prime greater than P; and either alternative contradicts the hypothesis that P is the greatest prime. It is worth remarking that Euclid’s reasoning may be used to prove rather more, viz. that the order of x(a) is at least as great as that of log log w.t The next advances were made by Euler, probably about 1740. It was Euler to whom we owe the introduction into analysis of the Zeta- function, the function on whose properties, as later research has shown, the whole theory depends. Lets =o+it. Then the function &(s) is defined, when o>1, by the equations &(s) = Sn =1 42754384 ...5 and Kuler’s fundamental contribution to the theory is the formula 1 &(s) = n(, =) where the product extends over all prime values of p. uler, it is true, considered (s) as a function of a real variable only. But his formula at once indicates the existence of a deep-lying connection between the theory of ¢(s) and the theory of primes. Buler deduced from his formula that the series 2p’, obviously convergent when s>1, is divergent when s = 1; and from this it is easy to deduce important consequences as to the order of x(x). It is evident that (x) thus sin x= O(1), 1007= O(a). 302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. It is also easy to prove that the order of z(x) is definitely less than that of x, or that, as we should express it now, z(z)=o(x).* This theorem, when read in conjunction with those which precede, is, I think, enough to suggest the Prime Number Theorem as a very plausible conjecture, or at any rate to suggest that the true order is that of x/(log x). The theorem was in fact conjectured first by Gauss (1793) and by Legendre (1798); and itis in Legendre’s Essaz sur la théorie des nombres that the conjecture first appears in print. In this state the problem remained for fifty years, until the publication (1849-1852) of the researches of the Russian mathematician Tschebyschef. I have no time to speak of Tschebyschef’s work as fully as it deserves, but his chief results, in so far as they bear directly on the problem now before us, were as follows :— (1) Tschebyschef showed that the problem is simplified if we take as fundamental not the function z(z) itself, but the closely related function (x) = Slog p ESE (the sum of the logarithms of all primes not exceeding z). He showed that the order of O(x) is the same as that of z(z) log a, and that the Prime Number Theorem itself is equivalent to the theorem that A(x) CO a. (2) He showed that 6(%) is actually of order z, and x(x) of order x/(log x), in fact that positive constants A and B exist such that £ x A lee ae (x) < pie re (3) He showed that ¢f 0(x)/« tends to a limit, then that limit must be unity. What Techebysalet could not prove is that the limit does in fact exist, and, as he failed to prove this, he failed to prove the Prime Number Theorem. And about Tschebyschef’s methods (interesting as they are), I shall say nothing ; for later research has shown that it was the essential inadequacy of his methods which was responsible for his failure, and that the theorem lies deeper in analysis than any of the ideas on which he relied. bea The next great step was taken by Riemann in 1859, and it is in Riemann’s famous memoir Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Grosse that we first find the ideas upon which the theory has now been shown really to rest. Riemann did not prove the Prime Number Theorem: it is remarkable, indeed, that he never mentions it. His object was a different one, that of finding an explicit expression for x(x), or rather for another closely associated function, as asum of an infinite series. But it was Riemann who first recognised that, if we are to solve any of these problems, we must study the Zeta-function as a function of the complex variable s=o+ it, and in particular study the distribution of its zeros. * f=o() means that f/p +0. Thus sin «=o0(z). This theorem also was stated by Euler, but without satisfactory proof. a) : ON PRIME NUMBERS. 353 Riemann proved (1) that &(s) is an analytic function of s, regular all over the plane except for a simple pole at the point 1 ; (2) that &(s) satisfies the functional equation &(1 — s) =2(27) “cos sx T (s)&(s) ; (3) that f(s) has zeros at the points —2, —4,—6...., and no other zeros eacept possibly complex zeros whose real parts le between 0 and 1 inclusive. To these propositions he added certain others of which he could produce no satisfactory proof. In particular he asserted that there is in fact an infinity of complex zeros, all naturally situated in the ‘ critical strip’ 01, much like the series }p™*. But ¢(s) has a simple pole for s=1, and so the sum of the series {p~*”’ tends logarithmically to -+-co when 8+0 through positive values. Suppose now that (if possible) ¢(1+¢#i)=0. Then the real part of log (1 +. 8+¢7), and therefore the real part of the series }p*?""’, tends, also logarithmically, to —co when 8>0. It follows that the series =p", — zp” cos (¢ log p) tend to +co with equal rapidity when 8>0. As the first series is a series of positive terms, while the signs of the terms in the second series change with a certain regularity, it is natural to suppose that our last conclusion is impossible ; and this is in fact not particularly difficult to prove. I come now to the proof of the Prime Number Theorem itself. If we differentiate Huler’s formula logarithmically, we obtain Q(s) _ y (log p , log p _ slog p. A = ( as pe .) ee or (1) v. a a5 ) where p assumes all prime values, m and n all positive integral values, 9) AA 354 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—191L5. and A(n) is equal to log p if nis of the form p” and to zero otherwise. Let Y(2) = Y A(n) Then (x) is, for our present purpose, equivalent to O(x): it is easy to show that the difference between the two functions is of order /xz. We have therefore to prove that ¥(x) co z. The series on the right-hand side of the equation (1) is what is called a ‘ Dirichlet’s series’; and the theory of such series resembles the more familiar theory of Taylor’s series in one very important respect. We can express the coefficients by contour integrals in which the function represented by the series appears under the sign of integration. In particular we can show that oe abd ee) @ — Wa)=— ge [FNS as, where the path of integration is a line parallel to the imaginary axis and passing to the right of the point s=1. The general idea of the proof is now easy enough to grasp. Every element of the integral (2) is of order x’, where o>1: we can therefore draw no direct conclusion as to the behaviour of (x) when z= is large. But it is at once suggested that we should try to make use of Cauchy’s theorem. The subject of integration has a simple pole at the point 1, corresponding to the pole of &(s) itself, and the residue at the pole is precisely x; and there are no other singularities on the line o=1, since {(s), as we have seen, has no poles or zeros on that line. Suppose then that we can move the path of integration across to the left of the line, introducing the appropriate correction due to the pole. Plainly we shall then have an expression for ¢(z) — # in the form of an integral in which every element is of order less than that of x. And if we can show that the same is true of the integral itself, we shall have proved that U(x%)c 2, that is to say, we shall have proved the Prime Number Theorem. It will be observed that, if (s) had zeros whose real part is equal to 1, then the result would be definitely false, since there would be additional residues of order x It thus becomes clear why the older attempts to prove the theorem, without using the theory of func- tions of a complex variable, were unsuccessful. The arguments which I have advanced are not exact: I have merely put forward a chain of reasoning which seems likely to lead to the desired result. The achievement of Hadamard and de la Vallée-Poussin was to replace these plausibilities by rigorous proofs. It might be difficult for me to make clear to you how great this achievement was. Some branches of pure mathematics have the pleasant characteristic that what seems plausible at first sight is generally true. In this theory anyone can make plausible conjectures, and they are almost always false. Nothing short of absolute rigour counts ; and it is for this reason that the Analytic Theory of Numbers, while hardly a subject for an amateur, provides the finest possible discipline in accurate reasoning for anyone who will make a real effort to understand its results. TiSH Mae ee Re 2 am BY %, rnias 4 \ Ops, yet. TAL HISTY. — TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. oe aa ‘ Aad Pod . i A kg een { . — . = ren somes i — . "i : a | ad - ‘eg i i, Bs awe | eo , ‘ % 1 Ye ay wt “J 29 2 ay . Z > >= etn at 3 ; heh eee | ¥ ae ‘CLanege } ) rl ae, Oc dy es ma i | f : joriia * : Uae 1 eee ge c ; ba Tole ee a eer ae ee Ste in ay Lit ew Peers A Oh tar get: ee! a > —~ 7 b Sai ites _ “<5% ot, *p too 1. Jf there is a concentration of faint stars in the Milky Way, as maintained by Prof. Kapteyn, this ratio will be increased. Photometric observations have acquired additional importance from the differences between photographic and visual magnitudes. The ordinary plate is more sensitive to blue light than the eye, and the difference between the photographic and visual (or photo-visual) magnitude of a star is an index of the colour. The colour index is found by observation to be related very closely to the type of spectrum. Prof. Seares has shown from the Colour Indices that as the stars become fainter they become progressively redder. Prof. Hertzsprung has found the same thing by the use of a grating in front of the object glass. Among stars of 17:0 m. visual magnitude, Seares found none with a colour index less than *7; this is approximately the colour index of a star of Solar type, i.e., near the middle of the range from blue stars to red stars. There are three ways in which this may occur. The stars may be bright but very distant red stars; or they may be faint red stars, like those in the immediate neighbourhood of the Sun; or there may have been an absorption of blue light. It is not possible to say in what proportion these causes have contributed. The red stars of 90m. and 10:0m. are nearly all very luminous but distant bodies, but it seems likely that stars of 170m. will contain a greater proportion of stars of small luminosity. _ The absorption of light in space is very small and as yet imperfectly deter- mined. Prof. Kapteyn and Mr. Jones, by comparing the colour indices of stars of large and small proper motion, make the difference between the absorp- tion of photographic and visual light as 1 m. in 2,000 parsecs. The question has been examined directly by Prof. Adams, who has obtained spectra of near and distant stars which are identical as regards their lines, and has examined the distribution of the continuous light. This direct method of comparison showed that the more distant star was always weaker in violet light. But as 366 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. both these investigations show that very luminous stars are intrinsically some- what bluer than less luminous stars of the same spectral type, the two causes require further research for their disentanglement. The question is of importance, as it may serve in some cases to determine the distances of very remote bodies whose type of spectrum is known. It must be admitted that we are as yet very ignorant of the more distant parts of the ‘island universe.’ For example, we can make little more than guesses at the distance of the Milky Way, or say what part is nearest to us, what are its movements, and so on. But, nevertheless, the whole subject of the Construction of the Heavens has been opened up in a remarkable manner in the last few years. The methods now employed seem competent to produce a tolerably good model showing the co-ordinates and velocities of the stars as well as their effective temperatures and the amount of light they radiate. Industry in the collection of accurate data is required, along with constant attempts to interpret them as they are collected. The more accurate and detailed our knowledge of the stellar system as it is now, the better will be our position for the dynamical and physical study of its history and evolution. The following business was then transacted :— 1. Discussion on Radioactive Elements and the Periodic Law. Opened by Professor F. Soppy, F.R.S. 2. Report of the Seismological Committee.—See Reports, p. 52. 3. Dr. John Dalton’s Lectures and Lecture Illustrations in Natura. Philosophy. By Professor W. W. Haupane GEE. THURSDAY, SHPTEMBER 9. The following business was transacted :— 1 Discussion on Spectral Classification of Stars and the Order of Stellar Hvolution. By Professor A. Fowusr, F'.R.S. 2. Single Line Spectra of the Elements. By Professor J. C. McLennan. 3. On Prime Numbers. By G. H. Harpy, F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 350. 4. Time Space and Relativity. By Professor A. N. WurreneaD, F.RB.S. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following business was transacted : 1. Discussion on Thermionic Emission. Opened by Professor O. W. Ricnarpson, F.R.S. eu a a ee ee eh porate > eo PO Ey TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 367 2. X-Rays and Crystal Structure. By Professor W. H. Braaa, F.R.S., and Mr. W. L. Braaa. 3. Optical Dispersion as conditioned by Group Velocity. By Professor Sir J. Larmor, F.R.S. 4. New Views of Magnetism. By Professor Pierre WEISS. 5. The Mechanism of Cyclones. By F. J. W. Wuippue. The distribution of pressure and temperature in cyclones in the Temperate Zone has been learned from the analysis of the records from the meteorographs carried by pilot balloons. Up to a height of eight or nine kilométres the cyclone is composed of air cooler than its surroundings; at greater heights, i.e., in the stratosphere, the cyclone contains comparatively warm air. The lower limit of the stratosphere is depressed in the cyclone. This temperature distribution indicates that the air constituting the lower part of the cyclone has recently ascended, whereas the upper air has recently fallen, and accordingly the arrival of a cyclone is marked by an outflow of air at the bottom of the stratosphere and an inflow below. At the beginning of the present paper the amount of this displacement of air is estimated on the assumption that there is no direct exchange of heat, and it is shown that the outflow is concentrated between the seventh and tenth kilométres and is about 6.5 times the net loss of air as estimated by the fall of pressure at the earth’s surface. It is pointed out that a cyclone may be regarded as a disturbance in the stream of air which flows from West to East in the Temperate Zone, and the form of the isobars obtained by superimposing the permanent pressure distribu- tion and the temporary cyclonic distribution is discussed. It is shown that when due allowance is made for the curvature and the progressive motion of these isobars, the gradient wind at certain heights is much less than it would have been if the curvature were inappreciable, so that at these heights the air supply from the rear to the front of the cyclone fails and the cyclone appears to move under the influence of suction applied at the base of the stratosphere. The explanation may be summarised as follows :— If the flow of air at any level were entirely horizontal and along the isobars, and if changes of density were negligible, then the condition for continuity would require the velocity to be inversely proportional to the distance between the isobars, i.e., the velocity would be directly proportional to the pressure gradient. This condition is not satisfied, however, in regions where the air- trajectories are curved. The pressure has to produce the centripetal accelera- tion in the curved path in addition to overcoming the tendency to turn to the right, which is the feature of all horizontal motion in our hemisphere. Accord- ingly the actual velocity where the isobars are curved is less than it should be to secure continuity and maintain a stationary distribution of pressure. The effect of curvature in reducing the velocity is greatest at the heights where the winds are strongest, and therefore the suction effect is concentrated near the base of the stratosphere. The general argument is supported by the analysis of two special cases. 368 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: —Prorrssor W. A. Bonn, D.Sc., F.R.S. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— Gaseous Combustion. THIS year is, as many of you are doubtless aware, the centenary of Davy’s invention of the Miner’s Safety Lamp, which formed the starting-point of his brilliant researches upon Flame, in which he disclosed and brought within the range of experimental inquiry most of the intricate and baffling problems con- nected with the fascinating subject of gaseous combustion. Also, the ground on which we meet to-day is known to the whole scientific world as the place where, during more than a quarter of a century of continuous investigation, a succession of Manchester chemists, led and inspired by Professor H. B. Dixon, have devoted themselves to the elucidation of the many problems which Davy’s work foreshadowed. Therefore, both in point of time and place, the occasion is singularly appropriate for a review of recent advances in this important field of scientific inquiry. At the Sheffield Meeting of this Association in 1910 I had the honour of presenting to a joint conference of Section A and B (Physics and Chemistry) a Report summarising the then ‘State of Science in Gaseous Combustion ’ 4 which gave rise to a keen and stimulating discussion, and was not only printed in extenso in the Annual Report for that year, but was also widely circulated through the medium of the scientific and technical press. There is no need, therefore, for me to refer in any detail to the results of researches already dealt with in that Report. I can more usefully devote part of the time at my disposal to supplementing it with a review of more recent researches which have considerably extended our knowledge in many directions. Ignition Phenomena. The first Section of my 1910 Report was concerned with Ignition Tempera- tures and the Initial Phases of Gaseous Explosions, and it is in connection with ignition phenomena that subsequent progress has been most marked. For the ignition of a given explosive mixture it is necessary that the temperature of its constituents should be raised, at least locally, to a degree at which a mass of gas self-heats itself by combination until it bursts into flame; or, in other words, to a degree at which the chemical action becomes autogenous or self-propelling, so that it quickly spreads throughout the whole mass. This particular degree, or in some cases range, of temperature is commonly spoken of as the ignition-point of the mixture, but in using the expression certain qualifications should be carefully borne in mind. In the first place, as H. B. Dixon and H. F. Coward had shown in 1909,? whereas when certain combustible gases (such, for example, as hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the mechanism of whose combustion is probably of a fairly simple character) and air or oxygen are separately heated in a suitable enclosure before being allowed to mix, the temperature at which ignition occurs lies within a very narrow 1 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1910 (Sheffield), pp. 469 to 505. 27'rans. Chem. Soc. 1909, vol. 95, pp. 514 to 543. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 369 range, which is, within the limits of experimental error, the same for both air and oxygen (i.¢., in the case of hydrogen it is 580° to 590°, and for carbon monoxide 640° to 658°); on the other hand, in cases where the mechanism of combustion is known to be very complex (e.g., hydrocarbons), the ignition range is either fairly wide or is materially lower in oxygen than in air (or both), thus : In Air In Oxygen | | | | Methane : “ : | 650°-750° | 556°-700° | The explanation of such behaviour is probably to be sought in the known complexity of the combustion, and the marked tendency for appreciable and fairly rapid interaction between the inflammable gas and oxygen before the actual ignition-point is reached. If, by any means, such preliminary interaction could be entirely suppressed, or if, on the other hand, it be very rapid in character, the observed ‘ ignition- range’ would be narrowed, as is actually the case with ethylene (542° to 547° in air and 500° to 519° in oxygen). There are two other means by which an explosive mixture may be ignited ; one is by adiabatic compression and the other, and most commonly employed of all, is by the passage of an electric spark. The adiabatic compression of an explosive mixture was originally suggested by Nernst as a means of determining its ignition-point, provided always (1) that ignition is not produced locally whilst the main of the gas is still far below the true ignition temperature, and (2) that the piston of the apparatus does not move appreciably after the gas has been raised to its ignition-point. At the time of my 1910 Report, Falk,* in America, had applied the method in the case of hydrogen and oxygen mixtures, with results which, in the light of more recent work, would appear to have been misleading or erroneously interpreted. Thus, for instance, he found that, of all the mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen, the equimolecular H,+0O, mixture has the lowest ignition-temperature (514°), from which he concluded that the gases react initially to produce hydrogen peroxide rather than steam. Such a conclusion, which I believe to be erroneous, naturally directed attention to the experimental method involved. The subject was promptly taken up here in Manchester by H. B. Dixon and his co-workers,‘ with the result that much new light has been thrown on the phenomena accompanying ignition. The ratio of the ignition-temperature to the initial temperature of the mixture before compression, both expressed in degrees absolute = may be calculated from the compression ratio, (3): by means 2 1 of the well-known formula for adiabatic compression : (n,) = Gi)" R/S where y = the ratio of the specific heats at constant pressure and volume respectively of the mixture compressed, and which for a mixture of diatomic gases, such as hydrogen and oxygen, is usually taken as 1.40. _Dixon’s recent photographic analysis of the appearance of flame when mixtures of carbon bisulphide and oxygen (CS,+30,) are adiabatically com- pressed, have proved that the flame, starting from a point or layer, always takes ai appreciable time to spread through the mixture, and that unless special precautions are taken to arrest the piston at the moment of attainment of the ignition condition, it may be driven in much further than the minimum distance for ignition. The real ignition-point, as above defined, is not necessarily syn- chronous with the actual appearance of flame; there may be, and usually is, an * Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 28, 1517; 29, 1536. “H. B. Dixon, L. Bradshaw. and C. Campbell, 7rans. Chem. Soc. 1914, 105, 2027; H. B. Dixon and J. M. Crofts, ibid. p. 2036. 1915. BB 370 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. appreciable ‘pre-flame period’; only in the fastest burning mixtures is this period negligible, and hence the necessity of stopping the movement of the piston artificially at the beginning of the period, a precaution which Falk seems to have neglected. _ According to Dixon and Croft’s recent determination by this method of the ignition-points of mixtures containing electrolytic gas, whereas successive additions of hydrogen or nitrogen progressively raise the ignition-temperature of the undiluted gas by regular increments, as would be supposed, successive additions of oxygen, on the other hand, lower it, as a glance at the following table will show : The Ignition-points of Mixtures containing Electrolytic Gas by Adiabatic Compression. By H. B. Drxon and J. M. Crorts, 1914. Electrolytic Gas, 2H, + O, = 526° + aH, + «N, + xO. Ci : Ree apie oe : FOOLS Wate leas : - oll° G2 DOL a ea — - . Se RO EOS gt — keer : Bene: teh e=4 602° |} z=4 SIO Ndi lies yn US Fr . 472° ca 676° | 2=8 §15° (526 4+ 182)° (526 + 11x)° The observed raising effects of successive dilutions with hydrogen and nitrogen call for no comment, save that the relative greater effect of hydrogen, as compared with nitrogen, may be attributed to its greater thermal con- ductivity; but the lowering effect of oxygen is indeed puzzling, and its meaning can only be conjectured. Dixon and Crofts have suggested that it may be due either to the formation of some active polymeride of oxygen under the experimental conditions, which seems to me doubtful, or that the concentration ’ of oxygen in some way or other brings about increased ionisation of the com- bustible gas. This at once raises the larger question of whether or not ignition is a purely thermal problem, as until recently has generally been supposed. Professor W. M. Thornton, of Newcastle, has recently published some very suggestive work on the Electrical Ignition of Gaseous Mixtures,’ which, quite apart from its theoretical interest, has an important bearing on the safety of coal-mines where electrical currents are used for signalling and other purposes. The common belief that any visible spark will ignite a given explosive mixture of gas and air is, of course, quite erroneous, for, just as Coward and his co-workers have shown that for a given explosive mixture and sparking arrangement there is a certain limiting pressure of the gaseous mixture below which ignition will not take place, so from Thornton’s work would it appear that a definite minimum of circuit energy is required before a given mixture at given pressure can be ignited by a spark. And, moreover, he has stated that the circuit energy required for the spark ignition of a given mixture say of methane and air is something like 56 times greater with alternating than with continuous current at the same voltage. From this he has argued that the igniting effect cannot be simply thermal, but must be in part at least ionic. This conclusion he has further supported with the statement that the igniting power of a unidirectional current is, in fact, proportional to the current in the case of many gaseous mixtures over an important part of their working range of inflammability. While there is much that is suggestive in Thornton’s work, there is also a good deal which seems very difficult to interpret from a chemical standpoint; I refer more particularly to his later supposition of ‘stepped ignition,’ which is based upon certain observed abrupt increases in the minimum igniting current required with condenser discharge sparks as the proportion of combustible gas ° Proc. Roy. Soc., Sec. A, vol. 90 (1914), p. 272; ibid. vol. 91 (1914), p. 17 i a aa i a, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 371 in the air mixture examined progressively increases. In other words, it is claimed that continuous alteration of the proportions of gas and air in an explosive mixture is, or may be, accompanied by discontinuous alterations in the spark energy required for ignition. I must confess that, after careful examination of the published curves, I am quite at a loss to give them any chemical interpretation, and to being somewhat sceptical about this supposed “stepped ignition.’ : A repetition and extension of Professor Thornton’s experiments would be most valuable as a means to a better understanding of the conditions of spark- ignition. The Influence of Electrons upon Combustion. During the discussion upon my 1910 report, Sir J. J. Thomson reminded chemists that combustion is concerned not only with atoms and molecules but also with electrons moving with very high velocities. They might be a factor of prime importance in such intensive forms of gaseous combustion as are realised in contact with hot or incandescent surfaces, as also in the explosion wave. It is known, of course, that incandescent surfaces emit enormous streams of electrons travelling with high velocities, and the actions of such surfaces may be due to the formation of layers of electrified gas in which chemical changes proceed with extraordinarily high velocities. Again, the rapidity of combustion in the explosion wave might (he thought) conceivably be due to the molecules in the act of combining sending out electrons with exceedingly high velocities, which precede the explosion-wave and prepare the way for it by ionising the gas. With regard to this interpretation of the action of surfaces, Mr. Harold Hartley carried out a promising series of experiments in my laboratory at Leeds University upon the combination of hydrogen and oxygen in contact with a gold surface,° which lend some support to the idea, but they require further extension before it can be considered as finally proved. It is my intention in the near future to resume the systematic investigation of the matter as rapidly as circumstances permit; but the experimental difficulties are formidable, and the mere chemist working by himself may easily be misled. We badly need the active co-operation of physicists in elucidating the supposed réle of electrons in combustion. Professor H. B. Dixon and his pupils have, at Sir J. J. Thomson’s sug- gestion, recently tested the idea as applied to the explosion-wave, with, however, negative results.’ It is known, of course, that the motion of the ions can be stopped at once by means of a transverse magnetic field, in which they curl up and are caused to revolve in small circles, and the question which Professor Dixon decided to put to the test of experiment was whether the damping of the electronic velocities in a powerful magnetic field would have any appreciable effect upon either the initial phase of an explosion or upon the high velocity of detonation. But although he employed a very intense magnetic field, pro- duced by powerful magnets specially constructed by Sir Ernest Rutherford for the deflection of electrons of high velocity, no appreciable effect was observed upon the character or velocity of the flame with any gas mixture at any stage of the explosion. And inasmuch as the high constant velocity of the explosion wave can be entirely accounted for on the theory of a compression-wave liberating the chemical energy as it passes through the gases, there seem to be as yet no experimental grounds for attributing it to the ionising action of electrons. The Initial Period of ‘Uniform Movement of Flame’ through Inflammable Miztures, and Limits of Inflammability. Mallard and Le Chatelier, in their classical researches upon the combustion of explosive mixtures,* discovered that the propagation of flame when such a mixture is ignited in a horizontal tube differs according as whether the ignition ® Proc. Roy. Soc. 1914. ” Proc. Roy. Soc. 1914, Sec. A, vol. 90, p. 506. 8 Ann. des Mines, 1883 (8) 4, 274. 372 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. occurs near the open or closed end of the tube. In the first case, the flame proceeded for some distance down the tube at a practically uniform and fairly slow velocity, corresponding to the true rate of propagation ‘ by conduction ’ 5 this period of uniform movement is succeeded by an irregular oscillatory period, in which the flame swings backwards and forwards with increasing amplitudes, finally either dying out altogether or giving rise to detonation. With certain oxygen mixtures the initial period of uniform slow velocity was shorter and appeared to be abruptly succeeded by detonation, without the intervention of any oscillatory period. When, however, such mixtures were ignited near the closed end of a horizontal tube, the forward movement of the flame was con- tinuously accelerated from the beginning, under the influence of reflected com- pression waves, until detonation was set up. Such, in general, was the sequence of the phenomena observed by these distinguished French investigators. They procéeded to determine experimentally the velocities of the uniform slow movement of the flame in the case of a number of air and combustible gas- mixtures, and plotting their results (in cm. per sec.) as ordinates against percentages of inflammable gas as abscisse, they obtained ‘curves’ which were in each case formed of two inclined straight lines converging upwards to a point which represented the composition and flame-velocity of the most explosive mixture, And they concluded that the points at which the downward produc- tion of the two lines met the zero velocity line would define the upper and lower limits of inflammability for the particular series of gas-air mixtures. Thus the curve they obtained for methane-air mixtures (fig. 1) showed a maximum velocity of 61 cm. per second for a mixture containing about 12°2 per cent. of methane, with lower and upper limits corresponding to 5°6 and 16°7 per cent. of methane, respectively. An exact knowledge of the velocities of flame-propagation during this initial period of uniform slow movement, as well as of the limits of inflammability for mixtures of various combustible gases and air, is very important from a prac- tical point of view. Makers of apparatus for burning explosive mixtures of gas and air want to know the speed of flame-propagation through such mixtures, not only at ordinary temperatures and pressures, but also when the mixtures are heated and used at higher pressures. Also it would be important to know whether or not in the case of a complex mixture of various combustible gases and air, where complete composition can be determined by analysis (as, for example, coal-gas and air), the velocity of flame-propagation can be calculated from the known velocities for its single components. Unfortunately, although more than thirty years have elapsed since Mallard and Le Chatelier’s work was published, the necessary data are still wanting to answer such questions, and anyone who will systematically tackle the problem and carefully work it out in detail will be doing a real service to the gas-using industries. I am hoping shortly to make a beginning with such an investigation in my new Department, at the Imperial College, London, but the successful and rapid progress of such work will involve considerable financial outlay as well as organisation and expert direction. Who will help us with the necessary funds? An accurate knowledge of the behaviour of methane-air mixtures under known variations of conditions is of prime importance from the point of view of the safety of coal-mines, and it is rightly occupying the attention of my friend and former collaborator, Dr. R. V. Wheeler, at the Home Office Experi- mental Station at Eskmeals. And from papers which he has already published, as well as from some unpublished results which he has very kindly permitted me to refer to in this Address, it is now possible to correct certain errors in Mallard and Le Chatelier’s results, and to arrive at a clearer view of the phenomena as a whole. In the first place, it would appear that the initial ‘ uniform movement’ of flame in a gaseous explosion, or, in other words, propagation of the flame from layer to layer by conduction only (as defined by Le Chatelier), is a limited phenomenon, and is only obtained in tubes of somewhat small diameter, wide enough, however, to prevent appreciable cooling of the flame, but narrow enough to suppress the influence of convection currents. Moreover, ignition must be either at, or within one or two centimetres of, the end of the tube, or PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 373 otherwise—particularly with the more rapidly moving flames—vibrations may be set up from the beginning. Whilst all methane-air mixtures develop an initial uniform slow flame- movement period when ignited at or near the open end of a horizontal tube, both its linear duration as well as the flame velocity are not, according to private information which Dr. Wheeler has sent me, independent of the dimen- sions of the tube (vide fig. 2). The speed of flame increases with the diameter of the tube, and the linear duration of the uniform period increases with both the diameter and length of the tube up to a certain maximum, after which increase in length probably makes no appreciable difference ; also, for the same tube, it varies with the proportion of methane in the explosive mixture, being greater as the speed of the flame diminishes, until with the two ‘ limiting’ explosive mixtures it appears to last almost indefinitely. Dr. Wheeler’s recent redetermination of the velocities of the flame move- Rate oF INFLAMMATION, (Le Chatelier.) METHANE AND AIR. METRES PER SECOND 5 6 7 8 9 10 i 12 13 14 15 16 17 % METHANE Fig. 1. ment during this initial uniform period for mixtures of methane and air in varying proportions within the limits of inflammability has revealed serious errors in Mallard and Le Chatelier’s original results for horizontal tubes of the same diameter as those which Dr. Wheeler has employed. Moreover, Mallard and Le Chatelier’s method of determining the composition of the upper and lower limits of inflammability by extrapolation from their curves has been proved to be unwarranted. Dr. Wheeler considers that the length of the tubes used by Mallard and Le Chatelier (1 métre only) was insufficient to ensure that the speed measurements of its initial uniform flame-movement period were unaffected by the subsequent ‘vibratory period.’ Also, the methane used by them, prepared as it was from sodium acetate, would obviously be impure. The most important differences between the latest results published by Dr. Wheeler and those originally determined by Mallard and Le Chatelier, as shown on the accompanying diagram (fig. 3) are as follows: (1) According to Wheeler, the limits of inflammability for horizontal propa- gation of flame in methane-air mixtures, at atmospheric temperature and pres- sure, correspond to 5-4 and 143 per cent. methane contents, respectively, whereas Mallard and Le Chatelier gave 5°6 and 16°7 per cent. 374 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. (2) Whereas, according to Mallard and Le Chatelier, the flame velocities for mixtures near the upper and lower limits would gradually approximate to the zero velocity ordinate, as the limiting composition was approached, according to Wheeler the velocities for both the upper and lower limiting mixtures are considerable (in each case about 36 cm. per sec.), and there is an abrupt change from these velocities to zero velocity as the particular limiting composi- tion is passed. Dr. R. V. Wheeler on Speeds of Uniform Movement of Flame through Methane- Air Mixtures in Tubes of Different Diameters. 200 pea) / ei Nast ne 150 ot 100 -- aa 38” pales ah | FLAME VELOCITY IN C.MS PER SECOND ee 5 6 7 8 9 10 TP 13 14 15 fm METHANE Fig. 2. (3) Whereas Mallard and Le Chatelier found a maximum velocity of 63 cm. per sec. for a mixture containing about 12'2 per cent. of methane, and a rapid falling off in velocity as this particular composition is deviated from, Wheeler finds a maximum velocity of 110 to 112 cm. per second for a series of mixtures containing from 9°45 to 10°55 per cent. of methane. Such differences as are thus disclosed only emphasise the need of a complete experimental revi- sion of the subject. : aa : Messrs. Burgess and Wheeler have recently determined the limits of inflam- mability of methane when mixed, at atmospheric temperature and pressure, with ‘ atmospheres’ of oxygen and nitrogen containing less oxygen than ordinary air. From their results (see table, fig. 3) it would appear that as the oxygen content PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 375 of the atmosphere is reduced, the limits of inflammability are narrowed until they coincide when the oxygen content falls below 13°3 per cent., which means .that an atmosphere containing 13°3 or less per cent. of oxygen is truly extinctive for a methane flame at ordinary pressures. | Atmosphere | Methane per cent. Oxygen Nitrogen Lower Limit Higher Limit 20°90 79°10 5-60 14°82 / 17°00 83-00 5°80 10°55 15:82 84:18 5°83 8°96 14°86 85°14 6-15 8°36 13°90 86°10 6°35 7-26 13°45 86°55 6:50 | 6°70 | My review of this part of the subject would be incomplete without a refer- ence to some interesting observations which have been made by Dr. H. F. Coward and co-workers at the Manchester School of Technology upon the behaviour of weak mixtures of various inflammable gases and air at or just below the lower limit of inflammability in each case.® Their principal experiments were carried out in a rectangular box of 30 cm. square section and 1°8 metres length, with two opposite sides of wood, and the other two of plate glass. The box was placed in an upright position, the bottom being water-sealed and the 120 Verocrry or INFLAMMATION. c.MS PER SECOND 10 15 20 % METHANE Burgess and Wheeler Mallard and Le Chatelier ................+ Fie. 3. top closed, with a suitable igniting device near the bottom. They have shown that caps or vortex rings of flame may be projected for some distance upwards from the source of ignition, sometimes apparently for an indefinite distance, without igniting the whole of the combustible mixture. In such mixtures ®* Trans. Chem. Soc. 1914, 105, p. 1859. 5 376 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. there may be an indefinite upward slow propagation of flame together with incompleteness of combustion (much of the combustible mixture remaining unburnt), and the question naturally arises as to how the term ‘inflammability ” should be scientifically defined. Dr. Coward has argued with some force that a gaseous mixture should not be termed ‘inflammable’ at a given temperature and pressure unless it will propagate flame indefinitely, the unburnt portion being maintained at that temperature and pressure. Inflammability, thus defined, would be a function of the temperature, pressure, and composition of a particular mixture only and would be independent of the shape and size of the containing vessel; and, provided that it is kept in mind that for each particular mixture at a given temperature and pressure a certain minimum igniting energy and intensity is requisite, I am inclined to agree with the definition. Also, there is the possibility that in a mixture just at or very near one or other of the limits of inflammability flame may be propagated upwarlls but not downwards. From his experiments Dr. Coward has assigned the following as the lower limits of inflammability of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide, respec- tively, in air at atmospheric temperature and pressure : Per cent. Hydrogen : : . - 4] Methane . , 5 : , 57310 Carbon monoxide . , 4 12°6 The Combustion of Hydrocarbons and the Relative Affinities of Methane, Hydrogen, and Carbon Monoxide, respectively, for Oxygen in Flames. Under the title of ‘Gaseous Combustion at High Pressure’ I have recently published, in conjunction with various collaborators,'! a further instalment of my researches upon the mechanism of hydrocarbon combustion,’? and I may perhaps be allowed to draw your attention to certain new points which have arisen in connection therewith. A detailed study of the behaviour cf mixtures of methane and oxygen of composition ranging between 2CH,+0, and CH,+0,, when exploded in steel bombs at initial pressures of 12:7 atmospheres (see table, fig. 4), has shown it to be consistent with the ‘hydroxylation’ theory of hydrocarbon combustion which I put forward some years ago as the result of my previous work. The following scheme seems to interpret correctly the chemical and thermal changes involved in the initial stages of the explosive combustion of methane : A B Cc oxidation oxidation Cl via H,:C: (OH), Hf, «le H.0 CH, “30 > H;,:C.0H—— 59 > 2:C:0+4H, = =| eS RS} | 2 mM n £) _ 99 ee B) _ 19-4 5 i = 22:8 5 } iS) S} ® 8 B Q A Vv Vv Vv C+ 2H, CO + 2H, Co + H, Al Bi cl 7° Too much stress need not be laid upon the difference between this number and the 56 per cent. given by Dr. Wheeler (loc. cit.), because Dr. Coward himself admits that the flames of mixtures containing from 5°3 to 5°6 per cent. of methane are very sensitive to shock, whilst a 5°6 per cent. mixture will always propagate flame indefinitely even when there is a moderate disturbance; the conditions must be exceedingly tranquil to prevent extinction in the other cases. ™ Messrs. Hamilton Davies, H. H. Gray, H. H. Henstock, and J. B. Dawson. % Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A., vol. 215 (1915), pp. 275 to 318. 377 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. OL *peytsod -ap uoqivo ON = “AATIO ‘poytsodep uoqiva £ a1q oypegom =direys Yara uorsojdxe yuojora Ara, | “poytsodap uoqivo oN “o[qrpne Aourystp uorsojIxg | -tpneur ysouye uorsojdxy |“ * * * * syreuey C9.¢ sqonpoad “H*°00 ‘ : 7 : dso ———————— O18 F-€ €F-€ CL 9 jonp tH0 X00 Ve a Pe. | a G-8E F-0E ‘86 G-&P 0G P ‘qu00 red We 068 2 Gist 00st ae Wiad, © S082 eae (ame oe ee ee eat! oe ee LL& O9L 64-9 se Sf0l OF | The O00Gl LbL 8c 9GEl 08-9 | * Syonpord aah ursyu 12-9 O8-3L OF-9 6¢-¢ S814 60-L 8I-¢ 0-ST #F9-L 61-7 OI-LIT 9-8 * 9dNyxTUn [BUTSEIO f° wea ‘O “ist 0) ‘O del 0 ‘O “H 0) ‘O ‘H ze) 09-L G0-F¢ 08-6 29-99 36-01 GO-L¢ 9-8 06-F¢ : : A) Tu qu 6£-0 GEG $8-0 C9-F 0¢-Z 09-91 : HO : ; FPG 0¢-8¢ PP-9 G-LE PP-9 09-98 £8-£ Ones oP = sage ee ee 0-1 CF-L L9-0 g8-§ 6F-0 OL-G L¥F-O O1-€ : (0/9) soroydsouryy sorsydsou4y sar1sydsowyy soroydsoumyy ‘soanssoig ‘quad 19g ‘soanssalg “quod 13g ‘soinssotdg “quad lag ‘soamssoilg *queo 19g reed ered eed eared 16-9 G-6F 69.-¢ CG-FF 81-¢ L-0F 61-7 C8-6E ies 0) OF-9 8.0¢ 60-L GL.G¢ PG-L £.68 66.8 ST-L9 ety } oanysrn MEO sorsydsouyy sorloydsoury soroydsounyy soroydsouyy ‘gsaanssoig “quad 19g ‘soanssoig *qua0 19g ‘samnssolg “quad Jag ‘saanssoig *qu00 Jag ered [eae reed eyed GL-I 96-1 GF-1 8I-1 ; : ; os ede OL-F1 0 -L1 OL-81 C0-ST Rae @d | sareydsourye 19-21 89-Z1 GL-él FL-GL Edm © id Jut somssorg é1 ai II ol * * “ON quourrmedxgy ‘sauaydsouyw Lgl aunssaig puywuy yo quog wu *O+'HO pun %O +HOZ waamjaq uoyrsodmop bualisna fo sauyxiyg fo ucrwojdapy 378 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. The principal experimental facts which this, or indeed any alternative, scheme must explain are as follows: (1) That whenever mixtures of composition between 2CH,+0O, and CH,+0, are exploded under pressure a considerable proportion of the original oxygen appears as steam in the products; (2) That there is a marked minimum in the proportion of such oxygen as the composition of the original mixture approximates to 3CH,+20,; and (3) That there is a total cessation of any separation of carbon (which is very marked with mixtures 2CH,+0,) after the proportion of oxygen in the original mixture attains or exceeds the limit 3CH,+20,. ‘ Now, if, as I believe, the initial interaction of methane and oxygen is at all temperatures essentially a ‘hydroxylation’ process, accompanied by the decom- position (more or less rapid according to the temperature) of the primarily formed hydroxylated molecules, a consideration of the chemical and thermal aspects of the process will point to certain probabilities which are indeed actually realised in fact. In the first place, monohydroxymethane (methyl alcohol) CH,.OH is known to decompose at high temperatures, yielding carbon monoxide and_ oxygen, without any separation of carbon or formation of steam, CH,.OH=CO+2H,,. Also, the very unstable dihydroxy methane, H,:C:(OH), would yield formal- dehyde and steam, H,: C: (OH),=H, : C:0+H,0, and the formaldehyde would in turn decompose into carbon monoxide and hydrogen, H,: C: 0:=CO+H,, without any deposition of carbon whatever. If now the thermal consequences of such facts be considered, it would appear (1) that if the oxidation of methane to H,:C.OH (A to B in the scheme) were accompanied by thermal decomposition at this stage (B to B’), the net heat evolution would be (30—22°8)=7-2 kilogram Centigrade units; whereas (2) if the same amount of oxygen reacted in such a way that there was a ‘ non- stop’ run through the monohydroxy- to the dihydroxy- stage, with decomposi- tion at the point (A to C and C to C'), the corresponding net heat evolution would be $(30+59—13:°4)=37-°8 units, or about five times as much as in (1). Hence there would always be a strong tendency for such a non-stop run from A to C through B, without any decomposition occurring at B, and such would always occur whenever the oxygen present in the original mixture attained the equimolecular proportion CH,+0.,. Again, if the original mixture contained only half such proportion of oxygen (2CH,+0,), there would still be a decided preference for an oxidation of one- half of the methane by a non-stop run A to C through B, rather than an oxidation of the whole of the methane to B only, the other half of the methane remaining unchanged, or undergoing thermal decomposition into its elements, CH,=C+2H, (A to A’). Also, the latter process would use up no more of the energy developed from the oxidation than would be required for the decomposi- tion of a corresponding quantity of H,:C.OH at stage B (B to B'). Hence when such a mixture, 2CH,+0,, is exploded under pressure, the formation of carbon and its oxides, hydrogen, and considerable quantities of steam may be expected, which is what actually occurs. When, however, the proportion of oxygen in the original mixture reaches the limit 3CH,+20,, whilst it is still insufficient to oxidise the whole of the hydrocarbon to the dihydroxy- stage, there is enough of it to prevent any methane remaining unoxidised to (at least) the monohydroxy- stage, and, there- fore, seeing that the affinity of methane for oxygen far exceeds those of either hydrogen or carbon monoxide, it is to be expected that no substantial pro- portion of the original methane would escape oxidation to either the mono- or the dihydroxy- stage. But inasmuch as not more than about one-third of the original methane could, in the circumstances, be transformed into the di-hydroxy- stage, it follows that a considerable amount of thermal decomposi- tion at the mono-hydroxy- stage would occur. If this view is correct, it follows that there should be an entire suppression of carbon deposition at or about the 3CH, + 20, ratio, and, also, that with this PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 379 particular mixture a smaller proportion of the original oxygen should appear as steam in the products than would be the case with either the 20H,+0, or the CH,+0, mixture, which again is precisely what we find. In considering the question of the explosive combustion of hydrocarbons it is important to distinguish between (1) the primary oxidation of the hydro- carbon, which is an exceedingly rapid process and is probably completed during the short interval between ignition and the attainment of maximum pressure, and (2) certain probable secondary interactions where influence may extend far into the subsequent cooling period, for it is only this latter which would be affected by variations in the rate of cooling down from the maximum temperature. Such secondary interaction may include (a) the reversible change CO + OH,= = CO, + H, and, in cases where carbon is deposited as the result of the decomposition of primary oxidation products, the interaction of steam and carbon C+OH,=CO+H,. In this connection, I may draw attention to the recently published work of G. W. Andrew,** one of my former pupils and collaborators, on the ‘ Water Gas Equilibrium in Hydrocarbon Flames’ which proves that in a system containing only CO,, CO, H,, H,O, rapidly cooling down from the high temperatures prevailing in hydrocarbon flames, the equilibrium ratio ee adjusts itself automatically with the temperature until a point : 2 between 1500° and 1600° C. on the cooling curve is reached (corresponding to a value K=4-0 approximately), after which no further readjustment occurs. He also found that this adjustment of equilibrium is not greatly influenced even when relatively large quantities of methane and carbon are found in the final products. I am able, from my own experiments, to confirm Andrew’s conclusions in all cases where the initial firing pressure is insufficient to set up detonation; but, in cases where both detonation and separation of carbon occur, my results undoubtedly indicate an appreciable intervention of the separated carbon during the cooling period. There is nothing in my results, however, suggestive of an appreciable intervention of methane. The fact that the primary oxidation of methane usually involves a direct transition from CH,+0, to CH,(OH),, which latter breaks up into, ultimately, CO+H,+H,0, without any deposition of carbon, opened up the possibility of instituting a direct experimental comparison between the relative affinities of methane and hydrogen for oxygen in explosions by exploding a series of mixtures CH,+0,+2H, in which the hydrocarbon and oxygen were initially present in as nearly as possible equimolecular proportions, but in which a (the volume ratio of H, to CH,) was varied between 2 and 8, and determining (1) the oxygen distribution on explosion when x=2, and (2) the influence upon such distribution of successive equal increments of x up to 8. Ever since Davy’s experiments on Flame, the combustibility of hydrogen has been erroneously considered to be superior to that of methane; but, on the other hand, my previous researches upon hydrocarbon combustion have shown (1) that in slow combustion in borosilicate glass bulbs at temperatures between 300° and 400° C. methane, ethane, and acetylene are all oxidised at a much faster rate than is either hydrogen or carbon monoxide; and also (2) that in exploding such mixtures as C,H,+H,+0, or C,H,+2H,+0, the hydrocarbon is burnt in preference to hydrogen, facts which are at variance with any notion of the superior affinity of hydrogen for oxygen in flames. My further experiments upon the relative affinities of methane and hydrogen for oxygen in explosives were carried out at high initial pressures in two special steel bombs, namely, A, with a cylindrical explosion chamber 8 inches long and 1 inch in diameter (capacity=circa 103 c.c.), and, B, with a spherical cavity 3 inches in diameter (capacity =circa 275 c.c.). The ratio of wall surface of the explosion chamber in the case of Bomb A would thus be about 2°75 times that of Bomb B. The mean results obtained for the distribution of oxygen 8 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1914, 105, pp. 444 to 456, 380 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. between methane and hydrogen in the two sets of experiments were as follows : Distribution of Oxygen when Mixtures CH,+0,+2H, are exploded. x 2 4 6 8 Ia sack %, of %, orb a (Oste OBy. Vo. | (9b 81-0 54:9 31-4 eee tey | OEKbo dls (~ 14 ; , 4:66 19-0 45°1 68°6 iO taCH, pote: Vet Gad 91-0 72:6 = Boni { Os omg ae eS PMT 9-0 27-4 he It is at once evident from the results with the mixture CH,+0,+2H, that the affinity of methane is at least twenty to thirty times greater than that of hydrogen for oxygen in explosion flames. The actual distribution of oxygen when a particular mixture is exploded: is undoubtedly influenced to some extent by the walls of the containing vessel, but not, so far as I have been able to ascertain, by the absolute initial pressure. Moreover, it is evident that the influences of successive increases in x, the volume ratio of H, to CH, in the mixture exploded, upon the actual oxygen distribution for a given explosion is proportionate to a”, which can hardly mean other than that in explosion flames hydrogen is Wirectly burnt to steam, and not, as many have supposed, via the intermediate formation of hydrogen peroxide. A similar series of experiments with mixtures CH,+0,+2CO show that whilst it is impossible, owing to circumstances which I need not here detail, to deduce, even approximately, any numerical relation between the affinities of methane and carbon monoxide for oxygen in flames, yet we can confidently say that the affinity of the hydrocarbon is again vastly the superior, although carbon monoxide is apparently more effective than hydrogen in pulling away oxygen from the predominating attraction of methane. Having thus satisfactorily disposed of the question of relative affinities of the three gases for oxygen in explosion flames, it remained to prove whether or not such chemical factors determine the ratio of attainment of maximum pressure in explosions, by exploding mixtures of each of the three combustible gases with air, in such proportions as correspond with the primary oxidation, namely: (1) CH,+0,+4N,, (2) 2H,+0,+4N,, and (3) 2C0+0,+4N,, at initial pressure of from 45 to 50 atmospheres in the spherical Bomb B to which was attached a Petavel recording manometer with its optical accessories. The pressure records which are reproduced in the following diagrams (figs. 5, 6, and 7), in which pressures in atmospheres are plotted against time in seconds, prove conclusively the absence of any direct relation between the eo FEE a w S200/-++|+-p4o Sa H 2H2+02+4N =o alae a ‘meee | Sos LLY Shen --=Ssennen = in iiss SO ae z — | __I Z ool LLL Bio aiealeblsar Pa 5 SCRE VESne Ace oeee a a = es A) co EGRReG CE! eer rae ch EC Peat tide = «(eae ccm ea fa eh ea 0 2 4 6 8 10 20 25 30 15 TIME IN tty SECONDS After Firing Fia. 5. actual rate at which the potential energy of an explosive mixture is transferred on explosion as sensible heat to its products and the magnitude of the chemical affinity between its combining constituents. This is hardly to be wondered at, — PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 381 seeing the extreme rapidity of chemical interaction at high temperature as com- pared with the rate at which the liberated heat can be communicated to and uniformly distributed amongst the products by ordinary physical processes. Attention may be drawn to the extreme slowness of the cooling in each case after the attainment of maximum pressure; this has also been observed by SSO anaa [ania . Zsooi +1} 1 tI ABSESSee a rr 7 aoe |e |_| z EBEEEREES ~ a - E00 DRI SRSEESOea Geese z os FE ay Ss me : ela > areas ee ee ae fe aa [| = EHSABBEA 7 melodie LI o 2 4 6 8 10 1S 20 25 30 35 TIME IN 7g SECONDS After Firing Fia. 6. previous workers in other similar cases of gaseous explosions. This was particularly marked in the case of the methane-air mixture, in which there was hardly any appreciable cooling during an interval of 0:22 seconds after the attainment of maximum pressure (in 0°08 sec.), a circumstance which may be due in part to the combustion taking place in well-defined chemical stages, and us HE Sees Z BRRES oan oon Bes ae L+H Seoo 1 TTI I IT | — [| — HUGS saBes BS —+~ ie i Rees gaa | Lt Li HH 2400 Be Sodfeutont coazaeteoedanateneattoatecatastas Sia DBP, = - | ty Pa : [| | 7 Es : Ee NB@e | |_| EER EnsS fal aaa = eae HEH z a eae ee toeoeo aeeee @ ft PEE Geom PEER fila id ca eh | | i | ew i ae a is a ie) 2 4 6: 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 TIME INtéo SECONDS After Firing Fig. 7. PRESSURE IN ATM 3 ° in part also to the operation of the exothermic secondary interaction between carbon monoxide and steam during the cooling period. On the other hand, the curve for the hydrogen-air mixture, where the combustion to steam is a direct and comparatively simple transaction, suggests that the attainment of maximum pressure is succeeded by a period of gradual cooling uninfluenced by chemical combination. Fuel Economy and the Proper Utilisation of Coal. Leaving now the scientific aspects of flame and combustion I wish to say a few words, as a technologist, upon the great national importance of a more adequate scientific control of fuel consumption and the utilisation of coal generally, with special reference to the situation created by this terrible and ruinous European conflict. And my remarks will be addressed in part to my chemical friends and colleagues, who are primarily interested in scientific research and its industrial applications, and in part also to the commercial and manufacturing community, which is chiefly interested in the financial results of such scientific activity. Notwithstanding the fact that we are raising annually in the United Kingdom (according to the official estimate for 1913) 287 million tons of coal, 382 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. of which 189 million tons (or, say, 4 tons per head of population) were consumed at home more or less wastefully, it is indeed surprising how little has been done, or is being done, by the scientific community to impress upon the Government and the public generally the importance of establishing some systematic control or investigation of fuel consumptions in all large industrial areas. Deputations have waited upon the Government about the question of reviving our languishing coal-tar colour industry, so that in future we may be independent of Germany for the supply of the two million pounds’ worth of dye-stuffs required by our textile industries, and already a State-aided organisa- tion, with an advisory scientific committee, has sprung into existence to achieve that desirable result. But no organised body of scientific men, so fat as I know, has ever thought it important, or worth while, to take an active interest in the vastly greater subject of fuel economy and the proper utilisation of coal, upon which the dyeing industry depends for its raw materials. It is unnecessary for me to remind you that the contending armies in this Armageddon of the nations depend upon certain distillation products of coal for their supplies of high explosives, and there is little doubt in my mind but that Germany’s violation of the neutrality of Belgium, and her subsequent seizure of that country and of a large tract of Northern France, had more than a purely political or strategic significance. She doubtless wanted also to seize for herself, and at the same time to deprive her enemies of, coal-fields lying just beyond her own borders, which are capable of furnishing abundant supplies of coal admirably adapted for yielding the raw materials for the manufacture of high explosives. A country in which all metallurgical coke has for years past been manufactured under chemical supervision in by-product coking ovens with recovery of ammonia, tar, and benzol, and in which the wasteful beehive coking ovens have long ago ceased to exist, was hardly likely to overlook the military importance of the Belgian coal-field with its many by-product coking plants. And, moreover, but for German commercial acumen and enterprise, during many years past, our own by-product coking industry would not have attained even to its present respectable dimensions. Certainly, it owes very little to the interest or attentions of British chemists, most of whom are, unfortunately, but little aware of its circumstances and conditions, and seem to care even less for its particular problems. And yet in proportion to the capital outlay upon it, it is one of the most profitable of all our chemical industries, coal-tar colour- making not excepted. Fuel economy, and the proper utilisation of coal, whether in connection with manufacturing operations or with domestic heating, will become one of the most important national questions during the trying years that will follow hard upon this war, because, of all directions in which national economy can be most health- fully and advantageously exercised, this is perhaps the most obvious and_pro- lific. For it is tolerably certain that with an efficient and systematic public supervision of fuel consumptions we ought to be able, even with existing appliances, to save many millions of pounds of our annual coal-bill, and with improved appliances still more millions, a saving which would in the long run redeem a considerable amount of the War-loan, which has been much more easily raised than it will be repaid. Now, I fear that not only are chemists for the most part lamentably igno- rant of the nature of coal, and of modern fuel technology, but they have been for many years past so indifferent about such questions as to leave them almost entirely to engineers, who, as a body, are notoriously deficient in chemical sense and experience. The engineer has indeed not usurped the place of the chemist, but has had to do his best to fill the position long since abdicated by the chemist. This, indeed, seems strange when we remember that the foundations ot modern chemistry were deeply laid by investigators who were, above all things, ‘ fire-worshippers.’ But, judging from most chemical text-books, nearly all that the modern student of chemistry is taught in our academies about combustion was known to Lavoisier, and JI question whether in the majority of our university laboratories any investigation upon coal or combustion iis ever undertaken. And yet the subject is full of the most fascinating and funda- mental theoretical problems, for the most part unsolved. and the nation con- sumes every week as much coal as could be exchanged for the whole quantity of aniline dyes used by its textile industries in a year. ~ ee a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 383 Moreover, such advances as have been made during recent years, and they are by no means inconsiderable, have nearly all been in the direction of the wider applications of gaseous fuels, yet in how many of our University laboratories is even gas analysis taught, or how many of our Schools of Chemistry provide systematic courses in the chemistry and manipulation of gases, without which no professional training of industrial chemists, however much ‘ research work’ it may include, ought to be considered satisfactory? It is my opinion that this important branch of our chemical craft and science has not, for many years past, been accorded its proper place and share of attention in the ordinary curriculum of the majority of our academic institutions. Of the 189 millions of coal consumed in the United Kingdom in the year 1913, about 40 million tons, or say approximately one-fifth of the whole, was carbonised either in gasworks, primarily for the manufacture of town’s gas, or in coke ovens, for the manufacture of metallurgical coke, in practically equal proportions. Two-thirds of the latter was carbonised in by-produce recovery plants, the remainder in the old wasteful beehive ovens. So that, roughly speaking, we have Total Coal Carbonised = 40 million tons OO In Gasworks In By-product Coke Ovens In Beehive Coke Ovens 20 13°5 6°5 At the present moment there are 8,297 by-product coke ovens built in this country, or which 6,678 are fitted with benzol recovery arrangements, capable of producing in all something like 10 million tons of coke per annum. The yields of the various by-products obtainable on such coke-oven installa- tions naturally vary with the locality and character of the coal-seam, but they probably average out somewhat as follows, expressed as percentages on dry coal carbonised : District | Ammonium | Tar Benzol and Toluol as Sulphat Finished Product Durham 0-9 to 1-45 | 2:5 to 4:5 0-6 to 1-0 Yorkshire 1:3 to 1-5 3:5 to 5-0 0-9 to 1-1 Derbyshire... 1-3 to 1-6 3:5 to 5-0 0-9 to 1-1 Scotland . . | 1-4 to 1:6 3-5 to 5-0 0-9 to 1-1 South Wales 0-9 to 1-1 2-0 to 3-5 0-6 to 0-75 | or, to put the matter a little differently, each ton of dry coal carbonised yields from 20 to 35 lb. of ammonium sulphate, from 56 to 112 lb. of tar, and from 2 to 3} gallons of crude benzol, &c., according to the locality. About 65 to -70 per cent. of the crude benzol is obtained as finished products (benzene, toluene, solvent, and heavy naphthas). How rapid has been the development of the by-product coking industry in this country during recent years may be judged from the following official returns of the quantities of ammonium sulphate annually made on such plants, as compared with the corresponding quantities produced in gasworks. Tons of Ammonia Sulphate produced in wi oe | By-product Coke Oven Plants | Gasworks | | | 17,435 149,489 LA, ae 64,227 165,218 1913 . 133,816 182,180 384 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. In the natural course of events, the final disappearance of the wasteful bee- hive coke-oven from this country is now only a matter of a few years; but I venture to suggest that public interest would justify the Government fixing by law a reasonable time-limit beyond which no beehive coke-oven installation would be allowed to remain in operation, except by express sanction of the State, and then only on special circumstances being proved. There is also much need of a better and more systematic chemical control, in the public interest, of by-product coking plants. At present, in far too many cases, the chemists employed in coke-oven laboratories are men who have practically no chemical training other than that obtained in evening classes. And, with few exceptions, the chemist, however competent he may be, is entirely subordinated to the directing engineer, and regarded as a mere routine analyst. I can say from personal knowledge that plants which are managed and controlled by experienced chemists of broad training, combined with force of character, yield much better results than those controlled by men without such qualifications. And even tin this crisis, when so much depends on plants working, not only at their maximum output capacities but also, chemically speaking, under con- ditions calculated to ensure the highest yields of benzol and toluol, with a proper selection of coal, I doubt whether the measures which have been taken to advise and supervise the coke-oven industry are really adequate from the point of view of chemical control. I do know, for instance, that the experience and resources of the majority of our University Departments of Applied Chemistry, which specialise on Fuel-Technology and cognate matters, have not been as fully utilised as they might and ought to have been in this connection. I cannot for one moment imagine a similar state of things being permitted in Germany, where we may be sure that nothing is being left undone in the way of fully utilising all the available expert chemical and engineering knowledge which can be brought to bear on this important aspect of war munitions, and I will venture to say that, whatever may be the case in this country, in Germany at least the staff and resources of no publicly maintained Department of Fuel Technology will not be fully employed on War problems. The coal-gas industry, which deals with some 20 million tons of coal per annum, has, especially within recent years, shown a growing appreciation of the aid of chemical science, in regard not only to the actual manufacture, but also to the domestic and industrial uses of coal-gas. The endowment in 1910 by the industry of a special Chair at Leeds University in memory of the late Sir George Livesey, of which I had the honour of being the first occupant, was a sure sign of the faith of its leaders in the value of scientific research into its special problems, and from personal knowledge and intercourse with gas engineers I can assure my chemical colleagues that any serious interest taken by scientific chemists in these problems, or in training men to tackle them, will be welcomed by the industry, no matter from what quarter such help or interest may come. For although the carbonisation of coal in gasworks is efficiently carried out, no one in the industry supposes that finality has been reached, or that existing methods and conditions cannot be improved under better chemical control. And, moreover, the gas industry has just recently given a striking example of the public benefit which may accrue from the wholehearted co-operation of the chemist and engineer in the new nickel-catalytic process for the removal of carbon bisulphide from coal-gas, which has been worked out and brought to a successful issue by the combined skill and efforts of Dr. Charles Carpenter, Mr. D. Gibb, and Mr. Evans, of the South Metropolitan Gas Company. They have shown that the sulphur content (as CS,) of London coal-gas can be reduced on a large scale, in regular day-to-day working, from nearly 40 drm. to about 8 grains per 100 cubic feet, without in any way deteriorating the quality of the gas, at a cost (including interest and depreciation) of 0°299d. per 1000 cubic feet. Such a striking success was, as Dr. Charles Carpenter acknowledges, only achieved ‘because of the unrestricted and unreserved collaboration of the chemist and engineer.’ Incidentally the gas industry is to be congratulated on this tacit abandonment of the old contention that coal-gas was either none the worse for the presence in it of a certain amount of sulphur impurity, or, alternatively, if worse, that a minute amount of sulphur dioxide in the se PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 385 atmosphere of a living room is so rapidly absorbed by the ceiling that its harmful effects are nullified. As the outcome largely of the work of the Joint Committee appointed in 1907 by the Institution of Gas Engineers and the University of Leeds, of which I was a member, to investigate gas-fire problems, the manufacturers of these appliances have paid much more attention than formerly to the scientific aspects of construction so far as to ensure the best combination of radiant and ventilat- ing effects, and nearly all the larger firms have now their scientific staffs busily employed in making further advances. Prominent among the pioneers in scientific gas fire construction has been Mr. H. James Yates, who will to-morrow enlighten you as to some of the most recent improvements. I can, however, from personal knowledge, testify to the enterprise shown by most of the leading manufacturers, and that their combined efforts have resulted in a very efficient and perfectly hygienic domestic gas-fire. A Committee appointed by the Institu- tion of Gas Engineers, upon which scientific men are largely represented, is now considering the adoption of a standard method of testing the radiant effi- ciencies of gas-fires, so that no one can say that the gas industry is not making every effort to put its affairs upon a thoroughly scientific basis. Passing on to the metallurgical and allied industries, who, of course, are large consumers of fuel, there is much here to be done in improving the construction and operation of furnaces in order to check the waste of fuel, but of these details there is no time to treat, and one instance of the possi- bilities of very large economies as the result of scientific control must suffice. It is, perhaps, common knowledge that the most economical arrangement of plant for the manufacture of iron and steel is one in which the by-product coke-ovens, blast-furnaces, steel-furnaces, and rolling-mills are brought together on one site and under one organising direction, so that the surplus gases from the coke-ovens and blast-furnaces may be utilised to the fullest extent. My relative, Mr. T. C. Hutchinson, of the Skinningrove Iron Co., who has devoted many years of anxious thought and practical study to this important problem, ventured some few years ago to predict that with the most approved type and arrangement of plant working under strict scientific control by competent chemists it would soon be possible to make finished steel rails or girders from Cleveland ironstone with no further consumption of coal than is charged into the by-product coke-ovens for the production of the coke required for the blast- furnace, and all subsequent experience at Skinningrove has fully demonstrated that his prophecy can be fulfilled in everyday practice. Of course, it means a constant watchful control by a well-paid and competent scientific staff under efficient leadership, and in Mr. E. Bury, an old Owens College student, trained in an atmosphere of ‘gas and combustion,’ we have -ound the very man for the work. It is, perhaps, unnecessary, even had time permitted, for me to multiply instances of possible economies in other important directions, such, for instance, as power-production and the heating of domestic apartments. There is probably no direction in which equally good results would not accrue with proper scientific application and control as those already cited as having been reached or realis- able in the direction of carbonisation, or in the iron and steel industry. To- morrow we are to discuss the important subject of Smoke Prevention, in which many Manchester public men are showing an active interest, so that there will be further opportunity of referring to the matter again. But may I, in conclusion, appeal in all seriousness to chemists and scientific men generally to take up this important matter effectively as a public duty at this crisis in the country’s affairs? -I would suggest that the Government be memorialised with a view to the establishment of a central organisation for the supervision of fuel-consumption and the utilisation of coal somewhat on the lines of the existing alkali works inspection which has been so beneficial to chemical industry. And in connection with such an organisation there might be under- taken a much-needed systematic chemical survey of British coal-fields, as_ well as experimental trial of new inventions for fuel economies. There would cer- tainly be no lack of important work of such a. properly organised Department of the State, and there can be no doubt at all that the results of its activities would be, not only a very large direct saving in our colossal annual coal-bill, but also a purer atmosphere and healthier conditions generally in all our large industrial areas. 1915, cc 586 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. The following Papers and Reports were then read :— 1. Description and Exhibition of Diagrams used by Dalton in illustrating his Atomic Theory. By Dr. H. F. Cowarp and Professor A. HarpDEN. 2. Preliminary Observations on the Nitrile of Vinylacetic Acid. By Professor Paut Henry, University of Louvain. Several methods have been tried to prepare the substance CH,=CH—CH,—CN. One might mention the action of moist KCN on allyl iodide, which gives, by a mole- cular transformation, the nitrile of crotonic acid CH,—CH=CH—CN, and also the action of solid KOH on the nitrile of chlorbutyric acid CH,CI—CH,—CH,—CN, which, however, yields a trimethylene derivative It is believed that the nitrile of vinylacetic acid has been prepared by heating for several hours at a temperature of about 120° C. a mixture of C,H,I and anhydrous Cu,(CN)o, when a product is obtained which boils at 118° C. and has no smel] of an isonitrile derivative. In order to identify the substance thus obtained, the oxidising action of a cold neutral solution of KMnQO, was first tried. Malonic acid, which should be the characteristic oxidation product of this nitrile, was not definitely obtained, probably because oxidation had proceeded too far. The action of organo-magnesium compounds to give acetones (CH,=CH---CH,— CO—R) was also unsuccessful, for the substances BrMgC,H, and BrMgC,H, only yielded resinous bodies. The action of ozone was next examined. The ozonide of crotonic nitrile when treated with water gave acetaldehyde, but the syrupy ozonide obtained from vinylacetic nitrile was found on analysis to possess the composition anticipated, and when treated with water yielded no acetaldehyde. Its decom- position products have been examined. 3. Experimental Demonstration of a new Cadmium-Vapour Arc-Lamp. By Dr. H. J. S. Sanp. The cadmium-vapour arc-lamp exhibited, the use of which is recommended for polarimetric and other purposes, is comparable in general principle with the well-known mercury-vapour lamp. The lamp is constructed of quartz-glass, and the cadmium is freed from oxide and dissolved gas by a process of filtration while at the pump. It is hindered from adhering to the glass by the presence of a small amount of a loose powder (zirconia) in the lamp. The metal is melted by external heating before starting, and maintains itself in the molten condition by the heat of the current. Once started the lamp may be kept burning for an indefinite time. q 4. Joint Meeling with Section A.—Discussion on Radio-active Elements and the Periodic Law. 5. Report on Hydroaromatic Substances.—See Reports, p. 79. 6. Report on Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines. See Reports, p. 82. 7. Report on Dynamic Isomerism.—See Reports, p. 81. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 387 8. Report on Plant Enzymes.—See Reports, p. 89. 9. Report on Crystalline Form and Molecular Structure, See Reports, p. 85. 10. Report on Natural Plant Products of Victoria.—See Reports, p. 86. 11. Report on Influence of Weather Conditions on the Amount of Nitrogen Acids in Rainfall and the Atmosphere.—See Reports, p. 87. : 12. Report on Non-aromatic Diazonium Salts.—See Reports, p. 95. 13. Report on Botanical and Chemical Characters of the Eucalypts. See Reports, p. 97. 14. Papers on Flame and Combustion, with Experimental Illustration : (a) The Explosion of Gases. By Professor H. B. Drxon, F.R.S. (b) The Dilution Limits of Inflammability of Mixed Inflammable Gases with Air. By Dr. H. F. Cowarp. (c) Gaseous Combustion at High Pressures. By Proressor W. A. Bons, F.R.S. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Discussion took place :— Discussion upon Smoke Abatement and Air Pollution. (Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. Edited by Professor W. A. Bonz, F.R.S., President of the Section.) (i.) Zhe Work of the Manchester Air Pollution Advisory Board.* Mr. E. D. Srwon (Manchester).—The discussion was opened by Mr. E. D. Simon, Chairman of the Air Pollution Board appointed by the Manchester Corporation in 1912, with the object of diminishing atmospheric pollution by smoke by means of propaganda and research instead of the older method of prosecution. It had been estimated that the measurable damage done in Man- chester and Salford by smoke amounts to nearly 1,000,0007. per annum, in addition to the immeasurable evil effects of smoke and fog upon public health. Research had mainly been directed towards (1) a more correct ascertainment of the damage done by smoke, and (2) means for reducing both domestic and factory smoke, including all the general problems of smokeless combustion and the electrical deposition of soot and dust. As regards factory smoke, the chief problems are the design of mechanical stokers and the supply of air at the correct point to ensure smokeless combustion, and they can only be solved by large-scale experiments carried out either by, or in conjunction with, manu- facturers. However, inasmuch as efficiency and smokelessness usually go 1 See Report of the Sanitary Committee of the City of Manchester on the subject of Air Pollution, April 1915. eo 2 388 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.° together, it is probable that the steady application of pressure by public authorities will in time have its effect in a large reduction of factory smoke. The most hopeful field for laboratory research lies in the reduction of domestic smoke by improvements in coal and coke fires, gas-fires, and by developing the use of semi-coked coal. The Manchester Air Pollution Board, with an annual grant of about 4501. available for its work, has undertaken two lines of research. In the first place, it was decided to co-operate in the national investigation by measuring the deposition of soot, and also the cutting off of sunlight at ten different stations in or near Manchester; and, secondly, a room has been fitted up at the School of Technology for the purpose of carrying out tests on various kinds of domestic heating appliances, with a view to giving independent and authoritative advice to*consumers on the best types of such appliances. It is hoped that similar Research Committees will be appointed by other municipalities, and that the British Association will appoint a Committee to co-ordinate the work of such local Committees. Professor W. W. HatpAne Gee (of the Manchester School of Technology) reviewed the efforts made in Manchester since 1842 to mitigate the smoke nuisance, and described some of the instruments and experimental methods used in the recent work of the Air Pollution Advisory Board (vide Report, loc. cit.), and the development of the electrical means of causing deposition of dust and soot.” Professor E. Knecut (of the Manchester School of Technology) described the results of investigations on the composition of Manchester soot and the various products obtainable therefrom. (li.) Zhe Work of the Sheffield Health Committee. Professor Wynne (Sheffield University) called attention to the results obtained from an investigation of rain-water collected in standard soot-gauges exposed at four sites in the Sheffield City area during the period July 1, 1914, to June 30, 1915. The investigation, which had been promoted by the Health Committee of the City of Sheffield, and carried out in conjunction with the University, showed that if an opinion as to the contribution of house-fires to pollution of the atmosphere may be based on the proportions of tar and of ammonia collected by the rain (these arising from imperfect combustion of fuel in fire-grates), no material difference could be traced between the values for the summer and the winter six months. The data obtained for the Attercliffe site, in the east end of the city, where the armament works are situated, gave values which were roughly about twice as great as those for the other sites, respectively N.N.W., W., and 8. of the centre of the city, and attention was directed to the remarkable approach to uniformity in the results obtained from these three sites, which seemed to be independent of the direction of the prevailing wind as recorded each month. Professor Wynne urged the necessity of creating public opinion on the subject of atmospheric pollution, and supported warmly the suggestion that the British Association should take up the question through a Committee on which various interests were represented, as had been done by the Sanitary Committee of the City of Manchester. (iii.) Damage to Vegetation caused by Atmospheric Pollution by Smoke. Mr. A. G. Ruston (Leeds University), in describing the results of investiga- tions recently carried out in and near the City of Leeds, pointed out that the damage caused by coal-smoke to vegetation is due partly to the smoke-cloud reducing the amount of available sunlight, at times by as much as 54 per cent. The black deposit upon the leaves still further hinders the sunlight from getting into contact with the green colouring-matter of the leaf, while the acids present in the smoke damage the structure of the leaf and hasten its fall. Damage is also done to the roots of plants growing in smoke-infected areas, possessing few root-hairs or fibrous roots. Moreover, the acid rain falling on the soil limits the activity of the bacteria in the soil, for unfortunately the most useful nitrifying organisms are the most susceptible to acid influences. It has * Proc. Amer. Instit. of Electrical Engineers, April 1915. re TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 389 recently been found that enzymes or ferments which are mainly responsible for the chemical changes taking place in the plant are inhibited by smoke pollution. This causes a distinct cutting down of the intensity of colour in our plants; it also handicaps plants from forming any reserves either in the form of bulbs or seed, and considerably reduces the germination capacity and energy of seeds, thus generally lowering the vitality of plants and preventing them from putting up a fight against adverse conditions. Professor FrRNAND RaNwez (University of Louvain).—Very many works and factories emit smoke so abundantly as to cause harm to vegetation. Some of them also emit gases which are noxious to plants, and so blight the neighbouring country. When the fumes are very pronounced the destructive effects are clearly seen, as, for example, near those works which pour out large quantities of sulphur dioxide. In the immediate neighbourhood of such works the plants exposed to the frequent action of the gas have their leaves scorched, while trees lose their Nahas and show many dead branches, the action of the gas gradually killing them entirely. Though these are the most acute symptoms, there are many others far less pronounced, every intermediate condition being observable between plants which exhibit only a slightly checked development and those which die from evident poisoning. Factory smoke and the damage it produces raise frequent complaints from neighbouring landowners and farmers who are, or believe themselves to be, injured, and consequently the courts and experts have to decide the following questions : (1) Has the land of such a person suffered damage, and if so, to what extent? (2) Is the damage wholly or in part the result of the smoke from the factories complained of? The solution of these questions necessitates a com- parative study of the general conditions of cultivation and an examination of the actual smoke deposits both on the damaged lands near the works which emit the noxious vapours and districts various distances away. If perhaps the scorched leaves exhibit some characteristic aspect, there may exist some cause other than mere smoke capable of producing such damage. The damage is often limited to diminished growth and spread of vegetation, or to a slow withering, and many causes besides smoke produce these effects, such, for example, as faulty cultivation and sour or poor soil. Vapours often leave their imprint, as, for example, sulphur dioxide (one of the commonest destructive agents), which can be recognised in plants in the form of sulphate. But plants usually contain sulphates in very varying pro- portion even without the direct action of the gas, so it follows that the discovery of more or less characteristic forms of damage, the observation of the diminution of the spread and growth of plants, or their destruction, the presence of an increased quantity of sulphates or other compounds which could have arisen from vapours do not sufficiently prove the destructive effects of gas when they are considered by themselves alone without all contingent circumstances. The observations only yield proof when they are contrasted with similar ones taken with due care on plants of neighbouring districts. To make such comparative experiments one must describe round the offending factory a series of con- centric circles of ever-increasing radius, and then see (1) whether in the more distant regions the vegetation presents normal features, (2) whether it exhibits abnormalities on approach to the factory, and (3) whether such abnormal features become proportionately more marked as the plants become more exposed to the action of the gas. In all such observations account must be taken of the general cultural con- ditions of the compared areas. Mere distance from the point of origin is not, however, the only factor on which the noxious action of such vapours depends, for many other factors come into play, such as the prevalence of wind, humidity of the atmosphere, &c. (iv.) Improvements in Domestic Fire-Grates. Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt described a type of domestic grate, which he had designed and had in use in his own residence during many years, for burning coal or coke, the extended use of the latter of which as a household fuel would, in his opinion, be a most advantageous means of solving the domestic- 390 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. smoke nuisance in all the large centres of population. The grate, which 1s designed to yield as much radiant heat as possible from the fuel, supports an upright wall of coke, 4 to 44 inches from back to front, and varying in width from 8 to 24 inches, according to the size of the room to be heated. The grate consists of a series of slender horizontal bars in front and a firebrick slab underneath and at the back. There are ten such bars, each successive pair being two inches apart, so that the height of the grate from the base to the top is 25 inches. It is filled to the top with coke, and on this is laid paper and wood, or other fire-lighter, and a layer of coke with a few pieces of coal reaching nearly to the throat of the chimney. The fire burns from the top downwards. The grate is charged each morning with an amount of fuel sufficient to last the whole of the day, and, the fuel having been lighted at the top, no replenishment is needed during the day.* In the speaker’s opinion the essential features of a good grate are :— (1) The face of the fire should be vertical, so that the chief radiation shall be horizontal and not directed towards the chimney and the ceiling. (2) The bars should be as slender as is compatible with sufficient strength, and be fixed as wide apart as will suffice to prevent more than an occasional ember falling out ; (3) The fire should be narrow from back to front, for glowing embers which cannot be seen through the front do not radiate heat into the room ; (4) Air should pass in through bars in front, not through bars beneath; for the most vivid combustion occurs where the air and fuel meet ; (5) All the fuel needed during the day should be put in at once at the beginning, and it should be lighted at the top and burnt downwards ; (6) It is well to have two iron plates to divide the fuel into sections for checking the fire, and either plates or doors, closing in front of the upper bars, to draw the fire up when necessary. (v.) Recent Improvements in Gas-Fires. Mr. H. James Yares (Birmingham), who had contributed a paper on ‘ Recent Improvements in Gas-Fire Science’ to the discussion upon ‘Fuel Economy’ (Section B) at the Birmingham Meeting of the Association in 1913,‘ gave the following account of his more recent investigations in the direction of further improvements in the ventilating effect of gas-fires, which had culminated in a notable advance in this important respect :— Originally the gas-fire was as nearly as possible an imitation of the coal- fire. It consisted of Bunsen burners so arranged that their flames should play on some incombustible material, so as to bring it to a red heat or something approaching this state. It lost much heat up the chimney, and it gave very little radiant heat; the cost of the gas used was out of all proportion to the amount of heat obtained ; also, the fire was apt to smell, owing to the incomplete combustion of the gas. Gradually it was recognised that if the gas-fire was to be made practically efficient on a commercial scale, its economic and hygienic aspects must be, studied. At first the economic aspect was almost exclusively dealt with, effort being made to extract more heat from the waste products before their escape by the chimney, and the heat thus extracted being returned to the apartment as heated air. In other words, these early efforts in gas- fire economy aimed at concentrating on convected heat. There was undoubted economy effected, but unfortunately it was accompanied by a bad physiological effect. The convection currents were so hot that the percentage saturation of the air of the apartment was lowered, with the result that moisture was abstracted from the skin and mucous membranes of the occupants, and they suffered unpleasant sensations of dryness, prickling of the skin, and so on. Further, owing to the air of the room being hotter than the walls (because of the heat being mainly transferred to the latter by the medium of the air), persons sitting near these, while feeling discomfort owing to the overheated air, ’Por details and photographs see Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, vol. Ixili., 1915, pp. 570-581. 1 B.A. Reports, 1913, Birmingham, p. 435 (7). TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 391 might yet experience chilling sensations owing to the radiation from their bodies to the colder walls. As a result of these drawbacks, gas-fire heating fell into bad repute, and the position became one only to be retrieved by strenuous research and effort. In this fresh effort the vital importance of the hygienic aspect was at last fully recognised ; concentration was made on radiant heat, but care was taken to avoid straining after this, either to an excessive extent or in the direction of over-intensity. The bad results of high-temperature convection being recog- nised, special convection contrivances were dropped; but the absolute necessity for retaining a certain amount of low-temperature convected heat to supple- ment the radiant heat was not lost sight of, and express provision for this was made; some progress was also made in improved ventilation. As regards the question of ventilation, we in this country have always been accustomed to the open fire-grate in our houses, and, generally speaking, we depend very largely on the chimney for the removal of air and the ventilation of the room. This method is by no means ideal; for one thing, the removal of air by the coal-fire via the chimney is not infrequently so great that the occu- pants of the room find themselves inconvenienced by the excessive draught near the door. Inasmuch as the majority of rooms in our houses are ventilated by the fire-place, it is necessary, when a gas-fire is installed, that means be devised to ensure its fulfilling this function to the best advantage. This was far from being the case with the gas-fire heated room of even a very few years ago; the fire was placed in front of the coal-grate, very often with a sheet of iron behind it, thus partly or wholly blocking up the entrance to the chimney, except for the flue outlet of the gas-fire itself. And, in many cases, this flue outlet was of very small dimensions; the amount of air it withdrew from the room was quite insufficient for adequate ventilation. In some gas- fires the flue vent and canopy were so designed and proportioned as to draw a large volume of air up the flue, but while in this way quite good ventilation was produced—exceeding anything previously reached in gas-fire practice—yet even with such improved fires, free as they were from so many of the objectionable features of the old high-temperature convecting gas-fires, the comfort resulting from the ample air-change effected by the coal-fire was not realised. Though the working of the gas-fire itself afforded entire comfort in a room, yet, if it were kept going all day, it was noticeable that the atmosphere was not so pleasant as the day wore on, and in the evening, when the number of the occu- pants increased, and particularly if gas were used for lighting, the stuffiness became considerable and the gas-fire was blamed. It was indeed the gas-fire that was to blame, but this had nothing to do with its own working as a fire, but was entirely due to the indirect effect on the atmosphere of the partial blocking up of the chimney and the consequent restriction of the ventilation. I recognised that unless this single disadvantage under which the gas-fire still laboured, as compared with the coal-fire, could be removed, the use of gas- fires, extensive though it already was, was bound to remain permanently con- fined to those householders who adopted it purely as a matter of labour-saving or convenience, instead of broadening, as it ought, into universal adoption. I, therefore, set about endeavouring to produce a fire which should give an ample and controllable ventilation of the room. This major problem was complicated by several other conditions which, though minor in comparison, were yet of such importance that they had to be regarded as indispensable. Great practical difficulties were experienced as regards these minor conditions, not so much in attaining them individually as in the complicated task of reconciling them with each other in the one apparatus. By continued effort, however, the objects in view were eventually all achieved. The fire thus produced, in addition to its embodying the various points of design and construction called for by modern practice, has the further feature, distinctive to itself, of embrac- ing a special contrivance, simple in appearance, but for long most baffling in the course of its evolution, by which, in injector fashion, a very large amount of air is removed from the room. Briefly described, this contrivance provides two outlets to the chimney. The conformation of these and of the adjacent parts is so pronortioned, as the result of much experimental work, that by the 392 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. under outlet the entire combustion-products are carried off, while by the upper or ventilating outlet a large volume of ‘ ventilating’ air is removed, and volume being controllable by a ventilation regulator. Mr. Yates then proceeded to describe the results of comparative tests, which proved that the new ‘ ventilating’ gas-fire actually removes at least twice as much air from the room as the previous best types of gas-fires for the same gas- consumption and radiant efficiency, and approaches the ventilating capacity of an ordinary coal-fire as closely as is necessary for the maintenance of a per- fectly fresh atmosphere in the apartment heated. Moreover, the tests had proved that this ventilating effect draws air up the flue from all parts of the room, and is at least equal, if not superior, in this respect to that of an ordinary coal-fire. Indeed, having regard to this latest improvement combined with the previous great advances made in the radiant efficiencies and the com- bustion generally of gas-fires, the author is emphatically of the opinion that in every respect they are now more than equal to the best type of coal-fire. (vi.) Other Aspects of the Smoke Question. Mr. Atrrep Hurcurnson, of the Skinningrove Iron Co., Ltd. (Cleveland District), said that in the manufacture of iron and steel it had been found possible, by the use of by-product coke-ovens and of gas-engines generating electric current for driving electrically driven rolling mills, to obtain, from the waste gases from the coke-ovens and blast-furnace plant, sufficient spare gas not only to heat up steel ingots in soaking pits, but also to roll them down to finished sections without using any extra fuel beyond the said surplus gases. In addition to this, the valuable by-products could be recovered from the coal charged into the coking-ovens. Mr. D. Brownute (Manchester) wished to point out that it does not neces- sarily follow that a smokeless chimney means an efficient boiler plant. For example, the average working thermal efficiency of the boiler plants in this country is probably about 60 per cent. with more or less smoke. If an enor- mous excess of air is allowed to go through the fires, the smoke can be stopped, but with considerable reduction in thermal efficiency. Under ideal conditions a boiler plant can be running at an efficiency of 85 per cent., with 14 per cent. of CO, in the chimney gases, and no smoke. A very slight reduc- tion in the air supply in such a case would give smoke and a reduced efficiency, but this ‘smoky’ plant might still be much more efficient than the average plant. As a result of many years’ experience in fuel economy and smoke prevention, he had arrived at the conclusion that there is no relation between the ‘smokiness’ of a coal and the percentage of ‘volatile matter’ which it con- tains. In every case. however, smoke can be prevented by the application of scientific methods. Mr. Water F. Retp (London) advocated the widening of the scope of any Committee that might be formed, so as to include at least 50 per cent. of members who were themselves connected with industries that produce smoke. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society of London had many members of Council who were connected with industries that in the past had been noxious. The efforts of that Society extending over many years had succeeded in improving the London atmosphere. The London fogs were less numerous and less injurious than formerly. It was useless to recommend coal-gas for domestic heating unless it could be supplied much more cheaply than at present; the cost at present considerably exceeded that of coal, especially for small dwellings. Mr. Arnotp Lupron (London), speaking of the financial losses sustained by the inhabitants of our industrial towns and cities by reason of their smoke- polluted atmosphere, said that, whilst living near the University of Leeds, he has estimated that the cost to him in damage to furniture and clothing caused by smoke was equal to an annual rate of no less than six shillings in the pound on his rental, and he was satisfied that the shopkeepers suffered an equally serious loss; he thought the smoke nuisance might be removed at the cost of a rate of about one shilling in the pound. Mr. Joun W. Granam (Manchester), Chairman of the Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, cordially supported the proposal for the appointment of TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 393 a Committee, which would co-ordinate and give authority to the researches undertaken in various localities, of which they had heard so much during the discussion. No better work for the nation could be undertaken by the British Association than this, and it would certainly grow in importance from year to year. Mr. ArtrHur Bennett (Warrington) said that, much as he approved of persuasion as a means of solving the smoke problem, he felt that they ought not to lose sight of compulsion, for he was afraid that there were many manufacturers (a minority, he hoped) who would not make any serious attempt to abate their smoke until they were compelled to do so. Persuasion and educa- tion were all very well up to a point, but behind the velvet glove they wanted the iron hand; and, in his opinion, the true solution of the question would be to transfer the administration of the Smoke Acts from the municipalities and the magistrates to the Local Government Board. The President of the Section (Professor Boner), referring to the desirability of an extended use of coal-gas as a domestic fuel, and for small-scale industrial operations, severely criticised the policy adopted by many municipal gas under- takings, including that of Manchester, of taxing the gas-consumer by making the gas-works pay large sums annually in relief of rates. He understood that the Manchester Corporation taxed its gas-consumers to the tune of 50,000/. per annum. A municipal gas-supply should be sold at cost price, after allowing, of course, a reasonable sum for repairs and depreciation of plant as well as interest and redemption in respect of capital outlay. To extract a greater profit by an enhanced price of gas not only penalises unfairly the gas-consumer, thus discouraging the use of gas for domestic purposes, but involves also the pay- ment of income-tax at a high rate on the said ‘ profits,’ thus diverting money quite unnecessarily from the pockets of the local gas-consumers to the Imperial Treasury. He was decidedly of opinion that the time was both ripe and opportune for a crusade on the question of fuel economy and smoke abatement as a means of national saving in the trying years to come, and he hoped that the Associa- tion would lead the way by appointing a strong Committee of representative men to consider the whole question in its national aspects. The following Paper was then read :— Experimental Demonstralion of Liquid Crystals. By Professor W. J. Popr, F'.R.S. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers and Discussion were heard :— 1. Ruthenium Di-carbonyl. By Rosert Monn, M.A. The author submitted specimens of ruthenium carbonyl and the new ruthe- nium dicarbonyl, which latter has been obtained by submitting finely divided ruthenium and carbon monoxide to a pressure of 400 atmospheres at a tempera- ture of 300° C. The dicarbonyl was extracted from the powder by solution in alcohol. It is non-volatile, in contra-distinction to the other carbonyls. In common with the other metallic carbonyls it is insoluble in benzene. 2. The Bone-Callendar-Yates Bolometer. By Professor W. A. Bonn, F.R.S. 394 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 3. Discussion on Homogeneous Catalysis. Opened by Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis (University of Liverpool). [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] Prof. Lrwis.--In a reaction between two different molecules A and B the usual kinetic method of representing the rate at which this can take place as being proportional to the product of the concentrations of A and B rests, as is well known, simply on the probability of the A and B molecules coming into contact with one another. It has long been recognised, however, that the reactivity depends on other factors as well. Thus, if it were simply a question of probability of collision, one might expect the velocity to be independent of the specific nature of the reaction, being simply deter- mined by the temperature, the mean free path, and the speed of the molecules. Owing, however, to the highly specific nature of the reaction-rate as well as the remarkable effect brought about by a change in temperature, a considerable number of hypotheses generally based upon the formation of intermediate substances have been suggested to account for the mechanism of a given process. There can be no doubt that several of these suggestions are of fundamental importance as regards the molecular mechanism involved. ‘They mainly restrict themselves, however, to material molecular changes and do not attempt to attack the problem of the cause of such changes. In other words, whilst postulating a molecular mechanism which takes account more or less of experimental facts, they give us little or no information respecting the nature, magnitude, and source of the energy exchange, which must accompany or rather precede molecular change. In thesame connection we have the whole question of the relation of concentration to active mass which has been studied more particularly in America and which has shown fairly conclusively that concen- tration per se is not an accurate measure of activity except in the limit. Of the few attempts made to deal with the subject of the rate of a reaction from the standpoint of energy exchange as a necessary accompaniment of molecular change perhaps the simplest and most direct is that of Marcelin as modified by Rice. Marcelin’s idea is that a molecule in the mean or average state as regards internal energy characteristic of the system under the given conditions is not capable of reacting in a chemical sense, and that it only becomes reactive when its internal energy rises to or beyond a certain critical value. The energy difference between the mean state and the critical may be conveniently termed the ‘ critical increment.’ Marcelin makes no assumptions as to the mechanism whereby this change in energy content may take place. His view has, therefore, the advantage of generality in not being restricted to any particular type of molecule, atom, or ion. On the basis of the idea of the critical increment it has been shown by Marcelin, and more completely by Rice from the standpoint of statistical mechanics, that the effect of temperature on the velocity constant is given by the expression dlogk_ &£ aL ee. where E is an energy term approximately identical with the critical increment reckoned per gram molecule. ‘This equation is obviously of the Arrhenius type, which has been shown by experiment to be applicable to a large number of reactions of very dissimilar chemical kind. In view of the fact that the Marcelin-Rice equation is in good agreement with experiment, one is prompted to inquire somewhat further into the physical mechanism which underlies the concept of critical energy and critical increment. Two distinct questions arise: first, what is the nature of the energy which is communicated to the molecule, thereby raising its energy content from the mean to the critical state? and, secondly, what internal changes occur in the molecule during this absorption of energy? The second question is obviously the more complicated of the two, involving, as it does, a knowledge of the structure of the molecule. It is not proposed to attempt to deal with this question. The first, however, regarding the form of the energy which is communicated to the molecule appears to be somewhat simpler. The writer would venture to suggest that the energy thus supplied exists in the form of infra-red thermal radiation which is necessarily present throughout the system in virtue of its temperature. The idea that infra-red radiation may cause chemical reaction is not new. It seems to have been first suggested by Trautz in 1906, mainly from analogy with ——— eS . ©. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 395 photochemical or short-wave reactions. Later Kriiger, in 1911, has suggested that infra-red radiation is the cause of such effects as the solubility of a substance in a solvent, electrolytic dissociation and solution pressure. The suggestion made by Trautz has, however, not led to any quantitative results in the field of chemical kinetics, due, no doubt, to the fact that at the time the suggestion was made the ideas of Planck had not received the attention they subsequently did after Einstein had shown that they might be applied to the problem of atomic heats. An important step may, however, be taken by introducing the theory of quanta and applying certain of Planck’s relations to the problem of thermal reactivity. I propose to show as briefly as possible that this method of treatment leads to a relation identical in form with that of Marcelin for the variation of the velocity constant with temperature, and if then one equates the two expressions, it will be seen that Marcelin’s critical increment under the simplest conditions is identical with one quantum of the infra- red radiation of the type which the substance is capable of absorbing. In other words, we arrive at Einstein’s law of the photochemical equivalent for this type of radiation. The application of this view to homogeneous catalysis rests on the assumption that the catalyst is the source of the infra-red radiation which the substance absorbs, thereby becoming reactive in the Marcelin sense. It does not preclude the formation of complexes between the catalyst and the reacting substance, and should apply, not only to the effect of added catalyst (such as the effect of acid on esterification, hydrolysis, inversion, &c.), but likewise to the relative catalytic effect of different solvents when alone and when mixed upon one and the same reaction, and may possibly be extended to cases of chemical reactivity in which catalytic effects as such have not hitherto been recognised. In the first place, in order that any of Planck’s relations may be applied, it is essential that the temperature of the radiation and of the material system shall be the same as that of the surroundings—a condition which can be realised approxi- mately by the use of a thermostat of sufficient heat capacity. If chemical reactivity be dependent on thermal radiation it is evident that the factor of greatest significance will be represented by the amount of radiation of the absorbable or useful type (frequency v) present per unit volume of the system, in other words, the energy density which is usually denoted by the symbol U,. For the sake of simplicity, let us con- sider a monomolecular reaction whose rate according to the ordinary mass action principle may be expressed ‘ da dt If further a catalyst be present, then, in the simplest case in which the catalytic effect is simply proportional to the concentration of the catalyst (Cs), we can write the velocity of decomposition oc (a — @). dx dt Such an expression has been found to give results in good agreement with experi- ment, though it obviously gives no information regarding the mechanism of the energy transfer involved, nor does it predict how the velocity will be affected by a change in temperature. It is therefore incomplete, and it is evident that the intro- duction of some additional factor is required. On the hypothesis that molecular changes are due to the transfer of radiant energy in quanta, the simplest assumption is to regard the energy density as the significant factor. From this standpoint, therefore, the chemical reactivity or active mass of a substance reacting in the presence of a catalyst depends upon the concentration of the substance, the concen- tration of the catalyst, and upon the radiation density of the useful frequency v. The previous equation, therefore, takes the form cc a (a — x) Cs, Soiree oe. Me at As a matter of fact, this mode of representing active mass is not new except in so far as it is applied to thermal reactions. WHinstein, in deducing the law of the photo- chemical equivalent, makes three assumptions, of which one is that the rate at which the light sensitive reactant decomposes depends upon the radiation density. Einstein does not consider the case when a catalyst is present, and further has in view a photochemical reaction in the ordinary sense. It may also be pointed out 396 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. that Einstein does not take up the question of the temperature coefticient. Further, Kriiger, in dealing with the phenomena of solubility, electrolytic dissociation, and solution pressure already alluded to, makes the assumption that the magnitude of these effects depends directly upon the energy density of the infra-red thermal radia- tion existing in the system. Again, it is known that radiation density is a well-defined function of temperature, increasing as temperature increases, so that its introduction into the expression representing active mass has at least the advantage over that ordinarily employed in that it leads one to regard reactivity as itself a function of temperature, a conclusion which is borne out by experiment. We have now to substitute for U, its value as given by the theory of quanta. This may be written— constant x n* x wy’ e—1 where the constant contains the frequency term v, multiplied by a pure number, n stands for the refractive index of the system for this frequency, h is Planck’s constant, T abs. temperature, and & the gas constant per molecule = R/N, where N is the number of molecules in one gram molecule. Now, it has been pointed out by Mr. Lamble and the writer that the significant range of wave-lengths for the present purpose lies in the short infra-red between 1 and 5u, and this has been supported by some preliminary measurements made in the writer’s laboratory by Mr. Callow upon the infra-red absorption spectrum of hydrochloric acid in aqueous solution, which shows a marked band in the region 1.55u. For this range of wave-length and at ordinary temperatures it may be easily shown that u hy|kT simplifies to e—/AT, e-—1 Hence the velocity equation (1) becomes dx ; ; = A(a — x) x C, x constant « n® xe ~lkT dt = f(a e)Ontemuikr : : : : 4 . (2) Since the effect of temperature is now explicitly allowed for in the final term, it is fair to assume that i, is practically independent of temperature. k,, or rather A, which is included in k,, appears to stand for the proportionality factor involved in the probability of a molecule of the reacting substance meeting a molecule of the catalyst-—either added catalyst such as HCl, or in other cases a molecule of the solvent itself—and hence its maximum variation would amount to 2-3 % for 10° rise in temperature. That this is the significance of the constant A becomes more certain when one remembers that the catalytic effect considered is due to the emission of quanta (hv) from the catalyst particles, which quanta are absorbed by the molecules of the reacting substance, and it is clear that this transfer would take place most easily when the two kinds of molecules were in close juxtaposition, the disturbance of collision being also a very favourable circumstance for the emission of the quantum and its absorption. It may be pointed out that at constant temperature and constant concentration of catalyst, which latter defines the numerical value of the refractive index n, that equation (2) reduces to the usual mass action expression— dxjdt = k'(a - 2). Again, on integrating equation (2) at constant temperature and catalyst concentra- tion we obtain : log —“— = &,Csnie™ ™!"*. t a-2 But ; log Z 5 = Kobservea = Velocity constant experimentally observed. eae Hence fee eco kCsnte (3) We have now to consider the variation of Kobservea With temperature. As a first approximation we may regard 7 as constant for not too great changes in tempera- —" TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 397 ture. Cys can, of course, be kept constant and hence we obtain on taking logs and differentiating :— i d log Kobservea = hy dT kT” But k = = where R is the gas constant per gram molecule, d log Kovservea _ Nhv (4) dT RT? , / ‘ 2 The term Nhky is independent of temperature at least for a very wide range and hence equation (4) may be written d log Fovservea _ BURN which is simply the q y ply Hence dT RT? Arrhenius equation, and has been shown to be in very good agreement with experi- ment. We may also compare equation (4) with that of Marcelin and Rice, namely, eens = — where E is approximately the critical increment, that is the quantity of energy which one gram molecule must absorb to make it react. Equating the two terms E and Nhy it follows that E/N = hy. But E/N denotes the amount of energy which must be added to a single molecule to make it reactive and this by the above relation is just one quantum of the radiation of the absorbable type y, This is simply a statement of Hinstein’s law of the photochemical equivalent, and the fact that under certain simplifying assumptions we have obtained this relation along with an expression for the temperature coefficient which is in agreement with the Marcelin-Rice equation and that of Arrhenius may be taken as some evidence for the general correctness of the ideas underlying the deduction. Of course, one realises that more than one approximation has been made in the above, and, under certain conditions, therefore, one may expect to find discrepancies between experiment and theory. There is not time to enter into any of these in detail. One may summarise the results which haye been further obtained :— (1) Instead of regarding the refractive index » as a constant, it is more correct to allow for its variation with temperature. Making use of the available data it may be shown that the effect of this variation is to slightly diminish the value of Nhv. (2) The index 7 also is a function of the concentration of the catalyst. When the catalyst is a positive one it can be shown that an increase in its concen- tration diminishes the temperature coefficient. When the catalyst is a negative one it can be shown that increase in concentration increases the temperature coefficient. The experiments of Von Halban and others on mixed solvents support this conclusion. (3) In the case of a reaction which reaches an equilibrium it can be shown that the heat of the reaction is simply the difference of the characteristic vibration frequencies of reactants and resultants multiplied by h. This relation has already been deduced as a rather special case by Haber. Mr. J. Ricr.—In a series of papers in the Comptes Rendus, Marcelin has discussed reaction-velocity, by considering that only those molecules react which reach a ‘ critical’ condition, in which they acquire a certain energy considerably in excess of the average energy per molecule of the system. Marcelin’s analysis is very general, and his results can be somewhat extended by some limiting assumptions, which define the ‘ critical’ condition a little more closely. Consider a simple case of dissociation or combination of two molecules ; consider- able forces hold the molecules together when near to each other, but the law of force must be such that this attraction weakens and changes to repulsion or non-interaction at some ‘critical’ distance. This implies that the potential energy of the two molecules is a maximum at this ‘critical’ distance apart. In the general case, a certain group of molecules enter into reaction to produce a group of different molecules. We can describe, from a mechanical point of view, the course of the reaction by choosing m generalised coordinates q,q.-..-@, for a molecular group, and stating the changes which occur in q, gq» . - - Gn, and in the velocity coordinates g, 7, - . . Gn during the reaction. We can choose g, g. .. . Qn; so that the kinetic energy, E, of a molecular group equals the sum of squares, q* + q+... G2. If we assume also that it is possible to choose the coordinates 398 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. so that the potential energy, V, of the molecular group depends on one coordinate only (say q,); then the above assumption as regards the ‘critical’ state amounts to the hypothesis that for some value ¢ of q,, V has a maximum value V-. The total range of values for q, are from a to b (say). For values from a toc the molecular group is in one chemical condition ; from c to 6 it is in the other, For the reaction proceeding in the sense a to b, we can show by statistical analysis that where & is the velocity constant, and a = ae From this can be deduced dlogk _ Ve — Vm + +RT dT RT? where V,, is the mean potential energy of a molecular group between the conditions a andc; so that V. — Vm is the ‘critical’ increment of energy necessary for the reaction. For the reaction proceeding in the sense b to a, we show that dlogk' _ Ve — V'm + 4 RT ’ aL 2 RT? : and therefore d =e Ee toa where K is the equilibrium constant. The idea that the forces involved are electromagnetic, and therefore subject to modification due to a change of radiation density produced by the catalyst, leads to the conclusion that a positive catalyst by reducing V.— V,, increases k, but decreases d iog k aT experimental data exist. It further can be shown that k varies as some power of e where y is the concentration of the catalyst, a result recently put forward by Rosanoff as fitting the data. Prof. Francis illustrated and described an apparatus for measuring the velocity of the catalysis of nitrosotriacetonamine and allied derivatives by hydroxyl ions, based on determinations of the pressure of the nitrogen evolved. The method serves also as a means for the determination of the concentration of hydroxyl ions. Neutral salts produce curious effects on the velocity constant, the quantitative retardation in the case of chlorides being nearly the same in such catalysis and in the saponification of methyl acetate and the transformation of diaceton-alcohol into aceton by hydroxyl ions. In small concentrations sulphates produce an acceleration instead of a retarda- tion, and again there is an approximate agreement between the magnitudes of these accelerations in all the above mentioned cases. The order in which the salts effect the velocity constant is the same as that found in the lyotropic series, namely, iodides produce the greatest, and chlorides the least effect, Dr. N. V. Srpewicx.—It seems to me that while general theoretical conclusions on the subject of catalysis are of undoubted value, our immediate need is for the accumulation of more experimental data. Thus there is the question of the relation between the catalytic influence and the concentration of the catalyst. Prof. Lewis has assumed them to be proportional. This is no doubt sometimes true, but not always. In some reactions the catalytic effect increases more rapidly than the cata- lyst, in others less rapidly. In others again, as in Tubandt’s experiments on the inversion of menthone, the velocity increases very rapidly on addition of a trace of catalyst, but seems to reach a maximum when the amount is still very small. We do not yet know how these differences are related to other properties of the reacting substances. The fundamental question of the form of the equation is still uncertain. It is commonly written , and vice versa for a negative catalyst, which is in agreement with whatever K = & x C” catalyst, ~———— TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 399 where K = observed velocity constant, and 7 is usually = 1. Now the rate of hydra- tion of acid anhydrides in acid solution is independent of the acidity, but in alkaline solution it increases, roughly, in proportion to the hydroxyl ion. If the rate was always proportional to the hydroxyl it would continue to fall as the solution became increasingly acid, since this involves a continuous fall in the concentration of the hydroxyl; but as a fact the velocity remains constant after the concentration of hydroxyl has fallen to 10-7. This suggests that the reaction is taking place in two ways—(1) by interaction with the catalyst and (2) without its co-operation: and that the equation should be written K=a+0 x Coq. Then when Cox falls to a certain value, depending on the relative magnitudes of a and b, the second term will become negligible, and the velocity will be constant: whereas when Cog is large the first term will vanish and the velocity will be pro- portional to Con. If this is true in this instance it may be true generally: only a careful examination of such reactions as admit of accurate measurement can decide. It may be doubted whether there are any chemical reactions which are not cata- lysed. As Van ’t Hoff has pointed out, the influence of the solvent on the velocity is the resultant of two factors, one of which is purely catalytic. When a reaction is said not to be catalysed, this really means no more than that the catalytic influences have remained constant under the conditions of the actual experiments. It follows from Van ’t Hoff’s theory that in order to determine the real catalytic influence of a solvent, we must refer the amount of change not to the molar concen- tration of the reacting substance, but to its solubility: if K is the rate of change, and S the solubility, the catalytic power of the solvent is proportional to KxS$. This magnitude has been determined by Dimroth! for one of his triazol derivatives in various solvents. He finds that while the rate of change and the solubility vary in the ratio of about 100 to 1, the product varies only in the ratio of 3to1,. He concludes that this value is approximately constant for all solvents. He omits the case of water, but from his data an approximate value for water can be calculated, and is found to be less than 1/10,000 of that for any organic solvent, This seems to dispose of the view that KxS§ is constant. But, apart from this, it is evident that what the product really represents is the catalytic influence of the solvent. It is certainly remarkable that the value of this should vary so little for so wide a range of organic solvents (including methyl alcohol, chloroform, and nitrobenzene), and even more remarkable that these values should be of quite a different order from that for water. It is very much to be wished that further data could be accumulated on this oint, In view of Prof. Lewis’s discussion of the temperature coefficient, I may draw attention to a remarkable fact pointed out by Von Halban.? He shows that not only are the temperature coefficients of isomeric changes, and of monomolecular changes in general, abnormally high, but also those of numerous reactions which are only apparently monomolecular: reactions, that is, which are really polymolecular, but appear to be of the first order because all the reacting substances but one are present in large excess, such as the inversion of cane sugar. The abnormally high temperature coefficients of monomolecular reactions may be explained thus. A rise of temperature will increase the translational velocity of the molecules, and in general also their internal energy. The second of these effects will tend to increase the rate of change, but in polymolecular reactions the first may be expected to diminish it, since the more rapidly moving molecules will remain within reach of one another’s attraction for a shorter time. The ordinary positive temperature coefficients must, therefore, be due to the second effect predominating over the first. If we could find a reacting substance whose internal energy was not increased by a rise of temperature, its rate of reaction should fall as the temperature rose. This is only possible for a monatomic gas; and it is remarkable that the only two reactions whose rates, properly considered, are found to be less at higher tem- peratures, are reactions of monatomic gases; the recombination of the atoms of active nitrogen, and that of gaseous ions; in the latter instance the positive ion is no doubt usually polyatomic, but only one of its atoms really takes part in the change, and the internal energy of this atom cannot be increased by a rise of temperature. 1 Ann., 377, 131, 2 Z, Phys. Chem., 67, 174, 1909. 400 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. On the other hand, a strictly monomolecular reaction does not depend on the collision of molecules. Hence the restraining influence of the increase of velocity vanishes, and the increase of internal energy has its full effect, giving an abnormally high temperature coefficient. ‘The high values obtained for apparently monomole- cular reactions may possibly be explained by supposing that when all the reacting molecular species but one are present in large excess, that one will always find itself within reach of a molecule of the other kind whether its velocity is large or small. It may be remarked, however, that with the acid anhydrides, where the reaction is with the solvent, the temperature coefficients are normal. Any general theory of the temperature coefficients should be capable of explaining these facts. Professor Baty said that during the last few years certain insight had been gained into the phenomena of chemical reaction from absorption spectra observations. For example, it had been shown four years ago that as a first step in a chemical reaction the reacting compound is converted into an intermediate and highly reactive form, It seems that the formation of the intermediate and reactive phase is a perfectly general phenomenon and one that can be recognised as a fundamental step in any chemical reaction whatever. The reactivity of a molecule is a minimum when that molecule exists in the free state and in general before any molecule can enter into any chemical reaction it must be converted into the active form. The conversion of the inactive to the active form is accompanied by an absorption of energy which may be taken up either from a solvent or as light or heat. According to the quantum theory as originally formulated, this energy must be absorbed in quanta defined by hv where h is the Planck constant and v the oscillation frequency of the radiant energy absorbed. Based on this general theory the definition of a catalyst had been put forward, namely, as an agent which tends to convert more of the reacting substances into the reactive phase than would otherwise be formed. Professor Baty pointed out that Professor Lewis’s theory of catalysis and reactivity appeared to be a mathematical presentation of one single case of his own theory, namely, that case in which the energy absorbed by the molecules had a wave-length lying between 1p and 5p in the short-wave infra-red region, Whereas his own theory dealt with the possibility of the energy being absorbed at any vibration frequency characteristic of the reacting substance, Professor Lewis only dealt with the special case of short-wave infra-red radiation, and had shown that by the application of the quantum theory to the Marcelin-Rice equation the increment of energy necessary to convert a molecule into the active form given by yhv where y = 1, 2, 3, &., and is the oscillation frequency in the short-wave infra-red region. Professor Lewis in this way has extended the Einstein photochemical equivalent law to the infra-red, and it would seem that as a result of the argument used by him a somewhat anomalous conclusion is arrived at. ‘The essential assumption underlying the Marcelin-Rice equation is that a critical increment of energy must be given to a molecule in order to bring it into the reactive condition, this increment being independent of the vibration frequency. Professor Lewis stated that this critical increment may be one quantum at the characteristic vibration frequency of the molecule. Now, the smaller the value of the vibration frequency v, the smaller is the value of the energy quantum hy, and therefore it follows from his argument that the actual or total amount of energy necessary to bring a molecule into the active form is smaller, the smaller is the value of v, i.e., the lower the temperature. On the other hand, the importance of the Marcelin-Rice equation cannot be denied, and it is of considerable interest that recent work on the absorption spectra of organic compounds had experimentally proved the existence of those very active phases of molecules as intermediate stages in chemical reactions such as postulated by Marcelin, Furthermore, in a recent experimental paper on photochemical reactions, Boll has drawn exactly analogous conclusions as regards the existence of intermediate and active phases of the reacting molecules. The formation of the intermediate and active forms can readily be accounted for by assuming the existence of molecular force-fields due to the juxtaposition of the force-fields of the constituent atoms, these atomic force-fields being electro-magnetic and previously postulated by Humphreys to explain the Zeeman effect and the pressure shift of spectrum lines. The general bearing of these force-fields on chemical reactivity need hardly be emphasised in a discussion on catalysis, but the essential fact should be brought into prominence, namely, that before a molecule can react it must first be converted into an active form by the addition of energy, and that this energy can be absorbed at any vibration frequency characteristic of the molecule. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 401 Before dealing with the quantity of energy necessary for the conversion the rela- tion between the characteristic vibration frequencies of a given molecule must be mentioned. It has been found that the characteristic frequencies of any molecule in the visible and ultra-violet region are simple multiples of a fundamental frequency in the short-wave infra-red region. Thus, if v be the fundamental short-wave infra- red frequency, there can only be free periods of vibration at 2v, 3v, 4y, &c. These free periods of vibration are evidenced by absorption, fluorescence, or phosphorescence band groups as the case may be. In general, in the case of a simple molecule, only one absorption band group in the ultra-violet is shown, that is to say, only one of the possible multiples of the fundamenta! short-wave infra-red frequency is active. Such a molecule, therefore, can absorb radiant energy of two frequencies only between the wave-length limits 54 and 0-2u, namely, at the fundamental infra-red frequency v and the ultra-violet frequency »,, where », = yv, y being a positive integer. According to the Einstein law, if the molecule undergo a photochemical reaction, the minimum quantity of energy required will be given by hy. On the other hand, if the energy be absorbed at the lower frequency y, it would seem that the same total quantity must be taken up in order to bring the molecule to the active condition. That is to say, y quanta must be absorbed at the lower frequency, since hy, = yhy. This must be the case if the Marcelin conception hold good that the critical increment of energy necessary to bring the molecule into the reactive state is independent of the vibration frequency. This modification of Professor Lewis’s theory would seem to bring it into harmony with the general results of absorption spectra observations. One further deduction may perhaps be made. Professor Lewis stated that in order to bring a molecule into the reactive phase a whole number of energy quanta must be absorbed in the short- wave infra-red region. The molecule, however, can also absorb energy at a frequency which is a myltiple of that infra-red frequency. There does not appear to be any obvious reason why any one multiple should be active more than any other multiple in the ultra-violet. It would seem possible from the foregoing to deduce an explana- tion. If the total energy necessary were equal to y quanta at the infra-red frequency then the active frequency in the ultra-violet would be y times the infra-red frequency, that is to say, the multiple of the infra-red frequency active in the ultra-violet is defined by the number of infra-red quanta which together amount to the necessary energy increment. ‘There would seem to be no difficulty in advancing a mechanical explanation of the foregoing somewhat analogous to that put forward by Bohr for atomic structure. A development of this would be out of place in this discussion, but the general conception has the merit of bringing Hinstein’s photochemical law and Marcelin’s and Lewis’s theories into line with absorption spectra observations. One of the most interesting features of the phenomena of reactivity and catalysis is the frequent failure of the law of mass action, It is obvious, in those cases where the conversion of the inactive molecules into their active forms is brought about by the action of a solvent, that if the relation between the effective masses of active and inactive phases obey the law of mass action no advantage would be gained by the theory, A quantitative investigation of the relation between the two has shown, howeyer, that the mass action lawis not obeyed, In the simplest case, where the molecule is converted into the active form by the action of a solvent, it is clear that if w be the fractional part converted into the active form, 2 should be independent of the concentration if the law of mass action hold good, Experiment has shown that 2 is not constant, but that « =1—-—e *Y where V is the volume of the solution and a is a constant depending on the nature of solvent and solute. If A/A, be the ratio between the masses of active and inactive molecules, then Bi = oe log gaaw | aV ; in such case the solvent is acting as catalyst, and it would seem that the behaviour of catalysts generally is susceptible of explanation on the above lines, An interesting point is to be noted in connection with the formula, namely, that when a is very small « remains appreciably constant with changes in V when V is small, In other words, the law of mass action is approximately obeyed in fairly concentrated solutions, A short general discussion followed. 1915. DD 402 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 4. The Molecular State of Salts in Solution. By W. E. 8. Turner and J. D. Cauwoop. At the 1910 meeting of the Association, one of us demonstrated that the haloid salts of organic ammonium, sulphonium, and oxonium bases were highly associated in a neutral solvent, e.g., chloroform, and evidence was tendered to prove that salts in general are complex molecular substances. Subsequent investigations have brought within the scope of these conclusions metallic salts, whilst the effect of the solvent has also been thoroughly tested. As the salts hitherto employed have been the haloid salts almost entirely, the general con- clusions would be greatly strengthened if it could be shown that salts of acids other than the haloids are also associated. For the purpose of this investigation, therefore, a number of new salts have been prepared, including tetrapropylammonium fluoride, chlorate, bromate, iodate, sulphate, thiocyanate, oxalate, and benzoate. All of them have high molecular weights in chloroform. Thus, the observed molecular weight of the thiocyanate in 4 per cent. solution is nearly seven times the value for the simple formula. At the same concentration (25 milligramme molecules per 100 c.c. of solvent}, the degree of association increases in the order: iodate, oxalate, chloride, bromide, bromate, chlorate, sulphate, iodide, benzoate, nitrate, periodide, thio- cyanate, fluoride. 5. Ionisation in Solvents of Low Dielectric Constant. By W. E. 8. Turner. In extension of previous work on conductivity in solvents of low dielectric constant, Sachanov* has found that the conductivity of a mixture of electrolytes exceeds that of the sum of the conductivities of the single electrolytes by an amount which is greater the lower the dielectric constant of the solvent. From his results, he argues that in solvents of the type used the degree of dissociation of one electrolyte is materially increased by a second one added. This interpretation is capable of test by freezing or boiling-point tests on the solutions. Experiments on solutions in chloroform, one of the solvents used by Sachanov, show that the salts tetrapropylammonium iodide, diethyl- ammonium chloride, triethylammonium bromide, phenylethyl- and phenyldiethyl- ammonium chloride and iodide, so far from causing increased dissociation when dissolved in pairs, have just the reverse effect, producing an increased degree of association. That is to say, Sachanov’s interpretation is incorrect, and, whereas in water the molecular conductivity increases as the average size of the electro- lyte molecules decreases, in solvents of low dielectric constant the reverse is the case. This conclusion is in harmony with several phenomena previously pointed out by the writer,* and also with the fact that the conductivity in solvents of low dielectric constant increases as the molecular size of the solute increases. 1 Zeitsch. physikal. Chem. 1914, 87, 441. ? Trans. Chem. Soc. 1911, 99, 880. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 403 SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION :—Proressor GRENVILLE A. J. CoLe, F.G.8., M.R.LA. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— In his Address to this Section at Sydney in 1914, my predecessor, Sir Thomas Holland, dealt with the problem of isostatic balance in the earth’s crust, and with the relation of crust-movements to what Ampferer has styled the Unter- grund. Such broad questions must appeal to all geologists. Without move- ments of the surface, the ocean-depths would become diminished by infilling from the denuded lands, and the water would spread, by a general trans- gression, across the shores of worn-down continents. Rivers would become reduced, both in length and volume, and there would be a marked diminution in the salts carried to the sea. Molluscan life would probably profit by the greater extent of warm and shallow waters, while the variety of animal types on a given land-area would decrease before a growing equality of conditions. Volcanic action, so commonly the accompaniment of large displacements, would no longer find definite lines of outbreak, and a number of interesting petro- graphic types might remain unseen or even undifferentiated in the quiescent cauldrons of the crust. Students of tectonics, physical geography, paleontology, and petrography are thus alike concerned with superficial warping. More than this, the whole life of man, his future as much as his past, is conditioned by the security or insecurity of the land on which he moves. If to-day I venture to touch on some of these large aspects of our science, it will be understood that this is not from any pride of knowledge on my part, or from any special grasp of a ‘theory of the earth.’ The conclusion that I should prefer to emphasise is that the faithful and minute observations of the geologist, the discussion of detail, the aid that he may draw from the experiments of the chemist and the physicist, and, above all, the frequent conference with others in the field, all tend to an understanding of human surroundings on this strange rotating globe. The globe is still strange to us, because its vast interior is unseen ; and we are apt to speculate about the stars, when the behaviour of the ground beneath us concerns us far more nearly. Changes in the relative Proportions of Sea and Land. The geologist has long been accustomed to regard the crust beneath his feet as subject to changes which are immeasurably slow in comparison with the duration of his personal life. Since the days of Lyell, the processes of recon- struction have seemed to us as mild and lengthy as are the processes of decay. Tt is true that even the latter processes display vigorous tendencies in the form of landslides and the paroxysmic eruptions of volcanoes, while earthquakes at times are accompanied by visible displacements of the crust, such'as that which, at Yakutat Bay, in 1899, raised the sea-coast as much as forty-seven feet. DD2 404 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Cc. These somewhat exceptional manifestations come well within our conceptions of uniformity, and many of us have felt with Lyell’ ‘that the energy of the sub- terranean movements has been always uniform as regards the whole earth. The force of earthquakes may for a cycle of years have been invariably confined, as it is now, to large but determinate spaces, and may then have gradually shifted its position, so that another region, which had for’ ages been at rest, became in its turn the grand theatre of action.’ James Hutton has sometimes been charged with catastrophic tendencies, in requiring a complete wearing away of the continents, followed by a somewhat sudden restoration of the land-surface. But he was careful to urge? that ‘ the powers of Nature are not to be employed in order to destroy the very object of those powers; we are not to make Nature act in violation to that order which we actually observe.’ To him, the object of the earth’s existence was the propagation of life, and particularly of man, upon its surface. We must presume that the destructive outpourings of the lava-rifts of Laki in 1783 and the human hecatomb on the quay at Lisbon in 1755 had not appealed to him as breaks in an orderly succession. He admits * that ‘this world is thus destroyed in one part, but it is renewed in another; and the operations by which this world is thus constantly renewed are as evident to the scientific eye as are those in which it is necessarily destroyed.’ Yet the operations that are to ‘ give birth to future continents,’ as well as those that wear down a continent to the level of the sea, are not the result of ‘any violent exertion of power, such as is required in order to produce a great event in little time; in nature, we find no deficiency in respect of time, nor any limitation with regard to power.’* Far from believing in the complete loss of the former land-surface before upheaval raised the new, Hutton points out that ‘the just view is this, that when the former land of the globe had been complete, so as to begin to waste and be impaired by the encroachment of the sea, the present land began to appear above the surface of the ocean. In this manner we suppose a due proportion to be always preserved of land and water upon the surface of the globe, for the purpose of a habitable world, such as this which we possess.’ He then observes that the materials brought to light from the bottom of the sea must have been derived from a land-surface still older than that which is decaying simultaneously with the uprise of new continents. Though he speaks of the strata formed at the bottom of the sea as becoming ‘violently bended, broken, and removed from their original place,’ he refrains from definite assertions as to the details of the process of elevation.* Fusion, whereby original rock-structures are lost, sub- sequent consolidation, and final upheaval by thermal expansion, seemed to Hutton the broad stages of that part of his cycle which is concerned with reconstruction. He certainly speaks® of ‘the greatest catastrophes which can happen to the earth, that is, in being raised from the bottom of the sea, and elevated to the summits of a continent, and being again sunk from its elevated station to be buried under that mass of water from whence it had originally come.’ But the gist of his whole treatise is that the process of degradation is brought about by slowly acting causes, and the ‘ catastrophe’ of elevation is kept well out of the picture, on the ground that we are unable to follow out its successive stages. Hutton’s insistence on the recurring cycle of geological events was of immense value in checking the imagination of those who revelled in the con- templation of ‘Crags, knolls, and mounds, confusedly hurl’d, The fragments of an earlier world.’ Stellar observation and physical chemistry, however, have alike led us to look for evolutionary processes in the globe; and it is well to ask if the conditions prevalent at the present day are necessarily those of previous periods, or have Principles of Geology, vol. i. (1830), p. 64. * Theory of the Earth (1795), vol. ii. p. 547. * Ibid. p. 562. ° Ibid. pp. 163, 164, 184, and 121, * Ibid. (1795), vol. i. p. 182. ® Tbid. vol. ii. p. 445. Mee ee ee Se en a eee ee PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 405 even persisted since the surface became suitable for the amatory escapades and internecine enterprises of living organisms. Few geologists, for instance, will now urge with Hutton that a ‘due propor- tion’ has always been preserved between land and water on the surface of the globe, if by those words is meant a proportion such as we now enjoy. We may remark, in passing, that the proportion regarded with complacency by Hutton may have suited the populations and ambitions of the eighteenth century; but recent events have at any rate shown the need for an expansion of the continents. If we go back to early times, we must consider, with R. A. Daly,’ the possible grouping of the land against which the Huronian or late pre-Cambrian sediments were formed. The stimulating imagination of this author has pro- posed a threefold explanation of the absence of calcareous coverings or strengthenings from the organisms of primeval seas. I use the word ‘ imagina- tion ’ advisedly, since the power of conceiving what has happened in the past is not necessarily limited by observation of what is now going on around us. The conclusions of Hutton as to the nature of the contact of granite and sedi- ments in Glen Tilt, and those of G. P. Scrope as to the dynamic origin, or at any rate the dynamic intensification, of foliation in crystalline rocks, are triumphs of the imaginative faculty. The geologist who represses his imagina- tion does, perhaps, excellent observational work; but if this repression becomes habitual, others will reap the intellectual harvest of which he has counted out the seeds. R. A. Daly, then, has imagined, as one of the causes contributing to a ‘limeless ocean,’ a primitive distribution of land and water very different from that which determines our continental land to-day. His pre-Huronian land- surface is pictured as merely a number of large islands, on which no long and conspicuous rivers could arise. Granitic rocks, moreover, prevailed, and basic materials, capable of supplying calcium in abundance, had not yet become prominent in the surface-layers of the crust. | It may be said that this primitive condition of the distribution of land and water is very unlikely to return. But we have evidence that Hutton’s ‘due proportion ’ has been interfered with from time to time. The conversion of the Danish area into islands in the human epoch, and the severance of the British region from continental Europe, are merely pictures in little of what may happen in an unstable crust. The very general spread of the sea over the land- margins in Cenomanian times is attributable to a shallowing of the ocean- floors, and it is difficult to say whether this process has been rhythmic or excep- tional in the history of the globe. The Carboniferous period opened with marine conditions over a large part of the northern hemisphere, indicating, not only a continuation of the Devonian seas, but an overflowing of much of the Caledonian land. The same period closes with an extension of the continental edges, and the formation of swampy flats, in which the vegetation of the epoch has been abundantly preserved. Similarly, the sea which deposited the Cretaceous strata, after encroaching alike on South Africa and Scandinavia, withdrew to a considerable extent in Eocene times, and its perpetuation along the Mediterranean belt only calls attention to its subdivision or absence in other areas. The Foundations of the Harth’s Crust. Hutton, however, remains at present unassailable in one of his most remark- able propositions. He was not troubled by any theory of nebular origins, nor by isogeotherms and their gradual retreat from the surface on which we live. For him, the oldest rocks that we know are sedimentary, and these sediments differed in no respect from those of modern days. This conclusion has perhaps not received the full attention that it deserves. It was based on philosophic reasoning rather than on observation, and its world-wide truth has only recently become appreciated. It now appears certain that we possess no record of a * “The Limeless Ocean of Pre-Cambrian Time,’ Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xxiii. (1907), p. 113; and more fully in ‘First Calcareous Fossils,’ Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. xx. (1909), p. 157. 406 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. sedimentary type peculiar to the early stages in the formation of a habitable crust. If such a type existed, it has been lost to us through subsequent metamorphism, amounting to the actual fusion and redistribution of its con- stituents. ‘The Grenville series of North America, first recognised by Logan, has been studied in considerable detail.’ Its relation to the Keewatin series of Canada is unknown, but it rests on a floor of granitoid rock, which is intrusive in it, and which belongs to the oldest of various irruptive groups. The Grenville series includes conglomerates, false-bedded quartzites, and a development of limestone that is altogether exceptional for pre-Cambrian times. In Finland," sediments have been traced down to the layer where their original characters vanish in a general ‘ migmatitic’ ground. The Bottnian and the still older Ladogan systems alike provide us with strata in which primary characters have been preserved. Conglomerates and phyllites occur among them, and near Tampere (Tammerfors) the seasonal stratification is as well recorded in a Bottnian shale as it is in the Pleistocene clays made famous in Sweden by De Geer. Vein-gneiss (Adergneis) underlies these ancient systems, and represents their destruction by the injection of granite from below. It is to be noted that J. J* Sederholm 2° believes that in several places in Finland the ‘ basement complexes of the typical Archzan sedimentary formations’ have been preserved. These, however, may well be also sedimentary, and thus similar in origin to the later complexes above them. Their surfaces must be due to denudation, and their igneous constituents were intruded into rocks which may have been merely a cover worn from still older masses. If we accept the meteoritic and planetesimal hypotheses of Lockyer and Chamberlin, it is quite possible to argue that the primitive crust was never molten as a whole. It may never have lost its fragmental structure, which was original and due to accretion from without. When agents of denudation came to work upon it, a chemical as well as a mechanical sifting of various materials came about. The oldest sediments were less differentiated than their suc- cessors ; chemical adjustments may then have been made in response to demands from the interior of the globe1!; and ultimately normal types of sediment— that is, types to which we are now accustomed—began to gather in hollows of the surface. So far, Hutton’s position becomes strengthened by the postu- lation of an unfused planetesimal crust, and the restriction of molten masses and hydrothermal activity to the interior of a consolidating globe. The doctrines of Laplace, however, led Hutton’s immediate successors to see in crystalline schists the products of abnormal sedimentation. In their view, a molten globe became surrounded by a slowly consolidating crust, and highly heated waters, playing upon this, deposited crystalline material on the floors of primordial seas.12, Among other workers on pre-Cambrian rocks, T. G. Bonney 1° has upheld the view that the conditions under which schists were formed have not been repeated in later geological times. This is, of course, true if they are deposits from hot solutions and were laid down at the surface of the earth. R. A. Daly 4 has reasoned that we may accept the planetesimal view and yet believe that a molten surface prevailed at some time over the whole globe; and A. Holmes, in a recent and lucid paper, supports these arguments from the 8 F. D. Adams and A. E. Barlow, ‘Geology of Haliburton and Bancroft Areas,’ Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 6 (1910), p. 36. ® J. J. Sederholm, ‘ Ueber eine archdische Sedimentformation im stdwest- lichen-Finland,’ Bull. Comm. géol. Finlande, No. 6 (1899), p. 215. pee cit. No. 6, p. 213, and ‘Om Granit och Gneis,’ ibid., No. 23 (1907), p. ; 11 See C. H. L. Schwarz, Causal Geology (1910), p. 11. 2G. P. Scrope, Considerations on Volcanos (1825), p. 226. *° Presidential Address, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xlii. (1886), Proceedings, p. 110. See also T. Sterry Hunt, ‘Etudes sur les Schistes cristallins,’ C.R., Congrés géol. internat. 1888, p. 65. ™ Igneous Rocks and their Origin (1914), p. 159. 8 *Radio-activity and the Earth’s Thermal History,’ Geol. Mag. 1915, p. 105. On the power of radio-active substances to promote rock-fusion see, however, J. P. Iddings, The Problem of Volcanism (1914), p. 141. = PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 407 probabilities of radio-active heating. Yet, so far as we have any record left to us, Hutton remains fundamentally in the right. All modern research shows that the schists and gneisses can be explained by causes now in action. The vast majority of schists were at one time normal sediments ; others were tuffs or lavas; but, whether originally sedimentary or igneous, they owe their present characters to widely spread regional metamorphism. The Undermining and Weakening of the Foundations of the Crust. Is there, then, any reason to depart from Hutton’s position as to the recurring cycle of events in the history of continental land? I think it must be admitted that the isostatic balance was far more frequently disturbed in what we may call Lower pre-Cambrian times than it has been in more recent periods. Osmond Fisher ** has pointed out the possibility of local melting of the substratum of the crust by convection-currents in a liquid layer, and the consequent weakening of the mass above. The differences in composition of various parts of the crust render them, moreover, susceptible to fusion in various degrees, whatever may be the source of the heat by which they are attacked. Local fusion must indeed be regarded as an important cause of crustal weaken- ing. If we wish to study the nature of the process, it is reasonable to examine regions that have at one time lain deep within the crust. Such regions are provided by the broad surfaces of Archean rocks that were worn down through continental decay before they sank beneath the Cambrian sea. It is well recognised that an ancient continent, resembling in most of its features the present ‘ Russian platform,’ at one time stretched across the northern hemisphere. Wherever later deposits have been stripped from its surface, from central Canada to the Urals, and probably far beyond, we find that the older materials of this undulating continental platform consist largely of intrusive igneous rocks. These, moreover, have frequently a gneissic structure. Again and again, strongly banded gneisses occur, in which granitic material. verging on aplite, alternates with sheets of hornblendic or biotitic schist. The biotitic varieties can often be traced back into amphibolites. In places, lumps of these amphibolites are seen, streaked out at their margins, and providing a clear explanation of the dark bands throughout the gneiss.‘’ This swallowing up of a mantle of basic material by a very different and highly siliceous magma rising from below is, indeed, seen to be a world-wide feature, wherever we find the lower crust-layers brought up within reach of observation. The tuffs and lavas of the Keewatin series have supplied the dark material in Canada, and similar rocks have been worked up into the gneisses of Galway, Stockholm, and Helsinki. The frequency of amphibolite in these ancient composite rocks is explained by the fact that this type of rock is the final term of various metamorphic series. While many lumps, for instance, in the gneisses of Donegal-are residues of Dalriadian dolerites (epidiorites), others. rich in garnet and green pyroxene, and often containing quartz, are derived from a mixture of sediments in which limestone has been prevalent.’® During the absorption and disappearance of these masses in the invading granite magma, the 16 Physics of the Harth’s Crust, ed. 2 (1889), p. 77. 7 Since the historic works of A. C. Lawson (for example, ‘Report on Rainy Lake Region,’ Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. Report for 1887, plates v. and vi.), these features have been traced in many areas. Compare W. H. Collins, “Ccuntry between Lake Nipigon and Clay Lake, Ontario,’ Geol. Surv. Canada, Publication 1059 (1909), p. 52; A. L. Hall, Presidential Address on the Bush- veld, Complex, Proc. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, 1914, p. xxii; P. A. Wagner on Rhodesian gneisses, Trans. ibid., vol. xvii. p. 39; and works cited in the next reference. - % See Michel Lévy, ‘Granite de Flamanville,? Bull. carte qéol. France. vol. v. (1893). p. 837; G. A. J. Cole. ‘Metamorphic Rocks in E. Tyrone and S. Donegal,’ Trans. R. Irish Acad., vol. xxxi. (1909), p. 460; O. Triistedt. ‘ Die Erzlagerstitten von Pitkiranta,’ Bull. Comm. géol. Finlande, No. 19 (1907), pp. 72 and 92; F. D. Adams and A. E. Barlow, op. cif. (1910), pp. 25 and 97: F. Kretschmer, ‘ Kalksilikatfelse in der Umgebunge von Mahrisch-Schénbere,’ Jahrb. k. i. geol. Reichsanstalt, vol. \viii. (1908), p. 568; &c., &c. r 408 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ‘ amphibole acquires potassium and breaks down into biotite, and biotite-gneisses result, which may extend over hundreds of square miles. The details of such an igneous invasion are worthy of careful study, since only in this way can we follow out the progress of sub-crustal fusion. We see the highly metamorphosed material further attacked by the great cauldrons under it, and becoming seamed with intersecting veins. Block after block has been caught, as it were, in the act of foundering into the depths. In the gradual absorption of these blocks, and their penetration by insidious streaks of granite, we see pictured on a few square yards of surface the destruction of a continental floor. To realise the magnitude of the process, however, hand-specimens and museum- specimens will not suffice. Here, as in all branches of geology, travel is the best of teachers, and the finest illustrations in a Geological Survey memoir will not convey the same impression as one wave-swept island of the Finnish skagard, a glaciated hillside in Donegal, or a dome of the Laurentian peneplane, from which the forest has been burnt away. IT am aware that in this statement of the relations of the Archzan gneisses to the overlying floor I am neglecting the effects attributed to dynamometa- morphism. A rise of temperature, leading to molecular readjustment, is usually admitted by those who lay stress on the evidence of pressure, and study in the field along what may be called regional contacts produces the impression that thermal influence is a very potent factor. This is not the place for a review of the position taken by French observers,!® who have done so much to enlarge our ideas of contact-alteration and intermingling. It is sufficient to remark that such contact-alteration, acting over wide areas, including as it does the advance of permeating liquids, goes far to account for the ‘ mineralisation ’ of previously normal sediments, while the injection of which there is such abundant evidence will explain the numerous varieties of composite and banded gneiss. J. Lehmann *° restricted the term ‘ gneiss ’ to foliated igneous rocks in which the parallel structure was due to original flow or subsequent crushing, and denied the existence of a passage from mica-schist to gneiss. He left no place in his classification for the composite rocks that furnish so much information as to the methods of sub-crustal fusion. When such an authority as J. P. Iddings 7" hesitates to accept either the assimilation or the stoping theory as explaining the advance of an igneous magma on a large scale in the crust, I feel that I may not be able to carry all my hearers with me in this part of my argument as to the causes of terrestrial collapse. I can only say that I support certain con- clusions, because I can conceive no other reading of the evidence offered in the field. When it is asserted that the earth is not hot enough to allow of the melting of one rock by another, I can only reply that such melting has taken place. The influence of liquids and gases in promoting fusion has been emphasised by Iddings, Judd, and Doelter. Even with this aid, we may not be able to explain the facts, though I think that we have gone a long way towards doing so. In the history of all the sciences, however, observation has run far beyond understanding. Fortunately the argument that I hope to develop as to the comparative rapidity and possibly catastrophic character of certain crustal changes depends only in part on views that are still under discussion. The invasion of a ‘hard and brittle’ ?? crust by an attacking magma was finely described by Lawson in 1888. Lawson pointed out that the Laurentian 7? Michel Lévy summarised his views, side by side with essays by other authors, in ‘ Etudes sur les Schistes cristallins,’ C. R., Congrés géol. internat. 1888, p. 117. See also P. Termier, ‘Les Schistes cristallins des Alpes occi- dentales,’ C. R., Congrés géol. internat., 1903, p. 571. Compare numerous later observers, such as P. §. Richarz, ‘ Umgebung von Aspang,’ Verhandl. k. h. Reichsanstalt, 1911, p. 285. 20 Op. cit., C.R., Congrés géol. internat., 1888, p. 115. *1 Igneous Rocks, vol. i. (1909), p. 282; The Problem of Volcanism (1914), p. 200. 22 A. C. Lawson, op. cit. p. 140. See also his revision of the area, Geol, Surv, Canada, Memoir 40 (1913), PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 409 gneisses gave no evidence of having ‘ yielded to pressures and earth-stresses.’ The folding of the overlying series was prior to the solidification of the gneisses, and occurred ** ‘while the latter were yet in the form of probably a thick, viscid magma upon which floated the slowly shrinking and crumpling strata of the Coutchiching and Keewatin series. . . . Large portions of these rocks have very probably been absorbed by fusion with the magma, for the Laurentian rocks appear to have resulted from the fusion not simply of the floor upon which the Coutchiching and Keewatin rock first rested, whatever such floor may have been, but, also, with it, of portions of those series.’ The intense crumpling of the lower portion of the invaded series is not correlated by Lawson with the approach of the invader. The conversion of the lowest Archzan series, the Coutchiching sediments, into crystalline schists is, however, attributed to thermal metamorphism, and to hot vapours streaming from the molten floor.** Lawson realised the importance of shattering in allowing a magma to advance into an overlying ‘brittle’ series, and he is, so far as I know, the first observer to develop in satisfying detail what is now known as the stoping theory of igneous intrusion. J. G. Goodchild*® soon afterwards described a striking example of rock-destruction by stoping and assimilation in the west of Scotland, where one of the ‘newer granites’ enters the Moine schists, and J. J. Sederholm,?® in dealing with ‘Adergneis’ in Finland, extended Lawson’s views in a new field of regional metamorphism. James Hutton always had in mind the effect of heat in ‘softening’ lower layers of the crust. His consolidation of strata by heat is preceded by a stage of melting. Sederholm, while referring back to Hutton as the pioneer, shows how in the vein-gneiss stage the unmelted sediments exhibit plasticity and become intensely contorted. The softening, in fact, induces flow. There is here no crushing or mylonitisation, but rather a viscid running of constituents, some on the verge of fusion, some, I venture to think, actually fused. Such rapidly repeated and intricate folding in metamorphosed sediments has been described as ‘shearing’ by some authors. Neither in the field nor in thin sections under the microscope can such a position be sustained. Shearing or attempted shearing may subsequently produce what has been called ‘strain-slip cleavage ’ in the folds; but the folding has an earlier origin, and is very often associated with thermal changes. It is most intense when lit par lit injection has set in, and when the whole composite mass has become weak and plastic. The presence of confined water in aiding this plasticity must on no account be overlooked. It may be well to illustrate this contention by one or two concrete instances from districts not remote from us at the present time. The noble cliffs of Minaun in Achill Island have been worn by the Atlantic from a mass of evenly bedded quartzites of Dalriadian age. These are invaded by veins of a very coarse red granite, the main mass of which lies below the present sea-level.2’ The edges of the strata appear fairly horizontal on the cliff-face; but contor- tion sets in towards the base, and the hard resisting rock has here ?® ‘ under- gone intense crumpling and overfolding, such as one meets with on a large scale in mountain ranges, and this contorted flow seems entirely due to the yielding that has taken place in the region of heating.’ The veins have broken in sinuous forms across the folds, just as they do in the intensely con- torted vein-gneisses of Finland. They here represent a late episode, occurring * Op. cit. on Rainy Lake, p. 131. ** Compare P. Termier, ‘ Schistes cristallins des Alpes occidentales,’ C. R., Congrés géol. internat., 1903, p. 585. *5 ‘Note on a Granite Junction in the Ross of Mull,’ Geol. Mag. 1892, p. 447. Compare T. O. Bosworth on same area, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. \xvi. (1910), p. 376. ** ‘Ueber eine archdische Sedimentformation im siidwestlichen-Finland,’ Bull. Comm. géol. Finlande, No. 6 (1899), p. 133; and ‘ Ueber ptygmatische Faltungen,’ Newes Jahrb. fiir Min., Beilage Band 36 (1913), p. 491. *t Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xxiv. (1913), Plate 17. *8G. A. J. Cole, ‘ Illustrations of Composite Gneisses and Amphibolites in N.W. Ireland,’ C. R., Congres géol. internat., Canada (1913), p. 312. 410 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. in place at the top of the granite mass and in time at the close of its advance. The large size of the constituent crystals of the granite indicate that the sur- rounding rock was still maintained at a high temperature. The features induced in the quartzite resemble those that are due in other cases to regional deformation. It may be urged that they represent some such crumpling during the rise of a laccolitic dome. Though such a dome, in Gilbert’s view, implies stretching rather than compression, pressure from one side may thrust the rising beds together and produce local overfolding. On the other hand, the short section exposed in Achill may be part of a synclinal down-sagging. It is difficult, however, in either case to avoid associating this limited field of disturbance with the proximity of the igneous rock, particu- larly when other cases can be compared with it. South of Foxford, for instance, in the county of Mayo, the granite of Slieve Gamph invades a series of mica-schists and quartzites. Further west, and over a wide area towards Castlebar, this granite has become darkened and gneissose through assimilation of the schists; but here above Kilmore its advance was stayed, and the margin is cut, as usual, by veins that filled the cracks both of the main granite and the metamorphosed sediments. These sediments have become, prior to the shattering, crumpled and overfolded along the contact-region, and the section upon the glaciated slope resembles that of a fluidal rhyolite on a _ highly magnified scale. The wonderful contortion of the composite mass that forms the north end of the Ox Mountains (Slieve Gamph) in the county of Leitrim gives a similar impression of viscid flow. The melting of a single constituent of the invaded schists, which here include amphibolites, would enable them to yield in response to the pressures that were forcing the granite magma in thin sheets between them. Their metamorphism is thermal, and the forces that bave produced the crumplings are not those of shearing acting on a solid mass, but may have operated from a distance hydrostatically through the magma. Again, where limestones occur near granite contacts amid a series of various sedimentary types, they display folded structures in an altogether exceptional degree. Silicates have developed along their bedding-planes, but these have become contorted and rolled upon one another as metamorphism reached its maximum stage. At Maam Cross and Oughterard in the county of Galway, along the margin of the great granite mass that stretches thence southward to the sea, these flow-structures are conspicuous on weathered surfaces. The remarkable structures, moreover, of the ‘skarn’ of Fennoscandia, though other- wise explained by Triistedt*®, may possibly represent an extreme stage of thermal alteration acting upon ordinary limestone. Sederholm *° refers contortion on a large scale to the latent plasticity of the rocks in the deeper layers of the crust, that is, in the ‘ plastosphere,’ where the pressure is sufficient to translate this plasticity into flow. His researches on the basement-levels of the crust suggest, moreover, that in the depths heating becomes a very important factor in aiding this plasticity. The main object of the foregoing discussion is to point out that the Huttonian cycle, in which thermal changes play so large a part, implies a serious weakening of the crust as magmas advance into it from below. The extensive meta morphism of the pre-Cambrian strata, which amounts to a distinctive feature, must, I think, be attributed, not to special intensity of tangential pressures in early times, but to frequency of igneous attack. Much of the crumpling of our schists may result from Hutton’s ‘softening.’ the pressure being supplied from superincumbent masses, or even hydrostatically, and the flow occurring laterally, or vertically downwards, towards regions where destruction by absorption was going on. The features seen during the falling in of fhe walls of the lava-lake of Kilauea in Hawaii afford some idea of what takes place in zones of melting within the crust. Were the scenes familiar to travellers at Kilauea to occur on a continental scale, they would be regarded as part of the regular order of nature, but would 221) Triistedt. on. cit., Bull. Comm. géol. Finlande, No. 19 (1907), v. 91. ** “Weitere Mitteilungen tiber Bruchspalten,’ Bull. Comm. géol. Finlande, No. 37 (1913), n. 66. << Ss PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4\] none the less appear catastrophic in their intensity. Were they subterranean, they would be felt at the surface in more or less degree, according to the depth of the melting zone. In early pre-Cambrian times, whether a cooling molten earth was resenting its first imprisonment in a crust, or whether the collision of meteorites or the concentration of radio-active matter towards the surface was beginning to make itself effective, the zone of melting appears to have influenced great thicknesses of overlying strata. This influence was not world-wide at one and the same epoch, as we may see by the preservation of slightly altered sediments in certain places; but it was vigorous, menacing, and recurrent. Under such conditions, even the surface-rocks must have fallen in at some points and have been replaced by igneous extrusions. Isostatic adjustments must have been very frequently disturbed. Folding of rocks, as a phenomenon of lateral surge and flow, must have made itself freely felt at the earth’s surface. It is safe to assert that such conditions have not been repeated on a broad scale at any geological period subsequent to the spread of the Olenellus-fauna. Geo- chemical evolution, however, may have surprises still in store, and, in spite of long tradition, we are disinclined nowadays to rely too strongly on arguments based upon the sanctity of human life. Possible Breaks in the Slow Continuity of Harth-movement. : 1. The Mountain-building Stage. Even with the thickened sedimentary crust beneath us, and the confidence inspired by our limited experience of the earth, we may ask if subterranean changes may not still result in catastrophes at the surface. Volcanic paroxysms have been regarded complacently as safety-valves, and the destruction of thirty thousand persons in a few minutes in Martinique or the Straits of Sunda form interesting historic episodes, when viewed from the platform or the pulpit of survivors in other lands. The ‘grand theatre of action,’ as Lyell says, may shift; but we feel that it will not do so in our own time. Some people live under towers of Siloam, others in San Francisco; but, after all, the menace appears small to the teeming humanity of the earth. The rise of an imperial dynasty at our side in Europe is more to be dreaded than that of isogeotherms beneath us. What, however, is likely to occur if a mountain-building episode again sets in? Such episodes, affecting very wide areas, have undoubtedly recurred in the earth’s history. We do not know if they are rhythmic; we do not know if they represent a pulsation, decreasing in intensity, inherited from the stars and hampered by increasing friction; we do not know if they record internal chemical changes, which have no climax, because they are neither cyclic nor involutionary, but evolutionary. The mid-Huronian chains, now worn down and supplying such valuable horizontal sections, were evidently of great extent; but we cannot say that they were vaster than those of later times. The phenomena accompanying the growth of a single chain in the Cainozoic era give us, at any rate, ample food for thought. Though the narrow cross- section of the core of such a chain limits our field of observation, the same inpressings of igneous material, and the same features of rock-weakening and rock-destruction, may be observed as in the immense basal sections exposed in the Archean platforms. The progress of geological time has not diminished the activity in the depths. The granodiorite of western Montana,*? for instance, which intruded during an uplift in early Eocene times, has attacked the Algonkian sediments of the district, producing phenomena of stoping and assimilation in the true ‘ Laurentian’ style. In the western and central Alps, again, the absence of any fossiliferous strata older than the Carboniferous arouses some surprise, until we find that many of the granitic intrusions are of late Carboniferous age. The crystalline schists ~ cae Barrell, ‘Marysville district, Montana ; a study of igneous intrusion and contact metamorphism,’ U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Paper 57 (1907), and W. H. Emmons and F. C. Calkins, ‘ Phillipsburg Quadrangle,’ ibid., Paper 78 (1913). 412 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. west of Caslav in Bohemia and in the Eisengebirge are now attributed by Hinterlechner and von John** to the metamorphism of Ordovician strata by younger granite, which intruded in post-Devonian and probably in Carboniferous times. Much of the gneiss and granite of the Black Forest and the Vosges is now, moreover, removed from the Archzan, and is shown to be associated with the Armorican movements.** These vast intrusive masses occupy the place of strata of pre-Permian age. The great development of thermal metamorphism in the Erzgebirge and in Saxony,** two classic regions of the dynamometamorphic school, is now widely recognised, and this activity is also assigned to late Car- boniferous times. The work of C. Barrois in Brittany is concerned with absorption-phenomena resulting from intrusions during the same mountain- building epoch. Sederholm ** has suggested that the ground above an area affected by pro- cesses of mountain-building cracks and becomes faulted, while the more plastic zone below flows under pressure into folds. But the blocks of the ‘ brittle’ layer, as Lawson has it, may be seriously displaced by movements in the zone of fold- ing, and subsidences of a regional character may occur. The example of the Minaun Cliffs in Achill shows that the plastic zone may become locally thickened by softening and overfolding. The pressure that has driven an excess of matter to the region of overfolding has squeezed it from beneath an adjacent region. Crumpling and overfolding are accompanied by a shearing away of the matter in one zone from that of another which overlies it; this must result in consider- able disturbance of the zone nearer the surface. We usually regard such disturbances from the uniformitarian point of view. Earthquakes are often bad enough, but they are treated as breaks in a slow process of folding that is always going on beneath our feet. May not, however, actual mountain-building be the break in a slow process of ‘softening,’ to use Hutton’s term? For a long time the isostatic balance suffers only small disturb- ances, restoring itself automatically on a gently-yielding underworld. Then something gives way; something—a large mass of supporting rock—suffers a change of state. The balance is destroyed abruptly, and mountain-building and rapid subsidences have their day. O. Ampferer,** with his customary large- ness of view, has referred superficial evidences of disturbance, such as mountain- ranges, to dragging movements of a mobile Untergrund. He urges that physical and chemical changes within the earth may produce considerable local changes of volume. Vertical movements lead to upfolding, and this leads to gravitational sliding. The zone of folding that we have been considering as normal near the Untergrund thus becomes transferred to the surface of the earth. I am not now concerned with the causes of folding, beyond the fact that at a certain critical stage the material involved may move at a rapid rate. When R. A. Daly speaks of an ‘orogenic collapse,’ *” he implies something of a different order in time from the slow processes of sinking and accumulation of sediment that have gone before. Changes of state, physical and chemical, occur with some abruptness. In the case of rocks, the softening or melting of even one constituent may allow of flow, and, as we have observed, this flow in a lower layer may soon become manifested in surface-changes. _ Ampferer and Hammer** have recently considered the question of collapse in an opposite sense to that of Daly, who pictures it as the herald of an upward movement. These authors, on the other hand, regard the overfolded structure of ** Verhandl. k. k. Reichsanstalt, 1910, p. 337, and Jahrb. ibid., vol. lix. (1909), p. 127. ™ P. Kessler, ‘ Die Entstehung von Schwarzwald und Vogesen,’ Jahresberichte Oberrhein, geol. Vereines, vol. iv. (1914), p. 31. * C. Gabert, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., vol. lix. (1907), p. 308; R. Lepsius, ‘ Geologie von Deutschland ’ (1910), Pt. 2, pp. 107 and 172. °° Op. cit., Bull. Comm. geol. Finlande, No. 37, p. 66. ** “Das Bewegungsbild der Faltengebirgen,’ Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, vol. Ivi. (1906), p. 607. - Igneous Rocks and their Origin (1914), p. 188. O. Ampferer and W. Hammer, ‘Geologischer Querschnitt durch die Ostalpen,’ Jahrb. k. k. Reichsanstalt, vol. 1xi. (1911), p. 700. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 413 mountains as due toa considerable local reduction in volume of the Untergrund. The upper crust presses inwards from opposite sides, and the parts that are thrust downwards become absorbed and carried away with the retreating region of the Untergrund. The surviving parts fall over on either side, producing, as the whole continues to close in, folds that are not so very different from the now familiar nappes de recouvrement which these authors hesitate to accept. It is not clear why the postulated reduction in volume in the substratum should occur along a certain line, so as to give rise to axial folding at the surface. The folded mass, broken up by overthrusts, as sketched by Ampferer and Hammer, suggests in its general outlines a Jerusalem artichoke rather than a breaking wave. The important point for our present purpose is, however, the restatement of the results of gravitation on the flanks of an uprising chain. The chain is said ** to result from ‘ overthrustings with occasional involutions, accompanied by the rolling over and pushing forward of blocks’ (‘ Ueberschiebungen mit gelegentlichen Einrollungen, Walz- und Schubschollen ’). So long as these move- ments occur in the depths, they may be retarded considerably by friction; but, when they produce mountain-bulging at the surface, freedom is given to the ‘ waltzing’ masses, and gravitation comes into play on the unsupported strata that flank the dome or anticline.*° Ampferer and Hammer“? point out incidentally that much of the covering of Flysch and Molasse strata was worn away from the Alps before the final folding which gave the chain its eminence in early Pliocene times. They argue that the uplifted masses were thus less imposing than those pictured by G. Steinmann or C. Schmidt in their diagrams of the Decken or recumbent folds. But the view advanced by Ampferer and Hammer allows the principal folding to take place in contact with the upper air. The cover is usually supposed to act as a re- strainer, and the long duration of the folding movements is held to have allowed of contemporaneous denudation. Cases, for instance, are known to us where rivers have maintained their level while crust-blocks rose beneath them.*? The surprising thing, however, about our folded mountain-chains is the way in which they have been eroded parallel to the strike of the overthrust sheets or overfolds. Apart from occasional detached ‘klips,’ the distal parts of these masses must have been at one time continuous with those proximal to the root-region. The forward movement could not have occurred if denudation had negatived the effects of folding on the surface. A. Tornquist ‘* has suggested that Jurassic limestones were pushed in among unconsolidated mudbanks while the Eocene sea still lay across the Alpine area. Anything comparable with this during the final folding could not fail to produce a largely felt disturbance at the surface. It is impossible to believe that the ground does not part asunder in Sederholm’s zone of fissuring during the exceptional movements that rear a folded mountain- chain. Where such a zone has remained with its parts in contact, as in Fennoscandia, mountain-building has not really taken place. Intense folding may have occurred in the plastic zone below; but no one of the lines of super- ficial weakness has been continued as a plane of fracture into the depths. ‘When this continuation occurs, the material of the folded zone may be forced up to the surface. The general deep-seated crumpling then involves the beds over it and becomes concentrated as an axial chain. The marine or lacustrine deposits of the age immediately preceding that of uplift obviously cannot be consolidated at the epoch of upheaval. Gotlandian sands and muds must have overlain the heaving masses that rose as Caledonian land. The swamps of the Coal Measures were contorted in the Armorican chains ; the highest beds of these must have been as yielding and as capable of = Lbid.; p. 701. “© Compare O. Ampferer, ‘Das Bewegungsbild von Faltengebirgen,’ Jahrb. k, k. Reichsanstalt, vol. lvi. (1906), p. 601. ‘ Op. cit. (ref. 38), p. 708. “ This is urged even for the Himalayas. Medlicott, Blanford, and Oldham, Geology of India, ed. 2 (1903), p. 463. _* “Noch einmal die Allgiu-Vorarlberger Flyschzone und der submarine Einschub ihrer Klippenzone,’ Verhandl. k. k. Reichsanstalt, 1908, p. 330. 414 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. flow as the Flysch that overlay the growing Alps. In all these cases, familiar to us in Europe, the covering masses must have responded to the crumpling under them, and, when reared to dangerous eminences, rapidly became a prey to denudation and gravitational downsliding. They can scarcely be regarded as protective, and their removal would leave the brittle masses below more liable to fracture and to the ‘ calving’ process that forms klips.** Whether or no we postulate a yielding cover, the folding or overthrusting thus becomes part of the phenomena on the surface of the globe. This fact is glossed over in some of the admirable diagrams and models that have been prepared for our instruction, where the Flysch, for instance, above the overfolds is left without structural lines. Yet I venture to think, as I have already written,* that in the Alps ‘so much occurred within a single epoch, the Tortonian or Upper Miocene, and probably in a few thousand years, that some of the move- ments must have been visible to the eye of man, had so discerning a creature appeared upon the scene. Earthquake-shocks at the present day produce per- ceptible undulations of the ground, and may leave permanent traces in the form of faults and dislocations. But it seems doubtful if a succession of small move- ments such as man has been able to record represents anything like the building of a mountain-chain when the resistance of the rocks has been overcome. . . . Slow as the general movement may have been, the crumpling was not confined to the hidden layers of the crust. It occurred in the rocks that formed the very surface, and the final drop into the lowlands suggests the features of a land- slide.’ This conception was natural to the minds of our predecessors before a salu- tary check was given to those who demanded frequent and world-wide ‘ revolu- tions.’ But nothing since that time has altered our impressions of the vast forces latent in the earth, ready to perform work when unbalanced and set free. The pressure that produces the solid flow foreseen by G. P. Scrope,*® and demonstrated in C. Lapworth’s mylonites, is capable of rearing folds to dangerous elevations at the surface. The danger lies in the form of the fold in relation to its base. Ampferer and Hammer *’ urge that the basal rocks are absorbed into the depths, since the folded strata, when spread out again, would cover a far larger area than the crystalline cores beneath them. The upper layers therefore tend all the more to slide and fold on one another. Gravitation alone becomes under such circum- stances a potent cause of surface-crumpling. G. P. Scrope ** felt that the uprise of a chain was in itself sudden and paroxysmal. We may go so far—or, shall we say, go back so far ?—as to realise that large shifts may be made suddenly along thrust-planes when crushing takes place and resistance has been overcome. We can feel greater confidence, how- ever, when we consider the gravitational movements outwards from the line of upfolding. These may be either one-sided or two-sided. Scrope *® represents the lower zone in a rmountain-chain as flowing by pressure towards a line of weakness, and the upper zone of rocks as flowing by gravitation away from this line on both sides. He believed that, in addition to crumpling and the pro-, duction of recumbent folds, actual fissuring might occur. He explained in this way the isolated blocks of the Dolomite Alps of Tyrol. ‘ Fracture chasms ’-may not have occurred between these particular blocks, though differential move- “* Something of this kind must have been pictured by C. L. Griesbach, when he wrote (‘Exotic Blocks of the Himalayas,’ C.R., Congrés géol. internat., 1903, p. 551) : ‘Much of the older sedimentary rocks must have been brought to the surface, not only as part of the sections, but also in crushed masses and detached blocks torn off from situations in situ, a phenomenon common to all disturbed areas. The outcrops of dislocations which have later undergone weathering and denudation must, of course, have been shorn of all crushed and loose frag- mentary masses.’ “ The Growth of Lurope (1914), p. 173. “6 Considerations on Volcanos (1825), pp. 202 and 234. ‘7 Op. cit. (ref. 38), p. 708. “8 Considerations on Voleanos (1825), pp. 202 and 234, “ Tbid., pp. 202 and 204. 1 nett Petscjpard cea ——— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 415 ments—perhaps even ‘ waltzings ’—along fault-planes have been proved; but is there anything in Scrope’s position that is really more extreme than the klip- theory of the present day? : ; Klips must be regarded as blocks cut off from the main region of an over- folded or an overthrust mass. Denudation occurring after the forward move- ment suffices to explain some cases; in others, separation seems to have taken place as the moving mass fell forward. The klips of hard material embedded in softer strata are thus a kind of rock-spray, hurled in advance of the breaking earth-wave. OC. Schmidt ** in our own time pictures the transference by gravita- tion of strata from above the St. Gothard gneiss to the lowland of the Lake of Uri. This lowland has become enriched, then, from a scenic point of view at the expense of the unstable central range. ’ In times later than those of the fathers of geology, the apostle of gravita- tional movement as a cause of overfolding has undoubtedly been Edvard Reyer. He has recently restated his views on the origin of mountain-ranges,”’ and he must be satisfied with the general concurrence that sliding is a factor to be considered. He may be especially pleased with P. Termier’s** description ot the overriding of the Pelvoux mass by earth-waves from the east, where the isoclinal folding of the strata on the west side of the chain is referred to the passage of sheets across them, which have since disappeared through denudation. The folding, says Termier, in his admirable prose, records the outward move- ment of the sheets, just as the forms of the trees in the Provengal plain record the passage of the mistral. Termier in no wise fears to speak of the progress of a ‘ traineur écraseur’ during mountain-building as ‘soudain et rapide comme une rupture d’equilibre, le dernier acte, longuement préparé, mais joué d’emportement, de ce drame grandiose.’ Rupture combined with rapid movement of the rocks need not be the last act of the drama; but, the more we examine the history’of folded chains, the more probable it appears as a culminating episode. The infolding and infaulting of strata, such as the Siwalik Beds in India, at the base of a rising chain may be a matter of slow squeezing. We see in India how denudation has been at work during the overthrusting process; but the successive movements may none the less have included rapid phases. When a fan arises in a geanticlinal by nipping at the base, its destruction also may be rapid, since it is assisted by rupture and falling apart of the upper portions of the folds. The original cover of our present ranges has been lost by derrudation. Earth-sculpture in these regions of high altitude and vehement attack has removed much of the evidence that we seek. What remains, however, may lead us to feel that no part of the world in historic times has experienced a mountain-building episode. Such relatively catastrophic stages have, indeed, not been common in the long history of the earth since pre-Cambrian times. It appears that now and again the ‘ orogenic collapse’ ot some considerable area disturbs the balance in the crust and spreads far through the upper layers like a disease. Or it may be that the thermal cause of the collapse is common to the whole earth at the same time, and becomes manifest in responsive regions far apart. In any case, the weak places give way and the more resisting ones close in. A readjustment is effected, which then endures through long geological time. Radio-active measurements of the length of geological periods may some day enable us to determine if the major disturbances of the crust are rhythmic. Present results, however, do not indicate a time-relation. The figures pro- vided by W. J. Sollas,°* and based on the thicknesses of strata, give us the following intervals between some of the best marked foldings of the crust. The unit here employed is the time represented by 1,000 feet of strata. The forma- tion of the Huronian chains must be set back by an unknown amount into the pre-Cambrian era, since the crumpled masses, invaded by the younger series of °° Bild und Bau der Schweizer Alpen (1907), p. 68. ** Geologische Prinzipienfragen (1907), pp. 142, 147, &c. *° «Les Problémes de la Géologie tectonique dans la Méditerranée occidentale,’ Revue générale des Sciences, March 30, 1911. *° Presidential Address, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. Ixv. (1909). Proceedings, p. 112. 416 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION OC. ‘Laurentian’ granites and gneisses, were greatly denuded before the lowest Upper Huronian (Animikian) strata were laid down.** This renders the first time-interval here given of very little value, and its resemblance to the third interval seems a matter of mere coincidence. Interval from Middle Huronian to Caledonian (Lower Devonian) folding, (?) 122 units. ; , From Caledonian to Armorican (latest Carboniferous) folding, 51 units. From Armorican to Alpine (earliest Pliocene) folding, 127 units. Our search for a rhythm is complicated by the occurrence of more localised movements of considerable intensity at intervening geological epochs. The Caucasus, for instance, became strongly folded towards the close of the Jurassic period, when western Europe responded by a gentler groundswell. The Cretaceous beds on the flanks of the Harz Mountains were upturned in early Eocene times, when our English Chalk also came within reach of denudation. Heralds of this unrest may perhaps be seen in the vast outpourings of lava in central India towards the end of Cretaceous times; and it is clear that we must take into account such igneous upwellings, and also the occurrence of down-sinkings of large areas, when drawing up a history of energy within the earth. As already observed, this energy seems effective enough at all epochs. The Armorican folding was accompanied by immense upwellings of molten matter from the depths, and the features of crust-weakening and absorption seem to have rivalled those that we can study in the basal sections of Archean mountains. The Alpine movements were probably associated with equally intense igneous action, the extent of which will not be revealed until the present destructive phase of the Huttonian cycle is complete. The imminent menace of crustal changes was brought home to us during the terrible period from April 4, 1905, to January 14, 1907, the final twelve months being marked by a veritable earth-storm.°® Three years had elapsed since the catastrophic events of Saint Vincent, Martinique, and Santa Maria of Guate- mala, On April 4, 1905, 20,000 persons perished through an earthquake in the Kangra Valley, on the flanks of the central Himalayas. On September 8 destruction was carried through Calabria. On January 31, 1906, the Colombian coast suffered from sea-waves flung upon it-by the Pacific floor, and in March and April the unrest was manifested on the other side of the basin in Formosa. From the 4th to the 12th of April, Naples was endangered by one of the most serious eruptions of Vesuvius, which reduced the mountain by 500 feet and formed the present crater of explosion. On April 18 San Francisco was wrecked in sixty-five seconds, and the fires that broke out in the shattered city completed its destruction in five days. On August 16 Valparaiso and Santiago similarly suffered, and sea-waves signalled the earth-movement seven thousand miles away on the margin of Pacific isles. On January 14, 1907, the year of earth-storm closed with the ruin of Kingston in Jamaica. The last great storm of mountain-folding, that which reared the Cainozoic ranges and marked out the edges of Eurasia and America, seems still to produce symptoms of unrest. Geologically speaking, however, we are near enough to the Tortonian epoch to look forward with some confidence to a quiescent phase. But some day, in its due season, the earth will once more be active. When that time comes, no ingenuity of man will suffice to meet it. Earthquake after earth- quake, increasing in intensity, will probably have driven the population to a distance from the threatened zone. Concentration of the folding along a par- ticular earth-line will limit the region of absolute destruction ; but the undulations spreading from it, in response to the heavings of the chain, will offer sufficient chances of catastrophe. In the case of our youngest mountain- ee P. Coleman, Presidential Address to Section C, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1910, p. : °° The details are’ summarised in G. A. J. Cole, The Changeful Earth (1911), pp. 195-203. a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 417 ranges, these undulations remain perpetuated as domes and dimplings of the crust, which are already worn down or infilled respectively by denudation and deposition. Their present forms and places record the last movements of the earth-storm, just as a buckled tramway-rail records the passage of an earth- quake. How shall we gauge to-day the intensity of their rise and fall? In the case of the city devastated by an earthquake, the débris is cleared away, and our descendants in time discover the distorted rails beneath the healing mantle of new grass. Will they realise from this alone the preliminary tremors, the sudden arrival of the culminating vibration, the shock that over- came the elasticity of the crust beneath them, and then the gradual establish- ment of the conditions under which they have passed their peaceful lives’? The crumpled wreckage lies there in evidence before them; but how will they distinguish the work of a few stormy seconds from that due to the gentle earth-creep of a century? Possible Breaks in the Slow Continuity of Larth-movement. 2. Regions of Subsidence. It was probably E. Suess who brought home to most of us the importance of regions of subsidence in defining the lowlands and the sea-basins from the up- standing masses of the crust. While one region may be folded, another may be broken into blocks; and the two types of movement, that due to tangential thrusting and that due to vertical uplift and down-faulting, may appear in the same region and may alike play their part in producing a lowering of large areas. ‘The domes and dimples that occur beyond the region of acute crumpling may be intensified into fault-blocks by fracture of their boundaries. W. Salomon °** has, moreover, shown us how the movements in the Rhine-trough, a typical region of block-foundering, may be linked with those associated with over-thrusting. The rise of one region is associated with the lowering of another. If catastrophes are possible during uplift, we may look for them also during subsidence. The occurrence of lines of volcanoes in and along the edges of subsiding areas may be regarded as evidence of the squeezing of a previously fused sub- stratum, or as evidence of sub-crustal melting which has primarily caused the subsidence. In either case, it is difficult to believe that the cracks along which the cones become established are formed gently and without elements of surprise. The dykes and cones represent a healing process. he accumulation of lava- sheets and the outpouring of ash from localised centres obscure what has gone on before. The uplift of the Pacific coast has included rapid stages, as C. Darwin recognised,*” and as we have recently realised in Alaska. It is “improbable that the downward movements of the sea-floor adjacent to it have been of a minor order, or that the larger movements of elevation have not been accompanied iby similar movements of collapse. The cutting-up of mountain-chains by transverse fractures has resulted in the loss of huge blocks beneath the sea. In such cases it is clear that faulting has run a long way ahead of denudation. The breaking of the chain that united Andalusia and the western Alps, the falling in of the Tyrrhenian earth-block, the subsidences at two separate epochs of the southern and northern Adriatic, and the conversion of the hilly mass between the Balkans and Asia Minor into the Augean, set with islands, suggest a return to the girdling waters of the Tethys. The spread of the Atlantic northward, by fracture across the tough blocks of Armorican land, has led Pierre Termier to revive the story of Atlantis °° as an episode of human times. Botanists and zoologists require a recent Atlantic land-surface as a field for migration and a refuge during Glacial cold. Who has recorded, except.the Egyptian priest of Sais, the precise mode of its disappearance beneath the waves? All trough-valleys, which are often called, somewhat misleadingly, rift- valleys, raise the same questions as to the nature of the steps by which they have been produced. The Rhine Vale, one of the most closely studied examples, ** “Die Bedeutung der Messen von Harnischen,’ Zeitschr. deutsch geol. Gesell., vol. xiii. (1911), p. 515. *" Geol. Observations on S. America, Minerva edition, p. 293. * *L’Atlantide,’ Bull. Institut océanographique, No. 256 (1913). 1915. EE 418 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. dropped 8,000 feet within the limits of Oligocene time. It is improbable that the numerous faults now traceable operated with concerted gentleness, or invited the Oligocene sea to lap in by imperceptible gradations from the west. Abruptness of certain Geographical Changes.—River-capture. There is a totally different class of terrestrial phenomena which lends itself also to speculation, or to that imaginative faculty, proper to our Section, which enables the geologist to reconstruct. The deluge that appeared to affect the world, as known to Chaldean sages, has long been regarded as confined to a limited valley of western Asia. But geographers have taught us to speak lightly of river-diversion and river-capture, and to treat them as frequent occur- rences in the history of existing lands. It is interesting to inquire what this process on a large scale may involve. The draining of the Ragunda lake in Sweden ** in 1796, by the rapid cutting of a ravine 100 feet deep in a soft barrier, shows how many of our Glacial lakes, dammed by morainic matter, may have excavated their outlet gorges and run dry in the course of a few hours. The history of the temporary lake behind the Gohna landslip, so brilliantly studied by our Vice-President, Sir Thomas Holland,®° provided a lesson both in hill-destruction and catastrophic flooding. The diversion of the Colorado River, however, in 1905, into the sluice leading to the Salton Sink gives us a definite illustration of river-capture. The ‘ New River’ thus produced in the depression to the north-west of Calexico cut a valley seventy feet deep through the agricultural land that it was meant to serve, and worked the head of this valley backward at the rate of a third of a mile a day. One of the most remarkable instances of river-diversion in the European record is that of the waters from the north side of the central Alps. At the close of the Pliocene period, the chain had already become grooved by the sub- sequent valley of the Rhone, and this river had been shifted, by earth-movement in the Juras, south-westward towards its present course at Geneva. The north slopes of the St. Gothard mass and the Bernese Alps, supplying the torrents of the Reuss-Aar-Saane system, still, however, drained across the hummocky land near Bale and sent their waters over to the Doubs. The great Rhine-trough drained southward, and its streams formed tributaries of the Alpine flow near Bale. The Mainz basin, however, which was infilled by Lower Pliocene alluvium, became tapped by the head of a river that had long run northward from the Hunsriick-Taunus range. This river is the Rhine that we know north of Coblenz, and its alluvium was then spread out where the sea now stretches - between Holland and the Yorkshire coast. Its mature valley is still traceable “ above the present stream-cut in the hills. This river could have no direct influence on the course of the drainage from the Alps. But the bulging of the land at the north end of the Juras still continued. As the text-books remark with some complacency, the Burgundian gate was closed, and the river that had previously crossed westward was diverted northward to the Rhine- trough. Can we exactly picture what this means? The whole Reuss-Aar-Saane system ‘on some particular day began to flow northward along the far older tectonic trough, carving away the infilling of detritus, washing back tree-stems that were floating quietly from the Lake of Mainz on their way to the Mediter- ranean, and finding, when it reached that lake, a notch sufficiently low for its escape across the Hunsriick-Taunus range. An enormous body of water was thus added to that which had formed in Pliocene times a mature valley across these hills.’°? The addition of the drainage of Graubinden, including the 5° See especially H. W. Ahlmann, ‘ Ragundasjéns Geomorfologi,’ Sveriges Geol. Undersék, 1915; also Ahlmann, Carlzon, and Sandegren, ‘ Quaternary History of the Ragunda Region, Jémtland,’ Geol. Féren. Pérhandl., vol. xxxiv. (1912), p. 343. °° Records Geol. Surv. India, vol. xxvii. (1894), p. 55, and Nature, vol. 1., p. 501. ‘1 W.M. Davis, Die erkldrende Beschreibung der Landformen (1912), p. 106. *° G. A. J. Cole, The Growth of Hurope (1914), p. 109. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 419 Vorder and Hinter Rhein and the Lake of Constance, to the water flowing through the trough-valley was probably an accident that occurred later than the Riss-age of the Glacial epoch. The system indicated above, representing the flow from a hundred miles of snow-clad mountains, must, however, have made a remarkable change in the stream across the Armorican hills. In time, as it lowered the loose deposits of the Mainz basin, this river carved out the young rayine that runs like a knife-cut through the range; the water that flows past Mainz, with the exception, perhaps, of that from Constance, repre- sents the magnitude of the event that we speak of as the diversion of a stream. The abrupt change was not confined to the hill-region. When the Alpine water arrived at the Mainz basin, and found its way into the notch formed by the Pliocene Rhine, carrying with it mud from the glaciers of the Jungfrau and coarser alluvium from the old trough-valley, it poured down upon the forest- covered delta-land. The changes that have occurred in the unconsolidated ground of Holland in historic times, including the loss of the Biesbosch, with its seventy-two villages, in a single night, furnish some picture of what must have happened in the pre- historic delta of the Rhine. Land was suddenly built up at some points, islands were carved out at others, and the effects of the catastrophe must have been still manifest when the Scandinavian ice-sheet began to invade the mud-flats from the north. The capture of a large river may be illustrated by the story of the Vistula. This noble stream, the Rhine of Polish lands, represents in a remarkable way the drainage of 190 miles of the Carpathians. All this water becomes con- centrated, at the apex of a reversed river-fan, at the east end of the Kielce hills, and it is probable that the upper Vistula was driven to join the San by the advancing ice-front of the Riss-age, and that both rivers then escaped south- wards. The joint waters were again held up when the Fennoscandian ice rested along the line marked by the Baltic Heights, and it is well known that a great river flowed westward along the stagnating ice-front where now the marshes of the Netze mark its course. This river stretched away west to join the Elbe, and the water from the Galician highlands thus met that from Switzer- land in the Anglo-Danish delta-land. As the ice-front shrank backward, towards the Baltic basin,®* streams flowed down over the sands and boulder-clays and cut their valley-heads back southward. Overflows may have taken place on the unconsolidated wall of the great east-and-west river, which was now deprived of its barrier of moraine-filled ice. In one way or another, the shallow valley of the main river was tapped near Kustrin, and the Oder, rising in the Moravian plateau, was sent northward as an independent stream. Similarly, the Vistula was carried off at Fordon, where the bend due to capture is conspicuous at the present day ; and the whole drainage of the north wall of the Carpathians swept across the drift deposits down the course of some hitherto unimportant stream. Along the valley thus carved out, brown and yellow cliffs now rise above the marshy flood-plain, and the red castles of advancing Germany have for centuries looked down firmly on the stream. It is quite contrary to our customary philosophy, but a good corrective all the same, to ask ourselves if this lower valley of the Vistula, eighty miles in length, was shaped in a few months or a few years. The main part of the excavation, across unconsolidated lands, may have occupied less time than the building of the strongholds at the fords. Conclusion. In spite of the swamping of the Alkmaar country in 1825, in spite of the tragedy of Messina only seven short years ago, we feel that Europe is a settled continent, and we judge the past and future by the present superficial peace. We have applied the same thoughts to human movements, and the inconceivable has happened in our midst. We naturally find it difficult to carry our minds back to epochs when the earth-blocks may have parted asunder as ice parts across the polar seas. We have, however, still very much to learn about causes how in action; and the mystery of the earth, and of our connexion with it, ** R. Lepsius (Geologie von Deutschland, Pt. 2, p: 511) urges that the sinking of the floor of northern Europe led to this northward trend of the streams. ERE2 420 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. grows upon us as we learn. Can we at all realise the greatest change that ever came upon the globe, the moment when living matter appeared upon its surface, perhaps over a few square miles? Matter is either dead or living, that is, endowed with life; there is no intermediate state. And here was living matter, a product of the slime, if-you will, but of a slime more glorious than the stars. Was this thing, life, a surface-concentration, a specialisation, of something that had previously permeated all matter, but had remained powerless because it was infinitely diffuse? Here you will perceive that the mere geologist is very much beyond his depth. Let us return to our orderly studies, our patient hammerings, our rock-slices, our chiselling out of fossil shells. Behind it all is the earth itself, quiescent, it may be, but by no means in the sleep of death. As Termier puts it, ‘ La planéte n’est pas encore morte; elle ne fait que dormir.’ If in this Address I have dwelt upon the possibility of rapid changes in its surface, no member of our Association will feel the least alarm. Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, Atque metus omnes, et inexorabile fatum, Subiecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis auari. The following Papers were then read :— 1. On the Geology of Manchester and District. By Dr. G. Hickitna. 2. On the Discovery of Solenopora and Spherocodium in the Silurian Rocks of Britain. By Professor E. J. Garwoop, F.R.S. At the meeting held at Birmingham in 1913 attention was called to the important part played by calcareous alge, especially Solenopora, as rock builders in the Ordovician and Carboniferous Rocks of Britain, and at the same time it was pointed out that no example of this genus was, so far, known to occur in rocks of Silurian age in this country. It was prophesied, however, that these organisms would ultimately be found in rocks of this age if careful search for them were instituted in suitable districts. This prediction has now been amply justified, and it is now possible to state that, not only does Solenopora occur both in the Wenlock and Woolhope limestones of the type Silurian district, but that in certain areas, namely the borders of Herefordshire and Radnorshire, we find what is perhaps the most remarkable development of algal limestone yet met with in Britain. In this border country we find a mass of crystalline limestone upwards of eighty feet thick, in which occur beds often largely made up of the remains of Solenopora—some of these algal growths reaching a dia- meter of over six inches. This species of Solenopora, which appears to be a new form, is accompanied by remains of Girvanella and Sphcrocodium ; this latter genus is now recorded for the first time from Britain, and occurs both in the Old Radnor limestones and also in the Wenlock Limestone of May Hill. It resembles very closely Sphcerocodium Munthei from Gothland. The species of Solenopora which occurs in the Wenlock limestone at Farley Quarry is identical with that from Radnorshire, and appears to be closely related to Solenopora Gothlandica, while that from Woolhope is a much coarser form. 83. The Classification of the Tertiary Strata by means of the Hutherian Mammals. By Hon. Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. The classification of the Tertiary Strata by means of the higher mammalia outlined in my paper before the Geological Society in 1880! has been tested by the many discoveries all over the world since that time, and not found 1Q.J.G.8., pp. 379-404, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 421 wanting. The details have been filled in, and the principle adopted has been proved to be of world-wide application—to apply to North and South America and to Southern Asia and Africa as well as Europe—the living mammalian species in each geographical province being taken as a standard. It has been accepted by Osborne and others, and is now being used for the grouping of the Tertiary strata of America. It has been used in the organisation of the Manchester Museum. It is therefore fitting that it should be brought up to date. The classification is based on the evolution of the mammalia, the only group in the animal kingdom that was, as Gaudry writes, ‘en pleine évolution’ in the Tertiary Period, all the lower forms having already undergone their principal changes and none changing fast enough to be of service in defining the stages. The scheme is as follows : Those of the Divisions of the Tertiary Period. Descriptions. Historic, in which the events are recorded in history. Prehistoric, in which man has multi- plied exceedingly and domesticated both animals and plants. Wild Eutheria on the land of existing species, with the exception of the Irish elk. Pleistocene, in which living species of Eutheria are more abundant than the extinct species. Man appears. Pliocene, in which living Eutherian species occur in a fauna mainly of extinct species. Miocene, in which the alliance between living and extinct Eutheria is more close than in the preceding stage. Oligocene, in which the alliance between extinct and living Eutheria is more close than in the Kocene. Kocene, in which the Eutheria are represented by living, as well as by extinct, families and orders. Characteristics. Modern types of man. Man the master of nature. Modern types .of man-cultivated plants. Domestic animals—dog, sheep, goat, ox, horse, pig, &c. Wild EKutheria of living species. Extinct types of mankind. types?) Living Kutherian dominant. Man. (Modern species . Living Eutherian species present. Extinct species dominant. No living Eutherian genera. Living EKutherian genera appear. Anthropoid apes. Extinct genera dominant. No living Eutherian genera. Living families and orders. Extinct families and orders numerous. No living Eutherian genera. Living families and _ orders. Lemuroids. Extinct families and orders dominant. The most important break in the succession of life-forms occurs at the close of the Oligocene age in Europe and America. From this break down to the present day the continuity is so marked that we may conclude that the any face of the earth is merely the last in a long succession in the Tertiary eriod. 5. The Geological Evidence in Britain as to the Antiquity of Man. By Hon. Professor W. Boyp Dawsins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor Boule, in his masterly essay published in Anthropologie, xxvi. Jan.-Avril 1915, freely criticised the evidence on which the antiquity of man in Britain has been stated to go back beyond the early Pliocene age, and con- cludes that it is not of a nature to throw light on so important a problem. The antiquity of man—or, in other words, his place in the geological record— is a geological question to be decided, like all others, on the lines of a rigid induction. In each case it is necessary to prove not only that the objects are of 492 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. human origin, but further that they are of the same age as the strata in which they occur, without the possibility of their having been introduced at a later time. In this communication I propose to apply these tests to the evidence. The Pliocene age of man in East Anglia is founded entirely on the roughly chipped flints in the basal Pliocene strata—on eoliths, mainly of the rostro- carinate or eagle’s-beak type of Moir and Lankester. It has been amply proved, in this country by Warren, Haward, and Sollas, and in France by Boule, Breuil, and Cartailhac, that these can be made without the intervention of man by the pressure and movement of the surface deposits, by the action of ice, by the torrents and rivers, and by the dash of the waves on the shore. The type specimens taken to be of human work have been selected out of a large series of broken flints that graduate into forms obviously made by natural fractures. They are, as Boule aptly says, ‘ hypersélectionnées,’ and can only be rightly interpreted by their relation to the other flints on the Pliocene shore-line. As might be expected, if they are due to natural causes, the ‘rostro- carinates’ are widely distributed through the basal beds of the crag in Norfolk and Suffolk. They occur also in the Upper Miocenes of Puy-Courny (Auvergne), in the Pleistocene gravels of London, and the present shore-line of Selsey, where they are now probably being made by the breakers. For these reasons I agree with M. Boule that they have not been proved to have been made by man, and that therefore they throw no light on his place in the geological record. The presence of man in Kast Anglia during the Glacial period is founded on even worse evidence than this. ‘The Ipswich skeleton on which Moir and Keith base their speculations was obtained from a shallow pit sunk through the surface soil of decalcified boulder clay—not of boulder clay in situ, as stated—into the Glacial sand that crops out on the valley slope. It is, in my opinion, a case of interment that may be of any age from the neolithic to modern times. The skeleton also is of modern type, and belongs, as Duckworth shows, to the graveyard series of burials. We come now to the consideration of the evidence of the famous discovery on Piltdown of ZLo-anthropus Dawsoni—the missing link between primitive man and the higher apes. After the examination of the whole group of remains, and a study of the section, I fully accept Dr. Smith Woodward’s opinion that the find belongs to the early Pleistocene period. The associated implements are of the same Chellean or Acheulean type as those so abundant in the mid-Pleistocene Brick-earths of the Thames Valley between Crayford and Gravesend. They may imply that Ho-anthropus belongs to that horizon, in which the stag is present and the reindeer absent. It must not, however, be forgotten that the classificatory value of these implements is lessened by their wide range in Britain and the Continent through the later Pleistocene river deposits. The stag, the beaver, and the horse of Piltdown—leaving out of account the Pliocene fossil mammals more or less worn into pebbles—are common both to the pre-Glacial Forest-bed and the Lower Brick-earths of the Thames Valley. It must also be noted that the intermediate characters of the Piltdown skull and lower jaw point rather to the Pliocene than the Pleistocene stage of evolution. We must, in my opinion, wait for further evidence before the exact horizon can be ascertained. On the Continent there is no such difficulty. ; The earliest traces of man are there represented at Mauer by a mandible associated with the peculiar fauna of the Forest-bed, showing that Homo Heidelbergensis, a chinless man, was living in the Rhine Valley during the earliest stage of the Pleistocene. The Neanderthal man, thick skulled and large-brained, with small chin and stooping gait, belongs to the Mousterian stage, that, in my opinion, is not clearly defined from the Chellean and Acheulian gravels of the Late Pleistocene. He ranged from the Rhine through France southwards as far as Gibraltar, and was probably the maker of the Paleolithic implements of those strata throughout this region. It is also probable that he visited Britain, then part of the Continent, in following the migration of the mammalia northward and westwards. While primitive men of these types inhabited Europe there was no place in the Pleistocene fauna TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 493 for the thin-skulled men taken by Dr. Keith? and others to prove that modern types of men lived in Britain in the Pleistocene age. : : Man appears in Britain and on the Continent at the period when he might be expected to appear, from the study of the evolution of the Tertiary Mammalia—at the beginning of the Pleistocene age when the existing Eutherian mammalian species were abundant. He may be looked for in the Pliocene when the existing species were few. In the older strata—Miocene, Oligocene, Eocene—he can only be represented by an ancestry of intermediate forms. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. Joint Discussion with Section E on The Classification of Land Forms. (See Section E, p. 490.) The following Papers and Report were then read :— 1. Notes on the North-Western Region of Charnwood Forest. By Rev. Professor T. G. Bonnzy, Sc.D:, F.R.S. The author, in a joint paper with Canon Hill, published in 1891, expressed his opinion that the Peldar and the Sharpley porphyroids were probably lava flows, and the dominant rock of Bardon Hill was a volcanic agglomerate. Since that date Charnwood Forest has been examined by the Geological Survey, and the Peldar porphyroid regarded as intrusive in pyroclastic rocks at Bardon Hill. During the present year the author has twice visited the district, having heard how greatly quarrying had progressed, and having become doubtful, from repeated study of his microscopic specimens, about his former conclusions. He had the advantage of being accompanied on one occasion by Canon Hill, on the other by Mr. R. H. Rastall. The additional evidence has changed his view on certain points. He is now convinced that the dominant Bardon breccia (which cannot be separated from the rock similar to its matrix, but without fragments) is really a very exceptional case of a fluxion breccia. In this the microscopic structure of the fragments does not very much differ from that of their matrix, and the latter varies but little from the ground-mass of the Peldar and Sharpley porphyroids, though to the unaided eye these seem quite distinct, or from the rock obtained in the Forest Rock quarry (now opened to the west of that on Peldar Tor), though this sometimes shows more distinct traces of fluxion and a pressure-structure even more marked than at Sharpley. In all three quarries a more compact porphyroid is intrusive into the above- named, and this, at Bardon Hill, is identical with the ordinary greenish rock of that place. The latter can be seen sometimes to melt down the Peldar porphyroid, and sometimes to make a sharp junction with it or even to enclose actual fragments. The author recounted the field evidence and described the microscopic structure of these rocks, which much resemble not only one another, but also some of the fragments common in true agglomerates in that district. The earliest of the rocks is a rather finely crystalline one, which occurs as fragments in the above-named porphyroids ; these, which must be very closely related and may be practically of one age, are the next in succession; lastly come the more compact porphy- roids, which, at Bardon Hill, and probably also on Ratchett Hill, contain fragments (sometimes in considerable abundance), the latter being but little older than their ground-mass, perhaps only earlier and very slightly differenti- ated portions of the original magma, which had fallen to the temperature of consolidation. 7 *The skeletons of Galley Hill, in Kent, and that of Cheddar cave in Somerset, have, in my opinion, been buried, and do not belong to the Pleistocene age. 424 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 2. Notes on the Granite Surfaces of Mount Sorrel. By Professor W. W. Warts, F.R.S. It hus been suggested that some of the grooved and polished surfaces known in this circle and in certain other Midland localities may be due to wind action in Pleistocene times. A recently discovered section at Mount Sorrel showed glacial strie trending N. 10° W. on a set of wind-grooves trending about E. and W. Proof is thus given that the Triassic wind-grooves have survived actual glaciation, and may thus be expected to have been able to resist other less drastic methods of recent and Pleistocene denudation. 3. The Ordovician Sequence in the Cader Idris District (Merioneth). By ArtHur Husert Cox, M.S8c., Ph.D., F.G.S., and ALFRED KinestEy WELLS. Reference was made to the work of previous observers, including Sedgwick, Ramsay, Cole and Jennings, Geikie, and Lake and Reynolds. The Cader Idris range is formed by a great escarpment of Ordovician igneous rocks, facing northwards across Barmouth Estuary towards the Harlech dome. The igneous rocks were for long regarded as being all of Arenig age. Re-examination of the area has shown the presence of four distinct volcanic series among the Ordovician rocks, and the following descending sequence has been established :— 1 { (X.) Talyllyn Mud- Grey-blue banded mudstones with stones Amplexograptus arcius in the ( lowest beds . 800 ft. ‘ Andesitic ’ and rhyolitic ashes and tHlenkiln-Hartfell (IX.) Upper Acid or Craig - y - Liam lavas 900-1.000 ft. Series (VIII.) Llyn Cau Mudstones 500 ft. Glenkiln with Upper Llanvirn Lower Llanvirn Arenig aie ge ee Upper Cambrian Both acid and basic rocks occur as sills at numerous horizons. (VII.) Upper Basic or Pen-y-Gader Series (VI.) Llyn-y-Gader Mudstones and Ashes (V.) Dark Mudstones (IV.) Lower Basic or Llyn Gafr Series \ {(IIL.) Didymograp- | tus bifidus Beds (11.) Lower Acid or { Mynydd Gader Series () Basement Beds . Unconformity Tremadoc Beds Pillow lavas (spilites) with tuff and chert bands. . . 300 ft. Blue-grey mudstones with thin adinole-like bands and with mas- sive ashes above and below. 450 ft. Frequently containing pisolitic iron- ore : a + oo em O hts Pillowy spilitic lavas with inter- calated ashy and shaly bands, massive banded and agglomeratic ashes at the base 1,500 ft. Dark slates with well-marked ash bands in the lower portion . 500 ft. Rhyolitic ashes with some slates above, rhyolitic lavas below 300 ft. Striped arenaceous flags and grits 100 ft. The basic rocks are diabases of various types, all with the felspars considerably albitised and usually with primary quartz. The acid rocks are soda-granophyres. The granophyre intrusions cut and are later than the basic intrusions, and locally hybrid rocks appear to have been formed along the junctions. No basic intrusions have been found above the Upper Basic Volcanic Series, and no acid intrusions above the Upper Acid = TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 425 Series, and it is noteworthy that the granophyres appear to be closely related to the extrusive rhyolites among which they are intruded. This fixes an upper limit to the age of the diabases in this district. The various beds strike more or less east to west, and dip steadily southwards at about 40° until the Talyllyn Mudstones are reached, when folding and rolling of the beds immediately begin. Two N.E.—S.W. shatter faults—the Dolgelley and Talyllyn faults—cause a certain amount of repetition, and give rise to the Dolgelley- Llyn Gwernon and to the Talyllyn Valleys, the former to the north and the latter to the south of the escarpment. A strike-fault between Mynydd Gader and Cader Tdris cuts out the whole of the Bifidus Beds, bringing the Lower Acid and the Lower Basic Volcanic Series against one another. The intrusive rocks frequently cause local variations in the dip and strike. All the softer strata are strongly cleaved, so that fossils are difficult to obtain, The slates within the Lower Acid Series have yielded a few extensiform graptolites, while from the Bifidus Beds the characteristic fossils were obtained at numerous localities. ‘The D. murchisoni zone has not been recognised by the authors, its place presumably being occupied by a part of the Lower Basic Series. The dark mud- stones among which the pisolitic iron-ore is developed have yielded rather obscure graptolites, which, however, indicate a fairly high horizon in the Llandeilo Series. The presence of Amplexograptus arctus and Glyptograptus teretiusculus var. euglyphus in the lowest beds of the Talyllyn Mudstones indicates a high horizon in the Glenkiln, or, in other words, a low horizon in the Caradocian, and suggests that the immediately underlying Upper Acid Series is at approximately the same horizon as the Snowdonian voleanic rocks of Conway. This youngest of the four volcanic series on Cader Idris is therefore considerably higher in the Ordovician than has been previously supposed. The position of the boundary between Caradocian and Llandeilian has not yet been established, owing to the unfossiliferous character of the blue-grey mudstones of Llyn-y-Gader and Llyn Cau. One of the authors (A. H. Cox) is indebted to the Government Grant Com- mittee of the Royal Society for a grant which has partially defrayed the expenses involved in the investigation. The area is being mapped on the 6-inch scale. 4. On the Underground Contours of the Barnsley Seam of Coal in the Yorkshire Coalfield. By Professor W. G. Frarnsipes, M.A. In this paper the author presents a preliminary account of the results of his statistical analysis of about a hundred records of borings and sinkings which have proved the depth of the Barnsley Bed or its equivalents (the Gawthorpe, the Warren House Coals of Yorkshire, and the Top Hard Coal of Derbyshire) in Yorkshire. The majority of the records of borings and sinkings discussed have been collected by a committee of the ‘Midland Institute of Mining, Civil and Mechanical Engineers,’ published by that Institution in volume form in 1914, the sites at’ which the information was obtained being plotted on a half- inch map. The depths to the coal have been corrected for the height of the surface location above sea-level, and, after the manner of Dr. Gibson’s map (Plate 1) in the ‘ Geological Survey Memoir on the Concealed Coalfield,’ con- tour lines have been drawn among the spot-levels so obtained. Other contour lines similarly obtained from the records of borings which have passed through Permian strata show the character of the surface of the Coal Measures where they underlie the Permian strata. In drawing the contour lines no attempt has been made to distinguish between those changes of level in the seam between neighbouring pits which are due to faulting and those due to the folding of the strata. Since, however, over most of the coalfield the faults tend to nullify the change of level which the dip has accomplished, it is maintained by the author that to plot contours which show the average rate of change of level is a statistical process which can be demonstrated as approximating to truth. (1) From an analysis of the results as plotted it appears that the under- ground contours in the Barnsley Bed (strike lines) in Yorkshire in detail generally range either N.E.-S.W. or N.W.-S.E., and that within the area under which the Barnsley Bed has actually been proved by working it is difficult to find either a N.-§. or an E.-W. strike constant over more than a few miles 426 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. of country. This circumstance, if general over the coalfield, would seem to demand some revision of current views respecting the origin and structure of the Pennine Chain. (2) The greatest structural division of the coalfield ‘ basin’ is by the equiva- lent of a N.E-S.W. anticline of which the southern limb is along the line of the Don faults from Sheffield by Rotherham and Conisborough to Don- caster. North of this line there is some evidence for the existence of a syncline with its axis central near Frickley. In ground from which the Per- mian rocks have been denuded, the coal attains a depth exceeding 1,800 feet below sea-level. The general line of this northern trough follows a N.W.- §.E. trend from Wakefield to South Kirkby, whence, displaced perhaps by the Don anticline, it bends somewhat eastward through Bulcroft. South of the Don a wider trough, also trending N.W.-S.E. through Yorkshire Main Colliery (Edlington and Bawtry), carries the Barnsley bed (at Rossington) below 2,600 feet. (3) The inclination of the Barnsley Bed is at its steepest near the outcrop, and, after the manner of gentle folds, the measures flatten out when the centre line of the syncline is approached. There is no evidence to suggest any general eastward rise of the Barnsley Seam within the area plotted on the map. (The eastern boundary of the map is through Thorne and Retford.) (4) By the plotting of the contour lines on Bartholomew’s layer-coloured half- inch contour map the interdependence of underground structure and topo- graphical relief in the area of the exposed coalfield has been well brought out. Over the whole coalfield most of the ridges are of escarpment form and elongate along the line of strike; but from the map it becomes evident that, wherever the strike of the Barnsley Bed shows a change of direction, there the escarp- ment ridges are found upstanding above their average height, and this whether they form the arches or lie in the troughs of the folds. From his experience of the application of the contour method to the study of the tectvaics of the Barnsley Bed, the author suggests that the method is of peculiar usefulness in coalfield work. He offers this preliminary account of the results of his work in Yorkshire in the hope that workers on the western side of the Pennines may take up the method and use it in the further investiga- tion of the many and difficult’ problems of geological structure presented by the ‘ Back-bone of England.’ 5. Sixth Report on Excavations among the Cambrian Rocks of Comley, Shropshire. By E. 8. Copnotp.—See Reports, p. 117. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. On the Restoration of certain Fossils by Serial Sections. By Professor W. J. Souuas, F.R.S. _ Examples of fossils reconstructed from serial sections were exhibited. They include a graptolite, Prionograptus; a primitive fish, Palceospondylus; the skull of a reptile from the Karoo, Dicynodon; and the skull of another reptile, ' These views were admirably expressed by Prof. E. Hull, who in advocat- ing them in 1868 succinctly remarked (Q.7.G.S. 1869, p. 331): ‘ Immediately upon the close of the Carboniferous period the northern limits of the York- shire and Lancashire coalfields were determined by the upheaval and denudation of the beds along east and west lines, while the coalfields themselves remained in their original continuity across the region now formed of the Pennine hills from Skipton southwards, and that at the close of the Permian period these coalfields were dissevered by the uprising of the area now formed of the Pennine Range by lines of upheaval ranging from north to south.’ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 427 Tehthyosaurus communis, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis. The last- named, 520 mm. in length, had been studied in 520 sections taken at equal intervals apart, which revealed in remarkable detail the internal structure with a completeness hitherto unknown. 2. Vertebrate Life Zones in the Permo-Trias. By D. M.S. Watson. 8. The Corrosive Action of certain Brines in Manitoba. By Professor R. C. Watiacn, M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc. Brine springs issue from Middle and Upper Devonian limestones and dolo- mites at the foot of the Manitoban escarpment. At least eighty brine areas are known, with a total flow—during the dry season—of approximately 500 gallons per minute. The water circulates in the Dakota Sandstone, the basal member of the Cretaceous series, and extends laterally into the Devonian calciferous formations, from which it leaches sodium chloride, disseminated through cer- tain dolomite horizons. The composition of the brines, expressed in percentages of total solids, is very similar to that of sea-water. It is a somewhat purer solution of sodium chloride, and also a more concentrated solution, than sea- water, the percentage salinity being 5—7 (sea-water 3°5). The salt-flats where the springs reach the surface are devoid of vegetation, and studded with ice-carried boulders. These are representative of the pre- Cambrian igneous series of North-Central Canada—granites, gneisses, and epidiorites. They have suffered intense chemical disintegration, large boulders having been reduced to half their original size. Different minerals have been affected to different extents, but not even quartz or garnet has escaped cor- rosion. Ferromagnesians have been most intensely affected; and gneissose structures, hardly noticeable on unweathered surfaces, stand clearly revealed. The striking difference between the action of these brines and that of sea- water calls for explanation. Thin crusts of salt gather, during the summer months, on the flats and around the boulders. The salt is somewhat deliquescent ; and thin films of brine are drawn, by surface tension, over the surface of the boulders. Water in contact with the atmosphere is a powerful disintegrant. Alkalies are removed as chlorides or carbonates, and silica and alumina are precipitated as gels, separately or in combination. The gels exercise selective adsorption on the salts of the brine, alkali being taken up and the brine being left richer in the acid radicals. The brine is thereby rendered a more active disintegrating agent, and the process goes on continuously. The function of the dissolved salts is considered to be twofold: (1) they provide a thin film of liquid in contact with atmospheric oxygen; (2) owing to partial adsorption by colloids, they provide an acid residual solution, which is a powerful corrosive agent. The evidences of the corrosive action of sea-water on beach boulders are, no doubt, obscured by mechanical attrition due to wave action. Such corro- sion cannot, however, be compared in intensity with that of the brines. Boulders between high- and low-water mark are alternately submerged and dry to the base—a state of affairs inimical to the persistence of thin films of liquid on the surface of the boulders. The initial conditions are consequently wanting ; and the relative immunity of beach boulders from chemical corrosion is due, not to any inability of sea-water to act as a corrosive, but to the absence of favourable conditions for the activity of the solution. 4, The Carboniferous Limestone Zones of N.E. Lancashire. By Aupert Witmore, D.Sc. The sequence is well seen in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe, where numerous quarries have been opéned up. The lowest beds exposed are near Chatburn mill, and aré dark, thinly-bedded liniestones with calcareous shale partings. Fossils are very scarce. There is a great thickness of these almost unfossiliferous beds, the top parts of which are dolomitic. 428 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION (, Bold Venture Quarry, Horrocksford Quarry, and several other exposures snow beds in probably Lower C. with numerous small Zaphrentids (chiefly Zaphrentis Omaliusi, with the variety ambigua of Mr. R. G. Carruthers very common). Higher parts of these beds contain Canin:a cylindrica, which has been found at Brungerly Bridge, in Bold Venture Quarry, at Pimlico, and at Downham. This species is not so common or well-developed as in beds farther east, towards Hellifield and district. Among the brachiopods are Chonetes comoides, Ortho- tetes crenistria, &c. Large gasteropods such as Huomphalus pentangulatus and Bellerophon cornuarietis are common. Conocardium hibernicum is a characteristic lamellibranch. Above these beds come the lowest beds with Productus sub-levis, and the Knoll beds of Coplaw, lower part of Worsaw, &c. Here are the typical C. knolls with numerous brachiopods, the gasteropods mentioned above, but few corals. Amplexus coralloides is, however, common and Michelinia sp. Above these are well-bedded crinoidal limestones, leading up to the probably C.-S. knolls of Salt Hill, Bellman Park, Worsaw, &c. These beds contain a rich brachiopod fauna, quite distinct, however, from that of Elbolton. Whilst Productus pustulosus, Pr. semireticularis, Spirifer striatus, &c., are quite common, one never finds Pr. striatus, Pr. martini and other D. forms so common in those eastern knolis. A fairly rich coral fauna has lately been discovered in these C.-S. or S. knolls; it has not yet been worked out, however. There is probably an uncon- formity at this level, and then there succeeds a great thickness of shales with limestones, with Tew fossils. These would appear to be on the same horizon as the richly fossiliferous beds of Elbolton. Above these shales with limestones come the Pendleside limestones, black limestones with cherts, and with irregular bands of more fossiliferous limestone. The Ravensholme limestone appears to be similar and to contain some of the same fauna as the highest limestone at Cracoe and the limestone of the railway quarry at Rylstone described by the writer. The Sabden shales succeed these beds, and lead up to the Millstone Grit series. A map was exhibited on which some of these generalisations were shown. : 5. A Brief Criticism of the Fauna of the Limestone Beds at Treak Cliff and Peakshill, Castleton, Derbyshire. By Henry Day, M.Sc. The author put forward some observations on a collection of some three hundred species of Carboniferous Limestone fossils from the localities Treak Cliff and Peakshill, Castleton, and embracing about one hundred species of brachiopods and corals. The beds at both places may be referred to the ‘brachiopod beds’ of Sibly (‘Q.J.G.S. 1908’), and what are allocated by him to sub-zone D,— the Lonsdalia sub-zone. The present list of species presents some features of considerable interest bearing on the value of certain types as zonal indices. Reference is made to Vaughan’s paper on the Bristol area, where it is indicated that amongst the brachiopod groups confined to the Tournaisian in that area are the following: Productus cf. Martini; Leptena analoga; Schizophoria resu- pinata; Rhipidomella aff. Michelini; Spiriferina octoplicata; Syringothyris cuspidata. Two of these, it is noted, Spiriferina octoplicata and Schizophoria resupinata, are sub-zonal indices, and each with its maximum in its sub-zone. The list of Castleton forms from well up in D, now presented, includes all the above-mentioned brachiopod groups. Syringothyris cuspidata and Spiriferina octoplicata are fairly abundant at both Treak Cliff and Peakshill, Schizophoria resupinata is extremely abundant at both places, Leptena analoga is abundant, whilst Productus cf. Martini and Rhipidomella Michelini are rare. Passing to the coral fauna, the genus Zaphrentis appears in the Castleton list, z.e., one of the two genera of corals confined to the Tournaisian in the Bristol area and not extending into the Viséan. The genus, though not very abundant, is represented by several species. In addition, the genera Michelinia and Amplexus, characteristic of the Upper Tournaisian of Bristol, but possibly extending into the base of the Viséan, are cited in the Cast)aton list, Michelinia TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 0. 429 glomerata being fairly abundant at Peakshill, and Amplexus coralloides is found at Treak Cliff, but is extremely rare. E These facts lead to a consideration as to how far the types mentioned are of value in zonal determinations. If any one of them, as recorded from Castleton, be regarded as representing exactly the same form as that recorded from the Bristol area, then its value as one of a number of index fossils of a zone becomes negligible. Examples are cited in the cases of Spiriferina octoplicata and Schizophoria resupinata. If the Castleton forms of D, horizon agree in identity with the Bristol types of K, and Z, respectively, then these two types become worthless as sub-zonal indices. It was pointed out that, even allowing of the rather unlikely possibility that in all the cases cited the Castleton specimens represented mutational forms of the Bristol species, the real difficulty as to their zonal value is not overcome, since the line of demarcation between mutations is more or less arbitrary and there is still a considerable field of discussion as to what constitutes a ‘mutation.’ ‘ It appears probable that any system of zonal indices can be of local value only, as for example in the application of the Bristol zonal indices within the Bristol area, and cannot be of any general application. 6. Shift of the Western Shore-Line in England and Wales during the Avonian Period, By Arntuur Vaucnan, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. [The terms employed are merely explanatory and are not defended as the best that could be chosen.] Join Wales across St. George’s Channel to Co. Wicklow so as to form an unbroken mass of Jand: this mass will be termed ‘ Wales.’ The sea south of this mass will be termed the ‘S.W. Channel’; it is am extended and modified Severn Channel. Join Lakeland, Isle of Man, and Co. Down by a much indented shore-line : this is the northern shore of what will be termed the ‘N.W. Channel,’ the southern shore of which is the north coast of ‘ Wales.’ The shore-line under investigation may be considered at any period of the Avonian to be that which delimits a broad central and projecting land-mass (‘ Wales’), and two more or less narrow branches of the sea (‘N.W. Channel’ and ‘8.W. Channel’) above and below. Haplanation of Map. A pattern indicates the date of the earliest (or latest) deposit at a particular point. In the ‘N.W. Channel’ the pattern indicates the date of the earliest Avonian deposit at the place. In the ‘S.W. Channel’ the pattern indicates the date of the latest Avonian deposit at the place. Hence, shore-lines (continuous patterned-lines) on the north coast of ‘ Wales ’ indicate an advance of the sea on to the land; whereas, on the south coast of “Wales” they indicate retreat of sea and expansion of land. The Shore-lines at successive Zonal Dates. [For zones and evidence, consult Report, Brit. Assoc., Winnipeg, Section C, and the later research of several investigators. ] 8—Lower Tournaisian. ‘N.W. Channel’ scarcely, if at all, defined and confined to a shallow bay in Treland : ‘Wales’ continues northwards in an unbroken mass. ‘S.W. Channel’ deeply deflected northward over Hereford to beyond Clee Hill: the most extensive encroachment of the ‘S.W. Channel’ upon the “Wales’ mass during Avonian time. C,—Top of Tournaisian. The ‘N.W. Channel’ was initiated and Lakeland girdled by its earliest Avonian deposits. _ The deepest C, deposits (which much resembled those of Rush) accumulated in the Clitheroe depression. 430 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 6@. AVONIAN SHORE LINES ENGLAND AND WALES Scale of Miles 1°) '9 20 30 40 50 60 AVONIAN ZONAL PERIODS = D, D> COUNTY 8 => fond top of Cy q, Wye i Hs L > 2a 22 Chester Ww 4, latig/len Q@ g Matlock 4, Rey “ts *Oswestr, > 4, ap > ¢ ea Wrekin D ) Ss EP Dudley L ee “BIRMINGHAM 2 Fe. eS pm 9r, \ 4 y Slee Hilf 2,.°2 —— Zo p (SEA) SZ SWALES COAL FIEZ AyY | PEMBROKE CaO JF we LONDON “Ss WCHANNEL(S EA ~ finan SS SSAgreggy EEE oe eee The marginal Tournaisian round Lakeland is often quite thin (and resembles that of Malahide). {The sea did not cover the Ingleboro’ area, N.W. of the faults. From the probable position of the coast line it seems that the basal Avonian beds of the T. of Man cannot be much later than C, ord (and collections do not disprove this suggestion).] = TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©. 431 5 —Basal Viséan—(C, + 8, of old notation). The ‘N.W. Channel’ overspread a wide area, including the Yoredale country N.W. of the Faults (Ingleboro’, &c.) and the whole of South Lanca- shire; it commenced to climb the north coast of ‘ Wales,’ reaching the neigh- bourhood of Llangollen. The ‘8.W. Channel’ retreated from the Clee Hill embayment to such an extent that the new shore-line ran just north of the Forest of Dean. S—Middle Viséan. Deposition commenced in the ‘N.W. Channel’ over the Midland Area of Derbyshire, &c., and extended southward to Leicester (deduced from the shallow- water indications of the basal dolomites). ,D,—Upper Viséan. The ‘N.W. Channel’ climbed further up the north coast of ‘ Wales’ so that the shore-line ran straight from Anglesey, through Oswestry, to the Wrekin. The ‘S8.W. Channel’ retreated still further southward, so that its shore-line ran just north of Bristol and continued in a straight line to Pembroke. Notes. The ‘ Barrier,’ which formed the land-crest between the two channels during Viséan time, had a dominant trend from Anglesey to Dudley; it was never submerged throughout the Avonian period, so that the S.W. Province was only connected with the Northern and Midland Provinces round the Irish coast of ‘Wales.’ The whole neck of land which contained the ‘Barrier’ and separated the two ‘channels’ shifted steadily southward as Viséan time proceeded, owing to the advance of the sea on the north of ‘ Wales’ and its retreat on the south. The remarkable similarity of the Viséan sequence in the N.W. and S.W. Provinces (compare Shap or Arnside with Bristol or Mendip) indicates free communication of the two channels round the western or Irish front of ‘ Wales,’ aided by great similarity of the northern margins of the ‘N.W.’ and ‘S.W. Channels.’ The western or Irish coast of ‘Wales’ probably shifted but little during the period, for just N. of Dublin (Rush, Malahide, &c.) the sea remained per- sistently coastal (as shown by the conglomerates, dolomites, &c.). 7. A Preliminary Note on the Glacial Geology of the Western Slopes of the Southern Pennines. By Aupert Jowsrt, D.Sc., F.G.S. The area dealt with extends from Blackstone Edge southwards to the southern extremity of the Pennines. No striated surfaces of solid rock have been discovered at high levels, and the two that have been recorded at Salford and Fallowfield serve only to indicate a general movement from N.W. to S.E. For more detailed information as to the movements of the ice-sheet, the only evidence is that afforded by the dis- tribution of the drift at high-levels and by the systems of drainage alcng the edge of the ice. From this it may be inferred that the main directions of ice- movement about the time of the maximum extension of the ice-sheet were roughly towards the north-east in the Tame valley, the east in the Etherow valley, and the south-east and south-south-east in the Goyt valley and further south. These directions were much modified locally by the complicated con- figuration of the sub-glacial surface. The first barrier of hills met with on approaching the Pennines from the South-Lancashire and Cheshire plain was almost everywhere overridden by ice, which left definite deposits of drift with foreign rocks at altitudes up to 1,360 feet, and scattered erratic boulders up to 1,400 feet. As this foreign drift penetrates further into the hills its maximum altitude falls steadily. It has only been traced across the main Pennine divide at the broad col (1,100 feet above O.D) south-east of Chapel-én-le-Frith. Thick deposits of drift and big erratics ate comparatively rarely met with at the extreme limit of the foreign drift, towards which the erratics generally 432 SRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. diminish in number and in size. Boulders of local rocks, often obviously transported and uplifted beyond their parent outcrops, become relatively more abundant towards the limit of the foreign drift, and generally form a spread of drift extending beyond it and passing insensibly into the driftless area. Great lakes were held up by the ice-barrier some time after it commenced to retreat from the western slopes of the Pennines. During early stages in this retreat the drainage from the lakes in and north of the Etherow valley escaped northwards, and ultimately passed through the Walsden gap into the Calder. When the ice-barrier east of Manchester fell below 600 feet above O.D., this drainage followed the course of that south of the Etherow valley and escaped southwards. The action of the ice-sheet with its associated streams of water, together with the marginal water derived from melting ice and draining from the region beyond the ice-sheet, assisted by the action of post-glacial streams, in depositing the original drift, in cutting new channels through rock and drift, and in resorting and redepositing the débris, seems quite sufficient to account for the complicated superficial deposits in this area. No evidence has been found of more than one period of glaciation nor of any local glacier system. There are, however, curious corrie- or cirque-like features, e.g., on Shelf Moor, Glossop. Moreover, although the Pennines are on the whole much lower north of the Etherow Basin than further south, the overflow-channels of glacier-lakes can be found at higher altitudes in the former than in the latter region. This is the reverse of what might be expected if the higher ground were ice-free. It may be, therefore, that at and near the time when the ice-sheet attained its maximum development, the snow-line actually descended below the altitude of the higher Pennine hills, and, without bringing about a definite local glaciation, temporarily filled the higher hollows with snow up to the general level of the ridge. Thus, instead of the margin of the ice-sheet at that stage melting away rapidly, melting might be considerably reduced and even temporarily suspended, and the ice-sheet reinforced by the local snow-fall. Such conditions would tend to depress the limit of distribution of erratics immediately west of the highest ground, but where an ice-stream carrying erratics actually crossed the watershed, they might lead to the distri- bution of those erratics further and more widely than otherwise might have been possible. 8. Discussion on Radio-active Problems in Geology. (a) Professor Sir E. Ruruerrorp, F'.R.S., opened the Discussion. (b) Contribution to the Discussion on Radio-active Evidence of the Age of the Harth. By Artuur Houmes, D.I.C., B.Sc. The radio-active methods of measuring geological time have given results which are consistent among themselves. The unavoidable discrepancies between the periods based on helium-ratios and those calculated from corresponding lead-ratios do not stand in need of reconciliation, and if they did the pleochroic- halo method is there to bridge the gap. On account of the leakage of helium, periods based on the accumulation of the latter are always smaller—invariably less than half—than those implied by the accumulation of lead. Consequently, the greatest age deduced from helium-ratios, 715,000,000 years for a sphene from the Lower Pre-Cambrian rocks of Ontario, Canada, is not likely to be more than half the true value. In keeping with this supposition, the greatest age yet determined by the lead-ratio method amounts to 1,500,000,000 years, this figure referring to zircons derived from the oldest granitic rocks of the Pre-Cambrian platform of Mozambique. ; Supporting this result are the lead-ratios of the well-known radioactive minerals of the Middle Pre-Cambrian of Norway and Sweden. The ratios fall into two well-marked groups, which indicate ages of 1,000,000,000 and 1,200,000,000 years respectively. The lower figure is of special value, not only because of the consistent testimony of eleven minerals, but also because lead a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 433 which has been prepared from one of them has an atomic weight of 20606 (Honigschmid, 1914), a fact which ensures its radioactive origin. Hitherto all time periods have been calculated on the assumption that the radioactive ‘constants’ of uranium and its daughter elements have not varied with time. Keeping this in mind, we may, I think, tentatively accept some period such as 1,500,000,000 years, as representing the time that has elapsed since the crystallisation of the oldest plutonic rocks of the earth’s crust. The actual age of the earth must, of course, be greater even than this—on the assump- tion specified—for wherever geological evidence is clear, the oldest plutonic rocks are found to be intrusive into a pre-existing sedimentary or volcanic series. Yet geological attempts to determine the age of the earth, founded on sedi- mentation and salt accumulation, point to considerably lower figures, say 100,000,000 to 400,000,000 years. Certainly the data on which the geological methods depend are of doubtful value; and the assumption of uniformity which underlies their interpretation is clearly far from being justified. Nevertheless, although the geological results are thus discredited at their source, they make it advisable to examine carefully the assumption of uniformity lying behind the radioactive figures. The third method of determining geological time, that based on the now hypothetical cooling of the earth’s ‘crust,’ would probably dissolve the contro- versy, if it did not, unfortunately, precipitate a fresh one. The new difficulty is that the traditional view of a surface originally molten, or practically so, is not altogether regarded with favour in the light of the planetesimal hypothesis. However, ignoring -this for the moment, it is safe to say, with the existing distribution of uranium and thorium in the surface rocks, that our planet cannot have cooled down to its present condition (from a stage when the temperature near the surface was approximately 1,000° C.) in less than 1,600,000,000 or 1,700,000,000 years. These figures again imply that the rates of decay of the radioactive parent elements have not varied during the earth’s history. As Professor Joly has suggested, the discrepancy between the numerical results of the geological, and lead and helium methods would disappear, in favour of the former, if it could be shown that the rate of decay of uranium had decreased with the lapse of time. Reconciliation would then be effected from the fact that the present accumulation of lead in uranium minerals would have required a shorter period of time than could have been possible on the assump- tion of uniformity. However, an equally certain deduction is that during any given time in the past more heat of radioactive origin would have been generated in the rocks than the amount calculated on the basis of uniformity. As a result, the secular cooling of the earth would have been slowed down to such an extent that it would be either reversed, or so prolonged that the age would become ridiculously high. The only alternative to this reductio ad absurdum is to conclude that the earth never has been molten at or near the surface. Although belief in an all-time solid earth does not of itself invalidate the highest figures based on lead-ratios and uniformity of decay, yet it is an assump- tion that must be granted before acceptance of a lower figure for the age of the earth becomes consistent. On the other hand, if geologists favour an earth initially molten near the surface, then the low figures afforded by the accumula- tion of salt and sediment must of necessity be rejected in favour of the higher results afforded by the accumulation of lead generated at a constant rate. It should be observed, in passing, that the lead-ratio, quite apart from the age which it represents, is a factor of extreme value to the geologist. With its help the great granite intrusions of the Archean platforms in various parts of the world may be correlated, and in other cases when suitable minerals are avail- able for analysis, the period to which an igneous intrusion should be assigned may be determined approximately, even though field evidence is totally lacking. Professor Soddy has suggested that the final product of the thorium Series is probably an isotope of lead. This view is unsupported by mineralogical evidence. However, while the lead-ratios of minerals rich in thorium may be reliable, and may give just the same result as that of a contemporaneous uraninite, yet in the majority of examples they are remarkably variable. This fact, and the evidence of atomic weights, indicate that thorium tends to be accompanied by primary lead of the ordinary type, in much the same way, 1915 ae 434. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, perhaps, as zinc is commonly accompanied by cadmium. For these reasons I feel that the lead-ratios of thorium minerals, notably those of the thorites and thorianites of Ceylon, and the thorites of the Devonian pegmatites of southern Norway, should be altogether rejected for our purpose. At the present time, the radioactive problems which, for the geologist, are in most urgent need of solution are concerned with the possible dependence of the rate of decay of uranium on time, pressure, and temperature. In turn, the geological problem now most likely to throw light on the correct interpretation of lead-ratios is that of deciding whether or not the earth has ever been molten at or near the surface. (c) Contribution to Discussion on Radio-active Problems. By Professor F. Soppy, F.R.S. Professor Soppy hoped that geologists would not be in any immediate hurry to decide between the geological and radio-active estimates of the age of the earth. Owing to the element of uncertainty about the initial stages of the disintegration and the long periods involved there was a great terra incognita, and the new theory of isotopes made it necessary to take into account many possibilities, some of them referred to by Professor Joly, not thought of a couple of years ago. In addition there was always the possibility that thorium might be a branch of the uranium family, in which case some of the arguments that had been used entirely fell to the ground. While he saw no successful method at present of altering the general order of the radio-active estimate, he did not regard it as more than tentative, and there might well be unknown factors still to be discovered sufficiently important to bring the two methods into closer agreement. 9. Twinning in Metallic Crystals. By Professor C. A. Epwarps. 10. The Isclation of the Directions-Image of a Mineral in a Rock-Slice. By J. W. Evans, D.Sc., LL.B. The author discussed the different methods by which the interference figures of a small mineral in a rock-slice may be kept distinct from those of adjoining minerals. He recommended two. In one, which he believes to be new, a diaphragm with a small aperture is placed below the condenser, which is lowered till the image of the aperture appears in focus on the rock-slice. In some micro- scopes the iris diaphragm provided for the Becke method of determining the refractive index may be employed. In others it is too near the condenser. The aperture should be sufficiently large to illuminate the maximum area of the mineral under investigation, but no portion of the others. The directions-image may then be observed in any of the usual ways. Unless the condenser and diaphragm revolve with the stage the aperture must be very carefully centred with the axis of rotation. The other method was proposed by Becke in 1895, but is very little known. The diaphragm is placed in the focus of the eye-piece so as to shut out all except the mineral selected. The Becke lens, or system of lenses resembling an eye-piece, is placed above the eye-piece, when the directions-image of the mineral will be seen without any admixture of light from its neighbours. This method has the advantage that the diaphragm is less highly magnified at the time of adjustment. When a rotating stage is employed, a very accurate centring of the nose-piece of the microscope is required, so that the coincidence of the object with the aperture may be maintained. The common practice of placing a diaphragm for this purpose immediately below the Bertrand lens rests on no scientific basis, and is not effective in shutting out the light of minerals other than that which is being studied. : , ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 435 11. The Micro-Structure of Coal. By Dr. G. Hickurna. The author stated that his chief aim was to establish the thesis that coal is essentially a ‘ replacement ’ deposit, consisting of an originally peat-like mass of vegetable débris, in which the substance of the component tissues has been largely or wholly replaced by the liquid decomposition-products of other vegeta- tion. This conclusion is primarily based on the examination of typical ‘ bitu- minous’ coals, in which nearly the whole substance of the coal is transparent and orange- or brown-coloured in good sections. In this material vegetable structure is often shown, sometimes in surprising perfection, with the cell-walls uncrushed. The cell-cavities in such tissues are filled with the same material which forms the main mass of the coal, and since the amount of this material must be several times greater than the original (dehydrated) organic content of the cell, there can be no doubt that it is material secondarily introduced. Further, since it pervades extensive masses of tissue with the cell-walls intact, there can be no question as to the conclusion that it was introduced as a fluid penetrating the cell-membranes. The only visible differentiation in the sub- stance of such coal is that due to variation in depth of colour. In this way ‘cell-walls’ are distinguished from ‘cell-contents,’ but commonly, as the tissue is followed in one direction or another, the differentiation of walls and contents decreases and finally vanishes, whence the tissue merges in an apparently structureless mass. It appears probable that nearly the whole of such a coal consists of ‘replaced tissues,’ in only a small proportion of which there is sufficient differentiation to render cellular structure visible. The depth of colour of the coal substance was shown to increase with increasing carbon-percentage, as indicated by the streak, which varies from pale brown in coals with 70 per cent. carbon to black in those with 95 per cent. Hence it is increasingly difficult to prepare transparent sections as the carbon- content rises. Great variation, however, is found in the degree of uniformity or otherwise of the coal-substance. Typical ‘ bituminous’ coals tend to be homo- geneous, while cannels and canneloid coals are characterised by the association of an opaque or very dark-coloured ‘base’ (? of high carbon-content) with abundant pale-coloured bodies, usually spores or the ‘alge’ of Bertrand and Nenault (? of low carbon-content). The recognisable plant-structures present in coal include cortical tissues, wood, leaves, isolated cuticles and spore-coats. Unbroken pieces of tissue of considerable size are scarce, a minutely fragmentary condition being general. The individual fragments are almost always lenticular, from the effect of com- pression combined with an always present flow-structure. No indication has been found to show that high-carbon coals differ in original vegetable con- stituents from low-carbon coals. True woody tissues are commonly preserved as ‘ mother-of-coal,’ in which the lumen of the vessels is still empty or filled with secondary mineral matter, the walls being converted into opaque material. No other type of tissue has been certainly found to exhibit this type of preservation. Evidence was brought forward to show that, whatever may be the true nature of the ‘alge’ described by Bertrand and Renault in cannel and similar coals, they cannot in all cases be regarded as spores, aS some recent authors have suggested. 12. On the Economic Mineral Products of Damaraland, S.W. Africa. By Tuomas Crook. 13. Report on the Preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils. See Reports, p. 116. 14. Report on the Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, etc., Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere.—See Reports, p. 263. 436 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 15. Report on the Preparation of a List of Stratigraphical Names. See Reports, p. 123. 16. Report on Critical Sections in Lower Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—See Reports, p. 117. 17. Report on the Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland, See Reports, 117. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 437 SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. PresipENT OF THE SEcTION:—Proressor EB. A. MIncHiIn M.A., Hon. Pa.D., F.R:S. d WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President’s Address was read in his absence, as follows :— The Evolution of the Cell. Wuen addressing an audience of biologists it would be superfluous to insist upon the importance of the study of the cell and its activities. It is now recognised almost universally that the minute corpuscles known by the some- what unsuitable term ‘cells’ are the vital units of which the bodies of animals and plants are built up, and that all distinctive vital processes—metabolism, growth and reproduction, sexual phenomena and heredity—reduce themselves ultimately to activities taking place in, and carried on by, the individual cells which build up the body as a whole. Each cell must be regarded as a living, individual organism which, however much it may be specialised for some particular function or form of vital activity, is capable of main- taining its life and existence in a suitable environment by carrying on all the necessary processes of metabolism which are tie essential and distinctive characteristics of living beings. In the case of celis composing the complex body of the higher animals and plants the cells are mutually interdependent, and, with the exception of the mature germ-cells, cannot maintain their exist- ence apart from their fellows; that is to say, the only natural! environment suitable for their continued existence is the complex body or cell-commonwealth of which they form an integral part. But in the simplest forms of life the whole body of the living individual may reach no higher degree of complexity than the single cell, which is then seen as an organism plhisiologically complete in every respect, living a free and independent life in Nature and competing with other organisms of all kinds, simple or complex, in the universal struggle for existence amongst living beings. This statement of the ‘cell-theory’ is that with which, I believe, the majority of modern biologists would agree; not without, however, some dissentients, amongst whom I personally am not to be numbered.? The fundamental importance of the cell as a complete living organism, whether maintaining itself singly and independently or in union with other similar but individually specialised units, has made it the object of intensive and concentrated study, not only by those who group themselves according to their special points of view as zoologists, botanists, physiologists, &c., but also by a class of investigators who take the cell itself as the subject of a branch ? It is not necessary to do more than refer here to the investigations that have been carried on in recent years with regard to the viability and multiplica- tion of tissue-cells removed from the body in artificial culture-media. These experiments afford strong support to the view that the cell is to be regarded primarily as an independent living organism. * See Appendix A. 438 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, of biological investigation termed cytology, which deals with cells in a general manner independently of their provenance, whether animal or vegetable. Some knowledge of the cell and its activities is necessary at the present time for every one concerned with the study of living things, whether that study is pursued for its own sake and with disinterested objects, or with the intention of applying scientific principles to practical aims, as in medicine or agriculture. One might have expected, therefore, that at least some elementary understanding of the nature and significance of the ‘cell, and the importance of cellular activities in the study of life and living things, would have formed at the present fime an indispensable part of the stock of knowledge acquired by all intelligent persons who are ranked as ‘educated’ in popular estimation. Unfortunately this is so far from being the case that it is practically impossible, in this country at least, to find anyone amongst the educated classes to whom the words ‘cell’ and ‘cytology’ convey any meaning af all, except amongst those who have interested themselves specially in some branch of biology. Consequently, any discussion concerning the cell, although it may deal with the most elementary processes of life and the fundamental activities and peculiari- ties of living beings, ranks in popular estimation as dealing with some abstruse and recondite subject quite remote from ordinary life and of interest only to biological specialists. It must, however, be pointed out that the general state of ignorance concerning these matters is doubtless in great part due to the fact that an objective acquaintance with cells cannot be obtained without the use of expensive and delicate optical instruments. I propose in this address to deal with an aspect of cytology which appears to me not to have received as yet the attention which it deserves, namely, the evolution of the cell itself and of its complex organisation as revealed by the investigation of cytologists. Up to the present time the labours of professed cytologists have been directed almost entirely towards the study of the cell in its most perfect form as it occurs in the Metazoa and the higher plants. Many cytologists appear indeed to regard the cell, as they know it in the Metazoa and Metaphyta, as the beginning of all things, the primordial unit in the evolution of living beings. For my part I would as soon postulate the special creation of man as believe that the Metazoan cell, with its elaborate organisation and its extraordinarily perfected method of nuclear division by karyokinesis, represents the starting-point of the evolution of life. So long, however, as the attention of cytologists is confined to the study of the cells building up the bodies of the higher animals and plants, they are not brought face to face with the stages of evolution of the cell, but are confronted only with the cell as a finished and perfected product of evolution, that is to say, with cells which, although they may show infinite variation in subordinate points of structure and activity, are nevertheless so fundamentally of one type that their plan of structure and mode of reproduction by division can be described in general terms once and for all in the first chapter of a biological text-book or in the opening lecture of a course of elementary biology. One of the most striking features of the general trend of biological investi- gation during the last two decades has been the attention paid to the Protista, that vast assemblage of living beings invisible, with few exceptions, to the unassisted human vision and in some cases minute beyond the range of the most powerful microscopes of to-day. The study of the Protista has received in recent years a great stimulus from the discovery of the importance of some of the parasitic forms as invaders of the bodies of men and animals and causers of diseases often of a deadly nature; it has, however, yielded at the same time results of the utmost importance for general scientific knowledge and theory. The morphological characteristic of the Protista, speaking generally, is that the body of the individual does not attain to a higher degree of ° For example, my friend Dr. C. E. Walker, in an article in Science Progress (vol. vii. p. 639), after stating that ‘The unit of living matter, so far as we know, is the cell,’ proceeds to deal with ‘that form in which it is found in the multicellular and the majority of unicellular organisms, both animal and vegetable’ and then describes the typical cell of the cytologist, with nucleus, cytoplasm, centrosome, chrondriosomes, and reproduction with fully developed karyokinesis. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 439 organisation than that of the single cell. The exploitation, if I may use the term, of the Protista, though still in its initial stages, has already shown that it is amongst these organisms that we have to seek for the forms which indicate the evolution of the cell, both those lines of descent which lead on to the cell as seen in the Metazoa and Metaphyta, as well as other lines leading in direc- tions altogether divergent from the typical cell of the text-book. We find in the Protista every possible condition of structural differentiation and elabora- tion, from cells as highly organised as those of Metazoa or even, in some cases, much more so, back to types of structure to which the term cell can only be applied by stretching its meaning to the breaking-point. Already one generalisation of cytologists has been torpedoed by the study of the Protista. The dictum ‘Omnis nucleus e nucleo’ is perfectly valid as long as it is restricted to the cells of Metazoa and Metaphyta, to the material, that is to say, to which the professed cytologist usually confines his observations. But in the Protista it is now well established that nuclei can arise de novo, not from pre-existing nuclei but from the extranuclear chromatin for which Hertwig first coined the term ‘ chromidia.’ It is clear, therefore, that the results already gained from the study of the Protista have brought about a new situation which must be faced frankly and boldly. It is impossible any longer to regard the cell as seen in the Metazoa and as defined in the text-books as the starting-point of organic evolution. It must be recognised that this type of cell has a long history of evolution behind it, which must be traced out, so far as the data permit. The construction of phylogenies and evolutionary series is of course purely speculative, since these theories relate to events which have taken place in a remote past, and which can only be inferred dimly and vaguely from such fragments of wreckage as are to be found stranded on the sands of the time in which we live. Many important stages of evolution may be totally submerged and no longer available for study and consideration. The extent to which such speculations will carry conviction to a reasonable mind will depend entirely on the stores of data that can be collected and which must be the last appeal for the cogency of all argu- ments and judgments. The study of the Protista is as yet in its infancy; groups have been recognised and have received ponderous. designations although their very existence is yet in doubt, as in the case of the so-called Chlamydozoa; and our knowledge of the affinities and mutual relationships of the groups is still very imperfect. All attempts, therefore, to trace the evolution of the Protista must be considered as purely tentative at present. If I venture upon any such attempt, it is to be regarded as indicating a firm belief on my part that the evolution of the cell has taken place amongst the Protista, and that its stages can be traced there, rather than as a dogmatic statement that the evolution has taken place in just the manner which seems to me most probable. When we reflect on the irreconcilable differences of opinion amongst zoologists with regard to the origin and ancestry of vertebrates, for example, we may well be cautious in accepting pedigrees in Protista. Before, however, I can proceed to deal with my main subject, it is abso- lutely necessary that I should define clearly the sense in which I propose to use certain terms, more especially the words ‘cell,’ ‘nucleus,’ ‘ chromatin,’ ‘ proto- plasm,’ and ‘cytoplasm.’ Unless I do so my position is certain to be mis- understood, as, indeed, it has been already by some of my critics. The term cell was applied originally by botanists to the single chambers or units of the honeycombed structure seen in the tissues of plants. The applica- tion of the term to such structures is perfectly natural and intelligible, since each such cell in its typical form is actually a closed space limited by firm “ Vejdovsky (Zum Problem der Vererbungstrdger, Prag, 1911-1912, p. 120) has already maintained, for the cells of Metazoa, that Fleming’s aphorism ‘Omnis nucleus e nucleo’ should be changed to ‘Omnis nucleus e chromoso- matis’ [sic], on the ground that the nucleus, as such, is not an original cell- component ‘but is produced secondarily from the chromosomes of the mother- cell.’ If this is true, there is but little difference in detail, and none in principle, between the formation of ‘secondary’ nuclei from chromidia and the reconstruction of a daughter-nucleus from chromosomes in the most perfected form of karyokinesis. 440 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. walls, and containing a relatively large quantity of fluid cell-sap and a small quantity of the slimy protoplasmic substance. When these structures were first discovered, the limiting membrane or wall of the cell was regarded as essential, and less importance was attached to its contents. With increased knowledge, however, and especially when animal tissues came to be studied, it became apparent that the cell-wall, like the fluid cell-sap, was a secondary product, and that the essential and primary part of the cell was the viscid protoplasmic sub- stance, in which a peculiar body, the ‘nucleus’ or kernel, was found to be uni- versally present. Consequently the application and meaning of the term cell had to undergo an entire change, and it was defined as a small mass or corpuscle of the living substance, protoplasm, containing at least one nucleus. To these essential constituents other structures, such as a limiting membrane or cell- wall, and internal spaces—vacuoles—filled with watery fluid, might be added as products of the secretory or formative activity of the living substance; but such structures were no longer regarded as essential to the definition of the cell, since in many cases they are not present. It is to be regretted in some respects that with this changed point of view the term ‘cell,’ used originally under a misapprehension, was not replaced by some other term of which the ordinary significance would have been more applicable to the body denoted by it.° The chief point that I wish to establish, however, is that the term cell was applied originally to the protoplasmic corpuscles building up the bodies of the Metazoa and Metaphyta, each such corpuscle consisting of a minute indi- vidualised mass of the living substance and containing a nucleus. Hence a complete cell is made up of two principal parts or regions, the nucleus and the remainder of the protoplasmic body, termed the cytoplasm. By some authors the term protoplasm is restricted to the cytoplasmic portion of the cell, and proto- plasm is then contrasted with nucleus; but it is more convenient to consider the whole cell as composed of protoplasm divided into two regions, nucleus and cytoplasm. We come now to the consideration of the body termed the nucleus, which undoubtedly possesses an importance in the life and functions of the cell far greater than would be inferred from the name given to it. A nucleus, as seen in its typical form, has a limiting membrane enclosing a framework composed of a substance termed ‘linin.” The framework has the form of a network, which is probably to be interpreted, primitively at least, as the optical expres- sion of an alveolar structure similar to that seen also in the cytoplasm, but of coarser texture, and the apparent ‘threads’ of the linin-framework may then be the optical sections of the partitions between neighbouring alveoli. Such an interpretation does not exclude the possibility of the formation of real threads or fibres in the framework in certain cases or during particular periods of nuclear activity; just as fibrous structures may arise in the alveolar cytoplasm also. The cavities of the framework contain a watery fluid or nuclear sap, probably of the same nature as the fluid enchylema or cell-sap contained in the alveolar framework of the cytoplasm. At the nodes of the alveolar framework are lodged grains or masses of chromatin, a substance which must engage our most particular attention, since it is the essential constituent of the nucleus, universally present in all nuclei, whether of the simplest or of the most complex types. In addition to the chromatin-grains, which are distributed in various ways over the linin-framework, there are to be found usually one or more masses termed nucleoli, composed of a material which differs from chromatin in its reactions and has been termed plastin. In the foregoing paragraph I have described in general terms the typical nucleus of the text-books, as found commonly in the cells that build up the bodies of ordinary animals and plants. The minutie of the details of structure and arrangement of the constituent parts may vary infinitely, but the type remains fairly constant. When we come, however, to the nuclei of the Pro- tista, such pronounced modifications and variations of the type are met with ’ ‘Nothing could be less appropriate than to call such a body a “cell”; 3 yet the word has become so firmly established that every effort to replace it by a better has failed, and it probably must be accepted as part of the established nomenclature of science, —F}. B. Wilson, The Cell, p. 19. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, _ 441 that a description in general terms is no longer possible. I shall deal with some of these types later in my attempts to reconstruct the evolution and phylogeny of the cell. I will draw attention now only to a few salient points. In the Protist cell the chromatin is not necessarily confined to the nucleus, but may occur also as extranuclear grains and fragments termed chromidia, scattered through the protoplasmic body; and the chromatin may be found only in the chromidial condition, a definite nucleus being temporarily or permanently absent. Further, when a true nucleus is present in the Protist body, it. seldom contains a nucleolus of the same type as that seen in the nuclei of tissue-cells, that is to say, a mass of pure plastin, but in its place is found usually a conspicuous body which shows reactions agreeing more or less closely with those of chromatin and which consists of a plastin-basis more or less densely impreg- nated with chromatin. Such a body is termed a karyosome (or chromatin- nucleolus) to distinguish it from the true nucleoli (plastin-nucleoli) characteris- tic of tissue-cells. According as the plastin or the chromatin predominates in the composition of a karyosome, its reactions may resemble more nearly those of a true nucleolus in the one case, or those of chromatin in the other. The so- called karyosomatic type of nucleus is very common in the Protista, but by no means of invariable occurrence; in many cases the nucleus consists of a clump of small grains of chromatin, with no distinct karyosome; or with a karyosome which consists mainly of plastin. Thus two extreme types of nuclear structure can be distinguished and may be termed provisionally the karyosomatic type and the granular type, ignoring for the sake of convenience in nomenclature the types of structure transitional between the two; as, for example, types in which a distinct karyosome is seen together with more or fewer peripherally arranged grains of chromatin. In either the karyosomatic or the granular type of Protist nucleus we may find great simplification of the complex type of nuclear structure seen in the tissue-cells of animals and plants. Thus in the first place a distinct nuclear membrane may be entirely absent and the chromatin-elements, whether occur- ring in the form of a compact karyosome or of a clump of grains, are lodged simply in a vacuole in the cytoplasm, that is to say in a cavity containing a watery fluid of nuclear sap im which the mass or masses of chromatin are sus- pended. It is a moot point, to which I shall return again, whether in nuclei of this simple type the linin-framework may sometimes be absent altogether, or whether it is invariably present in at least a rudimentary form, appearing as delicate threads (in optical section) extending from the chromatin-masses to the limiting wall of the nuclear vacuole, or between the grains of chromatin themselves. When such a framework can be detected, the nucleus acquires the appearance, in preserved preparations at least, of possessing a definite structure and is often termed a resting nucleus; many observations have shown, how- ever, that the nucleus during life is undergoing continual internal movements and re-arrangements of its parts and is by no means at rest. The linin-frame- work cannot, therefore, be regarded in any way as a rigid skeleton, but must be interpreted as an alveolar framework similar to that of the general protoplasm and equally liable to movement, displacement, and change. From this survey, necessarily most brief and superficial, of the manner in which the nuclei of Protists may vary from the type of nucleus described in the text-books, it is at once evident that the essential part of the nucleus is the chromatin, and that the other structural constituents of the nucleus, namely, membrane, framework, and plastin or nucleolar bodies, are to be regarded as accessory components built up round, or added to, the primary nuclear material, the chromatin Even with regard to the nuclei of Metazoa it is maintained by Vejdovsky that at each cell-generation the entire nucleus of the daughter- cell is produced from the chromosomes alone of the mother cell. The simplest body which can be recognised as a nucleus, distinct from the chromidia scat- ®° Walker, on the other hand, considers that ‘it seems quite possible that the chromatin is merely a secretion of the linin.’ (Science Progress, vol. vii. p. 641.) I doubt whether there are many cytologists who would admit this possibility, and I think that very few protistologists would assent to any such notion, since in the nuclei of Protista the linin-framework is in many cases very little in evidence, if present at all. 442 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, ~ tered without order or arrangement throughout the protoplasmic body, is a mass of chromatin or a clump of chromatin-grains supported on a framework and lodged in a special vacuole in the cytoplasm. The complexity seen in the most perfect type of nucleus takes origin by progressive elaborations of, and additions to, a structure of this simple and primitive type. This brings me to a point which I wish to emphasise most strongly, namely, that the conception of a true cell-nucleus is essentially a structural conception. A nucleus is not merely an aggregation of chromatin; it is not simply a central core of some chemical substance or material differing in nature from the remainder of the protoplasm. As Dobell has well expressed it, a pound of chromatin would not make a nucleus. The concepts ‘nucleus’ and ‘ chromatin ’ differ as do those of ‘table’ and ‘wood.’ Although chromatin is the one universal and necessary constituent entering into the composition of the cell- nucleus, a simple mass of chromatin is not a nucleus.’ A true nucleus is a cell-organ, of greater or less structural complexity, which has been elaborated progressively in the course of the evolution of the cell; it is as much an organ of the cell as the brain is an organ of the human body. As a definite cell- organ, it performs in the life and economy of the cell definite functions, which it is the province of the cytologist to observe and to study, and if possible to elucidate and explain. As an organ of the cell, however, it has no homo- logue or analogue in the body of the multicellular animals or plants; there is no organ of the human body, taken as a whole, similar or comparable to the nucleus of the cell. Consequently, in studying the functions of the nucleus the human cytologist finds himself in the same difficult position that an intelli- gent living being lacking the sense of sight would be when trying to discover the function of visual organs in other organisms possessing that sense. There is no organ of known and understood functions with which the cytologist can compare the cell-nucleus directly. The foregoing brief consideration of the nucleus leads me now to discuss in more detail the nature and properties of the essential nuclear substance, the so-called chromatin. To define, or characterise adequately, this substance is a difficult task. The name chromatin is derived from the fact that this sub- stance has a peculiar affinity for certain dyes or stains, so that when a cell is treated with the appropriate colouring reagents—with so-called nuclear stains -_the chromatin in the nucleus stands out sharply, by reason of being coloured in a different manner from the rest of the cell. In consequence, the state- ment is frequently made, in a loose manner and without reflection, that chromatin is recognised by its staining reactions, but in reality this is far from being true. When a preparation of an ordinary cell is made by the methods of technique commonly in use, the chromatin ts recognised and identified by its position in a definite body with characteristic structure and relations to the cell as a whole, namely the nucleus, and this is equally true whether the chromatin has been stained or not. When the cell has been stained with one of the dyes ordinarily in use for colouring the chromatin, there are often seen in the cytoplasm grains that are coloured in exactly the same manner as the chromatin-grains lodged in the nucleus. Is an extranuclear grain whicli stains like chromatin to be identified, ipso facto, as chromatin? By no means; it may or it may not be chromatin. Simple inspection of a stained preparation is altogether inadequate to determine whether such a body is or is not chromatin. Any so-called chromatin-stain colours many bodies which may occur in a cell besides the chromatin, and it may be necessary to try a great many 7 Professor Armstrong writes: ‘Every organism must possess some kind of nucleus, visible or invisible; some formative centre round which the various templates assemble that are active in directing the growth of the organism.’ (Science Progress, vol. vii. p. 328.) I need hardly point out that a chemical nucleus of this kind is not in the least what the biologist or cytologist means by the term cell-nucleus. The one is a subjective postulate necessary for the comprehension of the activities of any speck of living matter or any portion, however minute, of a living organism; the other is a concrete structure, known to us by actual observation, and as much an integral part of the true cell, considered as a definite type of organism, as a backbone or its morphological | equivalent is essential to the definition of a true vertebrate. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 443 different stains before a combination is found which will differentiate a given cytoplasmic enclosure from a true chromatin-grain by its colour-reactions. The so-called volutin-grains, for example, which are found commonly in the cytoplasm of many Protists, are identified by the fact that they have a stronger affinity for ‘ chromatin-stains’ than chromatin itself. When, moreover, chromatin is compared with regard to its staining-reactions, both in different organisms, and in the same organism at different times, it is found to react very differently to one and the same stain. A striking example of this capriciousness is seen when a preserved film is made of the blood of some vertebrate which has nucleated blood-corpuscles, such as a bird or fish, and which contains also parasitic trypanosomes. It is easy to stain the nuclei of the blood-corpuscles with various stains, as for example carmine- stains such as picro-carmine or alum-carmine, which will not colour the nuclei of the trypanosomes in the slightest. Moreover, every cytologist knows that the ‘chromaticity’ of the chromatin varies enormously in different phases of the nuclear cycle of generation; it is often difficult to stain the chromatin in the ‘resting’ nucleus, but the first sign of impending nuclear division is a marked increase in the staining powers of the chromatin. There is no dye known which can be relied upon to stain chromatin always, or wherever it occurs. Methyl-green has been claimed to be the most reliable and certain of nuclear stains, but R. Hertwig, in his classical researches upon Actino- spherium, showed that it sometimes fails to stain chromatin. It is perfectly conceivable that there might be varieties of chromatin which could not be stained by any dye whatsoever. I have felt bound to insist strongly upon the inadequacy of staining-methods for the detection and identification of chromatin, well known though these facts are to every cytologist, because here also I note a tendency amongst biological chemists to regard staining-properties as the sole criterion of chromatin. In reality such properties are of entirely secondary. importance. To use the terminology of formal logic, staining-properties are an ‘accident,’ though it may be an ‘inseparable accident,’ of chromatin, not a ‘difference’ which can be used to frame a logical definition, per genus et differentias, of this substance. If chromatin were nothing more than ‘stainable substance,’ as Professor Armstrong terms it,* some of the most important results of cytological investigation would be deprived of all real significance and reduced to the merest futilities. What then is the true criterion of the chromatin-substance of living organisms? From the chemical point of view the essential substance of the cell-nucleus would appear to be characterised by a complexity of molecular structure far exceeding that of any other proteins, as well as by certain definite peculiarities. Especially characteristic of chromatin is its richness in phosphorus-compounds, and it stands apart also from other cell-elements in its solvent reactions, for example, resistance to peptic digestion. E. B. Wilson, in his well-known treatise, has emphasised the ‘cardinal fact... that there is a definite and constant contrast between nucleus and cytoplasm.’ The outstanding feature of the nucleus is the constant presence in abundance of nuclein and nucleoproteins. Nuclein, which is probably identical with chro- matin, is a complex albuminoid substance rich in phosphorus. It is the phosphorus-content of chromatin that is its most characteristic chemical peculiarity as contrasted with the cytoplasm. How far these features are common, however, to all samples of chromatin in all types of living organisms universally, cannot, I think, be stated definitely at present; at any rate, it is not feasible for a cytologist of these days to identify a granule in a living organism or cell as chromatin solely by its chemical reactions, although it is quite possible that at some future time purely chemical tests will be decisive upon this point—a consummation devoutly to be wished. _ The only criterion of chromatin that is convincing to the present-day biologist is the test of its behaviour, that is to say, its relations to the life, activity, and development of the organism. I may best express my meaning by objective examples. If I make a preparation of Arcella vulgaris by suitable methods, I see the two conspicuous nuclei and also a ring of granules lying * Science Progress, vol. vii. p. 827. 444 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION. D. in the cytoplasm, stained in the same manner as the chromatin of the nuclei. Ave these extranuclear granules to be regarded also as chromatin? Yes, most decidedly, because many laborious and detailed investigations have shown that, from this ring of granules in Arcella nuclei can arise, usually termed ‘secondary’ nuclei for no other reason than that they arise de novo from the extranuclear chromatin and quite independently of the ‘primary’ nuclei. The secondary nuclei are, however, true nuclei in every respect, as shown by their structure, behaviour, and relations to the life-history of the organism ; they may fuse as nuclei of gametes (pronuclei) in the sexual act and they become, with or without such fusion, the primary nuclei of future generations of Arcella; they then divide by karyokinesis when the organism reproduces itself in the ordinary way by fission, and are replaced in their turn by new secondary nuclei at certain crises im the life-history. In view of these facts it can be asserted without hesitation that the ring of staining granules in Arcella is composed of, or at least contains, true chromatin-grains, extranuclear chromatin for which R. Hertwig’s term chromidia is now used universally. It is interesting to note that until the life-history of Arcella was studied in recent times the conspicuous ring of chromidia was generally overlooked and is not shown in some of the older pictures of the organism. If, on the other hand, I make a preparation of some unidentified amoeba occurring casually in pond-water or in an infusion, and find in its cytoplasm certain grains staining in same manner as the chromatin of the nucleus, it is quite impossible, without a knowledge of the life-history of the organism, to assert definitely that the grains in question are or are not true chromidia. They might equally well turn out to be volutin or any other substance that has an affinity for the particular chromatin-stains used in making the preparation. The fact that at the present time the only decisive criterion of what is or is not chromatin is supplied only by its behaviour in the life-history and its relation to the organism, makes it much easier to identify the chromatin in some cases than in others. In those Protista or cells which contain, during the whole or a part of the life-history, one or more true nuclei, recognisable as such unmistakably by their structure and their characteristic relations to the reproductive and sexual phenomena of the organism, the chromatin can be identified with certainty. If chromidia occur in the cell-body in addition to true nuclei, or even if the nuclei are temporarily absent during certain crises of the life-history and the chromatin occurs then only in the form of chromidia, there is still no difficulty in identifying the scattered chromatin- erains by the fact that they contribute, soon or later, to the formation of nuclei. On the other hand, in the simplest Protist organisms which do not contain definite, compact nuclei recognisable by their structure and behaviour, the identification of the chromatin may become correspondingly difficult. In the absence of definite chemical criteria the term chromatin acquires then a greater or less degree of vagueness and uncertainty of application, and it is not easy to avoid a tendency to a petitio principii in attempting to define or identify it. To a large extent we are thrown back upon the staining- reactions, which I have already shown to be very unreliable, backed up by analogies with those forms which possess definite nuclei. Since in the cells of all animals and plants, and in all Protista which possess a true nucleus, the chromatin is the one constituent which is invariably present, as I shall point out in more detail subsequently, there is at least a strong presumption, though not of course amounting to absolute proof, that it is present, or at least is represented by some similar and genetically homologous constituents, in the forms of simpler structure also. If then in Protista of primitive type we find certain grains which exhibit the characteristic staining-reactions of chromatin to be constantly present in the organism, grains which grow and divide as a preliminary to the organism multiplying by fission and which are partitioned amongst the daughter-organisms during the process of fission, so that each daughter-individual reproduces the structure of the parent-form from which it arose; then there is very strong prima facie evidence, to say the least, for regarding such grains as homologous with the chromatin-grains of ordinary cells. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 445 ~ Having now defined or explained, as well as I am able, the terms of which I am about to make use, I return to my main theme, the cell and its evolution. To summarise the points already discussed, a typical cell is a mass of proto- plasm differentiated into two principal parts or regions, the cytoplasm and the nucleus, or, it may be, two or more nuclei. The cytoplasm may or may not contain chromatin-grains in addition to other enclosures, and may possess cell-organs of various kinds. The nucleus, highly variable in minute structure, possesses one invariable constituent, the chromatin-material in the form of grains and masses of various sizes. : a : The cell, therefore, in its complete and typical form, is an organism of very considerable complexity of structure and multiplicity of parts. The truth of this proposition is sufficiently obvious even from simple inspection of the structural details revealed by the microscope in cells in the so-called ‘resting condition,’ but still more so from a study of their activities and functions. The vital processes exhibited by the cell indicate a complexity of organisation and a minuteness in the details of its mechanism which transcend our comprehension and baffle the human imagination, to the same extent as do the immensities of the stellar universe. If such language seems hyperbolic, it is but necessary to reflect on some of the established discoveries of cytology, such as the extraordinary degree of complicatiom attained in the process of division of the nucleus by karyokinesis, or the bewildering series of events that take place in the nuclei of germ-cells in the processes of maturation and fertilisation. Such examples of cell-activity give us, as it were, a glimpse into the workshop of life and teach us that the subtlety and intricacy of the cell- microcosm can scarcely be exaggerated. On the assumption that an organism so complex and potent ‘was not created suddenly, perfect and complete as it stands, but arose, like all other organisms, by progressive evolution and elaboration of some simpler form and type of structure, it is legitimate to inquire which of the various parts of the cell are the older and more primitive and which are more recent acquisitions in the course of evolution. But it must be clearly pointed out, to start with, that the problem posed in such an inquiry is perfectly distinct from, and independent of, another point which has often been discussed at length, namely, the question whether any parts of the cell, and if so which parts, are to be regarded as ‘living’ or ‘active’ in distinction to other parts which are to be regarded as ‘not-living’ or ‘passive.’ This discussion, in my opinion, is a perfectly futile one, of which I intend to steer clear. We may agree that in any given cell or living organism, simple or complex in structure, all the parts are equally ‘living’ and equally indispensable for the maintenance of life, or at least for the continuance of the vital functions in the normal, specific manner, without losing the right to inquire which of those parts are the phylogenetically older. A simple analogy will serve to point my meaning. A man could: not continue to live for long if deprived either of his brain, his digestive tract, his lungs, his heart, or his kidneys, and each of these organs is both ‘living’ in itself and at the same time an integral part of the entire organisation of the human body; yet no one would think of forbidding comparative anatomists to discuss, from the data at their command, which of these organs appeared earlier, and which later, in the evolution of the phylum Vertebrata. Moreover, speculative though such dis- cussions must necessarily be, there is no one possessing even a first-year student’s knowledge of the facts who would controvert the statement that the digestive tract of man is phylogenetically older than the lung. Speculative _ conclusions are not always those that carry the least conviction. The evolution of the cell may be discussed as a morphological problem of the same order as that of the phylogeny of any other class or phylum of living beings, and by the same methods of inquiry. In the first place there is the comparative method, whereby different types of cell-structure can be compared with one another and with organisms in which the cell-structure is imperfectly developed, in order to determine what parts are invariable and essential and what are sporadic in occurrence and of secondary importance, and if possible to arrange the various structural types in one or more evolutionary series. Secondly there is the developmental or ontogenetic method, the study of the mode and sequence of the formation of the parts of the cell as they come into 446 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. existence during the life-history of the organism. Both these methods, which are founded mainly on observation, require to be checked and controlled by the experimental methods of investigating both the functions and behaviour of the organism and of its parts. — : fase ’ So long as cytologists limit their studies to the cells building up the tissues of the higher animals and plants, the comparative method has a correspondingly limited scope, and that of the ontogenetic method is even more restricted. Both methods receive at once, however, an enormously extended range when the Protista are taken into consideration. Then, moreover, we see the dawning possibility of another method of investigation, that, namely, of the chemical evolution of the organisms. Already some of the simpler Protista, the Bacteria, are characterised and classified largely by their chemical activities ; but in more complex organisms, in those which have attained complete cell- structure, such as Protozoa, the data of chemistry do not as yet supply the evolutionist with a helpful method of investigation. The problem of cell-evolution may be attacked by the help of the methods outlined in the foregoing remarks, beginning with the consideration of the primary structural differentiation of the typical cell, the distinction of nucleus, or rather chromatin, and cytoplasm. Since all cells known to us exhibit this differentiation, we have three possibilities as regards the manner in which it has come about, which may be summarised briefly as follows: either the cytoplasmic and chromatinic constituents of the cell have arisen as differentiations of some primitive substance, which was neither the one nor the other; or one of these two substances is a derivative of the other, in the course of evolution, either cytoplasm of chromatin, or chromatin of cytoplasm. The idea of a primitive, undifferentiated protoplasmic substance was first put forward by Haeckel, who employed for it the term ‘plasson’ invented by Van Beneden’ to denote ‘la substance constitutive du corps des Moneres et des cytodes . . . la substance formative par excellence.’ The simplest ele- mentary organisms were not cells, but cytodes, ‘living independent beings which consist entirely of a particle of plasson; their quite homogeneous or uniform body consists of an albuminous substance which is not yet differenti- ated into karyoplasm and cytoplasm, but possesses the properties of both combined.’?° It is emphasised11 that a sharp distinction must be drawn between protoplasm and plasson, the latter being a homogeneous albuminous formative substance (‘ Bildungsstoff’) corresponding to the ‘ Urschleim’ of the older Nature-philosophy. Haeckel, as was usual with him, did not content himself with putting forward his ideas as abstract speculations, but sought to provide them with a concrete and objective foundation by professing to have discovered, and describing in detail, living and existing organisms which were stated to remain permanently in the condition of cytodes. In consequence, a purely speculative notion was permitted to masquerade for many years under the false appear- ance of an objective phenomenon of Nature, until the error was discovered gradually and the phantom banished from the accepted and established data of biology. Organisms supposed to be of the nature of cytodes constituted Haeckel’s systematic division Monera, of which there were supposed to be two subdivisions, the Phytomonera and the Zoomonera. The Phytomonera were stated to have the plasson coloured green and to live in a plant-like manner; the Zoomonera were colourless ameboid masses of plasson which nourished “hemselves in the animal manner. The Bacteria were also included by Haeckel in his Monera, apparently, or at all events ranked as cytodes.!? Most import- ance, however, was attributed by Haeckel to the large ameeboid forms of Monera, described as without nuclei of contractile vacuoles, but as representing simply structureless contractile masses of albumin (‘ Eiweiss’), perfectly ‘homo- geneous ;° examples of these were announced to exist under the names ‘Protameeba’ and ‘ Protogenes,’ denoting forms of life which Haeckel claimed * Bull. de Acad. Roy. de Belgique, second series, vol. xxxi. (1871), p. 346. Anthropogenic, sixth edition, Leipzig, 1910, p. 119. 11 Tbid. p. 582. Ibid. p. 119. See his Prinzipien der generellen Morphologie, Berlin, 1906, p. 61. sh. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 447 to have discovered, but which have never been found again by any other naturalist. These organisms, as described by Haeckel, were by no means such as the modern microscopist would call minute; on the contrary, they were rela- tively large, and some of the forms added to the Monera by Haeckel’s con- temporaries might even be termed gigantic, as, for example, the supposed organism Bathybius, discovered in the bottles of the Challenger Expedition, which was believed to cover large areas of the floor of the ocean with a layer of primordial protoplasm, but which proved finally to be a precipitation by aleohol of the gypsum in sea-water. The theory of plasson and of the cytodes of Haeckel may be considered first from the purely speculative standpoint of the origin of the living substance, a problem with which I wish to become entangled here as little as possible, since it is my object to confine myself so far as possible to deductions and conclusions that may be drawn from known facts and concrete data of observation and ex- periment. If, however, we postulate a chemical evolution of protoplasm, and believe that every degree of complexity exists, or at least has existed, between the simplest inorganic compounds and the immensely complicated protein- molecules of which the living substance is composed, then no doubt chemical compounds may have existed which in some sense were intermediate in their properties between the two constituents, cytoplasm and chromatin, found in all known samples of the living substance of organisms. In this sense and on such a hypothesis, a substance of the nature of plasson may perhaps be recognised or postulated at some future time by the biochemist, but this is a subject which I am quite incompetent to discuss. To the modern biologist, who can deal only with living things as he knows them, Haeckel’s plasson must rank as a pure figment of the imagination, altogether outside the range of practical and objective biology at the present time. All visible living things known and studied up to the present consist of protoplasm, that is to say, of an extremely heterogeneous substance of complex structure, and no living organism has been discovered as yet which consists of homogeneous structureless albuminous sub- stance. Van Beneden, who is responsible for the word plasson, though not for the cytode-theory, was under the impression that he had observed a non- nucleated homogeneous cytode-stage in the development of the gregarine of the lobster, Gregarina (Porospora) gigantea. Without entering into a detailed criticism of Van Beneden’s observations upon this form, it is sufficient to state that the development of gregarines is now well known in all its details, and that in all phases of their life-cycle these organisms show the complete cell-structure, and are composed of nucleus and cytoplasm. Moreover, all those organisms referred by Haeckel to the group Monera which have been recognised and examined by later investigators have been found to consist of ordinary cyto- plasm containing nuclei or nuclear substance (chromatin). In the present state of biological knowledge therefore, the Monera as defined by Haeckel must be rejected and struck out of the systematic roll as a non-existent and fictitious class of organisms. Since no concrete foundation can be fcund for the view that cytoplasm and chromatin have a common origin in the evolution of living things, we are brought back to the view that one of them must have preceded the other in phylogeny. The theories of evolution put forward by Haeckel and his contemporaries, if we abolish from them the notion of plasson and substitute for it that of ordinary protoplasm, would seem to favour rather the view that the earliest forms of life were composed of a substance of the nature rather of cytoplasm, and that the nuclear substance or chromatin appeared later in evolution as a product or derivative of the cytoplasm. I have myself advocated a view diametrically opposite to this, and have urged that the chromatin-substance is to be regarded as the primitive constituent of the earliest forms of living organisms, the cytoplasmic substance being a later structural complication. On this theory the earliest form of living organism was something very minute, probably such as would be termed at the present day ‘ ultra-microscopic.’ After I had urged _this view in the discussion on the origin of life at the Dundee Meeting of the British Association in 1912 a poem appeared in Punch, dividing biologists into ‘cytoplasmists ’ and ‘ chromatinists.’ 4 Vol. cxliii. p. 245. 448 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. must confess myself still a whole-hearted chromatinist. But before I consider this point 1 may refer briefly to some other speculations that have been put forward with regard to the nature of the earliest form of life. It is manifestly quite impossible that I should undertake here to review exhaustively all the theories and speculations with regard to the origin of life and the first stages in its evolution that have been put forward at different times. I propose to limit myself to the criticism of certain theories of modern times which, recognising the fundamental antithesis between chromatin and cytoplasm, regard these two cell-constituents as representing types of organisms primitively distinct, and suggest the hypothesis that true cells have arisen in the beginning as a process of symbiosis between them. Boveri, whose merits as a cytologist need no proclamation by me, was the first I believe to put forward such a notion; he enunciated the view that the chromosomes were primitively independent elementary organisms which live symbiotically with protoplasm, and that the organism known as the cell arose from a symbiosis between two kinds of simple organisms, ‘ Monera.’’° A similar idea lies at the base of the remarkable and ingenious speculations of Mereschkowsky,’® who assumes a double origin for living beings from two sorts of protoplasm, supposed not only to differ fundamentally in kind but also to have had origins historically distinct. ‘The first type of protoplasm he terms mycoplasm,'? which is supposed to have come into existence during what he calls the third epoch?® of the earth’s history, at a time when the crust of the earth had cooled sufficiently for water to be condensed upon it, but when the temperature of the water was near boiling-point ; consequently the waters of the globe were free from oxygen, while saturated with all kinds of mineral substances. The second type of protoplasm was amcboplasm, the first origin of which is believed to have taken place during a fourth terrestrial epoch when the waters covering the globe were cooled down below 50° C., and con- tained dissolved oxygen but fewer mineral substances. Corresponding with the differences of the epoch and the conditions under which they arose, Mereschkowsky’s two types of protoplasm are distinguished by sharp differences in their nature and constitution. Mycoplasm, of which typical examples are seen in bacteria, in the chromatin- grains of the nucleus and the chromatophores of plant-cells, is distinguished from ameeboplasm, which is simply cytoplasm, by the following points. (1) Mycoplasm can live without oxygen, and did so in the beginning at its first appearance when the temperature of the hydrosphere was too high for it to have contained dissolved oxygen; only at a later period, when the temperature became low enough for the water to contain oxygen in solution, did some of the forms begin to adapt themselves to these conditions, and became secondarily facultative or obligate aerobes. Amceboplasm, on the other hand, cannot exist without a supply of oxygen. (2) Mycoplasm can support temperatures of 90° C. or even higher; amceboplasm cannot support a temperature higher than 45° C. or 50° C. (3) Mycoplasm is capable of building up albumins and com- plex organic substances from inorganic materials; amceboplasm is incapable of doing so, but requires organic food. (4) Mycoplasm has restricted powers of locomotion and is incapable of amceboid movement, or of forming the con- tractile vacuoles seen commonly in amceboplasm. (5) Mycoplasm, in contrast to amceboplasm, is rich in phosphorus and nuclein. (6) Mycoplasm is extra- ordinarily resistant to poisons and utilises as food many substances that are extremely deadly to amceboplasm, such as prussic acid, strychnine, and morphia. 15 Fide Vejdovsky, l.c. I have not had access to the work of Boveri, in which he is stated to have put forward these ideas. 16 Mereschkowsky, C., ‘Theorie der zwei Plasmaarten als Grundlage der Symbiogenesis, einer neuen Lehre von der Entstehung der Organismen.’ Biol. Centralblatt, xxx. 1910, pp. 278-303, 321-347, 353-367. 17 The term mycoplasm used by Mereschkowsky must not be confounded with the similar word used by Eriksson and other botanists in reference to the manner in which Rust-Fungi permeate their hosts. 18 In the first epoch the earth was an incandescent mass of vapour; in the second it had a firm crust, but the temperature was far too high to permit of the condensation of water-vapour upon its surface. a ——_- = PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 449 (7) Amongst minor differences, mycoplasm is characterised by the presence of iron in the combined state and possesses a far more complicated structure than ameeboplasm, a peculiarity which enables mycoplasmic cell-elements (chromosomes) to function as the bearers of hereditary qualities. The course of the evolution of living beings, according to Mereschkowsky, was as follows. The earliest forms of life were ‘Biococci,’ minute ultra- microscopic particles of mycoplasm, without organisation, capable of existing at temperatures near boiling-point and in the absence of oxygen, possessing the power of building up proteins and carbohydrates from inorganic materials, and very resistant to strong mineral salts and acids and to various poisons. From the Biococci arose in the first place the Bacteria, which for a time were the only living inhabitants of the earth. Later, when the temperature of the terrestrial waters had been lowered below 50° C., and contained abundant organic food in the shape of Bacteria, amceboplasm made its appearance in small masses as non-nucleated Monera which crept in an amceboid manner on the floor of the ocean and devoured Bacteria. The next step in evolution is supposed to have been that, in some cases, micrococci ingested by the Monera resisted digestion by them and were enabled to maintain a symbiotic existence in the ameboplasm. At first the symbiotic micrococci were scattered in the Moneran body, but later they became concen- trated at one spot, surrounded by a membrane, and gave rise to the cell- nucleus. In this way, by a ‘symbiogenesis’ or process of symbiosis between two distinct types of organisms, Mereschkowsky believes the nucleated cell to have arisen, an immense step forward in evolution, since the locomotor powers of the simple and delicate Monera were now supplemented by the great capability possessed by the Bacteria of producing ferments of the most varied kinds. Meanwhile it is supposed that the free Bacteria continued their natural evolution and gave rise to the Cyanophycee, and to the whole group of Fungi. The plant-cell came into existence by a further process of symbiogenesis, in that some of the Cyanophycee, red, brown, or green in colour, became symbiotic in nucleated cells, for the most part flagellates, in which they established them- selves as the chromatophores or chlorophyll-corpuscles. In this way Meresch- kowsky believes the vegetable cell to have come into existence, and the evolution of the Vegetable Kingdom to have been started, as a double process of symbiosis. Those ameeboid or flagellated organisms, on the other hand, which formed no symbiosis with Cyanophycee, continued to live as animals and started the evolution of the Animal Kingdom. As a logical deduction from this theory of the evolution of living beings, Mereschkowsky classifies organisms generally into three groups or Kingdoms : first the Mycoidea, comprising Bacteria, Cyanophycee, and Fungi, and in which no symbiosis has taken place; secondly, the Animal Kingdom, in which true cells have arisen by a simple symbiosis of mycoplasm (chromatin) and amebo- plasm (cytoplasm); thirdly, the Vegetable Kingdom, in which true cells have entered upon an additional symbiosis with Cyanophycee, chromatophores or chlorophyll-corpuscles. Interesting and suggestive as are the speculations of Mereschkowsky, they are nevertheless open to criticism from many points of view. I will not enter here into criticisms which I regard as beyond my competence. It is for botanists to pronounce upon the notion that Bacteria, Cyanophycee, and Fungi can be classified together as a group distinct from all other living beings; to decide whether the protoplasm of the Cyanophycee and Fungi can be regarded as consisting of mycoplasm alone, and not of a combination of nuclei and cyto- plasm, such as is found in true cells and represents, according to Mereschkowsky, a symbiosis of mycoplasm and ameboplasm. I think I am right in saying that botanists are agreed in regarding Fungi as derived from green alge, and as possessing nuclei similar to those of the higher plants. As a zoologist the point that strikes me most is the absence of any evidence that true Monera, organisms consisting of cytoplasm alone, exist or could ever have existed. Mereschkowsky supposes that when the Monera came into being they maintained their existence by feeding upon Bacteria. In order to digest Bacteria, however, the Monera must have been capable of producing ferments, and therefore did not acquire this power only as the result of symbiosis with Bacteria, unless it be assumed POI5.. ? a G 450) TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Db. that the symbiosis came about at the instant that ameeboplasm came into exist- ence. There is, however, no evidence that cytoplasm by itself can generate ferments. All physiological experiments upon the digestion of Protozoa indi- cates that the cytoplasmic body, deprived of the nucleus, cannot initiate the digestive process. Consequently the existence of purely cytoplasmic organisms would seem to be an impossibility. : For my part, I am unable to accept any theory of the evolution of the earliest forms of living beings which assumes the existence of forms of life composed entirely of cytoplasm without chromatin. All the results of modern investiga- tions into the structure, physiology, and behaviour of cells on the one hand, and of the various types of organisms grouped under the Protista, on the other hand—the combined results, that is to say, of cytology and protistology—appear to me to indicate that the chromatin-elements represent the primary and original living units or individuals, and that the cytoplasm represents a secondary product, I will summarise briefly the grounds that have led me to this con- viction, and will attempt to justify the faith that I hold; but first I wish to: discuss briefly certain preliminary considerations which seem to me of great. importance in this connection. It is common amongst biologists to speak of ‘living substance,’ this phrase: being preceded by either the definite or the indefinite article—by either ‘the ° or ‘a.’ If we pause to consider the meaning of the phrase, it is to be pre-- sumed that those who make use of it employ the term ‘ substance’ in the usual sense to denote a form of matter to which some specific chemical significance can be attached, which could conceivably be defined more or less strictly by a chemist, perhaps even reduced to a chemical formula of some type. But the: addition of the adjective ‘living ’ negatives any such interpretation of the term: ‘substance,’ since it is the fundamental and essential property of any living: being that the material of which it is composed is in a state of continual . molecular change and that its component substance or substances are inconstant. in molecular constitution from moment to moment. When the body of a living; organism has passed into a state of fixity of substance, it has ceased, temporarily’ or permanently, to behave as a living body ; its fires are banked or extinguished. The phrase ‘living substance’ savours, therefore, of a contradictio in adjecto ;: if it is ‘living’ it cannot be a ‘ substance,’ and if it is a ‘ substance’ it cannot, be ‘ living.’ As a matter of fact, the biologist, when dealing with purely biological!’ problems, knows nothing of a living substance or substances; he is confronted! solely by living individuals, which constitute his primary conceptions, and the: terms ‘life’ and ‘living substance’ are pure abstractions. Every living being: presents itself to us as a sharply-limited individual, distinct from other indi- viduals and constituting what may be termed briefly a microcosmic unit, inasmuch as it is a unity which is far from being uniform in substance or homogeneous in composition, but which, on the contrary, is characterised by being made up of an almost infinite multiplicity of heterogeneous and mutually interacting parts. We recognise further that these living individuals possess invariably specific characteristics; two given living individuals may be so much alike that we regard them as of the same kind or ‘species,’ or they may differ so sharply that we are forced to distinguish between them specifically. Living beings are as much characterised by this peculiarity of specific individu- ality as by any other property or faculty which can be stated to be an attribute of life in general, and this is true equally of the simplest or the most complex organisms; at least we know of no form of life, however simple or minute, in which the combined features of individuality and specificity are not exhibited to the fullest extent. A living organism may be so minute as to elude direct detection entirely by our senses, even when aided by all the resources furnished by modern science; such an organism will, nevertheless, exhibit specific pro- perties or activities of an unmistakable kind, betraying its presence thereby with the utmost certainty. The organisms causing certain diseases, for example, are ultra-microscopic, that is to say, they have not been made visible as yet, and an exact description or definition cannot be given of them at the present. time; yet how strongly marked and easily distinguishable are the specific effects produced by the organisms causing respectively measles and small-pox, for instance, each, moreover, remaining strictly trve and constant to its i a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 451 specific type of activity; the organism, whatever its nature may be, which causes measles cannot give rise to small-pox, nor vice versa, but each breeds as true to type as do lions and leopards. ; The essential and distinctive characteristic of a living body of any kind whatsoever is that it exhibits while it lives permanence and continuity of individuality or personality, as manifested in specific behaviour, combined with incessant change and lability of substance; and further, that in reproducing its kind, it transmits its specific characteristics, with, however, that tendency to variability which permits of progressive adaptation and gradual evolutionary change. It is the distinctively vital property of specific individuality combined with ‘stuff-change’ (if I may be allowed to paraphrase a Teutonic idiom) which marks the dividing line between Biochemistry and Biology. The former science deals with substances which can be separated from living bodies, and for the chemist specific properties are associated with fixity of substance; but the material with which the biologist is occupied consists of innumerable living unit-individuals exhibiting specific characteristics without fixity of substance. There is no reason to suppose that the properties of a given chemical substance vary in the slightest degree in space or time; but variability and adaptability are characteristic features of all living beings. The biochemist renders inesti- mable services in elucidating the physico-chemical mechanisms of living organisms; but the problem of individuality and specific behaviour, as mani- fested by living things, is beyond the scope of his science, at least at present. Such problems are essentially of distinctively vital nature and their treatment cannot be brought satisfactorily into relation at the present time with the physico-chemical interactions of the substances composing the living body. It may be that this is but a temporary limitation of human knowledge pre- vailing in a certain historical epoch, and that in the future the chemist will be able to correlate the individuality of living beings with their chemico- physical properties, and so explain to us how living beings first came into existence; how, that is to say, a combination of chemical substances, each owing its characteristic properties to a definite molecular composition, can produce a living individual in which specific peculiarities are associated with matter in a state of flux. But it is altogether outside the scope and aim of this address to discuss whether the boundary between biochemistry and biology can be bridged over, and if so, in what way. I merely wish to emphasise strongly that if a biologist wishes to deal with a purely biological problem, such as evolution or heredity, for example, in a concrete and objective manner, he must do so in terms of living specific individual units. It is for that reason that I shall speak, not of the chromatin-substance but of chromatinic elements, particles or units, and I hope that I shall make clear the importance of this distinction. To return now to our chromatin; I regard the chromatinic elements as being those constituents which are of primary importance in the life and evolution of living organisms mainly for the following reasons: the experimental evi- dence of the preponderating physiological réle played by the nucleus in the life of the cell; the extraordinary individualisation of the chromatin-particles seen universally in living organisms, and manifested to a degree which raises the chromatinic units to the rank of living individuals exhibiting specific behaviour, rather than that of mere substances responsible for certain chemico- physical reactions in the life of the organism; and last, but by no means least, the permanence and, if I may use the term, the immortality of the chromatinic particles in the life-cycle of organisms generally. I will now deal with these points in order; my arguments relate, in the first instance, to those organisms in which the presence of true cell-nuclei renders the identification of the chromatin-elements certain, as pointed out above, but if the arguments are valid in such cases they are almost certainly applicable also to those simpler types of organisms in which the identification of chromatin rests on a less secure foundation. The results obtained by physiological experiments with regard to the functions of the nuclear and cytoplasmic constituents of the cell are now well known and are cited in all the text-books. It is not necessary, therefore, that I should discuss them in detail. I content myself with quoting a compe- tent and impartial summary of the results obtained : Ga2 45% TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. ‘A fragment of a cell deprived of its nucleus may live for a considerable time and manifest the power of co-ordinated movements without perceptible impairment. Such a mass of protoplasm is, however, devoid of the powers of assimilation, growth, and repair, and sooner or later dies. In other words, those functions that involve destructive metabolism may continue for a time in the absence of the nucleus; those that involve constructive metabolism cease with its removal. There is, therefore, strong reason to believe that the nucleus plays an essential part in the constructive metabolism of the cell, and through this is especially concerned with the formative processes involved in growth and development. For these and many other reasons . . . the nucleus is generally regarded as a controlling centre of cell-activity, and hence a primary factor in growth, development, and the transmission of specific qualities from cell to cell, and so from one generation to another.’ *® I may add here that the results of the study of life-cycles of Protozoa are entirely in harmony with this conception of the relative importance of nuclear —that is chromatinic—and cytoplasmic cell-constituents, since it is not infrequent that in certain phases of the life-cycle, especially in the microgamete- stages, the cytoplasm is reduced, apparently, to the vanishing point, and the body consists solely of chromatin, so far as can be made out. In not one single instance, however, has it been found as yet that any normal stage in the developmental cycle of organisms consists solely of cytoplasm without any particles of chromatin. While on the subject of physiological experiment, there is one point to which I may refer. Experiments so far have been carried on with Protozoa possessing definite nuclei. It is very desirable that similar experiments should be con- ducted with formis possessing chromidia in addition to nuclei, in order to test the physiological capabilities of chromatin-particles not concentrated or orga- nised. Arcella would appear to be a very suitable form for such investigations. This is a point to which my attention was drawn by my late friend Mr. C. H. Martin, who has lost his life in his country’s service. I have mentioned already in my introductory remarks that the only reliable test of chromatin in its behaviour, and the whole of modern cytological investigation bears witness to the fact that the chromatinic particles exhibit the characteristic property of living things generally, namely, individualisation combined with specific behaviour. In every cell-generation in the bodies of ordinary animals and plants the chromatin-elements make their appearance in the form of a group of chromosomes, not only constant in number for each species, but often exhibiting such definite characteristics of size and form, that particular, individual chromosomes can be recognised and identified in each group throughout the whole life-cycle. Each chromosome is to be regarded as an aggregate composed of a series of minute chromatinic granules or chromioles, a point which I shall discuss further presently. Most striking examples of the individualisation of chromosomes have been made known recently by Dobell and Jameson?° in Protozoa. Thus in the Coccidian genus Aggregata six chromosomes appear at every cell-generation, each differing constantly in length if in the extended form, or in bulk if in the contracted form, so that each of the six chromosomes can be recognised and denoted by one of the letters a to f at each appearance, a being the longest and f the shortest. Even more remarkable than the relation of the chromosome to cell-reproduc- tion is their behaviour in relation to sexual phenomena. In the life-cycles of Metazoa the sexual act consists of the fusion of male and female pronuclei, each containing a definite and specific number of chromosomes, the same number usually, though not always, in each pronucleus. It has been estab- lished in many cases, and it is perhaps universally true, that in the act of fertilisation the male and female chromosomes remain perfectly distinct and separate in the synkaryon or nucleus formed by the union of the two pronuclei, and, moreover, that they continue to maintain and to propagate their distinct individuality in every subsequent cell-generation of the multicellular organism produced as a result of the sexual act. In this way, every cell of the body contains in its nucleus distinct chromatinic elements which are derived from 19 BH. B. Wilson, Zhe Cell, second edition, 1911, pp. 30 and 31. 20 Proc. Roy. Soc. (B), vol. 89. (In the Press.) eS PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 453 both male and female parents and which maintain unimpaired their distinct and specific individuality through the entire life-cycle. This distinctness is apparent at least in the germ-cell-cycle of the organism, but may be obscured by secondary changes in the nuclei of the specialised tissue-cells. Only in the very last stage of the life-cycle do the group of male and female chromosomes modify their behaviour in a most striking manner. In the final generation of oogonia or spermatogonia, from which arise the oocytes and spermatocytes which in their turn produce the gamete-cells, it is observed that the male and female chromosomes make a last appearance in their full number, and then fuse in pairs, so as to reduce the number of chromosomes to half that previously present. In Aggregata also Dobell and Jameson have shown that the union of the pronuclei in fertilisation brings together two sets each of six chromosomes, and that these then fuse with one another in pairs according to type, that is to say a with a, b with b, c with c, and so on. Analogous phenomena have been demonstrated also in the gregarine Diplospora. We have here a difference in detail, as compared with the Metazoa, in that the fusion takes place at the fertilisation and not as the first step in the maturation of the germ-cells; but in both cases alike the fusion of chromatin-elements individually distinct and exhibiting specific characteristics is to be regarded as the final consummation of the sexual act, though long deferred in the Metazoan life-cycle. As Vejdovsky has pointed out, there can be no more striking evidence of the specific individuality of the chromosomes than their fusion or copulation in relation to the sexual act. Is there any other constant element or constituent of living organisms exhibiting to anything like the same degree the essentially vital characteristics of individuality manifested in specific behaviour? If there is, it remains to be discovered. I come now to the question of the permanence and immortality, in the biological sense of the word, of the chromatinic particles, which may be sum- marily stated as follows: the chromatinic particles are the only constituents of the cell which maintain persistently and uninterruptedly their existence throughout the whole life-cycle of living organisms universally. I hope I shall not be misunderstood when I enunciate this apparently sweep- ing and breathless generalisation. I am perfectly aware that in the life-cycle of any given species of organism there may be many cell-constituents besides the chromatin-particles that are propagated continuously through the whole life- cycle; but cell-elements which appear as constant parts of the organisation of the cell throughout the life-cycle in one type of organism may be wanting altogether in other types. With the exception of the chromatin-particles there is no cell-constituent that can be claimed to persist throughout the life-cycles of organisms universally. To take some concrete examples: the cytoplasmic grains known as mitochondria or chrondriosomes have been asserted to be persistent elements throughout the germ-cycle of Metazoa, and the function of being the bearers of hereditary tendencies has been ascribed to them. But Vejdovsky ** flatly denies the alleged continuity in cases investigated by him, and though chrondriosomes have been described in some Protozoa, there is no evidence whatever that they are of universal occurrence in Protista. Centro- somes, intranuclear or extranuclear, have been stated to be constant cell- components in some organisms; whether that is true or not it seems quite certain that in many organisms the cells are entirely without centrosomic bodies of any kind, as for example in the whole group of Phanerogams. So it is with any other cell-constituent that can be named. It may be that this is only the result of our incomplete knowledge at the present time. I am prepared, however, to challenge anyone to name or to discover any cell-constituent, other than the chromatinic particles, which are present throughout the life-cycle, not merely of some particular organism, but of organisms universally. In this feature of continuity the chromatin-constituents of the cell present a remarkable analogy with the germ-plasm of Metazoa. Just as the germ- cells of Metazoa go on in an uninterrupted, potentially everlasting series of cell-generations, throwing off, as it were, at each sexual crisis a soma which is doomed to but a limited lease of life, during which it furnishes a nutritive L.c. pp. 77-89. 454. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. environment for further generations of germ-cells; so in the series of cell- generations themselves, whether in the germ-cell-cycles of Metazoa or in the life-cycles of Protista the chromatin-particles maintain an uninterrupted propa- gative series within a cell-body of which the various parts have a limited duration of existence, making their appearance, flourishing for a time, and disappearing again. This analogy between the chromatin of cells and the germ- plasm of multicellular organisms becomes still more marked when we find that in many Protozoa the chromatin may undergo a specialisation into generative and trophic chromatin, the former destined to persist from one life-cycle to another, the latter destined to control cell-activities merely during one cycle, without persisting into the next. The differentiation of generative and trophic chromatin is now well known to occur in many Protozoa, and in its most extreme form, as seen in the Infusoria, it is expressed in occurrence of two distinct nuclei in the cell-body. To recapitulate my argument in the briefest form; the chromatinic con- stituents of the cell contrast with all the other constituents in at least three points: physiological predominance, especially in constructive metabolism ; specific individualisation; and permanence in the sense of potential biological immortality. Any of these three points, taken by itself, is sufficient to confer a peculiar distinction, to say the least, on the chromatin-bodies; but taken in combination they appear to me to furnish overwhelming evidence for regarding the chromatin-elements as the primary and-essential constituents of living organisms, and as representing that part of a living body of any kind which can be followed by the imagination, in the reverse direction of the propagative series, back to the very starting-point of the evolution of living beings. In the attempt to form an idea as to what the earliest type of living being was like, in the first place, and as to how the earliest steps in its evolution and differentiation came about, in the second place, we have to exercise the constructive faculty of the imagination guided by such few data as we possess. It is not to be expected, therefore, that agreement can be hoped for in such speculations; it would indeed be very undesirable, in the interests of science, that there should be no conflict of opinion in theories which, by their very nature, are beyond any possibility of direct verification at the present time. The views put forward by any man do but represent the visions conjured up by his imagination, based upon the slender foundation of his personal know- ledge, more or less limited, or intuition, more or less fallacious, of an infinite world of natural phenomena. Consequently such views may be expected to diverge as widely as do temperaments. If, therefore, I venture upon such speculations, I do so with a sense of personal responsibility and as one wishing to stimulate discussion rather than to lay down dogma. To me, therefore, the train of argument that I have set forth with regard to the nature of the chromatinic constituents of living organisms appear to lead to the conclusion that the earliest living beings were minute, possibly ultra- microscopic particles which were of the nature of chromatin. How far the application of the term chromatin to the hypothetical primordial form of life is justified from the point of view of substance, that is to say in a biochemical sense, must be left uncertain. In using the term chromatin I must be under- stood to do so in a strictly biological sense, meaning thereby that these earliest living things were biological units or individuals which were the ancestors, in a continuous propagative series, of the chromatinic grains and particles known to us at the present day as universally-occurring constituents of living organisms. Such a conception postulates no fixity of chemical nature; on the contrary, it implies that as substance the primitive chromatin was highly inconstant, infinitely variable, and capable of specific differentiation in many divergent directions. For these hypothetical primitive organisms we may use Mereschkowsky’s term biococci. They must have been free-living organisms capable of building up their living bodies by synthesis of simple chemical compounds. We have as yet no evidence of the existence of biococci at the present time as free-living organisms ; the nearest approach to any such type of living being seems to be furnished by the organisms known collectively as Chlamydozoa, which up to the present have been found to occur only as pathogenic parasites. In view, i PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 455 however, of the minuteness and invisibility of these organisms, it is clear that they could attract attention only by the effects they produce in their environ- ment. Consequently the human mind is most likely to become aware in the first instance of those forms which are the cause of disturbance in the human ‘body. If free-living forms of biococci exist, as is very possible and even probable, it is evident that very delicate and accurate methods of investigation would be required to detect their presence. I am well aware that the nature and even the existence of the so-called ‘Chlamydozoa is uncertain at the present time, and I desire to exercise great ‘caution in basing any arguments upon them. In the descriptions given of them, however, there are some points which, if correctly stated, seem to me of great importance. They are alleged to appear as minute dots, on the borderline of microscopic visibility or beyond it; they are capable of growth, so that a given ‘species may be larger or smaller at different times; their bodies stain with the ‘ordinary chromatin-stains; and they are stated to reproduce themselves by a process of binary fission in which the body becomes dumbbell-shaped, appearing ‘as two dots connected by a slender thread, which is drawn out until it snaps ‘across and then the broken halves of the thread are retracted into the daughter- ‘bodies. This mode of division, strongly reminiscent of that seen in centrioles, ‘appears to me to permit of certain important conclusions with regard to the nature of these bodies; namely, that the minute dot of substance has no firm limiting membrane on the surface and that it is of a viscid or semi-fluid consistence. If it be permissible to draw conclusions with regard to the nature of the hypothetical biococci from the somewhat dubious, but concrete data furnished by the Chlamydozoa, the following tentative statements may be postulated con- cerning them. They were (or are) minute organisms, each a speck or globule of a substance similar in its reactions to chromatin. Their substance could be described as homogeneous with greater approach to accuracy than in the case of any other living organism, but it is clear that no living body that is carrying on constructive and destructive metabolism could remain for a moment perfectly homogeneous or constant in chemical composition. Their bodies were not limited by a rigid envelope or capsule. Reproduction was effected by binary fission, the body dividing into two with a dumbbell-shaped figure. Their mode of life was vegetative, that is to say, they reacted upon their environmental medium by means of ferments secreted by their own body-substance. The earliest forms must have possessed the power of building up their protein- molecules from the simplest inorganic compounds; but different types of biococci, characterised each by specific reactions and idiosyncrasies, must have become differentiated very rapidly in the process of evolution and adaptation to divergent conditions of life. Consideration of the existing types and forms of living organisms shows that from the primitive biococcal type the évolution of living things must have diverged in at least two principal directions. Two new types of organisms arose, one of which continued to specialise further in the vegetative mode of life, in all its innumerable variations, characteristic of the biococci, while the other type developed an entirely new habit of life, namely a predatory existence. I will consider these two types separately. (1) In the vegetative type the first step was that the body became sur- rounded by a rigid envelope. Thus came into existence the bacterial type of organism, the simplest form of which would be a Micrococcus, a minute globule of chromatin surrounded by a firm envelope. From this familiar type an infinity of forms arise by processes of divergent evolution and adaptation. With increase in size of the body the number of chromatin-grains within the. envelope increase in number, and are then seen to be imbedded in a ground- substance which is similar to cytoplasm, apparently, and may contain non- chromatinic enclosures. With still further increase of size the chromatin-grains also increase in number and may take on various types of arrangement in elumps, spherical masses, rodlets, filaments straight or twisted in various ways, or even irregular strands and networks,”* and the cytoplasmic matrix, if it is ** See especially Dobell, ‘Contributions to the Cytology of the Bacteria,’ Quart. Journ, Mier. Science, lvi. (1911), pp. 461, 462. I cannot follow Dobell m applying the term ‘nuclei’ to these various arrangements of the chromatin- 456 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. correct to call it so, becomes correspondingly increased in quantity. I will not attempt, however, to follow up the evolution of the bacterial type further, nor to discuss what other types of living organisms may be affiliated with it, as I have no claims to an expert knowledge of these organisms. I prefer to leave to competent bacteriologists and botanists the problem of the relationships and phylogeny of the Cyanophycex, Spirochetes, &c., which have been regarded as having affinities with Bacteria. : (2) In the evolution from the biococcus of the predatory type of organism, the data at our disposal appear to me to indicate very clearly the nature of the changes that took place, as well as the final result of these changes, but leave us in the dark with regard to some of the actual details of the process. The chief event was the formation, round the biococci of an enveloping matrix of protoplasm for which the term periplasm (Lankester) is most suitable. — The periplasm was an extension of the living substance which was distinct in its constitution and properties from the original chromatinic substance of the biococcus. The newly-formed matrix was probably from the first a semi-fluid substance of alveolar structure and possessed two important capabilities as the result of its physical structure; it could perform streaming movements of various kinds, more especially amceboid movement; and it was able to form vacuoles internally. The final result of these changes was a new type of organism which, compared with the original biococci, was of considerable size, and consisted of a droplet of alveolar, amcboid periplasm in which were imbedded a number of biococci. Whether this periplasm made its first appear- ance around single individual biococci, or whether it was from the first asso- ciated with the formation of zoogloea-like colonies of biococci, must be left an open question. Thus arose in the beginning the brand of Cain, the prototype of the animal, that is to say, a class of organism, which was no longer able to build up its substance from inorganic materials in the former peaceful manner, but which nourished itself by capturing, devouring, and digesting other living organisms. The streaming movements of the periplasm enabled it to flow round and engulph other creatures ; the vacuole-formation in the periplasm enabled it to digest and absorb the substance of its prey by the help of ferments secreted by the biococci. By means of these ferments the ingested organisms were killed and utilised as food, their substance being first broken down into simpler chemical constituents and then built up again into the protein-substances composing the body of the captor. A stage of evolution is now reached which I propose to call the pseudo- moneral or cytodal stage, since the place of these organisms in the general evolution of life corresponds very nearly to Haeckel’s conception of the Monera as a stage in the evolution of organisms, though not at all to his notions with regard to their composition and structure. The bodies of these organisms did not consist of a homogeneous albuminous ‘plasson,’ but of a periplasm corre- sponding to the cytoplasm of the cell, containing a number of biococci or chro- matin-grains. Thus their composition corresponded more clearly to that of plasson as conceived by Van Beneden, when he wrote: ‘Si un noyau vient a disparaitre dans une cellule, si la cellule redevient un cytode, les éléments chimiques du noyau et du nucléole s’étant repandus dans le protoplasme, le plasson se trouve de nouveau constitué.’ If we delete from this sentence the word ‘chimiques’ and also the words ‘et du nucléole,’ and substitute for the notion of the chemical solution of the chromatin-substance that of scattered chromatin-grains in the periplasm, we have the picture of the cytodal stage of evolution such as I have imagined it. It should be borne in mind that the ultimate granules of chromatin are probably in many cases ultra-microscopic : consequently they might appear to be dissolved in this cytoplasm when really existing as discrete particles. In the life-cycles of Protozoa, especially of Rhizopods, it is not at all infre- quent to find developmental phases which reproduce exactly the picture of the grains in Bacteria. WVejdovsky compares them with chromosomes; but there is no evidence that they play the part in the division and distribution of the chromatin-grains which is the special function of chromosomes, as will be dis- cussed in more detail presently. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 457 pseudo-moneral stage of evolution, phases in which the nucleus or nuclei have disappeared, having broken up into a number of chromatin-grains or chromidia scattered through the cytoplasm. We do not know as_ yet of any Protozoa, however, which remain permanently in the cytodal stage, that is to say, in which the chromatin-grains remain permanently in the scattered chromidial condition, without ever being concentrated and organised into true nuclei; but it is quite possible that some of the primitive organisms known as Proteomyxa will be found to exhibit this condition and to represent persistent Pseudo- monera or cytodes. : : The next stage in evolution was the organisation of the chromatin-grains (biococci) into a definite cell-nucleus. This is a process which can be observed actually taking place in many Protozoa in which ‘secondary’ nuclei arise from chromidia. It seems not unreasonable to suppose that a detailed study of the manner in which secondary nuclei are formed in Protozoa will furnish us with a picture, or rather series of pictures, of the method in which the cell-nucleus arose in phylogeny. To judge from the data supplied by actual observation, the evolution of the nucleus, though uniform in principle, was_ sufficiently diversified in the details of the process. As one extreme we have tke formation of a dense clump of small, separate chromatin-grains, producing a granular nucleus of the type seen in Dinoflagellates, in Heemogregarines, and in Diatoms. Amongst the chromatin-grains there may be present also one or more grains or masses of plastin forming true nucleoli. At the opposite extreme a clump of chromatin-grains becomes firmly welded together into a single mass in which the individual grains can no longer be distinguished, forming a so-called karyo- some, consisting of a basis of plastin cementing or imbedding the chromatin- grains into a mass of homogeneous appearance. Whatever the type of nucleus formed, the concentration of the chromidia into nuclei does not necessarily involve all the chromidia, many of which may remain free in the cytoplasm. In the chromidial condition the chromatin-grains scattered in the cytoplasm are lodged at the nodes of the alveolar framework.** Consequently a supporting framework of cytoplasmic origin, the foundation of the linin-framework, was probably a primary constituent of the cell-nucleus from the first. In many nuclei of the karyosomatic type it is very difficult to make out anything of the nature of a framework, which, however, in other cases is seen clearly as delicate strands radiating from the karyosome to the wall of the vacuole in which the karyosome is suspended. Probably such a framework is present in all cases, and each supporting strand is to be interpreted as the optical section of the partition between two protoplasmic alveoli. With the formation of the nucleus the cytode or pseudo-moneral stage has become a true cell of the simplest type, for which I propose the term protocyte. It is now the starting-point of an infinite series of further complications and elaborations in many directions. It is clearly impossible that I should do more than attempt to indicate in the most summary manner the various modifications of the cell-type of organism, since to deal with them conscientiously would require a treatise rather than an address, and, moreover, many such treatises exist already. The most conspicuous modifications of cell-structure are those affecting the periplasm, or, as we may now term it, the cytoplasm. In the first place, the cell as a whole takes various forms; primitively a little naked mass of protoplasm tending to assume a spherical form under the action of surface- tension when at rest, the cell-body may acquire the most diverse specific forms maintained either by the production of envelopes or various kinds of exoskeletal formations on the exterior of the protoplasmic body, or of supporting endo- skeletal structures formed in the interior. The simple amceboid streaming movements become highly modified in various ways or replaced by special loco- motor mechanisms or organs, flagella, cilia, &c., of various kinds. The internal alveolar cytoplasm develops fibrille and other structures of the most varied nature and function, contractile, skeletal, nervous, and so forth. The vacuole- 8 Cf. Dobell, ‘Observations on the Life-History of Cienkowski’s Arachnula,’ Arch. Protistenkunde, xxxi. (1913), p. 322. The author finds that in Arachnula each nucleus arises from a single chromatin-grain, which grows to form a vesi- cular nucleus. Since the fully-formed nucleus contains numerous grains of chromatin, the original chromidiosome must multiply in this process. 458 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. system may be amplified and differentiated in various ways and the cytoplasm acquires manifold powers of internal or external secretion. And finally the cytoplasm contains enclosures of the most varied kind, some of them metaplastic products of the anabolic or catabolic activity essential to the maintenance of life, others of the nature of special cell-organs performing definite functions, such as centrosomes, plastids, chromatophores, &c., of various kinds. With all the diverse modifications of the cytoplasmic cell-body the nucleus remains comparatively uniform. It may indeed vary infinitely in details of structure, but in principle it remains a concentration or aggregation of numerous grains of chromatin supported on some sort of framework over which the grains are scattered or clumped in various ways, supplemented usually by plastin or nucleolar substance either as a cementing ground-substance or as discrete grains, and the whole marked off sharply from the surrounding cytoplasm, with or without a definite limiting membrane. There is, however, one point in which the nucleus exhibits a progressive evolution of the most important kind. 1 refer to the gradual elaboration and perfection of the reproductive mechanism, the process whereby, when the cell reproduces itself by fission, the chromatin- elements are distributed between the two daughter-cells. The chromatin-constituents of the cell are regarded, on the view maintained here, as a number of minute granules, each representing a primitive inde- pendent living individual or biococcus. To each such granule must be attributed the fundamental properties of living organisms in general; in the first place metabolism, expressed in continual molecular change, in assimilation and in growth, with consequent reproduction; in the second place specific individu- ality. As the result of the first of these properties the chromatin-granules, often perhaps ultra-microscopic, may be larger or smaller at different times, and they multiply by dividing each into two daughter-granules. As a result of the second property, chromatin-granules in one and the same cell may exhibit qualitative differences and may diverge widely from one another in their reactions and effects on the vital activities of the cell. The chromatin- granules may be either in the form of scattered chromidia or lodged in a definite nucleus. When in the former condition, I have proposed the term chromidiosome** for the ultimate chromatinic individual unit; on the other hand, the term chromiole is commonly in use for the minute chromatin-grains of the nucleus. The terms chromidiosome and chromiole distinguish merely between the situation in the cell, extranuclear or intranuclear, of the individual] chromatin-grain or biococcus. In the phase of evolution that I have termed the pseudomoneral or cytodal phase, in which the organism was a droplet of periplasm containing scattered biococci or chromidiosomes, metabolism would result in an increase in the size of the cytode-body as a whole, accompanied by multiplication of the chromidio- somes. Individualisation of the cytodes would tend to the acquisition of a specific size, that is to say, to a limitation of the growth, with the result that when certain maximum dimensions were attained the whole cytode would divide into two or more smaller masses amongst which the chromidiosomes would be partitioned. In the next stage of evolution, the protocyte with a definite nucleus, it is highly probable that at each division of the cell-body, whether into two or more parts, the primitive method of division of the nucleus was that which I have termed elsewhere ‘chromidial fragmentation’;°° that is to say, the nucleus broke up and became resolved into a clump of chromidiosomes, which separated into daughter-clumps from which the daughter-nuclei were recon- stituted. Instances of nuclear divisions by chromidial fragmentation are of common occurrence among the Protozoa and represent probably the most primitive and direct mode of nuclear division. It is clear, however, that if the chromatin-grains are to be credited with specific individuality and qualitative differences amongst themselves, this method of nuclear division presents grave imperfections and disadvantages, since even the quantitative partition of the chromatin is inexact, while the qualitative partition is entirely fortuitous. | Chromidiosomes having certain ** Introduction of the Study of the Protozoa, Arnold, 1912, p. 65. 7° On. cit. p. 101. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 459 specific properties might all become accumulated in one daughter-cell, and those having opposite properties in the other, so that the two daughter-cells would then differ entirely in their properties. I can but refer briefly here in passing to the interesting theory put forward by Bitschli, to the effect that sexual phenomena owe their first origin to differences between cellular organisms resulting from the imperfections of the primitive methods of cell-division. If we assume, for instance, as so many have done, that one of the earliest qualitative differences between different chromatin-granules was that while some influenced more especially the trophic activities of the cell, others were concerned specially with kinetic functions ; then it might easily happen, after nuclear division by chromidial fragmentation, that all, or the majority of, the kinetic elements pass into one of the two daughter-cells, while its twin-sister obtains an undue preponderance of trophic chromatin. As a consequence, some cells would show strong kinetic but feeble trophic energies and others the opposite condition, and in either case the viability of the cells would be considerably impaired, perhaps inhibited. If it be further assumed that cells of opposite tendencies, kinetic and trophic, attract one another, it is easy to see that the union and fusion of two such cells, the one unduly kinetic (male) in character, the other with a corresponding trophic (female) bias, would restore equilibrium and produce a normal cell with kinetic and trophic functions equally balanced. On this view, sexual union, at its first appearance, was a natural remedy for the disadvantages arising from imperfect methods of nuclear division. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that the process of nuclear division undergoes a progressive elaboration of mechanism which has the result of ensuring that the twim sister-granules of chromatin produced by division of a single granule shall be distributed between the two daughter-cells, so that for every chromatin-grain obtained by one daughter-cell an exact counterpart is obtained by the other; in other words, of ensuring an exact qualitative, as well as quantitative, partition of the chromatin-particles. In its perfect form this type of nuclear division is known as karyokinesis or mitosis, and all stages in its progressive development are to be found in the Protozoa. In the evolution of nuclear division by karyokinesis two distinct processes are being developed and perfected in a parallel manner, but more or less independently ; first, the method of the partition and distribution of the chromatin-grains between the two daughter-nuclei; secondly, the mechanism whereby the actual division of the nucleus and the separation of the two daughter-nuclei are effected in the cell-division. I have dealt elsewhere *° with the evolution of the mechanism of karyokinesis as exemplified by the numerous and varied types of the process found amongst the Protozoa, and I need not discuss the matter further here, but the behaviour of the chromatin- grains may be dealt with briefly. The main feature in the process of the exact quantitative and qualitative distribution of the daughter-chromatin between the daughter-nuclei is the aggregation of the chromatin-grains or chromioles into definite, highly individualised structures knowm as chromosomes. In the most perfected forms of the process of chromosome-formation the chromioles become united into a linear series termed by Vejdovsky a chromo- neme, which is supported upon a non-chromatinic basis or axis. According to Vejdovsky, the supporting substance consists of linin; R. Hertwig, however, in his well-known studies on Actinosphcrium?’ considers that the supporting and cementing substance of the chromosome is plastin derived from the substance of the nucleoli. However that may be, the essential feature of the chromosome is the cementing together of the chromioles to form the chromo- neme, a thread of chromatin which may be disposed in various ways on the supporting axis, sometimes being wound spirally round it (Vejdovsky). The actual division of the chromatin takes place by the longitudinal splitting of the chromoneme, in other words, by simultaneous division into two of each of the chromioles of which the thread is composed. In this way every chromiole which was contained in the original chromoneme is represented by a daughter-chromiole in each of the two daughter-chromonemes. It follows 2° Op. cit. pp. 105-120. *7 Abhandl. bayer. Akad. (II. Cl.) xix. 1898. 460 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. that the familiar process of the splitting of the chromosomes in karyokinesis is a mechanism which brings about in the most simple, sure and direct manner an exact quantitative and qualitative partition of the chromatin-grains between the two daughter-nuclei. In the sequel each daughter-nucleus is built up, according to Vejdovsky, entirely and solely from one of the two daughter- clumps of chromosomes, and each chromosome is resolved again into its con- stituent chromioles, giving rise in some cases to a definite portion of the nucleus, a karyomere, from which again, at the next nuclear division, the chromosome is reconstituted by the chromioles falling into line in an orderly manner. The chromatin-cycle of a cell in which the process of division by karyoki- nesis takes place in its most perfectly developed form, may, therefore, be conceived as follows. The nucleus in its resting state contains a definite number of companies or brigades of chromatinic units (chromioles), each brigade spread over a certain extent of the nuclear framework forming a karyomere. As a preparation to division each separate brigade of chromioles falls into line as the chromoneme, forming with its supporting substance the chromosome; there are formed, therefore, just so many chromosomes as there were karyomeres in the nucleus. In this disciplined and orderly array each chromiole undergoes its division into two daughter-chromioles, so that each file or chromoneme of chromioles splits into two files. At the reconstitution of the daughter-nuclei each daughter-chromosome gives rise to a karyomere again, the chromioles falling out of the ranks and disposing themselves in an apparently irregular manner on the newly-built framework of the daughter- nucleus to constitute their own particular karyomere. Thus karyokinesis differs only from the most primitive method of division by chromidial fragmentation in that what was originally a haphazard method of distribution has become a disciplined and orderly manceuvre, performed with the precision of the parade-ground, but in a space far less than that of a nutshell. In the nuclear division of Protozoa, without going into excessive detail, it may be stated broadly that all stages are to be found of the gradual evolu- tion of the tactical problem which constitutes karyokinesis. The chromosomes in the more primitive types of nuclear division are usually very numerous, small, irregular in number and variable in size; the splitting of the chromo- somes is often irregular and not always definitely longitudinal; afd distinct karyomeres have not so far been recognised in the nuclei of Protozoa. In many cases only a part, if any, of the chromatin falls in to form the chromo- somes, and a greater or less amount of it remains in the karyosome, which divides directly into two. The various types of nuclear division in Protozoa have been classified as promitosis, mesomitosis and metamitosis, for detailed accounts of which those interested must refer to the text-books and original descriptions. I have dealt briefly with the problem of the evolution of karyokinesis because the process of nuclear division is, in my opinion, of enormous import- ance in the general evolution of living organisms. I have expressed else- where ** the opinion that the very existence of multicellular organisms composed of definite tissues is impossible until the process of karyokinesis has been established and perfected. For tissue-formation it is essential that all the cells which build up any given tissue should be similar, practically to the point of identity, in their qualities; and if it is the chromatin-elements of the cell which determine its qualities and behaviour, then the exact qualitative division of the chromatin, as effected in karyokinesis, is indispensable as a preliminary to the production of identically-similar daughter-cells by division of a parent-cell. Hence it becomes intelligible why, amongst Metazoa, we find the occurrence of nuclear division by karyokinesis in its most perfect form to be the rule, and ‘direct’ division of the nucleus to be the rare exception, while on the other hand, in the Protista, and especially in the Protozoa, we find every possible stage in the gradual evolution of the exact partition of the chromatin in the process of nuclear division, from chromidial fragmentation or the most typical amitosis up to processes of karyokinesis as perfect as those of the Metazoa. 2* Op. cit. p. 120. ~ yom , j. : ‘ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 461 There now remains only one point of general interest in the evolution of the cell to which brief reference must be made, namely, the divergence of animal and vegetable cells. Not being a botanist, I desire to approach this question with all caution; but as a protozoologist it seems to me clearly indicated that the typical green plant-cell took origin amongst the Flagellata, in that some members of this group of Protozoa acquired the peculiar chromatophores which enabled them to abandon the holozoic or animal mode of life in exchange for a vegetative mode of nutrition by means of chlorophyll-corpuscles. It is well known that many of these creatures combine the possession of chlorophyll with an open, functional mouth and digestive vacuoles, and can live either in the manner of plants or of animals indifferently or as determined by circum- stances. It would be interesting to know exactly what these chromatophores, at their first appearance, represent; whether they are true cell-organs, or whether, as some authorities have suggested, they originated as symbiotic intruding organisms, primitively independent. I do not feel competent to discuss this problem. I would only remark here, that if the green plant-cell first arose amongst the Flagellata, then the distinction between plant and animal (that is, green plant and animal) is not so fundamental a divergence in the series of living beings as is popularly supposed, but is one which did not come into being until the evolution of organisms had reached a relatively advanced stage, that, namely, of the true nucleated cell. I have confined myself in this address to the evolution of the cell as this organism is seen in its typical form in the bodies of the multicellular organisms, starting from the simplest conceivable type of living being, so far as present knowledge enables us to conceive it. But there is not the slightest reason to suppose that the evolution of the Protista took place only in the direction of the typical cell of the cytologist. Besides the main current leading up to the typical cell there were certainly other currents tending in other directions and leading to types of structure very unlike the cells composing the bodies of multicellular organisms. It is impossible that I should do more here than indicate some of the divergent lines of evolution, and I will confine myself to those seen in the Protozoa. Taking as the starting-point and simplest conditiom in the Protozoa a simple cell or protocyte, in which the body consists of a small mass of cytoplasm con- taining a nucleus, with or without chromidia in addition, an early specialisation of this must have been what I may term the plasmodial condition, typical of Rhizopods, in which the cytoplasm increased enormously to form relatively large masses. The nucleus meanwhile either remains single and grows very large or, more usually, a great number of nuclei of moderate size are formed. From this large plasmodial type is to be derived the foraminiferal type, characterised by the creeping habit of life, and probably also the radiolarian type, specialised for the floating pelagic habit. Both foraminiferal and radio- larian types are characterised by an excessive development and elaboration of skeletal structures, and the geological record proves that these two types of organisms attained to a high degree of specialisation and diversity of form and structure at a very early period.** The Mycetozoa exemplify another eet of the creeping plasmodial type adapted to a semi-terrestrial mode of life. In the Mastigophora the body generally remains small, while developing organs of locomotion and food-capture in the form of the characteristic flagella. In this class there is a strong tendency to colony-formation brought about by incomplete separation of sister-individuals produced in the ordinary process of reproduction by binary fission. The so-called colonies (they would better be termed families) show a most significant tendency to individualisation, often accompanied by physiological and morphological specialisation of the component flagellate individuals. As an offshoot, probably, from ancestors of the Mastigophoran type arose _the Infusoria, the Ciliata and their allies, representing by far the most highly- organised unicellular type of living being. No cell in the bodies of the - Metazoa attains to such a complication of structure as that exhibited by many * For Foraminifera see especially Heron-Allen, Phil. Trans. (B), vol. 206 (1915), p. 229. 462 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. Ciliates. In. the Metazoa the individual cells may be highly specialised for some particular function of life; but a Ciliate is a complete and independent organism and is specialised for each and all of the vital functions performed by the Metazoan body as a whole. From the physiological standpoint a Ciliate (or any other Protist) is equivalent and analogous to a complete Metazoon, say a man, but I cannot for a moment agree with Dobell*° that the body of a Ciliate is homologous with that of a Metazoon—not at least if the word homologous be used in its usual biological sense of homogenetic as opposed to homoplastic. Dobell appears to me to negative his own conclusion when he maintains that the body of a Ciliate is ‘non-cellular’ while admitting that the Metazoon is multicellular; how then can they be said to be homologous? Only if the term homologous be used in a sense quite different from its ordinary significance.** In addition to the highly-developed structural differentiation of the body the Infusoria exhibit the extreme of specialisation of the nuclear apparatus in that they possess, as a rule, two distinct kinds of nuclei, micronuclei and macronuclei, composed respectively of generative and trophic chromatin, as already pointed out. This feature is, however, but the culminating point in a process of functional specialisation of the chromatin which can be observed in many Protozoa of other classes, and which, moreover, is not found invariably in its complete form in all Ciliata. In this address I have set forth my conceptions of the nature of the simplest forms of life and of the course taken by the earliest stages of evolution, striving all through to treat the problem from a strictly objective standpoint, and avoiding as far as possible the purely speculative and metaphysical questions which beset like pitfalls the path of those who attack the problem of life and vitalism. I have, therefore, refrained as far as possible from discussing such indefinable abstractions as ‘living substance’ or ‘life,’ phrases to which no clear meaning can be attached. How far my personal ideas may correspond to objective truth I could not, of course, pretend to judge. It may be that the mental pictures which I have attempted to draw are to be assigned, on the most charitable interpretation, to the realm of poetry, as defined by the greatest of poets, rather than of science, ‘The lunatic, the lover and the poet Are of imagination all compact ; And as imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen Turns them to shapes and gives to airy nothings A local habitation and a name.’ If I might be permitted to attempt an impartial criticism of my own scheme, I think it might be claimed that the various forms and types of organisms in my evolutionary series, namely, the simple cell or protocyte, the cytode or pseudomoneral stage, the micrococcus, even the biococcus, are founded on con- crete evidence and can be regarded as types actually existent in the present or past. On the other hand the réle assigned by me to each type in the pageant of evolution is naturally open to dispute. For example, I agree with those who derive the Bacteria as primitive, truly non-cellular organisms, directly from the biococcus through an ancestral form, and not at all with those who would regard the Bacteria as degenerate or highly-specialised cells. But the crux of my scheme is the homology postulated between the biococcus and the chromatinic particle—chromidiosome or chromiole—of true cells. In support of this view, of which I am not the originator, I have set forth the reasons which have convinced me that the extraordinary powers and activities exhibited by the chromatin in ordinary cells are such as can only be explained on the hypothesis that the ultimate chromatinic units are to be regarded as independent living beings, as much so as the cells composing the bodies of multicellular organisms; and, so far as I am concerned, I must leave the ~ matter to the judgment of my fellow-biologists. 8° Journal of Genetics, iv. (1914), p. 136. 5' See Appendix A. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 463 I may point out in conclusion that general discussions of this kind may be useful in other ways than as attempts to discover truth or as a striving towards a verity which is indefinable and perhaps unattainable. Even if my scheme of evolution be but a midsummer-night’s fantasy, I claim for it that it co- ordinates a number of isolated and scattered phenomena into an orderly, and, I think, intelligible sequence, and exhibits them in a relationship which at least enables the mind to obtain a perspective and comprehensive view of them. Rival theories will be more, or less, useful than mine, according as they succeed in correlating more, or fewer, of the accumulated data of experience. If in this address I succeed in arousing interest and reflection, and in stimulating inquiry and controversy, it will have fulfilled its purpose. Appendix A.—The Cell-Theory. The most recent attack on the Cell-theory, as it is understood by the majority of modern biologists, has been made by Mr. Dobell, who, if I under- stand him rightly, refuses to admit any homology between the individual Protistan organism and a single cell of the many that build up the body of a Metazoon. On the contrary, he insists that the Protist is to be regarded as homologous with the Metazoan individual as a whole. On these grounds he objects to Protista being termed ‘ unicellular’ and insists that the term ‘non- cellular’ should be applied to them. As regards the cellular nature of the Protista, it is one of my aims in this address to show that amongst the Protista all stages of the evolution of the cell are to be found, from primitive forms in which the body cannot be termed a cell without depriving the term ‘cell’ of all definable meaning, up to forms of complex structure in which all the characteristic features of a true cell are fully developed. Thus in the Protozoa we find the protoplasmic body differentiated into nucleus and cytoplasm; the nucleus in many cases with a structure comparable in every detail to that of the nucleus of an ordinary body- cell in the Metazoa; reproduction taking place by division of the body after a karyokinetic nuclear division often quite as complicated as that seen in the cells of the Metazoa and entirely similar both in method and in detail; and in the sexual process a differentiation of the gametes on lines precisely similar to those universal in Metazoa, often just as pronounced, and preceded also in a great many cases by phenomena of chromatin-reduction comparable in principle, and even sometimes in detail, with the reduction-processes occurring in Metazoa. I really feel at a loss to conceive what further criteria of homology between a Protozoon and a Metazoan cell could be demanded by even the most captious critic. On the ground of these and many other simi- larities in structure and behaviour between the entire organism in the Protozoa and the individual cell, whether tissue-cell or germ-cell, in the Metazoa, the case seems to me overwhelmingly convincing for regarding them as truly— that is to say, genetically—homologous. : Looking at the matter from another point of view, namely, from the stand- point of the Metazoa, it is true that in the groups of most complicated and highly organised structure the cells often develop secondary connections or fusions due to incomplete division, to such an extent that in parts of the body the individu- ality of the primitively distinct cells may be indicated only by the nuclei (as may occur also in Protozoa, for example, in associated gregarines); but in all Metazoa certain of the cells retain permanently their complete independence and freedom of movement and action. In the Metazoa possessing the simplest and most primitive types or organisation, such as sponges and ceelenterates, the cells composing the body show far greater independence of action, and in the course of ontogeny entire groups of cells may alter their relative positions in the body as the result of migrations performed by individual cells; while it is now well known that if the adult sponge or hydroid be broken up completely into its constituent cells, those cells can come together again and build up, by their own individual activity, the regenerated body of the organism. For these reasons it seems to me impossible to regard the body-cells of the Metazoa otherwise than as individual organisms complete in themselves, primitively as independent as the individual Protozoon, and in every way comparable to it. From the considerations summarised very briefly in the two foregoing para- 464 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. graphs and capable of much greater amplification and elaboration, the view generally held that the entire organism of a Protozoon is truly homologous with a single body-cell of a Metazoon seems to me quite unassailable, and to have gained in force greatly from recent investigations both upon Protozoa and Metazoa. On the other hand, any Protist, as an organism physiologically complete in itself, is clearly analogous to the entire individual in the Metazoa —a comparison, however, which leaves the question of genetic homology quite untouched. As regards the application of the term unicellular or non-cellular to the Protozoa, it is evident that if the evolution of living beings had never pro- ceeded beyond the stage of the Protista, and if no multicellular organisms had ever been evolved, the term cell could then never have been invented by an intelligent being studying other living beings, supposing for an instant the possibility of such intelligence existing apart from a mammalian brain. So long as the Protozoa are studied entirely by themselves, without reference to any other forms of life, they may be termed non-cellular in the sense that they are not composed of cells. It is only when they are compared with multicellular organisms that the term unicellular becomes applicable on the ground of the homology already discussed between the Protozoon and the body- cell of the Metazoon. The following Papers and Reports were then read :— 1. The Future of Scientific Literature in relation to the War. By Professor A. Mrrx. 2. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—See Reports, p. 148. 3. Report on the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet Whaling Station.—See Reports, p. 124. 4. Report on the Nomenclator Animalium Generum et Sub-generum. See Reports, p. 147. 5. Report on the Biology of the Abrolhos Islands.—See Reports, p. 148. 6. Report on the Collection of Marsupials.—See Reports, p. 147. 7. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboralory, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 149. 8. Materials for a Graphic History of Comparative Anatomy. By Professor F. J. Corr and Newum B. Kauss, B.Sc. A few years ago one of us attempted to apply graphic methods to an his- torical study of anatomical museums.* The results were encouraging but not conclusive, since the number of such museums which could be traced (537) was too small to admit of adequate treatment by statistical methods. It then occurred to us to make a similar attempt on the literature of comparative anatomy generally, in the hope that, with a much greater bulk of records to juggle with, we might succeed in conjuring form and precision out of an * Cp. Cole, The Mackay Miscellany, p. 302, Liverpool, 1914. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D; 465 amorphous mass of data. Our object was a threefold one: (1) to represent by a curve the activities of comparative anatomists year by year from the sixteenth century to 1860; (2) to separate out the performances of each European coun- try; (3) to determine which groups of animals and what aspects of the subject engaged the attention of workers from time to time. In other words, it seemed possible to reduce to geometrical form the activities of anatomists as a whole, and the relative importance in time and interest of each country and subject. We do not propose in this preliminary note to dwell on the difficulties of the work—they have been numerous, and relate chiefly to the difficulty in assigning certain workers to their appropriate countries, and in making due allowance for others whose output has been disproportionate to the influence they have exercised. For the period between the years 1543 and 1860 we have made records of 6,304 papers which deal wholly or partly with the anatomy of animals, as apart from those having a systematic interest only. It is inevitable that we have missed many, but the number can hardly bear any serious proportion to those we have recorded. In Fig. 1 each division in the horizontal direction represents fifty years, and the height of the chart in any year represents the number of papers published in that year. In assigning a paper to any particular year we have had to consider whether the date of publication bears a close relation to the completion of the work. In some cases publication may be many years subse- quent to the death of the author, and our method has been to chart the actual or approximate year in which the work was finished rather than the date of publication. At the same time we feel that the date of publication does stand for something—it represents at least a current interest in the subject of the research. We give four specimen charts (Figs. 1-4), selected from the number that have been made. An examination of Fig. 1 shows that only intermittent research was carried on before the year 1650, but that in the next fifty years there was considerable activity, culminating at about 1683, and thereafter subsiding. There is no doubt that this sudden revival was due almost exclusively to the Academia Nature Curiosorum founded in 1652, the Royal Society of London (1660), the French Academy of Science (1666), and, to a much less extent, the Collegium Anatomicum of Amsterdam (c. 1665). From 1700 to 1750 work is steadily maintained, but at a lower numerical level, and the second revival begins at 1750, gradually increases in volume up to 1800, and then suddenly swings up to a very high maximum between 1835 and 1840, finally declining somewhat con- siderably down to 1860, beyond which we have collected no data. If now we consider the achievements of individual countries, we find that the second revival was initiated by France (Fig. 2), followed closely by Germany (Fig. 3), and at some distance by England (Fig. 4). The last coun- try, however, reaches her maximum first, then Germany, and finally France. Having passed the maximum point, France progressively declines up to 1860, but both England and Germany, having reached their lowest point by 1850, show signs of recovery. It should be stated that Holland and Denmark take a distinct part in the seventeenth-century revival, and that Italy is undoubtedly concerned in initiating the similar movement in the nineteenth century. Germany claims 2,066 records, France 1,507, England 1,171, Italy 373, Holland 214, Switzerland 170, and Denmark 155. An analysis of authorities shows in England the Hunterian. school in splendid isolation—an example which was not driven home until, more than thirty years after the death of Hunter, Owen published his first anatomical paper. In France, on the other hand, the work of Buffon, Vicq d’Azyr, and _ Cuvier is promptly and steadily followed up. Germany is almost devoid of pioneers in the eighteenth century, but her record from 1800 includes an almost unbroken succession of well-known workers, and it is this solidarity which makes the German chart so impressive. England claims fifteen writers with a mini- mum of ten papers to their credit, Germany 39, and France 35. The most voluminous writers on comparative anatomy have been Owen, Home, G. St. Hilaire, J. Miller, Dufour, Rathke, Duvernoy, Cuvier, Meckel, Blainville, Milne Edwards, Hyrtl, and Brandt. The earlier writers were very largely Italian, but from 1650 onwards Denmark, England, France, Germany, Holland, and Switzerland successively enter the field. 1915. HO OLt- {pocg} TVYINII 1914 OS9| 00oN - 09 -OLh OSZ1 Oot (else) 0091 OSs' ye Ss na es -O1 {21} anv7eNgz ie is ALO HS “Of Ov -OS OS! O08! OSZI OO4\ Oss} 009! Ossi -O4 902] ANYWYFD (ae €DI4 ge -Ov -OS 09 os9) 008! Osi! O04! os O09) ossi oe - O01 as [Zosi] Jonves iets ah 7 29/7 mee OF “Ob we 468 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. As regards the subjects of study, work has been distributed as follows: Mammals (1,569 papers); Arthropods (863); Fishes (730); Organography (594) ; Birds (527); Molluscs (388); Worms (357); Reptiles (334); Amphibia Ea. Coslenterates (200); and Echinoderms (62). Of works of a general or more encyclopedic nature there are 471. The seventeenth-century revival related chiefly to Mammals, but concerned to a lesser extent Birds, Fishes, and Arthropods, and to a slight extent Reptiles and Molluscs. In the nineteenth- century revival, Mammals, Arthropods, Fishes, and Organography, in the order mentioned, play the leading part, followed by Birds, Molluscs, and Reptiles. Even in the first half of the eighteenth century, the slackest period since the seventeenth-century revival, interest in the anatomy of Mammals is well main- tained. Each of the Figs. 1-4 shows a certain periodicity of output, especially during the nineteenth century. Roughly speaking, the periods are equal ones of about ten years each. In other words, for each decade there is a rise and fall. This periodicity is well marked in the graph for Germany. It is not always possible to compare visually the relative bulk of publica- tions at stated intervals, owing to the fact that a large number of works for one year give undue prominence to that period. In order to make comparisons of this kind more readily, graphs have been prepared which show the rise and fall by obtaining the aggregate of the publications for successive periods of five years each and plotting the average. If Fig. 1 be compared with the graph illustrating the history of Zoological Museums already published, it will be noted that in the latter the seventeenth- century revival is not represented, but that between 1747 and 1770 the influ- ence of Linneus and Buffon produced an effect which would naturally be want- ing in an anatomical graph. The nineteenth-century revival, however, is also to be found in the museum graph. The period lies between 1809 and 1847, and curiously enough the maximum occurs in exactly the same year as in the anatomical graph, viz., 1835. 9. The Insect Association of a Local Environmental Complex. By Aurrep HE. Cameron, M.A., D.Sc., M.Sc. An association is a group of animals uniform over a considerable area, and its unity is dependent upon the migration of the individuals from one stratum to another at different times of day, or at different periods of their life-histories. The environment is a complex of many factors, each dependent upon another or upon several others. A change in any one effects changes in one or more others. The most important environmental factors are water, atmo- spheric moisture, light, temperature, pressure, oxygen, carbon dioxide, food, enemies, materials used in abodes. In nature the combinations of these requisite for the abode of a considerable number of animals are called ‘ environmental complexes.’ Local complexes are often referred to as secondary or minor con- ditions or as edaphic or soil conditions. It is very probable ‘that the plant and animal associations will prove to be co-extensive. In the study of an insect association one has a choice of two methods: (1) One may treat of a species, genus, family, or order as one’s unit and show the relation of each one severally to the environment. (2) The other method, which is more comprehensive, treats the whole of the environmental factors as a single entity to which all of the insects of the various orders respond in unison. The latter was the method adopted by the author. The physiography and topography of the district, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire, were reviewed in a general way and the geological facts summarised. Such a proceeding is necessary because the plant association, so important in relation to insect life, is largely determined by the nature of the soil of the district as well as the exposure and other factors. The vegetation of the Holmes Chapel area is mesophytic, and the plant association is of the grassland mixed wood type. ~ Records of barometric pressure, air temperature, and soil temperature were kept for the period during which the work lasted. In many cases it is difficult eo eS!!! TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 4.69 to say what is the direct influence of any one physical factor on the insect association, but it is hoped by making a study of an entirely different area to reach important conclusions by the method of comparison. Probably it will be found that the best index of the physical factors of an environment may be derived from the ‘evaporating power of air’ as measured by the porous cup atmometer. The index of an insect’s habitat is where it breeds, which may not be the place where it feeds. Many insects migrate from one vertical stratum to another at different periods of their life-histories or according as they are actuated by their various needs. Some insects are peculiar to an association, others invade from adjacent associations. An analysis of their habits, which involves a knowledge of their larval habits, enables one to relegate them to their proper association. A tabular statement of these facts has been presented in the paper, and the various orders of Apterygota, Plecoptera, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Hemiptera as specifically determined have been reviewed. A soil insect-census of two different grasslands in the association, differing in their soil-types and vegetational covering, showed that in any given locality the soil-insect fauna of grassland is not likely to vary to any great extent. For a determination of the faunistic differences on the basis of the variation of edaphic factors, a very thorough analysis is necessary. 10. Exhibition of Lantern Slides of Mp: illustrating Tertiary Changes, according to Geologists, in the Northern arn ete | and the Light thrown on the Subject by a Comparison of Maps showing Distribution of Fish. By Professor A. Mrrx. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Papers were read :— 1. Discussion on the Relation of Chromosomes to Heredity.—Opened by Professor E. W. MacBrinz, F.R.S. There seems to be no escape from the position that the chromatin viewed as a whole is the bearer of the hereditary tendencies, for the influence of the father in determining the character of the offspring is as potent as that of the mother. Now the head of the spermatozoon is the only part of the father which enters into the constitution of the progeny, and this appears to consist practically exclusively of chromatin (Duesberg). This chromatin appears after fertilisation in the somatic nuclei of the embryo as a group of chromo- somes, which are in many cases distinctly separable into two sub-groups of maternal and paternal chromosomes respectively. These can only influence the characters of the embryo by emitting substances which pass through the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. The formation of the organs of an embryo is known in many cases to be due to substances localised in the cytoplasm. But the formation of these substances can be shown to be due to chromatic emission from the nucleus of the unripe egg (Schaxel), and in many cases where the fertilised egg exhibits marked cytoplasmic differentiation the cytoplasm of the unripe egg can be shown to be of homogeneous composition (Boveri). Driesch has shown that in some cases the nuclei of an embryo can be displaced from their positions without altering the mutual relations of the organs of an embryo. From this it is argued that the nuclei are all alike and indifferent. But during this period the embryo is of uniform character, i.e., all its parts are equi- potential. When this period has passed, and definite localisation of the rudi- ments of organs begins, this is associated with renewed emission of chromatin into the cytoplasm (Schaxel). Whether individual chromosomes are the bearers of different characters or 470 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. groups of characters is a question difficult to decide. The experiments of Wilson and his school on Drosophila and other insects suggest that they are. The best instance is the so-called sex-chromosome, which is supposed to carry the determiner of sex and of the qualities which are sex-limited. In some cases the female nucleus possesses one more chromosome than the male, and there are two kinds of spermatozoon, one with one more chromosome than the other. Hence it is assumed that sex is fixed by the spermatozoon. But when two species are crossed, differing in a secondary sexual character, the distribution of this character in the hybrid and in the F, generation shows that it cannot possibly be carried by the sex-chromosome. Moreover, in other cases (Abraxas) the inheritance of characters in a cross between two varieties indicates that there are two kinds of egg and one kind of spermatozoon. Yet no con- stant chromosomal difference between the two kinds can be detected (Don- caster). In other words, the odd chromosome may not be the cause of sex- difference, but in itself the result of that sex-difference. The phenomena of meiosis, however, and their agreement in form with the sort of segregation of qualities postulated by the Mendelian hypothesis, suggest very strongly that determiners of various characters are situated in definite pairs of chromatin units which become separated from one another at the meiotic division. Since, however, the number of allelomorphic characters can in many cases be proved to be very much larger than the number of chromo- somes, the individual chromosomes cannot represent these determiners. May not the chromosomes be simply groups of these determiners adhering by mutual chemical affinity under the peculiar chemical conditions obtaining in the cell in the period preceding karyokinesis? If this be the case, the apparent total dis- appearance of chromosomes during the resting period could be accounted for. 2. The Discession of the Chromosomes and Mitokinetism. By Professor Marcus Hartoa, D.Sc. In previous papers the author has shown that the phenomena of the cell- spindle may be interpreted as the expression of a field of dual force, centering on the centrosomes as opposite poles, on the assumption that the achromatic fibres are more permeable to the force than their surroundings, and lie along the lines of force whose distribution they, of course, modify. The chromosomes are also more permeable, and may be termed ‘ flexible inductors.’ All objections that have been urged to this view have been shown to be based on neglect either of accepted physical truths or of the realities of the field. But he was so far unable to produce any adequate explanation of the discession of the chromosomes. This deficiency was due to the omission to take note of the different behaviours of isolated poles and of inductors. The former move along the lines of force; but not the latter, and their path in a uniform field had not yet been worked out by the physicist save in very few, simple, cases. With the collaboration of Mr. Philip E. Belas this problem has received an experimental solution, which is demonstrated at this meeting before Section A. Undoubtedly the path of an inductor in a uniform field does not correspond with that of a chromosome in the cell; but the cell-field is not uniform, for it is traversed by the spindle- fibres, stretching from pole to pole along the lines of force, and modifying their distribution, as above stated. If we represent these in a magnetic field by pieces of soft iron extending from pole to pole, we see at once that lines of force converge to them on either side, their density increasing as we approach the poles. Now, an inductor tends to move in the direction in which it will include the maximum number of lines of force ; and in our models we find indeed that a floating inductor will move along the iron representative of the spindle- fibre. Thus the path of the chromosome is now seen to be in accordance with theory. The separation of the sister-chromosomes at the equator is difficult to under- stand if the field be uniform, for the force tending to separate two adjacent inductors lying across the equator is indefinitely small; again here the model shows us how the force is modified by the presence of the achromatin fibre. For the lines of force from either pole are continuous through the inductors in the uniform field; but with the representative of the inductor stretching from pole i it he be TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 471 to pole, either chromosome transmits at its equatorial end to its sister only part of the lines it receives at its polar end, a proportion of them being attracted (or ‘ refracted ’) into the fibre. ‘ ee problems, which are too complex to lend themselves to mathematical analysis, can alone be settled by the method of physical experimentation, and the interpretation must needs follow the observation. It is only, indeed, by these last experiments that the problem of the working of the cell-figure has received an adequate explanation on the mitokinetism theory. 3. A Stalement upon the Theory and Phenomena of Purpose and Intelligence exhibited by the Protozoa, as illustrated by Selection and Behaviour in the Foraminifera. By E. Heron-Auuen, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S. The author seeks to make the position which he has taken up in this matter definite, and to state the limits beyond which at present he is not prepared to go, He postulates :— (i.) That every living organism having a separate and independent existence of its own is endowed with that measure and quality of the faculties of Purpose and Intelligence which are adapted to, and called forth by, the individual needs of that organism. (ii.) That these faculties are illustrated by the utilisation by certain Protozoa (Foraminifera) of foreign substances, selected by the animal from a large heterogeneous mass of environmental adaptable material, and utilised in such a manner as to provide the animal with means (a) of adaptation to its special environment, and (b) of defence against its known and special enemies. (iii.) That it is not competent for a consistent evolutionist to postulate a break in his evolutionary cycle (which must, ea hypothesi, be continuous) for the introduction at some arbitrary point of an unknown influence of unknown origin to which he gives the name of Intelligence, upon which Purpose depends. (iv.), That the phenomena to which he has called attention have no relation to, and are not to be confounded with, adaptations or tropisms, and he is not to be interpreted as having made any claims based upon any such confusion. 4. The Explanation of Secondary Sex Characters as Characters of Abandoned Function, with Observations on the Insufficiency of the ‘Hormone’ Theory. By F. W. Asn. Male secondary characters are not otherwise unique; on the contrary, the character may be bisexual (specific), unisexual, or wholly rudimentary, accord- ing to species. The problem is—why are certain somatic characters, not essentially sex- distinguishing, sex-limited in particular species? No explanatory theory can suffice that does not answer that question. The selection theory fails to explain why the dimorphism is not neutralised by biparental heredity; while the ‘ hormone’ hypothesis does not account for the particular form assumed by the secondary character. * Male secondary characters cannot well represent (as some have held) a first stage in the evolution of structures that are to be afterwards extended to the other sex; such a view entails such inconsistent assumptions as that newly evolving organs tend to over-develop in males while still incapable of appearance in females and young, and yet may at the same time be rudimentary (not incipient) in the two latter; or that archaic and general characters (such as the canine tooth) are still being independently evolved in divers widely separated types. he ‘hormone’ theory, apart from the insufficiency before mentioned, implies an artificial ontogenetic distinction between the same organs in allied species; for example, between the tusk of the Indian and that of the African elephant; or between similar tissue in different parts of the same animal (as between certain feathers in a bird and the other feathering), 472 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, I suggest that the real explanation of male secondary characters is that they are characters of abandoned function or their physiological equivalents— suppressed in the young in favour of more essential growth (of organs still fully functional), and in the adult female because, with her, nutritive surplus is more directly diverted to the purposes of reproduction. Hence such characters usually only find opportunity for full expression in adult males. Where an organ is in process of retrogression through loss of function, an intermediate stage of extravagant growth under favourable nutritive conditions may occur before the wholly rudimentary stage is reached. Secondary sex exaggerations may significantly parallel enlargements due to accidental loss of function. The tusk of the male babirussa may be com- pared with instances of occasional circular overgrowth in the tusk of the hippopotamus, or with the elongation of a rodent’s incisor when the opposing tooth is lost. The dependence (usual amongst vertebrates) of the development of the secondary character on the active presence of the male gonad may, perhaps, be explained by reference to the phenomena of periodicity. Through inherited correlation, the activity of the gonads influences the nutritive bias in the direction of reproduction, the related physiological ‘ ebb and flow’ being on an enlarged or more cataclysmic scale, as it were, and so affording latent characters opportunity for expression (in males). This sug- gestion is rather supported by the fact of the renewal of the secondary feature at the breeding season in various types. 5. Studies on the Biology of the Appendix Vermiformis in Monotremes and Marsupials. By Wruutam C. Mackenzin, M.D. The following animals were considered : Monotremata : Ornithorhynchus and Echidna; Marsupialia: Phascolarctos, Phascolomys, Dasyurus, Macropodide, and Trichosurus. Attention was drawn to the fact that one Monotreme (Ornithorhynchus) has a cecum and the other (Echidna) a true vermiform appendix comparable, macro- scopically and histologically, to that of man, ape, and wombat—the three mammals regarded as having a true vermiform appendix. Various grades of degeneration in the appendix of Echidna were demonstrated. Amongst the Macropodide, the wallaby and the kangaroo exhibited a well-marked difference in the cecal region. In Phascolomys the appendix was shown to have reached a much more advanced degree of degeneration than that of man—even to complete disappearance. The mode of disappearance is by incorporation in the wall of the ileum, and of this the various gradations were shown. This animal, then, presents suggestive evidence of the mode of the further degeneration of man’s appendix. No cases of inflammation of the cecal region have been met with amongst the Phascolomyide. 6. Regeneration of the Tail in the Common Lizard (i. vivipara) after Autotomy. By CuartEs PowEuL WHITE. The lizards which form the basis of these observations were found under natural conditions in North Wales. Autotomy takes place through the middle of a vertebra. There is no special autotomy-site as in the legs of crabs, but apparently any vertebra may be involved. Regeneration may continue until the regenerated tail is fully as long as the original one. In such a fully regenerated tail are found : 1. The skin and subcutaneous tissue. 2. The muscles situated beneath the skin to which they are attached. They consist of sixteen longitudinal bundles and are also segmented transversely in zig-zag rings, each segment apparently corresponding to a ring of scales in the skin. 3. Beneath the muscles is a layer of fatty connective tissue in which run nerves and blood-vessels. All the nerves are derived from the last three pairs of nerve roots in the stump of the TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 473 tail. There are twenty-four main trunks in all, four branches from each nerve. The blood-vessels are derived from the caudal aorta and vein. Lymphatics are also found. The main trunks of the sympathetic which accompany the aorta can be traced for some distance into the regenerated tail and send branches to the different blood-vessels. No new ganglia are formed. 4. In the centre of the tail is a tube of cartilage, unsegmented and continuous except for some perforations through which blood-vessels pass to the interior. This tube is continuous with the body and neural arches of the vertebra through which the fracture has taken place. 5. In the cartilage tube is an epithelial tube con- tinuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. On examining tails in various stages of regeneration we find the following: The wound after autotomy is quickly covered with new skin beneath which is a mass of spindle cells which apparently originate in the connective tissue. _ This cellular mass acts as a growing point, to the new tail, and from it the various structures are developed. The cartilage, fat, and blood-vessels arise by differentiation from the spindle cells. The muscle fibres arise segmentally in groups, the groups nearest the tip being the least differentiated. The muscles in the stump play no part in the process. The nerve trunks involved in the autotomy-wound elongate as the regenera- tion proceeds. The corresponding posterior root ganglia are increased in size or number owing to increase in size of the nerve bundles. There is no increase in size or number of the ganglion cells. The central canal reaches to the extreme tip of the tail just beneath the skin. It there loses itself in the surrounding cells and is apparently developed from them. It has no connection with the epidermis. 7. The Geographical Distribution of the Pennatulacea. By Professor 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S. 8. Exhibition of Specimens in the Zoological Laboratories of the University. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers were read :— 1. Account of the Plankton collected during Traverses of the Great Oceans on the journey to Australia and back, by several routes, in 1914. By Professor W. A. Herpman, F.R.S., and ANDREW Scort, A.L.S. Advantage was taken of the meeting of the British Association in Australia last summer to obtain samples of surface plankton collected continuously during traverses of the North and South Atlantic, the Southern Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the seas of the Malay Archipelago, and the Pacific. The method of collecting was that made use of by one of us on several previous occasions, and which consists briefly in letting the sea-water which is pumped continuously into the ship flow out from a bath- or other tap through a fine-meshed silk net, which is changed morning and evening—so that each sample obtained repre- sents a twelve hours’ catch, either day or night. The silk used was No. 20 of Dufour’s series, having about 6,000 meshes to the square centimétre. Small samples of each gathering were examined somewhat rapidly with the microscope while fresh, and any special organisms and colours were noted. The whole was then preserved in a solution of formalin. The outward voyage on the Blue~Funnel liner Ascanius was by the Cape ‘route, so that the 72 samples collected represent a traverse from Liverpool Fame 474 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. down the North and South Atlantic by the Canary Islands along a roughly north and south line to Cape ‘Town, and from thence along the Southern Ocean on an east and west line to Fremantle in Western Australia. The managers of the Blue Funnel line (Messrs. Alfred Holt & Co.) materially promoted this work by most generously fitting up special discharge pipes with large taps on both sides of the top deck, and by fitting up a large deck cabin on the Ascanius as a laboratory for Professor Herdman, in which microscope work could be conveniently carried on either by day or electric light. On the return journey three observers took part in the work. Professor Herdman took a series of 32 samples through the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, Dr. A. Holt collected 42 samples during parts of his homeward route by the Malay Archipelago, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Ceylon; and Mr. P. G. Bailey obtained for us 21 samples during his voyage by New Zealand across the Pacific to San Francisco. We are very mych obliged to Dr. Holt and Mr. Bailey for this kind assistance. In addition to these 167 samples collected from most of the great oceans of the world in the summer of 1914, we have also taken into consideration a few former collections made by one of us, viz., (1) on a traverse to and from Cape Town by the Atlantic route in 1905, (2) on a traverse of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean to and from Ceylon in 1907, and (3) two or three other minor collections which may be useful in filling up gaps between the larger series. The samples are now being examined systematically and exhaustively, and it will be some time yet before we can make a detailed report ; but we think it may be of interest to give now this preliminary account of the matter. So far as possible the conditions of collecting were kept constant, so that the samples might be comparable with one another. It was calculated that during the work on the Ascanius the amount of water running through the net was about 10 litres per minute or 7,200 litres per twelve hours’ gathering. If we attempt to compare this volume of water strained with the amount that passes through an ordinary horizontal or vertical plankton net of 34 cm. diameter at the mouth we think it might on a rough approximation be the equivalent of 100 yards of horizontal towing or 50 fathoms in a vertical haul. On looking at the volumes of the gatherings it is noteworthy how the amount of plankton per haul drops in passing from coastal to oceanic waters. The first gathering was practically across the mouth of the English Channel from the Scilly Isles to abreast of Ushant, and was an ordinary typical English summer plankton measuring 14°5 c.c. and consisting of many of the smaller Copepoda such as Oithona and Pseudocalanus with a few Centropages, and also a considerable number of the Pteropod Zimacina. The fourth haul, thirty-six hours later, in the Atlantic about the latitude of Lisbon. measured only 1 ¢.c. and contained, in addition to a few species of the smaller Copepoda, oceanic organisms such as Globigerina bulloides and Acanthometra. A drop in the quantity of plankton per haul was noticed in passing from the English Channel to the Bay of Biscay and a further drop in passing out into the Atlantic off the coast of Portugal. During the next few days in the open Atlantic north of the Canary Islands the following additional Copepoda were noteworthy in the gatherings: Clausocalanus arcuicornis, Coryceeus rostratus, and C. gracilicauda, Calocalanus plumulosus, Microsetella rosea, Oncea subtilis, Pleuromamma gracile, Lucicutia flavicornis, and Sapphirina nigromaculata. In the South Atlantic, between the Canary Islands and the Cape, at least three species of Sapphirina (S. nigromaculata, S. Salpce, and another) occurred frequently in the gatherings; and other Copepoda that appeared south of the Canaries were : Pleuromamma gracile and P. abdominale, Undeucheta plumosea. Candacia pachydactyla, C. bispinosa and C. bipinnata, Metridia boecki, Undinula vulgaris, Corycceus carinatus, Calocalanus pavo, and various species of Macrosetella, Hucheta, Miracia, Pontellopsis, Lab‘docera, and others—only the more conspicuous forms are mentioned. The increase in volume of the catch on approaching Cape Town was well marked—successive hauls being 2, 3, 4, 6°5 and then 11 c.c., and after leaving the Cape they fell again to 5, 6, 64 and 4 c.c. On the day after leaving the Cape (July 13) the sea was very noticeably blood-red in colour, and highly luminous at night. The gatherings were found to gontain large numbers of a small red Peridinian which was probably the F TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 475 cause both of the colour and of the luminosity. On July 17, at night, a fairly large catch was almost wholly composed of Metridia boecki. In the traverse across the Southern Ocean, between July 13 and 28, the more noticeable forms in the plankton were Macrosetella, Pleuromamma (two spp.), Eucheta (including one species probably new to science), Mecynocera, Coryceus, Microsetella, Calocalanus, Clausocalanus, Sapphirina (S. metallina and S. gemma), and the conspicuous black-coated Candacia aethiopica—along with many diatoms and other smaller forms not yet identified. The volume of the plankton again increased on getting into the Australian coastal waters. For example, on August 2, in Spencer Gulf, we had quite a large catch of smaller Copepoda—chiefly Microsetella and Huterpina. It is hoped that the detailed report upon these and the other oceanic traverses will be laid before the Liverpool Biological Society in the course of next winter. bo . On Larve of Lingula and Pelagodiscus collected in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. By J. H. Asuworru, D.Sc." w) 3. Notes on Zoological Collecting in Australia with the British Associa- tion in 1914. By Professor A. Drenpy, F.R.S. 4. Noles on Insecls collected during the Visit of the British Association to Australia in 1914. By Professor E. B. Pouuton, F.R.S. 5. Bionomics of the Genus Eronia. By F. A. Dixey, F.R.S. Hronia is a genus of Old-World Pierine butterflies distributed over the whole of Africa south of the Sahara, and southern Asia with the Malayan islands as far as the Moluccas. It is remarkable for the diversity between the sexes shown by most of the species, and for the fact that in nearly every instance the females bear a strong resemblance to forms belonging to other groups. The genus may be divided under subgeneric headings, as follows: (1) Nepheronia, comprising the species inhabiting continental Asia and the Malayan islands; (2) ZLeuceronia, consisting of four or five species which are African and Arabian in distribution; and (3) Hronia proper, which includes two species belonging to continental Africa only. In Nepheronia the likeness of the females is to various species of Danaine. In a few cases the females of this section are dimorphic, each such form bearing the aspect of a separate species of Danaine. In Leuceronia three of the species have polymorphic females; these in every instance present a copy of some other butterfly belong- ing to the Pierine sub-family but of no close affinity with Zeuceronia. One of the remaining species resembles in both sexes a Pierine of a distinct group. The third section or sub-genus, Hronia proper, consists of two species, in both of which the underside is coloured like a dead leaf. In addition to this, one of the species is on the upper side almost exactly like another brilliantly coloured Pierine inhabiting the same region. In this case the resemblance is closest in the males. In the first group, the likeness to Danaines can scarcely be due to affinity ; for, besides the fact that the males remain unaffected, there is no near relation- ship between the sub-families concerned. Nor, in the second group, is the con- nection close between the polymorphic females of Zeuceronia and the Pierines which they resemble. The fact that the similar forms inhabit, speaking oo, the same districts suggests a climatal or other local influence; but, esides the difficulty of conceiving the modus operandi of such an influence, the polymorphism of many of the females and the unaltered aspect of the males 1 See Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. li., pp. 45-69, Pls. iv., v., 1915. 476 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. make this unlikely. The ‘explanation’ offered by Fruhstorfer, viz., that ‘the mimics were modified by the same (as yet unknown) influences under which the colouring of the models developed,’ is obviously no explanation at all. Since some of the forms resembled by the Hronias are known experimentally, and others are on good grounds believed to be more or less distasteful to insectivorous animals, the theory of mimicry appears to be the most feasible interpretation of the conditions obtaining in this genus. The likeness between Hronia leda and Tieracolus auxo is somewhat excep- tional. The Hronia is cryptically coloured beneath; and the resemblance to Teracolus, which is strongest in the male, may perhaps be really due to affinity. 6. The Relation of the Phylogeny of the Parasite to that of the Host. By Launcetot Harrison, B.Sc. The proposition I advance is :—That in the case of total obligate parasites, closely related parasites will be found to occur upon phyletically connected hosts, without regard to other cecologic conditions. As the state of evolution of the parasite will be less advanced than that of the host, it follows as a corollary : That a study of such parasites may give valuable indications as to host phylogeny, (The following references may be consulted for more detailed statements :— (1) Kellogg, American Naturalist, xlvii., p. 129; (2) ibid., xlvili., p. 257; (3) S. J. Johnston, Rept. Aust. Assn., 1913; and (4) Rept. Brit. Assn., 1914; (5) Harrison, Aust. Zoologist, 1914, p. 7; and (6) Parasitology, vili., p. 88.) The evidence I shall bring to support the above statements is derived from a study of conditions in the Mallophaga. Kellogg (1) has made a similar state- ment based on a study of the same group. He has also (2) extended his studies to the Anoplura, and finds that his thesis holds for this order. A striking illus- tration is the occurrence upon man, upon species of the family Simiide, and of the genus Atedes alone among the Cebide, of the Anopluran genus Pediculus; while the closely related genus Pedicinus occurs upon the lower Quadrumana. Johnston (3) has compared the trematode fauna of the frogs of Europe, Asia, America, and Australia, and finds a common occurrence of species of Pneu- monaces in the lungs, Pleurogenes in the intestine, Diplodiscus in the rectum, and Gorgodera in the bladder. He finds flukes from Dasyurus and Ornithorhyn- chus intermediate between the Fascioline of higher mammals and the Psilosto- mine of the Sauropsida. He also finds (4) that species of Linstowia (Cestoda) and Harmostomum (Trematoda) from Australian marsupials have their nearest relatives among species of the same genera from American marsypials. The parasitic Platodes, though not total obligate parasites in the same sense as the Mallophaga, show the same relation to their hosts. I find that, in general, the Mallophaga parasitic on any avian order are recognisable at sight. In many cases, especially in certain genera, it is possible to state definitely that a parasite has come from a particular family of birds. Many species have a world-wide distribution, but always on closely related birds. Thus Philopterus lari occurs upon all gulls; Lipeurus anatis upon all ducks; L. columbe upon all pigeons; Colpocephalum flavescens upon all hawks. The genus Z'etrophthalmus has adopted a specialised habitat in the gular pouch of pelicans, and has its tracheal system specially modified in accordance with the changed conditions. Species of Z'etrophthalmus occur on all pelicans, in the same situation, and are all similarly modified. The only reasonable explanation is that the parasites have had common origin. Owing to equable conditions of nourishment and temperature, the Mallophaga have had no stimulus to evolve as rapidly as their hosts. This is abundantly proved by the fact that parasites from the various genera of a bird family are often hardly specifically distinct. The Philopterus of Cuculus canorus is with difficulty separable from those found upon the Australian genera Cacomantis and Chalcococcyz. , Bird phylogeny has always presented a difficult problem. The biological condition of the Mallophaga indicates that they can afford valuable evidence as TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 477 to bird relationships. I have already (6) brought forward strong circumstantial evidence to show that Apteryz is a Ralline bird, and not a Ratite. Consequently, apart from its academic interest, the hypothesis may have a practical application. 7. The Morphology of the Telencephalon of Spinax as a Type of Elasmo- branch Fore Brain. By J. Stuart Tuomson, M.S'c., Ph.D. The following gray masses or functional areas have been recognised in the fore brain of Spinax : (a) Area olfactoria medialis in the rostral wall and in the median part of the anterior portions of the lateral lobes; (b) Area olfactoria lateralis in the lateral part of the more anterior portions of the lateral lobes; (c) Hypostriatum (Catois) or Area superficialis basalis (Johnston) occupying the greater part of the length of the telencephalon in a latero-ventral and medio- ventral position; (d) Nucleus medialis septi continuous ventrally with the last area mentioned, and occupying a position internal to the downwardly directed spurs of the lateral ventricles; (ec) Primordiwm hippocampi on the dorsal sur- face; (/) precommissural or paraterminal body, a ventral extension of the Primordium hippocampi; (g) Primordium pallii somatici, a correlation area eccupying a lateral position in the walls of the prethalamus or telencephalon medium; (h) Nucleus preopticus, an area disposed round the preoptic recess. The following fibre-tracts have been located: (1) Tractus olfactorius later- alis and Tractus olfactorius medialis; (2) Tractus olfacto-corticalis lateralis rectus ; (3) Tractus olfacto-corticalis medio dorsalis ; (4) T'ractus olfacto-corticalis septi or Tractus cortico-medialis of Botazzi and Kappers; (5) 7'ractus olfacto- hypothalamicus; (6) Tractus pallii; (7) Tractus hippocampi; (8) Commissura pallii posterior; (9) a tract which may be the fornix of authors, but which does not agree in the distribution of the fibres; (10) 7’ractus teenie (Edinger) ; (11) Tractus thalamo-corticalis. The author has not obtained any satisfactory or conclusive evidence of the existence of a tract which might be correctly termed the corpus callosum. The paper was illustrated by fifty drawings showing the gray masses and fibre-tracts noted in the preceding paragraphs. 8. The Metamorphosis of Bilharzia, with Demonstralion of Specimens. By Lieut.-Colonel R. T. Lerper, R.A.M.C. 478 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: —Masor H. G. Lyons, D.Sc., F.R.S. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President’s Address was read in his absence, as follows :— The Importance of Geographical Research. Tus year, when the British Association is holding its meeting in times of the utmost gravity, the changed conditions which have been brought about by this War must occupy the attention of all the Sections to a greater or less extent, and our attention is being called to many fields in which our activities have been less marked or more restricted than they might have been, and where more serious study is to be desired. The same introspection may be usefully exercised in geography, for although that branch of knowledge has undoubtedly advanced in a remarkable degree during the last few decades, we have certainly allowed some parts of the subject to receive inadequate attention as compared with others, and the necessity for more serious study of many of its problems is abundantly evident. Nor is the present occasion ill adapted to such an examination of our posi- tion, for when the British Association last met in this city, now twenty-eight years ago, the President of this Section, General Sir Charles Warren, urged in his address the importance of a full recognition of geography in education on the grounds that a thorough knowledge of it is required in every branch of life, and is nowhere more important than in diplomacy, politics, and administration. Matters have certainly advanced greatly since that time, and a much fuller appreciation of geography now exists than that which formerly prevailed. At the time of the address to which I have referred the serious study of geography in this country was on the eve of important developments. The Council of the Royal Geographical Society had for some time been urging the importance of geography being studied at the Universities so that there should be an oppor- tunity for advanced students to qualify themselves as scientific geographers by study and original research in the subject. The time had arrived for this ideal to become an accomplished fact, and in the following year, 1888, a Reader in Geography was appointed at Oxford University, and a Lectureship in the same subject was established at Cambridge. Since then the advance has been steady and continuous not only in the increased attention given to the subject, but also in the way in which it is treated. The earlier bald and unattractive statistical presentation of the subject has now been almost everywhere replaced by a more intelligent treatment of it, in which the influences of the various environments upon the life which inhabits a region are appreciated, and the responses to such influences are followed up. Instruction in the subject is given by those who have seriously studied it, who realise its importance, and who are in a position to train up new scientific workers in the field of geography. Though much remains to be done there should be now a steady output of geographical investigators capable of providing an ever-increasing supply of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 479 carefully observed data, which they will have classified methodically and dis- cussed critically, in order that these may be utilised to form sound generalisa- tions as to their relationships and sequence in accordance with the method which is employed in all scientific work. In order that we may see what advance has been made in the scientific study of geography in this country during the last quarter of a century, we must turn to the results that have been attained by the activity of geographical investigators who have devoted themselves to the serious study of various phenomena, and the detailed investigation of particular regions. If we do so I think that we must admit that the number of original investigators in scientific geography who are extending its scope in this way is not so large as it might be, nor are we yet utilising sufficiently all the material which is avail- able to us. Anyone who will examine the geographical material which has been published in any period which he may select for review will find that purely descriptive treatment still far outweighs the analytical treatment which alone can lead to definite advances in scientific geography. If pleasing descriptions of this or that locality are sought for, they are for the most part to be found readily in the very large amount of such material that has been and is being published each year by residents, travellers, and explorers ; but if information is desired in the prosecution of a piece of geographical research, we are checked by the lack of precise details. Few of this class of descriptions are sufficiently definite to enable the necessary comparisons to be made between one locality and others which are similarly situated; thoroughly quantitative treatment is for the most part lacking, and while a pleasing picture is drawn which is probably true in character, it is usually inadequately furnished with those definite facts which the geographer requires. I propose, therefore, to examine a little more closely the question of geographical investigation and research in order to see where we stand and in what direction it behoves us to put forth our energies to the end that a branch of knowledge which is of such importance shall rest upon that basis of detailed study and investigation which alone can supply the starting-point for further advance. The intricate and complicated character of the subject, the extent of its purview, the numerous points at which it touches and imperceptibly passes into other well-defined branches of knowledge, render the study of geography very liable to degenerate into a purely descriptive treatment of the earth’s surface and all that is to be found thereon, rather than to follow the narrow path of scientific progress in which the careful collection of data furnishes the material for systematic discussion and study in order that trust- worthy generalisations may be reached. The opportunity to undertake long journeys through distant lands comes to few of us, but this is not the only direction in which research can be profitably undertaken, for there is no part of these islands where a geographer cannot find within his reach some geographical problem which is well worth working out, and which, if well and thoroughly done, will be a valuable contribution to his science. Even for such as cannot undertake such field work the library will provide a host of subjects which have not received nearly the amount of attention and of careful study that they deserve. The one thing essential is that the study should be as thorough as possible, so that all the contributory lines of evidence shall be brought together and compared, and so that the result may prove to be a real addition to geographical science on which other workers may in their turn build. For those who desire to undertake such investigations there is at any rate no lack of geographical material, for travellers, explorers, and others engaged in various occupations in every part of the world are continually recording their experiences and describing their surroundings in books and pamphlets: they recount their experiences to the Geographical Societies, who apparently have no difficulty in obtaining communications of wide interest for their meetings. Most portions of the British Empire as well as regions belonging to other nations are in these days more or less fully examined, surveyed, and investigated with a view to their development, and those who undertake such work have ample opportunities for the most part for preparing descriptions of the lands in which they have sojourned and with which they are well acquainted. But although the material is so ample the quality of it is not 480 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. generally such as makes it suitable for an adequate study of the phenomena or the region to which it relates. The ease with which a tract of country or a route can be described by the traveller, and the attractiveness of such a description of a little-known region, results in the provision of a vast quantity of geographical information, the greater part of which has probably been collected by those who have no adequate training in the subject. In such cases it is not uncommon for the writer to disclaim any geological or botanical knowledge, for instance, but the great majority of those to whom the oppor- tunity is given to travel and see new lands and peoples are fully convinced of their competence to describe accurately and sufficiently the geography of the regions which they traverse. But anyone who has had occasion to make use of such material in a serious investigation is only too well aware how little precise and definite information he will be able to extract from the greater part of this wealth of material, and in most cases this is due to the traveller’s lack of geographical knowledge. He probably does not know the phenomena which should be observed’in the type of region which he is traversing, nor can he read the geographical evidence which lies patent to a trained observer at every point of the journey; much, therefore, of what he records may be of interest, but probably lacks data which are essential to the geographer if he is to understand the geographical character of the region, and utilise it properly. Thus it happens that although the amount of geographical material which is being garnered may be large, the proportion of it which is available for use in a scientific investigation of an area is smaller than is probably realised by those who have not made the experiment. And yet it is only by this scientific investigation of selected localities or of a single phenomenon, and by working them out as thoroughly as possible, that any real advance in geographical science can be made. The accounts of such pieces of work will not appeal to those who desire picturesque descriptions of little-known lands, but they will be welcomed by geographers who can appreciate the value of such studies. There should now be an ever-increasing number of such geographers, trained to proceed in their investigations by the true scientific method, and there should be a very considerable amount of sound work in various branches of the subject which aims at thoroughly investigating some phenomenon, or group of pheno- mena, so as to present a grouping of data, carefully verified and critically discussed, in order to arrive at conclusions which may form a useful addition, however small, to the sum of our geographical knowledge. So far as I am able to judge, the output of serious work of this character is not nearly as large as it should be, and I would indicate some fields in which there is a lack of individual work of this character. Until more of it is undertaken we shall Jack in this country the material from which the founda- tions of scientific geography can be built up, and while our own islands and the various parts of the British Empire furnish unrivalled opportunities for such work, there are still far too many subjects where the most thorough investiga- tions have been made in other countries. Mathematical Geography presents a field for research which had compara- tively little attention paid to it in this country. In many respects this part of the subject is peculiarly suitable for such treatment, since it admits of the employment of precise methods to an extent which is not always practicable in cases where so many of the factors can only be approximately defined. The determination of positions on the earth’s surface is carried to great refinement in the national surveys of most civilised countries in order to furnish the necessary controls for the preparation of large-scale maps, but when we pass to the location of travellers’ routes, where considerable allowance has to be made for the conditions under which the observations have to be taken, we find that very inadequate attention is usually paid to the discussion of the results. Usually a mean value for each latitude, longitude or azimuth is obtained by the computer, and he remains satisfied with this, so that when the route of another traveller follows the same line or crosses it at one or more points, it is almost impossible for the cartographer to say which of the two determinations of any position is entitled to the greater confidence. In this class of work, whether the results are obtained from absolute observations at certain. points or from the direction of march, and the distance traversed, it is quite practicable to determine the range of uncertainty within which the a ij j PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. : 481 positions of different points are laid down, and it is eminently desirable that this should always be done in order that the adjustment of various routes which may intersect in partially-known regions may be adjusted in accordance with definite mathematical processes. Some important expeditions on which infinite labour and considerable sums have been expended have presented their results, in so far as they relate to the routes which have been followed and the position of points which have been determined, in such a way that it is impossible to say within what precision such positions have been determined, and con- sequently any combination of these results with those of later expeditions has to be carried out empirically, since adequate data are no longer available for the employment of better and more scientific methods. This crude and unsatisfactory way of treating observations, which in many cases have been obtained under conditions of the greatest difficulty and even hardship, is largely due to the lack of interest which geographers have shown in this part of their subject. Methods of observation and methods of com- putation are rarely discussed before any of our Geographical Societies or in any of our publications, and it is only by such discussions that the importance of properly working out the available material at a time when the observer can be consulted on points which are doubtful, or where further explanation is desirable, becomes generally appreciated. No set of physical or astronomical observations is ever discussed or even presented without the degree of precision or reliability being definitely stated ; yet in geography this sound rule is too often neglected. here are several regions where travellers’ routes intersect which should provide ample material for the careful reduction and adjustment of the results. I fear, however, that there would be great difficulty in obtaining the original observations which are indispensable in such an investigation, and in the interest of research it is highly desirable that the original documents of all work of importance should be preserved and the place where they may be consulted recorded in the published account. There is room in the geographical investigation of sea and land, even within the limits of the British Empire, for the employment of methods of observation and computation of the highest precision as well as of the simpler and more approximate kinds, but everyone who presents the results of his work should deem it his first duty to state explicitly the methods which he employed, and the accuracy to which he attained, in such a form that all who make use of them can judge for themselves of the degree of their reliability. In such work, while the instruments used are of great importance, too often the briefest description, such as ‘a 4-inch theodolite,’ is deemed sufficient. If the observer wishes his work to be treated seriously as a definite contribution to science we require to know more than this, and a clear account of the essentials of the instrument, a statement of its errors, and of the methods of observation adopted are the least that will suffice. The account of any expedi- tion should treat so fully of the instruments, observations, and computations utilised to determine the positions of places visited that anyone can re-examine the evidence and form his opinion on the value of the results obtained. A mere tabular statement of accepted values, which frequently is all that is provided, is of small value from a scientific point of view. Probably one reason for this state of things is that too little attention is being paid by geographers to their instruments. Theodolites, levels, compasses, clinometers, tacheometers, plane- tables, pantographs, co-ordinatographs, planimeters, and the many other instruments which are used by the surveyor, the cartographer, the computer, have in no case arrived at a final state of perfection, but it is seldom that we find a critical description of an instrument in our journals. Descriptions there are from time to time, but these are for the most part weak and insufficient. Not only is a technical description required, which treats fully of both tne optical and mechanical details, but we need an extended series of observations with the instrument which have been made under the ordinary con- ditions of practical work, and these must be mathematically analysed, and the degree of the reliability of the results clearly demonstrated. The description should be equally thorough and complete, including scale drawings showing the construction of the instrument as well as photographs of it. Nothing less than this is of any use to the scientific cartographer. 1915. Tt 482 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. While I am on the subject of instruments I would draw attention to the importance of the whole history of the development of surveying instruments. In the latter part of the eighteenth century Great Britain provided the best class of surveying instruments to all countries of Europe, at a time when high- class geodetic work was being commenced in several countries; and about this time von Reichenbach spent a part of his time in this country working in the workshops of Dollond and learning this particular class of work. Upon his return to Bavaria he set up at Munich that establishment which soon provided instruments of the highest class for many of the cadastral surveys which were being undertaken in Central Europe. At Munich there is now a fine typical collection of such instruments, but in this country the early advances of British instrument-makers of surveying instruments are far from being adequately represented in our National Museum in a manner commensurate with their importance. The keen and enlightened zeal of geographers who are interested in this branch of the subject would doubtless quickly bring to light much still remaining that is of great interest, but which is yet unrecognised, while a closer attention to instrumental equipment would lead to improvements and advances in the types that are now employed. There is no modern work in this country on the development of such instruments, and references to their history are conspicuously rare in our journals, so that there is here an oppor- tunity for those whose duties prevent them from undertaking travel or exploration of a more ambitious kind. In the same way, those whose oppor- tunities of field work are few can find a promising field of study in the early methods and practice of surveying which have been discussed by many authors from classical times onwards, and for which a considerable amount of material exists In Geodesy and Surveying of high precision there is ample scope for all who are attracted by the mathematical aspect of the subject; the critical dis- cussion of the instruments and methods employed and results obtained, both in this country and in other lands, provides opportunity for much work of real value, while its bearing upon geology, seismology, &c., has not yet been adequately treated here. The detailed history of this part of our subject is to be found in papers which have been published in the technical and scientific journals of other countries for the most part; here too little attention has been given to the subject, in spite of the large amount of geodetic work which has been executed in the British Empire, and which remains to be done in our Colonies and overseas Dominions, The final expression of the surveyor’s detailed measurements is found in the map, and the adequate representation of any land surface on a map-sheet is both a science and an art. Here we require additional work on all sides, for there is hardly any branch of geography which offers so remunerative a field for activity as cartography. We need the co-operation of trained geographers to study requirements, and to make acquaintance with the limits of technical methods of reproduction, so that they may be in a position to deal with many questions which arise in the preparation of a map regarding the most suitable mode of presentation of data, a matter which is purely geographical, but which at the present time is too often left to the skilled draughtsman. Neither the compilation nor the reduction of maps are merely mechanical processes. The first requires great skill and care as well as technical knowledge and a sound method of treatment if the various pieces of work which are brought together to make up the map of any considerable area are to be utilised according to their true worth. This demands a competent knowledge of the work which has been previously done on the region, a first-hand acquaintance with the data collected by the earlier workers, and the critical examination of them in order that due weight may be given to the better material in the final result. This is not a task to be handed over to the draughtsman, who will mechanically incorporate the material as though it were all of equal accuracy,-or will adjust discrepancies arbitrarily and not on any definite plan. Such preliminary pre- paration of cartographical material is a scientific operation which should be carried out by scientific methods and should be completed before the work reaches the draughtsman, who will then have but to introduce detail into a network of controls which has been prepared for him and of which the accuracy at all points has been definitely ascertained. Similarly in the second case the PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 483 elimination of detail which must of necessity be omitted is an operation needing the greatest skill, a full understanding of the material available, and an adequate appreciation of the result which is being aimed at, such as is only to be found in a competent geographer who has made himself intimately acquainted with all the material which is available and has his critical faculty fully developed. The use of maps has steadily increased of recent years, but we should look forward to an even more widely extended use of them in the future; and this will be greatly facilitated if there are geographers who have made themselves masters of the technique of map reproduction and, as scientific geographers, are prepared to select such data as are needed for any particular class of map on a well-considered method, and not by the haphazard procedure to which the want of a scientific study of cartographic methods must inevitably lead. The paucity of papers dealing with practical cartography and the compilation of maps is clear proof that this branch of the subject awaits far more serious attention than it now receives. All these problems are well within the reach of the geographer to whom the opportunity of travel in other regions does not come, and in them he will find ready to his hand a field of research which is well worth working and which will amply repay any labour that is spent upon it. The same precise methods of investigation which are employed in the discussion of observations should be applied to all cartographic material in order to ascertain the exact standard of its reliability, in which is included not only the correctness of distance and direction, but also the accuracy of the information which has been incorporated in it; and these may be brought to bear also on those early maps of which so many are preserved in our libraries in this country. In this field of study several investigators have already achieved results of great interest and value, but I think that they will be ready to admit that there is here a wide and profitable field of activity for many more workers who will study closely these early maps and, not being contented with verbal descriptions, will use quanti- tative methods wherever these are possible. In the study of map projections some activity has been visible in recent years, and we may hope that those who have worked in this branch of the subject will see that British Geography is provided with a comprehensive manual of this subject which will be worthy of the vast importance of carto- graphy to the Empire. The selection of suitable projections is receiving much more attention than was formerly accorded to it, but the number of communica- tions on this subject which reach geographical journals are few and far between. The subject is not one which can appeal strongly to the amateur geographer, but its importance renders it imperative that the scientific geographer who realises its intimate bearing upon all his work should so arrange that the matter does not fall into the background on this account. A closer relation and a more active co-operation between those who are pre- pared to work seriously at cartography and its various problems may reasonably be expected to raise the standard of that class of map which is used to illustrate books of travel, or works descriptive of a region. At the present time the inadequate character of many of the maps and plans which are reproduced in such publications shows clearly that the public demand for maps which have been compiled with a view to illustrating the volume in question is still very ineffective. The whole subject of cartography, with its component parts of map pro- jection, compilation, reproduction, cartometry and the history of its develop- ment, is so important, not only to the individual geographer but also to the advancement of scientific geography, that we should aim at fostering it and encouraging the study of it in every way, and it will be the zeal of a rather than the benevolent aid of institutions which will achieve this. __ But it may be suggested that the lack of activity in Mathematical Geography is due to the somewhat specialised nature of the subject, and to the fact that the number of those who have received an adequate mathematical training and are prepared to devote themselves to geography is few. When we turn to Physical Geography in its treatment of the land we do find a field which has been more actively worked, for this is just the one to which the traveller’s and 112 484 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, explorer’s observations should contribute most largely, and where therefore their material should be utilised with the best results. Even here there is room for much more work of the detailed and critical type, which is not merely general and descriptive, but starts from the careful collection of data, proceeds to the critical discussion of them, and continues by a comparison of the results with those obtained in similar observations in other regions. To take a single branch of Physical Geography, the study of Rivers, the amount of accurate material which has been adequately discussed is small. In our own country the rainfall of various river basins is well known through the efforts of a meteorological Association, but the proportion of it which is removed by evaporation, and of that which passes into the soil, has only been very partially studied. Passing to the run-off, which is more easy to determine satis- factorily, the carefully measured discharges of streams and rivers are not nearly so numerous as they should be if the hydrography of the rivers is to be adequately discussed; for although the more important rivers have been gauged by the authorities responsible for them in many cases, the results have usuaily been filed, and the information which has been published is usually a fina! value but without either the original data from which it has been deduced, or a full account given of the methods of measurement which have been employed. For the requirements of the authority concerned such a record is no doubt adequate, but the geographer requires the more detailed information if he is to co-ordinate satisfactorily the volume discharged with local rainfall, with changes in the rates of erosion or deposition, and the many other phenomena which make up the life-history of a river. Here too it is usually only the main stream which has been investigated; the tributaries still await a similar and even fuller study. A valuable contribution to work of this kind exists in the hydrographical study of the Medway and of the Exe which has been under- taken by a Committee of the Royal Geographical Society during recent years, and this may serve as a guide to other workers; but, however welcome such a piece of work may be, I should much prefer to see the hydrography of a tribu- tary of a river system worked out by a geographer as a piece of individual work, just as the geology or the botany or the zoology of a single restricted area is investigated by those whose interests are centred in these subjects. In the same way we still know too little of the amounts of the dissolved and suspended matter which is carried down by our streams at various seasons of the year and in the different parts of their course. This class of investigation does not need very elaborate equipment, and may provide the opportunity for much useful study, which may be extended as information is increasingly acquired. In this way when numerous individual workers have studied the conditions prevailing in their own areas, and traced them through their seasonal and yearly variations, we shall possess a mass of valuable data with which we may undertake a revision of the results which have been arrived at in past years by various workers from such data as were then at their disposal. In this one branch of the subject there is ample scope for workers of all interests in the measurement of discharges, in the determination of level, and of the movement of flood waves, in determining the amount of matter transported both in suspension and in solution, in tracing out the changes of the river channel, in following out the variation of the water-table which feeds the stream, in ascertaining the loss of water by seepage in various parts of its course, and generally in studying the hundred other phenomena which are well worth investigating, and which give ample scope for workers of all kinds and of all opportunities. There is work not only in the field, but also in the laboratory and in the library which needs doing, for the full account of even a single stream can only be prepared when data of all classes have been collected and discussed. On the Scottish lakes much valuable scientific work has been done, and also on some of the English lakes, so that excellent examples of how such work should be done are available as a guide to anyone who will devote his spare time for a year or two in making a thorough acquaintance with the charac- teristics and phenomena of any Jake to which he has access. Coast-lines provide another class of geographical contro] which repays detailed study, and presents numberless opportunities for systematic investiga- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 485 tion and material for many profitable studies in geography. ‘The shores of these islands include almost every variety of type, and furnish exceptional opportunities for research of a profitable character, especially as lying on the border-line between the domain of the oceanographer on the one hand and the physiographer on the other. The precise methods of representation which are possible on the land have to give way to a more generalised treatment over the sea, and the shore line is liable to be handed over to the latter sphere, so that there is much interesting and useful work open to anyone who will make an accurate and detailed study of a selected piece of coast-line, co-ordinating it with the phenomena of the land and sea respectively. The teaching of Professor Davis in pressing for the employment of systematic methods in describing the landscapes with which the geographer has to deal has brought about a more rational treatment, in which due recognition is given to the structure of the area, and the processes which have moulded it, so that land forms are now for the most part described more or less adequately in terms which are familiar to all geographers and which convey definite associated ideas, in the light of which the particular description is adequately appreciated. It has been urged by some that such technical terms are unnecessary and serve to render the writings in which they occur intelligible only to the few; that anyone should be able to express his meaning in words and sentences which will convey his meaning to all. There is no great difficulty in doing this, but in such descriptions to convey all that a technically-worded account can give to those who understand its terms would be long and involved on account of the numerous related facts which would be included, It is consequently essential in all accurate work that certain terms should have very definite and restricted meanings, and such technical terms, when suitably chosen, are not only con- venient in that they avoid circumlocution, but when used in the accepted sense at once suggest to the mind a whole series of related and dependent conditions which are always associated with it. The compilation of a glossary of geographical terms has been in progress in this country for many years without having reached finality, and much of the difficulty which has been experienced is doubtless due to the fact that so many words have not been consistently used with a well-defined meaning. Such looseness of expression is more liable to occur in the case of foreign words which have been imported in the first case by writers who are not scientifically trained, and therefore do not use them in connection with a specified set of conditions. This, however, is unimportant if only scientific geographers, when they accept a term as a desirable addition to the geographical vocabulary, will associate it definitely with such conditions and use it consistently in that connection. As an instance I may quote the word ‘‘ sadd,’’ which etymologically means to block, or stop. This term was naturally and reasonably used to indicate masses of uprooted marsh vegetation which had been carried along by the current and, if checked at a sharp bend or a narrow point of the stream, blocked the channel. So long as it is used in this restricted sense it is a useful term to describe a henomenon which occurs under certain definite conditions and which leads to equally well-defined geographical results. This use of it is associated with a meandering river channel in an alluvial flood plain, where shallow lagoons occur, in which such marsh vegetation grows luxuriantly; when this vegetation is uprooted by storms and carried by the rising water into the main stream it provides the drift material which makes up the block or ‘ sadd.’ But this term has been extended immoderately to mean the region in which these physical conditions occur, or the type of vegetation which grows under these conditions, and even the type of country where such conditions prevail. One writer has even used the word in describing fossil vegetation of a character such as is associated with marsh lands. ‘The crystallisation of such geographical terms into true technical terms is an important step in the furtherance of scientific geography, but it must be done by the geographers themselves, and no means of doing this is more fruitful than the work of original research and investigation in definite areas or on specific problems. It would take too long to discuss each branch of physical geography and indicate the opportunities for individual effort, but what has been said of one 486 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. may be said of all the others. Not only in all parts of the Empire but in these islands also there is ample opportunity for the detailed geographical study of single localities or individual phenomena, just as much as in geology, in botany, or in zoology; and it is these separate pieces of work which, when thoroughly carried out and critically discussed, provide the material on which wider generalisations or larger investigations can be based. Herein lies, therefore, the importance of the prosecution of them by as many workers as possible, and the value of communicating the results to others for criticism and for comparison with the results which they have obtained ; for such work, if it cannot be made accessible to other workers in the same and related fields, loses a large proportion of its value. If we now consider some of the problems of human geography we shall find the need for such systematic study to be even greater; for the variable factors involved are more numerous than in physical geography, and many of them are difficult to reduce to precise statement; the quantitative study of the subject is therefore much more difficult than the qualitative or descriptive, so that the latter is too frequently adopted to the exclusion of the former, The remedy lies, I believe, in individual research into special cases and special areas where the factors involved are not too numerous, where some of them at least can be defined with some accuracy, and where, consequently, deductions can be drawn with some precision and with an accuracy which gives grounds for confidence in the result. The settlements of man, his occupations, his movements in their geographical relations are manifested everywhere, and subjects of study are to be found without difficulty, but their investigation must be based on actual observation, and on data which have been carefully collected and critically examined, so that the subject may be treated as completely as possible, and in such a way that the evidence is laid before the reader in order that he may form his own conclusions. It is probable that some of the lack of precision which is to be found in this part of the subject is to be attributed to the want of precision in its termino- logy. For many things in human geography good technical terms are required, but these must be selected by those who have studied the type or phenomenon concerned and have a clear idea of the particular conditions which they desire to associate with the term; this is not the work of a Committee of Selection, but must grow out of the needs of the individual workers. There is, it must be admitted, no small difficulty in using the same precise- ness of method in this portion of the subject as is readily attainable in mathematical geography, and is usually practicable in physiography ; but at any rate it is undesirable to indicate any condition as the controlling one until all other possible influences have been carefully examined and have been shown to have less weight than that one which has been selected. Whether the investigation deals with the settlements of man or his move- ments and means of communication it is important that in the first instance problems of a manageable size should be undertaken and thoroughly treated, leaving larger areas and wider generalisations until a sufficient stock of thoroughly reliable material which is in the form in which it can properly he used for wider aims is available. The relation of geographical conditions to smal] settlements can be satis- factorily worked out if sufficient trouble is taken and all possible sources of information, both of present date and of periods which have passed away, are utilised. Such studies are of a real value and pave the way to more elaborate studies, but we need more serious study of these simpler cases both to set our facts in order and to provide a methodical classification of the conditions which prevail in this part of the subject. Out of such studies there will grow such a series of terms with well-defined associations as will give a real precision to the subject which it seems at the present time to lack. The same benefit is to be anticipated from detailed work in relation to man’s communications and the interchange of commodities in all their varied relations. Generalised and descriptive accounts are readily to be found, and these are for the most part supported by tables of statistics, all of which have their value and present truths of great importance in geography, but the spirit of active research which aims at clearing up thoroughly a small portion of the wide field > PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 487 of geographical activities has unequalled opportunities in the somewhat shadowy relations between the phenomena which we meet in this part of the subject, for focussing the facts better, and obtaining a more exact view of the questions involved. Where the geography of States (political geography) is concerned the same need for original investigation as a basis for generalisations may be seen. At the present time there is much said about the various boundaries of States, and in general terms the advantages and disadvantages of different boundaries under varied conditions can be stated with fair approximation to accuracy. But I do not know of many detailed examinations of these boundaries or portions of them where full information of all the factors involved can be found set out in an orderly and authoritative manner, thus forming a sure foundation for the generalised description and providing the means of verifying its correctness or revising if where necessary. Perhaps there is really more scientific research in geography being under- taken by individuals than I have given credit for, but certainly in geographical periodicals, and in the bibliographies which are published annually, the amount shown is not large; neither is the number of authors as large as might be expected from the importance and interest of the subject and from the activity of those centres where geography is seriously taught. There seems to be no reason why individual research on true scientific lines should not be as active in geography as it is in geology, botany, zoology, or any other branch of know- ledge ; and, just as in these, the real advance in the subject is dependent on such investigations rather than on travels and explorations in little-known lands, unless these too are carried out scientifically and by thoroughly trained observers who know the problems which there await solution, and can read the evidence which lies before them on their route, If research in these directions is being actively prosecuted, but the appear- ance of its results is delayed, let us seek out the retarding causes if there be any, and increase any facilities that may be desirable to assist individual efforts. Short technical papers of a thoroughly scientific character, such as are the outcome of serious individual research, are, of course, not suitable for those meetings of Geographical Societies where the majority of the Fellows present are not scientific geographers, but should be presented to small meetings of other workers in the same or allied fields, where they can be completely criticised. The reading, discussion, and the publication of papers of this class are for geography a great desideratum, for it is in them and by them that all real advance in the subject is made, rather than by tales of travel, however interest- ing, if these are not the work of one trained in the subject, having a knowledge of what he should observe, and of what his predecessors have done in the same field. The regional aspect of geography in the hands of its best exponents has given to young geographers a wide and comprehensive outlook on the inter- action of the various geographical factors in a region, the responses between the earth’s surface and the life upon it, and the control that one factor may exercise upon another. In this form the fascination of geographical study is apparent to everyone, but I sometimes wonder whether the exposition of such a regional study by one who is thoroughly master of the component factors, having a first-hand knowledge of all the material involved, and knowing exactly the reliability of each portion, impresses sufficiently upon the student the necessity of personal research into the details of some problem or phenomenon in such a Way as to gain a real working acquaintance with them; or does it on the other hand tend to encourage generalisations based on descriptive accounts which have not been verified, and where coincidences and similarities may be accepted without further inquiry as evidence of a causal connection which may not really exist? T imagine that the student may be attracted by the apparent simplicity of a masterly account of the geographical controls and responses involved, and may fail to realise that geographical descriptions, even though technically phrased, are not the equivalent of original quantitative investigation, either for his own education or as a contribution to the subject. For these reasons I believe that Societies can do far more good in the pro- motion of geography as a science by assisting competent investigators, by the loan of books and instruments, and by giving facilities for the discussion 488 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1 and publication of technical papers, than by undertaking the investigation of problems themselves. : Among the earlier Presidential Addresses of this Section some have laid stress on the importance of the recognition by the State of geography in educa- tion; others have represented the great part which the Geographical Societies have played in supporting and advancing the subject; others again have urged the fuller recognition of geography by Educational Institutions. I would on this occasion attach especial importance to the prosecution of serious research by individuals in any branch of the subject that is accessible to them, to the dis- cussion of the results of such work by others of like interests, and to the pub- lication of such studies as having a real value in promoting the advancement of scientific geography. Before the President’s Address the following Papers were read :— 1. The Map on the Scale of 1:1,000,000. By A. R. Hiyxs, F.R.S. 2. The Representation of the Distribution of the Population on Maps. By B. C. Wattis. The purpose of this short paper is to introduce different methods of repre- senting upon maps facts concerning population, and to elicit opinions and criticisms upon these methods in order to arrive at some conclusions which may be useful in connection with the million map. It has been suggested that the million map might be used to show (i) the density of the population’ and (ii) the distribution proportionally of the various peoples of Europe. For the purpose of illustration the Hungarian portion of the Buda-Pest sheet of the million map has been chosen as it probably presents the greatest difficulties in this connection. The facts which are demonstrated are based upon the Hungarian Census for 1910 and upon three administrative divisions of the country: (a) the counties, (6) towns with an organised council, and (c) municipal towns. These legal divisions are not to be depended upon in connection with the population as is shown upon the maps, Maps A and B show density of population. Maps C and D show the distribution of the peoples. Map A indicates density of population by the usual methods. Map B is due to a suggestion from Mr. A. R, Hinks; the principles of con- tour lines are applied to population. It is imagined that in each administrative area the population is evenly distributed and that the density value when located at the centre of the division can be treated in the same fashion as a spot height in contouring. The net result is that the gradation of density is suggested in a continuous fashion and that abrupt changes and sharp angles in the boundary lines tend to disappear. It is desired that an opinion be expressed upon the relative merits of Map B compared with Map A. Map C takes each nationality and shows its distribution as a percentage of the total population by the method of Map B. It is not easy to show more than three nationalities in any area, and this map does noi indicate the presence of small minorities. Map D shows the complete facts numerically and is less pictorial though more detailed than Map C. It is desired that an opinion be expressed : firstly, upon Map C in comparison with the usual maps of this type; and, secondly, upon Map D in comparison with Map C, A ————————— TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 489 After the President’s Address (see p. 478) the following Papers were read :— 3. Geographical Considerations arising out of the Visit to Australia in 1914: a Comparison of Vegetation Maps. By O. J. R. Howarrtu, M.A. We have accustomed ourselves to think of the continent of Australia in terms of maps on very small scales. The use of such maps is justified, in part, by the fact that, speaking broadly, Australia is a continent singularly simple in outline and form. But the employment of small scales makes it the more important, on the one hand, that precision, where precision is possible, should be adhered to, and, on the other hand, that where precise data do not exist, precision should not be assumed. Three maps are shown: on all of them the same colouring is used to show different types of natural vegetation, yet the appearance of each differs widely from the others. The maps, chosen practically at hazard, are labelled A, B, and C, and are enlarged from small maps to be found respectively in a standard authoritative work on plant geography, a well-known school-book, and a well- known atlas. In copying the representations of the various types of vegetation were standardised. Some of the main differences between the maps are here summarised : (1) Monsoon Forest of the North.—Map A shows a continuous belt of it east- ward from York Sound; B a continuous belt only east of the Victoria River; C shows the northern forest in isolated patches. A shows Cape York peninsula as wholly forested, B nearly so, C along the east coast only. (2) Forests of the Eastern and South-Hastern Highlands.—A and B show a forest belt right along the eastern seaward slope; C interrupts this belt in the vicinity of Townsville (Queensland), bringing the grassland of the interior down to the coast. In New South Wales A gives the temperate forest and woodland an extreme width of 200 miles; C gives it fully 400; B gives an intermediate width. A, distinguishing ‘parklands, woods, and meadows’ from ‘ forest,’ allows the State of Victoria no true forest area large enough to be shown. B divides the south-eastern forest climatically (summer and winter rain forests) approximately along the political frontier between New South Wales and Victoria; C shows a division west of Melbourne—this distinction, however, is made merely between ‘ broad-leaved forest’ and ‘ evergreen trees.’ B shows the scrub area, interrupting the forest in the lee of the Flinders Range (Victoria, South Australia), which A and C ignore. A remarkable divergence of opinion is seen respecting the forested area in the south-west of Western Australia. Opinions may naturally vary as to what exactly constitutes forest, woodland, parkland, steppe, grassland, scrub or semi-desert, and desert. But, as regards grassland, C allows a much smaller total area in Australia than A or B. B recognises a strip of steppe bordering the Australian Bight, which A and C ignore, though it is insisted upon in various official and other publications, especially in connection with the trans-continental railway now building. B and C distinguish desert from semi-desert or scrub, but their distinctions are at variance, C showing a rather elaborate outline of the true desert areas, which would suggest that complete data existed for laying them down. A (perhaps wisely from the general educational standpoint) applies the term ‘desert’ more widely, to cover all these conditions. It is in the north of Western Australia that the three maps are perhaps most completely at variance. Making every allowance for divergence of opinion as to the connotation of terms and for erratic draughtsmanship, it would seem that the vegetation divisions of Australia have been allowed to get rather out of hand. Probably the same is true of vegetation maps of this sort, and of other distribution maps, for other parts of the world. Though the present may not be the time to under- take such work, it is suggested that the scrutiny and criticism of existing material (whether original maps or verbal description) for the compilation of certain classes of distribution maps might be entrusted to a small committee 490 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. of workers who would take up each his own topographical division after agree- ment on a general plan. Work might well begin upon data for vegetation maps (which ought to be of substantial value not only in the botanical but also in the economic geographical connection), and upon Australia. 4. The Relations of the Central Lakes of Westralia. By Professor J. W. Grecory, I’.R.S. The dry lake basins of Western Australia have been represented as hollows due to deflation by wind, to corrosion by ice, or to the action of a former sea. The author has described them as basins left by the dismemberment of a Miocene river system, and in 1914 published a sketch-map illustrating the course of the rivers so far as could be inferred from the levels then avail- able. The issue of the southern sheet of a valuable ‘Contour Map of Western Australia’ by the Lands Department of that State throws much further light on the relief of the central plateau. According to that map the basins of the group of lakes, including Lakes Raeside, Ballard, Barlee, and Giles, are connected by land below the level of 1,250 feet, and the only outlet from that many-branched depression was south-west through Lake Deborah to the Swan River. According to the author’s sketch-map the drainage from Lakes Giles, Barlee, and Ballard passed through Lake Raeside south-eastward to the sea, which once, probably in the Miocene Period, extended from the Great Australian Bight northward over the Nullabor Plains. The accurately determined railway levels from Kalgoorlie to Laverton indicate that the drainage from the Lake Ballard and Lake Raeside group was originally to the south-east. If the existence of the outlet from Lake Ballard through Lake Deborah be confirmed, this channel was probably of later date, and formed owing to the blockage of the south-eastern outlet through wind-borne drifts. The Lands Department Contour Map indicates that the drainage from the country around Lake Way and Lake Wells, instead of passing south-eastward to the Nullabor Plains, flowed by a very circuitous route to the north and east of the Mount Margaret Goldfield instead of by the shorter route through the numerous lake basins between Lake Way and the former south-eastern sea. The new ‘ Contour Map’ and contributions to the physiography of Westralia by Messrs. Gibson and Jutson are in favour of the origin of these dry lakes as remnants of an extinct river system. 5. The Burringuck Dam and the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. By J. McFaruane.! 6. The Discovery of Australia. By H. Yunus Oupuam. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Papers were read :— 1. Joint Discussion with Section C on the Classification of Land Forms. Opened by J. D. FaucoNrr. _ The investigation of processes is the common ground of Geology and Geography. The geographical processes, however, are less numerous than the geological, and are studied by geologists and geographers with a different purpose. The geologist studies these processes in order to elucidate the past history of the earth, the geographer in order to systematise the present topo- graphical features of the surface. Geological interest in the geographical " To be published in Scott, Geog. Mag. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 491 processes thus ceases as soon as the so-called land forms have been referred to their respective processes or combinations of processes. Since most text-books of physical geography have been written from the geological point of view, it follows naturally that the treatment of land forms in these text-books is entirely subsidiary to the discussion of processes and offers no clue to the scientific definition and classification of individual forms. It is believed, however, that these submit themselves to systematic classification with almost as much ease as the subject-matter of other natural sciences, and that it falls clearly within the scope of geography as the science of the earth’s surface to establish such a classification. The first attempt in this direction was made by Professor Passarge, of Hamburg, in 1912." The classification outlined below is based upon similar principles and has already appeared in the Scottish Geographical Magazine. * It is proposed to set up two classes of land forms, each containing two orders : Class A. Endogenetic Forms. Order I. Negative Forms. Order II. Positive Forms. Class B. Exogenetic Forms. Order I. Degradation Forms. Order II. Aggradation Forms. The two orders of endogenetic forms are then subdivided into four families : Family 1. Forms due to superficial volcanic activity. 2. Forms due to sub-crustal volcanic activity. 3. Forms due to radial movements. 4. Forms due to tangential movements. Similarly the two orders of exogenetic forms are each subdivided into nine families : Family 1. Forms due to the action of the run-off. . Forms due to the action of percolating water. . Forms due to the action of streams and rivers. . Forms due to the action of life. . Forms due to the action of lightning. . Forms due to the action of sun-heat. . Forms due to the action of the atmosphere. . Forms due to the action of frozen water. . Forms due to the action of the sea. Each family is then subdivided into genera and species or specific forms. It is suggested that a land form be defined as any surface or slope which may be referred in origin to the operation of a single process or force. Monodynamic surfaces of this kind being rare, however, the commoner polydynamic surfaces may be classified according to the predominant force amongst those responsible for the production of the surface. This definition may be extended to include such surface features as cones or domes enclosed by one continuous surface, or such features as ridges or mounts enclosed by surfaces meeting in edges, provided that all these surfaces may be classified as examples of the same specific form. OMIM aL wh 2. Joint Discussion with Section H on Racial Distribution in the Balkans.—See p. 672. 3. North China and Korea. By P. M. Roxy, M.A. This paper consisted of— (1) A description of various aspects of Chinese and Korean life, illustrated by lantern slides. * Mitt. der Geog. Gesell. in Hamburg, xxvi., 1912, p. 133. * §8.G.M., xxxi., 1915, p. 57. 492 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. al (2) A discussion of geographical factors affecting the economic and politica] development of North China, Manchuria, and Korea, with special reference to : (a) The railway situation, (b) The relations of China to Russia and Japan. (c) China’s interest in the European war. (d) The work of the Japanese in Korea. 4. Spitsbergen before the War. By R. N. Rupmose Brown, D.Sc. Last summer Dr. W. S. Bruce led an expedition to Spitsbergen which was supported by a grant from the British Association. Owing to abnormal ice conditions the projected work on the east—in Wybe Jansz Water—could not be carried out, while difficulties arising out of the war curtailed the work on the west. Dr. Bruce’s absence in the Seychelles has prevented his presence at this meeting to give an account of his voyage, but the present paper embodies some of his work. Spitsbergen remains a No Man’s Land despite the many acquisi- tions of land by subjects of more than one nation. Insecurity of tenure and considerable lawlessness are the result of this lack of control, and the economic development of the country is hindered. Among the minerals which occur in Spitsbergen are large quantities of coal, magnetite, and gypsum. Valuable marble is also found. Almost all the mineral-bearing territories on the west’ have been claimed by different companies, chiefly British; the east is less accessible, but several British claims occur there also. Altogether British sub- jects claim about 7,000 square miles of territory, on which several mines and quarries have been opened. Americans have the most valuable coal-mines, exporting annually large quantities to the north of Norway. It is tertiary coal, but of excellent steam quality. Russian enterprise in Spitsbergen ceased over fifty years ago when Russian trappers stopped frequenting the land. Lately there have been some small attempts on the part of Russians to acquire mining claims. Swedish activity has always been chiefly centred in exploration, particularly of a geological nature. Norway has a few unimportant mining claims, and a few years ago erected a powerful wireless installation. German claims were never of importance. Hunting fur-bearing animals is a dying activity, due to the approaching ex- termination of the game by ruthless hunters. On the west game is now very scarce, The proximity of Spitsbergen to the British Isles and the mainland of Europe is generally overlooked owing to the use of Mercator maps. From Norway it is only 400 miles, and it is within fifty hours’ steaming by a fast cruiser from our shores. The west coast is remarkably free from ice, even in midwinter, and the winter climate does not preclude the continuance of mining throughout the year. In winter a number of miners are at work on British and American mines. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Report and Papers were read :— 1. Report on Atlas, Textual and Wall Maps for School and University Use.—See Reports, p. 150. 2. The Distribution of Population in the District around Leek. By Raymonp CurTIs. Leek is situated at the southern extremity of the Pennine uplands in an agri- cultural region with some industrial development. E The type of agriculture (depending upon the relief and soil) and the indus- trial development, past and present, largely explain the relative density of population in different parts of the area. m. In the agricultural development of the district it is possible to distinguish TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 493 various stages in the evolution of a market town. A village nucleus of farm- houses arose at various places throughout the area wherever considerations of defence, ease of communications, water-supply, &c., led to a grouping together of habitations. The subsequent growth and development of this village nucleus depended mainly upon two factors—the area and the productivity of the region of which it was the focus. The stages of growth may be conveniently classified as the ‘inn-village’ (e.g., Gradbach, Heaton, Bottomhouse ), the ‘ shop-village ’ (e.g., Meerbrook, Horton, Grindon), the ‘ fair-village’ (e.g., Hartington, Flash), and last, the market-town (e.g., Leek, Cheadle, Longnor). For various reasons, but mainly through the development of communications, Leek now dominates the whole area. - The main industries of the region which have affected the density of popula- tion are coal-mining, cotton, silk, and copper manufactures, and silk-dyeing. 3. The Middle Tees and its Tributaries: A Study in River Development. By C. B. Fawcett, B.Litt. The streams here considered are the middle portion of the Tees and its tributaries from Stainmore to the eastern edge of the Carboniferous rocks of the Pennines. The district which they drain is characterised by the presence of three distinct types of topography, viz. : (1) A wide and comparatively smooth upland surface, sloping gently eastward, but cut off abruptly to the west by the Pennine Scar, with a few hills rising above it. (2) A series of wide, shallow, mature valleys. (3) A series of narrow and youthful valleys, which are for the most part sunk below the floors of the mature valleys. The rocks of the district are almost entirely of Carboniferous age, mainly Lower Carboniferous limestones and shales in the southern half and Upper Carbo- niferous sandstones and shales in the northern. The complex topography is not primarily due to the rock structure, which is quite simple; but must be ascribed mainly to the work of the streams, influenced in some cases by lines of faulting. Of these streams the middle part of the Tees is the longest and much the largest. It enters Middle Teesdale from the Upper Dale by the Eggleston Gap, with a sharp change in its general direction on doing so. It then flows for about six miles in an almost straight trench at the foot of the fault-line scarp of Marwood Scar, receiving several tributaries from the west and none from the east. At Barnard Castle the Tees bends eastward, and thence flows, along an arc convex to the south, to its junction with the Langley Beck through a series of alternating gorges and wider terraced valleys. On joining the Langley Beck the river resumes its E.S.E. direction, and two or three miles lower it leaves the Carboniferous rocks. The largest of the tributary streams is the Greta. This rises in Stainmore Pass and flows eastward in a well-marked trough valley, in which part of its course is underground. East of Bowes it also flows in an arc convex to the south, but the general direction of its upper course is continued by a small stream, the Tutta Beck, which it intercepts near Greta Bridge. The Greta finally joins the Tees through a very narrow and steep gorge. About its lower course ab least three changes in the drainage lines are traceable. The original consequent valley was continued directly eastward to the lowland; it is now occupied by three distinct streams, the R. Greta and the Tutta and Clow Becks. First the Greta was captured by a tributary of the Swale and diverted 8.K. to that river. In its later diversion to an arc south of the direct valley line the Greta resembles several other streams in the neighbourhood. Lastly, at a very recent period it was captured by a small tributary of the Tees. The second of these streams is the Balder, parallel to the upper Greta. This has lost its headwaters to the Eden system at a fairly recent period, and the capture has left at Balderhead a low pass through the Pennine crest. Its tributaries show clear examples of the development of a complex river system by successive captures of originally distinct and parallel consequent streams. Of the lowland streams the chief is the Langley Beck. This flows in a wide 494 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. dale which continues the general direction of the Upper Tees and is approxi- mately the chord of the great southward bend of the middle Tees. In the Staindrop Plains, an area of marsh finally reclaimed only a century ago, the beck is diverted southward to the Tees through a valley which is much narrower and younger than Langleydale. The main valley is continued eastward and occupied in turn by the Langton and Cocker Becks before it is merged in the lowland. This northern west-to-east valley is very similar to the one south of the Tees which is occupied by the River Greta and the Tutta and Clow Becks. These valleys contain many examples of the early effects of human interference with stream development. There are thus in Middle Teesdale two principal west-to-east valley lines. The development of these valleys, the subsequent union of their waters in the Tees, which flows between them in a much younger valley, and the absorption of the smaller streams into this river system explain the great width of Tees- dale in comparison with the neighbouring dales and the chief peculiarities of its streams. The direction of the consequent streams is a few degrees north of east, with a tendency to convergence from north and south due to the greater elevation of the Cross Fell and Ingleborough domes. The Tees crosses the con- sequent valleys, along a line determined mainly by fault-lines in the strata, and has thus become the master stream. Except for the parts of streams in fault-line valleys and in subsequent reaches due to stream capture, there are few subsequent, and still fewer obse- quent, streams; hence the river system as a whole is in a comparatively early stage of development. It is, however, the product of at least three distinct cycles of erosion : 1st. The comparatively smooth surface of the upland is part of a peneplain. Tf its valleys were filled up it would be a plain sloping geutly eastward, with its surface cutting across the rock strata at a small angle. The formation of this peneplain probably occurred during the Tertiary era. 2nd. The wide shallow mature valleys mark the second cycle. Their shallow- ness indicates that the change of base level which caused their formation was small; and their relation to the glacial drift and the route of the ice indicates that they had reached their full development before the Ice Age. The elevation which led to their formation probably occurred in the latter part of Tertiary time. The main consequent valleys are all of this type; and the more important of the subsequent valleys are also pre-glacial, though somewhat younger. The Ice Age does not seem to have caused any serious changes in the stream lines of Teesdale; but the extensive river terraces of many of the valleys probably date from the period following the melting of the ice. 3rd. The deep and narrow gorges in which many of the streams flow are the product of the last cycle of development, which is still in a very youth- ful stage. Its initiation was due to a post-glacial uplift of the region. The change from the second to the third cycle is readily seen in the longi- tudinal sections of the streams, most of which show very marked changes of slope. The fall is usually much greater in the lower course than in the middle. A typical tributary valley consists of three clearly marked sections. First, the upper course on the upland with a very slight valley. Second, a broad and shallow valley on the floor of which the stream meanders. Third, a gorge in the bottom of this wide valley in which the stream rushes along over a series of rapids. These three sections of the valley repeat the three types of topo- graphy which characterise the district as a whole, and are the results of the three cycles of erosion to which its present form is due. 4. Some Considerations on Former Movements and Distribution of Population in South Britain, and its Influences. By Professor H. J. Furvre. 5. The Study of Cities. By Professor Parrick GrpprEs and Miss M. Barker. ae TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 495 Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.* PRESIDENT OF THE SecTION :—Professor W. R. Scorr, M.A., D.Puntn.., Lirt.D., F.B.A. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— Economics of Peace in Time of War. Tue economists of great distinction who have presided over this Section of the Association in past years have usually addressed themselves to the discussion of the progress of Economic Science in relation to some problem which had become striking or significant at the time when each meeting was held. It has fallen to my lot to prepare an address at a period when the Empire is involved in a war of tremendous moment both to our country and to the world. Not the least dominant phase of this epoch-making struggle is the economic one; and it is inevitable that, on this occasion, consideration should be given to some of the reactions of this great war upon industry, credit, and finance. It is both remarkable and significant how silent British economic theory has been upon what may be described as ‘the economics of war.’ No doubt there are volumes, treatises, and isolated passages which record the effect of some specific war upon prices, or upon credit, or upon the national finances. Or, again, other works may deal with some practical inconvenience which the writer experienced; but, when the total result is estimated, it will be found that by far the larger part of the scanty discussions of this subject are either purely historical or else purely practical. In the vast majority of cases our writers have confined themselves to an analysis of the effects of some specific war on finance and commerce with a view to suggesting measures towards counteracting the inevitable losses, instead of studying the principles of war in general with a view to strengthening the national resources in preparation for future hostilities. Thus, while British economists have said something about former wars, they are almost wholly silent concerning wars to come. This is a fact of immense significance. It demonstrates beyond the possibility of doubt or cavil that in this country there has been no such thing as a mobilisa- tion of economic opinion. On the contrary, our economists can claim with justice that they have been ever on the side of the world’s peacemakers, not with false lip-service but through serious and sustained reasoning. Once Mercantilism began to decline, it is astonishing how little one finds in British economic literature relating to causal relations between war and industry. What there is usually appears as a side issue in some other investi- gation. For instance, at the end of the seventeenth century, during the eighteenth century, and in the early years of the nineteenth, there was a long controversy over the nature of credit, with frequent digressions upon the character of public debts, which was in effect the consideration of the financing of past wars. In its extremest form one theory represented public borrowings as ‘a mine of gold’—a statement which influenced both theory and practice during the eighteenth century. The exaggeration of ‘the fund of credit’ no doubt seems strange and almost laughable to us now, but it does not differ greatly in principle from the vague popular opinion that a nation can become * The greater part of the Transactions of this Section were published in book form, by authority of the Council, under the title Credit, Industry, and the War, edited by Professor A. W. Kirkaldy. (London: Pitman, 1915.) 496 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. richer by increasing its taxes. A public debt as the Midas of the eighteenth century is as much a fairy tale as the modern conception of taxation as a species of ‘manna falling on the country in a fertilising shower.’ Naturally there was a reaction from the magic claimed for a state debt, and the opposed type of thought urged that supplies, even for war, should be raised during the period in which the expense is incurred. The citation by John Stuart Mill of a passage from Chalmers, in which the latter view is expressed, is almost the only echo of this controversy in more recent times. During the last fifty years, if a few occasional writings, such as those of the late Sir R. Giffen ‘On Consols in a Great War,’! be excepted, our standard economic works have scarcely anything to say on war, and there is nothing which can be construed into a pre- paration for hostilities. But the cultivation of peace by British economists in avoiding the study of the mobilisation of national resources for war has not merely been negative; it was also positive in proving the advantages of peace and the tendency of enlightened economic views to promote it. More than two hundred years ago Sir Dudley North wrote that ‘the whole world as to trade is but as one nation or people, and therein nations are as persons. The loss of trade with one nation is not that only, separately considered, but so much of the trade of the world rescinded and lost, for all is combined together.’* In the same spirit David Hume urged that ‘our domestic industry cannot be hurt by the greatest prosperity of our neighbours.’ * Before the end of the eighteenth century men of open mind not only recognised that war was a great evil, but also that there was nothing in international commercial relations to cause it or justify it. And so Burke spoke of the condemnation of war as a commonplace and ‘ the easiest of all topics.’ Even victory accompanied by substantial material gains is described by Hamilton as but ‘a temporary and illusive benefit.’ In one passage he writes: ‘The emphatic epithet of ‘the Scourge of God’’ has been aptly bestowed upon the extensive warrior. . . . Riches, thus collected, no more resemble riches acquired by industry in advancing the happiness of the nation than the mirth of intoxication is worthy of being compared to the permanent flow of spirits which health and activity confer.’* The undercurrent of the work of all the great British economists has been ever on the side of peace. Adam Smith suggested measures to prevent wars being undertaken wantonly.” Ricardo shows how free commerce ‘ diffuses general benefit and binds together by one common tie of interest and intercourse the universal society of nations throughout the civilised world.’* It would be wearisome to multiply quotations from the long line of great writers, for already enough has been said to prove that the encouragement of the best possible relations with other countries has always been a prominent feature of their teaching. This conclusion leads on to the discussion of a new problem. May it not be urged that British economists have been either too selfish or too idealistic— too selfish in inculcating material welfare as an end to the neglect of those national interests which are now seen to be vital, or too idealistic in seeking a cosmopolitan golden age which has proved to be but a dream? That is in fact, have not our economists in their devotion to peace neglected the economic pre- paration for war? While it is true that the essential teaching of the master minds has been thoroughly pacific, at the same time they recognised that, while wat was an evil, both to the world and to us, it was one that might be forced upon the nation. But it would be a dangerous error to conclude from the rare mention of warfare in our economic literature that economists had no ideas upon the subject. Adam Smith has shown with considerable detail that the 1 Works, ii., pp. 189-203. The calculation was that Consols would fall 15 per cent. at the opening of hostilities. The fixing of a minimum price during the first months of the war has made it impossible to confirm or refute Giffen’s forecast. 2 Discourses upon T'rade (1691), p. vil. ® Essays, i., p. 347. 4 Progress of Society (1830), p. 411. 5 Wealth of Nations (ed. Cannan), ii., p. 411. Works, pp. 76, 160. _PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 497 sinews of war consist of consumable goods.” Therefore, since his time it was recognised that, if war should come, the strength of the nation on the economic side was to be found in the efficiency of its productive system, in the soundness of its credit and finance, and in the success of its schemes of social betterment which provided a vigorous and patriotic population. To have contributed something towards the making of free men in a free land is an achievement of which the economists of this country have no reason to be ashamed. Moreover, with freedom there is the power of initiative and organising ability. And if more than twelve months of war have taught us anything, it is how much modern warfare involves just those qualities of initiative and organising ability which are required for the successful prosecution of industry and commerce. To the economist it must be a matter of profound regret that circumstances have made it necessary to divert these powers from the arts which sustain and brighten life towards causing the evils of death and destruction. Still it is the hard and grievous fact with which we have to reckon; and, to make the reckoning complete, account has to be taken of the genius of our people in which the work of British economists may claim to have some share. We should not be misled by that curious national trait which no foreigner ever completely understands—namely, our inveterate habit of praising the methods of our rivals as if they were unapproachable in their excellence. In the seventeenth century it was the Dutch who were said to be our commercial masters, and very similar things were written later about the French. There- fore, to everyone who is patient enough to look beneath the surface, there is no reason to be perturbed by the commonplaces that are to be found in every newspaper concerning ‘the triumphs of German organisation.’ No doubt there is very much we can learn from them in systematic arrangement, but what is of first-rate importance is the different spirit that informs the two methods. German organisation involves a mechanical rigidity, and its initiative is severely limited. Ours, on the other hand, is spontaneous and free. No doubt it ts slower in starting—often it may seem to us to be painfully slow—but what it can achieve in the end is something greater, for it is the expression of the free soul of a free people. Therefore, for this reason alone, there can be no doubt as to the successful result, for, whether the time required be long or short, the goal of victory must be reached by that nation which can bring initiative to bear upon the economic side of war. And, however much we ma have suffered at the beginning from the peaceful habit of mind that limited our preparations to a bare minimum, we have in our industrial organisation, however much at times we may depreciate it ourselves, a wonderfully developed instrument, which only needs to be made available for supplying the almost innumerable needs of modern armies. That there has been delay in making some parts of it available as quickly as was desirable and seemed possible, arose in part from the conditions under which our ‘system has grown up and under which it works. Freedom of enterprise depends to a very large extent on the circulation of rapid and reliable information. British initiative has been accustomed to base its judgments upon data collected from various sources. Modern warfare has introduced secrecy and the suppression of news. This, it appears to me, has been one cause, and perhaps the main one, for the slowness of the adjustment of our organisation to war conditions. Initiative has been deprived of one of the important aids upon which it was accustomed ‘to rely. Therefore the problem, which it is to be hoped is at present in process of solution, is how to avoid the disclosure of information which might be of value to an enemy and at the same time to supply our productive workers with sufficient data to enable them to form accurate opinions as to how their efforts can best help the national cause. In a country in which the ideal of peace has flourished there must always be a considerable dislocation of industry when it diverts its peace-organisation to the purposes of war. As regards Great Britain that dislocation has exerted its force in two distinct waves. First there was the mobilisation and then the recruiting for the new army, concurrently with which there was the diver- sion of demand caused by the provision of the manifold needs of the forces. At the beginning of the present year this first change might be described as ’ Wealth of Nations, i. p. 407. 1915. KK 498 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F., having approached completion, though necessarily the maintenance of rein- torcements involved a steady drain on the number of workers. But in the early summer the campaign for increase of munitions brought about a further dis- location. ‘This was a minor one in point of numbers involved, but it has to be noted that it was likely to produce a disproportionate effect upon industry owing to the normal floating supply of labour having already been used up. When the latter change is completed it is to be hoped that, apart from minor adjustments, the transition will be accomplished and the national industry will be established on a war-basis. The two most critical periods occasioned by war are first the change from peace organisation to war organisation, and secondly the converse change after the conclusion of hostilities on a large scale. Ricardo pointed out long ago that the outbreak of war after a long peace was likely to cause distress and a commercial crisis. The great expansion of credit since the last great war introduced an added difficulty. The improvement of transport and communication has linked the whole world together by tenuous filaments of credit. These had proved sufficient to bear a normal strain, but one must experience a certain amount of apprehension when these delicate threads. were rudely hacked and hewn by the sword. The financial interests of the country, like the class of entrepreneurs, were confronted suddenly with totally new conditions. The old landmarks were gone, and at first a certain amount of blind groping was inevitable. The leaders in finance and industry were sud- denly involved in the fog of war, and the compass by which they were wont to steer proved unreliable. Moreover, the situation was such that quick decisions were called for just when rapidity of correct judgment was peculiarly difficult. The most urgent problem was the maintaining of the credit of the banks amongst their depositors. Here the essential soundness of the credit- system in July of last year was of paramount importance. Credit resembles a highly elastic body: if it is greatly expanded a comparatively slight pressure may cause a rupture; if, on the other hand, it is not unduly distended, it will bear a shock, though with some quaking, which would shatter a more solid substance into fragments. The comparative equanimity of depositors, added to the inherent soundness of the banking system, was a feature of great strength in times which were in the highest degree anxious. The closing of the Stock Exchange and the temporary breakdown of the foreign exchanges made some measure of externa! assistance from the State essential, though in the future there will no doubt be considerable discussion amongst economists as to the precise form which it should have assumed. An unexpected outbreak of hostilities is experienced first in the domain of credit, but the disorganisation soon manifests itself throughout the whole range of productive processes. In the general upheaval the normal course of demand is shifted to an unusual extent. That for all kinds of supplies for the forces at once increases, while the consumption of other kinds of goods is subject to considerable fltictuations. Some raw materials are no longer obtainable, having - been wholly produced in countries with which communication has ceased, others are procurable only in reduced quantities, while the supply of others was at first uncertain. Again, the state of credit reacted on foreign trade, rendering exporting difficult, and in some cases impossible for a time. All this means that a large diversion of labour and capital became necessary in the first months of the war; and again in the spring of this year the insistent demand for more and more munitions added to the dislocation. With the progress of specialisa- tion in industry there was the apparent risk that such diversion of productive power could only be accomplished at great sacrifice. It would seem that the greater and greater use of specialised machinery, with the corresponding specialisation of skill, would make the change very difficult, and one which would involve great loss of capital and unemployment. After a year of war we see that the latter problem has dropped below the horizon, though it is likely to emerge again on the return of peace when the converse change from war conditions to peace conditions takes place. As regards capital, manufacturers have developed the adaptation of men and machines to certain special purposes. In many cases the demand for the products of these industries has diminished very greatly, and it would seem that the fixed capital must remain either partly or wholly unemployed during the war. Recent economic investigation has shown Se ee ee SS PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 499 that industry not only proceeds by separating processes of production, but also in surmounting the lines of division formerly regarded as distinct. Thus Dr. Marshall has shown that the operatives in a watch-making factory could work the machines used in gun-making or in sewing-machine-making, or in the making of textile machinery. The experience of the early months of the war has fully confirmed the anticipations of economic theory as to the power of transference of specialised capital and labour from one process (for which the demand has temporarily declined) to another (in which it has increased). It is not remarkable that cotton operatives should migrate to woollen mills to make khaki, but it might at first occasion surprise to hear that many makers of brass door-handles soon were at work in helping to produce shrapnel shells—their con- tribution consisting of the brass driving-rings and copper bands. ~. At the beginning of the winter machines that formerly made spokes for cycle wheels produced knitting needles. Plant normally used to make gear-cases turned out hollow ware tins and basins for the troops. Pen-making factories found new employment in manufacturing military buttons. The list of war uses for plant during the first months of hostilities could be very greatly extended, and the establishment of the Ministry of Munitions has added immensely to the em- ployment of plant for war purposes; but enough has been said to show that economic theory has been proved right in anticipating a large measure of recuperative power in productive processes enabling them to re-employ under the new conditions capital and labour which were temporarily idle. All this is satisfactory for the war period; it must be remembered that on the return of peace the reverse change will have to be made. There may be a short trade boom (arising out of the attempt to restore some of the material ravages of war), but the joint demand from it and from the trades re-opened is likely to be considerably less than the huge present expenditure on manufactures for war. Thus the unemployment occasioned by dislocation of industry through hostili- ties is likely to be carried forward as a species of suspense account which must be liquidated not very long after peace. Moreover, international credit is likely to re-act on the situation in a prejudicial manner. Even already the financial system of Germany is more strained than appears on the surface. This fact is advantageous to us as belligerents, but it will probably be prejudicial to us not long after the re-establishment of peace. At present much of the incon- vertible paper circulating on the Continent does not affect us here. When the inflation has to be squeezed out after the war, a disturbance of credit is not unlikely. Important as the flexibility of capital and labour have been, the striking success of maintaining our communications within the Empire and with neutrals has been even more remarkable. Steam and wireless telegraphy have had the effect, when supported by adequate naval strength and preparation, of simpli- fying the protection of maritime trade routes. The events of the early months of the war afford a brilliant justification of the views of many economists of the advantages of diversified sources of supply of food and raw materials from the colonies and foreign countries. The later operations of German submarines against our commerce and even against passenger ships can bring no real advantage to the enemy, and one cannot find words to describe adequately the infamy of the sinking of the Lusitania. Some of the destruction of trawlers and drifters cannot pay the cost of torpedoes, that of the rest is at the worst an inconvenience, but in material loss it is incomparably less than the damage of property which is happening every day on the Western battle front when villages and towns are destroyed by artillery fire. The inestimable services of the Navy in the general protection of sea-borne commerce may be illustrated to a partial extent by reference to the last occasion on which our maritime trade was subject to serious interruption, namely, during the years of hostilities between 1793 and 1815. At that period Great Britain possessed an overwhelming naval superiority, yet freights and marine insurance were often extraordinarily high. For instance, these charges on hemp and tallow from Petrograd to London were ten times the normal rate. Insurance on hemp was 20 per cent. to 40 per cent. of the value. In some cases the freight * Principles, p. 339. KEK2 500 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. and insurance of flax were more than the prime cost. These were moderate rates for that war period. Take the case of silk. It cost 1001. to bring a bale of 240 lb. from Italy, instead of the previous rate of 61. These figures seem almost incredible, but they are vouched for by Tooke.* Further, they were only a part of the increased difficulty in transport. The delay was remarkable. It is recorded that on one occasion it took a year, on another two years, to send a parcel of silk from Italy to England. Interest on capital and disarrangement of manufacture during the extra period of transit might be estimated to add another 30. to the cost of conveying a bale of silk—that is, 1301. against 6/. ; so that altogether the cost of transport and allied charges increased by more than twenty times the amount paid in times of peace. Such, in bald numerical terms, is the debt we owe to the silent watch and ward of the Navy, which is of equal benefit to our Allies also. So far I have discussed questions which relate mainly to organisation and trans- port ; but, in summing up our economic position in the present war, the provision of resources by the various combatants will become increasingly important. When Germany cast the sword of Brennus into the scales of international justice she must surely have forgotten the ultimate influence of the wealth and resources of the British Empire. ‘ To face the world in arms in shining armour’ may seem heroic tothe Teutonic mind, but it is futile provided that the resources of the world are rightly used against her. This it appears to me is at once our opportunity and our responsibility. War has become so complex that to conduct it upon a great scale demands large capital resources. Our past savings, supplemented by those made during the war, constitute the reserve of the credit of the Allies. No doubt, as in the case of organisation, time will be required to make the full extent of the pressure felt, but it is pressing slowly but inexorably upon the enemy, and as the struggle develops it will press with increasing power. Given the necessary fighting strength of good quality, its efficiency depends upon the extent and adequacy of its supplies. If the struggle be protracted, then victory will rest with the side which can best maintain its supplies, and it is here that our wealth is likely to be a decisive factor. But it must be brought to bear in the right way, and in this respect important functions devolve upon the non- combatant. I’or many years public and private economy has been a forgotten virtue—too often it came near to being regarded as akin to a vice. Now our ostensible leaders of public opinion are preaching economy almost as if they had discovered a new religion. Such missionary zeal, even though belated, is advantageous. War makes great changes in Distribution; and changes in Dis- tribution, when the general standard of living has been rising rapidly, are likely to lead to extravagance, more especially in war-time when all conditions favour waste. But economy, necessary as it is, can be no more than a step. What is required is the maximum supply of goods, in excess of thé needs of the civilian population, which will maintain and even increase the efficiency of the fighting forces. In the summer attention was concentrated on munitions, and this is an instance of our national habit of concentrating on the more pressing aspect of some highly complex problem. The effectiveness of the gunner on a war-ship or ‘of the soldier in the firing line requires the product of the labours of many workers : without the full supply his value as a fighting unit deteriorates. Therefore it devolves upon us to supply such goods both for our own forces, and to a certain extent for some of our Allies also. The effect of public and private economy is to leave more wealth in the hands of the taxpayers, but much of that wealth does not consist of commodities which avail for augmenting the power of the forces. To effect the necessary transformation such wealth must be transferred from the owner of it, either in the form of taxation to the State or in a subscription to a public loan. The Government then arranges for the acquisition of the commodities it requires either by making them here or pur- chasing them, whether in this country or abroad. In some cases it may be more advantageous to acquire the goods we need from foreign countries by exchanging our own products for them. Now, we already import considerable quantities of food and other necessaries, and therefore our purchases outside this country for war purposes constitute an addition to these imports. Against this we have * History of Prices, i. p. 309; Thoughts and Details of High and Low Prices, pp. 129, 211. Ee PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5O1 the profits of our shipping and the income on capital invested abroad and in the colonies. The aggregate of the former is likely to be reduced through the war, and there may be a temporary reduction in the latter through the same cause. Also there are our visible exports and some minor items. Thus it follows that the situation demands as large as possible a production of goods consisting first of supplies for the forces produced at home, secondly the home supply of the necessaries and simpler comforts of life, and thirdly goods to export to pay for our imports of military supplies and of food from the colonies and abroad. And this leads to an important conclusion—namely, that, after the maximum demands both of the naval and military forces for men have been met, there is a plain duty before those that are left. The exigencies of the times demand that there should be no idle class, whether of idle rich or idle poor. We have called out some of our reserves of fighting men, and we must draw also upon our reserves of workers. In the expressive language of our brothers from the Dominions overseas, ‘it is up to the non-combatant at home not to let the fighting forces down,’ but by his steady and sustained industry to help in providing, directly or indirectly, all the supplies which are required, either in helping to produce these or in making those goods which are exchanged for them. Thus there is a definite duty for every one of us, according to our varied capacities, to take part in a great national endeavour. This is plain common-sense. From the specially economic point of view, war is waste and loss. Therefore it is obvious that we cannot work too earnestly or too un- sparingly to bring about as soon as possible the cessation of that loss and a return to normal conditions. No doubt, here again organisation is required. The people are not in a position to judge as to the balancing of the needs for reinforcement, for labour for military supplies produced in this country and for labour to produce goods to be exchanged for supplies or food imported. All the more it becomes necessary for the authorities to strike a balance and to issue clear and unmistakable directions. All this must seem far removed from the principle of laissez faire, the operation of which has become more and more restricted by the mass of govern- mental regulations and emergency measures. But the people assent to the restriction of their liberty of action under an imperious necessity. Because sacrifices are made in a national emergency, without complaint or murmuring, it by no means follows that the public is learning to love its chains. Unless the war makes a radical change in the national temperament, it would be a political mistake of the greatest magnitude to retain restrictions upon commerce even a week longer than these are unavoidable. In the confused issues of warfare we have the unshakable conviction that we are staking the lives of our soldiers and the whole resources of the British Empire in defence of liberty. It would be a tragedy if, in the defence of liberty, freedom of enterprise and labour were sacrificed, for victory in war would be tantamount to the defeat of our national ideals. In all the long history of this Association, it has never before fallen to the one who presided in this Section to survey such a scene of ruin and devastation. To the economist war must ever be the pre-eminent instance of wicked waste. One is almost tempted to discuss again that old problem, debated by Bishop Butler—namely, whether whole nations may become temporarily mad. Yet out of all the suffering and all the loss, something that is necessary to the progress of the world must emerge—something that, as things are, can only be won by sacrifice and sorrow. It has happened before in the history of civilisation, and it has now unfortunately occurred again, that it is needful to defend existing institutions from attacks which menace not only these but the possibility of future development. The sanctity of a nation’s plighted word must be main- tained as a basis for the stability of international relations. One issue which is involved in the present war is the whole basis of international contract. Without being unduly optimistic, one may hope that some compensation for the vast destruction it has caused may be found first in the establishing of treaty rights on a secure foundation, and then that a way will be opened for international agreements which will lessen the risk of future wars. Moreover, the inviola- bility of public faith is not only of supreme importance in the political sphere, it lies at the root of the whole mechanism of foreign trade and the international Mmoney-market. The new ‘scrap of paper’ theory constitutes a bankruptcy of 502 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. external credit. It recoils with crushing force on the nation whose good faith has become suspect, and it produces a feeling of doubt and insecurity throughout the money-markets of the world. When one remembers Belgium, it is not a little remarkable that one of the best analyses of the causes which determine foreign estimation of a nation’s credit has been written by a German. I quote the concluding summary : ‘ These causes are to be found in the opinion which the world holds of a nation’s political standards, of the soundness of her institu- tions, the inviolability of her pledged word, in the last resort of the moral principles which inspire and the intellectual faculties which direct her people’s activities.’ *° Further, from the economic standpoint this war is one which, provided it ends decisively in favour of ourselves and our Allies, should free us from a menace which has faced this country for a generation. At each great epoch in our history, it has been our duty to prevent the wreck of civilisation through the appearance of a new Iron Age with its doctrine that wealth is the prey of the stronger. And so England resisted Spain, Great Britain Napoleon, and now the British Empire confronts Germany in defence of the principle that force must not triumph over law. Indeed, the present strife is perhaps the only issue from a situation in Europe that was becoming intolerable. Year after year the nations on the Continent were proving their devotion to peace by arming to excess, as they said, to defend peace. The burden grew heavier and heavier, diverting national resources from the improvement of the condition of the people and the growth of commerce. Before the war the annual expenditure of the Powers of Europe on their armies alone had increased to about 290,000,000. There can be little doubt that much of this outlay, as well as that on navies, could be saved. It is to be hoped that, when a durable peace has been signed, @ very large saving in this type of expenditure will be effected. Moreover, an abatement of military preparations should have another effect in diminishing the drain on productive processes through compulsory military service. Thus, on the whole, while the losses of the war will be enormous, there are some gains, largely of an immaterial kind, to be placed on the other side of the account— namely, security and the re-establishing of international contract, and, of a material kind, in a possible diminution of the burden of armaments, both direct and indirect. A special aspect of the problems under discussion is the provision of capital for the re-starting of trades contracted by the war and for the restoration of Belgium and other regions desolated during the progress of hostilities. Chalmers, writing a hundred years ago, supposed that in cases of this kind ‘in a very few years the recovery both of population and labour would be completed.’ The explanation he gave was far from satisfactory even for the time at which it was written, and it is still more deficient as applied to the present circum- stances, when in industrial countries fixed capital is much more important than in Chalmers’ day. In the last quarter of a century any great catastrophe, such for instance as the partial destruction of San Francisco by earthquake and fire, has been repaired with comparative ease by bringing capital from outside. But the waste of war renders capital exceedingly scarce; in fact, a famine of capital after the war has been predicted. Such an anticipation is over-pessi- mistic, but capital is likely to be obtainable for a time only with some difficulty. It is to be feared that after the war Europe will experience very considerable straits for several years to come. Not only must the waste of war be made good, but its evil legacy in inflated funded and floating debts must be gradually dealt with, lessening by reason of increased taxation the normal margin for new savings. Increased work and greater economy are the only remedies, aided by improved methods of production. It is to be hoped that some of the inevitable loss mill be repaired in time by better methods of organisation and by an accelerated rate of invention. The waging of a just war results in a quickening of the national spirit. It forces a nation out of the easy and well-worn paths of custom and convention. Thus, out of all the suffering and all the loss, some good will come. The large proportion of our young manhood which has gone to serve the country on the 7° On Some Unsettled Questions of Public Credit, by Prof. G. Cohn, in Econ. Journal, xxi. p. 217. 11 Works, xix. p. 141. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 503 seas or in the field, and which returns having looked death in the face without being afraid, will not take up life where it was left. The noble qualities that have been evoked by the stress of battle will remain and will influence civil life during the next generation. The outlook will be both broader and also more simple. Methods of social legislation and administration will become more direct and less timorous. The men who have dared greatly and who have endured will chafe against the rules that have been formed during easier times. Great wars tear away the veils which hide the essential needs of living, and reveal what is fundamental. The directness of vision that has faved danger is not likely to be alarmed in facing the difficulties of our social and industrial problems. And so we may expect with confidence that our legislation will be bolder and also more sane than it has been in the past. The sacrifices of so many cannot pass, when the war is over, and leave no trace. The nation has been re-vitalised in the course of the struggle and the influence of this move- ment will persist. — In many respects the economic problems that will confront us after the war will be even more serious, and certainly not less difficult, than those of the present time. Still there can be no doubt that these will be faced with courage and patience. The period of stress through which we are passing has shown the unity of thought and purpose throughout the whole Empire. And this, in spite of many appearances to the contrary, will be a great asset in the future. The great national emergency has caused a closing of the nation’s ranks, and it rests with us to keep them firm and steadfast when peace returns. There are plain signs that it may not always be easy, since so many industrial and other difficulties have been carried forward as a suspense account which is to be dealt with when the war is over. National unity is enabling us to progress towards victory, and the same unity will be required to enable us to reap the full fruits of that victory at home. It would be a mad waste not to employ the . of heart and mind which have been aroused in this great struggle in he service of peace and social progress. The future may be difficult for some years to come, but difficulties are the opportunities of the strong and courageous. It has fallen to us to live in an heroic age; and, if we remain true to ourselves and to our high destiny, we shall have the strength and the fixity of purpose to achieve greatly in peace as well as in war. The following Discussion then took place :— Discussion on the Promotion of Industrial Harmony. Opened by Professor A. W. KirKaupy. Sir C. Macara, Mr. W. Thorne, M.P., Sir Hugh Bell, Mr. Alfred Evans, Mr. G. Pickup Holden, Professor L. T. Hobhouse, Councillor James Johnston, Rey. P. H. Wicksteed, Mr. G. E. Toogood, Professor Unwin, Mr. B, Ellinger, Mr. R. Walker, Mr. Alfred Smalley, J.P., Mr. A. Lupton, Mr. Glover, and the President of the Section took part. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following business was transacted :— 1. Discussion on Outlets for Labour after the War. The following Report, arising out of a Conference held at the instance of the Organising Sectional Committee during the preceding year, and dealing with the Replacement of Men by Women in Industry, was considered :— 504 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. Interim Report of the Conference to investigate into Outlets for Labour after the War. CONTENTS. PAGE I. Introduction . . é : 5 . 504 Il. Women’s Employment eee year ees 1914 to Ase 1915 : : . 506 III. The General Position . : - 508 IV. Possible Limitations to the Tater Bmployability of Wome! : . 514 V. Wages . a 2 : : : . 516 VI. The Woman Worker efee the War : ; : : ° : . 518 Statistics , 2 : ; : : ; : : " . 520 = 1g State of pas eee to Feb. 1915 compared with July 1914 . 521 » III. Women’s Employment in Principal Trades to Feb. 1915 . . 523 » IV. Numbers Employed in Non-Industrial Occupations . : . 524 DeraiteD Reports on TRADES. Distributive Trades f é : . : : é : : 2 : . 525 Railways 5 : : : ; : ; é : - 5 5 : . 530 Other Transport . 5 : ; - : - . 3 : : ¢ . 539 Clerical Work “ : : F ; : . 540 Engineering and the Metal Tr en Gneteane Munitions) : : : 7 . 546 Leather . : . F : ; ; : : 3 ‘ : ds c . 552 Tailoring . } ; ; ; ‘ ; ° ; ; : | Se eG, Chemicals. c : : j 7 E : : : : : : . 565 Cotton . - : : c ; . : ; : 5 é : . 565 Wool and Wemted! : : ‘ ; . ; ; ; i . g . 568 Hosiery . 5 2 : : : : : 5 : : : i 3 . 570 Silk 5 : : , : : : ; : é : : : a . 570 Food . : : ; bs ‘ ; : ‘ % : : A 5 . 571 Tobacco ; : ‘ : : ‘ : : : : : : : . 573 Brush Making P ; : : : ; . : : ‘ : . 573 Printing and Bapeninatie : . : : - : . ? : : . O74 Pottery . . 5 : : ; . 5 : : : : : : . 580 Furniture ; : z : gi : . : : ; : : . 582 I,—Introduction. Conference Committee. The Membership of the Conference on Outlets for baler after the War was as follows : Archdeacon Coenen Messrs. C. W. Bowerman, M.P., W. J. Davis, J.P., J. St. G. Heath, J. Seddon, E. D. Simon; Sir H. Rider Haggard, Sir C. P. Lucas, K.C.B., Ash C. W. Macara, Bart., Sir Sydney Olivier, Sir E. im Thurn; Professor E. C. K. Gonner, Mr. Egbert Jackson. Chairman—Professor W, R. Scott, F.B.A, Secretary—Professor A, W. Kirkaldy, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 505 Terms of Reference. The terms of reference were to investigate into :— . The replacement of men by women in industries during the War. . The permanent effects of this after the War. . The character of re-employment with respect to changes of tastes and physique amongst those who have served with the Forces and are dis- banded. 4. The means by which consequent unemployment may be counteracted or minimised. . 5. The possibility of employing disbanded men on the land. It was decided that the best method of dealing with the first two terms of this reference would be to investigate those industries in which the extra employment of women since the War has been most marked, as well as those industries in which there were possibilities of an extension of women’s work, with special reference to those trades localised in the London, Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham districts. The inquiry was commenced in the beginning of June 1915. For the work, other than in the Birmingham district, through Mr. J. St. G. Heath, who acted as Hon. Secretary, the co-operation of a Sub-Committee under the chairmanship of Professor L. T. Hobhouse, working at the London School of Economics and Toynbee Hall, was secured. This Sub-Committee appointed Mr. E. F. Hitchcock as Secretary, and they wish here to express the debt which they owe to him for his labours; not only was he responsible for the work of organising this part of inquiry, but in addition he prepared the first draft of their Report. The investigators and members of the Sub-Committee were : won Sub-Committee. Professor L. T. Hobhouse. Miss B. L. Hutchins. *Miss E. B. Ashford. *Miss B. Keen. *Miss D. Austin. * Professor A. W. Kirkaldy. *Miss M. E. Bulkley. Mr. J. J. Mallon. *Miss M. Cross. * Miss Moses. *Mrs. B. Drake. Mrs. Pember Reeves *Miss E. Dunlop. *Mr. A. Robinson. *Miss A. C. Franklin. *Miss M. Stettauer. *Mr. F. H. Hamnett. Miss L. Wyatt Papworth. Mr. J. St. G. Heath. *Miss N. Young. *Mr. E. F. Hitchcock. Miss D. Zimmern. *Mrs. F. W. Hubback. * Investigators. Professor Kirkaldy undertook to organise the investigation in the Birming- ham district, especially with reference to munitions and the metal trades. The Central Care Committee of the Birmingham Education Committee, whose Chair- man, Councillor Lord, was keenly interested, made it possible for Miss Anne Ashley to undertake the direction of the investigation. Miss Lee, of the Bir- mingham Women’s Settlement, was appointed investigator. With remarkably few exceptions, and in spite of the pressure of war work in some of the industries investigated, employers, managers of companies, trade union officials and individual working men and women showed great willingness to help on the work of the Conference. Very valuable assistance was also obtained from various women’s organisations throughout the country. Thus a considerable amount of useful information was collected, and although, owing to the still undeveloped state of a unique economic situation, statistical data were not fully available, it has been found impossible to compile a Report which, on its descriptive side, refers to new and interesting phenomena which have entered into English industrial and commercial life. It was decided that the last three terms of the reference could at the moment be more suitably dealt with by papers and discussion. To this end Mr. Christopher Turnor was asked to read a paper on Land Settlement for ex-service 506 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. men, arid Major Tudor-Craig undertook to give the Section the benefit of his experience on the employment of disbanded soldiers and sailors.! This Report is, therefore, confined to the replacement of men by women in industries as a result of the War, and the possible permanent effects of this replacement. It was finally drafted by the Officers of the Section, who aré greatly indebted to the above Sub-Committee and more especially to Miss Ashley and Mr. Hitchcock. The other members of the Conference are not responsible for the details given nor for the views expressed. II.—Women’s Employment during year August 1914 to August 1915. After a year of war we are able to regard with some knowledge the course which women’s employment has taken during that period, and the nature if not the extent of the entry of women into trades and occupations hitherto reserved wholly or partially to men. Broadly speaking, that movement has only just begun (August 1915) to assume any appreciable magnitude. In few industries has the position yet shaped itself. We are therefore at present able to do little else than to indicate the course which industry has taken and roughly to sketch the events which have led during the past year to the present position. Employment in Early Months of War. It was clear to the least observant that during the first two or three months of the War a considerable depression had been caused throughout industry, especially among the following trades—dressmaking, millinery, women’s fancy and children’s boot and shoe making, silk and linen, cigar and cigarette making, the umbrella trade, confectionery and preserve making, cycle and carriage making, jewellery, furniture making and French polishing, the china and glass trades, stationery and printing. In some trades a shortage of raw material or the loss of enemy markets caused a more or less lengthy period of depression. Thus the shortage of sugar caused very considerable unemployment in what was almost entirely a woman’s trade—jam-preserving and confectionery. The chemical trade was also affected by the complete cessation of the imvortation of certain commodities from Germany. The practical closing of the North Sea to fishers brought to a standstill the occupation of those women who are to be found every season in thousands on the English coasts following the herring round.” The closing of the Baltic cut off the sunvlies of flax from Rnssia upon which our linen trade largely depends, and women’s employment in a whole trade was again considerably decreased owing to the lack of raw material. In almost every trade unemployment figures rose to a point only equalled in times of very severe trade denression. The cotton trade was esnecially hit. Before the War a period of decline had set in, and Lancashire suffered in addition from all the disadvantages incidental to a time of naval warfare. Casual houseworkers such as charwomen and office cleaners, and even skilled domestic servants such as cooks, found themselves out of employment owing to the economies which the public were making. The unemployment of good cooks, howéver, did hot last many weeks. Distress amongst Women. The distress caused by unemployment is generally felt more hv men than by women, but in the early days of the War the effect of trade dislocation upon women was out of all proportion to its effects upon men. For the women there were few counterbalancing forces such as recruiting. Indeed the full economie effect of the immediate trade devression fell upon them. and the irreenlar nav- ment of separation allowances at the beginning of the War considerably added to the prevailing distress. 1 Mr. Turnor is publishing a book which will contain the substance of his address at Manchester. Major Tudor Craig was unfortunately, owing to illnéss, unable to attend the meeting as had been arranged. 2 See Englishwoman, December 1914, atticle by J. Haslam. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 507 Revival of Trade. Happily this state of affairs did not last for long. Very soon the Govern- ment came into the market as chief buyer and found industry very willing to concentrate both its labour and machinery upon the production of goods to clothe, feed, and equip armies. The collapse of those trades connected with the normal demands of peace had released thousands of women for other industries, while the contraction of men’s employment had been almost wholly counterbalanced by recruiting. In September just under a quarter of a million women, apart from those in non-industrial occupations such as clerical work and retail distribution, were employed, as compared with the numbers in industry at the outbreak of war. The men were fighting and the women had to take their places. From September onwards women—unsk‘lled and industrially ill-equipped as the great majority of them were—poured into the leather, tailor- ing, metal trades, chemicals and explosives, food trades, hosiery and the wool and worsted industry, which had been suddenly revived by the placing of large orders by the Allied Governments. Between September and December over 130,000 women were drawn into the ranks of industry proper, but still 80,000 unemployed women remained in spite of the net shortage of men, which amounted to about a quarter of a million. Fortunately the new demand was to a large extent for that class of goods in the production of which female labour normally predominates.* An extension of women’s normal employment ° rather than a displacement of men’s by women’s labour was what occurred. Lack of Skilled Labour. Unfortunately recruiting was carried out without discrimination, and by December the outstanding feature of the labour market was the enormous short- age of skilled men in all industries, a shortage which led to the contraction of women’s employment.‘ In some instances employers attempted to train women, but in most cases time was too short, the experiment too risky, and the pressure of business too great, for employers to become enthusiastic over such schemes. Where it was possible to transfer women from one branch of a trade that was slack to an allied branch in which the work was brisk this was done, but there were limitations to such transference. Women were untrained industrially, and, as week by week went by, the lack of skilled men became more and more marked. Through the National Labour Exchanges a Register of Women was compiled and about 86,000 names were enrolled, but only a small minority— 4,750—were able to undertake the skilled jobs awaiting them. It must be remembered, however, that a large number of these women were skilled in occupations and professions other than industrial. By February some of the Government contracts, e.g., clothing, had been reduced, but overdue private home and shipping orders were sufficient to keep the industries affected in a prosperous and busy condition. Munitions. The group of trades which showed the most phenomenal increase, in spite of the huge Government contracts which had been already placed, was the muni- tions group. The story of Neuve Chapelle and the creation of a Minister of Munitions, and the increasing needs of ourselves and our Allies for munitions of war, caused an unprecedented demand in this group. Into the armament branches, therefore, of the metal and engineering trades many thousands of women have been pouring since February. It is as yet early to draw deductions from this further entry of women into munition work,* though it is as well to bear in mind that much of the work, e.g. shell making, is exceptional work and will diminish when peace is declared, * See separate Reports on Tailoring, Leather, and Food Trades. * See Report on Pottery Trade for exception to this rule, ® See Report on Metal Trades, p. 546. 508 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. Present Effects of War on Industry. The women who have entered industry since the War seem for the most part comparatively young. Billeting money and fairly liberal separation allowances have been sufficient to prevent any large number of unskilled married women from returning to work in factories. One of the tendencies of the War is clearly to transfer a more than normal proportion of the nation’s business to large concerns. Though this has its draw- backs the balance on account is probably to the advantage of the women who have entered, as far as the safeguarding of their standard of life is concerned, and consequently of that of the men who will return. It is clear that the year has seen an enormous upheaval in industry; fac- tories have been adapted to meet new demands and to facilitate women’s employ- ment; Trade Union and Home Office restrictions have been relaxed; women are replacing men; experiments are being made and knowledge gained which may well revolutionise many branches of industry. The dominating demand upon industry is that made by the volume of Government contracts. At the end of the War these will substantially decline and industry will begin to resume its normal course. But every transference of labour, every youth put into a man’s place, every woman who has received training because of the War, adds some- thing to the bewildering chaos of those industrial problems which will have to be grappled with when peace is declared. III.—The General Position. In the earlier months of the War, industry, following the lead of public opinion, organised itself on the assumption of a war of short duration, and a considerable period elapsed before it was generally réalised that experiments in the employment of women might have to be made on a considerable and unprecedented scale. The necess:ty of immediate action in utilising the potential resources of female labour was not understood, and it is now possible only partially to remedy this past error of judgment. Necessity, however, is proving the spur to effort, and experiments and trials are now being made in this direc- tion. Of the results of these interesting developments it is, however, as yet too early to judge. We can only indicate what appear to be the main features arising out of the new conditions of women’s employment during the past year. After twelve months of war three features of the labour market stand out in special prominence : (1) the serious shortage of skilled workpeople. (2) the considerable extension of women’s employment. (3) the limited extent to which women have replaced men, in the sense that women are now doing work previously done by men. (1) Serious Shortage of Skilled Labour, With few exceptions the reports during the last eight months from industries engaged on War contracts eloquently repeat the serious nature of the situation caused by the shortage of skilled workers, due to the number of skilled men who have enlisted and to the changes in industrial methods, which demand a small number of highly skilled mechanics working in conjunction with a compara- tively large number of less skilled operatives. Men who in the earlier months of the War joined the Forces have in many cases actually been withdrawn from the fighting front to assist in filling the gaps caused by this deficiency in the ranks of industry. There is no lack of unskilled workers, but the extent to which semi- or unskilled labour can be employed depends not only upon the amount of that labour available, but upon the extent to which skilled labour can be obtained. In the case of the men who remain the lack of training and experience is all too general; amongst women it is, with rare exceptions, the universal rule. Apart from other disabilities this factor alone has been sufficient seriously to limit the entry of women into those industries in which there are enormous demands for materials of war. -Not only have the majority ———e— TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 509 of women, owing to their lack of training, found it impossible to take up skilled work in these trades, but, as stated generally above, the absence of skilled workers amongst them has in its turn proved ‘an almost insuperable obstacle to the employment of any but a small proportion of the great waiting army of willing but unskilled female labour. This shortage of skilled labour is the cardinal feature of the industrial position with which the nation is now faced. It is true that by minor adjustments in the organisation of the trades concerned the entry of a few extra women can be facilitated, but the situa- tion in its broad aspects seems almost insoluble during the present time of war. Certainly in a great many industries women are working on processes pre- viously wholly or partially done by men, but the extent to which this is the case is inconsiderable. The margin of difference, however, between actual fact and possibility is yet to be discovered. (2) Extension of Women’s Employment. It is impossible with any accuracy to give figures indicating the extension of women’s work since the War. The trades in industry proper in which the extension of women’s employment has been most marked are engineering, chemical trades (explosives), leather work, tailoring, meat preserving and grain milling, basket (shell) making, elastic webbing, scientific instrument making, brush making, electrical engineering, canvas sack and net making, leather tanning, rubber work, hosiery, hardware, wire drawing, tobacco, boot and shoe trade, shirt making, wool and worsted, silk and jute trade. Excluding the munitions branch of engineering, the extra employment of women in these trades probably does not exceed 100,000, and four months ago was little more than half that number, compared with the same month in the previous year. A small proportion of the extra women employed in these trades are, however, doing men’s work, the probable reasons for which are discussed on p. 514 seq. Generally speaking, the extra employment of women in any branch of industry proper has been effected by transference from trades that are depressed or from branches of the same trade which are slack to those that are brisk. A marked acceleration in women’s employment has also taken place in non-industrial occupations such as shop assistants, bank clerks and in other forms of clerical work, waitresses in hotels and elsewhere, and certain classes of railway work. In these occupations women have probably replaced men, in the sense of doing men’s work, to a greater extent than in industry proper. The supposed social status of an occupation rather than its pecuniary gain appeals more generally to some women than to most men, and many women who find their home surroundings somewhat dull and a shop counter or an office stool comparatively attractive would never consider entering a factory or a workshop. Consequently we find that for the most part women who have entered industry proper since the War have had previous industrial experience in other trades, and that where they have not been wage-earners previously they have been attracted in a great many cases to the more ‘lady-like’ occupations. Patriotic motives have, however, supplied a stimulus to a number of women to enter industry. Those branches concerned with the production of munitions and direct war supplies have proved especially attractive in this respect. The relaxation of Trade Union and Home Office restrictions has also had the effect of extending women’s employment. Where a shortage of male labour has been apparent the trade unions have in many cases—e.g., in the leather, engineering, and metal trades, wool and worsted trades, &c.—agreed with employers that, for the period of the War only, women may work on_pro- cesses which were previously done wholly or partially by men, on the condition that the wage rates paid to the women shall be the same as those paid to the men. The relaxation of Home Office regulations has only been made on applications in particular cases, and is mostly connected with the extension of overtime.* Many of the trades in which the War demands have been exten- sive normally employ a larger number of women than men, and in these the extension of women’s employment has been considerably accelerated by the War. ® Vide Board of Trade Journal, July 8, 1915. 510 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. (3) Replacement. From the fact that fewer men and many more women are now in industry, there is a prima-facie case for supposing that women have replaced men in the sense that they are now doing processes which before the War were done by men. Our information, however, shows that this is not the case, save in special instances and to a limited degree. The one important factor upon which the prosperity of industry depends to-day is the virtual monopolising of the market by our own and the Allied Governments. It will be interesting to consider whether the War demand is not on the whole a demand for a class of goods in the production of which a greater proportion of women rather than men can be more usefully and economically employed than under normal peace conditions. The nature of the demands arising out of the War must have an important bearing upon the kind of labour required. A large part of the Government demand for goods is in those branches of trades in which a larger proportion of women are employed than in the trade as a whole. A good example of this is the tailoring trade, which normally employs something like 130,000 women, together with a large casual fringe of women who come into the trade in times of seasonal pressure. This trade illustrates the point at issue, though it will not, of course, be taken as typical of all industry. The retail bespoke branch, in which high-class tailor- ing work is done, employs men almost entirely, and since the War it has been very depressed, for the demand for ‘high-class’ work has been much reduced. The clothing of a soldier is good but not ‘high class’ in the sense in which a Bond Street retail bespoke tailor might use that term; it is tailoring done in the medium branches of the trade in which female labour normally pre- dominates. This part of the trade has drawn women and girls from its other branches and from its fringe of casual labour as well as from other trades in which there was a surplus of female labour. It thus shows a great increase of female labour since the War which has been drawn in, not to undertake work previously done by men, but merely to cope with a huge increase of orders in that branch of the trade in which a larger proportion of women than men is normally employed. Again, the cloth from which the uniform is made is not the very finest suiting, and the huge demands upon the wool and worsted trade for it have resulted, as in the tailoring trade, in a larger demand for female labour compared with the demand for male labour than the trade as a whole would normally employ. The great increase of women’s employ- ment since the War in the leather trade has to a certain extent been in the lighter accoutrement branches on processes normally done by women, while in the boot and shoe branch there has actually been a replacement of women by men owing to the heavier nature of the work required in the military than in the civilian boot. A considerable part of the Government demand is also in trades, e.g. the munition branches of the engineering and metal trades, in which a large pro- portion of semi-skilled or unskilled female labour can be absorbed especially in such exceptional processes as the filling of shells, and in which after the War the demand will decline. From the above considerations it will be seen that much of the extension of women’s employment during the War in industry proper is in work. which is normally done by women and in which the necessities of war have created an unprecedented demand. Other work now done hy women is exceptional work which will decline with the advent of peace. But a survey of the whole field suqgests that, owing to the installation of special plant, the proportion of woman labour may be affected. But though women are not as yet to any considerable extent doing the work of men or undertaking highly skilled jobs, they are undoubtedly slowly undertaking processes in many trades which were previously thought just above the line of their strength and skill. This is seen particularly in leather, engineering, and the wool and worsted trade, and also in trades which. though depressed since the War, have yet experienced a shortage of certain forms of labour, e.g., pottery, cotton, and the printing trade. This shifting of the line of demarcation between mén’s and wonién’s jobs has in many cases received —- A oe TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 51] trade union opposition, though in most cases agreements have been made for the duration of the War only and without prejudice to the consideration of the question after the War. 1n this connection it would be interesting to consider in how far trade union restrictions, especially those concerning the entry to the trade and the period of training required, are based upon the conditions which prevailed in the past or upon the realities of the present. Employers are, however, reluctant to express opinions until more experience under the new conditions has been gained. In non-industrial occupations, such as clerical work, in certain forms of railway and vehicle work, such as ticket collecting, carriage cleaning, and tram and "bus conducting, in various forms of retail distributive work inside retail shops as well as outside work like van driving and delivery, and in ware- house work such as packing and despatching, women have, however, re- placed men, in the sense of doing work previously done by men, to a much larger extent than has occurred in industry proper. The majority of firms, when faced with a shortage of male labour, have first commenced to replace men by women in their oftice and warehouse staffs. Clerical work is obviously suitable for women, and employers have had far less hesitation in introducing a greater proportion of female labour into this side of their business than into the industrial side proper. The conditions of the clerical labour market, in- cluding as it does a great majority of clerical workers who belong to no trade organisation, have made it easier to introduce female labour without encountering serious opposition from the Trade Unions concerned than in those trades where the group of workers is smaller and the workers are more highly organised. Enlistment has also been exceptionally heavy, in some cases over 30 per cent., among men such as clerks, whose occupation is sedentary, and, in spite of the restriction of business, the net shortage of men was soon apparent, and women, mostly young girls from school or middle-aged women from professions which have been hit by the war, were rapidly drawn in to make up the shortage. Into Government departments, local authorities, banks, insurance and other offices, as well as ordinary business houses, women are being utilised in increasing numbers to do work previously done by men. Into most of these occupations women have entered to do work either slightly more difficult than that done by women before or else work entirely new to them, such as railway and clerical work in banks. In very few cases, however, is the work now done by women exactly similar to that previously done by men. Obviously, the lack of training and experience, together with natural disabilities of physique, make certain forms of work and conditions of labour impossible for women which are possible for men. Thus, in the case of ticket collecting, in which at first sight men’s and women’s employment appear equal, it is found on inquiry that the women work shorter hours, requiring three shifts to do what men do in two, and their shifts are arranged when traffic is less heavy, thus leaving the more arduous work to the men. In many of the large stores three women are required to do the work formerly done by two men. It is as yet too early to form final judgments until women have had time to adapt them- selves. Until August 16, 1915, the extra women employed since the War on railway work had been paid less and given lighter and shorter work than the men. Since that date, however, the railway companies have agreed that women shall be paid the same rates as the men, and, in consequence, given similar work. It will be interesting to discover how far women will successfully com- pete with men in this work now that the conditions are approximately equal. Both in industry proper and in non-industrial occupations women have often been introduced to do the work, not of the men who have enlisted, but of boys and youths who have been promoted to do the work formerly done by men which was of an arduous nature or required special knowledge which in part the youths have already picked up. Young girls have replaced boys as messen- gers, etc., and young women have taken the places of youths. It was often remarked by employers that girls are found generally more efficient, careful, and conscientious than boys, and apart from work entailing physical strain, uch as the carrying of heavy parcels, are much to be preferred to them; on the other hand, the majority of employers considered that adult women are less efficient than men. 512 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, Readjustments in Industry. Considerable attention has been devoted by some employers to the further subdivision of process and grading of labour as well as the introduction of mechanical and other readjustments in order to facilitate the employment of women.’ Men’s work has generally been that requiring more strength and more skill than women’s work and a greater differentiation of process as between skilled and less skilled, lighter and heavier work, has made possible the further employment of women in processes in which their economic value is equal to that of an average man. In some cases this specialisation of function is opposed by organised labour, as in the case of the cotton trade and railways," among other reasons on the ground that the readjustments result in the wage rates of men remaining the same while the arduous nature of the work they have to do is increased. In this connection one point has come out somewhat forcibly. Throughout most trades the extent to which up-to-date machinery and efficient organisation have been introduced diifers to an extraordinary degree as between different firms. One firm will have introduced methods and machinery which in another firm have not even been considered. To this lack of knowledge and initiative is due several of the difficulties experienced by some employers in extending women’s employment and releasing men. In normal times practical opinion sug- gests that extreme specialisation may be a questionable advantage, as possibly sacrificing quality to output. Skilled labour is so scarce owing to the War that employers have necessarily to economise it. The present demand is abnormal, but it shows the necessity for giving serious attention to the training of skilled mechanics. The T'raining of Skilled Labour. A time of war is the time especially when the preparedness and fitness of a nation is tested, and this applies to industry as much as to other more militant activities of national life. The dangers of an insufficient supply of skilled labour revealed by the present crisis have opened our eyes, as probably nothing else could have done, to the importance of industrial training both in its immediate and its permanent aspects. Experiments in the training of women for industry and business are now being increasingly made to meet present demands.’ In spite of the special circumstances these developments have as much a permanent as a temporary significance, and some examination of the more permanent aspects of the problem may therefore be of value. It is obvious that the training of women as skilled workers depends upon (1) Circumstances, common both to men and women, relating to the organisa- tion of industrial training. (2) Psychological, physical, and other conditions in which men and women differ. These are discussed in Section IV. (1) The fact that many industries at present offer employment to large numbers of unskilled workers of a nature which can be learned in a few weeks’ 7 See Distributive Trades, page 525. ® See pages 530 and 566. ° The Interim Report of the Central Committee on Women’s Employment (Cd. 7848) contains some interesting suggestions on the promotion of new openings for the permanent employment of women. Little of a practical nature has, however, yet been done, although the suggestions made extend to the following trades : Toy making, artificial flower making, and the making of baskets, bonbon bags, hair nets, memorial wreaths, nets, polished wood fancy articles, potash (from seaweed), rugs (of a kind previously made in Austria), slippers, stockinette knickerbockers, surgical bandages, tapestry, and tinsel scourers, and also gold beating, the weaving of willow and rush for mats, chairs, and baskets, and the cottage weaving industry. In these occupations little opportunity occurs for displacing men by women; they are mostly small industries in some of which it was suggested that advantage might be taken of the cessation of enemy competition, er) TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 513 time has not been altogether favourable to the training of the skilled worker. If a boy or girl can become a productive worker almost at once, it requires 4 special knowledge and self-control on his or her part to remain in the position of a learner with a learner's wage for years, in order to become a skilled artisan. Nor are the steps by which young workers may climb to this position made clear to them or to their parents. It is of great importance that they should be shown clearly that training is for their own advantage, and that it is on training that the ultimate scale of their pay and security of their work depends. ‘his may be effected to a great extent by the juvenile branches of the Labour Exchanges co-operating with the Care Committees of Education Authori- ties. Employers could assist by making clear to every beginner the possibilities for advancement, and by doing so would probably build up a more stable working force. The decay of the apprenticeship system, which has proceeded with especial thoroughness during the last thirty years, and the recent changes in methods of production and especially the increasing introduction of machinery have, it may be feared, given rise to the impression among many parents that it is useless for their children to be trained as skilled workers. Skill is needed now, as it has ever been, but the type of skill required changes so rapidly as to make industrial foresight very difficult, especially to the young workers and in a lesser degree to the firms which employ them. Even where there is formal apprenticeship, or the definite status of learner, a good deal of time is apparently wasted during the first few years of training, not only in promiscuous fetching and carrying, but in processes which become obsolete during or soon after the period of training. According to the opinion of some credible witnesses, systematisation alone would shorten by some 30 per cent. the long term of apprenticeship demanded in certain trades. The relative functions of the technical school and the workshop in the training of the artisan must vary according to the trade, but there are three main directions in which development is desirable. (a2) The further establishment of full-time Technical and Trades’ Schools, working in close co-operation with the trades concerned and making a special study of the most recent developments in technique and the future prospects of the several trade processes. (b) The development of part-time Continuation Schools, and of the practice of permitting young employees to attend during working hours, in view of the generally admitted failure of evening instruction at the end of a day’s work. (c) A workshop training systematised and reduced to the shortest period com- patible with efficiency. In some trades this might take the form of a modified apprenticeship adapted to the needs of the time. This should be subject to frequent modification with the alteration of processes, so as to ensure that the apprentice is not required to make sacrifices more than commensurate with his or her gains. In some trades, however, a sys- tematic promotion from one department to another would probably be possible without formal apprenticeship. (2) In the metal working trades, especially, and this is also true of some others, all the highly skilled workers are men. The women employed in these trades are either semi-skilled or unskilled. The question arises whether women are capable of becoming highly skilled workers, and if so, whether they would in normal times be preferred to men. This depends on a variety of circumstances, physical, psychological, economic, and social. Some employers in the more skilled trades, e.g., engineering, express a doubt as to whether women could be trained to the same degree of skill as has been attained by highly skilled men, maintaining that women lack as a rule the necessary qualities of judgment and initiative, and dislike shouldering responsibility. This point of view was often expressed in less skilled trades. Other employers expressed different views on these points, being convinced that in time women would be able to attain the skill and initiative of the best men workers, provided the work which they were expected to do did not entail too great a physical strain or was not in other ways harmful or objectionable to them. The 1915. LL 514 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. majority of employers, however, seem to be agreed that women generally prefer mechanical and routine employment. In spite, however, of the view which we have found to be prevalent among the majority of employers, experience is teaching that given the opportunity women can produce work which, in spite of their lack of industrial experience, compares favourably with similar work done by men. In some engineering shops where every facility has been given to women to undertake new work involving some judgment and skill their work has reached a high pitch of excellence, and has been little inferior in output to that of men. Hitherto in engineering women have been employed almost entirely on ‘repetition’ work. During the past few months, however, considerable and far-reaching changes have been effected which are likely to have a very marked effect after the War. In a factory which is engaged in the production of projectiles up to 4°5 in. a new department was started a short time ago, the workpeople being women, under the direction and supervision of a few expert men. Though the majority of the women were raw hands totally unaccustomed to tools it was found that within a few days their work attained the necessary accuracy. Much of the work demanded intelligence of a high degree. The women have shown initiative as well as manipulative dexterity—e.g., in a certain screwing operation it was customary, before the employment of women, to rough the thread out with the tool and then to finish it off with taps. Some trouble having arisen owing to the wearing of the taps, the women of their own initiative did away with the second operation, and are now accurately chasing the threads to gauge with the tool alone.’® This is work of which any mechanic might feel proud. Within the past few months women have also undertaken heavier work than was pre- viously thought possible. They are turning out 18-lb, high-explosive shells and Russian 3-in. shrapnel, work involving twenty-one operations, all of which are now done by women. On the delicate work necessary for time fuses they are found particularly suitable. Women need encouragement and sympathy in their new surroundings, and the ordinary male workshop attitude is not one in which their best powers and abilities are encouraged. The standards of the past are too apt still to bar the way to the encouragement of women’s employ- ment in other than mere mechanical work. Skilled workmen are sometimes selfish and employers prejudiced, and this attitude may postpone the substitution of women for men in some cases. Examples such as those given above are not frequent, but they indicate something of the possibilities of the replacement of men by women, especially in munitions, where women are increasingly needed. IV.—Possible Limitations to the Industrial Employability of Women. From what has been said before it will be obvious that, the customary barriers to the employment of women having broken down, the chief factors remaining are the fitness and willingness of women to undertake industrial work. In the past the obstacles to women’s employment have been 1. Women’s lack of physical strength and staying power as compared with men’s. Lack of physical strength effectually bars them from undertaking work entailing any considerable physical strain. In some cases the work has proved injurious to them, e.g., the carrying of heavy weights in ware- houses. In the printing trade it has been suggested that women should do ‘laying on.’ As this often involves the handling of heavy rolls of paper the process is really prohibitive to women unless it can be subdivided and the heavier work given to the men. It is stated that women are less reliable than men owing to more frequent absences on account of illness. Figures supplied by certain insurance companies show that between the ages of 21 and 40 women’s absences are 15 per cent. as against men’s 53 per cent., though below 21 years of age there is hardly any difference. In this connection it should, *° Quoted from The Engineer, August 20, 1915. ee a2 * aa 2] Pry?’ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 515 however, be remembered that the lower wages of women and the double strain imposed by their home duties often react upon their health and increase the natural sex disparity. 2. Certain forms of work are believed to be bad for a woman’s character or debasing to her taste, making her less fit to care for and train the next generation. Here the problem is more difficult, and where these difficulties are real1! improvements could probably be made in conditions and hours of work. It may be suspected that, in many cases, conditions which are morally or intellectually bad for women are not altogether beneficial for men! 3. The comparative shortness of women’s industrial career has led employers to regard time given to the acquisition. of technical knowledge by women as wasted. The young girls employed make up so large a proportion of the total amount of female labour that it is customary to treat them as if industrially they never grew up. In most trades there is a certain amount of work requiring more experience, which absorbs the comparatively small proportion of women who do not marry, or who remain permanently in industry after marriage. Since, unfortunately, for some time to come it seems probable that the female population will be more in excess of the male even than in the past, the number of women who remain on the labour market all their lives is likely to be increased. Already it is stated in some works that during the last year promotion has been very slow because of the com- paratively small number of marriages. Industrial ambition among girls is, therefore, becoming very desirable, and experiments in their industrial education are likely to become increasingly necessary. 4. Women in the main do not regard their occupation as their life’s work. The industrial value of a woman is minimised by the probability of her marrying, and in the majority of cases her consequent withdrawal from the trade. In any case it is stated that her attitude to marriage causes her attitude to her work to be less stable than that of men. In many trades it is said that women require more supervision than men, ow:ng to what appears to be their lack of initiative and timidity with regard to respon- sible work. They are less ambitious and more content to remain in positions which make comparatively little demand upon them. In less skilled work, however, women are often in many respects superior to men. A woman is generally a more cheerful worker and does not feel to the same extent as a man the monotony of performing some small operation during long hours at a stretch and week after week. Women are also traditionally more sober and patient than men. Both employers and workpeople speak with admiration of the patience of women. This patience is no doubt partly due to the fact that most women do not expect to be employed industrially over a period of many years. It is difficult to dogmatise upon the attitude of woman to industry and still more to prophesy as to her attitude in the future, but, generally speaking, it is not incorrect to say that heavy work and work requiring great physical strain are debarred to woman because of her lesser physical strength and stamina. Secondly, her attitude towards marriage is essentially one of the realities to be faced. Whether woman comes into industry on greater terms of equality with man as far as training and continuity of employment are concerned depends largely upon her own inclination in the matter, though changed economic and social circumstances may force a still larger proportion of women into the labour market. How far she will be able to compete with men will be determined by her attitude and the natural disabilities which press all too unfairly upon her in competing with men in industrial life. The above conclusions, which are based upon the opinion of employers and others whose past experience enables them to judge of the suitability of women for industrial employment are not intended to be in the nature of any final statement of the limitations to women’s employment, They attempt to indicate the difficulties which have beset women’s employment in the past, and though 11 See pp. 510, 511, LL? 516 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. many of them will obviously remain, some will no doubt be considerably modi- fied, especially if the women concerned are sufficiently anxious to overcome them and to enter and remain in industry on more equal terms with men. Already within certain spheres some of the possibilities of women as organisers and skilled workers have been demonstrated by numbers of trained and educated women; with further education and training and a greater freedom to work out their own economic destiny it does not require a vivid imagination to picture a state of things differing in many essentials from some of the realities recorded above. V.— Wages. The question of wages is at once the most controversial as well as the most complicated question of women’s employment. Roughly, women receive 50 per cent. to 75 per cent. of the wages paid to men in similar occupations. This at first sight would appear an injustice. But the conditions must be thoroughly understood before it is possible to dogmatise. A mere statement of the com- parative wages of men and women without mention of the attendant circum- stances is useless. And as far as this Report is concerned it has been difficult in the time at our disposal to collect all the facts necessary for a thorough consideration of the question. We can, however, indicate some of the chief factors from the point of view of both employers and workpeople. Reasons given for Low Wages of Women. Employers are apt to regard the question of wages from one aspect only— that of paying to the individual worker what in the employer’s opinion he or she is ‘worth.’ Men’s Trade Unions and many of the women’s organisations, on the other hand, object to the payment to women of lower rates than those paid to men for similar work. In some cases the policy of the men*on this point is opposed to that of the women in the same industry—the men asking for equal rates for men and women, and the women objecting on the ground that this would lead to their effectual exclusion from the trade.” The limitations to women’s employability stated in the preceding section must be borne in mind in a consideration of the question of wages, as they have a direct bearing upon the question of women’s output as compared with men’s. Though women are often paid the same piece rates as men when the work is similar, they are very rarely paid the same time rates owing to their lesser output. In addressing a deputation of women on the subject on April 13, 1915, Mr, Runciman stated that in this matter the Government intended to follow the practice usual in private industry—‘in replacing men by women we have provided that under Government contracts the same piece rates are to be paid for women as for men, and in regard to time rates no special conditions have been laid down.’ The reasons given by employers why the wages of women are lower than those of men may be divided into two groups. The first group depends upon those causes stated in Section IV. and resolve themselves briefly into 1. Women can perform only the lighter processes. 2. The output of women is less than that of men. 3. Women are less skilled and experienced than men and are rarely willing to devote much time to training even if employers thought (as they rarely do) that the short duration of their industrial life justified a long training. 4. Some conditions, such as night work, are more objectionable in the case of women than of men. It should be remembered, however, that a man’s wage in the earlier stages of his industrial career is reckoned in two dimensions—the size of the wage and the prospects of promotion and higher pay after a period of training or experience. A youth often starts at a nominal wage and gives a part of his 2 See Report on Cotton Trade, p. 565. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 517 services for a period of years on a tacit understanding that later he will be able to obtain a rapid and substantial increment of wages. In the case of a woman, however, assuming that her industrial career is shorter than the average man’s and that in the majority of cases she has fewer prospects and is only employed for her intrinsic output, it would seem only equitable that, other things being equal, a woman’s wage in the earlier stages, instead of being lower than that of a youth doing the same work, should be on a higher scale. In comparing men’s and women’s wages it is further necessary to discover how far the work done by each is substantially the same. Even during the present time of stress, when women are to a certain extent doing work which would normally be done by men, the work, as shown in the detailed portion of this Report dealing with separate trades, is very rarely similar either as regards process or conditions. With the introduction of women the work has often to be subdivided, and the men generally have at least the arduousness of their work increased with ofttimes the addition of overtime and night work and a larger amount of work entailing a greater strain. Where workshops have been recently built for women workers they have been equipped with machinery of a very different type from what would have been installed had the management been able to procure skilled men. Whilst women can readily be trained to work such tools as capstan lathes without any great difficulty, a long training is necessary in operating other tools for producing the same fittings. In many of the textile trades it is found that where men and women work the same machines the work is unequal, as only in rare instances can the women ‘tune’ or ‘set’ their machines. The assistance of a male ‘tackler’ is required, and time is lost as well as extra expense incurred. The apparent simplicity of the ‘equal pay for equal work’ test is in practice found to be extremely complicated and difficult to apply. Social Custom. The second group of reasons advanced by employers for paying women at a lower scale of wages depends more upon custom and social outlook. Thus many employers excuse the lower wages of women on the ground that the needs of women are smaller than those of men. It is argued that a man’s wages has normally to be used for the support of a household, while a large proportion of working women have only themselves to support. Some employers also state that as women ask for less wages than men they are paid less in consequence. Others follow social custom in regarding women workers as of a lower status than men. These reasons are apparently regarded as adequate and conclusive by many employers, but they are looked upon by representative working-class opinion with great suspicion. Our evidence goes to show that the difference between the wages of men and women is often more than can be justified by any difference in efficiency, and that this has the result of making it profitable for a firm to introduce the largest possible amount of female labour. For the most part Trade Union (male) opinion agrees that on the basis of ‘to everyone according to his needs,’ the lower wages of women might be justified, although they believe that the low demands of women workers are partly the result of lack of organisation and of industrial ambition among them. Whether, however, payment of a lower wage to a woman be unjust to her or not, the Trade Unions maintain that it is unjust to the man whom she is thus able to underbid. In this connection it is only fair, however, to state that the evidence of some employers goes to show that where they have replaced men by women their wages’ bills for the same output have been greater than when they employed men only. Often two women have had to be employed instead of one man, and three women instead of two men is a fairly common occurrence. This, of course, only illustrates the familiar contention for which in recent years the Trade Boards Act has supplied additional proof, that low-paid inefficient labour is by no means ‘cheap’ labour. Many of the best employers recognise this, and for this reason are not always anxious to replace trained men by untrained women. But when a greater subdivision of processes is introduced the employment of women at lower wages is frequently found to 518 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, reduce the cost of production. Some employers, e.g., in the leather and small metal trades state that they have been able to introduce female and other unskilled labour by means of modifications in their methods. Skilled workmen are thus in some cases undercut in the labour market as effectively as though women offered to do equal work for a smaller wage. Fair Wages. It is too generally assumed that the Fair Wages Clause included in all Government contract agreements sufficiently safeguards the standard of wages paid to women on Government work and secures to them a fair wage. This, however, is not necessarily the case. The Fair Wages Clause is framed apparently on the assumption that in the trades to which it applies standard recognised rates of pay can readily be ascertained. In the same trade, however, very considerable diversities in methods of work and division of processes often exist which render the fixing of rates an extremely technical and complicated matter, necessitating the existence of highly organised machinery representa- tive both of employers and workpeople. ‘These necessary conditions are to be found least of all in those trades which employ large numbers of comparatively unskilled women workers, and in such trades the Fair Wages Clause, save in most flagrant cases, is in consequence practically inoperative. Certain of the worst-paid women’s trades in which very large contracts have been placed during the War, e.g., tailoring, shirtmaking, and food trades, are scheduled under the Trade Boards Act, and though the results of this Act have been very considerable in raising the standard of piece-work rates in those trades, the securing of ‘ fair’ wages to all workers concerned is outside the powers of the Act. The Act can only secure that the piece-work rates paid are such as yield to an ‘average’ worker not less than a certain fixed time rate. Adult women who since the War have transferred temporarily from depressed trades to those which are booming are often for the purposes of the Act classed as ‘learners’ and employers need only pay them according to the learners’ scale of wages, e€.g., a woman over twenty-one years of age who before the War earned 15s. per week as a bookbinder transferred in December last from her own trade which was slack to tailoring in which there was a great demand for women’s labour. She was engaged in a process of ‘ finishing,’ known as ‘ cleaning ’—an unskilled process in which the necessary rapidity could be attained in about two days. For this an ordinary worker should have been paid for a fifty-five hour week at least 14s. 103d. Her employer, however, obtained a learner’s certificate in respect of her from the Office of Trade Boards, and after paying her on the learner’s scale, i.e., 7s. 5d. per week, for eleven weeks, dismissed her as the volume of Government orders had decreased and she was no longer needed. In another case a Government contractor sub-contracted a large pro- portion of his contracts to small workshops at a rate which made it impossible for the sub-contractors to pay fair rates to their workpeople. Under the Trade Boards Act it was impossible to prosecute the contractor. These two cases are typical of many. VI.—The Woman Worker after the War. Forecasting is usually most unsatisfactory, and in the present stage of transition would largely resolve itself into guesswork, Extremely interesting developments of women’s employment are likely to occur within the next few months, but as yet they are little more than in their incipient stages and it is not the business of this Report to anticipate their results. Attitude of Employers to Men Returning after War. It has been, however, interesting to gather from employers their ideas as to vhe policy they intend to pursue after the War with regard to the men who will return. Much will depend upon the industrial and economic position and the rate of discharge from the Army. We have found that employers almost ieee A Wee a Ma aS re TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 519 unanimously state that it is their intention to take back those of their former employees who return, not necessarily in their former positions, but at any rate in positions not inferior to those which they left, and in many cases definite promises have been given. In some cases—e.g., the railways—the men have been promised to be taken back not only in their former positions, but in those to which they would in the natural course of things have been promoted. Tho change of taste and outlook will be a factor which after the War is likely to dis- courage some men from returning to their old positions. One large retail drapery store from which many men went during the South African War states that of those who returned to England only 6 per cent. wished to return to their former occupations. The problem then was of course insignificant com- pared with the present, and the instance given merely illustrates a factor which many employers feel will prevent a considerable number of men from return- ing to the workshop and bench and especially to the office. In some cases of course the experience gained during the War has shown that certain jobs, e.g., lift attendants, can be as efficiently done by women as by men. In such cases employers intend either to take back the men who return and as they are promoted or fall out of industrial life to substitute women in their places, or else better jobs will be offered to the men and the women will be kept on. It is probable that when girls have replaced boys in blind-alley occupations they are likely permanently to remain, as they have proved in most cases more efficient and reliable and are likely to remain longer, Attitude to Employment of Women after War. With regard to the women the problem appears to have been very little considered, most employers treating the extra employment of women as a purely temporary measure to be dropped on the conclusion of war. When friction has occurred with the trade unions with regard to the replacement of men by women an agreement has generally been arrived at in which the employer has promised to take on women for the duration of the War only. The general attitude to the women, therefore, is that at the end of the War they will be dispensed with. It has before been noted in this Report that, as far as the present position is concerned, women in industry proper for the most part have had previous industrial experience. They have either come from trades which are depressed owing to the War, or from other branches of the same trade in which work was slack, or they are in a few cases married women returned to the trade, or else belong to the fringe of casual labour with which too many industries are badly embroidered in times of peace. Those who have been drawn from other industry will no doubt return as their trades revive and the others will return to their normal occupations. In non-industrial occupations, with the ie of railways, a large number of the women are likely to remain after the War. Permanent Increase of Women’s Labour after the War. The great increase of women’s employment can hardly fail to have per- manent results, especially in non-industrial occupations such as clerical work and the retail distributive trades, where for many years a considerable increase of women’s employment has occurred, these trades being peculiarly suitable for the further employment of women. It will probably persist in those manufac- tures where the processes are minutely subdivided and repetition work pre- dominates. The newly built munition factories which are staffed by women may continue to be so staffed, if it is possible after the War to employ them on some product other than munitions. Where female labour is either underpaid or is obviously superior to male labour. a special inducement offers itself to employers to retain the women, and no doubt this will result in a number of the women remaining after the War. We may, therefore, anticipate that after the War the proportion of women in industry will be greater than before and the competition of men and women will increase. In order to minimise the bad effects which may result the following measures suggest themselves : 520 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1. The extensive emigration of women. At the close of the War a consider- able proportion of the men discharged from the Army will have acquired a taste for an open-air life, and may prefer the prospects offered by the Colonies. Unless, therefore, the respective sexes are to be distributed over the Empire even more unevenly than at present, steps must be taken to ensure the emigra- tion of women in something like the same proportion as that of men. 2. The better technical training of both boys and girls. There seems little danger of a superabundance of highly skilled labour. It is the experience of all trades that, except in processes which have been superseded, the supply of highly skilled workers is usually less than the demand. If the materia] wastage of the War is to be repaired, the need of the country for skilled workers will be even greater in the future than in the past. There are signs that the trade unions are entering upon a policy of preventing the undercutting of men by women rather by regulating women’s wages than by excluding them entirely from the more skilled processes. The highly paid skilled workers as a class are not likely to be detrimentally affected by the augmentation of their numbers, whether the recruits come from one sex or both. It is the almost inexhaustible reserve of cheap unskilled or semi-skilled labour which is their real danger; the installation during the War of plant requiring only unskilled and semi- skilled labour, because no labour of a higher order is available, has only increased the difficulties. 3. An extension of the policy of equal pay for equal work, and, as a corollary, a minimum wage for unskilled labour both male and female. This policy, which could be most effectively enforced by organised labour itself, should be so framed as to prevent the employment of unskilled labour from being more pro- fitable than skilled in those forms of production in which they can be alter- natively employed, e.g., engineering. It may be desirable also to give further powers under the Trade Boards Act and to extend it to other trades. 4. A careful reconsideration of the ‘half-time’ system in those industries which still employ this form of child labour. 5. The withdrawal of widows with young children from the labour market by the institution of an adequate pension. scheme, at the same time introducing further restrictions with regard to home work. Statistics. Appended are three tables. Tables I. and II. show the state of employment for industry as a whole at various dates from July to February compared with employment in July 1914. Table IIT. shows the state of employment for those industries most affecting women’s labour. The tables are prepared from three Reports on the State of Employment in the United Kingdom issued by the Board of Trade,1!° which form the best available records of the economic effects of the War on employment. The first (Cd. 7703) deals with the situation up to mid- October 1914; the second (Cd. 7755) states the facts for December; and the third (Cd. 7850) is based upon an inquiry in the middle of February 1915. There all information, as far as the public is concerned, stops short, though comprehensive inquiries are still taking place. In these official Reports little information is given with regard to non-industrial occupations such as railways, docks, shipping, the carrying trade, agriculture, clerks, and distributive trades ; nor is information with reference to. Government employment in Woolwich Arsenal or elsewhere, which has expanded considerably since the War, included. The October return covered 66 per cent. of the workpeople employed in large firms in industrial occupations and 10 per cent. of those im small firms. The December Report was based upon returns received from 23,000 industrial firms employing about 4,000,000 workpeople, or 43 per cent. of the industrial popula- tion, and the February return was even more comprehensive. The quality of the material thus provided is much superior to that upon which official unem- 18 See article ‘The Effect of the War on Industry.’ by W. T. Lavton, in Ouarterly Review, No. 442. Three articles on ‘The Influence of the War on Employment.’ by H. D. Henderson, in Hconomic Journal, December 1914 and March and June 1915, are also interesting contributions to the subject. dy. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 521 ployment returns are generally based, and it is to be regretted that no Reports have been published since last February, but it is to be hoped that later the full Reports will be made available to those who wish to have access to these invaluable records of the economic state of the country during the War. Taste I. State of Employment at various dates since the Outbreak of War compared with Stute of Employment in July 1914. (Numbers employed in July = 100.) Males Females Dec. | Feb. | Sept.| Oct. | Dec. | Feb. 1914 | 1914 1914 | 1915 1914 1914 1914 | 1915 19 | 66°6 | 75:0 Overtime. 5 5 : 3°6 5:2 | 12°8 | 13:8 2:1 59 | 10°8 | 10°9 Short time . , .| 26:0 | 17:3 | 10°5 6:0 36:0 | 26:0 | 19°4 | 12°6 Total numbersemployed| 89:8 | 89°23 Contraction of employ-| 10:2 | 10°7 Normal time. . .| 60: a 658 | 68:4 | 53:5 | 61- ment | 10°9 | 118 8:4 6-2 32 15 Known by employers to} 88 | 10°6 | 13°3 | 15:4 — — uti oe have joined the Forces Net displacement (—) : ’ : ‘ ; ' aN ESTs a ea ae et reas es 3) eat) 32 | —15 It is interesting to check the results in Table I. with those obtained by Mr. Martin Holland in a unique return ’® from the whole of the Banks of England and Wales which throws considerable light on the movement of employment and wages during the first eight months of the war. Each bank computed the total of the cheques drawn for payment of wages in selected weeks. The following are the results : The same expressed as Total of Wage z Week ending Cheques in Mislead Dearne ar Wages Aug. 1, 1914 | £ August 1, 1914 5 eS i | 9,358,204 100 August 29,1914. 4 : : 7,516,139 80°3 October 3, 1914. : A | 8,139,789 87:0 October 31, 1914 . ; ; cel 8,468,875 90°2 November 28, 1914 A 3 fi 8,346,633 89°1 December 19, 1914 . : : ; 8,484,123 90-2 January 30,1915 . : . ; 8,931,468 95°4 February 27, 1915 . ; : : 9,054,251 96°8 March 27, 1915 : 5 : 6 9,071,721 97-0 When allowance is made for the excess of short time in September and October and of overtime in December and February and for a slight rise in wages early in 1915, it is seen that the employment and the banking statistics are quite consistent with each other. ** A + (here and in Table IT.) indicates the extent to which any industry has been compelled to draw in new employees. 5 Royal Statistical Journal, July 1915. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Fy 522 *poXojdmoun yuoumom Aue 48 1oquunU U1E7I00 B OT O1BT]} POTdN900 sTTRO sNsua) 94} WOT osouy Stour 10940 9} GO 4Nq *T [GT OOUTs VoryeMdod jo YyA\015 vw UvEq sey e104} pUeY CUO oq} UO 10g ‘oyemrxoidde A[uO 018 soInSy sey UO poseq sy[Nsoy y (+) quomooridor 00s‘Lg— 000‘08— 000‘’6eI— | 000‘0IZ— o0oFes+ | oO00‘9ET+ | OoOS‘o— 000‘I6— | JO (—) quoemeorjdsrp yan ; sa010j7 poutol oaRy a = a = 000‘0T0‘T 00¢‘F98 000‘689 000‘ZL¢ 0} saefojdme Aq uMouy | : pofoydure 00S°LE 000‘08 000‘¢eT 000‘01Z O00‘LOL 00¢‘S0L o0s*e69 + —- Q00*E99 sdoqmmnu jO uUoTjoRIyUOD 00S ‘C9F'S 000°0ZF‘S 000°SF8‘S 000°063‘% 000°E8L‘¢ 008 ‘T6L‘¢ 00¢‘F08‘¢ ooo‘Les’e | * * * pofkojdure je,07, 000‘STs 000°¢8F 000‘0¢9 000006 000‘06 00¢‘%89 00S ‘FST 000‘;o69'T | °° * * * otnry g104g 00S‘ZLZ 000‘0LZ 00S‘LFT 00¢‘z¢ 000°L68 000‘ZE8 000‘ses 000‘F&3 ‘5 8 * euaTqTeAQ 000°SL8‘T 000°S99‘T 098 LEST 008*LEs‘T 000‘9FF'F 000°LLZ‘F 000‘°CFE‘F ooo.eT6’g | °° °° oult} ][NJ UO "qa ‘00q "490 ‘qdaq } “qaiT ‘00d "490 -4daq = so] RUla,T Sole] aE; —? s[eqoq ogeumxoidde Sutmopjoy 043 409 OM “TIGL FO snsuey o4y 04 Surprcooe ‘suoryednod0 [eLysNpuT Ut (SsopetMMoy QOO‘OOS'S PUL soTeU ON0‘NCG'9) * Potdnooo siequMu oyvurxosdde oy} 07 sosequoosed osoyy Surkjddy ‘sroquinu jengoe wory posroyyeS oq Ave sorjdur *[ o[qey, OIA sosuxyo oy Jo suctsuomIp o4y Jo vopl uy ‘Tl a1a¥yZ, 523 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. ‘saafoduie meu UL Aap 0} peljeduios useq pey Aajsupuy Aue gory, A\ 09 909}K0 ay Soyeoipur + VW 4 *a[QU[TeAe sOINSY ON @ | | | Surpiing esetz “IRQ WY UOTE LOL—|1-S— |¥-31—|9-8— |8-LI—|$-LI—|8-LI—|9-F1—|6-0— |3-E— |0-9— |8-F— [6-91 |€-FT|8-IT [2-6 |000'261 OOOTT | SxojoW = ‘apo 6-6— |F.8— | L-ZI—| 1-€1—| 9-83 —| €-08—| F-13—| 1-61—|3-8— |8-9— |2-01—|S-6— [e-ST |G-€1 |6-01 9-6 |000 TFL 0006S | °° aangqruInyiy 9-6— |6-8— |8-11—|9-€1—|9-8— |9:2— | F-F— ae G-L+ |8-L+ | L-9+ |L-I+ |L-9T|F-€£/8-01 3-6 |000°9LZ |000'00T | CBGOT BF poor | | | Arouory e.g— |0-9— |3-9— |F-F— | 1-FI—|3-3I—| L-1I—|8-6— |€-0+ |8-0+ |S-I— |6-0— |F-FL|S-21 |Z-01 |9-8 |000°661 000‘6F | -BIg pue sodeg | sse[xy) pure 9-¢— |6-I— |8-F— |€-S— '¢-91—|3-I1—, ¢-1I— 6-01—|8-0— |1-6+ |€-0— |0-I— |G-ST/$-€1/Z-11 6-6 |000°E8 |000°KE Aroqyog «= “BUT | | So[T4xoT, | royjo » duoxT ¢.e— |F-I— |8-0— |0-I— |1-2I—|%-8— |LL— |9-b— |0-S+ |8-9-+ |6-b-+ |F-B+ |L-L110-91 9-21 0-4 [00849 OOLLOL| ‘nL ‘ueurT 0-€— |¢-6— |0-F1—|6-FI—| [-TI—|8-€1—| 1-LI—| -L4T—|4-0+ | L-E— | €-01—|6-Z1—|9-11|9-6 |0-L |€-F |000°69< 000‘00F} © * m0#40) 9-0— |Z-e— |3-G— |9-8— | L-8I—|1-FI—|3-11—| L-€1—|€-0+ |9-1— |8-0— | 1-b— |0-FI|¥-21 |P-01 9-6 |000'SE2 000°G66| °° = Surq3019 €-I+ |0-1— |41— |€&0— |1T-I— |&-€— |¢-9— |¥-L— '8-6+. |9-9+ |¢-0+ |8-0— [6-01 6-6 |L-9 |L-9 |000°66T |000°6F | © 2°US pus yoo Lot [tet |61— |¢+— [8-0+ | L0+ | 1-3— |@-L— [86+ |6-L+ |L3+ |G-E— [0-6 [2-4 |8-b |€-F /000°62T 000°8ST | PezstOM WY [OOM F-OLT/S-L+ |3-G+ |¢-0+ |L3— | L0— |T-1- |0-9— |9-6+ |8-9+ |9-G+ | LO [8-21 /S-L |L-9 |L-9 |000°8T ooo'se | * * AsatsoH PTH E-ZI+ Sst |8-0— |L6— | L8— |6-3T— 8-11—|0-L+ [69+ |3-0+ |8-1— [1-91 |9-FT|Z-ZT 0-01 |000°S99 000TS | ° — SuTeoursugy "a2 ‘spoox) 9.9¢+| L-OT+]0-2-+ |8-11—|9-3-+ |O-I— |9-L— |9-L— |$-81+|€-01+]3-9- | 1-4 |0-9T|Z-F1|8-T [9-11 |000°LL 000°6T | 2043¥0T ‘ie SATS | -oidxo Surpnyo O-88+| + a [LI |G1+ |&8— |F.9— |6-9— 98T4/LZI+/ 09+ |6-€+ FL /F-ST\G-EI 8-01 [000'C6I 000°6% | -4t) sTeorweyD ‘qaq | oeg | 990 | 3deg | ‘qeq | ‘oed | ‘PO | “340g | “Gan | “99d | “PO “qdaq [qa \0eq |990 deg) soley |soTeuteT *peXo[duie saaquinu jo ‘peXojdura saaquinu jo *4(+);ueurs.eR[dey 10 oe cnet Aas "LI6T snsuan a aieondn uotsuedxg 10 UOrzoe.14U0;) uoisuedxg 10 WoTpoRIZUO!) (—) quaweoridsiq Jen Eades Ta nut “uo1ye[ndog apna’) Sevan a [erysnpuy = ree eyeurxoiddy *so[eulay *soTe (‘OOL = FI6r Ainge ur pefojdmo srequinyy) “unognT apouag burjoaffio sow ednosb apo yodromad we HI ET Ainge yn pasodwmod ‘g{El “Q2q PUY “FIGL ‘9q ‘190 “Hag uw wophuy panuQ us quauhojdury fo ang TIL S19VL 524 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. Tassie IV. The following table shows the number of males and females in England and Wales engaged in non-industrial occupations in 1911 :— = Women Men General or Local Government 5 : . Z : 50,975 248,624 National ; 3 5 3 5 ; . 31,538 140,814 Local . : A : : : x : ; ; 19,437 107,810 Professions 5 Pi : : 2 3 . F ; 347,043 355,307 Clericali(Reliaious) ig). acres pomayeee bee tt 14,215 52,358 | hoe geaare Dee Lao ne ba en 2,159 55,486 Medical ; : : i : ; ; : a 87,699 38,313 Teaching 5 5 3 3 my | 187,283 76,428 Literary, Scientific, and Political . . | 5,689 25,499 Art, Music, Drama, SC. Z ; , : sea 49,998 107,223 Domestic and Institutional Service EA 8 ges / 1,734.040 387,677 Domestic Indoor Service in Hotels, Lodging and | 63,368 12,226 Eating Houses . ae eS ee ae Other Domestic Indoor Servants 5 - ; e 1,271,990 42,034 Domestic Outdoor Service iy ee eee 104 226,266 Other Service : Hospital, Institution, and Benevolent Society 41,639 17,394 Day Girls, Day Servants.» . . . . 24,001 = Charwomen. 2. Giga en oe eae 126,061 = Laundry Workers ; 2 . ; . 5 F 167,052 12,464 Others... Stew at as, SOK 39,825 77,293 Commercial Occupations ee aes Sa ie (e 126,847 663,316 Merchants, Agents, Accountants . . . . 4,301 164,450 z Commercial or Business Clerks ae commie 117,057 360,478 . Dealers in Money: Insurance . . 9 i x 5,489 138,388 . Transport . ; P ‘ 3 ¥ is : : A 24,474 1,399,394 OngRailways, | 6s fe, we sk eee, oe) Ge 2,636 397,990 On Roads . " - ‘ d . > 2,821 471,994 On Seas, Rivers, and Canals . . . . .| 1,038 132,195 In Docks, Harbours, &e. . _ : : 23 123,022 In Storage, Porterage, and Messages ithe. (43 17,956 274,193 Agrecullines | ase Sea oe ee ee 94,722 1,140,515 Farmers, Graziers, Farm Workers . . . . 90,128 971,708 Gardeners’ K-13: cs. we ee Elec 4,594 168,807 TLotalsit: Ae _«. Chaeeeetiees 2 o=k GS 2,377,709 4,166,129 Without Specified Occupations or Unoceupied . . | 10,026,379 2,208,535 Retired (not Army or Navy) Pensioners Gree ae 87,894 422,213 Private Means . 2S Ore.nsd 295,712 52,432 Others aged 10 years and upw ards (including | 9,642,773 1,733,890 Scholars and Students) Totals . . ° . . . . ° . 12,404,088 6,374,664 ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 525 Detailed Reports on Trades. In the following Reports on separate trades no attempt is made to be exhaus- tive, since in any case that is not possible under present conditions, and the amount of information that we have been able to obtain differs considerably as between different trades. Some details are, however, given in each case of the position of each trade owing to the War, and the nature of the increased employment of women, especially with reference to those processes in which they have replaced or are likely to replace men. The Report on the Metals and Engineering group was mainly drawn up from information received from the Birmingham district. The Leather and Tailoring Reports will be found interesting from the fact that they are trades into which women have been drawn in large numbers, but in which there does not appear to have been any considerable displacement of men by women. A Report on the Cotton trade is included mainly to show the effect of this trade upon the general figures for women’s employment. Reports on the possibilities of replacing men by women would not be com- plete without some mention of trades which, though depressed since the War, offer scope for the further employment of women. Accounts of the Printing and Pottery trades are therefore given. Reports on non-industrial occupations —distributive trades, clerical work in banks and other offices, railway work and transport, and Government employment, are also included. Owing to the com- plicated nature of the question it has been thought inadvisable in the few weeks at our disposal to attempt any inquiry into Agriculture, although this occupation offers a number of interesting examples of replacement. DISTRIBUTIVE TRADES. The retail distributive trades offer peculiar scope for the further employment of women, and since the War the increase of women’s employment has been more general in these than in most other trades and occupations. In the majority of firms this increase would have been larger but for the fact that there has been a diminution of trade, especially in those shops dealing in better- class goods; shops catering for a lower grade of goods have been comparatively busy. The replacement of male by female labour in these trades is no new phenomenon, as is shown by the following table, but the shortage of male labour owing to the War has accelerated the process to a considerable degree. At present the majority of employers consider their data and experience too inadequate to express final opinions as to the effects of the introduction or increase of women’s labour. Nature of Increase of Women’s Work. Since the War women have replaced men and youths as saleswomen in all those lines where it has been customary for women as well as men to be employed, e.g., stationery, toilet requisites, and prepared drugs. They have also entered, both as saleswomen and as shopwalkers, and in isolated cases as buyers, into those branches which have in the past been regarded for the most part, and especially in larger shops, as men’s monopoly, such ag grocery, provisions, fruit and greengrocery, chintz, &c., heavy fabrics, men’s hosiery, and hard- ware (light articles only). Women are now employed in practically every type of shop and warehouse except where the work is too heavy, €.g., ironmongery and Manchester departments of drapery stores; or highly technical, e.g., scientific instrument shops. Women have made their first appearance as com- missionaires and timekeepers, as lift-girls, and in the packing departments in sorting, checking, packing, and putting up orders, as well as in the despatch departments. Some firms have appointed women on their administrative staffs, but rarely are women given positions of responsibility over men. Women are appearing for the first time on delivery vans, both horse and motor, as cycle- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. iio} NN Yen] 9€L + | 09 + | Ger + 068‘¢ 19893 lGvaras COL‘S ehE ‘Gs SFP'SZ ‘+ - systsSniq: pue sysimeyO 816 + | €-01 + | O41 + 99g‘ 86F‘E1 $9891 esos G8o‘ZI 88L‘FI * SI9T[Og ‘sIOysYqng 4uLg ‘yoog | Jodeg ut siopvoqy G1€ + | ¢.or + GS-61 + 9OLST | 686‘ET 69°93 | §89°6 6S9‘ST SEES | «OY,O ‘s198MOTZVIg MeT ‘stoMOTye4g L8et+ | GLL + | $89 + |] Les‘e SIL‘e GLO‘L CFS‘T 188‘ FEL F ‘ow ‘shoJ, ‘syUeUINI4SUT UT sro;eacT ] soyoje pure AzroyT 9113+ | §-eIe+- | 6-21¢+ 628°C | LLOST 906 ‘FI 806 ccs‘s COL F “PML “S[VJOP[ SNOTOoIg UI S1OTeeqy Solo, [ereuey) ‘s1edosydoyg poyrsseyo | -UQ) JO [eIeueXy ‘(peugopugQ 10 | [e1suex)) sioyIO MA ‘s1ojotadorg Tele -G e| SLE = OL 89Z‘8h = GI8‘IF LLO‘06 LE0‘8Z 6ES‘ES 9LS‘TS | e10jg efdymy_ ‘doyg ofdyjny 6-8h + LL + | 3.96 + 9606 | ZOL‘TT 86613 0L9‘9 002 ‘0T OL8‘9T 1 e - Se S sastropouqaiy, 6-99 + 8-16 + | 6.46 + || FPP | 90F'F 0¢s‘F 993 819‘ F88‘E “ * "+ pooy UT s18T4O BERL ate €-L + PLE + | 9LF‘0S = ss SLB‘TS 686'3L LZ6‘TT 00L‘0F LZ9‘SS “ * sderoyMayy ‘ste001sueerx) S19[v9(, ¢.9¢ + 86 + ¢.eI + || gseo‘es | 186°C9T | 619°61G | Gse‘cr FST‘IST | 69S°E6T | e9e[000qD ‘eayog ‘vay, ‘s1d0019 ¢.g¢ + Lh + €-3¢ + | Gtz‘99 | T69‘EF €&6 ‘601 G6LIP GOF0E LOL‘SL wg “STOUOTZOOFUOD ‘sIoyeq 8-8¢I+ | 6ST + 9-26 + G6G‘S OF GSLI 891 ‘0Z 116 98FST LEF‘OT | * syueqorey, poog “mopq “109 | | ‘OM €-811+ L8S + | 8g + cgocL =| 66698 $89 'tP 129‘ 9FL‘8z LOGGE | ‘oMNy ‘SioreqInog ‘s1oduoUTYSTT 9-806+ GL + 0-72 + || I88‘IT | zez‘ecl | eer‘eet 0cs‘s COT ‘SOL SIO60I | ° * Ueumrseeg yeep ‘stoyoyng Ht | se104g UOISTA 0-07 + | “It + 9L1 + || 6119 | SPFST LOS ‘ES CLEF OTS‘9T G88‘0G | -O1g ‘UotMIE4yNg ‘s19SuOMIEsooyO 9-78 + | 32g + €-68 + TLZ‘OL | OOL‘9F TL6‘9¢ g9g‘¢ 8gE‘SE 106 ‘OF 7 * + uewdrred, ‘sx9][9S HITT 986 + | &r — $11 + 909°F8 | Z98‘99 896‘0ST LEP‘S9 0Z6‘L9- LEQ*Ggl | steoroyy ‘saodeaq uoury ‘siodeig PSioP ois ee i Geo | see | sri 99F ‘Ee €99°L E23 ‘FI 9881 * * BoiQ ‘uaqyeq ‘aoyg “yoog 8-L1T+ 8-7¢ + Lg9 + || L6S°6 | SFO‘LZ GFO‘OE 90FF IOL‘LI LOL‘SS “5 * $109999N0 ‘sroTy,0[O 0-9#6+ 8-ST + €-86 + 6699 | LIPP OLLI 986‘T SI8‘s ISL‘¢ “oR “QIRIq MeIyg “gouuog ‘ye}T soleulay | soley suosi9g So] BvUla yy | Sole] suos13oq So[BVule,T Sole] suosi19g i suoredno0Q9 “‘quao aed astaddaq 10 esvarouy | TI6I Jo snsuay | TOGI Jo susuaar) ‘VY Wavy, 8 Opesz OATINGT ASIP JOLY 9U} UT SayeA\ pue puLlsuG ur pokojduro ‘oyruay pur opeur ‘suosrod JO "yue0 red osvaso > TIGL PU [06T sieved 04} 90M J0q UI OY} SMOYS 9[Ge} SUIMOT[OF OT], TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 527 carriers, and as milk-vendors. Girls and young women have been employed in hundreds in place of boys for newspaper delivery and at railway bookstalls. In those branches of these trades in which the work is rough, such as dairy work and heavy van driving, the extra women who have been drawn in since the War have come from factories, domestic service, laundries, and other occu- pations where the work is heavy or unpopular or wages comparatively low. For the lighter work the women who have come in have either been in business before, generally in occupations in which there has been a contraction in employ- ment owing to the War, e.g., dressmakers and milliners and light luxury trades generally ; or are women from comparatively well-to-do families hit by the War; or girls of fifteen to eighteen years of age mostly from secondary schools. In comparatively few cases are married women quoted as returning. Various estimates ranging from 50 to 100 per cent. are given as to the amount of increase of women’s labour in these trades. The Trade Unions concerned anticipate a continued increase in women’s employment, and point to the grocery trade, where already the numbers have doubled. It has been found impossible to obtain sufficient information in statistical form to be able to quote figures. Amongst a number of employers there is still a considerable reluctance to engage women on work previously done by men. Some of them prefer to run their businesses with insufficient staff rather than take on women. The reasons stated for this reluctance are : (a) Women are untrained. The male employees lost were to a large extent skilled men, and their places cannot be taken by men or women without the necessary technical experience. This was stated to be the case by certain firms dealing in jewellery, ironmongery, furniture, books, and drugs. The normal recruiting to the trade in the case of male labcur is by boys and youths who are promoted as they prove efficient. (6) It is not worth training women as many of them are not likely to remain in the trade. It is stated that the possibility of marriage causes her attitude to her work to be less stable than that of men. Uncertainty as to the duration of the War also influences employers in this respect. (c) The work is too heavy or dirty, e.g., in furniture and piano shops and the meat and fishmongery departments of general stores. In the heavy departments of drapery firms employers are apportioning the heavier work to the men and the lighter to the women. A firm employing women in its despatch and packing departments has arranged that men only shall transfer cases to the warehouse. Some dairies with many branches have had to reduce the number of calls for women on milk rounds, giving a few extra to each man. A firm employing women at the fish and meat counters does not ask them to prepare and clean the fish. (d) As staying power is essential even when actual physical strength is not, women are not found capable of so large an output as men. ‘This was the view expressed by 83 per cent. of the employers visited, some quoting comparative figures. Thus, a large provision merchant uses three women for two men’s work, a dairy has had to put in two women where one man sufficed, and has had to reduce the number of calls in the women’s rounds; a general store and a hardware firm put the value of a trained woman at 75 per cent. of that of a man. Many employers allow that output is, to a large extent, a matter of training and practice, but in spite of this they consider women of less efficiency than men when tested by output or staying power, the cause being partly physical and partly psychological. Men generally enter these trades as boys, and the trades are ‘picked up.’ Definite schemes of training are almost non-existent save in very large stores, where lectures are sometimes given. The London County Council Higher Education Committee has started a scheme for training women in the grocery trade, but it is premature to attempt an analysis of the results. Employers prefer ‘experience’ to ‘lectures.’ Men acquire experience and knowledge over a period of years, and it is obvious that adult men or women from other trades find it extremely difficult to compete with, or to do the work of, those having years’ experi- ence of the trade. Men enter the grocery trade as boys of fourteen, in 528 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. circulating libraries they enter at the same age, and ‘it takes years to produce a good salesman of fabrics.” Obviously adult women are heavily handicapped under such conditions. ; (e) Though painstaking, women do not possess initiative in the same degree as men, and often they lack interest in their work. A few employers abso- lutely deny this. In spite of these objections women have for some years past been entering these trades in increased numbers, as shown in Table A, and while a majority of employers maintain reasoned objections to women’s employment, such as physical disabilities and the probability of their withdrawal from the trade on marriage, a minority are no doubt largely influenced by the custom of the trade in regard to their employment. When asked ‘If you could get men would you employ them in preference to the extra women that you have taken on?’ 50 per cent. of employers stated ‘No’; 28 per cent. said ‘ Yes,’ and 22 per cent. were doubtful. Patriotic as well as economic motives, however, largely influenced these replies. | Employers are generally very cautious in taking on women for new work, and in few cases, so far as could be discovered, had experiments proved failures. Trade Union opinion agrees that women’s efficiency is lessened by (1) physical strength, (2) marriage, though obviously the former depends very much upon the kind of work done. One particular job in a shop generally consists of several processes, some light and some heavy, some skilled and some less skilled. Obviously there is diffi- culty in introducing untrained men or women into such a system unless reorganisation and subdivision of work is effected. This apparently has been very rarely done. From the report of one large firm, where great and marked success and enterprise renders the opinion of its manager valuable, it appears that such reorganisation and subdivision of labour is advantageous. He says that, thanks to careful subdivision prior to the War, he has not found it necessary to put in more women to do the work of men; that the majority of the women with some experience are capable of the same work, and can, therefore, earn the same pay. For example, the women commissionaires and lift attendants were not expected to put up shutters and scrub out lifts; the delivery men had no cleaning or repairing of their vans to do; and in the provision department the salesmen whom the women replaced were doing no heavier work than a woman is capable of doing. A considerable subdivision of work is, however, less possible in small shops than in large stores. One employer, who was typical of many, when questioned on this point, replied that ‘Such subdivision is more arduous than manipulating the pieces at a game of chess.’ The reluctance of some employers to reorganise their business on these methods has made the task of taking on women and releasing men more difficult. Wages. The question of wages is a difficult one. Only in very exceptional cases can piece-rates be paid. Throughout these trades time-rates are the rule, though commissions are often earned in addition to fixed wages. It is obvious from all reports that, with very few exceptions, women’s wages are less than the wages of men. This is due to :— (a) A difference in the work done by men and women. Very few women are said to be doing exactly the same work as that previously done by the men replaced. (6) The smaller output of the women who have replaced men and the probable lack of continuity of their work. (c) Social and personal factors. Women ask and are paid less wages. Custom also plays a considerable part. As women are for the most part untrained and are often doing the work of boys and youths and rarely the full work of men it is difficult to prepare any comparative table of wages. One can only give a few examples. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 529 One chemist employing dispensers states that they get the same, or even more if they are more skilled. The question is entirely one of skill. A firm employing women instead of boys and youths as messengers and lift attendants pays them 10s. to 15s., where youths, after some experience, got 12s. 6d. to 18s. and two meals. A ; A jeweller employing casual labour to clean silver paid a woman 15s. where a man would have got 30s., though she was acknowledged to be as good. A dairy is paying women on milk rounds 19s. 9d. where men got 25s. The number of calls is, however, reduced. Another dairy is paying a woman 16s. a week for washing cans where a man got 26s. In this case, however, two women are employed to do the work of one man. In the majority of cases three women seem to do the work of two men. In the grocery trade three-quarters of the men’s wages is felt to be as much as can be asked for by a section of those interested in the question of women’s wages. ‘Many of the wages at present fixed are to a large extent experimental, and they differ very much between different firms and districts. The Trade Union concerned, though in theory in favour of equal pay for equal work, does not endeavour to secure equal pay. It tries to secure three-quarters of the men’s pay for women everywhere except in London, where the demand is four-fifths. It is stated that the best shops pay men more than the minimum demanded, while few pay the women as much. In the second grade shops men are, for the most part, paid the minimum, but very few women attain it. Still a large number of shops do not pay to women one-third of the minimum demanded for them by the Union. The majority of employers state that untrained women’s labour is not cheap labour and that women require more supervision than men. Since the War their wages bills for the same output have been heavier than before. One provision firm, having many branches throughout London and the country, stated that the value of male labour over female is approximately 30 per cent. on the same wages. Some firms stated that the difference in the wages of trained men and women is greater than is the difference in their efficiency. They generally referred to social custom as explaining this dis- crepancy. For the most part women shop assistants are unorganised, though a considerable number have joined a union since the War. 33°3 per cent. of employers expressed a belief in equal pay for equal work, 27-7 per cent. stating that they were paying it. As the character of most of the work prevents the fixing of piece-rates the employers’ opinion alone can fix the question of equal work. One states he pays ‘according to the man’s or woman’s capacity,’ another that he believes in equal pay ‘ where the women do the same work and the same amount without supervision.’ Of those who do not believe in equal pay for equal work 50 per cent. say women ask for less and get less, and 50 per cent. that ‘ being women’ or ‘only having themselves to support’ they get less. All employers visited say they are ready to take back their men when and if they return. They do not, however, expect this problem to be a serious one. Youths in many cases are now doing the work previously done by men, and women have taken the boys’ places. Where women have taken the place of boys and youths, e.g., on lifts, they are likely to remain. The opinion is often expressed that many of the men who return will not wish to return to a - sedentary life. One large drapery firm instanced that after the South African War only 6 per cent. of their men wished to return. Many employers think that women will not wish to remain at rough, out-door work such as milk- delivery and van-driving, especially during the winter months. Many of the women themselves, and especially those from better class families, regard their entry into the trade as a temporary one, though, on the other hand, women from occupations such as domestic service and factory workers intend if possible to remain. Many of the women introduced are young and are now learning the trade and are not likely to wish to leave it. The majority of employers seem, even reluctantly, to have accepted the fact of the further entry of women into these trades and they are now experimenting and testing. They are unwilling yet to give final opinions, and the above inadequate statement of the problem reflects generally the views of the trade. 1915. ry 530 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. It is difficult to draw definite conclusions from information which cannot fully be produced in statistical form, but the following general remarks are suggested by the foregoing evidence : (1) The replacement of men by women has occurred to a larger extent in the distributive trades, and especially in grocery, than in most other trades and occupations. Practically the only limitations to women’s employ- ability in these trades have been in work requiring physical strength or technical knowledge. (2) The movement of labour into these trades has been from trades which are depressed owing to the War, such as millinery, dressmaking, and luxury trades generally. Girls from fifteen to eighteen years of age, mostly from secondary schools and women from comparatively well-to-do families hit by the War, have also been absorbed to a considerable extent. The movement into the heavier branches of the trades has been largely from lower-paid or less attractive occupations, such as some kind of factory-work, domestic service, and laundry-work. In few cases have married women returned. (3) In the opinion of the majority of employers, the actual value of a woman as a worker is about 30 per cent. below that of an average man employed in the same capacity, the difference being due partly to physical strength and partly to incapacity of continued employment because of marriage. (4) A minority of employers, however, find that, with improved organisation and greater subdivision of processes, many places can be found for women in which their economic value is equal to that of an average man. (5) The actual wages of women tend to be lower in proportion to those of men employed in similar capacities than would be justified even by a less favourable estimate of their economic value. This discrepancy appears to He due to custom and to the inferior economic status of women as workers. Raltways. 1901 Board of Trade Returns—Total (Men and Women) = 575,834 1913 5 ee Ms Total ,, ne = 643,135 = + 11-6 increase:per cent. 1901 Census: Women, 1,411. 1911 Census: Women = 2,636 = 82°9 increase per cent. ; Prefatory Note. [Since this Report was written an agreement has been reached between the railway companies of Great Britain and the National Union of Railwaymen, to take effect as from August 16, 1915, in regard to the rates of wages paid to women. This agreement is as follows: ‘ An assurance was asked for and given that the employment of women in capacities in which they had not formerly been employed was an emergency provision arising out of the circumstances created by the War and would not prejudice in any way any undertaking given by the companies as to the employ- ment of men who had joined the colours on the conclusion of the War.’ ‘It was agreed that the employment of women during the War in capacities in which they had not been previously employed is an emergency arising entirely out of the War and is withuut prejudice to the general question of the employment of women.’ ‘The pay of women employed in grades in which they were not employed prior to August 1914 shall, for the duration of the War, be the minimum pay of the grade.’ Its application, therefore, is to women employees on the operative staff only (and not the clerical staff) and includes : Ticket collectors and examiners, messengers, halt and platform attendants, office porters, pneumatic tube attendants, checkers, shippers, weighbridge clerks, time-keepers and carriage cleaners. sa ees TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 531 In respect of carriage cleaners, as in the case of one or two other occupations, é.g., ticket collectors and halt attendants, women were employed in these capacities in small numbers and on certain railways prior to the War, but their employment was so far exceptional that for the purposes of this agreement it was decided to regard them as occupations new to women. It follows from this arrangement that women are henceforth liable to the same hours of work as the men and the same conditions of service, so that if, for instance, it seems con- venient and desirable to put women carriage cleaners on the outside work, there is no technical reason which can be urged against their being so employed. Many of the remarks made in this Report on the question of women’s wages and hours of work are consequently rendered inapplicable at the present moment. It has not, however, been thought desirable to exclude or modify these remarks, and for this reason. The agreement with regard to women’s rates, just as the employment of women in capacities new to them, is clearly understood to be an emergency provision, arising out of the circumstances of the War, and forms no aaa whatever. This understanding applies equally to their hours of work. The position, therefore, is this: if women prove themselves capable of performing equal service with men under equal conditions of work, then the case against théir employment on the railways falls to the ground and they cannot be excluded. Further, instead of remaining content with the present agreement to pay the minimum rate of the grade occupied, they will be justified in demanding the increases customary in the men’s scale. If, on the other hand—and this seems to be the more likely event—they prove unequal to the demands made on their physical powers and general ability to cope with the work, then the question of their partial employment, with shorter hours and lighter work, may come up for reconsideration. In the former case no argu- ment is possible, but in the latter there are advantages and disadvantages to be weighed, and it is because some attempt has been made to review these that this Report is left in its present form. The experiment that is now to be tried of giving women equal work and equal wages is one of great interest. It remains for experience to throw light. upon various important questions, as, for instance, whether the wages bill will increase, whether women possess unsuspected abilities for this kind of work and justify the consideration of their permanent employment in the new posts. But, it is necessary to repeat, if it should happen that women do not realise the highest expectations, that will not in itself justify the total exclusion of them from these branches of the service. If we should be faced with a shortage of men after the War, a subdivision of labour, by which women do some of the easier work, with shorter hours and lighter responsi- bilities, may well prove to be a desirable and necessary step. And in that case it seems worth while to state the conclusions reached in this Report with regard to wages and hours, even though not applicable in the present conditions, because at first sight the apparent injustice of a lower scale of pay for women is likely to be misleading, unless the actual character and value of the services which women can perform in these new branches are carefully weighed. For these reasons the Report is left in its present form, with the understand- ing that the new agreement temporarily suspends the conditions as to wages and hours here represented, and with the hope that the agreement, when put into practice, will shed some light on the always difficult question, how far women are capable of giving service of precisely equal value with men.] Outdoor Staff. It seems to be not generally understood that the increase in the employment of women on the railways has arisen entirely out of the emergency created by the War. The companies have encouraged enlistment among their employees, provided due notice of their intention is given, and in consequence a steady flow of recruits has been maintained, the total enlisted from the railways up to the present time being estimated at 89,000 to 90,000, or about 14 per cent., at which point it is thought the margin of possibility has nearly been reached. Enlist- ment among those engaged in the manipulation of traffic, though less than in other branches, has been sufficient to demand the introduction of women into MM2z 532 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. new branches. The demand up till now has varied considerably with the different railways; in one company 263 extra women have been taken on, in another 170, but in others much smaller numbers. The grades chiefly affected are those of «arriage cleaners, ticket collectors, and checkers. On December 31, 1913, there were 305,000 men engaged in the manipulation of traffic, of whom carriage cleaners=6,531; ticket collectors=3,741. The number of women on the railways is returned in the 1911 census as 2,636, of whom 1,120 were clerks, &c., and 1,156 were ‘other railway servants.’ Women are also being employed experimentally in smaller numbers as messengers, Weighbridge clerks, time keepers, invoice checkers, office porters, and halt attendants, and by one company at least as dining car attendants. The increased employment of women in the offices is considered separately. The employment of women as carriage cleaners dates from some two years back, but though their work as such compares very favourably with that of men in quality, it appears still to be an open question whether this will be a permanent occupation for women. Hitherto they have worked an 8-hour day, against the men’s day of 10 hours. The quality of their work is in some respects superior to that of men, but in quantity it is relatively less. Some companies state that they have to employ a proportion of 3 women to 2 men, or of 6 to 5, to get the same amount of work. Piecework records show that women will generally earn 10 per cent. less than men on the same work. There are the further objections. that women are not so well fitted to do the outside, but only the inside cleaning ; that it is generally necessary to have platform or siding accommodation for the cleaning of carriages, as it is regarded as undesirable and dangerous to have women cleaning carriages on the permanent way. Nevertheless the War has given a considerable impulse to the employment of women as carriage cleaners— one company has taken on 140 additional women, which is one-sixth of their total of male carriage cleaners employed before the War, and they are likely to continue this occupation for some time to come. The effect of the new agree- ment in regard to hours, introducing a 60-hour week for women (as compared with 47 hours in 1913, increased more recently to 48), must remain as yet uncertain, but it is likely that, though their work may continue to be satisfac- tory, the women themselves may at the end of the War demand a return to the status quo. The introduction of women ticket collectors and checkers, on the other hand, is almost entirely a new departure, their total in the census of 1911 being returned as 19. Now one company alone has 78, which is just under one-sixth of the total of men so employed before the War. Three companies had recently a total of 169 women ticket collectors. One fact which has facilitated the introduction of women with little or no previous training, is the suspension of cheap bookings and excursion tickets, simplifying the work as compared with a normal summer season to a very appreciable extent. It is still early to form a judgment as to the suitability of ticket collecting as a permanent occupation for women, and it is made more difficult by the fact that existing conditions are not normal. Thus doubt is generally expressed whether in normal times an equal number of women ticket collectors would be sufficient to cope with the work formerly done by men. One Railway Company at least, it is true, has followed the policy of substituting one woman for each man gone, and finds the work is satisfactorily performed—women working one hour less at main stations. Another Company, on the other hand, substituted 3 shifts of women for 2 of men, and proposed to continue this arrangement for the present. Prior to the new agreement, women were working shorter hours than men at main stations—at Paddington, for instance, they worked 1 hour per day less—and it remains to be proved whether, as a permanent arrangement, 3 shifts of women would not be necessary, or at least desirable, to do the work of 2 shiftsof men. Inthe first instance they were not employed, generally speaking, before 7 A.M. or after 9 P.M., whereas men are liable to duty between the hours of 5 A.M. and 1 A.m., but it was soon recognised as improbable, if not impossible, that this distinction could be permanently maintained. Even when the system of 3 shifts of women for 2 shifts of men is accepted, it still remains doubtful whether equal efficiency is obtained, and it is clear that, apart from the demand for men for war service, the companies are not yet converted tq , es ee —_—" Ss eS ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 533 any change of policy and, for the present at any rate, would generally prefer men ticket collectors to women. The chief objections to the employment of women ticket collectors are : 1. The limitations to their sphere of activity. 2. Their comparative inability to deal with extra or sudden pressure or with the rougher classes of passenger trafiic. These two disabilities, in combination, constitute a serious obstacle; thus at main stations and junctions, while specialisation and subdivison of functions render the first objection inoperative, the second objection is strongly accen- tuated. At provincial stations the position reverses itself and it is the first objection which is operative, while the latter is absent. The provincial ticket collector often discharges a variety of duties involving considerable training, endurance and initiative, so that the introduction of women is regarded as undesirable except where the sphere of activity is limited to the issuing and collecting of tickets, and such other light duties as checking, invoicing, and the telegraph. There are further obstacles in the isolation of outlying offices, which could not be put in the sole charge of women, as they are in the case of men, and in the mobile character of the work, which frequently involves the transferring of workers in the lower grades from one district to another. It is generally admitted that even if it were desirable on other grounds, women show them- selves less adaptable than men to such change of surroundings and of routine. Finally the shorter hours, and the exemption of women from early and late turns, which the subdivision of work makes possible in the case of main stations, are obviously impossible in the case of small provincial stations where a single booking clerk is employed. Within limits, therefore, the employment of women as ticket collectors both in main and provincial stations appears to be practicable, but it is not capable of indefinite extension and is further complicated by the question of early training, which would have to be much more seriously considered if the employment of women were regarded in the light of a permanent change instead of, as now, a purely emergency measure. Because it is an emergency measure and because of the abnormal condition of traffic, the unusual procedure of introducing women without training can be justified. Normally, the ticket collectors are recruited from the porters, and the direct introduction of men or youths from outside the railway service for such duties is a quite exceptional occurrence, though one Railway Company apparently follows this method and recruits only a very small percentage of its ticket collectors from among its porters. In consequence a newly appointed collector has, as a general rule, three or four years’ varied experience behind him, which has a considerable practical application to his new routine. But in view of the strong expression of opinion against the permanent employment of women as porters, it is difficult to see how women can receive any such practical training for the duties of ticket collecting. In any case the balance of advantage must always rest with the men, because it would be unsuitable for women to enter the railway ‘service on the operative side (as contrasted with the clerical) at as early an age as men. Of the men’s attitude towards the question different accounts are given. The position of the ticket collector is a popular one, being regarded on the one hand as a ‘soft’ job and on the other as the stepping stone to the position of guard, inspector, and other responsible posts. Therefore in the case of the more unambitious and conservative men, their attitude is not unlikely to be, and in some instances is reported to have been unfavourable. The entry of women, as one railwayman expressed it, is ‘forcing’ the men to accept promotion. It is natural to find this opinion reversed in the case of the more ambitious men, because the employment of women in the less respon- sible posts and without any expectation or desire of promotion, must tend to accelerate the promotion of the men. The Railwaymen’s Union has opposed this division of the work into skilled and unskilled labour, but as far as the employment of women is concerned it is difficult to see how this can be other- wise, in view of the special disabilities of women, the difficulty of training them 534 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. for posts of responsibility, and the comparatively shortness of their careers in the service. A second objection raised by the men is that women monopolise the middle or favourite turns, and the more mechanical part of the work, while the rougher, harder, and more responsible duties, with the late evening and early morning turns, are laid on the shoulders of the men. This objection is not universally applicable, however, even now, and in any case it is admitted that this distinction could not be permanently maintained, and it is probable that ultimately the arrangement would be to employ women during the working hours of 5 A.M.—1 a.M. in three shifts. Against the view, freely expressed, in some quarters, that the entry of women to this branch is a menace to the men’s position, this much may be said, that from the employer’s point of view, it is a vital interest that they should maintain the efficiency of the men ticket collectors, as being a considerable recruiting ground for the higher branches of the service, and that the employ- ment of women in the more mechanical duties of the service can only have the effect of equipping the men all the better for higher responsibilities. This need of a permanent source of supply of efficient men renders unlikely any attempt to lower the standard. In conclusion it may be mentioned that the great flood of applications received by the Railway Companies proves the great attraction which this new occupation possesses for girls. A large number, but not all, are daughters or relatives of Companies’ servants ; others are stated to have come from restaurant work and other depressed occupations. Of the minor experiments, that of the dining car service is the most important. The G.W.R. is already employing women in this branch, and no reason is found against extending their employment to cover the whole service. On the other hand, an unsuccessful experiment is reported from one of the Northern railways, whose experience on a trial trip was that women lacked the nerve for carrying dishes on a moving train. In regard to women platform porters the experiment is being tried, but not on a large or systematic scale, and their permanent employment is unlikely; the objections which are raised in regard to other branches apply with increased force to this service. Porters have in some instances been recruited from among the women carriage cleaners. Clerical Staff. A considerable extension in the employment of women has occurred in recent years, and the results have surpassed expectations. As telegraph clerks and telephonists they have been employed for years with satisfactory results. As correspondence clerks their claims have been long established. A more recent step has been the employment of women in goods and parcels offices, in the work of invoicing and checking, and in particular as booking clerks. The establishment of a training school by the L. B. & S. C. R., where girls of 15-16 are given 3 to 4 months’ training in these duties, is evidence of the con- siderable impulse given to the employment of women in these branches since the war. Conditions in the railway service are said by Trade Unionists to have become increasingly favourable to the employment of women in recent years, since the reduced competition between different systems has the effect of making the standard of efficiency required from the railway clerk less exacting. The objections to their employment in certain branches, the goods department, parcels office, weigh office, invoicing, checking, &c., are substantially the same as in the case of ticket collectors and in some instances apply with greater force :— (1) Limitations to women’s sphere of activity. (2) Isolation of railway clerks in outlying offices. (3) Mobile character of the work, frequently involving transference from one district to another. (4) The difficulty of a practical early training. (5) Women have the easier work, while men take the night work and late evening and early morning turns. In regard to the limited sphere of women’s activity, a point of special import- i en ee OE ——— se —— FT TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 535 ance is the variety of functions demanded from clerks, more particularly in smaller stations. They issue tickets, despatch luggage and parcels, manage the telegraph, make inquiries for missing or injured packages, and, most important of all, discharge certain directive functions in giving orders in the case of trains delayed, which involve visits to the signal box, goods shed or shunting yard. Their position being in many instances almost the equivalent of under station master, it is obvious that women are handicapped by their shorter and less thorough experience. In the case of booking clerks, the great increase in the employment of women since the War has been greatly facilitated by the suspension of cheap bookings and excursion tickets and the consequent simplification of the work. It is generally believed that in a normal season and in a large station, where the system of classifying tickets is very complicated, women would be unequal to the strain and difficulty of the work. In small provincial stations the variety of functions discharged is an obstacle to their employment as booking clerks; consequently the permanent employment of women in this capacity is limited to the easier posts in large stations and wherever specialisation and subdivision are such that the booking clerk’s work is, in fact, restricted to booking. Wages. It is a very difficult matter to compare rates of pay received by men and women in the railway service. Where it is a clear case of equal work, as in the case of carriage cleaners, the principle of equal pay has come to be generally accepted by the Companies. The wage paid to carriage cleaners in one Company employing 140 women has taken the following course : | Men Women = | : | Wage | Hours | se aye Wage | Hours | Honrly bt ane Pr releigs ad Veit d. ae Bd poh agys 4-2 15 | 47 3-98 1915. . | 21 60 | 42 | 16 | 48 4:0 War Bonus granted . . . Men 3s. Women 2s. Piece rate records show that women will generally earn 10 per cent. less than men on the same work, but having regard to the shorter hours worked by women and the good quality of their work in this service, it seems probable that their net efficiency is little if any less than that of men. Another Company pays its women carriage cleaners 18s. a week, where men formerly received ll. See appended Table of particular instances of comparative rates paid to men and women : Carriage Cleaning. Men Women (1) 30s. compared to . . . . , QIs. (2) 21s. for 47 hour week plus piece- 16s. plus War Bonus of 2s. for the rates, yielding in total up to about normal 47-hour week, no oyer- 32s. fora 60-hour weck time allowed. (3) 21s. 6d. plus War Bonus 3s. = 24s. 6d. 18s. plus War Bonus 2s. = 20s. (4) 20s. 6d. plus War Bonus 3s, = 23s. 6d. 18s. plus War Bonus 2s. = 20s. for for Ist six months. By agreement 60-hour week. 21s. 6d. and War Bonus for 2nd six months = 24s. 6d. (5) 18s. for 10-hour day plus overtime 16s. per 9-hour day with no night work (at rate of time and a quarter) plus and less hours on Sunday. No night work, overtime. 1915. August 23.—Agreement reached in all Companies that for the duration of the War women cleaners should receive the same wage as men and work the same hours. [Prefatory Note.] 536 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION: F. Traffic Department. The basis generally adopted in the case of women ticket collectors has been to pay them 3s. a week less than the scheduled rate for the position. Thus on one system women are receiving 24s. instead of the men’s rate of 278.; on another, 20s. instead of 23s. Seeing that women are appointed direct to the post without previous training, whereas men graduate from lower grades, this was regarded as a fair and liberal arrangement, and the experience has been that women are only too ready to come in on these terms. From what has already been said on the subdivision of labour among women and men ticket collectors, it is clear that the value of women’s work is less than that of men and that this difference in the rate of wage no more than expresses the superior training of the men, and the more arduous, difficult, and respon- sible nature of the men collectors’ work. The danger of undercutting, which is being urged in some quarters, does not appear to be very serious in view of the importance to the Companies, fully recognised, of the efficiency of the men ticket collectors, as being the chief source of supply for the more responsible posts of the service, in consequence of which any attempt to level down this branch of service to the plane of semi- skilled or lower grade labour would be suicidal. Ticket Collecting. Men Women Pa Baya nites. Yerlow ale dew ine Pd. Ai gfe Dee CaN Sipe ht TPT weg TE 1s) orca ee, ‘ (3) 23s. - . 18s. plus 2s. War Bonus (4) sat ad \ plus War Bonus 3s. 22s. no Bonus (5) 28s. plus War Bonus 3s. . . . 20s. plus 2s. War Bonus (6) 25s. plus War Bonus 3s. . . . 20s. The fact that a woman will remain a comparatively short time in the service makes the woman a bad investment to the employer, in compensation for which he keeps her rate of pay, generally speaking, practically unchanged during the last five or six years of service ; the woman, on the other hand, is sometimes compensated for the lack of prospects and less training than men, by a relatively higher wage in the earlier stages of her career. In some instances (see appended tables) she is paid actually a higher wage between the ages of 16-19 than the youth of corresponding age on the same work. With a man the position is reversed, since in the earlier stages he accepts a relatively low tate of wage, regarding the remuneration of his services as being in part paid in training (which in itself implies prospects) and part, as it were, held in trust, to be paid in after years by a series of promotions and a rate of pay relatively much higher. With these considerations in view, that a woman’s inferior training and pros- pects handicap her somewhat unfairly in competing with men on the operative side of the railway staff, there seems to be good ground for pressing the exten- sion of the policy of paying women a proportionately higher rate during the early years of service. As regards the future of the railway clerk, the unions view it with some misgiving; the increased emplovment of women on the clerical side of the service is, in fact, much more likely to be permanent than on the operative side, and in certain branches it may be even further extended. Decreasing competition between the different systems during recent years, it is argued, must end in lowering the standard of efficiency demanded from railway clerks and is likely to lead to a further increase in the employment of women, and this, it is feared, will have a depressing effect upon the men’s wages. The disabilities of women as compared with men in several branches of the clerical service, and the fact that the harder and less pleasant work and the early and late turns must continue to be performed by men, constitute a strong argu- ment in the men’s favour, and the right policy seems to be to insist on the higher value of the men’s service and to demand the maintenance of their present rates of pay, rather than to demand what is less justified by the facts, the raising of women’s rates to an equality with those paid to men. —_— w — ae ed — TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. Scales of Pay for Women Clerks in Railway Offices. 537 Railway A. Railway B. Women’s Men’s Differ- Women’s Men’s Differ- Age Rates Rates ence Age Rates Rates ence per week | per week | per week per week | per week | per week s. d. &. a. S| de s. d. 8. id. 8. d. 16 6 11 ll 6 4 7 15 5 0 17 9 2 15 4 6 2 16 10 0 10 0 18 ll 6 19 2 7 8 17 12 0 12.0 19 13 10 23 0 9 2 18 14 0 14 0 20 16 1 24 lil 8 10 19 17 0 17 0 21 18 5 26 10 8 5 20 20 0 20 0 22 20 9 28 9 8 0 21 20 0 22 0 2 0 23 23 0 30 8 ans 22 20 0 24 0 4 @ | 24 25 4 32 7 iene 24 20 0 26 0 6 0 25 25 4 34 6 9 2 25 20 0 28 0 8 0 26 25 4 36 5 11 1 26 20 0 30 0 10 0 27 25 4 38 4 13 0 Railway C. Women’s Rates per week Differences Age ; Se s See So eee wee wo”! Cols. 1 and 3 | Cols. 2 and 3 8. d. 8. d. & d. So de 8 d. 16 12 0 10 0 ll 6 6* 1 6 17 14 0 12 0 15 4 1 4 3.44 18 16 0 14 0 19 2 3 2 5 2 19 18 0 16 0 23 0 5 0 nO) 20 20 0 18 0 26 10 6 10 8 10 21 22 0 20 0 30 8 8 8 10 8 22 24 0 20 0 30. 8 6 8 10 8 23 « 26 0 20 0 34 6 8 6 14 6 24 28 0 20 0 34 6 6 6 14 6 25 30 0 20 0 38 4 8 4 18 4 * Increase. Norz.—The scale for men quoted above is that applicable to London. For the Provinces it does not go beyond 30s. 8d., and in calculating for Provincial ‘Towns this must be adjusted. 538 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. Railway D. London Stations Provincial Stations Age ; : Women’s Men’s : Women’s Men’s : Rates Rates Difference Rates Rates Difference 8. a. 8. d. &. d 8. d. 8. d. a: a: 16 10 O ll 6 1 6 10 0 ll 6 1 6 17 12 0 13° «65 oS 12 0 13 5 1 5 18 14 0 15 4 1 4 14 0 15 4 1 4 19 16 0 17 3 1 3 16 0 17 3 if 983 20 18 0 19 2 1 2 18 0 19 2 1 2 21 20 0 23 0 3.0 20 0 23 0 3 0 22 22 0 26 10 410 22 0 24 11 2 11 23 24 0 28 9 4 9 24 0 26 10 2 10 24 26 0 30 68 4 8 26 0 28 9 2 9 25 28 0 SP) Ml 4 7 26 0 30 8 4 8 26 28 0 34 6 6 6 26 0 32°F 8 7 27 28 0 36 6 8 6 26 0 34 6 6 6 28 28 0 38 4 10 4 26 0 34 6 8 6 29 28 0 42 2 14 2 26 0 34 6 8 6 The Provincial Rates for men quoted above are for small stations, so that the difference will be for small stations only. The rate at large stations for men is the same as in London, except that it stops short at 38s. 4d. To find the difference at large Provincial Stations add after age 23, 2s. to the London difference, and at the age 29, 5s. 10d. Railway E. London Stations Provincial Stations Sle Women’s Men’s . Women’s Men’s : Rates Rates Difference Rates Rates Difference 6. as s. d Ss. d. s. d s. d 8. d. 16 10 0 10 O — 10 O 8 0 2 OF 17 13 0 13 0 — 13 0 ll O 3. O* 18 16 0 16 0 — 16 0 14 0 2 OF 19 1g 0 19 0 1 0 18 0 17 0 1 0* 20 20 0 22 0 z 0 20 0 20 0 — 21 22 0 25 0 3.0 22 0 23 0 1 0 22 22-0 28 0 6 0 22 0 26 0 4 0 23 2220 30 0 8 0 22 0 28 0 6 0 24 22 0 30 0 8 0 22 0 28 0 6 0 25 & 26 22 0 32 0 10 0 22 0 30 0 8 0 27 & 28 92. 0 34 6 12 6 22 0 32 0 10 0 29 & 30 22 0 36 5 13 5 22 0 34 6 12 6 31 22 0 38 4 16 4 22 0 34 6 12 6 * The difference is to women’s advantage. Fite mien | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 539 ' Railway F. Clerical Staff Clerical Staff Age = i Age Women’s Men's Women’s Men’s Rates Rates | Rates Rates &, | 8, 8, &. 16 12 | 12 22 24 30 17 14 16 23 26 32 18 16 20 i 24 28 54 19 18 24 } 25 30 36 20 20 26 i 26 30 38 21 22 28 | Clerical Staff—Women A—Clerks, Typists, and Tracers B—Telegraph Clerks and Statistical Staff . Principal Other ist Principal Other Stations | Stations Stations Stations a f 8. 8. 8. 8. Agel6 ... 12 10 Learners . . 6 6 Ui ed 14 12 33 Eph 8 8 8 iS. 16 14 Age 169) =, 12 10 1 tt ea 18 16 Lira oe 14 12 Ye he 20 18 Maximum 2 30 28 Maximum cong siozisodu0g ourqoeyy 309 I8Z‘°LE | €88°LE 5; "+ + groytsodu0g pueyy : sIOqUlIg 6-eb +! 9-2t+ | 6-ze-+ | LOL‘er | 89601 | SLOFST| 696'6% | FES*GIT| E6L‘GFI| * sxepurqyoog ‘sseydesSoyyT ‘s1oyULIg JO [e4O], soeuog | sorepl | Suostog} soyemeg | soley | SWosaog | sapvuray | soley | Suoszeq *qu90 Jad osva.i100q 10 asva.10uy LIGL jo susus—) TOGT JO sustag 576 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. and the complicated nature of the machinery, make the employment of women impracticable, except in the capacity of subordinate workers. (2) The supply of labour is at present adequate to the demand, and likely to remain so for some time to come. That women are useful mainly in subordinate capacities may be inferred from the information supplied by the census figures. The printing trade, as far as women are concerned, is shown to be essentially a young person’s trade. Thus the numbers employed between the ages of 15 and 25 years are not far short of 4 times the numbers employed between the ages of 25 and 35, while the number of girls of 13 and 14 years employed alone exceeds by nearly 1,000 the total of women employed between the ages of 35 and 45. The greatest numbers are employed between the ages of 15 and 18 years, from which point a fairly rapid decline begins, those employed at 19 and 20 years being respectively 84 and 90 per cent. less than those of the preceding year. And the total employed between the ages of 20 to 25 is only 28,935, as compared with 41,653 between 15 and 20 years. These figures indicate that up to the present the printing trades have little prospects for women, and that they are, in fact, most employable as adolescents, and, as stated above, in subordinate capacities. At present the employment of women in the trade is in a transitional and uncertain state. As compositors, for instance, their position in the Edinburgh printing trade is to be considered anew in 1916. The employers’ view, speaking generally, is that men are on the whole to be preferred to women in nearly every branch of the trade, and the employment of women is favoured only on account of their lower rates of pay, or, as one Trade Unionist expresses it, ‘their greater docility.’ This is one of the chief objections urged by the Trade Unions (who, on the whole, would like to see women out of the trade altogether), that the lower scale of women’s pay tends to depress the standard of wages in the whole trade. Their other objections are : (I.) The strenuous and unsuitable character of much of the work, from which follows as an almost inevitable consequence : (II.) The clear-cut division of labour into unskilled, done by women, and skilled, done by men, which, they fear, may lead ultimately to an over- crowding of the trade with skilled journeymen. As already indicated, the effect of the War on the trade is mainly one of depression and only in isolated instances are women doing work new to them or being employed in larger numbers in their own processes. Processes in which women are doing work which before the War was done by men : (1) Feeding (Cylinder or Rotary Machines). To a limited extent women are taking the place of men as layers-on on cylinder or rotary machines. The unsuitable conditions in which the work is done and its strenuous character have hitherto prevented the employment of women. The process is easily learnt, however, and is being entered in increas- ing numbers. Employers state that their work is, on the whole, as good as men’s, but more labour is thrown upon the minder, who has to carry the heavy weights for the women. Or a labourer is employed, one to three or four women, to do the heavy work. An arrangement has been made by which the women are to do the work for the duration of the War for 28s., instead of the men’s wage of 25s., in view of the labourer’s services being required. Non-union women are being employed at 16s. a week, (2) Folding and Inserting (heavier work). A few women are being employed in the heavier part of the work, normally done by men, especially for the feeding of the smaller folding machines. This — is piece-work, and a woman will earn up to 25s. with experience.. Overtime rates differ from those paid to men, women receiving 6d. an hour instead of 10d. 7. | =e, ‘ 3 H TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 577 (8) Unpacking, Sorting, and Returning Newspapers. Women are being supplied by the unions for this work, at 20s. instead of the men’s rate of 25s., as a man must be engaged to lift heavy parcels for them. (4) Bookbinding. Women are at present doing work which is usually done by men, mainly in pasting the joints and in flush binding generally; also in some of the easier parts of vellum binding, which, as a process, is highly skilled and has hitherto been entirely in men’s hands. Processes in which women are normally employed : (1.) Feeding. The employment of women has been increasing for a considerable time. The work is unskilled and the reason sometimes given for employing girls instead of boys is that if boys are employed, it brings too many into the trade. A considerable number of boys, it is true, enter the trade as feeders and have to leave it at the age of eighteen. The work is low-paid, as a rule, starting at 5s. and rising to 10s. or 12s., but in a good firm, after four or five years’ experience, a girl will get as much as 15s. or 16s. The low rate of pay prevailing is due to the fact that girls cannot set on the machines themselves, as boys do, but require a boy, or, more usually, aman supervisor. Before the War, self-feeding machines were coming into use, which would ultimately do away with girl labour; but the difficulty of getting the machines has temporarily checked this movement. In lithography feeding there is a tendency just now to employ women in increased numbers and take on girls where men were employed before. The work needs little training and is poorly paid, 5s. rising to 10s. or 12s., but is done generally in more healthy surroundings than other processes of the trade. ({1.) Folding and Inserting (lighter work). This has always been women’s work and the number employed is still increasing. The wage is about 17s., as compared with 30s. and upwards paid to men, who do the heavier work of gathering and sorting, and night work as well. (III.) Machine-ruling. The number of women is increasing, largely because the setting of the pens, which hitherto has been the chief obstacle, has become a comparatively simple process since the introduction of the latest machine. Men and women do the same work as minders, but the employment of women is opposed and they are not admitted to the Machine Rulers’ Union. The Machine Rulers’ Union in Manchester prohibits the employment of women both in machine minding and ruling. The National Operative Printers’ Union, however, accepts them as minders, fixing their minimum rate at 15s., men’s 36s. Women earn 15s. to 18s. The War has had no marked effect on employment in this process. (IV.) Reading. For some time past there has been a tendency to substitute girls for boys and it is likely to continue. The change is desirable, as the work is to some extent a blind-alley occupation for quick boys, who can earn up to 18s. but get no further unless they get into the newspaper trade, where, however, they cannot rise beyond 32s. 6d. In view of the fact that women are for the most part employed for a period of years only in the printing trade, this substitution of girls for boys is in acccrdance with the general attitude towards the employ- ment of women in the trade. Wages for girls and boys are the same. 1915. PP 578 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F (V.) Composing. There is a strong inclination on the part of trade unions and of some employers to keep women out of this branch altogether. The work is highly skilled, and the apprenticeship a long one, except in the case of hand composing in book printing, which requires less judgment and experience, and it is in this branch of the trade that women are chiefly employed, to a small extent in London and in larger numbers in the provinces. The work is strenuous and carried on in a close atmosphere and involves the lifting of heavy weights. For this reason it is generally necessary to have one man overlooking and lifting for two or three women. Women can, however, be advantageously employed in the first process of monotyping, which is done seated and is less tiring altogether. At present, however, monotyping machines are not extensively used, being estimated at about 3 per cent. only of the whole trade. The output of women on monotypes is often as much as a man’s, and women joining the union in London must receive a minimum of 45s, a week. Outside the union the average is 32s. 6d. The employment of women as compositors varies in different parts of the country. In many places the opposition of the men is strong enough to keep them out of the process. In Edinburgh, where a number of women are eet on monotyping machines, the whole question is to be reconsidered in (VI.) Bookbinding. Certain branches of the trade have been considerably depressed through the War. There has, however, been some increase in the employment of women. Certain processes are prohibited to women in some districts, but conditions vary, and the restrictions are, generally speaking, purely arbitrary. The disputed processes are : (i.) Drawing on and gluing cloth covers (paper covers allowed). (1i.) Quarter-binding where the edges are turned in (flush edges allowed). (1i1.) Pasting on end papers. All are very simple processes. Trade union minimum for women 15s.; men 36s. Men generally take on other work as well as quarter-binding, whereas women are employed on quarter- binding alone, earning 15s. to 18s. The Future. Reports all agree that the condition of trade after the War will determine this. Men will be reinstated in their old positions, as far as possible, but employers seem, on the whole, inclined to keep on the women introduced since the War, if the condition of trade enables them. Had the trade remained very prosperous during the War, it is more than probable that temporary concessions would have been made by the unions other than those already mentioned in respect of the employment of women. But the unions, generally speaking, are strong enough to be able to enforce a return to the status quo after the War, and, whatever changes may take place in the demand and supply of labour in the next twelve months, it is certain that no important changes would be countenanced as a permanent feature without the fullest consideration on the part of the unions. Important changes, however, as already stated, are rendered improbable by the very nature of the printing trade, where a great deal of the work is beyond the physical powers of women, and generally the readjustments which have been made to facilitate the employment of women in the heavier branches of the trade are to be regarded as a temporary expedient and not as a permanency. At present the great majority of the 12,380 women described in the Census as ‘others in the printing trade’ (of whom no less than 10,600 are between the ages of 14 and 19) are employed in the purely subordinate occupations as feeders, folders, messengers, &c., and the length of apprenticeship required, in order to qualify women for the more technical and skilled work, which is fixed at a minimum of four years, generally bars the way to any attempt at entering the more skilled branches. In certain directions, however, women may in the near es te TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 579 future be more advantageously employed, as letterpress feeders, as monotype workers, and in certain of the bookbinding processes hitherto reserved to men. There has been some attempt to investigate the conditions of German work to discover whether the inclusion of more women would enable printers in England to take some of the work formerly done in Germany. There appears to be most opportunity in processes connected with lithography. The point is discussed in a paper on ‘ British Lithography in 1915’ read before the Royal Society of Arts on Feb. 18th, 1915, by Mr. F. Vincent Brooks. The following is a quotation from the paper : ‘The second point of vantage that the foreigner possesses is the much less cost, and, I must confess, the much better character of his transferring, and this transferring is a very important item in the total cost. The total volume of this work done in a German factory is very large, so that it is much cheapened by subdivision; a workman is constantly employed filling the barest possible transfers, so bare that the solids generally have to be filled in on the stone or plate; the work is carried out by quite an army of girls, other girls having previously cut up the transfers on the backing that is the full size of the sheet to be printed. This is work for which women are exceptionally well suited, but such employment would be contrary to general usage in this country, and, I imagine, would meet with sturdy opposition from the trade unions; and unless working arrangements of the cost can be made, the British printer will be hope- lessly out of it, both with regard to the cost and general efficiency.’ Some comment has been made on the fact that most German factories have been built lately, with a maximum of light and air and are therefore suitable for the employment of women, while those in England are often very old and unsuitable. Board of Trade, Earnings and Hours Enquiry, 1906. Based on returns from 110,129 employees. Meni(over 20) ha) 2 Mels Senet eerer oleh -nlyh) 45°6 per cent. Lads and Boys and Apprentices (under 20) . .° . 174 ~~ ,, Women. ‘ : S agree . : : x 5 ne? ee Girls (under 18) . ‘ ite cra ‘ : : a Julio ts han deal Average Earnings of above. Trade | Men | Lads and Boys| Women | Girls faegse cent &. a. Bd: 8s. d, Paper rad Oe Merce: decoupage os el eae 10 8 LD PU Tae Pee Pee ES ae 8 7 Test hue anh | igookpmding, 9 Pagar 8 8 12 10 6 6 Paper stationery . . . 31 4 8 6 PEE hs GE iud | Cardboard and boxes . .. 2810 103 UP fogs eae Se Wallpaper 9. . = «| 3211 19 2 TS2.5)) 1s eo Process block making . . 45 9 9 7 18 9 | 9 5 Percentage of Wages. Working full time. Men. Under 12s. 0d. . . ‘1 per cent. bis acted a: d: 8. 8. d. i 40 0 to 45 0 9°7 per cent. 12 Oto 15 0 5 iH 45 0 to 50 0 5 ‘ 15 0 to 20 0 6:2 p | 50 Oto 55 O 3 oe 20 0 to 25 9 15:2 » | 65-0 to 60 0 1°6 oh 25 0 to 30 0 . 145 3 | 60 0 to 65 0 18 + 30 0 to 35 0 AeA N a) AF | Over 65s 3°6 ee 35 0 to 40 0 179 s 580 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. Percentage of Wages. Working full time—continued. —— Boys Women Girls | SG: Epes Per cent. Per cent, Per cent. | Under 3.0 a) 0 1:3 | 3 Oto 5 0 84 7 24-4 5 Oto 10 0 54:9 25'8 64-0 | 10 Oto 15 O 26°0 52°2 86 | 15 0 to 20 0 8:9 16°5 6 | 20 Oto 25 0 1,2 3°7 om | 25 0 to 30 0 =i]! 8 0 Above 30 0 0 “83 0 Pottery TRADES. The pottery trades are a group of trades producing pottery, closely allied by reason of locality, process, and conditions, and include the making of general earthenware, china, sanitary tiles, and Rockingham and jet and brown ware. Women are employed direct or as attendants on others. The numbers employed in 1901 and 1911 were: Census 1901 Census 1911 % Increase or Decrease Total Hemsted Males 162,475 29,439 as +20°3 | +6°4/+11°8 Females} Males Total |Females} Males} Total Earthenware, | 24,477 China, Porce- lain, &c. 37,998 During the last ten years great changes in methods of production, mechanical and otherwise, have been introduced, and women have been in consequence drawn into the trade in increasing numbers. A notable example is the develop- ment of casting. The caster, who is generally a woman, has almost entirely displaced the hollow-ware presser, who was generally a man. In the words of a working potter: ‘Before the War it was pitiable to see the number of hollow-ware pressers, skilled handicraftsmen, begging for labourers’ jobs.’ Men casters receive piece-rates about one-third higher than the women. In casting, as in pressing, the process is complicated by the introduction of the team system, by which a skilled man or woman presses or casts the article, while an unskilled woman, who is paid 12s. per week, finishes it. Since the War the pottery trade has been among the depressed ones, but its workers have transferred to other industries, e.g., silk, and many of the men have enlisted, which has resulted in certain cases in a shortage of male labour, and especially of youths, who have been attracted by the good money to be earned in the coal pits. The skilled males employed in the trade are mainly elderly men. Before the War women were employed as: Decorators and Transferers.—Average wages 1ls. to 12s., save in the case of ground-layers, who receive about 20s. on piece-work rates, Clay-workers—‘ pressers’ or ‘ jolliers’—women receive about 20s. per week on piece-work rates. Pressers’ Attendants—‘ finishers,’ ‘spongers,’ ‘towers,’ and ‘ mould-runners ’ (in which boys are sometimes employed). The wages earned by women on these TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 581 processes are from 10s. to 14s. per week, and the rates are piece-work rates if paid direct by the employer, and time-work rates if paid by the presser. Warehouse Women—‘ sorters’ are paid a time-rate of about 9s. per week. Of recent years women have been introduced on the following work : Decorating. (a) ‘Ground-laying.’ This process is held by the trade union to be a man’s process, although women have come in at lower rates of pay during recent years. The process itself is, however, being displaced by ‘aero-graphing,’ which is a woman’s process. (0) ‘ Painting,’ where men have been almost entirely displaced by litho- graphy, which has been done by women since 1900. Flat-ware Pressing. Women entered the trade 30-35 years ago on the smaller articles, e¢.g., cups and saucers, and 4-inch and 6-inch plates. They were, however, refused admission to the union or recognition of any kind until about 1903. The first women were admitted at the time of the amalgamation of the union in 1906. The women are paid at piece-work rates about one-third less than the rates of the men. Men earn 30s. to 32s. and women 20s. per week. Since the War women have been employed on the pressing of 10-inch and 12-inch plates, and they are paid piece-work rates one-third lower than the men. The men claim that the women should be paid at the same piece-work rates as the men. To this the women appear to object, urging that the effect of the men’s wage-rate policy will be to exclude women from the process since : (a) Women require more supervision than- men. (6) Women cannot set their own machines, and require the assistance of a mechanic. ‘ By an agreement between the unions and the employers the men who have enlisted are to be reinstated at the end of the War; women who have taken their places are to receive the same wage-rate as the men displaced, and a number of women are now receiving men’s rate of pay in consequence, but it is stated that in some cases this condition is infringed. It is also stated that children above the school-leaving age, especially girls, are being employed in considerable numbers as apprentices on time-rates—girls at 2s., boys at 5s. per week. It is feared by the union that the abnormal number of apprentices thus introduced into the trade will undercut other classes of labour, especially women’s labour, and consequently the labour of men. A War bonus of 74 per cent. is being paid to all workers who are employed direct, and the trade union expects its members who employ ‘finishers’ or others, on the ‘tally’ system, to pass on the bonus. In the early part of the War the pottery trade was very depressed and the majority of its workpeople left for more remunerative employment, the men going largely to the collieries and to armament factories, and a few of the women to artificial silk-weaving in Leek. Since December the trade has shown greater activity and there has been a shortage of labour, not among the more skilled workers but among those less skilled. This is a notable exception to the general experience, and the reason appears to be that unskilled labour has found at the moment more remunerative employment elsewhere. The shortage of unskilled labour rather than a lack of orders is the cause of some of the short time in the trade. Generally, owing to the stoppage of German and Austrian, and to some extent French, pottery exports to the Colonies, U.S.A., and the United Kingdom, there is a big demand at the present time for all the cheaper grades of English pottery, whilst there is a slump in the richly decorated and high price goods. Probably owing to financial and shipping difficulties the bulk trade to U.S.A. and to South America is very quiet, so that many of the workers must be gradually diverted from the two classes of manufacturers of expensive pottery, and of bulk pottery for U.S.A. and South America, to the cheaper houses who are very busy. 582 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. FURNITURE. Furniture being largely a luxury trade has been considerably depressed since the outbreak of war and is likely to remain so. The cheaper branches of the trade have been less slack than the other part, and certain firms have replaced men polishers by women, but as this is a woman’s trade as much as a man’s, especially since the last strike, the replacement is no new feature due to the War. In some cases, on the other hand, women French polishers have been unemployed owing to the shortage of skilled bench men. ; : Large furniture firms have taken contracts for tents, kit-bags, mosquito- nets, &c., and have taken on extra women to cope with the work, in some cases opening new factories for the purpose. Women upholsterers and women drawn from the lower branches of the tailoring trade have mainly come in to do this work, Aeroplane contracts have also been placed with furniture firms, but up to the present women have only made covers for the wings and ‘doped’ them, 2.e., varnished, which again is normally women’s work. ; In some factories and workshops women are glueing ammunition boxes, but here the line of demarcation between furniture and packing-case making is an elusive one; it is not possible to state whether they are displacing men or not. There appears to be no feeling among the furniture trade unions against the further employment of women so long as they are paid the same piece- work rates as the men. The view, however, taken by most trade unions and employers is: (2) Much of the work is impossible without long training, which the women are rarely prepared to give. (6) Much of it is too heavy for women. 2. Land Settlement for Ex-Service Men. By CurisToPHER TURNOR. 1. The Importance of the Problem.—From such evidence as is at present forthcoming, and arguing from what took place after the Boer War, there seems little doubt that a large number of men now serving in the Forces will elect a career on the land at the close of the War. If this is so, it is clear that the machinery for providing them with land should be created without delay, and be ready before we have the ex-Service men upon our hands, probably in their thousands. Nationally and imperially it is a question of great importance. Cultivators of the soil are more needed than any other type of citizen, both at home and overseas. It is probable that when the War is over a time of slackness will come in urban industry, which will make it all the more important that the land should employ as many men as possible. The men settled upon the land must be settled effectively and under conditions which will as far as possible guarantee success. They must not merely be provided with land and then left to shift for them- selves. Our Dominions are paying more and more attention to land settlement. Sound and attractive conditions have been created. If we are to retain our fair and necessary share of ex-Service men within the United Kingdom, we must create conditions of settlement at least as sound and as attractive. While not grudging to our Dominions a share in the number of settlers, we must ever keep in mind that the first essential is to build up the agricultural population in the Mother Country, and from the overflow of that population to send out to our Dominions the type of population which they stand most in need of. 2. The Sufficiency of Land in the United Kingdom.—There is sufficient land available for a very large scheme of settlement at home. No attempt should be made to create settlements in every county. They should be created where the land and conditions are most favourable. Large areas of land change hands every year, and land for the ex-Service men could as a rule be obtained in the open market. Several hundred thousand acres of agricultural land change hands Ei im 4 a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 583 every year. With the exception of heavy clay, nearly any type of soil is suitable for small farming. If areas of not less than 1,000 acres are bought nearness to a station is not essential as the colony would be large enough to afford social amenities of its own and to organise a system of motor transport. The settler under proper guidance should make a good living off twenty-five to thirty acres in the case of a small farm and off five to ten acres in a fruit-growing and market-gardening district. As in the case of the Small-holdings Act, compulsory clauses will be necessary but probably would rarely be resorted to. A certain amount of land would have to be taken from sitting tenants. There are many men holding two or three separate farms with aggregate area of from 2,000 to 5,000 acres, in districts well suited to small farming; for the general good it would be quite legitimate to reduce the area held by these large farmers. 3. Suitability of ex-Service Men as Cultivators of the Soil.—It is the opinion of many in this country that to be a successful small-holder, a man must have been brought up on the land; but that this conclusion is altogether unsound has been proved by the settlements in the United States and in our Colonies of urban artisans, which have succeeded admirably. But the conditions of settle. ment for men without previous agricultural training must be entirely different from the conditions under which trained agriculturists can fairly succeed. There is no example up to the present time in the United Kingdom of a carefully thought-out land settlement scheme where the fundamental principles necessary to success have been observed. Settlements of ex-Service men can be successful only where the right conditions have been created. 4. Conditions of Settlement.—Certain guiding principles must be observed which have met with unvarying success wherever scientific land settlement has been undertaken. They are: Ownership rather than tenancy. Easy access to capital. Settlement in colonies rather than in isolated units, Effective expert guidance. Co-operation, or at all events organised buying and selling. The initial years must be made as easy as possible financially. Or OU CO BS Ft 5. Machinery.—lf ex-Service men are to be settled satisfactorily it is quite clear that they will have to be treated differently from the ordinary applicants for small-holdings. As has been pointed out, in most cases they will be without agricultural knowledge, and therefore will require special conditions. The conditions advo- cated should from the point of view of securing efficiency be created for all settlers, but in the case of the ex-Service men they must be created or the movement will end in failure. The County Councils, in settling small-holders, have paid little or no atten- tion to the principles enumerated above, and which should be observed in all land settlement. The Small-holdings Act has not proved itself to be a Land Settlement Act. Under it many tradesmen have been given a bit of accommodation land, or men already holding some land have obtained additional land, but the number of new cultivators placed on newly-equipped holdings is very small—only 754 up to the end of January 1914. County Councils ought not to be asked to undertake this work. Few members of their Small-holdings Committees have in any way studied or understood the problem of land settlement. This work of settlement should be carried out by a Land Settlement Commission composed of highly qualified men and in many ways analogous to the existing Development Commission. This Commission would naturally concern itself with settlement in the United Kingdom, possibly only England and Wales. But the question of settle- ment in the United Kingdom should not be kept in a watertight compartment. There should be another Commission or Committee possessing advisory and consultative powers only, which would review the question of land settlement throughout the Empire and endeavour to bring about an understanding between 584 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. the Home Government and the Dominion Governments and the Dominions inter se to co-relate the work of the different emigration agencies and to endeavour fo check the loss to the Empire of men settling in foreign countries. The time has come when the whole problem of emigration and settlement should be approached scientifically and an attempt be made to bring Breer out of the present chaos. 3. Employment of Disbanded Members of H.M. Forces. By Captain R. Watxer. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Report was discussed :— On the Effects of the War on Credit, Currency, and Finance.—Report of a Conference called by the Organising Committee of Section F, consisting of Professor W. R. Scorr (Chairman), Mr. J. HE. Auten (Secretary), Sir Epwarp Brasroox, C.B., Professor C. F. BastaBugE, Dr. A. L. Bownry, Mr. Austen CaHaMBERLAIN, M.P., Archdeacon CunnincHaM, Professor L. R. Dicksrr, Professor KE. C. K. Gonner, Mr. Francis W. Hirst, Professor A. W. Kirxatpy, Mr. D. M. Mason, M.P., Professor J. SHrenp Nicuonson, and M. E. Sykes. The Organising Committee of Section F decided that a Report on the Effects of the War on Credit, Currency, and Finance should be submitted at the Annual Meeting. In order that this Report should be as full as possible it was considered essential to invite the co-operation of a number of experts from the City, and accordingly it was decided to proceed by means of a Conference rather than by the usual Research Committee. Of the original members Mr. Austen Chamberlain took part in the early deliberations and gave most valuable help. He retired on his appointment as Secretary of State for India. Professor Bowley resigned on undertaking work for the Ministry of Munitions.'* The Organising Committee desires to thank those who devoted themselves to the making of the specialised investigations which were required, many of which involved great labour and the placing of valuable personal and business experience at the disposal of the Conference. The method of investigation adopted was to divide the whole inquiry into four heads, namely: (1) The Direct Effect of the War on Credit. (2) Public Borrowing as Affecting Credit. (3) War Measures and Currency. (4) War and the Mechanism of Foreign Exchanges. Memoranda on these and related subjects were invited from the members of the Conference and from others. These Memoranda were circulated amongst the members with the request that they would return them, with comments, to the Secretary. Memoranda were contributed by the following :— Professor BASTABLE, Mr. JosepH Kircuin, Sir Epwarp Brasroox, C.B., Mr. Rosert LUMSDEN, Mr. E. J. Daviss, Mr. D. M. Mason, ™.P., Professor DicKsEs, Mr. 8S. Merz, Mr. EK. L. FRANKLIN, Professor J. S. NicHotson, Mr. Drummonp FRAsER, Sir R. H. Inctis Parcraye, 7. f.S., Mr. A. H. Gursson, Professor Scort, Dr. C. K. Hosson, Mr. W. F. SpaLpina. Further, the main headings were divided into nineteen sub-heads. ** Mr. Chamberlain and Dr. Bowley resigned before the Report was drafted, and therefore have no responsibility for it. ei ik ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 585 I. Direct Effect of the War on Credit in Great Britain. How has the money market been affected by: 1. Hoardings? 2. Changes in demand for commercial purposes? 3. Government demands? 4. Foreign demands? 5. Stock Exchange demands? II. Public Borrowing as Affecting Credit. 1) Effects of the regulations as to the issue of new Capital. 2) Effects as judged by public and other deposits at the Bank of England and by the Bank Rate. (3) Extent to which Capital is withdrawn from enterprise. (4) Effect of borrowing in Great Britain by Allied Governments. (5) What proportion should be maintained between the amount borrowed for the War and the amount raised by taxation? III. War Measures and Currency. (1) The Effect of Government Assistance to the Banks and Financial Houses in August 1914. (2) Was there hoarding owing to the War by (a) Banks? (6) the public? What was the effect on the Stock of Gold? (3) Emergency Measures :— (a) Treasury Notes. (b) Provision for the suspension of the Bank Act (4 and 5 Geo. 5, c. 14, § 3). (c) The Moratorium. (d) Postal Notes made legal tender. (4) How far were these measures (a) Necessary? (0) Effective? (c) Desirable? ‘What provision, if any, should be made for the withdrawal of Treasury Notes? (5) What was the effect of the increased paper currency on prices? IV. War Tazation. V. War and the Mechanism of the Foreign Hachanges. ) What was the effect of the outbreak of War on the Rate of Exchange? ) What have been the principal fluctuations since and their causes! ) How far were these fluctuations due to causes inseparable from the War, and how far were they preventable? (4) How far are the reasons generally assigned the true reasons? These questions were circulated amongst those who were judged to be able to supply first-hand information upon special points, and replies have been received from the following :— 4 Professor W. Boyp DawkINs, | Mr. A. W. Kippy, F.R.S., Professor OLDHAM, Mr. BarnaRD ELLINGER, Sir Grorcr Patsy, Lord EVERSLEY, Mr. W. Favitn TuKe, Mr. J. A. Hogson, Mr. S1IpNEY WEBB. Several meetings of the Conference were held in order to define the scope and character of the inquiry and to determine the best methods of procedure ; also to discuss the Memoranda, replies to questions, and the comments upon these. The members feel strongly that the time is not ripe for the presenta- tion of a final Report, and that which follows is to be regarded as an interim one. Though necessarily incomplete, it has the advantage of attempting to _ present a picture of momentous events while most of them were fresh in the minds of those who had special opportunities for observation. Thus while the present Report is wanting in finality, it will aim at focussing a body of reasoned opinion upon the causes and proximate effects of credit movements during the first year of the War. However much present judgments may be shown by subsequent events to have been in error, in the opinion of the Conference it was essential that they should be recorded. 586 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. I. Summary of the more important Emergency Measures during the year 1914." Events have moved so rapidly within the last twelve months that even com- paratively recent occurrences seem to have become remote. The rush and pres- sure of the times have been such that one is liable to forget matters which happened only a few months ago and would in other circumstances have been regarded as of the highest importance. Accordingly, for the sake of what follows, the following brief record of dates and facts may be pardoned in order to prevent digression in the later parts of the Report. “~~ In the early summer of 1914 credit in Great Britain and on the Continent was normal, with perhaps a tendency towards uneasiness. There is an almost inevitable disposition for people to claim wisdom and foresight after the event, but, judging from the quotation of Consols, there was small anxiety. The fluctuations in 1913 had been 753-71 and the closing price on June 25, 1914, was 743-75, a price well over the average of the previous year. Early in July there were signs of caution in the chief Money Markets, following the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo on June 28. The progress of negotiations between Austria and Serbia seems to have produced little effect, and even the presentation of Austria’s ultimatum to Serbia on July 24 did not cause any marked uneasiness in London, as it was the general impression that the War would be localised. On the 25th there was a panic on the Vienna Bourse, while in London Consols fell to 724. Between that day and the follow- ing Tuesday (28th), when Austria declared war against Serbia, was a time of growing anxiety. In the week ending on Wednesday, 29th, Consols had fallen 4, Belgian 3 per Cents 43, French 3 per Cents 6, Russian 34 per cent. Bonds 5, Russian 5 per Cents (1908) 84, Austrian 4 per Cents 8. By this time all the Stock Exchanges had closed except London and the provincial Exchanges, New York and the official (parquet) Paris Exchange. The Bank Rate was raised from 3 per cent. to 4 per cent. on Thursday the 30th. Remittances, both in payment of Stock Exchange accounts due by foreigners as well as the calling in of credits due from abroad, ceased except from America, while the closing of all the Continental Stock Exchanges except the official Paris market caused large quantities of International stocks to be offered for sale in London. It so happened that this period of extreme tension coincided with the date fixed for the settlement, which had been arranged for July 27-July 29. The failure of foreign clients of brokers to remit the sums due in London for the settlement made the position of these brokers precarious, and one important firm with foreign connections failed, while it was currently reported that many firms were prepared to hammer themselves. The failure of foreign remittances to the Stock Exchange affected transactions made before the crisis; but, after the out- break of hostilities with Serbia, there was a steady pressure of sales from the Continent. The effect of these was a reduction in the price of securities, and this at once re-acted on those stocks held on margin. Loans on Stock Exchange securities at this period amounted to about 80,000,0007., of which 60,000,000/. was lent by the Joint Stock Banks and the remainder by other bodies. A con- tinued fall in quotations would cause the margin to disappear, and therefore the lenders would call for additional security or they might call for repayment of the Joan when due through anticipation of having to meet pressing demands themselves. The latter course was adopted by some, which threatened a further fall in the prices of stocks, and this again, if allowed to continue, would have depreciated the stocks held by banks, which would again have been serious if necessity arose for the liquidation of a part of these holdings. If demoralisation in the Stock Exchange was to be avoided, some action had to be taken upon Thursday, the 30th, and it was decided to close the Exchange. The closing of the London Stock Exchange was the first of the series of Emergency Measures; and, to some extent, it influenced those that followed. *® The inclusion of this Summary involves a change in the numbering of the succeeding sections. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 587 Prompt and decisive action was absolutely necessary; but, had time for reflec- tion been available, it is possible that less drastic measures would have sufficed. ‘The closing of the Exchange was not the only event of first-class importance on that memorable Friday. bill-brokers were in the habit of borrowing largely from the Joint Stock Banks upon the security of the foreign bills they hola. During this week some of the banks called in their loans from the bill-brokers, who were forced to have recourse to the Bank of England either to borrow there or to discount their bills. The sums involved were large. In normal times it is supposed that the Joint Stock Banks lend about 100,000,000/. to bill-brokers in the form of credit at call or short notice. In the ten days ending August 1, the Bank of England’s holding of ‘ other securities ’ increased by 31,700,000/., the greater part of which is understood to have represented loans to the bill- brokers to meet the calls on them by the Joint Stock Banks. These large demands on the Bank of England were one cause of the rapid rise in the Bank Rate, which after being 4 per cent. for one day (Thursday, July 30) was doubled on Friday and was increased to 10 per cent. on Saturday, August 1. Concur- rently with the difficulties of the bill-brokers there were the even greater ones of the accepting houses. These institutions in effect guarantee that a foreign bill (arising out of a trade transaction either between this country and a foreign country or between two foreign countries) will be met at maturity. It 1s largely by this device that London is the financial centre of the world, and it is estimated that one half of the world’s foreign trade is financed by British credit. The acceptances current at this time of the accepting houses and foreign banks in London amounted to between 300,000,000/. and 350,000,000. , while those of the Joint Stock Banks are known to have been about 70,000,000/, But, just as in the case of the stock-brokers, remittances were not forthcoming or were delayed or could only be made with great difficulty. London early in the crisis began to call in credit. All the available bills on London were quickly purchased by foreign debtors for transmission to London. New bills were not forthcoming, and there were great difficulties in procuring gold for shipment, in some cases it was impossible. In these circumstances the position of the accepting houses was one of extreme hazard, and, as Mr. Franklin says, ‘ the immediate effect of the outbreak of hostilities was to break down the whole fabric of foreign exchange throughout the world.’ On Sunday, August 2, a proclamation was issued which postponed payment of bills of exchange (other than a cheque or bill on demand) if accepted before the beginning of August 4 for a period of one calendar month from the date of its original maturity. On Monday, August 3, an Act, known as the Postponement of Payments Act (4 & 5 Geo. 5, c. 11) was passed which authorised the King to suspend tempo- rarily by proclamation other payments besides bills of exchange. So far the dramatic events of Friday, July 31, and Saturday, August 1, have been considered from the point of view of the reaction of the crisis on credit as regards foreign remittances. There remains the position in relation to internal credit. It appears that the Joint Stock Banks, or some of them, expected and prepared for considerable internal demands from their depositors. Mr. A. H. Gibson says that ‘ the direct effects of the War on credit, as measured by the attitude of the British public during the early stages of the crisis, show that the loss of confidence was extremely slight. There was no run on the Joint Stock Banks or on the Savings Banks, and what degree of hoarding of goid took place at the commencement of the crisis was probably due to the lead given by some of the Joint Stock Banks paying out Bank of England notes instead of gold. This action caused a large number of people to whom notes had been paid to take them to the Bank of England to change them into gold which was required for holiday purposes. Almost without exception the reports of the Savings Banks for the year 1914 prove how trivial had been the influence of the crisis on their accumulated funds, the main influence having been a slight check to new business.’ There was a somewhat general apprehension prior to the issue of new Treasury Notes that, where a creditor insisted on payment in the form of legal tender, there might not be sufficient legal tender to meet all demands. The figures showing the loss of gold from London to the provinces show that there were considerable internal demands for gold, the gold lost by the Bank of England from this cause having been 1,213,000. during the week 588 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. ending July 29, and as much as 8,211,000/.”° in the next week, which included the days during which mobilisation took place. When it is remembered that Great Britain was not as yet at war, the financial situation was evidently serious. On August 1, Germany declared war upon Russia, and the next day a state of war existed between Germany and France. War between Great Britain and Germany was declared on Tuesday, August 4. Prior to the latter declaration, which might be expected to have affected our Money Market most, there had been the breakdown of the foreign exchanges and the closing of the Stock Exchange. It had been necessary to support the accepting houses by the Mora- torium in their favour of August 2. Scarcity of legal tender was felt, and there was an apprehension in many quarters that war between this country and Germany would result in further grave disorders of credit. This was the situation which had to be faced on Sunday, August 2, and Monday, August 3. Fortunately the Monday was a Bank Holiday, and by proclamation the Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday were appointed as special Bank Holidays, thus pro- viding five days (if the Sunday be included) for the preparation of further Emergency Measures. An Act, known as the Currency and Bank Notes Act (4 & 5 Geo. 5, c. 14), was passed on August 6, authorising the Treasury to issue Currency Notes for 17. and 10s. as legal tender for any amount. The holder of a Currency Note is entitled to obtain on demand during office hours at the Bank of England payment for the note at its face value in legal tender gold coin. Postal Orders were to be temporarily legal tender for the payment of any amount. This provision was revoked as from February 3, 1915, by proclama- tion. Under Clause 3 of this Act the Bank of England and any Scottish or Irish Banks of Issue may issue notes in excess of the limit fixed by law so far as temporarily authorised by the Treasury and subject to any conditions attached to that authority. Banks of Issue were indemnified against any liability on the ground of excess of issue after August 1 in pursuance of any authority from the Treasury. The former provision may perhaps be termed a suspension of the Bank Act; but, unless the legal limit has been exceeded, no formal suspen- sion has actually taken place. Under these circumstances it is more correct to describe the arrangement as providing the machinery by which the Act may be suspended had the need arisen. Further Treasury Notes were issuable to bankers through the Bank of England up to 20 per cent. of their liabilities on deposit and current accounts. Closely connected with these measures was the proclamation of August 6 under the Act 4 & 5 Geo. 5, ec. 11, postponing other payments besides bills of exchange till September 3 (subsequently extended till November 3), with certain exceptions, the chief of which were payments of wages or salary, sums not exceeding 5/. dividends on trustee stocks, cashing of bank notes by the issuing banks, payments by Government Departments (including Old Age Pensions and liabilities under the National Insurance Act). These measures provided for the re-opening of the banks on Friday, August 7, upon a basis which, if artificial, was believed to have protected the banks. But that protection was founded on the Moratorium, which was so strange to English practice that a few years ago it was described as ‘a strange beast inhabiting the Balkans.’ It was necessary in making the first steps towards more normal conditions that foreign exchange shouid be restored and the Stock Exchange re-opened. As regards the former, exchange transactions in the early days of August were remarkable. The value of the sovereign rose as much as 30 per cent. in a single day in New York. On the other hand, owing to a temporary adverse balance due to France, the sovereign depreciated in Paris by 4 per cent. Between August 12 and Septem- ber 5 a scheme had been formulated which provided that the Bank of England would provide acceptors with funds to pay all approved pre-Moratorium bills at maturity. The Bank was entitled to interest on these advances at 2 per cent. above Bank Rate, and undertook not to claim repayment of any sums not recovered by acceptors from their clients till one year after the end of the War. The Joint Stock Banks undertook with the assistance of the Bank of England and the Government to finance new bills upon similar terms. The Government 20 A large part of this sum would be held by banks in anticipation of heavy withdrawals by their depositors. (a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 589 guaranteed the Bank of England against any loss which it might sustain in carrying out this scheme. This guarantee received statutory sanction by the Government War Obligations Act, 1914 (5 Geo. 5, c. 11). Loans to the Stock Exchange were next taken in hand. Under a scheme for Government assist- ance, dated October 31, as regards Account to Account Loans which had been made on the security of stocks by lenders other than banks ‘to whom currency facilities were open,’ or members of the Stock Exchange, the Govern- ment arranged with the Bank of England to advance 60 per cent. of the sums outstanding on July 29, securities being valued for purposes of such advance at the making-up prices of July 29. The Bank undertook not to press for repayment until twelve months after the conclusion of peace, the rate of interest being 1 per cent. above Bank Rate, with a minimum of 5 per cent. The banks to whom currency facilities are open undertook not to press for repayment of Account to Account Loans nor to require further margin until twelve months after the conclusion of peace. The total advances on foreign bills under the Government Guarantee were 120,000,0007. The sum advanced on pre-Moratorium bills to enable acceptors to meet their engagements at maturity was 60,386,000/., and it was estimated that at the end of the War bills aggregating 50,000,000/. would remain in ‘ cold storage.’*? The advances to the Stock Exchange by the Bank of England under the Treasury scheme of October 31 were returned at 520,0597.°* The way was now prepared for completing the July settlement on the Stock Exchange, and a patched-up settlement was effected on November 18. Meanwhile, though the Exchange remained closed, dealings in stocks had been effected by negotiation and a scale of minimum prices had been drawn up by the Committee. The general Moratorium having come to an end on November 3, there was no reason to delay the opening of the Exchange, and this event took place on January 4, 1915, under somewhat drastic regulations imposed by the Treasury. Il. The Direct Effects of the War upon Credit. Having traced, descriptively, the external results of the earlier months of the War on credit, we propose in the present section to inquire into some general questions relating to the effect of a state of war of the magnitude of the present struggle upon credit considered as far as possible in isolation from Emergency Measures. From the point of view both of practical finance and of economic theory, the consequences of a remarkable and sudden strain upon credit are of surpassing interest. While the outbreak of previous great wars has occasioned somewhat similar disturbances, the long period of cessation from contests between great Powers as well as the more highly developed organisation of modern credit render it advisable to consider the position at the present time de novo. From the standpoint of the economist it is unfortunate—while from that of the citizen it may have been fortunate—that complete materials for the observation of the unmitigated effects of the present War upon credit have been largely modified by counteracting influences, many of which were deliberately designed to counteract the direct consequences of hostilities as affecting the credit system in this country. In particular, as already shown (above, p. 587), the closing of the Stock Exchange took place before Great Britain was involved in war. Accordingly direct observation of the exact effects of war on credit cannot be made with completeness, though we consider it advisable to record such results as we have been able to obtain. Credit is an organic growth. The normal condition assumes a certain degree of stability in the environment in which it works. In the usual credit eycle, though conditions vary as between the maximum and minimum points of expansion, in both a great number of the factors which affect the calculations of business men remain the same or are altered only to a very slight extent. War on a large scale either changes all conditions or (what is temporarily of equal importance concerning credit) it gives rise to the fear that all conditions may be altered. On the material side, war makes great inroads into the store of commodities and many calls on services while it deflects a large amount of *1 Hansard, Commons, \xviii. p. 1545. 2 Thid. \xxi. p. 853, 590 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. labour from productive to destructive purposes. ‘Credit,’ as Mr. A. H. Gibson puts it, ‘assumes that goods will be brought to market, or be produced in due time, and sold, and that securities, which in reality have their capital value based on future productive power, will not materially fall in current market values through lack of confidence in future production. War materially weakens both these assumptions. When war shakes the foundations of con- fidence, it is obvious that it must immediately cause a serious restriction in the mobility or transfer of credit, and consequently reduce, for the time being, the rate of current and future production, for production cannot obviously be carried on without the transfer of credit; and the community suffers through the restriction of credit.’ Allusion has already been made to the difficulties of the accepting houses, the bill-brokers and the Stock Exchange. These reacted on the resources of the Joint Stock Banks, for the effect of the War had been to solidify assets hitherto regarded as liquid. The financial life of the City appeared in danger of being frozen at or near its source. This was not so in reality, for the ultimate basis of credit is the future goods and services which can be relied upon to come to market later. Not only does war make it uncertain that some of the antici- pated future production will reach the market; but also it makes a violent alteration in the relative values of capital goods and consumable goods. ‘ For the purposes of war only the right to goods, consumable now or soon, is useful.’ 2% Thus there is inevitably a double revolution in credit occasioned by war, first in the widespread falsification of anticipations, and secondly in the valuation of immediate consumable commodities. Both tendencies arrest the mobility of credit instruments and some of them become temporarily immobile ; and, to the extent to which this phenomenon exists, credit temporarily ceases. It is estimated that the assets which the Joint Stock Banks had available in a comparatively mobile form—consisting of the gold and Bank of England notes which they held in their strong-rooms and tills and balances at the Bank of England—did not exceed 15 per cent. of the liabilities to depositors. Loans at call or short notice were largely uncallable. Stock Exchange securities held either as investments or collateral security were to a considerable extent unsale- able; during the first week they were altogether unsaleable except at a dangerous sacrifice. Bills of exchange in the banks’ own portfolios might or might not be met at maturity, and bills which the banks had accepted themselves might have to be met out of the banks’ own resources. Thus a large part of bankers’ resources were in danger of becoming immobile and solidified. There were four main causes which combined to ‘immobilise credit’ at the outbreak of War: (1) The fear by borrowers that they might have to repay immediately large amounts of credit which the lenders had transferred to them previously on condition that it was withdrawable on demand. A considerable part of this borrowed credit had been retransferred to others who desired to anticipate the proceeds of future sales or services and it was not callable immediately. (2) The actual calling in, or attempt to call in, by certain banks, financial houses, and other institutions of large amounts of credit lent on demand. (3) The general fear (until Treasury Notes were issued) that, if the lender insisted on the borrower repaying credit in the form of legal-tender currency, there might not be sufficient legal tender to meet all demands. (4) The inability of foreign correspondents, owing to the collapse of the exchanges and other reasons, to remit credit to this country to meet maturing liabilities and other demand calls. Elsewhere we discuss the effect of the Emergency Measures. These have aimed at re-establishing confidence, and they have succeeded in restoring the mobility of rnany forms of credit immobilised at the outbreak of war. But this is not a complete restoration of credit. As long as any Emergency Measures remain, to that extent there will be a failure to reach the standard of normal credit. Its main characteristic in this country was its spontaneous character, and necessarily as long as artificial and extraneous devices are required, the 23 Hoon. Journal, xxiv. p. 486. ee ie oad TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 591 position will be something intermediate between confidence and credit in the fullest sense of the word. In fact, the progress towards a normal return to credit will be marked by the gradual recall of successive Emergency Measures. When credit is sound, just as in the case of a healthy man, it does not need tonics, nor is it conscious of its own state. It works largely intuitively. All questioning, even a demonstration of ‘its inherent soundness,’ is an evidence that there is some danger of a failure of complete confidence at one or more points. The sound state of credit is that which needs no external help. III. Public Borrowing for the War as Affecting Credit. (1) General Effects of Public Borrowing on Credit. Public borrowing may be regarded from two points of view. From the first or abstract point of view, Credit is based on claims to goods and services; from the second or concrete point of view, Credit is measured by prices on the Stock Exchange or by the rates of interest current in the Money Market. Loans imply interest, and interest implies taxation in future years. The actual subscription of War Loans involves the handing over to the Government of claims to consumable goods and services for the destructive purposes of war, in return for which the Government gives the subscribers a transferable lien on future goods and services. Extensive borrowing by Governments reduces the mobility of existing credit; because the payment of calls, as well as the expectation of further loans, reacts on the previous state of credit. As already shown, the outbreak of hostilities tends to contract credit not only within the area directly affected but in adjoining areas. In a great war the uncertainty extends to almost every market for capital. Thus war results in a general rise of interest. That rise is accen- tuated in a belligerent country both by the risks of war to it and by the con- traction of its usual production through the calls on its productive power and also by the necessity for public borrowing. The State now exerts an urgent demand for capital in competition with, or even to the exclusion of, the remain- ing demands for industry. That demand is supplied from various sources. First, most of the floating supply of capital (namely, that capital which has not as yet been definitely committed to specific production) is subscribed, then circulating capital which has been diverted from its usual uses owing to the industries employing it having ceased or being contracted through the existence of hostilities. Further, sums are found by the postponement of repairs and renewals which were required to maintain the full efficiency of production. Foreign investments are sold to a greater or less extent. The latter source of supply can only be tapped by an increase in the rate of interest on Government loans lessening the disparity between the yields on home and foreign investment, The increase in the rate of interest offered by the Government has the further effect of being a direct incentive to new savings. It is to be remembered that the Government not only borrows but it also disburses the capital it raises. Many of these disbursements are made within the country, and a high rate of interest acts as a direct incentive to the saving of a considerable part of these as well as to increased economy amongst the remainder of the community. In the first War Loan of a series, the larger proportion of the subscriptions will be drawn from floating capital, but later issues depend for their success to an increased degree on new savings; and, in the present instance, these must be in excess of those made in time of peace. Hence the rate of interest offered in order to induce such additional savings will be high and will tend to increase. Thus the most evident effect of extensive Government borrowing, as has been shown by the two War Loans, is the tendency towards a rise in the price to be paid for each successive loan, i.e., the rate of interest will rise, not only for Government loans, but for all borrowing. This is no new fact in English his- tory, and this tendency may be illustrated by a table giving the average price of Government Stock before, during, and after the Napoleonic Wars. 592 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. Consolidated Three Per Cents. | Period Average Price Period Average Price estoy: tag 28 sve Tiras eae 1sios4::\. Sieben [> 7%) feeb nafett ed TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 613 peace outlay, it seems as if vigorous financial administration, sparing no speeial interests or classes, would supply over 300,000,000/. for each year of a limited war period. The tax revenue, jus‘; indicated as possible, has evidently to be supplemented by the use of loans. It is, or ought to be, recognised that there are large funds which cannot be brought in by the pressure of the tax-collector, but which will flow in to the Exchequer if the inducement of adequate interest is afforded. We may perhaps assume that by this means an amount equal to that gained from taxation is obtainable, year by year, for a war period of several years. The compulsory contribution of the taxpayer is balanced by the voluntary payments of the saving class. ‘The general result of the foregoing estimate shows an annual fund of over 700,000,000/. available for the cost of war. Taking the total of this cost as approximating towards 1,000,000,000/., there remains a sum of over 250,000,000/. to be supplied, and here the use of an external loan is manifestly prescribed. By adopting the sound policy of exempting the interest on such a loan from British taxation the raising of the required amount would be facilitated. In addition to the immediate financial relief there would be the important effect on the Foreign Exchanges (it need hardly be said that the United States would be the chief field of contribution) and the beneficial political bearing through the financial interests becoming attached to the side of the borrowing country. As the struggle proceeds, the need of some such arrangement will, I believe, become plainer; but delay will mean heavy financial loss and greater difficulty in bringing about the needed adjustments.’ We are inclined to think that with taxation of over 300,000,0002. more than 350,000,000/. could be raised by loan, even without trenching (as was done inthe Napoleonic Wars with the result of a suspension of cash payments) upon those bankers’ funds which should be kept liquid. But to do that we must call upon our reserve supply of labour and produce more goods, particularly for export. Therefore the nexus of ideas is public and private economy together with increased production; unless we accomplish the last, we are not making the most of our command of the sea. Probably if war expenditure does not exceed 1,000,000,0002. per annum this country could finance this almost altogether, if not altogether, by taxation and loan, but the national income would need not to fall below 2,000,000,000/. ; we should have to take over 20 per cent. of that, and under the conditions indicated we could lend, say, 450,000,000/. per annum, possibly more. But the sacrifice involved in the marginal taxation would be extremely great and the marginal borrowings would be raised at a high cost, thus it would probably be cheaper on the whole to float external loans of moderate amounts. The problem is, in fact, whether there is a balance of advantage in obtaining the marginal 150,000,0007. or 200,000,000. of annual war expenditure (in the event of a long war) from British or from external sources. VI. The War and the Foreign Exchanges. The inquiry into the effect of the War upon the Foreign Exchanges may conveniently be divided into two periods. The first of these covers the few weeks immediately succeeding the outbreak of war, when the exchanges throughout the world with hardly an exception suffered complete disorganisa- tion, from which they gradually recovered as the first shock spent itself and emergency measures were taken to ameliorate the existing financial stress. The second period displays the gradual cumulative effect of war conditions and war expenditure upon the financial relations of each of the combatant nations with its Allies and with the principal neutral countries, an effect which in the case of this country has only now begun to attract serious attention. With regard to the first period it is beyond doubt that if everyone had kept his head and had correctly gauged the future, the collapse of the exchange machinery could have been avoided. When we remember, however, that the outbreak of war took the financial world by surprise and that there were few precedents to guide men in such an emergency, it is not surprising that mis- takes were made. Two circumstances have contributed to make London the financial centre of the world: (1) it has been for generations the one absolutely free gold market, and (2) the Bank of England has always been willing to cash its notes 614 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. in gold to any extent, both for internal usd and for export. Thus the ‘exchange’ of the whole world has centred round the sterling bill, which had come to be regarded, in Mr. Franklin’s phrase, as actual ‘interest-bearing gold.’ Nearly every foreign State Bank was in the habit of keeping a certain portion of its reserve in sterling bills, which were renewed from time to time as they became due, and only ‘melted’ when and as these banks desired to replenish their stocks of gold. In practically every foreign country the rate of exchange on London is not reckoned by the value of the unit of currency of that country in pounds, shillings, and pence, but by the number of francs, marks, dollars, &c., necessary to purchase the pound sterling. The outbreak of war found London the creditor of the world as regards short-dated obligations, and the hurried calling in of such obligations caused a stampede for sterling remittances, which rose to extraordinary prices. The normal rate in New York for London cable transfers is 4.86 dollars the pound sterling, but in August last year rates of 64 dollars were dealt in. In other centres it was impossible for a time to obtain sterling remittances at any price. Many countries forbade the export of gold; arbitrage operations, which in more normal times are used as a lever to redress variations from norimal exchange rates, ceased altogether ; the creation of finance bills stopped abruptly ; the Stock Exchanges of the world were closed. Gradually, however, as men began to view the situation more calmly the confusion was allayed. Credits which had been abruptly recalled were in many cases renewed. Emergency measures which are described elsewhere helped to restore confidence. During the prolonged Bank Holiday, one of the most important problems before the Treasury was the re-establishment of foreign exchange, as it was recognised that, until this was accomplished, it would be quite impossible to carry on the foreign trade of this country. In order to do this, it was necessary in the first instance to re-establish the position of the sterling bill. For this, two things were necessary—the first to induce accepting houses to continue and grant legitimate trade credits, and the second to induce banks and discount houses to discount these acceptances when created. For the accepting houses realised that a large and unknown proportion of their acceptances would not be provided for by the drawers at due date, and the discount houses believed that many of the bills bearing their endorsements might not be met by the acceptors. Neither acceptors nor endorsers, therefore, felt themselves justified in adding to their liabilities. ‘These two apparently insuperable difficulties,’ Mr. Franklin writes, ‘were overcome by the Treasury, with the assistance of the Bank of England, in a manner that will always be recognised as masterly.’ One of these measures had a curious and unexpected effect. The Mora- torium enabled foreign customers to postpone the transfer of the sterling to London. ‘There is no doubt,’ Mr. E. F. Davies writes, ‘that the Moratorium saved enormous sums to foreign countries which were indebted to London, and it also arrested the tremendous rise that was taking place in the foreign exchanges in favour of this country. The following table shows the rates of exchange current immediately prior to the War and the highest and lowest quotations since : Rate quiet First year of War ial before War 3 Lowest Highest | Paris me eal Wel TRL 25.18 24.00 27.60 | Amsterdam : j : : 12.14 11.70 12.60 Switzerland. : : ; : 25.18 24.00 26.40 | Italy ; , : ; , F 25.30 24.00 29.45 | Madrid. ‘ 2 : : é 26.15 23.85 26.60 | Petrograd P s : 4 al 96°10 105.00 160.00 | Scandinavia . ; : t : 18.25 18.02 19.70 New York Ai ie aad WS 4.883 4.76 6.50 Rio Janeiro 90 d/s. - . . 16d. 1lid. nom. 14 7/16 Buenos Aires 90 d/s . . . 473d. 46 5/8d. 49d. pi & Ri ad TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 615 The remarkable jump in the American exchange was due firstly to the general causes already mentioned, and secondly, as Mr. Davies points out, to the fact that the city of New York found itself obliged to pay off 13,500,0000. sterling short notes maturing in this country at that time. There is no doubt that it would have been a very profitable transaction for English bankers to have renewed those notes, and to have thus kept a certain control over the exchange, bnt, owing to the manner in which the renewal at that time was proposed, the operation did not meet: with general approbation. It would have relieved the situation if the notes had been renewed here, and it would have been a very vemunerative investment for anyone foresighted enough to purchase the issue of yearly dollar bills with the exchange round about six to six and a-half dollars and the return that the interest gave them in New York. The action of the Government in stepping in and adjusting the rate of exchange was no doubt good at the time, because it had the effect of restoring normality, although everyone should have known that this country and her Allies would have to buy enormously in the United States of America, which would quickly reduce-the exchange rate to its normal level. Before turning to the second of the periods into which our subject is divided a few words of explanation are needed. Mr. Metz** divides the influences which determine the level of exchange rates into four heads, as follows : (a) Trade balance, including trade in securities. (b) Service balance, including interest as remuneration for the service of lending money; in other words, interest on foreign debt held. (c) Gold shipments. (ad) Credits abroad. A fifth may be added in some cases, viz., the depreciation of the internal currency of a country, which is reflected in exchange rates between that country and others; and (6) should be interpreted to include the services of our shipping, in which the rise of freights balances, to some extent, the diversion of merchant ships to war purposes. Tn normal times (a) and (6) are of primary importance, and (c) and (d) are chiefly used to redress temporary fluctuations in the volume of (a) and (b). In times of peace (a) and (b) tend to an equilibrium or are brought to an equilibrium by the operation of a steady accumulation of foreign investments or foreign indebtedness, according as the nation is an investing country such as the United Kingdom, or a spending country such as our Dominions and Colonies, which are yet in process of development. The effect of a war such as the present is, however, to disorganise the normal balance of trade and service. Every combatant is compelled to import enormous quantities of war material and food, whilst its own power of produc- tion is necessarily seriously impaired by the withdrawal of masses of men from productive enterprise for military purposes. This process is in operation in the case of all the nations now at war, though in the case of some of them it is modified or complicated by the military and naval operations of their opponents which have restricted foreign trade to its narrowest limits. The result is that the belligerents’ imports overshadow their exports, and the rate of exchange tends more and more against such countries and in favour of the principal neutral nations. Thus in Germany the premium on dollars had risen in July 1915 to about 17, per cent., the Amsterdam rate showing a similar percentage against Germany. In England exchange rates with neutral countries were irregular, but in no case was the premium more than 3 per cent. In France at the same date Dutch currency stood at about 84 per cent. premium. In Russia sterling exchange had reached a premium of 544 per cent., and the Dutch exchange a premium of 583 per cent. In Amsterdam the Austrian currency stood at a depreciation of 25 per cent., and the Italian of nearly 18 per cent. What is the significance of these figures? To what extent do they denote *4Mr. S. Metz, who writes from Amsterdam, the chief neutral financial centre, has furnished the Conference with most useful information on the exchanges, 616 ; TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. merely a hitch in the machinery of remitting money, and how far if at all are - they evidence of a depreciation in the value of each country’s currency ? None of the belligerents will admit such a depreciation, though few impartial observers, if such can be found, will deny its existence. As regards the English currency, the argument will probably be used that, unlike all the other belli- gerents, gold is in free circulation, and that its export is not prohibited. But, as Mr. E. L. Franklin points out, ‘at the present time, notwithstanding that there is no prohibition placed on the export of gold to neutral countries, no bank or banker can be found who will avail himself of the benefits accruing from such transactions, because it is the general opinion, whether justified or not I will not say, that it is against the interests of this country for gold to leave England so long as other Governments do not allow gold exports from their countries.’ The creation of credit has been necessarily profuse, one might almost say necessarily reckless, in this country during the War; wages and prices are on a war basis which can admittedly be only temporary. The result is inflation, which in the opinion of many is reflected in an unfavourable rate of exchange. What is to be the remedy? Let us turn back to our summary of the factors which determine the level of exchange rates. From these we may dismiss ()) as a potential lever for influencing the rates between this country and others. The interest on debts due from abroad will certainly decline rather than increase during the War, and the withdrawal of men from industry for military purposes prevents any increase in the volume of our services to other nations. The shipment of gold provides a possible palliative for an unfavour- able rate, and the criticism is often heard that gold reserves are valueless unless use is made of them. In the present case, however, we are confronted with the difficulty that our stock of gold is wholly inadequate to maintain exchange rates, and that America, to which country most of the gold exported would find its way, has ample supplies of the metal. Mr. Metz, indeed. argues that the export of gold, the sale of securities, and the creation of credits all ‘suffer from the same evil, that they can be applied only once, and that, once availed of. they weaken rather than strenethen the situation.’ Mr. Davies, on the other hand, can see only one practical way in which this exchange can be rectified, and that is by ‘the issue in the States of a large loan, free of income tax, for account of Great Britain. There is not the slightest doubt, in view of American public opinion on Germany’s submarine warfare, and the extremely favourable rate of exchanze for American investors, that the United States would have subscribed largely to the recent British War Loan, had it not been for one factor, viz., that no provision was made in the terms of the issue to exempt foreign subscribers from the British income-tax.’ Gold exports, therefore, cannot be relied upon as a permanent way out of our difficulty, and the loss of our small stock might have serious results in weakening confidence both here and abroad. There remain to us (a) and (d). The trade balance may be permanently affected by the discouragement cf imports into this country, by the encouragement of exports, by increased economy of consumption, and by taxation. In speaking of imports and exports it may be noted that we are not speaking merely of the trade with the United States of America. Our trade is not and cannot be divided into compartments, and. though the present difficulty is the exchange rate with America, this rate can be directly influenced by trade transactions with other countries. Jn all these directions something has been done by exhortation in the speeches of Cabinet Ministers and from the pulpit, but it may be doubted whether such ex- hortations have had any but the most suverficial effect. nor are they likely to touch more than the fringe of the question. Action of a more direct kind is needed, and such action is not likely to meet with insuperable obstacles. Economy should be enforced as well as preached, and the lesson should be the easier in that Germany has already set an example to the whole world. But when all these palliatives and remedies have been adopted there is little doubt that there will remain a great deal to be done, and our weapon for this purpose must be the raising of credits abroad. Here again the difficulties are merely difficulties of detail and procedure, for no one doubts that the British Govern- ment could raise money in the United States on favourable terms. ‘ . ek Ee Bie ee hk TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 617 APPENDIX. The Third War Loan. By D. Drummonp Fraser, M.Com. Is another War Loan necessary? In the event of the continuance of the War till the end of the current financial year our expenditure will exceed our revenue by not less than 1,000,000,000/. Towards this the second War Loan is raising 600,000,000/._ To be able to borrow on such a colossal scale the Govern- ment must dominate and attract the savings of the people. The bulk of the proceeds of this borrowing—four-fifths—is expended in this country. Such a vast expenditure stimulates trade. This enlarges the national income and increases the savings of the people. A Government compulsory loan would intensify the savings by a forced reduction of expenditure, especially with regard to some of our imports. It must be remembered that it is as vital a necessity to reduce our imports as it is to increase our exports. I suggest that the Government should adopt the banking principle of bor- rowing day by day directly from the people, in a simple and popular form. I propose the issue of Treasury War Bonds in three forms: repayable in three, five, seven, or ten years, at a fixed rate of interest payable half-yearly; the interest for the first half-year to be calculated from the date of investment to the end of the first half-year; a provision to be made on the back of the bonds for a transfer and a new bond to be issued when the transfer is completed. 1. A Treasury War Bond for 1,000/. or any multiple thereof. 2. A Treasury War Bond for 100/. or any multiple thereof payable in ten monthly instalments. 3. A Treasury War Bond for 5/. or any multiple thereof—scrip vouchers of 5s., 10s., and 12. to the amount of 5/. or any multiple of 5/., to be accepted as well as cash; holders of bonds not exceeding 100/. to receive their interest each half-year without deduction of tax. In the national interest it is of the utmost importance that the Treasury War Bonds should be taken up by the people direct. It is notorious that the anti- quated system of the other two loans, with their ‘short-time’ limit for appli- cation and payment, has not attracted the bulk of the people; and, in conse- quence, the banks have subscribed for a considerable portion of the two War Loans. This, after all, is the money of the people once removed. The bankers’ real function is to be the custodian of the people’s cash resources—deposits ; 60 per cent. of which is employed to liquefy the people’s ‘quick assets ’—bills and advances—which fructifies wealth. The bankers should only finance the Government temporarily through Treasury Bills over the counter, maturing three, six, nine, or twelve months after date.*® To the timid banker who sees a dangerous competitor in the Government, I would say that, in spite of the fact that during the first ten months of the War the Government had raised 600,600,000/. from the first War Loan, Exchequer Bonds, and Treasury Bills, the deposits of the hanks had actually increased in the same period 200,000,0007. I would remind him that since the banks have taken their branches to the homes of the people, the deposits during the present generation have increased 200 per cent. I would further remind him that the business of the country is conducted with an incredible smoothness through the bankers’ clearing houses by means of the crossed cheques, the daily average number of which exceeds one million. It was Gladstone who first freed the cheque from its legal disabilities. .He was warned by the timid banker of his day that he was placing a very dangerous weapon in the hands of the people. The municipal corporations, the Lancashire cotton mills, &c., have already educated the people with undoubted success in the banking principle of borrow- ing money day by day direct from the people, for short periods, at a fixed rate of interest. If the bankers, brokers, and financial houses act for the Bank of Fngland, on behalf of the Government, in receiving applications for the Treasury War Bonds, and also in repaying or renewing them, then the Government could obtain the necessary money, when needed, by recurrent popular advertisements in the daily press. 86 Mr. A. H. Gibson supports this proposal. 618 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. In the course of the Discussion the following Paper was read :— The Effect of the War on Finance and Currency. By Yves Guyor. War represents an excess of consumption; the belligerents consume capital under every form; nothing remains of it. No doubt the men who are at the Front would have been obliged to consume in time of peace. But they would certainly have made more economical consumption; moreover, most of them would have been busy supplying agricultural or industrial goods, or by trans- port, by trade, or by banking operations they would have been useful to the 3conomical repartition of those products. The said products do not exist. The saving power has therefore been almost entirely destroyed. Only those who have been producing for the large consumers—namely, the belligerent nations—have been able to put aside a part of their profits, a much smaller part than is supposed, at any rate in France and the United Kingdom; those are the only amounts of capital constituted since the War. : No doubt the subscribers to Loans will receive higher interest than they would have received if the War had not given rise to the enormous needs of the States; but as the States will be obliged to saddle the mass of taxpayers with further burdens in order to pay interests and clear off the Loans, the result will be an extra charge on the general expenses of each inhabitant of the land. Thus, on the morrow of the War: destruction of an enormous mass of fixed capital which will have to be reconstituted ; railroads, working plant worn out, not kept in order or not renewed, houses to reconstruct, and lack of available moneys. The needs will be great, but the purchasing power will be small, and the cost price will be increased by the higher rate of capital, the difficulties of procuring working plant and instruments, the scarcity of labour and fiscal surcharges. The only means of repairing losses and increasing the economic power of a nation is the increase of the intensity of production. It may be obtained by new inventions or discoveries, by a better division of labour; but any measure having for consequence a decrease of the efficiency of labour annihilates entirely or partially the technical progresses and increases cost prices. If legislative or fiscal measures interfere with capital, they merely cause it to steer away from industrial enterprise and to abandon economic activity. If, under pretext of protection, Customs duties increase the price of articles which the progress of industry, of banking, and of means of transport strive to lower, they increase the necessary effort for the acquisition of such articles, and consequently they lower the efficaciousness of technical improvements. Many employees have been persuaded that by means of controlling measures exercised by State, by restrictions due to the trade unions, they could obtain higher salaries in return for a minimum of their productive capacity. It is necessary to look for means of giving the maximum of productive strength to labour on the following bases : harmony for the workman between his interests and professional morality. ; Much has been said about private and public economy. Let the administra- tions set the example; we hope they will do so, though we confess that we have little faith to back such a hope. All the plans and projects laid down and discussed in the French Parliament concerning the economic future of France lead merely to an increase of expenditure. None aim at making im- portant savings in the Budget previous to the War. As for private economy, all is relative : no doubt there is a deal of useless waste, which it will be wise to diminish or to suppress; but economy is only a negative virtue, the intensity of production is a positive virtue, and it is on that virtue that we must build in order to ensure economic progress. i a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 619 SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. The following Paper was read and discussed :— Economic Problems after the War. By the Ven, Archdeacon W. Cunnincuam, F.B.A. There can be no accurate forecast of the conditions after the war; but as we have borrowed largely and spent the money unproductively, there is sure to be a heavy burden to fall on some one, though we cannot foresee exactly how it will be borne. We can only indicate hopes and fears as to the possibilities of the future. : During the war there has been an immense outburst of the sense of national duty ; we may hope that men will continue to view the affairs of the country with public spirit, and that the laissez faire school which identifies national prosperity with the pursuit of private interests is dead. There has been a great increase of governmental activity, and the experi- ments made in regard to the nationalisation of railways and the fixing of prices and profits and wages by the State are remarkable. They mark an increased sense of the nation as a unit, and indicate that cosmopolitanism has received a check. It is probable that each nation will be on the guard against the risk of being exploited by countries which are more advanced industrially. Great Britain was enabled by the age of invention to use her industrial superiority so as to control the resources of other countries; ana though Great Britain has now left her Colonies free to pursue their own development, German organisation and her careful application of science to industry have given her the opportunity of pursuing the same policy. It is of the highest importance that the problems of the increased burden caused by the war should be clearly stated; and there may be some misgiving lest the habit of mind which has been recently cultivated by English economists is the best for dealing with broad issues. Both consumption and production are necessary parts of the economic process, but the war has shown once more the importance of production—the production of munitions and she organisation of employment; the new school of economists, which gives an exaggerated importance to consumption and leaves production in the back- ground, is not well fitted to deal with the questions. Many economists before the war took a short-sighted view of British interests, and helped to create the impression in Germany that Great Britain was so committed to neutrality that she would present no objection to the invasion of Belgium. By exaggerating the importance of consumption the same school of economists has given an apparently scientific basis to the claims of those who are taking advantage of the war to stand out for higher wages. In so far as the struggle at the Dardanelles has been due to political rather than military considerations they have laid undue stress on the possibility of importing corn from the Black Sea, and have raised the question as to whether cheapness to the consumer may not be obtained at too great a cost in lives. The following Report was discussed :— Report on Fatigue from the Economic Standpoint.—See Reports, p. 283. 620 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Section G.—ENGINEEHRING. PRESIDENT OF THE SecTIoN: —H. 8S. Heue-Suaw, D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.S. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— Tue preparation and delivery of a Presidential Address is usually a pleasant and not difficult task, although it seems to be the custom mildly to intimate to the contrary. In ordinary times the President chooses a subject on which he has done some work, and with which he is therefore familiar, and with which, moreover, his name is more or less associated. If this had been an ordinary time, I should have liked to deal with the fascinating subject of mechanical locomotion, and to review what has taken place, let us say, since the meeting of the British Association held in Manchester rather more than half-a-century ago. The subject would have afforded ample scope, as we can realise by considering what would have been the effect produced if the distinguished Engineer, Sir William Fairbairn, who was President of the British Association in that year, had told his audience that within a comparatively short space of time our roads would be to a large extent occupied with self-propelled traffic; that electricity, then nothing but a toy, would play a most important part in our means of locomotion, not merely for driving but for lighting. That it would be used for searching out and communicating with vessels far away from the land and from each other; that ships many times the size of the largest ones then in ordinary use would employ steam as Hero employed it two thousand years ago, and obtain by this means a speed more than twice that of any existing ships; and that many ocean ships would be propelled against wind and tide by engines without using any steam at all. If the President had further proceeded to predict that ships would travel under water for long distances as easily as on the surface, and that, above all, a safe pathway would be found in the air by means of machines flying at speeds far exceeding that of the swiftest birds, I suspect he would have lost a good deal of his reputation as a man of judgment and common sense. Such addresses, which deal with scientific progress, are most instructive, and the historical treatment of engineering questions is of the utmost value in assisting the judgment as to future possibilities. It is therefore most dis- appointing that I do not feel justified in taking up your time with an address of this kind. The fact is, the time is not an ordinary one, for the war which a year ago cast its shadow over the Meeting of the British Association in Australia has, as the months have passed by, gradually unfolded the most terrible page in the history of the world. It is terrible not merely because of the frightful slaughter which has taken place and which will yet take place, owing on one hand to the gigantic armies employed, and on the other to the nature of modern warfare. A predecessor in the Chair, one who has left many marks of his genius on the peaceful engineer- ing works of the country, Mr. Hawksley, commented about fifty years ago on ‘the unhappy necessity of devoting so much of the science and skill of members of the Association to the defence of the homes of the people of this great Chil oh PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 621 nation.’ He further remarked with great prophetic insight: ‘ War is no longer carried on by means of mere animal courage and brute force; on the contrary, we perceive, much to our amazement, I believe, that the highest branches of mechanical science and the most refined processes of the mechanical arts are resorted to by the modern warrior for the purposes of offence and defence. And we are taught by the logic of the facts that the modern soldier must cease to remain a passive machine, but on the contrary, must henceforth be trained as a skilled labourer, if not indeed as a skilled artisan.’ I do not think, however, that either Mr. Hawksley or anyone else could anticipate what refinements of skill and science would be brought to bear, not merely on the destruction of the human species but of those ancient edifices of beauty which cost hundreds of years to build, and which cannot be replaced, or even the loss of those great works of engineering in the form of bridges and other structures which, though doubtless replaceable, represent the accumulated wealth of mankind. All this does not constitute, however, the worst feature of the war which is still raging. I do not know which will hereafter stand out in the blackest light—the callous disregard by our enemy of the recognised laws which have governed warfare amongst civilised countries hitherto, of which the recent murder of a defenceless submarine crew in neutral waters is an example, or the fact, of which there is now abundant and overwhelming proof, that this country, while animated only by peaceful intentions, was itself the real object and ultimate aim for the destructive effort of our enemy. Fortunately we now all know that our determination at any cost to our- selves to stand by our treaty obligation to a weaker country was really a fateful moment in the history of our Empire. Had we then failed, such failure would have spelt our own doom. This is not the place to dwell at any length on this subject; but I cannot help pofnting out that the whole attitude of scientific and professional men in this country at the beginning of the war shows how little they realised the real nature of what was before us. Thus my own predecessor, after the war had begun, in his Presidential Address in Australia, used the words ‘ The discoveries in pure science, and their innumerable applications to practical ends, are ever a potent factor working for the common good.’ The truth is that the great majority of us did not realise to what uses science would be put in the mutilation and destruction of our fellow creatures. Still we are told by soldiers that practically any applications of science con- stitute legitimate warfare, and that the only way to escape from destruction ourselves is to employ all the resources of science in our own defence. It is on these grounds that the Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science has been held this year, because science is proving such an all-important factor in the present war. The mere holding of this meeting, however, with a vague sort of idea that science is associated with war, does not seem to most of us to meet the real needs of the case. The decision to hold the meeting was made in March, i.e., six months ago. Since that time the nation has awakened to the fact that matters have become very much more serious, and we scarcely needed the solemn warnings of our responsible statesmen to enable us to realise this. We see our foe turning every resource towards the active prosecution of the war, and bringing in the aid of every man towards that end. If the result were a small matter, we might pursue our way, as we did at first, with the fatuous cry, ‘Business as usual’; but day by day it is brought home to us that the Hymn of Hate, childish though it may seem, really represents the serious mind and deadly intention of our enemy. When I say this I know there are exceptions, and it is gratifying to find that at least one German guest of the British Association acknowledged in print the generous manner in which the German guests were treated in Australia after the war broke out, even being given a passage home.’ This and much else warns us that our failure in this war means the loss of what has been built up in so many centuries, and what we value above all other things, viz., our freedom, and that this loss would be accom- panied by atrocities and degradation beyond the most savage happenings of the ? T regret to say this forms a striking contrast to the brutal treatment meted out in many cases to British visitors in Germany. 622 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. past. It behoves us all then who are members of it to show that the British Association, which has rendered such great services to the country in the past, can bear its share of the burden to-day. I assume that we are all agreed upon this point, and it remains to consider the best way in which such a work can be carried out. Understanding from the President that he is dealing with the question from the point of view of the whole Association, I need only deal with the matter as far as it concerns our Section. After discussing the matter with our Secretary and several of my predecessors in the Chair, I suggest that we continue the three Research Com- mittees already in existence, but do not institute a fresh one, forming instead a Special Committee, the purpose of which I propose to lay before you. Before doing this, I should like to point out that the very fact that engineering con- stitutes such an important feature of the War has prevented our having, as often in times past, papers on military and naval subjects, such as Warships, Armour, Projectiles, &c. And this for two reasons: first, because nearly every professional or manufacturing engineer having as a rule sent the best of his staff to the fighting line is overwhelmed by actual work either directly or indirectly connected with munitions and war material, and is much better so employed than in talking about the subject, or even in attending the present meeting ; secondly, because men who really know all about such work would not be likely to discuss it in public at the present time,” and I am sure you will agree with me that we do not want merely popular science on war subjects. Hence, the twenty-four papers before the Section deal with engineering science generally, but I venture to think they are of a high scientific quality, and quite as important in character as those of former years; and it will be noticed in several cases they touch closely on subjects bearing on the War, such as those on wireless telegraphy and traction. The object of the proposed Committee is two-fold. The first of these would be to undertake any work which may be of use in an advisory capacity or by research, or indeed in any other way for direct assistance in the War. This would, of course, be a temporary object of the Committee, but never- theless a real one, for, as stated by the Commander-in-Chief at the Front, this is.a war of machinery; and a Cabinet Minister, in quoting this, quoted the further statement of Sir John French that it was not the German soldiers our men had to cope with; it was the artillery, ammunitions, and enormously powerful mechanical organisation of the German Army. I need not go into all that may be done in this direction by the Committee, but one step ‘will be to place ourselves at the service of the Ministry of Munitions for such work. A certain number of tlie proposed Committee may be already doing munition work and also valuable work for other Committees with which they can at any rate keep us in touch; other members would be free to give all their time and service for such work as the opportunity presents itself. With regard to the second purpose, the matter stands on a rather different footing. We were in many respects quite unprepared for the War on which we have entered, and though this offers one of the most powerful arguments in refutation of the charge that we deliberately entered the War for sinister purposes, it will be very disastrous if we repeat our unpreparedness when the War ceases, and we shall deserve the worst that can happen to us. When peace is concluded, it will only be a prelude to another war, and a war which will recommence with far greater energy on the part of our enemy than before—viz., the war of commerce—and the latter will be almost as serious for us as the more sanguinary one. This will be so even if we are victors, for as an historian (Professor Gardiner) has written : ‘ After a long war the difficulties of the victors are often greater than those of the conquered. The conquered have their atten- tion directed to the reparation of losses and are inspired by a patriotic desire to submit to losses for the sake of their country. The victors are in the frame of mind which expects everything to be easy.’ Remembering how soon we forgot that black December week fifteen years ago; and the lurid indication from the German Emperor that he and his people had the will to destroy us then if not the power, and how swiitly *I cannot help paying a tribute to the splendid work of the Economic Section, which Section does not suffer from our peculiar disability =e ee PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 623 we relapsed into national ease at the end of the Boer War, it behoves every man who can do so to take his share in making ready for the terrific struggle Germany is certain to put up in the arts and manufactures. I might give evidence of this from a number of sources, but I will only take one emanating from a body of Professors of the great Universities of Germany. These gentlemen have published a voluminous manifesto containing amongst other gems the following: ‘Once the Russians are driven back beyond their new Frontier we shall not forget the war which England has made on the maritime and Colonial commerce of Germany. That must be the guide of our action and we must supplant the world trade of Great Britain. By her blockade of Germany, England has instructed us in the art of being a European Power, militarily, industrially independent of others. We must immediately seek to create for ourselves apart from the Empire of the Seas a Continental commercial enceinte as extensive as possible. . . . With regard to war indem- nities, we shall demand an indemnity which as much as possible shall cover war expenditure, the repair of damage, and pensions for the disabled men, widows, and orphans. We know that the question has been examined by the Govern- ment according to the financial capacities of our enemies. From England, which has been so niggardly in men, we can never demand enough money, because England raised the world against us with gold. It is our duty to crush the insatiable cupidity of this nation.’ It does not, however, want such published evidence to convince any practical person of the folly of thinking that a keen and virile nation having more than 100 million inhabitants is going to be rushed out of fierce and vengeful competition, whatever the end of the war may be. We shall better appreciate what this competition will mean if we con- sider the marvellous progress made by Germany during fhe last half-century in ‘the arts and manufactures. Although we cannot say that this is absolutely measured by progress in the production of iron and steel, or even say that the corresponding rate of increase in production during that period by this country directly measures our progress relatively to Germany, still it does afford some indication in the case of the engineering industry. Probably few of us have ever realised what I can show you by means of graphic curves of production of iron and steel. For these curves I ain indebted to the kindness of the Secretary of the Tariff Commission, who was good enough to prepare them specially for my Address, although I do not, of course, put them forward here as a tariff argument. The four diagrams, figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, represent annual production in ordinates, and the corresponding years by abscisse, the production of the United King- dom being shown throughout in full lines and that of Germany by dotted lines. Taking first fig. 1, we have the actual production of pig iron for the last fifty years, and we can see at a glance the much more rapid rate of comparative production in Germany in recent years. When we come to the percentage relatively to the world’s production, we see that while Germany is steadily rising, even in comparison with whole world output, the production of the United Kingdom is falling at an even more rapid rate than that of Germany is rising ; for whereas fifty years ago it was more than half the production of the whole world, it is now only 13 per cent., whereas Germany’s percentage, which fifty years ago was only 10 per cent., has now risen to 25 per cent. of the whole world production. Figs. 3 and 4 tell the same tale, except that the relative production in steel of this country is now only 10 per cent., Germany keeping for many years the satisfactory figure of a quarter of the whole world’s production; and it is of course quite familiar matter that, as far as science and discovery go, Germany owes her growth in steel production largely to the discoveries in this country, although in the case of the Bessemer steel process, she evaded the payment of royalties in making use of the invention. We know that the same tale is to be told in many other industries, such, for instance, as the chemical industry, and we are now suffering severely from the want of the very dyes which were invented by one of our own countrymen. The above curves are quite sufficient to illustrate the marvellous progress of Germany; and in passing I may remark that one of the most persistent allegations which has been repeated ad nauseam by German statesmen, soldiers, professors, and the whole German press generally, is that the War is caused MILLION ITONS 18 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. PIG IRON PRODUCTION UNITED KINGDOM...__ GERMANY __.... aes = 1865 1870 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905S 1910 19S Fig. 1. eat ree PERCENTAGE oF WORLD PRODUCTION oF PIG IRON PRODUCED In UNITED KINGDOM ano GERMANY sof A RESPECTIVELY 50 UNITED KINGDOM PRODUCTION PERCENTAGE. _ GERMANY PRODUCTION PERCENTAGE.__—__—__— La, a0) 2Ee 40 Ss Xe | Keane 30 = 130 = fe 20 ~:! + ar = = —— = £ Sa 20 as aie ia | ann eee ye 10 eerie t + 10 * 1865 1870 1875 1880 1885 1830 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 Fig. 2. ~ - PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 625 MILLION] TONS: | STEEL PRODUCTION UNITED KINGDOM. GERMANY. v/ mal Pea ee (rs —— | 6 4 9 9 ¥ oe s arred (a a 1865 1870 1875 1880 1885 1890 1855 1300 1905 1910 1915 Fia. 3. PER co PERCENTAGE of WORLD PRODUCTIONoF STEEL PRODUCED In UNITED KINGDOM AnD GERMANY 50 RESPECTIVELY. So 40) 30) 20) 1870 1875 1880 1885 18390 1895 1900 1905 Fic. 4. 1910 19S 626 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. by our jealousy of this progress of Germany. Perhaps you will consider it wasie of time to even allude to this matter; but I will take this opportunity of pointing out that if there had been any truth concerning this jealousy, it would have been the simplest thing in the world to shut Germany out of a large number of markets in the British Empire, and that this would have been a very much cheaper process than going to war. Our Colonies, which are now fighting equally with ourselves against German aggression, made a very small difference (5 per cent., for instance, in the case of New South Wales) in regard to the introduction of German manufactures. I myself have somewhat close know- ledge of two colonies, and I cannot help recalling the astonishment with which I found in South Africa that, when there was a huge scheme of electrification effected, the enormous amount of material which Germany supplied was for what the public mostly believed to be a purely British enterprise. I also have reason to know that the supply of machinery to New South Wales from Krupp in some cases exceeded by as much as ten times in amount the quantity supplied by British firms. The prices were no higher, in spite of the 5 per cent. advantage to this country. The delivery of the goods was on the one hand sometimes inordinately delayed, though scrupulously punctual in delivery on the other. Now, when we look closely into the causes of Germany’s great advance, we can learn lessons which we have been culpably slow to take to heart. Although there are other causes, first and foremost, and overshadowing all others, the determined and whole-hearted organisation of German industry. I see it recently stated that the scheme above referred to (the Victoria Falls scheme) was lost to this country because the industrial banks of Germany backed their own manufacturers, and this is no doubt partly true. As I have already quoted, Germany’s power in war is admitted to be her mechanical organisation, and the organisation of every material and engineering force to that end. Just as striking, if not more so, is her organisation for the arts of peace, and [I lately heard a very shrewd man of affairs express his amaze- ment at Germany’s entrance into war, when by peacefully pursuing the way she was going she would have dominated the world commercially in a few years’ time, and, in the words of the speaker, might in many manufactures have made us practically bankrupt. It is undoubtedly in the matter of scientific organisa- tion even more than the organisation of science that Germany has achieved such wonderful results, and it is therefore in this direction that we must leave no stone unturned if we wish to have any chance of holding our own in the future. I will indicate a few of the matters in which there is ample scope for doing useful work in the above direction. Education. A sign of the times is the inclusion of an Education Section in an association for the advancement of science. This has not been done on the narrow ground of improving the teaching of science in schools, but because it is now recognised, and this none too soon, that the whole problem of education must be treated in a scientific manner. When the subject of engineering education is mentioned we are apt to think only of the training of such engineers as have been considered in a recent report issued by the Institution of Civil Engineers, and to exclude, as that report purposely does, the training of our artisans and foremen. We certainly do not connect the idea at all with the training of the artisan himself. As a matter of fact, while high scientific training of the professional engineer and manufacturer is of vital importance, the proper education of the men whom he .- will have to control is scarcely less so. The latter education may not be of the same kind, but it is just as vital to the country, and its present condition is a serious evil. A well-known American, in the ‘General Electric Review,’ writing on the ‘individual and corporate development of industry,’ points out that theoreti- cally the aim of both employer and employee is the same, namely, the efficiency of industrial production to increase the return of the investment in labour and in capital. Unfortunately, however, as he remarks, ‘the relations between the two have frequently been hostile industrial warfare over the distributions ga ee oe PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 627 of the returns rather than co-operation for the increase of financial returns of both parties.’ One of the most humiliating things of the present War has been the mutual relation of the two in this country in what is probably the most critical period in our history. I will say more later on this subject, but there is no doubt the subject of industrial education needs earnest consideration. Take the first, the education of the professional man—the class, for instance, joining such institutions as the Civil, Electrical, or Mechanical Engineers; we find in one respect a most satisfactory progress as to what is insisted upon before such men are allowed to join one of these bodies. All such institutions now demand technical diplomas or University degrees, and, in addition, satis- factory evidence of practical training. But to prevent injustice to the man who may be self-taught, they hold examinations conducted by recognised men of standing in scientific and technical subjects. Great as this progress has been in recent years, there is a great deal to be done. In the first place, professors and teachers of engineering and technical subjects have to deplore the miserable previous training of a large number of students. It seems still to be a common idea that if a boy is unable to make any decent progress in the usual school subjects he can be sent to a technical school if he is useful with his hands, under the pathetic impression that the success of the engineer depends upon his hands rather than upon his head; and the first year or two at a technical school or college is thus taken up with work that ought to be done at a secondary school. It is not fair to put all the blame upon the school, for I have known students coming from the classical side of such a school with no knowledge of science and very little of mathematics who have taken the highest places in the engineering course, and, after entering their practical work, rapidly risen in the profession, and this was because such men had been well trained to apply their mind to any subject and had a sound foundation upon which to build. This only shows that a good student will always rise to the top, and does not prove that the present school system is the best for an average boy or makes him work as hard as, for instance, the corre- sponding school in Germany does. A large number of thinking men are convinced that our whole education system seriously needs reform. I say this not merely in reference to scientific education and technical training, but to the whole attitude of mind of the young of all classes of the community towards the serious work of life when they leave school. I will allude to this under another heading later on. In the matter of education and its bearing upon technical training, we have, then, a good deal to learn from Germany. ‘There are some things that we think are quite as good if not better in this country, but there is no reason why we should not try to find a way to adopt the better features of education from our enemy, and, while retaining independence of thought and originality, inculcate firmer discipline, for there is surely a happier medium in this matter. There is one matter before passing from this subject which calls for remark. I see in the report above alluded to there is a great divergence of opinion concerning the wage-earning value of highly technical students. Here again is a matter which in itself is worth a very careful discussion. The question depends first upon the student himself, next upon the kind of training he has had, and then upon the nature of the work he is expected to do. The blame in not getting the best results from a well-trained student is very often due to the employer, and our Section might do something to bring professors and employers into closer touch, and both employer and professor may have some- thing to learn from each other. In leaving this subject I cannot help pointing out what important con- tinuation schools are to be found in the meetings and discussions of the younger members of various engineering societies, and how much a young engineer learns in the preparation of a paper. Anyone who is accustomed to take the chair at such meetings will bear witness to the excellent outlay of money represented by the award of prizes and medals for such work. Many men to my knowledge have got jobs through thus showing acquaintance with a special subject or originality of thought. ss 2 628 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Research. If there is one thing more than another which the British Association can be congratulated upon, it is the work which it has done in the matter of research, and it is very interesting to go back to the earliest days, more than eighty years ago, and to see how, in very different days from the present, research in all branches of science was encouraged, and what a potent factor the various meetings have been, not only in actually fostering the work of research itself, but in obtaining the recognition which id accorded to-day. Amongst other things, the National Physical Laboratory stands largely to its credit, as having been first powerfully advocated at one of its meetings. This Section has not been behind the others, and at the present moment there are three Research Committees, viz., those on Gaseous Explosions, Compound Stress, and Impact. The work of the first of these is so valuable that its results have been published all over the world. To-day there is a more general recognition of the importance of research, and the recent institution by the Government of a Committee for the organisa- tion and development of scientific and industrial research is the latest indica- tion that the nation is beginning to realise its importance. So far from all this making our work less necessary, there is all the more reason why we should have a permanent Committee of Research, because one of the intentions of the new Government Committee is to utilise the most effective institutions and investigators available, and the statement is made that one of the objects of the Government Research Committee is to select and co-ordinate rather than originate, and that one of its chief functions will be the prevention of overlapping between institutions and individuals engaged in research. The Government Committee in question is only dealing with the organisation in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Now, the great advantage possessed by this Association is the fact that it includes not only Great Britain and Ireland, but all the Colonies, and indeed one of the three researches above mentioned is being carried out in Australia. Another research of the Association is being carried out in Cyprus; and work is also being done in such places as Jamaica and Egypt. It is more important therefore than ever that the British Association work in research should go on, as, since its members are drawn from all parts of the British Empire, its influence should be correspondingly great. There is another reason for research being a subject of a permanent sub- committee, and that is that suggestions for new work are more likely to be matured, and work of an advisory nature made more practical than is possible at one annual meeting. There is yet one more reason, which is that, although we have made some progress, we are still far behind .Germany in the organisation of research. There is no doubt that our students and scientific men are quite capable of con- ducting researches, but the training for this is like the training for the officers of an army : it cannot be done hastily ; and, indeed, men themselves cannot be obtained for this purpose without years of preparation. All such work must be done as a factor in the reorganisation of our manufacturing and commercial resources in the great struggle that lies before us. There is one subject which affects both education and research, and might be a matter to be reported on by our Committee. It is very rarely that a pro- fessor is both a good teacher and gifted with the power of original research. Even when a professor or lecturer is so gifted, however, it is almost impossible for a man to really devote himself properly to research, and at the same time undertake the duties which are attached to a professorial chair. Why not face this subject boldly, even relieve the bad lecturer (there are men who admit their failure in this respect) of a certain amount of his work, provided he is doing well in research; or for the man who can do both well, see that he not only has efficient assistance, but even more, that he is given the opportunity of devoting long periods (for instance, alternate years) entirely to research. There are numerous other questions which would come up under this head- ing, and which could be usefully dealt with by our Committee. There is one more subject that we might consider, and that is a better differ- entiation of researches ‘on purely industrial work, such as are often of a most a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 629 profitable nature to the professor or research student, and those which are of a purely scientific character. While it is only right that every successful research, even if conducted at the expense of a public body, should bring solid return as well as fame to the worker, some steps should be taken as to the fair and equitable distribution of the proceeds. I see that one of the proposals of the new Research Committee is that discoveries by institutions, associations, bodies or individuals in the course of researches aided by public money shall be ‘ made available under proper conditions for the public advantage.’ If the discovery is patentable, I assume, it would be protected at home and abroad, unless we wish to spend public funds as much for the benefit of foreign trade rivals as for ourselves. This is one of the many matters in connection with which a British Association Committee might from its cosmopolitan character render great service. Standardisation and the Metric and Decimal System. One of the favourite jibes at this country is our supposed utter want of system in regard to our standards and systems of measurement generally. With regard, for instance, to the decimal system, it is frequently stated that thirty or forty countries have adopted the metric system, while only three retain the inch as a standard. It must be remembered, however, that the population and wealth of the three latter are at least equal to, if not greater than, all the others, though this does really not prove anything, except the difficulty of the subject, and that there is a great deal to be said for both sides. In the Report of the Decimal Association last April, the hope is expressed that one of the changes for the better arising fromthe War will be a reform of our weights and measures. No class of the community would be affected more closely than the engineer, and engineers cannot fail to be interested in the question as to whether the general and immediate adoption of the metric system would or would not be a valuable means of assisting British firms in their competition with Germany and Austria, in countries where that system is in vogue. Although it is very unlikely that a wholesale change is imminent, it is certain that the metric system is gradually spreading, and in the United States and Australia very strong forces are on foot to bring about a change to that system. The British Association has over and over again had the subject before it, and our Committee might be of service in making a report on the present state of the matter. One thing is certain: the Committee might be of assistance in recommenda- tions which would bring into line all British engineers in duplicating tenders for countries which have the metric system. Coming to standardisation, here we have more ground for satisfaction. The Standards Engineering Committee during the last ten years has done a work which is quite equal to that in any other country, of completing standardisation of all important matters in engineering, and, moreover, has secured the recogni- tion of these standards in all public contracts. As giving some indication of the range of this work it may be said that there are more than sixty committees for dealing with every conceivable engineering matter, from bridges, ships, and locomotives down to electric lamps. One of the last of these committees, dealing with the automobiles, has eleven sub-committees, many of which have already completed their work. It is almost impossible to do justice to the extra- ordinary achievement of bringing order out of what was apparently hopeless chaos and to the benefit of the British engineering industry of this work, largely due to the energetic secretary, Mr. Leslie Robertson. We may justly pride our- selves that this Section was a pioneer of standardisation by taking up the subject of small screws, its work being taken over ultimately by the Standardisa- tion Committee. There is yet work to be done, however, and one matter of great importance would be to get a universal standard of temperature for instruments of measurement other than zero. A temperature, for instance, of about 62° Fahr. would make steel rods’ measures more practically workable than at present. In connection with the subject of temperature and standardisation, I recently came across a statement by the General Secretary of the International Electrotechnical Commission (‘ Journal,’ January 1915) that the want of uniformity in the rating and testing of electrical machinery has been a serious 630 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. evil, and he goes on to say: ‘The German standardisation rules, for instance, which, through well-organised and combined effort on the part of the German makers, had previous to the War become widely recognised on the Continent of Europe as well as in many countries to which British machinery is exported, by permitting a higher temperature rise than is considered good technical practice in Great Britain, certainly have not assisted the British maker in foreign markets.’ Exhibitions and Museums. In recent years a large number of commercial exhibitions have been held ot all branches of machinery, and it is satisfactory to note that one of the features of such exhibitions has been the holding of scientific lectures, and the inclusion of the exhibition of scientific instruments and apparatus, and also exhibits showing the relation of scientific experiments to engineering work. In some of the privately organised exhibitions with which I have been associated myself, the scientific men have been invited to take part when the general lines had been settled on which the exhibition was to be run, and thus we had comparatively little influence. I have thought from time to time that it would be well if a permanent committee of such a body as the British Association existed, which could exert more direct influence, chiefly of course by reports and recommenda- tions. The managers and organisers of such exhibitions would value assistance of this kind, and in return would listen to suggestions which might materially add to the scientific value of such an exhibition. I know from experience that a British exhibition is a most important means of promoting British industry, for the number of inquiries that come from all parts of the country and from all parts of the world show how much interest well-organised exhibits arouse and what long distances people will travel to attend such an exhibition. A machinery exhibition was to have been held in London, the date of the opening a week or two after the date at which the War began, but was of course not held. This exhibition was to have been Anglo-Dutch, and though organised by private enterprise was even in advance bringing in touch the consumers and manufacturers of the two countries. The Beama Journal quoted recently an American magazine in which the writer was advocating the support of a permanent Commercial Museum for industrial purposes, and this is what he said : ‘We produce a surplus of manufactures that must be sold. Our manu- factured exports have about doubled in ten years—in truth a cause for satis- faction, and yet we have not accomplished enough. . . . We have only made a beginning, considering what we can do and will be forced to do in the future. . . . Manufacturers must compete with old-established nations in the market they seek to invade.’ It is noteworthy that this museum, which is really a permanent exhibition, is a very complete organisation, containing amongst other things science laboratories. It is sad to think that the great hopes held out of the Imperial Institute by the President of this Association, Sir Frederick Abel, at the meeting held in Leeds in 1890, have not been altogether fulfilled. The President expressed the belief that amongst other objects the Institute would combine ‘the con- tinuous elaboration of systematic measures tending to stimulate progress in trades and handicrafts, and to foster the spirit of emulation amongst the artisan and industrial classes.’ It may be a very fitting time to bring forward the whole question, because it has often happened that an excellent scheme which has somewhat languished has upon its revival at a later time, when its importance was better realised, been crowned with success. Another matter which might be considered is the question of departmental museums at the Technical Schools and Universities throughout the country. The organisation of these is simply a matter for the enterprise of the individual professor in each department. The museums in the Engineering Department of the colleges with which I have been associated were very much appreciated by the students, who constantly were the means of securing fresh specimens, and after they have left the college continued to contribute articles of great interest, such as fractures, corrosions, boiler plates, models, &c. This matter might be handled in a much more systematic manner, and possibly a report from our Committee with a recommendation to the proper quarters would be of use. oo ee er ~~ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 631 Patents and Patent Laws. This subject is well worthy of the consideration of the proposed committee since progress in Engineering, certainly on the mechanical and electrical] sides, is largely dependent upon invention, which is not likely to be seriously under- taken without adequate protection, not entirely for the inventor, but also for those who really make the invention practical by means of capital and business support. A great deal of nonsense is talked and written about inventors, as if they were a special class of being, generally mad and always impossible. Some inventors are both, but the fact is, most engineers spend their lives seeking new ideas and devising new methods of carrying them out— in short, in inventing. It is of the greatest importance that every step should be taken to encourage sound invention and to see that anything of value is secured for this country. Of course, every invention worth anything is immediately known in other countries, but I need not argue to this Section that the country which actually produces the inventions is at a great advantage quite apart from the royalties payable on foreign patents. The foundation of the Munitions Invention Panel is a step in the right direction, and will doubtless be followed later on by Government Committees for peace inven- tions. Such Committees or Government Departments dealing with various industries will be assisted by suggestions from a body like this. Take, for instance, the present state of Colonial patents: within the last few years one Commonwealth patent has been made to cover the whole of Australia, instead of there being, as of old, separate patents with different regulations and fees for each separate Colony. South Africa has not yet conferred a similar boon upon inventors, and we might do something to expedite this desirable innovation. But this touches the much wider question of Colonial Patent Laws as a whole. These are all different and differ from those of the Mother Country. It would be a splendid thing if we could bring about a conference leading to unification of these diverse Patent Laws and have one comprehensive Patent Law for the whole Empire. There are many other matters—for instance, the question of extending the time of secrecy in the provisional patent. The ‘close’ time in patents was the act of Chamberlain, and is a splendid legacy of that great man, but for really many important patents the close time allowed is not enough. Another is one in which the German system has certain advantages, viz., in having two classes of patents. One of these is the patent ‘proper,’ which is only granted after the most severe search and criticism, and holds the usual period when granted. The other is a secondary patent granted for the shorter term of five years, and is given for one of the hundred and one minor improve- ments and devices which, though of real value, only constitute small modifica- tions in detail and not new applications of principle. .d Having previously spoken of German ways pretty plainly I should like to say here that I believe the suspicion of injustice to the British and other foreign applicants by the German Patent Office is to a great extent if not altogether unfounded. It is doubtless true that German manufacturers in common with most of us would like to avoid paying royalties, and it is moreover a common belief in this country that there is an advisory committee of manu- facturers associated with the German Patent Office. This view is supported by such statements as in the prospectus of the Deutsche Maschinenfabrik, which runs as follows: ‘ With the present-day competition every firm is compelled to protect its new designs by means of patents, and watch that no other patents are granted which would seriously effect (sic, affect) it.” Notwithstanding an utter- ance like this, my own experience and that of others is, that if the stringent rules of the German system are observed any valid application is granted, the motto which appears to guide the officials being, ‘We will be just, but we cannot afford to be generous.’ There are other matters, such as the question of giving wider powers to our Comptroller to refuse a grant where novelty is less than microscopic. Here again the German system of demanding that some definite principle is applied to produce some definitely new effect, might to some extent be followed, especially in view of the constant accumulation of published devices, some patented and others not. 632 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. I will conclude this section, which is far from exhaustive, by pointing out what a debt of gratitude Engineers and others owe to the Patent Office for the manner in which the work of producing illustrated abstracts of all patents has been and is being done, and the weekly issue of the ‘Patent Journal,’ but this may be associated with the suggestion that it would be a real convenience if, instead of the delay which often occurs, the abstract appeared at the same time or immediately after the publication of the complete specification. Organisation. This, I venture to think, is by far the most important question of any I have raised, and I will go so far as to say that I believe it to be the all- important one, as it practically embraces the others. If you do not agree with me, I feel sure it is because we do not understand the same thing by the word ‘organisation.’ When you speak of organisation to most people they immediately seize upon some small feature which may be to them of more immediate interest. It may be the general arrangement of their accounts, their system of store keeping, of dealing with their workmen, of the sales department, or fifty other minor details. If you take this narrow view of organisation you will, of course, at once say that a scientific man has very little to do with it, and indeed the manufacturer as a rule, thinking of his works organisation, scouts the idea that a man of science can either know or have anything to say about it which is of any value. Let me therefore take the dictionary definition. To organise is to ‘arrange or constitute interdependent parts, each having a special function, act, office, or relation with respect to the whole.’ If we accept this definition, which as a matter of fact we must, there is no question as to the all-important nature of organisation, for you will notice there are two outstanding things. The first ‘interdependent parts’ and the second their ‘relation to the whole.’ Thus the subject of organisation really includes the whole of industry. It includes science and its relation to manufacture. It includes the relations between the employer and employee. It includes the workman, and his attitude towards new devices, labour-saving appliances, and output. It includes the whole ques- tion of the supply of raw materials, and even the sale and delivery of the finished article. Taking these different features, is there any doubt that the man of science in this country can hold his own, and more than hold his own, with that of any other? The history of invention is quite enough to give a final answer to this question. Again, the British employer and man of affairs has always shown himself individually in the forefront of enterprise; as for the workman himself, he is admitted, in the matter of intelligence, physical endur- ance, and skill, to have no superior; while with regard to materials for manu- facture, and the power of delivering goods, it need scarcely be said that the British Empire, if we take it as a whole, is the richest country in the world in raw materials, and its means of delivery of its goods is expressed by the enormous preponderance of its mercantile marine. When we come, however, to these interdependent parts and their relation to the whole, it is there that we find the weak joint in the armour. It is in this respect that Germany can teach us a striking lesson in the arrangement of these interdependent parts with respect to the whole. From the top to the bottom the whole forces of their industries are so thoroughly organised that they get all that is humanly possible out of the various factors. I do not limit this merely to the wonderful organisation of any works, like Krupps, or the Deutsche Maschinenfabrik, or hundreds of other works, but I include the organisation of all the Government Departments, together with the Banks, the Railways, and the Shipping, so that every facility is afforded for the world commerce of the German Empire. Taking only one of these details, I remember, when at Liverpool, and the battle of the Manchester Ship Canal was being fought, what facts came out as to the difficulties in the transhipment and handling of goods. The late Mr. Alfred Holt, for instance, was one of the most earnest in pointing out that the want of co-operation and organisation in getting goods from our manufacturing centres was adding largely to their cost, and actually exceeded the cost of ba hh eh ie PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 633 transporting these goods across the ocean. In Germany, on the other hand, the Government steps in, and by means of special differential rates, gives the manufacturer every facility, and the lowest possible rates for obtaining raw material, and delivering ‘he finished goods to all parts of the world. It was this organisation that not only rendered Germany so formidable a rival in times of peace, but makes her so powerful in war. This co-ordination in Germany is carried out in every industry in a way we generally have little idea of. For instance, the other day at a deputation to the Government Mr. Runciman remarked that the difficulty of connecting the manufacturers with the commercial staffs in this country is deep seated, but perhaps not altogether incurable. Further, that the manufacturer must realise what he can get from the universities, and the University must know what the works require. Dr. Foster, the Treasurer of the Chemical Society, also said that ‘the Germans were so imbued with the need of pursuing modern and efficient methods of education, in applying science to industry, that they hold in contempt a country which notoriously neglects such processes’; and he attributed this contempt as partly contributory to their cheerfulness in entering into the war with us. Now, while these remarks are undoubtedly true, they are only a part of the truth. The evil is far wider than in any special application, for, as the German knows perfectly well, there are innumerable individual cases of organisation in this country of equal efficiency to any in his country, and he is glad enough to learn from special cases. Let us take one, and I do so because it shows that the man of science is capable of industrial and manufacturing organisation, if he turns his mind to it. I refer to the case of the firm known as Barr and Stroud, Ltd. As you know, the founders of this firm were originally colleagues in the Yorkshire College (the former, Professor Barr, occupied the Presidential chair of this Section three years ago), and they together invented a range- finder. Now, whatever the merit of this range-finder, it is safe to say, like every other important invention—for instance, the Parsons turbine—that the invention alone would have stood a small chance of coming into practice. In fact, to make the invention is, as a rule, the beginning of the difficulty. Professors Barr and Stroud, however, set to work to carry their invention into practice, and did so with such effect that their works, which began on quite a small scale, rapidly grew, and the first part of the new works was opened with about 90 hands all told in 1904. In the course of ten years it has increased to such an extent that there are now 1,700 employees. Those of us who have visited the works at Glasgow know the almost perfect way in which the whole arrangements are made, not merely for the scientific side, but for the comforts of the men, including the working dress which in itself becomes a uniform. It gives some idea of the scientific side to know that there are at the present moment twenty-three men with high university quali- fications, most of them with university degrees, and many of them men who were absolutely the first on the college list in the final examinations. This industry is another illustration of the lead given to Germany by this country, because the Barr and Stroud range-finders were brought out before any of the German range-finders of the kind now being made, the Germans having followed in their lines, and copied them in many respects. I have enlarged upon this, because I cannot help pointing out that the Barr and Stroud range- finders have had no small effect in the marvellous precision of our naval guns, and it will no doubt pass through your minds what we owe to private enterprise which started the manufactures of the turbines, range-finders, guns, and other naval features, when we think of such battles as those off Heligoland or the Falkland Islands. Now I do not believe the Germans despise us for our want per se of the application of science to industry. I do not think they have much reason to; but what they do despise us for is the want of co-ordination, which I venture to say amounts to positive slackness, which they are keen enough to observe permeating the whole of this country. They see different sections, instead of being united for a common end, quarrelling with each other, filled with mutual suspicion and distrust, with apparently no common bond of union ; and whereas the German is proud of the Fatherland, he sees in this country large numbers 634 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION @G. who seem, either through self-consciousness or ignorance, to be ashamed to mention the subject of the British Empire, or, what is worse, to acknowledge that any love of their country is or could be a mainspring and incentive to strenuous effort. The other day, Field-Marshal von Moltke stated—and there is no reason to disbelieve him—that great as was the storage of ammunition and shells before the war, the enormous demand far exceeded all expectation, and Germany found herself for a time in the same plight as her enemies, but he further stated that Germany’s emergence ‘ from this dangerous position was largely due to the extraordinary organisation, which included not merely the adaptation of their factories for munition purposes, but capacity for work of the people, and the patriotic spirit of the German workmen.’ This brings me to consider what is probably the most serious feature in our national life to-day, which I have already alluded to under the heading of Education, viz., the relation of employer and workman. It is hopeless, as long as such ideas prevail which seem to do at present, to think of any sound organisation of our industrial system taking place, because the interdependent parts are not arranged (and can never be arranged until we change radically) with respect to the whole. Now as one who has served an apprenticeship, who has taken his money weekly from a tin box with hundreds of other men, who has been a member of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers (in fact was working as an engine fitter when a Whitworth scholarship made a college career possible), I am the last man to put this evil down entirely to the working man. I know individually he is just as capable of patriotism as any other class. Get him by himself, even the men whose strikes have caused such despondency in the minds of our Allies, and who have seriously jeopardised the very existence of the country, and you will find (except in the sort of case to be found in all classes of society) that he, as an individual, is willing to make sacrifices, and if necessary to give himself for his country. The truth is that the canker which is eating the heart out of our in- dustrial life is due to an entirely wrong attitude of mind. For instance, however much we may sympathise with men who see a loss of employment in the introduction of labour-saving machines, some means should be found by which they can share the benefits to the State and to their employers by the introduction of such machines. I should like, if I had time, to say something about the marvellous organisation of the Ford motor-car works in America, and how it has given the men a share in the returns of a great industry, and thereby induced them to work in a way that has enriched themselves, their employers, and their country. We have many splendid examples of this co- operation in this country. For instance, Messrs. Allen, of Bedford. Again, the employment of women in the engineering industries has taken place in many directions owing to the War. The works with which I am associated could not have undertaken much munition work without it. Some steps should be devised by which this avenue of industry is not closed to women after the War, while justice is secured for the men alongside of whom they are working, and from whom they are in many instances learning mechanical skill. Again, the questions of piecework and overtime must be seriously considered by the State, and not allowed to become the subject of disastrous disputes. Once more there is the question of a standard wage. It is against the eternal laws of nature to try and keep living beings at one dead level of equality and merit—i.e., it is against the law of the survival of the fittest. The trade unions have a great opportunity of placing their country and themselves in a leading position amongst nations if they will courageously grapple with a great problem by recognising degrees of merit and corresponding degrees of payment These aie a few of the many matters which must be dealt with in the immediate uture. The matter of labour disputes is so serious as to demand plain speaking. It must be admitted that there are many employers and companies which, to satisfy themselves and their shareholders, extort the largest possible dividends and pay the smallest possible rate of wages, and do so apparently without the slightest idea that the men and boys under them are capable of education and personal influence. Can it be wondered at then that men under these conditions i te de ee | ~~ eo? | — | i bad en PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 635 are willing enough to listen to the orator who merely appeals to their fighting instincts and join in the game of grab as against the employer? On the other hand, strikes have occurred when employers have honourably carried out their obligations and undertakings, and the men have shamefully departed from an agreement made by their chosen leaders, throwing over the leaders the moment they have fancied it to their own selfish interests to do so and without a single thought of their duty to the community as a whole. We have recently seen the Prime Minister and other leading statesmen struggling, sometimes in vain, to bring large bodi«s of men to a reasonable state of mind. Is not this (and I speak without the slightest reference to party questions) a case of Nemesis overtaking us for having in so many cases pandered to the selfish instincts of large bodies of men in order to secure their votes, instead of sternly telling them unpalatable truths? There was recently an intensely interesting article by the late Professor Friedrich Paulson, previously Professor of Philosophy in Berlin University, published in the ‘Educational Review’ of New York. In this article, the subject of which was ‘old and new fashioned notions about education,’ he pointed out that the whole of our educational system was going wrong, and that we could not escape the conviction that a tendency towards weakness and effeminacy was its chief trait. His three mottoes were: learn to obey; learn to apply yourself; learn to repress and overcome desires ; and he remarked with great truth under the first heading: ‘He who has not learned to do this in childhood will have great difficulty in learning it in later life; he will rarely get beyond the deplorable and unhappy state that vacillates between outward submission and uproarious rebellion.’ Ts not one of the first things the reform of our educational system? The other day a writer in the Spectator said with great truth that ‘ what Great Britain is suffering from acutely and dangerously at the present time is the absence of discipline,’ and a neutral writer in the Vimes remarked as follows: ‘The uniformity of German effort, due doubtless to their myriad well-organised, machine-like minds, though it renders them excessively tiresome people to dwell among in peace time, enables their Government to extract every ounce of energy in the conduct of a war.’ He further went on to say that the British Empire ‘could not have been created by minds like these, but it should not be forgotten that in the concentration necessary to national effort in a struggle like this the German system of self-subservience to the State has enormous advantages.’ One of the tasks to which the British Association might bend its energies with the greatest benefit to the country, is to bring about a reform of our educational system, so that while we do not kill individual enterprise and freedom of thought, which have contributed so largely to the political organisa- tion and constitution of the British Empire, of the value of which we have had such wonderful evidence from our Colonies and dependencies during this War, we seek to implant in tha minds of young and old those ideas of discipline and service to the State, the want of which so seriously threatens the successful organisation of our industrial life. Conclusion. In bringing my address to a close I hope I have made it clear that I have had throughout a practical object. Expressed briefly, it is that the service of every agency is wanted for definite work at this crisis, both in the actual war, and afterwards in the war of industry which will be waged with equal intensity in peace time. The British Association cannot be said to have undertaken as a whole a work of this kind, yet one finds a general desire on the part of every member that something should be done. With this object I communicated with the President, and found that both he and such of the officers as could be got in touch with were in entire sympathy with the general proposal, and advised that our Section, like that of Economics, should start at once with a committee on the subject. I have great hopes that such a committee will be formed, but I have no hopes of either our own sub-committee or the committee of the Association as a whole doing any good, unless they are 636 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. prepared with definite suggestions and advice which cannot be ignored and put aside. I have not the slightest faith in the mere formation of a committee which will content itself, let us say, with the mere offer of its services, even to a Government department, and the mere pious expression of certain opinions. If a committee does not want to become ridiculous, it must show that it is in earnest. To show that it is in earnest it must take care that its reports have a practical object, can be at once grasped by overworked Ministers and officials, and are of real value. Of course there are incompetent people in public departments, possibly even in the Admiralty and War Office, and many good proposals and suggestions are turned down—or, let us rather say, have been turned down in the past—because they happened to pass into the hands of such people in the first place, and there was not enough driving force behind them to follow the matter up. When I first used to attend meetings of the British Association there was a gallant officer (Captain Bedford Pim) who had commanded various men- of-war, and was patriotically concerned with the state of the British Navy. I remember well his formula, which I heard on many occasions, as follows : ‘The British Navy, sir, rotten—rotten from stem to stern, from truck to keel.’ Such a sweeping statement about a service of which we are all proud only served to raise a prejudice against him, in which I shared myself, and excited the suspicion of undue bias or twist of mind. As a matter of fact, as it turned out afterwards, and has since been admitted over and over again, he was essentially right, and now that we realise our obligations to the British Navy, and that it has really saved this country, one trembles to think what would have happened if it had then been called upon in the same way as in these days. The above officer was afterwards made an admiral, though I am afraid it was not as a reward for his candour, or even to head off his criticism, because nobody seemed to take much notice of his warning. The moral that I have in mind is that if our committee is going to be of the slightest service, while formulating its proposals in temperate language, it must unflinchingly follow them up, and not allow them to die unless they are proved to be worthless, but to see they are seriously taken up and carried into operation. Fortunately the British Association is a powerful body with great tradi- tions, and will be listened to if such work is carefully and energetically done. Think, for instance, there are many eminent men who have supported this particular Section in times past, and many of them in the chair, such as Robert Stephenson, Scott Russell, Lardner, Moseley, Willis, Whewell, Whitworth, Vignoles, Fairbairn, Rankine, Hodgkinson, Sopwith, Babbage, Hawksley, Hawkshaw, Barlow, Armstrong, Froude, Bramwell, Baker, Douglas, Osborne Reynolds, White, and many others. Think of the mark that these men, now passed away, have left on the history of the British Empire, and let us see to it that this Section does something worthy of its past history. We can at least congratulate curselves that whatever the evils of the War, the country as a whole has been moved from its usual attitude of self-complacency, and that the numerous new departments and organisations are showing a desire to utilise every force and agency for the service of the State, and to grapple with the great problem of its more efficient organisation. It will be no small work of a British Association committee if it can supply sound ideas and recommendations on the many thorny problems which must be solved. We cannot all of us be, as so many would like, in the fighting line, either in France or the Dardanelles, but we shall be just as deserving of contempt as those who, having had the opportunity of service, have shirked their responsibilities, or the giving up of their sons, and are even thinking of the War as a matter of personal gain, either in purse or reputation, if we content ourselves with mere offers of service, and having as we think shelved responsi- bility by leaving initiative to others, we pass along our way sheltering ignobly behind those men and women who are doing their duty to their country. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 637 The following Report and Papers were then read :— 1. Experimental Investigation of the Thermal Efficiency of a Gas Engine By Professors G. Asakawa and J. E. Peraven.’ At the Birmingham Meeting of the British Association a preliminary note bearing on the above subject was read. The investigation has been continued during the last two years and has led to the conclusions summarised below. The various losses have been separately determined by measurements based not on indicator card readings, but on the rate of change of the kinetic energy of the rotating parts, and thus the errors inherent to the indicator mechanism have been avoided. In the following summary the performance of the engine is compared with that of a perfect engine working on the same cycle and with a similar gas mixture. Indicated Horse Power.—At full load under the most favourable conditions the indicated horse-power of a gas-engine is 88 per cent. of that of an ideal- engine working with a similar mixture. This holds true for all except very weak mixtures, for which the relative efficiency is lower. For mixtures containing only a slight excess of air, the above corresponds to an absolute thermal efficiency of 27 per cent. at a compression ratio of 3°75 and 33 per cent. at a compression ratio of 5-6; for mixtures containing twice the amount of air required for complete combustion the absolute efficiencies are 29 per cent. and 36 per cent. The indicated efficiency relative to the gas-standard falls from 88 per cent. to 84 per cent. between full and no load. Brake Horse Power.—At the full load the brake efficiency relative to the gas-standard varies from 70 per cent. at the compression ratio 3°75, to 67:5 per cent. at the compression ratio 5-6; this holds true for all except the weakest mixtures, for which the relative efficiency is lower. The absolute brake efficiency is 21 per cent. at compression ratio 3°75 and 25°5 per cent. at com- pression ratio 5°6 for mixtures containing little excess of air, and 23 per cent. and 27 per cent. respectively for mixtures containing twice the amount of air required for complete combustion. The maximum brake efficiency obtained in the present experiments was 27:4 per cent., and occurred at the highest com- pression ratio for a mixture slightly stronger than this. At light loads, the brake. efficiency relative to the gas-standard decreases more rapidly as the compression ratio rises. For the higher compression ratios the increase of theoretical efficiency is just counterbalanced by the increase in frictional loss, and thus the absolute efficiency remains constant. Mechanical Losses——The mechanical losses increase slightly in absolute amount with the load and with the compression ratio. For the engine under test (a 25 H.P. National Gas Engine) at normal speed (200 revs. per min.) the mechanical losses amounted to 5-6 H.P. at no load and 6:3 H.P. at full load when the compression ratio is 3°75; and 6°5 H.P. at no load and 7:0 H.P. at full load when the compression ratio is 56. The pumping losses are an important part of the total mechanical losses; at a compression ratio of 4°85 they represented 2:3 H.P. at no load and 2:1 H.P. at full load, or 38 and 31 per cent. of the mechanical losses. Thermal Losses.—The loss of power due to thermal losses at full load under most favourable conditions amounts to 12 per cent. of the total available energy, and at no load to 16 per cent.; of this less than one quarter is due to heat transmission during the expansion. 2. Report on Gaseous Explosions.—See Reports, p. 158. 1See Hngineering, September 17, 1915, p. 297. 638 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 3. The Total Radiation from a Gaseous Explosion. By Professor W. M. THornton.? 4. The Change of Specific Heat of Gases with Temperature. By Professor W. M. THornton.? 5, A Machine for determining Fatigue Limits Calorimetrically. By C. E. Stromeyer. The following is a brief description of a fatigue-testing machine constructed for the Manchester Steam Users’ Association for the Prevention of Boiler Explosions. A motor, by means of a chain driva, rotates a low-lying shaft to which three sprocket wheels are secured. These are connected by chain drives to three independent overhead spindles and steel discs, the spindles revolving in bearings which are free to move horizontally. Eccentric weights are attached to the discs and horizontal rods to the sliding bearing, which end in attachments for the test pieces, viz., the left-hand rod is attached to a lever which imparts alternate twisting movements to a torsion test piece, the centre rod is attached to a push and pull test piece, and the right-hand rod is attached to a yoke, connecting rods and levers, which produce alternating bending stresses in a bending test piece. The rotation of the eccentrically weighed discs causes the bearings and their rods to oscillate horizontally, whereby alternating stresses are produced in the test pieces. The central rod is provided with attachments which permit of applying steady pressures or pulls by means of flat springs. Push and pull tests can therefore be carried out between any desired limits of stress. The eccentric masses on the discs of the two wing machines, for torsion and bending tests, are opposed to the mass on the discs of the centre machine, for push and pull tests the weight of the latter being equal to the sum of the former. By this means the revolving masses are balanced, and cause practically no vibration of the building, although the push and pull forces occasionally exceed two tons at 600 revolutions. Both the torsion, push and pull, and the bending test pieces are practically stationary when being tested, and can therefore be surrounded with water- jackets, with the help of which the fatigue limits are determined calori- metrically.. At first the flow of heat between the test pieces and the attach- ments interfered with the thermometer readings, but this disturbance has now been reduced, and will be still further reduced. It is also intended to use thermo couples instead of mercury thermometers. No systematic tests have yet been made, but one test confirms the result obtained by the British Association Committee, and reported upon at this Meeting, to the effect that there are apparently no separate fatigue limits for tension and for compression, but there are limits of range of fatigue stresses, which ranges are functions of the two applied stresses. The torsion and bending tests are in agreement with the push and pull tests. The machine is now at work in the museum of the Manchester Steam Users’ Association for the Prevention of Boiler Explosions, and can be seen by members between the hours of 10 A.M. and 5 p.m. In the museum, which con- tains a number of interesting examples of boiler mishaps, there are also on view several strain indicators, water hammer models, &c. 1 See Phil. Mag., vol. xxx., p. 383. 2 See The Hlectrician, vol. 1xxv., p. 948. Pe vn ole a ee ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 639 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Manchester Drainage Scheme. By pe Courcey Meapr. The drainage of the City of Manchester has occupied the attention of the City Council for many years, and the subject has been considered and reported upon by experts at various times during the past forty years. The natural drainage of the city is by the rivers Irwell, Mersey, Medlock, Irk, and their tributaries. The Irwell below Manchester is now absorbed into the Ship Canal. The area of the city has been largely extended since 1885. At that time it was only 4,298 acres; its present area is 21,688 acres—an increase of over 400 per cent. The writer’s predecessor, Mr. John Allison, M.Inst.C.E., prepared plans for the drainage of Manchester in 1888. The area of the city at that time was 5,940 acres. The works designed by Mr. Allison were in progress when the writer entered upon his duties as City Surveyor 21 years ago, and those works were completed under his direction. Manchester has far outgrown the capacity of the drainage scheme devised by Mr. Allison, whose pian was calculated to be sufficient to serve a population of 868,522 persons, but before the sewage from 500,000 persons had been connected with the sewers they proved wholly insufficient, and outlets had therefore to be found for the surplus flood waters through the original channels which discharge into the rivers. That state of things has continued for many years. Six years ago the writer was requested to prepare plans for the drainage of the present city, and also to provide for the requirements of any additional districts which it is probable may hereafter be added to the city. The latter part of the instruction introduced a somewhat difficult problem. After very careful consideration of the whole subject the writer submitted a proposal to the City Council, which was subsequently approved by Parliament, and the works designed by him are now partly completed. The absence of reliable data regarding the ‘run off’ of rainfall from urban areas by artificial channels is worthy of note. The want of this information led to an under-estimate of the sewer capacity necessary for the drainage of the Metropolis. The London basis was adopted by the writer’s predecessor as sufficient for Manchester, and consequently resulted in a similar deficiency in the size of the conduits he provided for the drainage of this city. Most useful lessons were learned by these early projects, and information gathered by the writer during the past twenty years, by means of self-recording gauges and otherwise, enabled him to determine with reasonable accuracy the provision necessary for the reception and removal of the city sewage plus rainfall during periods of storm. The intensity of rainfall, impermeability and character of surface, and the relative retardation of flow are factors which have an important bearing on the maximum quantity of flood-water which will pass into a system of town drainage. The duration of storm and the condition of the surface immediately preceding a fall largely affect the rate of flow. A rainfall of great intensity and a few minutes’ duration may not produce an excessive flood, whilst serious consequences would probably result from a rainfall of similar intensity con- tinuing for, say, a quarter of an hour, other conditions being equal. A chart showing the registered duration and intensity of storms in South Lancashire during the past fifteen years will be shown on the screen. The solid curve thereon indicates approximately the provision which experience has proved to be necessary in the new sewers and storm culverts for sewage plus storm- water; the dotted curve shows the maximum intensity of rainfall recorded during the period under observation. On the 10th ultimo a rainfall intensity of 3°75 inches per hour was recorded in the centre of this city. The storm affected, as is usual in such cases, a very limited area, which is not yet served by the new system of sewers. The surface of this catchment area was wholly impermeable. The accompanying table shows the ratio of impervious surface to population : TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 640 a 7 lt sell we ae en eT “II6I 50 SNSuUd) 94} UL [BIOUY)-IvIZsIS9y 94} Aq pofiduoo suInyoy oY} WoT pouregqo ‘).¢ Aq o10e Jed sasnoy Jo JequNU oSedoAR 044 Sursjdyjnw Aq pourezieose useq sey uolyerndod oy, “sore Q¢ Jo vere UL SLY J 0} HY Pedozgo] SolqI[eO0] U9} OY} Jo Yorm—“aLON 9L VG FI 6L OL 6 L I LB * + (avg PLIOZOTA ) oMpOYysNy H sg oF 3 #9 8g 9 ral G Rane a Sy seen | CoC CLIC) AF PST OF 09 &@ 69 OF 61 81 II GG "°° Apae'A-Urno-mogy 10g 1) L¥ €¢ 1G 09 LP I 61 FI | 99 $2 <2 2S” CORI INN ru 9% | PL ze oF 9% oI fered ee ¢8 "5 + + yyRoH uoyMeNT |p | 8 66 LE 0& 8 GE && | GS | £01 SS he er a 2) ORS SBOINS Se I 6s | Te eh Eh tiatge Gre 2\2 B-6e0 ai weet oo) * Se ale eran) Benauda re var IL 68 | 8€ && II GS 66 ae eae | OFT ss gD Sp iah Pee ae awe UO TLC) MING) G 86 OF FG SG GG 9€ cE / FOL ee US ene Nim Uioae a OO UL as eae item 19-66 GF 91 &&- L9-ST | GF 8& | 6LT 2S awe Shae tee ED Vv ‘quad dag "yWed. dag = “4ued dag |-quao aag|-quaa zag |"4Ue0 Jeg | “yUW00 18g | ‘erqeout |. ‘atqvou | ‘ajqvoum | . ‘a[qvom1eg polgieecn -saadtuy pue [POL Ted -rodwy (Soneur pate Bary jo ae Beane ae - —— opin ee ‘aqoy aed -£atpeoory 10999 aed asequooseg |Aq pardnooo| ‘seoedy ued pur ‘suapaesy Weite, ie qequnyy | ZHeIndod i paca! FOL 1230, ea1y jo ‘spredyoug Aq pordnos0 aSequooseg a8vyueo1eg Baly JO asuquod1eg ; ‘NOILVTNdOG OL FOVAAAG SAOIAUTAW]T FO OlLVY DHL DNIMOHG INAWALVLG TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 641 This table has been prepared from information derived from careful observa- tion, and the actual run off has been determined by numerous gaugings within the defined areas. The table shows the relation between population and imper- meable surface under the varying conditions which obtain in Manchester, and from it a useful diagram, which will be shown on the screen, has been con- structed. This information was necessary in ascertaining the storm-water dis- charge and time of concentration, which is in direct proportion to the area of impervious surface; the gradients, of course, also affect the result. The formula used in determining the flow of intended sewers has a very important bearing on the results obtained. A diagram was displayed showing the discharge in cubic feet per minute in sewers, computed by various formule and by actual measurement into tanks of large capacity. The conditions in Manchester afford special facilities for actual measurement which do not obtain in other. places. The diagram shows the curve derived from actual measurements and those constructed from calculation by formule in general use. It was found that the formula of Kutter coincides with the actual measurements when the value of n (the co-efficient of roughness) is taken as ‘012 for good earthenware pipes and ‘015 for brickwork of average construction and in good condition. For the purpose of determining the correct sizes of the new culverts, and to prevent the possibility of their proving too small for the requirements of the future, the whole of the areas served by the existing sewers were segregated, and each area was then considered and dealt with separately. The dry-weather flows and the quantities of storm-water resulting from rainfall of varying intensity were measured, and the actual quantities correctly ascertained. These observations extended over a lengthy period. A large mass of valuable in- formation was thus, by many years of careful and systematic record, obtained. If it had been available when the original sewers were designed they would doubtless have been constructed on larger lines; and, although the initial cost would have been proportionately more, the extra outlay would have been small compared with that now involved. The total capacity of the old and new outfalls below the point at which the excess storm-waters are eliminated exceeds 60,000 cubic feet per minute. Under the statutory regulations of the Manchester Corporation, the dry- weather flow, which is based upon the water supply, has to be diluted by the addition of six times its volume of storm-water before overflow into the Ship Canal and rivers is permissible. On this basis the main drainage works referred to in this paper will be sufficient for a population of about two and a half millions. When the British Association last visited this city (1887) the conservancy system was in use here; the dry system has subsequently been replaced by the water-carriage system. Since the writer entered upon his duties in Manchester no less than’ 82,874 cases have been dealt with, and in each case water-carriage was substituted for the dry system, leaving only 1,533 cases yet to be converted from the dry to the water-carriage system. The author’s new scheme of main drainage was commenced in April 1912, and about nineteen miles of large conduits have been completed since that date. They range in diameter from 15 feet 3 inches downwards. A view of the general arrangement of the main drainage of the city and the outside districts contributing to the scheme will be placed upon the screen. The whole of the drainage is conveyed by gravitation to the disposal works, which are situated about five miles outside the city on its westerly side. The total area at present contributing to the main drainage, including that arranged to be connected to the system, is 39,144 acres: the largest drainage area outside the Metropolis. When the new works are completed the outfalls from the. city boundary to the disposal works will be in duplicate. This arrangement has many advantages over one outfall of larger size. In fact, it would not be practicable to con- struct one conduit to convey the quantity for which provision has to be made, especially in those lengths above the principal storm overflow, which is situated about half-way between the city and the disposal works. The aprroximate cost of the new work up to this date exceeds £600,000. A portion of the work was carried out by the Corporation staff without the intervention of a contractor. The work so undertaken comprised conduits of 1915. zh. 642 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. the largest size. The new work is composed of hard shale bricks set in Portland cement mortar. The internal linings of the smaller structures and the inverts of the larger ones are formed with red-pressed bricks, which make a smooth and durable surface. The large culverts cross railways, canals, and rivers. Owing to the presence of water it was found necessary in some sections to use com- pressed air ; this method of construction was most successfully employed without the application of the working shield. In some instances lengths of upwards of three-quarters of a mile were constructed from one air-lock. Little trouble was experienced from air-leakage, although the depth beneath the surface did not exceed 30 feet, and in many places it was much less. The work is being carried out under the direction of the Rivers Committee of the City Council, and the writer desires to record his indebtedness to that Committee and to the Chairman (Alderman Frowde, J.P.) and the Deputy-Chairman (Councillor West) for the great assistance and encouragement he has from time to time received in dealing with the many difficulties that have arisen during its progress. 2. The Manchester Electrical Undertaking and the projected Barton Station. By S. L. Prarce.* 3. The Special Work in the Mechanical Engineering Department of the Manchester Municipal School of Technology. By Professor A. B. FIELD.? The following account is submitted mainly in view of the intended visit of the British Association to the Municipal School of Technology. Much research work upon lathe cutting tools was carried out by the late Dr. J. T. Nicolson in the School of Technology, starting some ten years ago. The work has been continued at Manchester since then, and led to the develop- ment of a very complete dynamometer gear for measuring the various components of force upon the tip of the tool when taking a heavy cut. This apparatus, as constructed to Dr. Nicolson’s design, can be inspected in the Engineering Laboratories at the School, and will be shown in action on an 18-in. heavy lathe. An apparatus upon similar lines for measuring the various forces acting upon a milling cutter is also exhibited; this apparatus having been built to the design of Mr. Dempster Smith, who was associated with Dr. Nicolson in his work. Mr. Dempster Smith is continuing this line of research in co-operation with a Committee of the Manchester Association of Engineers. In the materials testing laboratory, in addition to standard testing work, researches have been in progress by Mr. W. C. Popplewell upon the effects of repeated reversals of stress, using the rotating-beam method. The apparatus used is open to inspection. In the same laboratory will be found under way a research upon the failure of alloy-steel tubular struts of short length. Such struts fail by a process of crinkling, as distinguished from the collapsing of an ordinary long strut. The effects of various methods of end-constraint are being investigated in this connection, and corresponding tensile tests of samples of the material made. In the gas engine laboratory experiments are being conducted by Professor Okamoto, of Osaka, to investigate the rate of loss of heat of the contents of a gas-engine cylinder, dividing this quantity into two items, which may be generally comprised under the headings ‘ conduction ’ and ‘ radiation.’ Other special work in the department is in hand for the War Office, and is not open to discussion now. 1 See Ungineering, September 24, 1915, p. 309. ? See The Hngineer, September 17, 1915. se Te ee ee ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 643 4. The Manchester Corporation Gas Undertaking. By J. G. Newstaatna, M.Inst.C.H., Chief Engineer. In this paper the author dealt briefly with the early history of the under- taking, and quoted figures from the accounts for the financial year ended March 1915, showing how it had grown since the year 1843, when the gas works became municipal property. The strong financial position of the undertaking was due to the Gas Committee continually availing themselves of up-to-date methods of manufacturing gas. ‘A brief reference was made to the important features of the works, more particularly recent improvements. In the first and most important process of gas making—carbonisation—the undertaking .has occupied a foremost place in the gas industry. Manchester was one of the first to adopt mechanical stoking for charging and discharging retorts, and also constructed one of the earliest installations of inclined retorts, where the charging and discharging of the retorts is effected by the natural gravitation of the material. The undertaking has also been a pioneer in the latest and most scientific method of carbonising in vertical retorts. In this system the coal passes continuously through the retorts at a speed of from two to four tons per diem. The coke leaves the bottom of the retort in a comparatively cool state, the heat having been extracted by means of cold air circulating round the base of the retort. The advantages of this system as compared with the intermittent are : saving in labour, minimising loss of gas and other valuable products, and the obtaining of yields of gas of 13,000 to 14,000 cubic feet per ton, with a minimum percentage of inert gases in its composition. At the Bradford Road Works a gas-holder of ten million cubic feet capacity has been constructed, and is one of the largest structures of its kind in the world. Gas works have been brought into prominence through the War because coal- gas and its by-products contain substances which are either the basis of valuable explosives or are used in their manufacture. Manchester is doing its share in producing these important munitions of war. The sulphur and ammonia produced in the process of purifying the gas are converted into sulphuric acid and sulphate of ammonia, the yearly production being 3,700 tons of pure acid and 5,000 tons of sulphate per annum. The author pointed out that, great as the success of gas enterprise had been in Manchester, it would not be maintained unless the Department was allowed to sell gas at cost price, and relieved from the burden of contributing large sums annually in relief of rates. The author contended that the competition with electricity would not permit of this extra taxation of the gas consumers. He quoted statistics showing that in Manchester electricity and gas have their separate and distinct spheres of usefulness, electricity showing a steady increase for power and lighting, and gas for cooking and heating. Im the case of a municipality controlling both the gas and electricity supplies he saw no reason why the former department should not eventually become the gaseous fuel supplier and the latter the light supplier. Gas of a calorific value of 250 to 300 B.Th.U. per cubic foot could be very cheaply produced, and this quality could also be used for lighting under high pressure. In conclusion he pointed out that the gas industry had a better opportunity than any other industry of solving the fuel question, and with it the smoke problem, which are of such importance to the nation, and so placing itself in a stronger position than it now holds. 5. A Unit Gas-Producer for Steam Boilers. By E. C. Mitxs. Gas-fired boilers may be classified roughly thus :— 1. The gas a by-product from plant installed primarily for other purposes. 2. Grouped producers from which the unpurified gas is piped to boilers. 3. Grouped producers with partial or complete purification. 4. Coal-fired furnaces placed externally to the boiler. ; 5. Unit bituminous gas-producers delivering gases hot and unpurified direct to boiler. 1 See Journal of Gas Lighting, September 14, 1915. 3 ise) 644 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Class 1 gives very cheap steam, as capital charges are debited to other purposes, but is not applicable to ordinary or average steam plants. Class 2 only applicable when fuel is extremely cheap. Class 3. When the gas is produced only for steam boilers; it is only applicable to boilers of the Bone-Court type. Class 4. This is hardly a gas-producer at all, but is named because many attempts have been made in this direction. It fails mainly by reason of destruction of brickwork under the intense heat. Class 5. In this class is the Mills furnace. All the above, as compared with the ordinary internal fire, have the advantage of not arresting the combustion process by temperature-reduction through contact with water-cooled plates. Single gas-producers for metallurgical furnaces are well known and successful. The aims of the inventor of the Mills furnace were : 1. It should not be too costly. 2. It must utilise the radiant heat of combustion. 3. There must be ample temperature to ensure complete chemical com- bination. 4. Access to boiler for examination and repairs must not be hindered. 5. The whole of the various gases given off by the fuel must be immedi- ately burnt with their sensible heat of production in them, 6. Little or no excess air must be used. 7. All ordinary qualities of coal must be usable. 8. Attendance must not be excessive, Dealing first with No. 6, above the usual allowance of excess air is absolutely necessary in the burning of fuel in solid or lump form by reason mainly of the mechanical difficulty of bringing each part of oxygen into intimate contact with its concomitant part of carbon or hydrogen at the right time and in the right place. To do this in a metal water-surrounded box is an impossibility. Slides showing outside, inside, and sectional views of the Mills producer will be shown. The action and control of the induced draught giving the separate air supplies for gas production and its combustion, the cellular con- struction of the roof and walls by which air for combustion is heated by the otherwise lost radiant heat of the producer; the means of withdrawing the whole to allow access to the boiler front; the special design of firebrick gas-and- air-mixing device and burner; the self-cleaning sight-hole appliance; the auto- matic fuel-feed; the arrangements for clinker-extraction; the flue-gas inter- ceptors introduced, and other details of construction are shown on the slides, and examples and models of various parts will be on view. The results of tests on a Cornish boiler, worked on an ordinary internal fire and with the Mills producer, with the same fuel in each case, and tested by the same expert, show a saving of about 50 per cent., and there was no smoke. Tests on a Lancashire boiler with the Mills producer give high efficiencies and standardised evaporations ranging from 10°23 lb. to 11°47 lb. of steam from 1 lb. coal, and on a comparison with another boiler fired with the same fuel but with the ordinary internal fire, the tests show a saving of about 18 per cent. in evaporation. In this case also there wasan entire absence of smoke. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers were read :— 1, The Heating of Iron when Magnetised at very High Frequencies. By N. W. McLacuuan, B.Sc., Eng. _ This paper described experiments illustrating the heat produced when iron is magnetised by very high-frequency alternating currents, e.g., 2x10* to 5x 10° periods per second. 1 See The Electrician, vol. lxxv., p. 877. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 645 The magnetising current is obtained by using a Poulsen-are generator con- nected across the town mains (240 volts). In order to demonstrate the extent of the losses, a magnetic heater or boiler, consisting of a solenoid wound on a glass tube containing water and a number of iron strips or wires, is inserted in the shunt circuit of the generator. A short time after the shunt circuit is closed the water begins to boil. An experiment was also arranged to show the variation in permeability of iron with variation in temperature. A ring of Lohys (mild steel) is insulated with asbestos and wound with a number of turns of copper wire. This is connected in the shunt circuit of the generator. By passing a large current through the winding of the ring, thereby obtaining a strong magnetising force, the magnetisa- tion losses are such that a rapid rise in temperature is produced, causing the iron to attain a bright red heat. The variation in permeability corresponding to the rise in temperature may be followed by observing the current in the shunt circuit and the voltage across the terminals of the ring. Data, including the watts lost per kilogram, are given which enable the changes to be followed. 2. A Self-Adjusting Commutating Device. By Professor Mines WauKEr.! It is well known that a continuous current generator fitted with commutating poles (sometimes called inter-poles) will not commutate very heavy over-loads, owing to the magnetic saturation which occurs in the iron of the inter-pole. When the excitation becomes very great the saturation of the iron interferes with the proportionality that should exist between the current to be com- mutated and the commutating flux. The paper described a device tried at the Manchester School of Technology which automatically produces the right amount of commutating flux over very wide ranges of load. So effective is the correcting influence, even where the diverter in parallel with the commutating pole winding is deliberately put out of adjustment, that, whether it be short-circuited or given a resistance equal to five times the proper resistance, the flux will be preserved at approximately the correct value. Each brush (say, the positive brush) consists of two parts, one part, A, being slightly in advance of the other on the commutator, and lightly insulated from it. The winding on the commutating pole has twice as many turns as one would ordinarily have, and the cross-section of the copper conductor is only sufficient to carry one-half of the armature current. The part of the brush B may be connected through a diverter D, having the same resistance as the winding W, or the diverter may be dispensed with altogether. The direc- tion of rotation of the machine is such that a point on the commutator passes first under B, then under A. Assuming that the number of turns on the commutating pole is such as to give the right commutating flux when half current is passing through them, then it will be found that the current will divide evenly between brushes A and B, because the correct excitation of the commutating pole gives an even Jistribution of current over the face of the compound brush AB. If, however, the number of turns in W is too great, there is a tendency to over-commutation ; that is to say, the current in B becomes greater and the current in A less. This has the effect of automatically weakening the commutating pole, and the pole remains of just such a strength as to bring about the required distribu- tion of current between A and B. It will be found on machines of ordinary rating, and more particularly on machines of very large rating, that the ‘correcting ’ voltage between A and B necessary to bring about a suitable division of current between the two brushes is normally very small, being of the order of 0°5 of a volt, whereas the voltage which can be generated between A and B by a pole being too weak or too strong may easily amount to 5 volts or more. Thus a very little dis- turbance in the equality of loading on brushes A and B is sufficient to yield ' See The LHlectrician, vol. Ixxv., p. 872. 646 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. the desired ‘correcting’ voltage. Curves are given showing how the correcting voltage varies with the load. If for any reason the commutating pole tends to become too weak, owing, let us say, to the saturation of the iron of the pole, the induction of the armature coils carries the current forward to brush A, and tends to increase automatically the excitation of the commutating pole. A 125 K.W. generator fitted with the device will be exhibited. A 500 K.W. 500 volt rotary converter, built by the British Westinghouse Co., was fitted with the double brush gear, and it was found that with 3,000 amperes flowing the commutation was sparkless. The device is being at present installed on a 1,500 K.W. rotary converter, on which the com- mutating conditions would otherwise be rather difficult. 3. Electric Oscillations in Coupled Circuits—a Class of Particular Cases. By W. Eccurs, D.Sc., and A. J. Maxowsr, M.A. If three capacity-inductance branches are connected in parallel and vibra- tions are started in the system, these vibrations consist, in general, of two superposed simple harmonic vibrations of distinct frequencies. It is shown that if two of the branches are in tune a class of problem arises which has a very simple solution. Incidentally new formule are arrived at for calculating the frequency of the two oscillations in a pair of circuits coupled by inductance and capacity. It is shown also that for a single frequency to exist all three branches must be tuned to the same frequency. All the formule developed in the paper are verified by experiments extending over a wide range of values of inductance and capacity. 4. The Capacity of Aerials of the Umbrella Type. By Professor G. W. O. Hows, D.Sc.? In a paper read before the British Association at Sydney last year the author developed a method of calculating the capacity of radio-telegraphic antenne. In addition to describing the method in general, curves and formule were given so that the capacity of aerials of standard types could be deter- mined in a few minutes. The umbrella type, however, was not specially con- sidered, and it has since been suggested to the author that the usefulness of the paper would be considerably increased if curves and formule could be given for aerials of this type. The method is briefly as follows: The whole aerial is assumed to have a uniformly distributed charge, and the average potential of the whole aerial under this fictitious condition is then calculated. It is assumed that if the total charge, while remaining unchanged in quantity, be allowed to have its own natural distribution, it will assume a uniform potential approximately equal to this fictitious average potential. The proximity of the earth is taken into account by the method of images. Tables and curves are given for aerials with from two to six ribs and for various angles between the ribs and the vertical. With these curves and those given in the original paper, each of the nine component potentials of any given aerial of the umbrella type can be read off and the resultant average potential deter- mained. The method is then applied to two practical examples, one a simple aerial with six single-wire ribs, and the other a more complicated case in which each of the five ribs consists of a four-wire cage, the size of the wire being different from that used for the central vertical wire. Tests on actual aerials have shown that the values of the capacity as cal- culated by the author’s method agree with the measured values within the errors of observation and of estimation as to the allowance to be made for connecting wires, &c. * See Vhe Hlectrician, vol. \xxv., p. 905. ? Ibid., p. 870. ails .-.. oe anh i. nad ok A Wad bace1 Gene TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 647 5. A Note on ‘ Earth Resistance.’ By Professor E. W. Marcuant, D.Sc.? This paper described a new method of expressing the effectiveness of earth- ing arrangements such as are employed for lightning-conductors, radio-tele- graphic stations, and in connection with many electric-power distributing systems. ‘ The method consists in determining the length of the column of earthy material which, with a cross-section equal to the surface of the earth plates, would have the same resistance as the actual ‘earth.’ For a hemisphere embedded with its flat surface level with the surface of the ground, this ‘equivalent length of earth’ is easily seen to be equal to the radius of the hemisphere. Some tests were described, made by the author at Liverpool on three ‘earths ’ of different types, one being the water-pipe system of the building. 6. Transformer Core Loss as affected by Triple Harmonics. By H. M. Lacey, B.Sc., and C. H. Srussinas, B.Sc.? This paper described experiments conducted in the Siemens Electrical Engineering Laboratory, King’s College, London. The object of these experi- ments was to investigate the effect of triple harmonics upon the core losses in transformers. An alternator giving approximately a sine wave was three-phase star con- nected to a three-phase choking coil. The star centres were also connected through a switch. Current-measuring resistances were inserted in the neutral and one of the outer leads. Voltmeters and ammeters were also inserted as required. Two experiments were made : (1) With the switch in the neutral wire open. (2) With the switch in the neutral wire closed. In each case the wave forms of phase amperes, phase volts, and in the second case amperes in the neutral wire, were taken by means of a Kelvin quadrant electrometer and a contact-maker. It was found upon analysing the various wave forms that in the first case there was a 489 per cent triple harmonic in the volt curve but practically none in the current curve. In the second case there was practically no triple harmonic in the volt curve but 482 per cent. in the current curve; also the wave of current in the neutral wire was very nearly a sine wave of triple frequency, and having an amplitude of approximately three times that of the triple harmonic in the current curve. This shows that the existence of a neutral connection enables a triple harmonic to exist in the current curve, and also that the suppression of this harmonic from the current curve forces it into the volt curve. Using these curves, the induction curves for the two cases were drawn, and from these the hysteresis loops (including eddy current losses) were obtained. The areas of the two loops were measured, and the ratio of the areas case 1: case 2 was found to be 0°775, thus showing that by insulating the star centres a saving of 22°5 per cent. in the core loss is obtained, the voltages being equal. The watts supplied in the first case were 24°3 per cent. less than in the second case, the average watts being found from the curves. The results of these experiments point to the fact that from the point of view of core losses the star centres in three-phase systems should be insulated. 7. Exposure Tests of Light Aluminium Alloys. By Professor Ernest Wrson.? The physical properties of certain light aluminium alloys have formed the subject of reports during the last fourteen years. In order to investigate the » See The Electrician, vol, lxxv., p. 882. 2 Ibid., p. 874. 2 Ibid., p. 886. 648 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. influence of exposure to London atmosphere a specimen of each alloy has been placed on the roof of King’s College, London. All the specimens are in the form of wire 0126 inch (3°2 mm.) diameter. Commercial Aluminium.—A specimen has steadily increased its electrical resistance to 17-2 per cent. in thirteen years. Copper.—it has already been pointed out that the electrical resistance of the copper series in a given time increases with the percentage of copper. One specimen containing’ 2°61 per cent. of copper had so far corroded in 1911 that it broke quite easily. Another specimen containing 1:86 per cent. of copper has now so far corroded as to become practically useless as an electrical conductor. The tests emphasise the opinion already expressed that alloying commercial aluminium with copper except in small quantity is not to be recommended. Copper-Manganese.— Three alloys containing from 0-02 to 0:09 Cu and 0-05 to 1:78 Mn have steadily increased their electrical resistance to about 10 per cent. in fourteen years. The specimen with the highest percentage has a breaking load of 35,000 Ib., and is apparently in good condition. Copper-Nickel.—A specimen containing 1:03 per cent. Cu and 1:29 per cent. Ni has somewhat diminished its electrical resistance—the percentage being now 12:4, as against 19°4 in 1908. Its breaking load was 45,900 lb. before exposure. Copper-Zinc-Nickel—One specimen con- taining 0°11 Cu, 1:77 Zn, 2:01 Ni, has diminished its electrical resistance as shown by the following figures : Year 1901 .. 1903 .. 1904 .. 1908 .. 1911 .. 1913 .. 1915 962 .. 995 .. 1013 .. 1285 .. 1125... 1102 .. 1102 Copper-Manganese-Magnesium.—The alloy known as ‘ Duralumin’ is stated to contain about 0°5 Mg, 3°5 to 5°5 Cu, 05 to 08 Mn. A breaking load as high as 90,000 lb. can be obtained according to treatment. The specimen exposed has steadily increased its resistance to 9°6 per cent. in four years. It is, how- ever, so brittle that a small loop cannot be bent without fracture. The author was unfortunately unable to report on the copper specimen, as it had been stolen from the roof. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. Recent Improvements in the Traction of Vehicles. By T. H. Briaa. The author for more than a quarter of a century has made his life-study the subject of mechanical forces relative to traction, and has applied these principles to various contrivances, such as shaft-supporting appliances, the ‘ Plywell’ for poled-vehicles, and other mechanical contrivances. Recently the War Office placed at his disposal the drawings of artillery and general service wagons in order to give him an opportunity of showing how the draught of these vehicles could be improved. His attention also having been directed to the machine- gun, he has devised a means by which these weapons can be more rapidly trans- ported, and manipulated with greater ease to the gunners and with more deadly effect upon the enemy, while at the same time both gun and gunners are pro- tected by armour-plate. His paper is a description of the new mechanical appliances which he has devised as a result of the above opportunity. The salient feature involved in the easy haulage of artillery and limber- coupled ammunition and general service wagons is precisely the same for civil] as for military” purposes; and it remains the same regardless of whether traction be effected by men or by horses. It will be found upon investigation that conditions which conduce to the greatest comfort and efficiency in the transport of man by his own muscular effort are identical with those which conduce to the comfort and efficiency of transport by horses and other living creatures, an illustration of which are the mechanical movements of the swan, which are effective in producing the least possible rise and fall of its body with the greatest possible thrust in the desired direction of motion—a moyement not hitherto described, 0 A he TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 649 The new system of traction for limber-coupled wagons is one which causes the limber and the carriage to constitute two mechanical levers which, at such times as the resistance to traction is small, carry a part of the weight of the animal, while when it is great, they cause an automatic transference of weight from the wheels to the animal; thus securing an ever-varying virtual angle of traction. The same effect is automatically brought about to the advantage of the horse by each of the inventor’s new appliances. The same conditions are obtained in the case of man-hauled vehicles. The paper was illustrated by working models and diagrams. 2. Report on Complex Stress Distribution.—See Reports, p. 159. 3. The Strength of Iron, Steel, and Cast-iron Struts. By Anprew Rosertson, M.Sc. A series of experiments on solid free-ended centrally-loaded struts has been carried out in the Engineering Laboratories of the Manchester University during the last two years. They lead to the following conclusions : 1. For all the struts tested the collapsing load was in accordance with the values calculated from Euler’s formula, except for struts so short that the average stress produced by the theoretical load was above the elastic limit of the material. 2. In the case of the shorter struts the material tested may be divided into two classes : (a) Materials having no appreciable drop of stress at yield (cast iron and bright-rolled steel). For such materials, Southwell’s formula—of which Euler’s is the particular case for wholly elastic material—gives the collapsing load for all lengths. (b) Materials having a decided drop of stress at yield (mild steel, wrought iron, and high tensile steel). For such materials Euler’s or Southwell’s formula applies for all lengths for which the average stress calculated is less than the elastic limit. | Southwell’s formula applies between the elastic limit and the yield point, and for the shortest struts the collapsing load is equal to the yield stress multiplied by the area. 4. The Calculation of Torsion Stresses in Framed Structures and Thin- walled Prisms. By Professor Cyrit Barno, M.Sc., B. Eng.* In designing a double track cantilever bridge with suspended span, it is necessary to calculate the stresses arising in the suspended span due to unsym- metrical live loads on the cantilever and anchor arms. It is also sometimes of importance to determine the stresses in an ordinary truss-bridge, braced arch or other framed structure on four supports due to unequal settlement of the supports. Similar problems arise in connection with erection travellers carry- ing unsymmetrical loads, &c. The stresses arising under such conditions may be termed torsion stresses. The calculation of these may be considerably shortened by the use of the following theorems : If a framed structure consisting of two parallel trusses, similar in outline and connected by lateral bracing, be subjected to unit forces at the corners forming a pair of equal and opposite couples in the planes of the two trusses respectively, the shear perpendicular to the plane of the trusses is constant throughout the lateral system and equal to the area of the base of the frame. work divided by twice the area of one of the trusses. The theorem may be extended to include thin-walled prisms, and in its most general form may be stated thus: If a hollow cylinder or prism, either continuous walled or of framework and having plane ends perpendicular to its length, be subjected to a twisting moment by couples in the planes of its ends, the total longitudinal shear is everywhere constant and equal to the twisting moment multiplied by * See Hnginecring, October 15, 1915, p. 392, 650 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. the length of the cylinder and divided by twice the area of one of its ends. Three examples are considered in the paper : (i) A bridge having parallel chords and panels of equal length. (ii) A thin-walled rectangular box. The results in these cases are shown to be in agreement with those given by other and longer methods. (iii) The torsion stresses in the suspended span of a bridge similar in design to the New Quebec bridge. In this example it is shown how the stresses in the lateral system may be calculated immediately by use of the above theorem, and how the stresses in the main trusses may be found by means of a short graphical process. 5. An Inquiry into the Possible Existence of Mutual Induction between Masses. By Professor Mines WALKER. The closeness of the analogy in the behaviour of matter in motion and electricity flowing in a circuit leads us to inquire, ‘ Is there any action betweer masses analogous to the mutual induction between electric circuits?’ If we accelerate a fly-wheel does it produce any force upon an adjacent co-axial disc? It is quite possible that a small force of the kind might pass unnoticed if not specially looked for, just as the gravitational attraction between two movable bodies would ordinarily escape observation. The author described and exhibited apparatus constructed at the Manchester School of Technology in 1912 for the purpose of finding out whether any force of the kind is observable. A. steel fly-wheel, A, 56 cms. in diameter and 11 cms. thick, is mounted on a vertical shaft and driven by an electric motor. Above the fly-wheel is sus- pended a disc, B, 51 cms. in diameter, made of very pure porcelain, weighing about 10 kilograms. The suspension is made of two round steel wires each 025 cm. in diameter. The length of the suspension is 21 métres. The distance between the bifilars is about 0:15 cm. The torsional control on B is extremely small, amounting to only 28 dyne-cms. for a deflection of 1 radiam. The angular swing of B upon its principal axis has a natural period of 2,460 seconds. A mirror is attached to B, which enables the movement to be accurately observed on a scale at 6 métres distance. A movement of ‘01 cm. on the scale corre- sponding to a deflection of 1/12,000 of a radiam can be estimated, so that one can observe the effect of acting on the edge of the disc with a force amounting to only 10-11 of the weight of the disc. The paper described some of the precautions taken to avoid the effect of accidental disturbances. The procedure in making the experiment is as follows: The disc. B is brought as nearly as possible to rest. The fly-wheel A is then rapidly accele- rated (say, anti-clock-wise) and run up to a speed of 2,700 r.p.m., so as to give an impulse to B if that were possible. The speed is then maintained constant for one-half the natural period of the swing of B. The fly-wheel is then rapidly slowed down and the direction of rotation reversed and the speed increased to 2,700 r.p.m. (clock-wise). This is repeated several times, so as to set up resonance in B. In the early experiments made in 1913 it was found that if there were any effects of the kind looked for they were of an exceedingly small order, and that the observed movements of B were mainly due to accidental disturbing forces. Bmon Amon’ the angular momentum of B to that of A, was certainly less than 2°3 x 10-8. In the later experiments the chief aim was to diminish the disturbing forces as far as possible, so that the negative result might be stated with the smallest possible limit of error. The introduction of a suspended screen and other refinements so improved the steadiness of B while A was running that we can now state that the ratio for this apparatus is less than 5 x 1071, At this time it was possible to assert that the ratio the change in ea eer le PE ee ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 651 Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.-—PrRorEssor OC. G. Sziiaman, M.D. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— Ir is impossible to pass to the subject of my address without first referring to the heavy losses which the Teutonic lust of power has inflicted upon our science, no less than upon every other department of humane and beneficent activity. Whatever loss we may yet be called upon to endure there can hardly be any more regrettable than the death of Joseph Déchelette, whose acknowledged eminence makes any detailed account of his labours superfluous. I will but mention his Manuel d’Archéologie, a work of rare lucidity, which though unfinished (the pity of it) will long be authoritative upon European prehistory and archeology. His valour was no less than his erudition, for though his age exempted him from all military duties, he insisted on taking his place at the head of his old company of Territorials, and was killed last October while leading his men in a charge that carried the line forward 300 yards. How he died may be learnt from the official army order quoted in L’ Anthropologie (vol. 25, p. 581). We have also to mourn the death of Robert Hertz, a regular contributor to L’ Année Sociologique, and of Jean Maspero, son of Sir Gaston Maspero, an authority on the Byzantine period and Arabic geography. The other men whose premature death we deplore belong for the most part to that brilliant band of French soldier-explorers to which African ethnography owes somuch. Captain René Avelot, whose name will be known to every reader of L’ Anthropologie, was also the author of important papers in La Géographie and other geographical periodicals. He had hoped to devote himself entirely to ethnological work, and at the outbreak of war was about to publish a series of studies on the natives of the French Congo, Darfur, and Wadai. Before going es oe front he arranged for the publication of these, even in the event of his eath. Captain Morice Cortier, a geographer and an explorer rather than an ethno- logist, was engaged at the time of his death in preparing a work on the pre- history of the Sahara. Captain Maurice Bourlon received his scientific training in the Dordogne. He conducted excavations in the neighbourhood of Les Eyzies, where he made a number of discoveries, and brought to light some remarkable specimens of paleolithic art. We dare not hope that the foregoing list is final, and while mourning their loss we cannot pay greater honour to their memory than by taking up the burden they relinquished in the hour of their country’s supreme need. In my address I shall endeavour to outline the early history of the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan from the standpoint of the ethnologist, and thus indicate some of the lines upon which future research may most usefully proceed. Fortunately the Sudan is one of those areas in which the site and scope of work may be selected from the point of view of immediate scientific interest, without any grave dereliction of duty. There is not the danger so frequently met with, in the 652 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H Pacific for example, of finding that civilisation has come stealthily and swept away the greater part of the old order. The Sudan has not been civilised to such a point that the ethnologist need feel it his bounden duty to visit the most sophisticated areas in order to record everything that is in danger of being lost. If I seem overbold in trying to present a summary account of so vast an area, I can plead certain extenuating circumstances. Firstly, I had the good fortune to be asked by the Sudan Government to conduct a small ethnographic survey for them, in the course of which I have spent two winters in the field ; secondly, although it is nearly twenty. years since the reconquest of the Sudan, the amount of ethnographical material which has accumulated is far less than might have been expected. Nowhere has there been any intensive study of even a single people, though conditions are as favourable as could be desired in at least three quarters of the country. It would be an interesting, if melancholy, task to try to determine why so little has been done. Certainly thé failure is not due to lack of interest on the part of the Sirdar and his Council, for, apart from the funds provided for my expeditions, the Government has paid the expenses of publishing the only considerable work of serious scientific interest dealing with Sudanese tribes that has yet been written by any of its officers. It is worth noting that archeologists have been more energetic than ethnologists, partly no doubt owing to the stimulus provided by the discoveries of the Nubian Archzo- logical Survey, but, even apart from this, more interest seems to be taken in the ancient history of the country than in its living races. Surprisingly little is yet known of the prehistory of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. No implement of river drift type appears to have been found, and while admitting that this may be due to incomplete exnloration, the fact seems of some significance considering the abundance of specimens of this type which have been found on the surface in Egypt, Southern Tunisia and South Africa. With regard to implements of Le Moustier type, I may allude to certain specimens which I have myself collected from two sites, namely from Beraeis in north-west Kordofan, situated on a sandy plateau at the foot of Jebel Katul between two small spurs of the main rock mass, and from Jebel Gule in Dar Fung. At the former site I found a number of roughly worked unpolished stones near the foot of the hill between the village and the burial ground, and also within the latter. The majority are moderately thin broad flakes, showing a well-marked bulb of percussion, and little or no secondary working; other specimens are shorter and stouter. One surface is flat and unworked, the opposite curved surface shows a number of facets separated by rather prominent crests, all except the central facets sloping more or less steeply to the working edge. In some specimens the crests are sufficiently prominent to give a somewhat fluted aspect to the slope and a crenelated edge, one portion of which often shows signs of having been worn down and retouched. These implements, which I had suspected might have been Aurignacian, were considered by M. Breuil to belong to the Mous- tierian period, and he referred to the same period and industry some thick, fluted and engrailed scrapers from Jebel Gule, which I have described as resembling the paleolithic discs from Suffolk and other localities (19. 211), as well as some implements of other forms which presented a palolithic facies. While the Beraeis stones are so rough that they may perhaps be rejects, this does not apply to the specimens from Jebel Gule. Besides the disc and Moustierian points there is one implement which M. Breuil regards as a true, but much worn, coup-de- poing of Moustierian age. Whether all these really date from the Moustierian period or not, certain of the specimens from Jebel Gule show a surprising resemblance to South African specimens figured and described by Dr. L. Peringuey as of Aurignacian type (14 Pls. xvi. +22, xi. 60, xviii. 122), or in other words of the Capsien type of Tunisia. Evidence concerning the later Stone Age is furnished by a number of finds made on widely scattered sites; but though no explanation can be offered it should be noted that no stone.implement of any kind has been recorded from the Red Sea Province, although it is one of the best known parts of the Sudan, and has been the scene of considerable engineering efforts. This is the more remarkable in view of the geographical features of the country ; the absence of forest, the weathered plateaux, the valleys filled with deposits through which innumerable wadis have been cut, all suggest that if stone implements existed some at least should have come to light. Much interest attaches to the distribu- ee ne en ee PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 653 tion of ground stone axes in the Nile valley. While there is probably no museum with any pretence to an Egyptian collection which has not a number of these, and though they can be bought in almost every curio shop in Cairo, I have been unable to find any record of their discovery in a tomb group or undisturbed burial in Egypt ; so that considering the number of prehistoric burials that have been examined, it can be said that they were scarcely if at all known in pre- dynastic Egypt. On the other hand, they are common in Nubia, where a number have been found in predynastic and early dynastic tombs (2 Pl. 63). Many examples have come from Meroe, and I believe that specimens occur on every site of neolithic date in the Sudan. They have certainly been found at Jebel Sabaat, at Jebel Geili 90 miles east of Khartum, at Jebel Gule and at Faragab. Moreover, the rock faces on which they were ground have been found both at Jebel Gule and Jebel Geili. We may therefore attribute a southern source to the ground stone axes of the Nile valley, and in the light of our present knowledge regard them as of Negro origin. This view is supported by the results of recent work on the prehistory of the Sahara. Gautier, who has devoted much time to the ethnography of the French Sudan, points out that while at the end of the neolithic period the northern Sahara had a stone industry characterised by unpolished implements of Egyptian affinities, in the central and southern Sahara the typical implement was the polished axe, and that this was of Sudanese Negro origin (7, 326). That the boundary of the two provinces seems to have coincided roughly with the present southern boundary of Algeria, i.e., that the Berber-Negro frontier was then some 1,000 kilométres further north than it is at present, is in no way opposed to this view. Perforated discs or rings and hollow conical and spherical stones, all ground in the usual neolithic style, have been found, notably at Meroé, on Jebel Haraza (W. Kordofan) and at Jebel Geili, where I believe stone discs and axe heads can be definitely associated together. Besides the types already alluded to Jebel Gule yielded a large number of pygmy implements of quartz, carnelian, and hornstone. These are similar to those found in South Africa and attributed to Bushmen, and there is reason to believe that this industry also existed at Faragab, where the in- numerable disc beads of ostrich egg shell were probably bored with more or less worked up slivers of quartz. The distribution of stone arrow heads in the Nile valley is also of much interest, but the data are as yet insufficient for discussion. It may, however, be worth while to point out that the transverse arrow head with its chisel-like edge cannot be of Negro origin, although the wooden figures of Negro bowmen from the tomb of Emseht, a general of the XI. dynasty, are armed with arrows with heads of this form, and the same type of arrow head is in use to this day among the tribes of the Kwilu and Kasai districts of the Belgian Congo. Some mention must be made of the existence of stone monuments of mega- lithic type in the Sudan, although their number is small and their origin obscure. There is a monolith about two métres high on the plateau overlooking the Khor el Arab, near the Sinkat-Erkowit road, to which tradition says Mohammed tied his horse. Another monolith of much the same dimensions has been described and figured by Crowfoot from Isa Derheib inland from Akik (4 Pl.). At present there seems no reason to attribute any great antiquity to these stones; presum- ably they are connected with the upright stones and ‘stelai’ of Axum. Probably other rude stone monuments will be found in the Red Sea Province; indeed, I have heard of such, though the information was never very precise. Tt is, however, worth noting that typical dolmens do occur in the Madi country in the southern Sudan (26, 123).* 1 When the time comes to estimate the significance of the Sudanese monu- ments of megalithic types, it will be necessary to remember that, although uncommon, they do occur in Egypt. Indeed, Déchelette has suggested that their rarity in Egypt is only due to their having been nearly all destroyed. Meanwhile it may be noted that de Morgan has published the drawing of a stone circle at Jebel Genamieh in the desert to the east of Edfu; that N. de G. Davies found perfect miniature dolmens or cists at Tel el Amarna; that some- what similar structures containing human remains have been described by Schweinfurth near El Kab; and that I have found them on the high desert plateau a few miles north of Abydos. 654. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. Although neither in structure nor form megalithic, I may here refer to a type of stone monument some 80 feet long and about 5 feet high occurring in some number in the neighbourhood of Erkowit, in the Red Sea Province. The whole is constructed of stones without any cement or mortar; the face consists of a limiting wall of more or less flat slabs of local rock, while the spaces between the containing walls are filled in with smaller fragments. Each of these monu- ments may be considered as consisting of three main elements—viz, (i) an oblong rectangular portion, (ii) two oval masses to each of which is attached an expan- sion shaped somewhat like a fish’s tail, and (ili) the curved walls uniting the other elements. Their orientation is definite within certain limits, while each oval element is interrupted at a constant point in its circumference by the inter- position of from two to four upright slabs. There is no chamber or space behind these stones, but from their constancy and the uniformity of their position it is obvious that they must have had a perfectly definite significance to the builders, and on account of their similarity to the false doors of Hgyptian monuments I venture to call them ‘ false entrances.” The whole structure is quite unlike any others of which I have been able to hear, nor did the excavation of one much damaged example throw any light on the problem, but the false entrance suggests a funerary purpose and an Egyptian origin. In date they are probably medieval, and may certainly be taken to antedate the spread of Mohammedan influence which was becoming dominant towards the middle of the fifteenth century (20). The only rock pictures as yet found in the Sudan are innorthern Kordofan. For the most part they are outlined in red or blackish pigment, but a few examples occur chipped on lumps of granite, on the hillside at Jebel Kurkayla in the Jebel Haraza massif. These figures are very rough, and the examples reproduced by H. A. MacMichael all represent camels (11). Drawings with pigmented outlines are found on Jebel Haraza and Jebel Afarit, and from the artistic standpoint seem to form two groups. To the first belong rough but spirited sketches of men on horseback, camels, and giraffes. The workmanship of the second group is rougher and much less vigorous ; it includes representations of camels, men on horseback, and men marching or dancing carrying the small round Hamitic shield. This, together with their general resemblance to the ‘ Libyo-Berber ’ rock pictures of the southern Sahara, indicates a comparatively recent date for these drawings. Moreover, MacMichael notes that the work is faint and indeter- minate, and that there is no trace of graving; in other words, the neolithic tradition has not persisted. Probably they are more recent than the stone discs and hollow conical and spherical stones found on Jebel Haraza to which I have already referred. One of the most difficult questions arising in connection with the Sudan is that of Ancient Egyptian influence. Its existence may be readily granted, but what of its extent and duration? For while it is a platitude to say that a great and powerful state with a uniform tradition lasting for thousands of years cannot but have influenced the countries on every side, it must be confessed that where history fails the evidence is often extremely difficult to interpret. Every custom which at first sight seems to betoken Egyptian influence must be closely examined, and the evidence carefully sifted, to determine whether it may not have had its origin in the older and more generalised Hamitic culture of northern and eastern Africa. In discussing the value of the data upon which ideas and customs are to be traced back to an Egyptian origin, it is important to remember that general resemblances, either in widely distributed forms of social organisa- tion and belief (e.g., matrilineal descent, cult of the dead, &c.), or in widely diffused technical devices (e.g., bow and arrow), cannot be admitted as good evidence. Whatever the future may bring, I do not think that in the present state of anthropological science even extreme and unusual beliefs and devices (which at first sight seem so strikingly convincing) should be considered as proof of common influence ; otherwise it would be necessary to admit, immediately and without consideration, a cultural relationship between Papua and Central Brazil on the evidence of the phleme-bow, and between England and the Malay States on that of the fire-piston.? It is only when there is a considerable consensus of 2 The distribution of the fire-piston in the East and its discovery as a ‘ scientific toy’ in Europe has been discussed by Mr. Henry Balfour in Anthro- pological Essays presented to Edward Burnett Taylor. ee Oe a Se Lit, Rab ehh DP re ab preede “= ae PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 655 agreement in underlying ideas and (or) in highly specialised customs or devices, that we are justified in considering an Egyptian origin, and even then it is necessary to bear in mind the possibilities of common ethnic origin and of ‘ con- vergence.’ It is obvious that under these conditions facts will be differently interpreted, and opinions will vary within wide limits, while new discoveries may at any moment disturb views hitherto regarded as well founded. Although in this address I propose generally to confine myself to the area included in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, yet in considering the question of Egyptian influence in Negro Africa I shall overstep these limits. The reasons for doing so are, I think, obvious. The data will not be abundant, and will not be restricted to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, while instances occurring out- side that area will possess the same evidential value. Moreover, the records from the Belgian Congo, for example, are more numerous, while recent work in the north-west of Africa has provided material of much value from this compara- tively new point of view. Thus, I shall not hesitate to cite West African instances, even though it is probable that the cultural drift responsible for them crossed North Africa and travelled down the west coast. It must not be for- gotten that North Africa was permeated with Egyptian influence during the last few centuries B.c. Evidence for this statement might be drawn from many sources, but I will cite only one, that offered by the coinage, which is parti- cularly convincing. In the third century s.c. many Carthaginian electrum and bronze coins bore the disc and urei (12,ii. 85, 93); a little later the coins of Numidia also bore Egyptian symbols, while in the first century B.c. those of Bogud IT. of Mauritania (50-38 B.c.) were stamped with the winged disc. One of his successors, Juba II., married an Egyptian lady, Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and, while his coins bear the urzeus, those struck in her name bear the sistrum, the crown of Isis, and such Nilotic animals as the crocodile and hippopotamus (192, iii. 17, 95, 105, 110). These facts become the more significant when it is remembered that the coinage of the Ptolemies, the only pre-Roman coinage that Egypt had, was derived from the Greek and bore no Egyptian symbols. Some will have it that we are faced with yet another difficulty ; an Egypto- logist has recently produced a work showing evidence of much patient research, in which he argues that a number of bloodthirsty rites, which he states occurred in predynastic and early dynastic Egypt, are closely related to those practised in West Africa at the present day, and indicate that the Egyptian religion is essentially ‘ African’ in origin. His use of this word seems to indicate that he employs it as the equivalent of ‘ Negro,’ though the latter word is never actually used. I believe that there is good and valid evidence against this view, both on the physical and the cultural side. All the work of the Archeological Survey of Nubia confirms the idea that the predynastic Egyptians were not even negroid, and it has extended this conclusion to the early Nubians who lived during the first three or four Egyptian dynasties. On the cultural side the evidence, though less absolute in that the data cannot be so objective as those supplied by long series of physical measurements, is none the less clear. It is generally held that the sed festival of Ancient Egypt was a survival, in a much weakened form, of the ceremonial killing of the King, and that its essential element was the identification of the king with Osiris. It was an important ceremony which per- sisted through the whole historic period, and was so much to the Pharaohs’ taste that it was enacted no less than six times during the reign of Rameses II. The oldest known representation of the ceremony is that on the mace head of King Narmer (Menes). The king is seated in a shrine at the top of nine steps, dressed as Osiris, and holding the flail. On one side in front of the king are a number of standards, the first bearing the jackal Upwawet, ‘ the opener of the ways,’ described on the seal of King Zer of the I. dynasty as ‘he who opens the way when thou advancest towards the under-world.’ The seal shows King Zer as Osiris preceded by Upwawet and ‘the shed-shed which is in front,’ the emblem of lightness or space. It is well known that kings are still killed cere- monially in Negro Africa at the present day ; there are also rites which seem to be weakened forms of the same ceremony in which the king is permitted to survive. Assuming the above hypothesis of the origin of the sed festival to be correct, it cannot be seriously argued that the early Egyptians took over the custom fram 656 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. the Negroes, at a time when Negro influence was so slight that no considerable amount of intermarriage had occurred. A custom which if it were not originally Egyptian would have introduced a totally new outlook on the world, and would have been intensely unpopular with the ruling powers. With regard to the mode in which Egyptian influence was exerted on the Sudan there are three main routes along which we might expect to find its traces. The first is southwards along the Nile, the other two are to the west; one route at first following the Mediterranean coast but broadening westward as con- ditions become more favourable, the other running south-west through the oases and so communicating with Darfur and the Chad basin. Yet another route has been suggested by Sir Harry Johnston, namely, through Abyssinia and Somali- land, presumably reaching them via the Red Sea (8, 487). Perhaps it was by this route that the sistrum, still used in the church festivals, reached Abyssinia. The extension of Egyptian rule up the Nile Valley can be traced from the earliest times to the XVIII. dynasty. But although after this Egyptian domina- tion becomes less marked, Egyptian influence had become so firmly established that the culture of the states in the Nile Valley had a predominantly Egyptian tinge;° first Napata, then Meroé, and then further south the states which we know later as the Christian kingdoms of Dongola and ’Alwah. On a priori grounds the Nile route might be expected to be the most worn and the easiest to trace. For thousands of years Egyptian and Negro were in contact on the middle reaches of the great river, so that at least one great negroid kingdom arose; and though to this day a Negro dialect is spoken as far north as Aswan, yet at the present time there does not seem to be a single object or cultural characteristic which unequivocally can be said to have reached the zone of luxuriant tropical vegetation by way of the Nile Valley. The evidence for the earliest spread of Egyptian influence is set forth in the Reports of the Archeological Survey of Nubia, and, referring as it does to the country north of Wady Halfa, is outside the scope of this address. Yet I cannot leave it alto- gether unnoticed, since it is intimately related to the discoveries recently made by Professor Reisner at Kerma in Dongola Province beyond the Third Cataract. (17.) In the Reports, Professor Elliot Smith shows that beyond Aswan, as far south as exploration has proceeded, the basis of the ancient population from the earliest times to the end of the Middle Empire was essentially of proto-Egyptian type, and that this type became progressively modified by dynastic Egyptian influence from the north, and Negro and Negroid influence from the south. As a result the Nubians contemporary with the New Empire present such pro- nounced Negroid characteristics as to form a group (the C-group) which stands apart from its Nubian and Egyptian predecessors (2. Bulletin iii. 25.) The recent discoveries at Kerma, which include fragments of alabaster jars with the names of kings of the VI. and XII. dynasties and also seal impressions of the Hyksos period, have shown that here was a fort or trading post certainly occu- pied during the Hyksos period, and probably as far back as the VI. dynasty. It is the remains of the Hyksos period that are especially interesting. Professor Reisner describes a people who razed the buildings of their predecessors, and buried their dead in the débris, who battered the statues of Egyptian kings of the XII. dynasty, and whose funerary customs were entirely un-Egyptian. Each burial pit contains a number of graves in every one of which several bodies had been interred. The chief personage lies on a carved bed; ‘under his head is a wooden pillow ; between his legs a sword or dagger; beside his feet cowhide sandals and an ostrich-feather fan. At his feet is buried a ram, often with ivory knobs on the tips of the horns to prevent goring. Around the bed lie a varying number of bodies, male and female, all contracted on the right side, * The early Ethiopian kings used the Egyptian language and writing for their records; it was only towards the end of the Meroitic period, after the down- fall of Egypt, that the Meroitic language was written. A special hieroglyphic alphabet founded on the Egyptian may date back to the third century B.c., but the actual Meroitic script is later than this ; Crowfoot indeed argues for so late and short a range as from the middle of the second to the fourth century A.D. (Griffith, Zhe Meroitic Inscriptions of Shablil and Karanog, chap. ii.). PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 657 head east. Among them are the pots and pans, the cosmetic jars, the stools, and other objects. Over the whole burial is spread a great ox-hide. . . . Several had: their fingers twisted into their hair or had covered their faces with their hands. One woman had struggled over on her back and was clutching her throat. But most of them lay composed as if minded to die quietly, according to the custom of their fathers.’ (17, xii. 24.) Reisner could not observe any marks of violence, but, judging from the contorted positions of some of the bodies, thought that they had been buried alive. The remains from these burials have been examined by Elliot Smith, who states that the skeletons surrounding the bedstead are those of folk of proto-Egyptian and Middle Nubian (C-group) types, while those on the beds belonged to typical New Empire Egyptians, such as lived in the Thebaid at this time. (28, 228.) The first historical capital of the Sudan was Napata, the medieval Merowe or Merawi, near Jebel Barkal, between the 19th and 20th parallels of latitude, a few miles south of the Fourth Cataract. Napata was certainly an important place in the XVIII. dynasty but how much earlier is uncertain. In the XX. dynasty the high priest of Ammon assumed the viceregency of Nubia, and even Rameses XII., the last and feeblest king of this dynasty, retained Thebes and Nubia though the delta had become independent. Remembering the troubles and revolts of the XXI. and XXII. dynasties and the expulsion of the nobles of Thebes we may believe that the priestly families of Thebes were forced to flee to the more remote parts of Nubia, and so set up at Napata a kingdom which, in theory at least, reproduced the theocracy of Ammon at Thebes. The first recorded lord of this new kingdom was Kashta, whose son Piankhi succeeded him about 741 B.c. and by 721 8.c. had conquered and garrisoned Egypt almost as far north as the Fayum. Later he received the submission of the Lords ot the Delta, and was succeeded by his brother Shabaka, who ruled all Egypt and founded the XXV. (Nubian) dynasty which lasted at least fifty years. Thus Napata was Egyptianised, and being a great trading centre cannot but have influenced profoundly the country to the south, so that when Meroe was founded in the eighth century s.c. the ruling influence must have been Egyptian. The mission sent by Nero to explore the Nile reported that Meroe was ruled by a Queen Candace, whose predecessors had borne that name for many generations. (16. Bk. vi. chap. 35.) It is uncertain whether the Candace of Nero’s time was one with the Candace (Kantakit) who was buried in a Meroe pyramid, or whether the latter was identical with the queen who attacked Egypt during the reign of Augustus. However the matter may stand, we know of two if.not three queens bearing the same name. Yet, since the monuments show that a king was generally the head of the state, Pliny’s assertion requires qualification; more- over, there is the perfectly definite reference to King Ergamenes slaughtering the priests who, as was the custom, had determined his death. In both state- ments I cannot but see examples of Egyptian theocratic influence. Nor are they mutually destructive if it be remembered that the throne might, and often did, pass in the female line, and that this practice was known to be in full force during the XVIII. and later dynasties.* It would be entirely consonant with the policy of the priests of Ammon to take advantage of the spirit of the sed festival, the rite of ceremonial Osirifi- cation practised by the Egyptian kings, in order to obtain for themselves abso- lute political control. This would be easier if among the barbaric tribes in southern Nubia the king was ceremonially killed as he recently was in Fazogli, and as he still is among the Nilotes. That the practice of slaying the king was no new priestly device is, I think, clear from the account given by Strabo, and though I have no space to analyse this, I may point out that it accords well with our knowledge of the divine kings existing in the Nile valley at the present day, or in recent times. Strabo’s description makes clear how relatively narrow * Paynozem I. of the XXI. dynasty married the daughter of the Tanite king, Pesibkhenno I. and Sheshonk the founder of the XXI. dynasty legiti- mised his line by marrying his son to the daughter of Pesibkhenno II., the last king of the preceding dynasty. So, too, in order to hold the treasure of Ammon at Thebes, Piankhi caused Shepnupet the daughter of Osorkon III., sacerdota] priestess of Thebes, to adopt his sister-wife Amenardis. iksn its UU 658 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. was the stream of northern civilisation which penetrated Black Africa by way of the Nile valley. But even this civilisation did not come with a steady flow ; when Egypt prospered under the early Ptolemies Meroe prospered; as Egypt decayed Meroe fell into the wretched condition recorded by Nero’s officers ; and even before this Candace could assert that neither the name nor condition of Cesar was known to her. (24, Bk. xvii. chap. 1.) As northern influence lessened, and the power of Meroe decayed, the black element would preponderate more and more, so that the travellers who visited Ethiopia told a story of barbarism and utter stagnation. The mode of life of the Ethiopians was wretched, they were for the most part naked wanderers, moving from place to place with their flocks. Even in the cities along the river banks the houses were as often made of wattle and wood as of bricks. Although they had grain from which they prepared beer, they had no fruits or oil, using butter and fat instead, and lived upon roots and the flesh and blood of animals; milk and cheese. (24, Bk. xvii. chap. 2.) Beyond the immediate neighbourhood of the river was a region of savagery, with inhabitants for the most part known by mere nicknames, root- eaters, fish-eaters and so forth. But even in the earlier and better days of Meroe there is evidence that suggests the presence of much black blood in the royal family. In a stele from Napata, now in the Louvre, the mother, wife and sister of King Aspelut (about 825 B.c.) are represented as distinctly steatopygous, while the representations of Queen Amen-Tarit at Meroe some three centuries later are frankly Negroid. Moreover, even while a king exerted real authority at Meroe it would be entirely consonant with African politics and African customs for vassal ‘ kingdoms’ to arise at the extremes of the state. So, when it is recorded on the authority of Eratosthenes, that in the third century B.c. the Sembritze who occupied an island south of Meroe were ruled by a ‘ queen’ but recognised the suzerainty of Meroe (24, Bk. xvii. chap. 1), we may think of the petty chieftains of the eighteenth century who were the true rulers of the country from Dongola to Sennar, though every sultan of Sennar claimed sovereign rights. There may have been many such ‘states’ ruled by women, just as at the present day in the Nuba hills the highest authority passes in the female line, and may be exerted by a woman. Meroe seems to have been destroyed before the introduction of Christianity. Nevertheless, two if not three culture phases can be traced in its history. There was first a period of Egyptian influence under King Aspelut and his successors, then came an influx of Greek ideas, a phase which Professor Garstang would date from about the third century z.c. This is the period to which most of the monuments now visible belong, and it was succeeded by the period of Roman dominance. At Soba, on the Blue Nile a few miles above Khartum, Lepsius collected the cartouches of a number of kings and queens of Meroe; this site, the capital of the Christian kingdom of ’Alwah, was certainly inhabited through medizval times, and may not have been fully deserted till three or four hundred years ago. No doubt northern influence diminished progressively, especially after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, when the rivalry between Christianity and Islam which culminated in the Crusades must have.had the effect of closing Upper Nubia and the countries beyond to Mediterranean in- fluence. Nevertheless, trade objects continued to come through, though there is nothing to show whether these travelled up the Nile or across the Eastern Desert from the thriving Mohammedan trading ports which, as Crowfoot has shown, were established there previous to the thirteenth century.’ (4, 542.) 5 There is a particular form of bead made of chalcedonic agate, numerous examples of which have been dug up in the neighbourhood of Khartum. A large number of similar beads are said to have been found in Somersetshire a few years ago, but archeologists tell me that there is no sufficient warrant for their origin. But a chain of these beads found at Erding in Upper Bavaria and now in the Munich Museum (K. IV. 1924 in Room 2, Case 4) dates them, at least approximately, to the early medieval period, Merovingian or earlier. More- over, three large chevron beads of the usual type were said to have been removed from the body of an ‘Arab’ who fell at Omdurman, and I see no reason to doubt the truth of the statement. What I have said concerning the Ethiopia of Strabo closely follows the argument set forth by Crowfoot in Zhe Jsland of Meroe, published by the Egypt Exploration Fund. ee ee ee / PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 659 No doubt the territory over which the rulers of ’Alwah exerted authority extended south of their capital, yet beyond Soba, in the archeologically un- explored country south of the confluence of the two rivers, traces of northern influence quickly become fewer and less distinct. Nevertheless, at the present day among the hills between the White and Blue Niles the name Soba is still known, being recognised as that of a series of great queens who ruled over a mighty empire of the same name. I cannot say how wide the area may be over which this belief is held; my information was obtained at Jebel Gule fifty miles east of Renk. At the foot of the hills are two settlements of a people who call themselves Fung, but who are generally known as Hameg. These people say that the great Queen Soba whom they worship was their ancestress, but they also apply her name to certain stones which they regard as sacred. The most important of these is a spherical water-worn stone (about 18 inches in diameter) of a brownish colour, with large quartz veins traversing it in every direction. This stone was stated to have been the ‘throne’ of Queen Sheba, and is still the ‘chair of kingdom’ (kursi memlaka) upon which every Hameg paramount chief (mangil) assumes office. Besides this rock there are two others associated with Soba, and hence called Soba. Both are weathered boulders, partly embedded in the soil at the side of the track round the base of Jebel Gule. A prayer given me by a woman at one of these rocks ran somewhat as follows: ‘ Grandmother Soba . . . permit us to go on our journey and return in safety.’ There was obviously the utmost confusion in this woman’s mind between Soba the goddess and Soba the stone on which she had just placed a handful of sand. Soba may also be asked to relieve sickness, and is invoked during a dance held by the neighbours of a recently delivered woman, about the time when the young mother is allowed to leave her house for the first time. Few will doubt that in the Soba of the Hameg belief there is preserved the memory of such queens as Candace the ruler of the Sembrite, grafted on the recollection of the great city, which to the Negroids of the Gezira no doubt appeared to dominate the north. Nor do thése traces of ancient tradition stand alone; at Jebel Moya near the Blue Nile some 150 miles south of Khartum there is actual archeological evidence of northern influence. Here besides stone implements were found beads, and amulets, a number of scarabs, and small plaques bearing Ethiopian and Egyptian cartouches ranging from about 700 z.c. (25, 617), or perhaps going back to an even earlier date. I may also note that on the as yet unexplored site of Faragab in northern Kordofan, besides potsherds, stone implements and ivory objects I have found a carnelian bead identified by Professor Petrie as of XVIII. dynasty make, as well as dolomite and scolecite beads which are certainly not of Negro workmanship or character. Faragab must have been an important site for a considerable period, and would well repay systematic examination; the mounds,.which are some ten feet high, occupy a considerable area about a mile N.W. of the modern village. The potsherds found in them are of special interest, and among them are the remains of a type of pot which, as far as I can discover, is different from any in use in Africa at the present day. This type was oblong and rather shallow, decorated with geometrical patterns and produced at each end into a solid mass more or less covered with designs; its shape, in fact, was that of many Melanesian food bowls. Another interesting feature of the Faragab sherds is that many of the larger vessels were made on string mats (21). The large narrow-necked vessels found in such numbers in the necropolis at Meroe were made by this method, which is still in use for water vessels in northern _ Kordofan. These sites seem to mark the southern limit of Egyptian influence as far as the actual transmission of objects derived from the north is concerned. Of the racial affinities of the inhabitants of Faragab nothing is known, but we are better informed concerning the old residents of Jebel Moya. The cemeteries of this site have yielded the remains of a tall coarsely built Negro or Negroid race with extraordinarily massive skulls and jaws (5). In a general way they appear to resemble the coarser type of Nuba living in South Kordofan at the present day, and it is significant that the cranial indices of the men of Jebel Moya and the Nuba hills agree closely. Thus there is the clearest vuu2 660 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. evidence that Egyptian influence reached south of Khartum, and since it has persisted to the present day in oral tradition among the tribes of the little known country between the Blue and White Niles, traces might equally be expected among the Nilotes of the White Nile. But strangely enough nothing of the sort has been found, although the Shilluk and Dinka are better known than any other of the Sudan tribes. On the other hand, the tribes of the Congo basin have a number of customs which do suggest Egyptian influence, and the same may be said perhaps of Uganda; so that it seems reasonable to believe that Egyptian influence spread up the White Nile and passed westwards across the Nile-Congo watershed. An alternate route would be along the Blue Nile and its tributaries the Dinder and the Rahad to the Abyssinian hills, southward through the highlands to about 5° N., and thence westward to the head waters of the Congo. To return to the Shilluk and Dinka, the most northern of the Negro tribes of the White Nile. The fact that no cultural elements which can be connected with Egypt are found on the White Nile, where they might have been expected, suggests, either that the tribes now occupying the district were not there when Egyptian influence spread south, or that the country presented such difficulties that the foreign stream left it on one side, as would have been the case had it followed the route via the Blue Nile and the high- lands of Abyssinia. In other words, either the Shilluk and Dinka reached their present territory in comparatively recent times, or else led a wandering and precarious life in swamps as formidable as the Sudd of the present day. There is, I think, a good deal in favour of the latter view. The existence in the depths of the Sudd of Nuer communities, of which we know little except through rumour, shows that such a life is possible; while among the Dinka the Moin Tain or ‘marshmen,’ who possess no cattle and scarcely cultivate, but live by hunting and fishing, exist under almost as unfavourable conditions. Moreover, there is abundant evidence that North-West Africa is drier now than it was a few thousand years ago, and if those authors are right who state that there was a general melting of glaciers in Europe some 5000 years B.c., giving rise to widespread floods (the origin of the Biblical deluge), the increased precipitation may well have given rise to a considerable northern extension of the Nile swamps. In support of this argument it may be noted, that in numerous XVIII. dynasty paintings Negroes are represented with bows and arrows and throwing sticks (boomerangs), 7.¢., their weapons are not those of the northern Negroes of the present day, the Shilluk and Dinka, who are not bowmen and do not use the throwing stick. Shilluk traditions state that they came from the south, and a language substantially identical with theirs is spoken by the Acholi of the Uganda Protectorate. Evidence pointing in the same direction exists on the physical side; the. results of the archeological survey of Nubia show that even in late dynastic times the tall Negroids (E-group) whose skeletons have been found near Shellal were mesaticephals (2, 80), with a cephalic index higher by three or four units than those of the Dinka and Shilluk respectively. On the other hand, a people with a cephalic index nearer that of the northern Nilotes had reached Nubia by the Byzantine-Pagan period (200-600 a.p.). Elliot Smith and Derry speak of these people (the X-group) as prognathous and flat-nosed Negroids who suddenly made their way north into Nubia (2, Bulletin V. 12). Sixteen X-group skulls (eleven male and five female) in the College of Surgeons give a cephalic index of 70°8, and comparing them with the series of about the same number of Dinka skulls in the collection, my impression is that as a group they show as many Negroid characters. It seems reasonable to believe that the Negroids, whose skeletons form the majority of those found in Negro graves in Nubia, belonged to the group of Negroes with whom the Egyptians were in contact on their southern frontier. In other words, the tribes resembling the modern Dinka were so little in effective contact with the Egyptians, that they did not reach Nubia till some 1500 years ago, the cattle-owning Negroes whose representations were so frequent being the tall mesaticephals whose remains occur in Nubia in late dynastic times. The numerous records of Negro incursions from the Middle Kingdom i ee aE el PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 661 onwards suggest that the Negroes were driven north in a succession of waves by some force from which this direction offered the only chance of escape. Such can only have been applied by other Negroes behind them. It may well be that there was more or less continual ferment on the southern border of Egypt in the early part of the first millennium s.c., and that the northern Nilotes were beginning to make their reputation as fighting men. Indeed, the passage in Isaiah can scarcely bear any other meaning than that this people was working north with sufficient energy for their peculiarities and those of their land to have become known to the Mediterranean world. ‘Ah, the land of the rustling of wings, which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia: that sendeth ambas- sadors by the sea, even in vessels of papyrus upon the waters, saying, Go, ye swift messengers, to a nation tall and smooth, to a people terrible from their beginning onward; a nation that meteth out and treadeth down, whose land the rivers divide!’ (Isa. xvili. 1, 2, Revised Version.) But while the tall Negroes seem to have been the first to reach Nubia in organised groups, stray examples of short brachycephalic Negroes (usually female) have been found as far back as protodynastic times. I am indebted to Professor Elliot Smith for the information that the four Negresses found in cemetery No, 79 at Gerf Hussein (2, Bull. iii, 22) were short in stature with relatively broad oval crania, while at Dabod in a Middle-Kingdom cemetery there was found a skeleton of a man measuring 1°61 m. (about 5 feet 3 inches), with definite prognathism, typical Negro hair, and a cephalic index of 80 (2, ii. 121). Presumably these were representatives of the group of short mesaticephalic Negroes who are at the present time found on both sides of the Nile-Congo divide, but predomi- nantly west of it, a group represented by the Bongo, Azande, and cognate tribes. We thus reach the position that the Nubians, who were proto- Egyptians, were, in the earlier part of their history, in contact with just that class of Negroes among whom customs and ideas apparently of Egyptian origin are found at the present day. It must not, however, be assumed that it was this contact that led to the dissemination of Egyptian ideas, indeed our present information suggests that it can scarcely have been sufiiciently intense. The following table, giving the measurements and indices available for the comparison of the E-group Negroids with the tall Negroes of the present day, shows that the former belonged to the mesaticephalic group, which includes the Burun, the Bari, and the Nuba. As regards head length, head breadth, cephalic index and stature, the E-group stands closer to the Nuba than to the other tribes, while even in head breadth it is as near the Nuba as the Dinka. —— H.L. H.B. C.1. / Stature Shilluk . = ‘ , 195 139 71:3 | 1,776 Dinka . A : 194 141 72:7 | 1,786 Meroup... - .. «|. 1906 1436 75686 | 1,723 ina ais as. 190 145 76°6 erii22 Burun . Saye » 190 150 W916 Te i 1,759 Bari : = = - 190 149 78 1,741 At the present day the mesaticephalic group includes the Hameg and the Berta of the hills between the White and Blue Niles. The excavations at Jebel Moya—also between these two rivers—have enabled Dr. Derry to show that in Ptolemaic times this hill stronghold was inhabited by tall mesaticephali with a cephalic index almost identical with that of the Nuba, so that we are led to conclude that all these tribes, including the E-group Negroids, belong to one and the same stock. A number of similarities between Ancient Egypt and Modern Africa have been set out recently by Professor Petrie (15). He does not discuss the routes by which Egyptian influence may have reached Negroland, but simply marshals the evidence of similarity under sixty-one headings. A good many of these are * The H.L. and H.B. of the E-group skulls have been increased by 7 mm. and 8'5 mm. respectively in order to make these measurements comparable with those on the living. For the same reason the C.I. has been increased by 2 units. 662 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. so widely spread outside Africa as to be of little evidential value; others, and this applies specially to material products, include such simple or obvious devices that they can scarcely be regarded as carrying weight; but there are a number of instances which are highly suggestive, and when to these are added yet other habits and customs common to Ancient Egypt and Negro Africa, a mass of evidence is presented which seems decisively indicative of Egyptian influence. This view does not imply that all the features common to Ancient Egypt and present-day Negroes are instances of borrowing; on the contrary, I hold that many common customs are but expressions of the wide diffusion of old Hamitic blood and ideas. To this ancient stratum I would attribute those customs which I have discussed in a previous paper (22), including burial by the Nilotes in the crouched position, the use of the throwing-stick (boomerang) by the Beja, and the killing of the divine king (or rainmaker). The ideas and customs reported from tropical Africa which may be due to Egyptian influence may be classified provisionally in the following groups : (i) Beliefs connected with the soul. (ii) Beliefs and customs connected with the king or the royal office. (iii) Death customs. (i) Beliefs concerning the soul. The Egyptians believed that each individual possessed several souls, the most important being (a) the ka or human double; (6) the ba, the bird soul which accompanied Ra in the sun barque through the other-world; (c) the akh or khu (fate unknown); (d) the khaibet or shadow; and (e) the ad or heart; that in one aspect at least this was something more than the physical heart is shown by the fact that after death the ab was weighed by Anubis in the presence of Osiris against the feather of truth. | Numerous instances of ‘multiple souls’ resembling those of Egypt have been recorded from the Congo and West Africa; perhaps the most striking is afforded by the Bambala, who say that man is composed of four parts, the body Jo, the double ilo, the soul n’shanga, and the shadow Jumelume, while some have an additional element called moena (1, vol. li. fase. i. 124). (ii) Beliefs and customs connected with the king or the royal office. The fact that the Pharaoh, the Shilluk king, the Dinka rainmaker, and many other African rulers were, or are, divine kings, who were at one time ceremonially killed and with whose bodily well-being the welfare of their kingdom was bound up, does not, to my mind, indicate borrowing, but points rather to a common origin, for I believe that the divine king is an old Hamitic institution, and that Hamitic blood or cultural influence has been active over a very great part of Negro Africa. On the other hand, there does seem a possible connec- tion between the Egyptian Horus and the eagle totem of the Baganda king. In Egypt, once totemistic, the king was identified with the falcon, and was spoken of as Horus; the falcon was placed over one of his names, and on the great slate palette of Narmer, dating back to protodynastic times, the falcon (with one human arm) leading captive the north country obviously represents the king. Among the Baganda every king and prince, in addition to his clan . totem, claimed the eagle totem, though no eagle clan existed 7 (18, 128). (iii) Death customs. The majority of the customs which can probably be attributed to Egyptian influence are associated with death and burial; this is not surprising, considering how greatly the Egyptians were concerned with the after-life. Let us consider the main features of Egyptian burial in the follow- ing order: posture of the body in the grave, preparation of the body and coffin, form of the grave, offerings in and at the grave, worship at the grave. I have shown elsewhere that the custom of burying on the side in the embryonic posi- tion was widespread in Africa among peoples of Hamitic blood; but I do not regard this as due to Egyptian influence, but rather as part of a common Hamitic heritage. In Egypt the body was prepared for the grave by an elaborate process of mummification ; it was then enclosed in a coffin often of anthropoid shape. In tropical Africa numerous instances of attempts to preserve the body are recorded. In Uganda the body of the king was opened, the bowels removed, emptied, ’ Dr. Allan Gardiner informs me that even in Egypt there are indications that the eagle and falcon were confused in Hellenistic times. yw PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 663 ' washed in beer, dried, and then replaced (18, 105), while among the Banyoro (8, 316) and the Makaraka (9, i. 297, ii. 361) other methods were adopted. It seems a far cry from the mummies of Egypt to the smoke-dried corpses of Equatoria, and it is not difficult to see that ancestor worship might easily give rise to attempts to preserve the body when everyday experience would suggest desiccation or smoking, but there are certain Congo tribes whose practices do suggest an actual link with Egypt. Among the Wambunda of Stanley Pool the body is placed in the squatting posture, the limbs are tightly flexed on the body and tied in that position, the whole being packed with a large quantity of spongy moss which is kept in situ by bandages. A gentle fire is kept up round the body for two or three months, after which it is rolled in native cloths and buried (1, fasc. ii. 176). The latter part of this ceremony hints that the attempts to preserve the corpse may have been imposed on an older habit of speedy burial; such an imposition could only have come from without. Among the Wangata an important person of either sex is buried in a massive coffin with a lid carved to represent the deceased (1,i. fase. ii. 180). It is diffi- cult not to believe that here is an echo of the Egyptian mummy case. If this be so, may not the practice of a tribe near Lake Leopold II., who after a rough preparation of the body roll it in native cloth and place it in a canoe-shaped coffin (1, fasc. ii, 175), be regarded as connected with the funerary boats of Egyptian burial ceremony? Since the anthropoid coffin was unknown before the XI. dynasty, it follows that the northern influence must have been exerted after this period. Egypt’s first great expansion (after the Pyramid builders) dates from the XII. dynasty, when Egyptian and Negro were in intimate contact at the Second Cataract, as shown by the celebrated decree of Senu- sert III. Further, about this time special importance seems to have been attri- buted to the funerary voyage on the Nile, indeed almost all the models of funerary boats in our collections are of this period. ‘ If these facts be accepted as evidence of the date at which Egyptian ideas influenced Equatorial Africa, there are other customs which seem to indicate that this was not the only period of such cultural drift. The coffins of the III. and IV. dynasties were often large rectangular boxes designed and painted to represent houses. Now the Mayumbe roll the body of a dead chief in layers of cloth and place it in an enormous wooden coffin of rectangular shape, the top of which is carved to present a homestead (1, i. fasc. ii. 177). Again, the funeral ceremonial of the Ndolo seems reminiscent of this period. Immediately after death the Ndolo prepare the body, painting it red, touching up the eye- brows with charcoal, and propping it up with open eyes and mouth on a high seat in the very posture of the ka statues of the Pyramid-builders, i.e. seated with the forearms and hands upon the thighs, a position which I venture to say no Negro would adopt. The body remains here for a day, while more or less continual drumming and dancing goes on, and is then buried (1,i. fase. ii. 176), Tf 1 have not laid too much stress on the XII. dynasty liaison, it would seem that the cultural drift originating the Ndolo custom was earlier than that affecting the Wangata and the Mayumbe. Professor Elliot Smith tells me that in Egypt bodies were not deliberately painted red before the XXTI., dynasty, but it is possible that the Ndolo confused the dead body with the effigy and—for the time of its exposure—treated it as the Egyptians treated their wooden statues from an early date onwards. Nor must it be forgotten that at the present day the Bari paint themselves red. An Egyptian mastaba tomb consists of (i) a tomb chapel, which may or may not lead to a series of chambers. There may or may not be a serdab. The tomb chapel is distinguished by the false door which is placed on the west wall and faces east. Behind the false door is (ii) a pit. The burial may be at the bottom of the pit or (iii) in a recess at the side. The recess may Jengthen out into a passage with (iv) a chamber at the end. The form of the tomb was to a very great extent the expression of the Egyptian belief that the soul, or souls, of the deceased visited the body in the tomb chamber, coming in and out by the shaft of the pit, and indeed the XVIII. dynasty papyrus of the priest Nebgqed represents the human-headed ba-soul descending the shaft to visit the mummy (18, Pl. iv.). These beliefs also led to the burial of supernumerary stone heads to which the soul might attach itself should the body perish. 664 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FH, Recently eight life-size nortrait heads of a princess and the courtiers of the court of Chephren have been found in the mastabas at Gizeh constituting the royal cemetery of the IV. dynasty (17, xiii.). The cartonnage busts, presumably of the deceased, represented as carried in funeral processions of the Middle Empire (cf. e.g., Stele C 15 in the Louvre), are probably a development of the same idea. Similar expressions of belief occur in Negro Africa, the examples being too numerous and the resemblances too exact for this to be due to any other cause than actual borrowing. I am indebted to Messrs. Torday and Joyce for the information that the Tofoke in the neighbourhood of the Stanley Falls make a grave which in principle and form comes extremely close to the ancient Egyptian. A circular pit is dug, about 6 feet in diameter and 8 feet in depth; about 2 feet from the floor is a horizontal passage, about 15 feet in length, and of sufficient size to allow the body to be pushed along it; at the end of the passage is a vertical shaft, not more than 1 foot in diameter, reaching to the surface of the ground. The grave is lined with mats, and the body is pushed into the horizontal passage; the main shaft is filled in, but the smaller shaft, being destined for the passage of the soul, is merely covered with branches and a little earth. Over the grave a conical mound is erected, and on this a shed; here are put food and certain property of the deceased after the mound has been covered with charcoal. A similar tomb, but without the special shaft for the soul and hence even more closely resembling the Egyptian mastaba grave, has been figured by Froebenius (6, Pl. i.). The body, apparently tightly covered with wrappings and with vessels for offerings near it, lay in a lateral chamber at the bottom of the pit. The mouth of the pit was covered by a mud dome, on the top of which there was a pot, the whole having a hut built over it. A small aperture on the western side of the dome gave access to the shaft. In the Pyramids the parts of the mastaba tomb underwent special treatment ; in the Meydum pyramid a sloping passage takes the place of the shaft, the passage probably being reminiscent of the sloping stairway of the proto- dynastic mastaba. The so-called ‘trial passage’ near the Great Pyramid, as well as the passages within it, seem reminiscent of a tomb with two sloping passages running in the same vertical plane and meeting at an obtuse angle. This type, which may be called the double sloping passage tomb, is also found in Negro Africa, namely in Lower Senegal and Northern Hausaland, between 13° and 18° N. ‘First . .. passages were dug under the earth and, at their coin- cidence, the gallery was enlarged, as the first sketch of a building with an oval- shaped dome. This dome was panelled and strengthened with wood from the Borassus palm. This domed underground vault contained the dead man and a good many things besides. ... The Eastern hole was filled in, but the Western one was sealed with boards and only opened yearly to receive fresh offerings. A second and very strong dome, to which a covered passage gave access from the west, was raised on the surface exactly over the roof of the grave-chamber proper . . . and the mound was piled high over the whole. . . . The entrance to the grave itself, which was opened but once a year for the insertion of the autumnal offering, was covered with planks laid horizontally. But on all other occasions the priests held intercourse with the dead in the upper chamber’ (6, i. 25, 26). Offerings made at the grave, and worship performed there, are so inex- tricably interwoven that they may be considered together. It is probably true to say that every Negro tribe has ancestor worship in some form or another, and at some time makes offerings at the ancestral graves; but the following instance from New Calabar is so suggestive of ancient Egyptian influence, and mimics the supernumerary heads and cartonnage busts (already cited) so closely, that it does not seem necessary to give any other example. The duen-fubara is a carved and painted image representing the head and shoulders of the deceased. This is brought by night in solemn procession to the dead man’s village a year after his death, and deposited for eight days in charge of someone of importance in the community. On the eighth day goats and fowls are sacrificed by the eldest son of the deceased before the duen- fubara, which is sprinkled with the blood. After a mimic battle in which the sons of the deceased are opposed by the men of the house in which the image was deposited, the latter yield, and the duen-fuhara is carried in solemn processian > PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 6665 to the place prepared for it. Here it is placed ‘in the hall or outer room of a house which has been specially built for the purpose and... the... house chapel—now consecrated by the spiritual presence, which has been previously invoked and conjured into this special emblem—is daily swept and cleaned’ (10, 162-164). To sum up: concerning the early prehistory of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan we have no more than indications. In the Neolithic stage, which appears to have persisted until a comparatively recent date, Negro influence, if not pre- dominant over the whole area, was at least powerfully felt even in the north, as is shown by the distribution of polished axe-heads. But against this northward pressure must be set the continual extension of Egyptian culture, the evidence for which may best be found in the eschatological ideas and burial customs (‘mummification’ and anthropoid coffins) of the peoples of Equatoria. This infiuence, which seems to have persisted until medimval times, may have reached tropical Negroland as early as the Middle or even the.Old Kingdom. Nor was the Nile route the only one by which Egyptian influence was spread. Another and later drift extended westwards as shown by the coinage of the north African States, which enables us to fix its date within fairly precise limits. We do not know how far south this drift travelled, but it seems certain that it reached at least as far as the Senegal River and the great bend of the Niger. Bibliography. . Annales du Musée du Congo, Series IIT. (Brussels). . Archeological Survey of Nubia (Cairo). . Baker, Sir Samuel, 7smailia, 1879. . Crowfoot, J. W., ‘Some Red Sea Ports in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,’ (Geographical Journal, 1911. 2 5. Derry, D. E. In a paper read before the Anthropological Institute, as yet unpublished. 6. Frobenius, Leo, Voice of Africa, 1913. 7. Gautier, E. F., ‘ Etudes d’Ethnographie Saharienne,’ L’ Anthropologie, 1907, 8. Johnston, Sir Harry, Uganda Protectorate. 9. Junker, Wilhelm, Travels in Africa, 1890. 10. Leonard, A. G., The Lower Niger and its Tributaries. 11. MacMichael, H. A., ‘Rock Pictures in North Kordofan,’ Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 1909. 12. Miller, L., Nwmismatique de Vancienne Afrique (Copenhagen), 1861. 18. Naville, E., Das Aegyptische Todtenbuch (Berlin), 1886. 14. Peringuey, L., ‘The Stone Ages of South Africa,’ Annals of the South African Museum, Vol. viii. 15. Petrie, W. M. Flinders, ‘Egypt in Africa,’ Ancient Loypt, 1914. 16. Pliny, Natural History. 17. Reisner, G. A., Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin (Boston). 18. Roscoe, John, The Baganda. 19. Seligman, C. G., ‘A Neolithic Site in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,’ Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 1910. 20. Seligman, C. G., ‘An Undescribed type of building in the Eastern Province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,’ Journal of Egyptian Archeology, 1915. 21. Seligman, C. G., ‘A Prehistoric Site in Northern Kordofan,’ Annals of Archeology and Anthropology (Liverpool), 1915. 22. Seligman, C. G., ‘Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan,’ Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 1913. 28. Smith, G. Elliot, Report of the British Association, 1914. 24. Strabo, Geography. 25. Wellcome, Henry S8., Report of the British Association, 1912. 26. Wilson and Felkin, ‘7ganda and the Egyptian Sudan. wm Co 7 666 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, The following Papers were then read :— 1. Fresh Light upon the Origin of the Sematic- Alphabet. By Avan H. Garpiner, D. Litt.+ Antong the monuments discovered by Professor Petrie in Sinai (1905) were ten inscriptions in an entirely unknown writing. These appear to have a very important bearing upon the origin of the Semitic and kindred scripts. That the date of these monuments is Pharaonic is beyond dispute. Professor Petrie is inclined to attribute them to the Eighteenth Dynasty, but there are in- dications, particularly the image of the god Ptah on one stele, that they may go back as far as the Twelfth Dynasty. In character they are non-Egyptian, though closely imitating Egyptian work. There are two rough statues of the usual squatting type, and a sphinx which bears the Egyptian hieroglyphs for ‘ beloved of Hathor, lady of the Turquoise’ besides the foreign characters. These three were found in the temple of Hathor at Serabit el-Khadim, but the seven round-topped stele come from a mine about a mile and a half distant. It is wholly impossible to interpret the inscriptions as any form of Egyptian writing, though many of the signs are identical with, and obviously modelled upon, the Egyptian hieroglyphs, ¢.g., the ox’s head, the human head, the human eye, the fish and the rope. Only about one hundred and fifty signs can be distinguished, as the inscriptions are very much weathered, and among these it is impossible to make out more than thirty-two varieties at most. There is, in consequence, a very strong presumption that the new script is alphabetic. Thus the newly-discovered inscriptions reveal to us a form of writing in all proba- bility alphabetic, and certainly modelled upon the Egyptian hieroglyphic, existent on Semitic soil at a date not later than 1500 B.c. Without any closer investigation one might conjecture a priori that such a script must be related to the common parent of the Pheenician, Greek, and Sabzan alphabets. Does a more detailed analysis bear out this conjecture ? A careful study of the available evidence bearing upon the nature of this common proto-Semitic parent shows (1) that very little confidence can be placed in the surviving forms of the Phcenician, Greek, and Sabzan letters, all of which have obviously been linearised in very different and highly individual ways; (2) on the other hand, the letter-names common to Greek and Pheenician show every appear- ance of a high antiquity ; and (3) since in a few cases resemblances can be detected between the meanings of the names and the actual signs (cf. Phoenician x = alif, HAga, an ox[-head], Phoenician OQ = ‘ain, an eye) it is reasonable to suppose that all the proto-Semitic letters were hieroglyphic, and represented the things signified by the letter-names, the values of the letters being taken from the rames on what is known as the acrophonic principle. But if the proto-Semitic alphabet was hieroglyphic, it must clearly have been borrowed from, or modelled upon, some other hieroglyphic system of writing. A derivation from the Cretan hieroglyphs or from the signs of the Phestos disk has been advocated, but the old theory of Lenormant possessed an inherent plausibility greater than that of the more modern views: this French savant had made out a whole list of Egyptian hieroglyphs, to which, as he supposed, the Semites attached new values in order to create an alphabet of their own. The new Sinai inscriptions go far to confirm Lenormant’s hypothesis. There are three signs which are actually identical with those in his list, and there are a number of other signs which correspond ideally to the signification of the Semitic letter-names. Moreover, there is one group of four letters which recurs on five (or six) different monuments, and which can be interpreted without any difficulty as the. word Ba/‘alat (house-sign = béth, eye = ‘ain, crook resembling the ordinary Greeco-Semitic form of Jamed and a cross = tau‘ mark’). Now, almost every Egyptian inscription from Serabit el-Khadim names the goddess Hathor, and there could not possibly be a better Semitic equivalent for the name of this goddess than Ba/alat. Indirect confirmation may be gathered from the fact that the group of signs in ques- tion does not occur on the stele where Ptah is depicted. * Published in full in J. Lyyptian Archeology, vol. iii. pt. 1, 1916. a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 667 The demonstration is, of course, incomplete; no other word can be detected, largely owing to the facts that the inscriptions are extremely badly preserved and that no word-divider is employed. Still, when the date and place of origin are borne in mind, it seems impossible not to believe that the new Sinai script is either the proto-Semitic script itself or else one of several very closely related tentative Semitic alphabets out of which the actual proto-Semitic alphabet was ultimately selected, 9. Cretan Analogies for the Origin of the Alphabet. By Sir Arruur Evans, F.R&.S. The great comparative value of the Cretan material in its bearing on the origin of the alphabet is that we have not only a complete syllabary of pictorial signs, but also, in many cases, their linear degenerations belonging to a later age. This analogy, as pointed out by me some years since, is decisive against theories of the origin of the Semitic alphabet, such as that of De Rougé, who derived it from certain hieratic Egyptian forms representing similar sounds, but having no reference to the actual meaning of the letter names. So close is the analogy indeed that, as shown in a comparative table, both the pictorial form answering to the name of the Phcenician letter and a linearised version answering to its earliest known form constantly recur among the Cretan signs. To a certain extent the Minoan and Semitic characters appear to belong to related systems. The fresh evidence adduced by Mr. Alan Gardiner purports to show that the Semitic letters were evolved from an indigenous pictorial or hieroglyphic source, and if the early forms go back before 1500 B.c. they cannot have been introduced from Crete, either directly or by Phoenician mediation, the non- Semitic character (also non-Egyptian) of about a third of the Pheenician letter names has still to be explained. But the present view, which resembles that pro- posed, though afterwards rejected, by Lenormant, that the Semitic letters were derived from certain early Egyptian hieroglyphs of which they were literal trans- lations, is not borne out by Cretan analogy. Neither is it by that of early Babylonia. In both these cases the pictorial prototypes were indigenous. The later cuneiform system of Assyria represents a selection from earlier Baby- ~lonian characters that reveal their pictographic origin. It must also be ob- served that the old simple theory of Gesenius, according to which Aleph goes back to an early Semitic drawing of an ox, Beth of a house, and so forth, is easily worked out, and does not involve the complication of calling in Egyptian models. At the same time, in the Semitic, as in the Minoan case, we may well trace some formative suggestion from the Egyptian side. 3. Discussion on the Influence of Ancient Egyptian Civilisation on the World’s Culture. (a) Opening Statement by Professor G. ELiior Smitu, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.1 This discussion is to be regarded as the logical extension of the argument on Megalithic Monuments and their Builders with which I opened a debate at the Dundee Meeting (British Association Report, for 1912, pp. 607-609), and the further communications on the ‘Origin of the Dolmen’ (1913) and ‘The Origin and Spread of Certain Customs and Inventions’ * (1914) which I have presented at the last two meetings of the Association. 1 Published in full in Bulletin John Rylands Library, January 1916. 2 The themes of these two communications have been developed at length in ‘The Evolution of the Rock-cut Tomb and the Dolmen,’ Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway, Cambridge, 1913, p. 493; and ‘ The Significance of the Geographical Distribution of the Practice of Mummification: a Study of the Migrations of People and the Spread of certain Customs and Beliefs,’ Manchester Memoirs (Literary and Philosophical Society), Vol. 59, 1915, the latter of which includes a critical study of the evidence and a considerable bibliography of the subject of the present discussion. 668 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. On these previous occasions I discussed the problems of the gradual diffusion of Egypt’s influence to the neighbouring parts of Africa, Asia, and the Eastern Mediterranean Islands and Coasts, which began at a very early historical period. To-day I am calling attention to a mass of evidence which seems to prove that, towards the close of the period of the New Empire, or perhaps even a little later, a great many of the most distinctive practices of Egyptian civilisation suddenly appeared in more distant parts of the coastlines of Africa, Europe, and Asia, and also in course of time in Oceania and America; and to suggest that the Phoenicians must have been the chief agents in distributing this culture abroad. The Mediterranean has been the scene of so many conflicts between rival cultures that it is a problem of enormous complexity and difficulty to decipher the story of Egyptian influence in its much-scored palimpsest. For the purposes of my exposition it is easier to study its easterly spread, where among less cultured peoples it blazened its track and left a record less disturbed by subsequent developments than in the west. Mr. Perry, who is to follow me, will indicate, however, that once the easterly cultural migration has been studied the more complicated course of events in the west can be deciphered also. The theses I propose to submit for consideration, then, are (a) that the essential elements of the ancient civilisations of India, Further Asia, the Malay Archipelago, Oceania, and America were brought in succession to each of these places by mariners, whose Oriental migrations (on an extensive scale) began as trading intercourse between the Eastern Mediterranean and India some time about 800 B.c., and continued for several centuries; (6) that the highly complex and artificial culture which they spread abroad was derived mainly from Egypt (not earlier than the XXIst Dynasty), but also included many important accretions and modifications from the Phcenician world around the Hastern Mediterranean, from East Africa (and the Soudan), Arabia and Babylonia; (c) that, in addition to providing the leaven which stimulated the development of the pre-Aryan civilisation of India, the cultural stream to Burma, Indonesia, the eastern littoral of Asia and Oceania was in turn modified by Indian influ- ences; and, (d) that finally the stream, with many additions from Indonesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia, as well as from China and Japan, continued for many centuries to play upon the Pacific littoral of America, where it was responsible for planting the germs of the remarkable Pre-Columbian civilisation. The reality of these migrations and this spread of culture is substantiated (and dated) by the remarkable collection of extraordinary practices and fantastic beliefs which these ancient mariners distributed along a well-defined route from the Eastern Mediterranean to America. They were responsible for stimulating the inhabitants of the coasts along a great part of their extensive itinerary (a) to adopt the practice of mummification, characterised by a variety of methods, but in every place with remarkable identities of technique and associated ritual, including the use of incense and libations, a funerary bier and boat, and certain peculiar views regarding the treatment of the head, the practice of remodelling the features and the use of statues, the possibility of bringing the dead to life, and the wanderings of the dead and its adventures in the underworld; (b) to build a great variety of mega- lithic monuments conforming to certain well-defined types, which present essentially identical features throughout a considerable extent, or even the whole, of the long itinerary, and in association with these monuments identical traditions, beliefs and customs; (c) to make idols, in connection with which were associated ideas concerning the possibility of human beings or animals living in stones, and of the petrifaction of men and women, the story of the deluge, of the divine origin of kings, who are generally the children of the sun or of the sky, and of the origin of the chosen people from incestuous unions; (d) to worship the sun, and to adopt in reference to this deity a complex and arbitrary symbolism, representing an incongruous grouping of a serpent in conjunction with the sun’s disc, equipped with a hawk’s wings, often associated also with serpent-worship, or in other cases the belief in a relationship with or descent from serpents; (e) to adopt the practices of circumcision, tattooing, massage, piercing and distending the ear-lobules, artificial deformation of the skull, and perhaps trephining, dental mutilations TRANSACTIONS OF SKCTION H. 669 and perforating the lips and nose; (f) to practise weaving linen, and in some cases also the use of Tyrian purple, pearls, precious stones and metals, and conch-shell trumpets, as well as the curious beliefs and superstitions attached to the latter; (g) to adopt certain definite metallurgical methods, as well as mining; (i) to use methods of intensive agriculture, associated with the use of terraced irrigation, the artificial terraces being retained with stone walls; (i) to adopt certain phallic ideas and practices; (7) to make use of the swastika symbol, and to adopt the idea that stone implements are thunder-teeth or thunderbolts, and the beliefs associated with this conception; (k) to use the boomerang; (/) to hold certain beliefs regarding ‘the heavenly twins’; (m) to practice couvade and (7) to display a special aptitude for and skill and daring in maritime adventures, as well as to adopt a number of curiously arbitrary features in boat-building. Many of the items in this list I owe to Mr. W. J. Perry, who in the course of this discussion will deal with other aspects of the problem, and especi- ally the incentives that impelled these ancient mariners to undertake these remarkable adventures. That this remarkable cargo of fantastic customs and beliefs was really spread abroad, and most of them at one and the same time, is shown by the fact that in places as far apart as the Mediterranean and Peru, as well as in many intermediate localities, these cultural ingredients are linked together in an arbitrary and highly artificial manner to form a complex structure, which it is utterly impossible to conceive as having been built up independently in different places. The fact that some of the practices which were thus spread abroad were not invented in Egypt and Pheenicia until the eighth century B.c. makes this the earliest possible date for the commencement of the great wandering which distributed the whole culture-complex, though certain of its constituent elements were diffused abroad to neighbouring lands long before then. (b) On the Influence of Egyptian Civilisation upon the World’s Culture. By W. J. Perry, B.A.* Tf on Fergusson’s ‘ dolmen’ map for Spain, Portugal, and France * be plotted out the distribution of ancient pre-Roman and pre-Grecian mines mentioned by Professor Gowland,*® it will be found that the area occupied by the two are identical. In Northern Africa megalithic structures are found in that region comprising Tunis and Algiers which contains mineral wealth, and where ancient mine-workings are recorded; also the stone ruins and terraces of Rhodesia and the country to the south are associated with ancient mine- workings. Those parts of India which show signs of megalithic influence, as, for example, Southern India, with Ceylon, Chota Nagpur, Assam, and the sub-Himalayan States, and also Thibet, are those parts which contain much mineral wealth in the form of gold and precious stones of various kinds. Assam, Tibet, Chota Nagpur, and Southern India were gold producing regions in ancient times; the States of Kullu, Garhwal, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim, as well as Southern India and Rajputana, formerly produced much copper. The distribution of the pearl oyster in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, as well as the Gulf of Mexico, closely defines the area of megalithic influence. The exceptions are West Australia, where pearls are found in abundance, their presence being unaccompanied by any signs of megalithic influence; and Peru, where ample signs of megalithic influence are present without pearls. But in South America the area of megalithic influence agrees well with that of metals and precious stones. The distribution of amber and metals in the Baltic region seems to agree closely with that of megalithic structures. The pile-dwelling region of Switzerland and Upper Austria, as well as the * Published in full in Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Soc., vol. 60, pt. 1, 1915; pp. 1-36. * Rude Stone Monuments. ; * Huxley Memorial Lecture, Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst. 1912, Archeologia, 56, 670 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. Terra-mare settlements of Italy, are closely allied in culture, and undoubted traces of Egyptian influence are present in the earliest settlements of these regions. The distribution of the pile-dwellings of Switzerland and Austria agrees well with that of ancient mine-workings mentioned by Professor Gow- land. The Terra-mare settlements are all situated in the basin of the Po, the one region in Italy where gold was washed extensively in ancient times. But not only is a general agreement found between the distributions of megalithic influence and ancient mine-workings, but the technique of mining, smelting, and refining operations is identical in all places where the earliest remains have been found. Professor Gowland has shown that Britain, Spain, Switzerland, Egypt, and Japan, as well as other places, were once the seats of metal industries. The form of the furnaces used; the introduction of the blast over the mouth of the furnace; the process of refining whereby the metal is first roughly smelted in an open furnace and afterwards refined in crucibles; as well as the forms of the crucibles and the substance of which they were made, are the same in all places where traces of ancient smelting operations have been discovered. This last group of facts serves to strengthen the conclusion derived from the consideration of distributions; it also serves to identify the cultural influence which was at work in the early neolithic settlements of Switzerland and elsewhere with the megalithic influence. The conclusion to which all these facts point is that the search for certain forms of material wealth led the carriers of the megalithic culture to those places where the things which they desired were to be found. The presence or absence of the desired form of wealth seems to determine the presence or absence of megalithic influence. 4. Egyptian Jewellery. By Professor W. M. Furpers Petri, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. The XIIth Dynasty is recognised as the great period of jewellery in Egypt. This has been emphasised by the jewellery of a princess found by the British School at Lahun, which is in some respects finer than any yet known. The group belonged to different reigns; that of Senusert III., the father of the princess, and that of Amenemhat III. under whom she lived. The most important objects were a pectoral of each reign, with hawks as supporters of the car- touche; a crown of gold, with rosettes around, and long plumes and streamers of gold; a silver mirror with hawk of gold and obsidian; besides which were bracelets, necklaces, and vases of the known forms. All of the framing is of gold, and the inlays and beads are of turquoise, lazuli, carnelian, and amazonite. The workmanship and detail are of the most minute and perfect quality. 5. Notes on the Neolithic Egyptians and the Ethiopians." By Professor V. Grurrripa-RuGGERI. Up till the end of the III. Dynasty the people of Egypt present similarities which justify us in regarding the tribe which manufactured and used copper tools as a wave of Ethiopians comparable with the earlier Neolithic peoples, or possibly as the same people after they had obtained copper from Sinai. But in the IV., V., and VI. Dynasties as shown in the Giza series in Lower Egypt, or later in Upper Egypt, differences appear with mummification and the era of the Pyramid builders which point to the conclusion that while the prehistoric series were largely made up of Ethiopians, in the later period a great infiltra- tion set in, proceeding in an opposite direction, from Syria, Sinai, and the North Arabian coast, territory already occupied by the Mediterranean Race. A monument attributed to the I. Dynasty represents the triumph over the Anu which became a traditional féte, the Anu being shown as a kneeling African captive. The Egyptians of the historic epoch called their predecessors ‘ Anu,’ * To be published in full in Man, se t's TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 671 of whom the Anu-Seti were the inhabitants of Nubia living on the Nile, Seti being the traditional representative of Upper Egypt. The defeat of this people may represent the moment of the change in Upper Egypt. As a result there took place’ a cross between two elementary species, the Ethiopians, belonging to an elementary species of equatorial origin, and the Egyptians, belonging to an elementary species of Nordic origin. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Papers were read :— 1. A Communication from Professor HE. Manouvrier entitled ‘ Une Application Anthropologique ad VArt Militaire.’ By Professor ArrHur Kerry, M.D., F.R.S.1 In his Presidential Address to the Anthropological Section at Birmingham (1913) Sir Richard Temple emphasised the value of a knowledge of anthropology for those who are called to occupy administrative posts in the British Empire. In recent years Professor Manouvrier, Secretary of the Anthropological Society of Paris, has sought to apply certain principles of physical anthropology to the training of soldiers. At Professor Manouvrier’s request a résumé is given of ‘Une Application Anthropologique 4 l’Art Militaire : Le Classement des Hommes et la Marche dans |’Infanterie’—a publication issued in 1905, but which has passed without notice in this country. Professor Manouvrier maintains that, on the march, soldiers should be grouped according to length of lower extremity rather than according to stature. It is maintained that physical fatigue is much less in companies arranged on the principles proposed by Professor Manouvrier than in those where the customary arrangement is adopted. 2. Hereditary Syndactilism and Polydactilism (with Skiagraph Exhibit). By Dr. J. Manson. 3. Photographic Models of Egyptian Tombs. By Roperr Monn. 4. The Greek Element in Asia Minor. By R. M. Dawkins, M.A. | The Greek element in Asia Minor has existed under the domination of the Turks ever since the arrival first of the Seljouks and then of the Ottomans. It was, however, not annihilated by the conquerors, and the regions where it survived in greatest numbers are marked also by the preservation of the Greek language. Thus, although in general the Greek Christians in Asia Minor talk Turkish, and whatever Greek is used is due to the influence of the schools, in some parts of Cappadocia and Pontus Greek is still the vernacular of the Christian population. In the western parts of Asia the destruction of the Greeks was more complete, and therefore there the language has only survived in a few scattered villages. This local Greek is of great importance from many points of view. Its mixture with Turkish is of great linguistic interest; many features in its grammar make it plain that it rests upon a form of Hellenistic Greek different from that which has produced the ordinary modern Greek, and ? Published in full in Army and Navy Gazette, October 16, 1915; pp. 90 seg. 672 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, it is therefore of use in reconstructing the features of the Hellenistic language; and lastly its vocabulary reflects in a remarkable way the history of the coun- try. Thus the Italian loanwords which are so common in ordinary Greek are very rare in Asia, but there is no lack of Latin words. The reason for this it that between the late Roman and early Byzantine period, when the Latin wordg were taken into Greek, and the period follawing the Fourth Crusade, which gave the Italian words to the language, there occurred the first irruptions of the Turks, which separated the Greeks of Asia from their European brethren, and their language was in this way shielded from the influence of Italian. In the same way, of the Slavonic words found in Modern Greek very few are in use in Asia; the only considerable Slavonic element is formed by the Russian words which modern conditions are bringing into the dialect of Pontus. In Cappadocia there is also an Armenian element in the vocabulary. The condition of these Greek communities has grown sensibly worse since the New Turk régime; in particular the introduction of conscription is causing wholesale emigration, especially from Pontus into Russia. It seems, too, that the aim of the Turks is now the total destruction of the Greek population, and the outlook is dark indeed. It would indeed be terrible if the time which has seen the increase of the territory of free Greece were also to see the end of those survivors of the old Byzantine rule in Asia Minor. 5. Joint Discussion with Section E on Racial Distribution in the Balkans. (a) Opening Statement by Professor G. Exuior Samira, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. No adequate settlement is possible of the problems with which statesmanship will soon have to deal in the Balkans, especially when it is recalled that the present struggle is for the due recognition of the claims of race and nationality, unless the facts of geography and racial distribution are taken into considera- tion. But I want to make it perfectly clear at the outset that a multitude of other factors (with which we are not concerned in this discussion), historical, political, economic, and religious, must determine the application of the facts of ethnology if any stable agreement is to be arrived at; and even so, that the primary element in the establishment of a real peace is the acquisition on the part of the peoples concerned of the art of tolerance and the spirit of com- promise in attempting to realise their legitimate national aspirations. The geographical situation of the Balkans—its peculiarly distinctive rela- tions to Europe, Asia, and to the Adriatic, Augean, and Black Seas—marked it out even in prehistoric times as a place of ethnic confusion, exposed on three sides to maritime people, not only of Mediterranean, but also of Armenoid stock; on the north quite open to incursions of all kinds of people from Europe and Asia; and as the threshold of Europe the natural meeting-place of Euro- peans and Asiatics passing respectively to and from Anatolia. The configura- tion of the country favoured segregation of groups of people and helped towards disunion. These factors have influenced its history and disturbed its peace for fifty centuries. Interposed between Rome and Byzantium it was in turn subject to each, and the scene of strife between warring empires and religions. It has been exposed to a long succession of raids and immigrations from Goths, Huns and other Ugrian and Turki people, and Slavs; and when various settle- ments of these peoples took possession of a large part of the peninsula and amalgamated with their predecessors to form the two great Slavonic nations— Southern Slavs and Bulgarians—the intrusion of the Turks foisted upon the Balkans a new oppression and another religion to add to its unrest. Since then the rivalry between Hungary (with the Teutonic Powers) and Russia has played havoc with the Balkan powers. A minor difficulty has been added by the problems of the Jews. The elimination of Turkish influence from the Balkans, where neither the amount of Osmanli blood nor administrative achievement justifies its retention, reminds us that the Turk is not responsible for the amazing tangle there; he was merely an aggravation of an already involved situation, to the complexities ~ nl TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION #, 673 ot which his race, religion, and methods of government added a potent element of confusion. His approaching departure will still leave the most difficult problems unsolved. [The astounding complexities of the distribution of races and religions were then expounded—somewhat on the lines of Professor Jovan Cvijic’s memoir, ‘Die ethnographische Abgrenzung der Volker auf der Balkanhalbinsel,’ Peter- manns Mitteilungen, 59. Jahrg., 1913, p. 113.] In spite of all the conflicting interests created by different religions and histories, ethnological considerations, no less than geographical and economic circumstances, clearly and definitely link together the Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs as one people united by a common origin and literary traditions; and as a race whose domain includes not only the whole of Croatia (with Slavonia), Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, and most of Serbia, as at present delimited, but also Dalmatia, nine-tenths (all except Trieste and its neighbourhood) of Istria, Carniola, and a strip of Southern Hungary. This is the territory of the Southern Slav nation. On ethnological grounds Bulgaria has a greater right than Serbia to the part of Macedonia now in occupation by the latter (and her geographical posi- tion in the centre of the Balkans, with no other outlet for expansion such as the other nations aspire to, serves to emphasise her claims in this respect) ; and as regards the Dobrudja, with its confused jumble of races, Bulgaria’s claim to its possession is clearly more justifiable on racial grounds than that of its present occupant, Roumania. The latter is not a Balkan Power, either geographically or ethnologically. Yet for historical reasons it cannot entirely be dissociated from the discussion of the other peoples. Beyond the boundaries of Roumania, the population of parts of Russia (Bessarabia), Austria (the Southern Bukovina) and Hungary (Transylvania), and the north-east corner of Serbia is mainly Roumanian. It would make the discussion far too diffuse if we were to deal with the question of Albania: the distinctive ethnic and historical features of the Albanians and the racial problem in Greece and the distribution of the Hellenes. These matters can be considered only in so far as they affect the problems of the Southern Slavs. (b) Diagrammatic Map illustrating the Ethnic Relations between the Adriatic, Drave, and Danube. By Sir Artuur Evans, F.B.S. This map was prepared on the basis of observations carried out by the author in the course of many years’ travel in every part of the area. The great extent of the country was occupied by a mass of South Slav population or Jugoslavs. The two South-Eastern members, Croats and Serbs, besides the countries named after them, occupy Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Monte- negro. They speak the Serb language. The Slovenes to the N.W. of them speak a closely allied dialect and regard themselves as part of an indivisible Jugoslav mass. They extend into Carinthia to the country surrounding Villach and Klagenfurt and into Styria to the neighbourhood of Gratz. The Western part of the Banat of Hungary is predominantly Serb; with islands of Germans, Magyars, and Roumans. The Italian element preponderates in the lower part of the Izonzo valley at Trieste, Pola, and Western Coast of Istria, to which may be added the isle of Lussin. In Dalmatia it preponderates in the town (but not the district) of Zara, but elsewhere, according to the latest returns, is only about three per cent. of the population. The social and commercial use of Italian and impress of Italian culture gives foreigners a wrong impression. Dalmatia is the centre of the Jugoslav national movement. 7 It was pointed out that the formation of a Jugoslav State occupying the area to the Drave and Mur had a very important bearing on the future relations of Britain, France, and Northern Italy with Constantinople and the Near East. Only a few railway links had to be completed to reopen what was the highway between the East and West under the Roman Empire. The 1915. xox 674 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. railway route from the Simplon and Milan via Gradisca and a link to be con- structed to Ljubljan (Laibach) would follow almost exactly this main Roman road-line, the cursus publicus—by the easiest pass over the Julians, down the Save valley, and thence by Belgrade and Nish. It is approximately marked by a series of Imperial cities, from Aquileja to Siscia, Sirmium, and Naissus (Nish)—the modern representatives of which should rise to new prosperity. The important point is that the establishment of this united South Slav State would restore to its natural channel main lines of intercourse at present diverted by German and Magyar interests to a long detour via Vienna and Budapest. It would place our connexions with the East in friendly hands. 6. Some Offerings to the Venetic Goddess Rehtia. By Professor R. §. Conway, Litt.D.t In the last thirty years two types of votive offerings have been found, among others, on the site of the temple of this goddess, whose name meant straight- ness, at Este, the modern town on the site of the ancient Ateste, about fifteen miles south of Padua. The language of the inscriptions is of peculiar import- ance in comparative philology, as it is structurally intermediate to Greek and Latin. The tribe of the Veneti are not less interesting from the standpoint of the archxologist, because the remains show that they had lived undisturbed from the beginning of the Early Iron Age down to the invasions of North Italy by the Gauls in the fifth and subsequent centuries B.c. The earliest Venetic inscription yet known is on a vase which Sir Arthur Evans has referred with confidence to the sixth century B.c. The two groups of offerings came from the end of the Venetic period proper, i.e. from the period in which the Venetic language was beginning to be super- seded by Latin, a period somewhere within the last two centuries B.c., probably between 200 and 100 3.c. The process was probably fairly rapid after the foundation of the Latin colony of Aquileia in 183 B.c., on a site just west of the root of the Istrian peninsula near the mouth of the Sontius, the modern Isonzo; it had began about forty years sooner with the planting of Placentia and Cremona in 218 B.c., and notably furthered by the planting of the colony of Bononia in 190 B.c. The first datable Latin inscription of the district is a boundary stone of 141 B.c.,” by which time the process was probably not far from complete. The first group consists of what has been probably explained as Votive Nails and Wedges, representing the action of the goddess in the samme way as a thunderbolt represented that of Jupiter, or clubs Hercules, or a trident Poseidon. Horace (Odes i. 35, 18) describes the Etruscan goddess of Fate, Nortia, as carrying clavos trabales et cuneos manu aéna, and these objects seem to suggest that the Venetic goddess had some kinship with the Etruscan deity, using nails and wedges to build up and pull down at her will. About eighteen or nineteen of the specimens were explicitly dedicated to Rehtia, but far the largest number (some 186 out of about 210) have no articulate inscrip- tions, but either single alphabetic signs repeated along their sides or linear ornament with no signs at all. An intermediate group show mock-inscriptions, i.e., confused combinations of letters from the Venetic alphabet which make no words at all, and which include many badly formed letters. In the alpha- betic class far the commonest letter is X (which in Venetic alphabet denotes ¢), next to that 4 4 and + (¢, v and 2), are most common, 4 (k) rarer, and > (0), M (x), and & (a), very rare. The rectilinear character of all the signs seems con- nected with the goddess’s name and functions. The second group of objects is one of great value to students of Venetic as they give us a perfectly certain guide to the transcription of the Venetic 1 To be published in full in Journ. R. Anthrop. Inst. 2 C.1.L. v. 2491 inter Atestinos Patavinosque. ies on a ae TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 675 alphabet, which they contain fully written out, with the letters given first singly and then in certain combinations (e.g., ¢7, tn, tl, pr, pn, pl). The history of the alphabet is as yet by no means fully made out, but the absence of signs for 6, d, and g, the compound symbol vi for f, and the placing of the symbol for o at the end of the list, make it practically certain that it reached the Venetic through Etruscan channels. These alphabetic bronze tablets have many curious features. They measure, roughly speaking, about 8 in. by 5 in., and they are divided into horizontal bands, generally ten or eleven, by straight lines along the length of the tablet, the first, or lowest, five of which are of a fixed character. The first contains the fifteen consonantal signs of the alphabet, followed by one vowel (e in two examples, ii in another, o in a fourth); the next four lines each contains, sixteen times, a single letter, a sixteen times in 1. 2, & in 1. 3, e in 1. 4, and o inl. 5, The nature of these tablets is unknown. Guesses were that they were school- masters’ offerings; that they had some magical value—but what? I am inclined to ask whether any nearer parallel to them could be found than the boards used by Greeks and Romans for playing a game of luck and skill combined like our backgammon, called in Latin duodecim scripta, from the twelve lines on each side of the board which marked it out; unfortunately no specimens seem to have survived. If so, they would be dedications either by professional players or by lucky winners. 7. Excavations on the Roman Site of Uriconium (Wrozeter). By J. P. Busue-Fox. ; FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers were read :— 1. Ceremonial and Descent in Ambrin. By Dr. W. H. BR. Rivers, M.A., F.R.S.4 The ceremonies of the island of Ambrim in the New Hebrides fall into two groups, those known to have been introduced from elsewhere and those believed to be indigenous. The most important of the introduced ceremonies belong to a complex institution called the ‘Mangge,’ which resembles in its main characters the “Sukwe’ of the Banks Islands.? One of the chief features of the ritual of the higher grades is the manufacture of an image in human form in which it is believed that the ghost of the father’s father comes to reside and to look after the welfare of his descendant. Neither in this nor in any other of the intro- duced ceremonies is any part taken by the mother’s brother or the mother’s people. In several of the indigenous ceremonies, on the other hand, a leading part is taken by the mother’s brother and other people of the mother’s village. Thus, in the ceremonial accompanying incision the mother’s brother holds a boy during the operation and dresses his wound. Afterwards the boy visits his mother’s village and numerous gifts of pigs and food pass between the village of the boy and that of his mother. In another ceremony called ‘Wor’ a heap of stones is made for a man by his mother’s brother, and transactions in pigs and other objects of value take 1 To be published in full in Journ. R. Anthrop. Inst. 2 Rivers, History of Melanesian Society, Cambridge, 1914, i, 61. xx 2 676 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. place between the village of the man for whom the ‘ Wor’ is made and that of his mother. The ceremony is actuated by the belief that after death a man goes to his mother’s father. The same idea underlies another ceremony called ‘Pariparpar, * in which an image is made for a man by his mother’s brother. It is believed that the pigs killed on this occasion go to the maternal grand- father of the man for whom the image is made and clear the track by which he will pass when he dies. The mother’s brother also takes the leading part in an indigenous ceremony called ‘ Lengfa,’ in which women buy the right to wear certain ornaments. At the present time the institutions of Ambrim are patrilineal. A man belongs to his father’s village, and in so far as individual property exists in this island it is inherited by the children, while the social group which holds most of the property in common is one which has in the main a patrilineal character, The close relation with the mother’s brother and the mother’s people in the indigenous ceremonies has no meaning in a patrilineal society, but would be the natural accompaniment of ancient matrilineal conditions surviving in ceremonial. The ritual of death provides further evidence in this direction. The rites following the death of a man are almost an exact replica of those performed when he took his last step in the ‘Mangge,’ but with additional features in which the village of the mother of the dead man is concerned. The intro- duction of the ‘ Mangge’ and the incorporation of its ceremonial in the ritual of death has not succeeded in abolishing those features of this ritual which show the social relations of the dead man with his mother’s village. Ambrim adjoins a region characterised by matrilineal institutions. The fact that its older stratum of ceremonial brings a man into relations with his mother’s people affords the most decisive proof that in this part of Melanesia the matri- lineal institutions are the older and the patrilineal the more recent. 2. Royal Marriages and Matrilineal Descent.* By Miss Marcarret A. Murray. At certain periods in the history of every nation inheritance was in the female line. In royal families this custom appears to have continued to a later date than among the mass of the people. In these cases the man who marries the queen becomes king, and marriages within the modern degrees of affinity are common. Such marriages, when recorded by contemporary chroniclers, are not regarded as unusual, e.g., in Egypt in the XVIIIth dynasty and the early kings of Judah. But when such consanguineous marriages are recorded by foreign observers or later historians, as among the Ptolemies and the early Roman emperors, they are ascribed to vicious propensities instead of to the stern political necessity to which they are really due, and which the non-contemporary or foreign historian failed to understand. 3. The System of Kinship among Primitive Races in connection with their mode of grouping. By Mlle. Napinn Ivanrrzxy, Attachée scientifique a l’Institut Solvay 4 Bruzelles. (a) All manifestations of the social life of primitive races being in strict correlation with the concrete necessities of life, the elements of their social organisation are with difficulty separated from each other. This brings it about that, when we study one special aspect of their life, we must always return to the social complex which supports this special aspect. * The sound for which I use the sign ¢@ does not differ greatly from 4, and might easily be confused with it. : 1 To be published in Man. Pra 5° TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 677 Thus it is, for example, that the question of kinship leads us to consider the special social arrangements which regulate the organisation of subsistence, (6) The mode ot life in little groups of kinsmen is enforced upon them by the conditions of their environment: (1) their rudimentary technical knowledge and implements, which render the resources of a district very limited and do not permit of the support of a large number of persons; (2) the existence of other groupings which seek their subsistence by the same means and render impossible their spreading indefinitely. (c) The social unity of the grouping, ensured by the order, rigorously defined, in which the rights of an individual are transmitted from one genera- tion to another. (d) The necessity for adult members of a little grouping to seek their wives from neighbouring settlements, and the exodus of women from one group to another which is the result of that necessity. The difference which, consequently, the native establishes between two cate- gories of his relatives, those who belong to the grouping into which he was born, and those who are strangers to this grouping, and, as a result of this, the difference in terms which designate the relatives on each side. (e) The grouping keeping together by the fact of being born one from the other, an individual transmits to another only the rights which he has conjointly with other members of the group. The genetic relationship which unites him to his own children has no import- ance, seeing that his brothers and the children of his brothers, in consequence of their being born in the same grouping, have exactly the same rights. From this arises a seeming paradox, which consists in the fact that the native con- founds under the same appellation relationships’ which are essentially different in our estimation. (f) The mode of transmission of the rights of enjoyment of the soil in the groupings which are cemented by maternal descent. 4. Karly Man in Hast Anglia. By Rey. H. J. Duxinrietp ASTLEY. It is unnecessary to enlarge on the classification now accomplished of Paleolithic times, chiefly from the data in the French caves. Formerly it was sufficient to differentiate the Drift and the Cave periods. It is now realised that the Cave Period was of vast duration and consisted of a succession of well-defined epochs, as did also the Drift. Various classifications have been attempted as knowledge has improved—those of Mortillet, Piette, Hoernes; the latest are those of M. Rutot and the Abbé Breuil, and a careful table in the Report of the last Prehistoric Congress at Geneva, 1912. This definitely established the existence of the Aurignacian Period between the Mousterian and Solutrian periods, tentatively suggested by the Abbé Breuil at the Monaco Congress in 1906. (The names are derived from the caves containing the characteristic culture.) As regards England, Professor Sollas has assigned the Paviland Cave to the Aurigracian Period, and some implements with distinctive Aurignac features have been found in Kent’s Cavern and Wookey Hole. The object of this communication is to show reason for affirming the habitat of Aurignac Man in districts where no caves exist. The ‘ Cissbury ’ type shows unmistakeable Aurignac affinities. A rich field has been lately disclosed in East Anglia—not only in the Paleolithic Floors at Thetford Warren and Lakenheath and Icklingham, so untiringly explored by Dr. Sturge, but in the now celebrated ‘ Grime’s Graves ’ near Brandon.’ Mr. Reginald Smith’s doubts have led to further excavations undertaken in 1914. The results are now before the -public. These show implements of 1 Evans, Stone Implements, and Avebury, Prehistoric Times. 2 Description of Grime’s Graves, Canon Greenwell’s excavations, 1870—all assigned to the Neolithic Age. 678 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. undoubted Mousterian and Aurignac types, and go to prove that the original. miners belonged, not to the Neolithic people, who came here when Britain was already an island, but to the Cave people, who arrived here immediately preceding the Wiirm glaciation, and continued after it passed away, while the British Isles still formed part of the Continent. It is suggested that the sand covering the pits is Loess. 5. Chest I'ypes in Man in relation to Disease. By Dr. G. W. HamBueton. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 679 SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: Proressor W. M. Bayniss, M.A.,, D.8¢05 E.R.8: WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— The Physiological Importance of Phase Boundaries. Even a hasty consideration of the arrangements present in living cells is suffi- cient to bring conviction that the physical and chemical systems concerned operate under conditions very different from those of reactions taking place between substances in true solution. We become aware of the fact that there are numerous constituents of the cell which do not mix with one another. In other words, the cell system is one of many ‘phases,’ to use the expression introduced by Willard Gibbs. Further, parts of this system which appear homogeneous under the ordinary microscope are shown by the ultra-microscope to be themselves heterogeneous. These are in what is known as the colloidal state. Some dispute has taken place as to whether this state is properly to be called a heterogeneous one, but it is sufficient for our purpose to note that investigation shows that the inter- faces of contact between the components of such systems are the seat of the various forms of energy which we meet with in the case of systems obviously consisting of phases which can be separated mechanically, so that considerations applying to coarsely heterogeneous systems apply also to colloidal systems. Although the phases of a colloidal system cannot be so obviously and easily separated as those of an ordinary heterogeneous one, this can be done almost completely by filtration through membranes such as the gelatin in Martin’s process. To avoid confusion, however, it has been suggested that the colloidal state should be spoken of as ‘ micro-heterogeneous.’ There are, in fact, certain phenomena more or less peculiar to the colloidal state and due to the influence of the sharp curvature of the surfaces of the minutely subdivided phase. The effect of this curvature is a considerable pressure in the interior of the phase, owing to the surface tension, and it adds further complexity to the properties manifested by it. We see, then, that the chemical reactions of chief importance to us as physiologists are those known as ‘ heterogeneous.’ This class of reactions, until comparatively recent times, has been somewhat neglected by the pure chemist. In some of its aspects, the problem before us was discussed by one of my predecessors, Professor Hopkins, as also by Professor Macallum, but its importance will, I think, warrant my asking your indulgence for a further brief discussion. Permit me first to apologise for what may seem to some of those present to be an unnecessarily elementary treatment of certain points. It is easy to realise that the molecules which are situated at the interface where two phases are in contact are subject to forces differing from those to which the molecules in the interior of either phase are subject. Consider one phase only, the molecules at its surface are exposed on the one side fo the 686 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. . influence of similar molecules; on the other side, they are exposed to the influence of molecules of a nature chemically unlike their own or in a different physical state of aggregation. The result of such asymmetric forces is that the phase boundary is the seat of various forms of energy not present in the interior of the phase. The most obvious of these is the surface energy due to the state of tension existing where a liquid or a gas forms one of the phases. It would lead us too far to discuss the mode of origin of this surface tension, except to call to mind that it is due to the attractive force of the molecules for one another, a force which is left partially unbalanced at the surface, so that the molecules here are pulled inwards. The tension is, of course, only the intensity factor of the surface energy, the capacity factor being the area of the surface. We see at once that any influence which alters the area of the surface alters also the magnitude of that form of energy of which we are speaking. This is not the only way in which the properties of substances are changed at phase boundaries. The compressibility of a solvent, such as water, are altered, so that the solubilities of various substances in it are not the same as in the interior of the liquid phase. It is stated by J. J. Thomson that potassium sulphate is 60 per cent. more soluble in the surface film. The ways in which the properties of a solvent are changed are sometimes spoken of as ‘lyotropic,’ and they play an important part in the behaviour of colloids. We meet also with the presence of electrical charges, of positive or negative sign. These are due, as a rule, to electrolytic dissociation of the surface of one phase, in which the one ion, owing to its insolubility, remains fixed at the surface, while the opposite ion, although soluble, cannot wander away further than permitted by electrostatic attraction. Thus we have a Helmholtz double layer produced. Before we pass on to consider how these phenomena intervene in physio- logical processes, there is one fact that should be referred to on account of its significance in connection with the contractile force of muscle. Surface tension is found to decrease as the temperature rises, or, as it is sometimes put, it has a negative temperature coefficient. This is unusual; but, if we remember that the interface between a liquid and its vapour disappears when the temperature rises to the critical point and, with it, of course, all phenomena at the boundary surface, the fact is not surprising that there is a diminution of these phenomena as the critical temperature is approached. Perhaps that result of surface energy known as ‘adsorption’ is the one in which the conditions present at phase boundaries make themselves most frequently obvious. Since the name has been used somewhat loosely, it is a matter of some consequence to have clear ideas of what is meant when it is made use of. Unless it is used to describe a definite fact, it can only be mischievous to the progress of science. Permit me, then, first to remind you of that fact of universal experience, known as the ‘dissipation of energy,’ which is involved in the second law of energetics. Free energy—that is, energy which can be used for the performance of useful work—is invariably found to diminish if the conditions are such that this is possible. If we have, therefore, a system in which, by any change of distribution of the constituents, free energy can be decreased, such a change of distribution will take place. This is one form of the well-known ‘Principle of Carnot and Clausius.’ Now, practically any substance dissolved in water lowers the surface tension present at the interface between the liquid and another solid or liquid phase with which ié is in contact. Moreover, up to a certain limit, the magnitude of this effect is in proportion to the concentration of the solute. Therefore, as was first pointed out by Willard Gibbs, concentration of a solute at an interface has the effect of reducing free energy and will therefore occur. This is adsorption. As an example, we may take the deposition of a dye-stuff on the surface of charcoal, from which it can be removed again, unaltered, by appro- priate means, such as extraction with alcohol. Charcoal plus dye may, if any satisfaction is derived from the statement, be called a compound. But, since its chemical composition depends on the concentration of the solution in which it was formed, it is much more accurate to qualify the statement by calling it an ——— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 681 ‘adsorption-compound.’ Moreover, the suggestion that the union is a chemical one tends to deprive the conception of chemical combination of its characteristic quality, namely, the change of properties. Dye-stuff and charcoal are chemi- cally unchanged by adsorption. The origin of adsorption from surface tension is easily able to explain why it is less as the temperature rises, as we find experimentally. As we have just seen, surface tension diminishes with increase of temperature. Let us next consider what will happen if the liquid phase contains in solu- tion a substance which lowers surface tension and is also capable of entering into chemical reaction with the material of which the other, solid, phase con- sists. For example, a solution of caproic acid in contact with particles of aluminium hydroxide. On the surface of the solid, the concentration of the acid will be increased by adsorption and, in consequence, the rate of the reaction with it will be raised, according to the law of mass action. Further, suppose that the liquid phase contains two substances which react slowly with each other, but not with the solid phase. They will be brought into intimate contact with each other on the surface of the solid phase, their concentration raised and the rate of their interaction increased. One of the reagents may clearly be the solvent itself. But in all these cases the rate of the reaction cannot be expressed by a simple application of the law of mass action, since the active masses are not functions of the molecular concentrations, but of the surface of the phase boundaries. The application of these considerations to the problem of the action of enzymes and of heterogeneous catalysis in general will be apparent. That the action of enzymes is exerted by their surfaces is shown, apart from the fact that they are in colloidal solution, by the results of experiments made in liquids in which the enzymes themselves are insoluble in the usual sense, so that they can be filtered off by ordinary filter paper and the filtrate found to be free from enzyme. Notwithstanding this insolubility, enzymes are still active in these liquids. The statement has been found, up to the present, to apply to lipase, emulsin, and urease, probably to trypsin, and the only difficulty in extending it to all enzymes is that of finding a substrate soluble in some liquid in which the enzyme itself is not. That adsorption is a controlling factor in the velocity of enzyme action has been advocated by myself for some years, but it is not to be understood as implying that the whole action of enzymes is an ‘adsorption phenomenon,’ whatever may be the meaning of this statement. The rate at which the chemical reaction proceeds is controlled by the mass of the reagents concentrated on the surface of the enzyme phase at any given moment, but the temperature coefficient will, of course, be that of a chemical reaction. The thought naturally suggests itself, may not the adsorption of the reacting substances on the surface of the enzyme suffice in itself to bring about the equilibrium at a greater rate, so that the assumption of a secondary chemical combination of a chemical nature between enzyme and substrate may be super- fluous? I should hesitate somewhat to propose this hypothesis for serious con- sideration were it not that it was given by Faraday as the explanation of one of the most familiar cases of heterogeneous catalysis, namely, the union of oxygen and hydrogen gases by means of the surfaces of platinum and other substances. The insight shown by Faraday into the nature of the phenomena with which he was concerned is well known and has often caused astonishment. Now, this case of oxygen and hydrogen gases is clearly one of those called ‘ catalytic * by Berzelius. The fact that the agent responsible for the effect did not itself suffer change was clear to Faraday. I would also, in parenthesis, call attention to the fact that he correctly recognised the gold solutions which he prepared as suspensions of metallic particles, that is, as what we now call colloidal solutions. Although the systematic investigation of colloids, and the name itself, were due to Graham, some of the credit of the discovery should be given to the man who first saw what was their nature. Adsorption, again, was accurately described by Faraday, but without giving it a name. I confess that there are, at present, difficulties in the way of accepting con- centration by adsorption as a complete explanation of the catalytic activities of enzymes. It is not obvious, for example, why the same enzyme should not be able to hydrolyse both maltose and saccharose, as it is usually expressed, 682 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. Another difficulty is that it is necessary to assume that the relative concentra- tion of the components of the chemical system must be the same on the sur- face of the enzyme as it is in.the body of the solution; in other words, the adsorption of each must be the same function of its concentration. Unless this were so, the equilibrium position on the enzyme surfaces, and therefore in the body of the solution, would be a different one under the action of an enzyme from that arrived at spontaneously or brought about by a homogeneous catalyst such as an acid. ‘This consideration was brought to my notice by Pro- fessor Hopkins and requires experimental investigation. We know, indeed, that in some cases there is such a difference in the position of the equilibrium position, for which various explanations have been suggested. But it would be a matter of some interest to know whether this difference has any relation to different degrees of adsorption of the components of the system. At the same time, adsorption is under the control of so many factors, surface tension, electrical charge, and so on, that the possibilities seem innumerable. There are, moreover, two considerations to which I may be allowed to call your attention. Hardy has pointed out that it is probable that the increased rate of reaction at the interface between phases may be due, not merely to increased concentration as such, but that in the act of concentration itself molecular forces may be brought into play which result in a rise in chemical potential of the reacting substances. In the second place, Barger has shown that the adsorption of iodine by certain organic compounds is clearly related to the chemical composition of the surfaces of these substances, but that this relation- ship does not result in chemical combination nor in abolition of the essential nature of the process as an adsorption. It would appear that those properties of the surface, such as electric charge and so on, which control the degree of adsorption, are dependent on the chemical nature of the surface. This dependence need not cause us any surprise, since the physical properties of a substance, inclusive of surface tension, are so closely related to its chemical composition. There is one practical conclusion to be derived from the facts already known with regard to enzymes. This is, that any simple application of the law of mass action cannot lead to a correct mathematical expression for the rate of reaction, although attempts of this kind have been made, as by Van Slyke. The rate must be proportional to the amount of substrate adsorbed, and this, again, is a function both of the concentration of the substrate and of that of the products. It is, then, a continuously varying quantity. Expressed mathe- matically, the differential equation for the velocity must be something of this kind : dC _tzen dt oe where 7 itself is an unknown function of C, the concentration of the substrate or products. The hypothesis of control by adsorption gives a simple explanation of the exponential ratio between the concentration of the enzyme and its activity, which is found to be different numerically according to the stage of the reaction. At the beginning, it may be nearly unity, in the middle it is more nearly 0°5, as in the so-called ‘square root law’ of Schiitz and Borissov, which is, however, merely an approximation. Simple explanations are also given of the fact that increasing the concentration of the substrate above a certain value no longer causes an increased rate of reaction. This is clearly because the active surface is saturated. Again, the effect of antiseptics and other substances which, by their great surface activity, obtain possession of the enzyme surfaces, and thereby exclude to a greater or less degree the adsorption of the substrate, receives a reasonable account. In many cases, the depressant or favouring action of electrolytes, including acid and alkali, is probably due to aggregation or dis- persion of the colloidal particles of the enzyme, with decrease or increase of their total surface. It is to be noted that such explanations are independent of any possible formation of an intermediate compound between enzyme and sub- strate, after adsorption has taken place. There is a further way in which adsorption plays a part in the chemical processes of cells, including those under the influence of catalysts. It is a = PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 683 familiar fact that the concentration of water plays a large part in the position of equilibrium attained in reversible reactions of hydrolysis and synthesis. A synthetic process is brought about by diminution of the effective concentration of water. There are, doubtless, means of doing this in the elaborate mechanisms of cell life, and, in all probability, it is by adsorption on surfaces, which are able to change their ‘ affinity ’ for water. I pass on to consider briefly some other cases in which the phenomena at phase boundaries require attention. Let us turn our gaze from the interior of the cell to the outer surface, at which it is in contact with the surrounding medium. From the nature of adsorption there can be no doubt that, if the cell or the surrounding liquid contains substances which decrease surface energy of any form, these constituents will be concentrated at the interface. There are many such substances to be found in cells, some of lipoid nature, some proteins, and so on. Further, the experiments of Ramsden have shown that a large number of substances are deposited in surface films in a more or less rigid or solidified form. We are thus led to inquire whether these phenomena do not account for the existence of the cell membrane, about which so much discussion has taken place. We find experimentally that there are facts which show that this membrane, under ordinary resting conditions, is impermeable to most crystalloids, including inorganic salts, acids, and bases. There is no other explanation of the fact that the salts present in cells are not only in different concentration inside from that outside, but that there may be absence of certain salts from one which are present in the other, as, for example, sodium in the plasma of the rabbit not in the corpuscles. Moreover, the experiments of Hoeber have shown that electro- lytes are free in the cells, so that they are not prevented from diffusion by being fixed in any way. The mere assumption of a membrane impermeable to col- loids only will not account for the facts, since, as I have shown in another place, this would only explain differences of concentration, but not of com- position. The surface concentration of cell constituents readily accounts for the changes of permeability occurring in functional activity, since it depends on the nature of the cell protoplasm and chemical changes of many and various kinds occur in this system. If such be the nature of the cell membrane, it is evident that we are not justified in expecting to find it composed of lipoid o1 of protein alone. It must have a very complex composition, varying with the physiological state of the cell, Indeed, complex artificial membranes have been prepared having properties very similar to that of the cell. This view that the membrane is formed by surface condensation of con stituents of the cell readily accounts for the changes of permeability occurring in functional activity, since its composition depends on that of the,cell proto- plasm, and chemical changes of various kinds take place in this system, as it is scarcely necessary to remind you. In fact, the cell membrane is not to be regarded as an independent entity, but as a working partner, as it were, in the business of the life of the cell. In the state of excitation, for example, there is satisfactory evidence that the cell membrane loses its character of semi-permeability to electrolytes, &c. This statement has been shown to apply to muscle, nerve, gland cells, and the excitable tissues of plants, as well as to unicellular organisms. We shall see presently how this fact gives a simple explanation of the electrical changes associated with the state of activity. If, then, the cell membrane is a part of the cell system as a whole, it is not surprising to find that substances can affect profoundly, although reversibly, the activities of the cell, even when they are unable to pass beyond the outer surface. The state of dynamic equilibrium between the cell membrane and the rest of the cell system is naturally affected by such means, since the changes in the one component involve compensating ones in the other. Inter- esting examples of such actions are numerous. I may mention the effect of calcium ions on the heart muscle, the effect of sodium hydroxide on oxidation in the eggs of the sea-urchin, and that of acids on the contraction of the jelly- fish. Somewhat puzzling are those cases in which drugs, such as pilocarpine and muscarine, act only during their passage through the membrane and lose their effect when their concentration has become equal inside and outside the cell. The work of Dale on anaphylaxis leads him to the conclusion that the 684 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION f. phenomena shown by sensitised plain muscle can most reasonably be explained by colloidal interaction on the surface of the fibres. The result of this is increased permeability and excitation resulting therefrom. I referred previously to the electrical change in excitable tissues and its relation to the cell membrane. It was, I believe, first poimted out by Ostwald and confirmed by many subsequent investigators, that in order that a membrane may be impermeable to a salt it is not a necessary condition that it shall be impermeable to both of the ions into which this salt is electrolytically dissociated. If impermeable to one only of these ions, the other, diffusible, ion cannot pass out beyond the point at which the osmotic pressure due to its kinetic energy balances the electrostatic attraction of the oppositely charged ion, which is imprisoned. There is a Helmholtz double layer formed at the membrane, the outside having a charge of the sign of the diffusible ions, the inside that of the other ions. Now, suppose that we lead off from two places on the surface of a cell having a membrane with such properties to some instrument capable of detecting differences of electrical potential. It will be clear that we shall obtain no indication of the presence of the electrical charge, because the two points are equipotential, and we cannot get at the interior of the cell without destroying its structure. But if excitation means increased permeability, the double layer will disappear at an excited spot owing to indiscriminate mixing of both kinds of ions and we are then practically leading off from the interior of the cell, that is, from the internal component of the double layer, while the unexcited spot is still led off from the outer component. The two contacts are no longer equi- potential. Since we find experimentally that a point at rest is electrically positive to an excited one, the outer component must be positive, or the membrane is permeable to certain cations, impermeable to the corresponding anions. Any action on the cell such as would make the membrane permeable—injury, certain chemical agents, and so on—would have the same effect as the state of excitation. If we may assume the possibility of degrees of permeability, the state of inhi- bition might be produced by decrease of permeability of the membrane of a cell, which was previously in a state of excitation owing to some influence inherent in the cell itself or coming from the outside. This manner of account- ing for the electromotive changes in cells is practically the same as that given by Bernstein. It will be found of interest to apply to secretory cells the facts to which I have directed your attention. If we suppose that the setting into play of such cells is associated with the production of some osmotically active substance, together with abolition of the state of semi-permeability of the membrane covering the ends of the cells in relation with the lumen of the alveolus of the gland, it is plain that water would be taken up from the lymph spaces and capillaries and escape to the duct, carrying with it the secretory products of the cells. This process would be continuous as long as osmotically active substances were formed. Such a process has been shown by Lepeshkin to occur in plants and we have also evidence of increased permeability during secretory activity in the gland cells of animals. From what has been said previously, it is evident that electrical differences would show themselves between the permeable and semi- permeable ends of such cells, as has been found to be the case. As a modifiable structure, we see the importance of such a membrane as that described if it takes part in the formation of the synapse between neurones. The manifold possibilities of allowing passage to states of excitation or inhibi- tion and of being affected by drugs will be obvious without further elaboration on my part. Enough has already been said, I think, to show the innumerable ways in which phenomena at phase boundaries intervene in physiological events. Indeed, there are very few of these, if any, in which some component or other is not controlled by the action of surfaces of contact. But there is one especially important case to which I may be allowed to devote a few words in conclusion. I refer to the contractile process of muscle. It has become clear, chiefly through the work of Fletcher, Hopkins, and A. V. Hill, that what is usually called muscular contraction consists of two parts. Starting from the resting muscle, we find that it must have a store of potential energy, since we can make it do work when stimulated. After being used in this way, the store must be replenished, since (ae PLSD Podpenghertre. 1 6 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 685 energy cannot be obtained from nothing. This restoration process is effected by an independent oxidation reaction, in which carbohydrate is burnt up with the setting free of energy which is made use of to restore the muscle to its original state. Confining our attention for the moment to the initial, contractile, stage, the essential fact is the production of a certain amount of energy of tension, which can either be used for the performance of external work or be allowed to become degraded to heat in the muscle itself. It was Blix who first propounded the view that the amount of this energy of tension is related to the magnitude of certain surfaces in the muscle fibres. But the fact was demonstrated in a systematic and quantitative manner by A. V. Hill. He showed, in fact, that the amount of energy set free in the contractile process is directly related to the length of muscle fibres during the development of the state of tension. In other words, the process is a surface phenomenon, not one of volume, and is directly proportional to the area of certain surfaces arranged longitudinally in the muscle. This same relationship has been shown by Patterson and Starling to hold for the ventricular contraction of the mammalian heart and by Kosawa for that of the cold-blooded vertebrate. It appears that all the phenomena connected with the output of blood by the heart can be satisfactorily explained by the hypothesis that the energy of the contraction is regulated by the length of the ventricular fibres during the period of development of the contractile stress. The degree of filling at the moment of contraction is thus the determining factor. That surface tension itself may ‘be responsible for the energy given off in muscular contraction was first suggested by Fitzgerald in 1878, and it seems, from calculations made, that changes at the contact surface of the fibrille with the sarcoplasm may be capable of affording a sufficient amount. The difficulties in deciding the question are great, but, in addition to the facts mentioned, there is other interesting evidence at hand. It has been shown, by Gad and Heymans, by Bernstein and others, that the contractile stress produced by a stimulus has a negative temperature coefficient. Within the limits of temperature between which the muscle can be regarded as normal, this stress is the greater the lower the temperature. The same statement was shown by Weizsicker (working with A. V. Hill) to hold for the heat developed in fhe contractile stage. Now, of all the forms of energy possibly concerned, that associated with phase boundaries is the only one with a negative temperature coefficient. Another aspect of this relation to temperature is the well-known increase of the tonus of smooth muscle with fall in temperature. It is tempting to bring into relation with the change in surface tension the production of lactic acid. In fact, this idea was put into a definite statement by Haber and Klemensievich in 1909 in a frequently quoted paper on the forces present at phase boundaries. The production of acid is stated to alter the electrical forces at this situation. This electrical charge involves a change of surface tension, and it is this change of surface tension which brings about the mechanical deformation of the muscle. Mines also has brought forward good evidence that the production of lactic acid is responsible for the change of tension. As to how the lactic acid is set free, and of what nature the system of high potential present in muscle may be, we require much more information. The absence of evolution of carbon dioxide when oxygen is not present shows that no oxidation takes place in the development of tension. There are other difficulties also in supposing that this system present in resting muscle is of a chemical nature. If the energy afforded by the oxidation of carbohydrate in the recovery stage is utilised for the formation of another chemical system with high energy content, the theory of coupled reactions indicates that there must be some component common to both systems. It is difficult to see what component of the muscle system could satisfy the conditions required. On the whole, some kind of system of a more physical nature seems the most probable. It it be correct that the oxidation of substances other than carbohydrate, fat for example, can afford the chemical energy for muscular contraction, as appears from the results of metabolism experiments, a further difficulty arises in respect to a coupled reaction. But the question still awaits investigation. On the whole, I think that we may conclude that more study of the phenomena at phase boundaries will throw light on many problems still obscure. It would 686 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. probably not be going too far to say that the peculiarities of the phenomena called “vital’ are due to the fact that they are manifestations of interchange of energy between the phases of heterogeneous systems. It was Clerk Maxwell who compared the transactions of the material universe to mercantile operations in which so much credit is transferred from one place to another, energy being the representative of credit. There are many indications that it is just in this process of change of energy from one form to another that special degrees of activity are to be observed. Such, for example, are the electrical phenomena seen in the oxidation of phosphorus or benzaldehyde, and it appears that, in the photo-chemical system of the green plant, radiant energy is caught on the way, as it were, to its degradation to heat, and utilised for chemical work. In a somewhat similar way, it might be said that money in the process of transfer is more readily diverted, although perhaps not always to such good purpose as in the chloroplast. Again, just as in commerce money that is unemployed is of no value, so it is in physiology. Life is incessant change or transfer of energy, and a system in statical equilibrium is dead. The following Reports and Papers were then read :— 1. Report on Anesthetics. 2. Report on Electromotive Phenomena in Plants.—See Reports, p. 218. 3. Report on the Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart. 4, Report on the Ductless Glands.—See Reports, p. 217. 5. The Action of Light on certain Inorganic and Organic Substances. By Professor Bensamtn Moore, F.R.S. 6. Some Fundamental Facts of Vision and Colour Vision. By F. W. Eprivce-Green, M.D., F.R.C.S. There are two assumptions, neither of which has any foundation in fact, which have made the interpretation of the facts of vision and colour vision very difficult if not impossible. These two assumptions are that the rods are percipient elements, and that there are definite specific fundamental sensations which by their mixture give rise to other sensations. The facts of vision and colour vision are directly opposed to both of these assumptions. There is no qualitative difference between the foveal region, in which only cones are present, and the para-foveal region, in which there are both rods and cones. The fact that the positive after-image can change its relative place in the field of vision whilst the eye remains unmoved shows that the photo-chemical stimulus must be outside the cones. It is difficult to imagine the photo-chemical substance situated in the cones, as how would this be regenerated, seeing there is no direct blood supply to the cones? The assumption that there are fundamental colour sensations which by their mixture give rise to other colour sensations has also no foundation in fact. This assumption has made the fact that a colour-blind man can pass the wool test (as about 52 per cent. of dangerous cases can) unintelligible, Recent writers who have endeavoured to explain the fact have tried to account for it on a so-called colour-blindness of the fovea. It is, however, quite easy to show that the colour-blindness is not limited to the fovea. A man whom I designate a trichromic will in favourable conditions make matches TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 687 similar to the normal, but in unfavourable conditions matches similar to a dichromic, and with small and dim lights he will confuse red with green. It is, however, easy to show that he is colour-blind in ordinary circumstances. When examined with my spectrometer he will declare that there are only three colours in the spectrum—red, green, and violet-—and mark out the spectrum into about ten instead of eighteen monochromatic divisions. The pseudo-isochromatic tests show how defective his hue differentiation is as compared with the normal and that the defect is not limited to the fovea. Diminished hue discrimination accounts for these cases, the trichromic behaving in ordinary circumstances as a normal-sighted person in difficult circumstances. Even in those cases in which there is defective light-perception, as for instance shortening of the red end of the spectrum, this cannot be accounted for by a diminished red sensation, which is affected by other parts of the spectrum, as the shortening may be such that any amount of red light from the shortened region may be added to an equation without altering its appearance to the colour-blind. 7. The Effect of Removal of the Post-central Gyri on the Movements of the Anthropoid Ape. By Dr. T. Granam Brown. 8. The Effect of Thyroidectomy and Thyroid-feeding on the Adrenin Content of the Supra-renals. By Professor P. T. Herrina. VHURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Mode of Action of Ureuase. By Professor W. M. Bayuiss, F.B.S. Urease is active in solutions in which it is insoluble—strong alcohol, for example. It, therefore, acts at its surface, and, presumably, by condensing urea on this surface, and increasing the rate of reaction with water by mass action, or perhaps by the intervention of molecular forces in the act of condensation. This fact explains the effect of various substances on the rate of the reaction. This action may be of two kinds, one in changing the degree of colloidal dis- persion and by this means the active surface, the other by taking possession of the surface and displacing the urea therefrom, Electrolytes have the former action, which may be either in increasing the dispersion and accelerating the reaction, or in aggregation and incipient precipitation, which results in retarda- tion by decrease of the active surface. The former effect is shown by weak acid or phosphate. The latter is shown by multivalent ions, such as lanthanum. The effect due to displacement of urea from the surface of the enzyme is shown by the so-called ‘surface-active’ substances, such as amyl alcohol, saponin, bile salts, &c. Since this effect is due to depression of surface energy, which has a negative temperature coeflicient, it is interesting to find that the retardation in question is greater at low than at higher temperatures. Another fact which is explained by the adsorption of urea by the surface of the enzyme is the exponentiaf ratio between the concentration of the enzyme and its activity, together with the constancy of the rate of reaction above a certain concentration of the substrate. This last fact is due to the saturation of the surface, a very common circumstance in adsorption. Concentrated solutions of urea have a remarkable retarding action, not only on urease, but on other enzymes. It is not to be explained by viscosity, since more viscous solutions of saccharose have not nearly so great an effect. This fact seems also to exclude the removal of water as an explanation. It is probably due to some action related to the solvent properties of urea to which Ramsden has called attention. 688 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION if. Attempts to obtain synthesis of urea from ammonium carbonate or bicar- bonate by the agency of urease have been unsuccessful. The chemistry of the hydrolysis of urea is complex and involves several equilibria, in all of which the equilibrium position is very near that of complete hydrolysis. It is probable that the action of urease on urea is first to form ammonium cyanate, and experiments are in progress to investigate this. The change of ammonium carbamate to carbonate is not accelerated by urease. The failure of urease to hydrolyse certain substituted ureas, such as urethane, is due to the fact that these substances do not undergo a spontaneous slow hydrolysis similar to that of urea, and they are not so readily attacked even by inorganic reagents. The absence of action is not therefore to be laid to the charge of the enzyme but to the peculiarity of the reactions themselves. 2. Capillary Phenomena in Blood-Cells: Phagocytosis, &c. By Dr. Joun Tarr. 3. Clinical Recognition of Excitatory Cardiac Disorders by the Electro- cardiograph. By Dr. C. E. Lama. 4. The Alleged Acid Intoxication of Diabetic Coma. , By Dr. E. P. Poutron. . Arginine and Creatine Formation. By Professor W. H. Tuompson. Cr 6. The Effects of Tetanization on the Creatine and Creatinine of the Muscles of the Cat. By Professor W. H. Tuompson, B. A. McSwiney, and W. Fearon. 7. Demonstration of Electro-cardiograph Methods at Ancoats Hospital. By Dr.-O. i Tawa. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Presence of Copper in Animal and Vegetable Tissues. By Dr. C. Powsitu Wuirte. 2. Microchemical Differentiation of Tissue Fats and Lipoids. By Dr. F. W. Lamp and Mr. J. Houxer. 3. Some Laws of Fat Absorption. By Dr. F. W. Lams. 4. On the Liquid Pressure Theory of Muscular Contraction. By Sarau M. Baker, D.Sc. None of the theories which have been put forward to explain muscular con- traction gives a satisfactory correlation between the energy relations and the mechanism of the process. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 689 The Liquid Pressure theory was worked out in consequence of a similar theory on the ascent of sap in plants. It was shown that, with the recognition of a new semipermeable membrane, impermeable to liquids but permeable to gases—the ‘ aeropermeable membrane ’—the force of liquid pressure became available as a source of power. The force of liquid pressure under ordinary conditions is nullified by cohesion; but it has great magnitudes, being about 20,000 atmospheres per gramme for water at low temperatures. According to this theory muscular contraction is caused by the respiration of glycogen through an aeropermeable membrane, according to the general equation :— (C,H,,0,) m +6n O, =6n CO,+5nH,0. The liquid pressure which causes the contraction is due to the chemical pro- duction of water. Macdougall’s cytological observations of the process of contraction in the wing muscles of insects lend support to the view that an increase in the water content of the cells accompanies contraction. And this is also borne out by Maclendon’s work on the changes in electrical conductivity of contracting muscles, Further, the work of Overton and Meiggs on the osmotic properties of muscle shows that, although the entrance of water causes contraction, yet, while the muscle is still active, water as such cannot enter the cells. Hence the presence of an aeropermeable membrane has already been experimentally demon- strated in muscle. This is confirmed by Fletcher’s work on fatigued muscles. The reaction is to be regarded as a ‘ floating’ respiration superimposed upon the normal respiration of the cells, analogous to the carbohydrate respiration observed by F. F. Blackman in leaves. The function of nervous or electric excitation is that of a stimulus which liberates some essential part of the reacting complex. The physics of liquids has not been sufficiently worked out to enable an exact calculation of the energy balance of the reaction to be made. But at least forty-five per cent. of the chemical energy evolved during respiration may be directly converted into liquid pressure by means of the aeropermeable mem- brane. Broca’s ‘travail physiologique’ is in fact liquid pressure, and the name is not inapt, for the use of this form of energy is at present confined to living organisms. The relaxation of muscles is explained as being due to the re-evaporation of water through the membrane. This process requires heat, and would absorb nine per cent. of the total energy of the respiration reaction, thus serving to reduce the excessive heat evolved. 5. The Elasticity of the Strophanthinised Heart. By Dr. J. Tarr and Dr. Haroup PRINGLE. SUBSECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The following Papers were read :— 1. Behaviourism. By Artuur Rostnson, M.A., D.C.L. Behaviourism is the view that ‘ consciousness is behaviour,’ and that psycho: logy is ‘the science of behaviour.’ It appears to have originated partly from a desire to make the subject-matter of psychology more ‘objective’ by limiting it 1915. YY 690 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1. to events which may be witnessed by more than one observer, so bringing it into line with other natural sciences. ‘This may be called the scientific motive of behaviourism. But it has a philosophic motive, too, and is part of the reaction against subjective Idealism. Behaviourism is a position which admits of many degrees; it may imply an absolute rejection of all introspective data and the reduction of human to the same position as animal psychology ; or it may be used merely to indicate the crude problem which it is the business of psychology to tackle. The difficulty of defining psychology is notorious, but the history of the attempts shows that they have been intended to avoid philosophical implications and to avoid answering questions by implication at the beginning which can only be answered at the end. So psychology with a soul gave way to psychology without a soul, but with states or processes of consciousness. Now we are invited to discard minds or consciousness as the subject-matter of psychology and to substitute behaviour. The term is highly ambiguous. It cannot mean merely biological or physio- logical behaviour. It ought not to mean mental behaviour, for then it would depend for its significance on the very notion which it is intended to replace. The processes which take place between the immediate bodily stimulus and the bodily response are undeniable happenings which cannot be described in physio- logical or biological terms. Introspection in some sense is essential. But it does not imply an ‘abso- lutely private mind’ in any sense which would preclude common knowledge. Nor is it necessarily ‘reflective’; having a pain and being conscious of having a pain are the same thing. The data of introspection may be confirmed. And it is irrelevant to say that the object is not numerically identical for each observer respectively and for me. It is not the circumstance that certain events can be observed or immediately apprehended by only one individual that makes these facts mental. This circumstance is, in principle, purely accidental, and the facts are mental because they are different in nature from physical facts. ‘Consciousness ’ is, no doubt, an ambiguous term, so is ‘mind.’ But they are both susceptible of explicit limitations by the aid of which they can indicate the subject-matter of psychology with sufficient accuracy for an initial definition. This subject-matter turns out to be much the same as that intended by the moderate behaviourist, but he puts the emphasis on that which is least charac- teristic. In short, Behaviourism brings forward no new class of facts, nor does it shed light on old facts. Its tendency is rather towards obscuring than eluci- dating the problems of psychology, while to establish its extreme position it has got to reduce processes usually called mental to biological or physiological processes and leave no remainder. 2. The Relations between Magic and Animism. By Carver Reap, M.A. It must be matter of conjecture which of these complexes of belief first avose. Their origins were independent. Magic is the more uniform and per- sistent ; and, on the hypothesis that it was the earlier, we may trace the follow- ing influences upon Animism : (1) Many beliefs and practices are prepared according to magical ideas, and then adopted and modified by Animism : (a) The idea of invisible force that may act at a distance, first connected with charms, spells, and rites, becomes the essence of the ghost and of all spiritual power. : (0) Magic things (charms) are explained when the ghost-theory arises, as owing their powers to in-dwelling spirits. The only difference is that their action now depends upon the spirits’ will and caprice. (c) Omens, at first magical coincidences, come to be explained as sent by gods. (¢) Spells addressed to objects become prayers to their presiding spirits; and magic rites become religious. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 691 (2) As men in the flesh know Magic, so do their ghosts, and all demons or gods derived from ghosts or imagined by analogy with them. Hence: (a) Spirits teach Magic; (b) assist at Magic rites; (c) depend upon Magic for their own power. (d) Black Magic is merely unauthorised Magic, assisted by evil spirits. ; (8) By retrogradation, after spiritual intervention has long been recognised, it may again be forgotten; so that a fetish again becomes a charm; a prayer, a spell, &c. ; (4) The purpose of Magic is to obtain power over events, and the certainty of power. When spirits are believed in, they are propitiated for the same end. But their caprice is an abatement of certainty. Then arises the belief that they may be controlled by Magic, as the development of several religions shows us. For the only ground of certainty is uniformity. 3. Philosophy and the War. By Dr. Wrinon Carr. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Papers were read :— 1. On the Special Interests of Children in the War at Different Ages. By C. W. Kiuuins, M.A., D.Sc. In order-to obtain information as to the special interests of children at different ages in regard to the War, essays were written by all the children in ten senior departments (five boys’ and five girls’) of elementary schools. No preparation was allowed and no notice given. The children were told to write as much as they could about the War in fifteen minutes. No child was allowed to exceed the time-limit. In all, 3,081 papers were written, 1,511 boys, 1,570 girls. In order to obtain as far as possible the real interests and ideas of the children, the common material in the yarious groups, indicative of lessons or talks on the subject by the teachers, was carefully eliminated. In spite of a large amount of overlapping in the interests and ideas at different stages, it was possible to group them broadly according to the ages of the children. The results of the investigation are classified under six age-groups (8 to 14) corresponding to the ages of children in the senior departments of elementary schools, ‘The main interests of boys and girls are given separately in each age- group. It was found on examination to be better to group them according to mental ages. Thus, in the eight-year-old group there were some backward children of ten, eleven, and twelve years of age, and occasionally clever children of seven. In such a group a large majority of the children were eight years of age, and the comparatively few older and younger children were always taught with them. It was interesting to notice that the interests of these older or younger children did not differ materially from those of the normal age for the group. Not only do the interests of boys and girls vary for each particular group, but the nature of the variations which appeared in passing up through the school varies also with sex. The fact that emerges most clearly from the investigation is the bellicose attitude of the girls of ten, the wave of depression at eleven, and the establish- ment of normal interests at twelve years of age. The boys, on the other hand, hecome more warlike at eleven, and, though a period of slight depression follows upon this, it is much less marked than in the case of the girls, Yi y 2 692 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. The references apart from those to the origin of the War are almost entirely confined to the incidents happening within a comparatively short time of the date on which the essays were written. Such important events as the march on Paris, the retreat from Mons, and the battle of the Marne receive no atten- tion. Matters distant in time or place appear to have little interest for young children. Curious instances are given of the extraordinary impressions produced upon children by new experiences, and interesting sidelights are obtained of dis- cussions on the War overheard at home. The passage from matters of local to those of general interest as the age increases is very marked. Not a single member of the Cabinet is mentioned with the exception of Lord Kitchener, to whom, especially in the boys’ essays, constant reference is made. From the age of eleven onwards great anxiety is felt with regard to the price of food, and the excessive interest taken in the operations in the Dardanelles is clearly due to the supposed connection of the free passage to the Black Sea with the price of food. The most interesting results are (1) the clearly marked change of interest from age to age; (2) the radical difference between the interests of boys and those of girls up to the age of twelve; and (3) the maturity of ideas on such a subject as the War at the age of thirteen, more especially in the case of girls, who are in this respect at least a year ahead of the boys. _The methods of expressing ideas from age to age are touched upon. 2. An Attempt to trace the Course of the Development of some Mental Capacities by the Application of Mental Tests to Children from Five to Fifteen Years of Age. By Miss M. E. Bickersteru. 1. The possibility of establishing by means of mental tests reliable age norms graded by years. The work of Binet and Simon. 2. Subjects of the Experiment. Group I. 500. Girls. Oxford Higher Elementary Schools. II. 300. Girls. Secondary Schools. III. 150. Boys and Girls. Oxfordshire Village Schools. IV. 300. Boys and Girls. Ripon Elementary Schools. V. 500. Boys and Girls. Leeds Elementary Schools. VI. 500. Boys and Girls. Yorkshire Dales Elementary Schools. 3. Apparatus Procedure, and Results of the several Tests. List of Tests. 1. Precision and Speed of 9, Spot Pattern { Test of Analytic and Movement (Plunger) Synthetic Apper- 2. Power of Sustained ss Sees | cana ih Effort (Tapping) 10. Discriminative Reaction | Attention 3. Alphabet Test | Muska ok Disereiian 11, Discs and Sentences | Tests. 4. Number Test ica salecta 12, Completion of | R nnPERE 5. Combined Test | panei: ee apd Analogies ARO Mn 6. Memory for Narrative | M. 7. Memory for Related Words = at dies 8. Memory forUnrelated Words ese: 4. Deductions. oe el 5. General Conclusions as to the Value of Capacity with Age. . The Correlation between Mental and Physical Age. . The Ages at which Mental Capacities show Changes in Development. . The Correlation of Mental and Motor Ability. . The Variation with Age in the Correlation of different Mental Capacities. . The Mental Differences between Town and Country Children. Mental Tests to Show the Increase of Pry TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 693 TaBe I, Oxford Higher Elementary Schools, Girls. Summary of Averages. | = 5 | @ oe; wo = ee eon 8 9 E | Motor Tests a ee | Memory | Attention fst: 8 | apa & Age | Pt & | 5 = z | & a | eS oe t-* | 3 ° eral | a) 5 5 ; oO ret Ave es Bp ato hoes wy. | gs | me OV | WA Mets eee ola TS alll SRO gente | ages — | mace } =z i os fae | > | i | wag a “al! ‘<< ha Tart Sociality | =| *83 | -81 | -80)-71) -70.) 954 | *53| +59) -24| +13 Sorrow . | 83.) | ‘87 | -62| +59] -44-| -58 | -44] -23) -45| -21 Tenderness . | 81 | ‘87°| — Osco col. |) -oMmlb cla “Sa lecoo ince [Soy . «| -80 | -62 | -63 | —| -49| -54 | -30 | -28) -42| -29/—-06 Wonder | -71 | -59 | -37 | -49| —|.-5@ | 34 | -55| -40| -19|—-10 Miemon, Peele 70 | 744 1} 31 | +54) - 54] — | -50 | “5L| -81)-11} -10 [| Disgust _. | 64 | 58 | -30 | -30| +34] 50 | — | -38}, -29/ -21| -08 (eAnger’ | “53 | “44 | +12 | +28) -55| -51 | -38 | — | 53] -10/—-16 | Sex aE OOL soe Incoo 42| +40) -3 229-53 | i—-09 |—-10 [Fear . .| 24 | -45 | -33 | -29/ -19] -11 | -21 | -10/—-09) —! <4] | Subjection . | -13 | -21 | *86 |—-06)---10] 10 | “08 |—-16/—"10) “41, — Avernge . | -b9.| “53 | -44 | -43/ -41| -40 | -35 | -38| +29] -22/ -09 ie ye a a el Es al a fl Peale | tne Hypothetical | -99 | -90 | “73 | -69| 66] -65 | ‘57 | -52| -45| -35| -09 General | | | Factor | | General Emo- | °68 | °56 | -45 | ‘62; °57/] °53 | :38 | °64| -27!/ -19!—-14 eee | | | | TABLE II. Partial Coefficients. 329 children and aa _(Aserage by five growps.) ; i | — ata eat trae | | | & ’ | ote Pee | ees = q ® iat aS = 2 & | 3) Bic Eel ~ Burden ieeo ere | B 4 a) e ° @ H eS Ey =) 4 siaija|a|/F|/4)/8)a)/e 1a] & | Joy. .| — | -21| -38|° -21|) -06|—04|—-18 2-011" 01-13] Ba Sex. «| *21) — | °63} “02! -06; -25/—-18/—-06|—-24' -03| -15) Sociality .| 33) °53 — | 34) +22) -07/ -04|—-20/—-26 —-26) -15) Elation. .| -21; -02) -34) — | -38| -38] -30/—-30|—-23/—-09|—-19| Wonder . | 06 06) -22) 38) — | -84]-—-15| -07!—-03|—-16|!—-16 Anger... |~—"04| -25! 07; °38| °384! — | +23] +16 18 |=49 a Disgust . |—"18, —18} 04) -30/—-15 +23} — | +20) -16/—-19|—-13| Sorrow. . —‘01/—-06 —-29/—-30| -07 -16/ -20/ — | -28! -10| -34 Hear 9. =. | -OL|—"24/—-26) -23|—-08/298 | - 946) ab} = fap fo-11 Subjection . |—-13| -03/—-26|—:09 | —-16|—-49|—:19| 10; -45| — | -26 | Tenderness . *21)} °15) °15)|—°+19 ao 1GtGh 13) 34,“ 10) 26) — 696 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 3. By means of ‘ partial correlation ’ the influence of the hypothetical general factor may be eliminated, and the partial or specific intercorrelations calculated. The arrangement of these coefficients suggests a scheme which is not hier- archical, and has not hitherto been described. The positive coefficients form a diagonal line running from the top left-hand corner to the bottom right-hand corner (see Table II.), with outlying groups at the top right and bottom left corners : the negative coefficients run in lines parallel to the diagonal from the centre of the top row to the centre of the last column and from the centre of the first column to the centre of the bottom row. This arrangement suggests that the specific tendencies may form a circular series, each member being most closely related to its immediate neighbour, less closely related ta remoter members, and antagonistically related to members half-way round the cycle. To illustrate the Chief Specific Correlations between the Chief Emotional Tendencies. (Distances of are represent inversely the chief positive correlations; chords represent the average direction of the chief negative correlations.) SOCIALITY Joy Anger Wonder 24°34 Anger Disgust =+°23 TENDERNESS DisGust SUBJECTION FEAR SoRROW This phenomenon—the cyclic overlap of specific factors—has also been observed in partial coefficients obtained by eliminating ‘ general intelligence ’ from the intercorrelations of complex mental tests. It may, therefore, have a wide significance for the study of mental organisation. The theory of a general factor is commonly associated with the views that specific factors are negligible and that the general factor is simple. The problem arises as to whether the above specific correlations invalidate the hypothesis of a general factor, and, in particular, whether the peculiar relations between the specific factors may not of themselves produce the appearance of a general factor. Independent evidence, however, appears to confirm the exist- ence of both general and specific factors underlying emotional reactions and to indicate that both are highly complex. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 697 FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Use of Mental Tests for Measuring Mental Defect. By A. R. ABEuson. There is every reason to believe that in the future problems of race efficiency and of race superiority will receive paramount attention. It will be necessary to devise the most effective schemes for the weeding out (by segregation) of the unfit and for the securing of the highest standard possible of race culture. The view expressed in Dr. Myers’ ‘ Pitfalls of Mental Tests’ has been corroborated. The evidence is strongly opposed to the opinion often tacitly and even avowedly accepted that no special training is necessary for carrying out examinations into mental defect. Satisfactory measurement of mind is impossible without scientific knowledge of the mind. The Binet system possesses serious disadvantages which render it inade- quate for the examination of defective children. Before any system of tests can hope to be satisfactory, the general principles must be determined for their scientific construction and use. The tests should be short, reliable, and straightforward. They should be within the range of the general experience of the child, but should not depend on scholastic training. It is of vital importance that the child should be made to feel perfectly at ease during the examination, and the conditions should be such~as to evoke the greatest, effort possible from the child. Evidence has been obtained with regard to the essential nature of mental ability. All tends to confirm the belief in a ‘ general factor’; every mental activity depends partly on this general factor and partly on a particular nervous structure specially subserving the mental activity. This general factor, known as ‘ general ability ’ is best conceived as the individual’s fund of ‘ intel- lective energy ’ free for use in any direction. Mental Deficiency consists of a general lowering of all intellectual func- tions; in no case was it found to be distinctly localised. It appears to be a desradation of the above-mentioned intellective energy. Some children show abnormal brilliance at scholastic work and yet do not do correspondingly well at ‘mental tests.’ On the other hand, many children who are not good in the school work show signs of high general intelligence. It is evident from this that a child’s scholastic ability is not always a fair eriterion of his ‘ general ability.’ 2. Notes on the Family Histories of Fifty Cases of Mentally Defective Children. By Miss Aanes Kenury. These cases were taken without selection from the register of a Special School for Mentally Defective Children in the Haggerston district of the East end of London. The inquiry was made with a view of observing the relative amount of insanity, mental deficiency, epilepsy, alcoholism, and tuberculosis in the oy histories, and also the occupation of the parents and the condition of the comes. Occupation of the Parents.—Of the fathers, 17 were in regular trades, and of these only 5 in full-time regular work throughout the year. The greater number of the remainder were casuals and hawkers. Regular employment among the mothers only occurred in one or two cases. Home Conditions.—Out of the fifty cases, in only about half-a-dozen could the home conditions be described as good, even in comparison with the average home of the neighbourhood. A certain number were rendered poor by indus- trial conditions, but in by far the greater number, probably in at least three- quarters of the homes, the poverty was not only ‘industrial,’ but also ‘ degraded.’ Total Number of Family.—In some of the worst cases—those having two or more mental defectives in the same fraternity—the total number in family was 698 TRANSACTIONS OT SECTION T. | largest; the rates for deaths in infancy and still-births being correspondingly high. “Insanity occurred in the family histories of 15 of the children. There was only one case of. an insane parent (a father). In 11 insanity was found in the erandparents, eight of these being on the paternal side. Mental Deficiency.—Other cases of mental deficiency were found in 30 of the histories. In 19 cases two or more defectives appeared in the same fraternity, and in 17 one or other of the parents was mentally defective. Epilepsy was found in the pedigrees of nine cases, Alcoholism.—It is difficult in any way to measure the proportion of alcoholism among fhese, as compared with normal families, as it is obvious that they are more easily affected by drink. But in a large proportion of the cases the parents were such heavy drinkers that the mental defect was probably intensified. In one case (which it seemed probable was a case of retarded development) no other cause for the defect was observed. Tuberculosis was very prevalent. The term ‘consumption’ is so generally and inaccurately used among the people that it would be useless to base any statement on the frequent ‘died of consumption’ reported. It is, however, apparent that these families are very liable to tuberculosis. Throughout the whole of the pedigrees it was noticeable that both physically and mentally the general standard was ‘below par.’ In many of the families there were members who could not strictly be termed ‘ defective,’ yet were not by any means individuals of average health and ability. Such families cannot be compared in mental and bodily vigour with more normal stocks. They are wanting in initiative and are often inert and thriftless; the men low-wage-earners, the women poor housewives; and they tend mentally and physically to be unfit to keep their place in the struggle for existence. This type of mental deficiency appears to be more intensified in Haggerston than in the surrounding districts, which is due no doubt to the fact that it is a neighbourhood into which numbers of casuals, hawkers, part-time workers, and hangers-on of more prosperous trades tend to drift—classes of the community in which it is not surprising to find a lack of mental and physical stamina. 3. Perseveration. By Ta... Wynn Jones. The meaning of the term Perseveration, with special regard to the results of Miller and Pilzecker, Heymans and Wiersma, Heymans and Brugmamns, Culler, Foster, Lankes, Webb. Various aspects; €.q., The perseveration of ideas. Should this be distinguished from association of ideas? Sensory and motor perseveration. Perseveration-qualities of character, Is Perseveration a general factor, comparable with General Intelligence? Correlation with Intelligence. Methods of Measurement. 1. Directly by noting the strength of the after-effect and the time for which it lasts. 2. By finding the degree of hindrance which the perseverating effect of a past mental activity causes to a new one of the same kind. Own Experiments. (a) Mass-tests. (1) ‘i t test.’ (2) > S test. (3) Backward-stroke test. (4) Mirror-image test. (b) Individual Tests. (1) Natural rate of tapping. (2) After-images test. (3) After-effect of seen movement. (4) Pressure after-effect. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 699 4. War and Sublimation. By Ernesy Jonus, M.D. In the conduct of war, and implicit in the very conception of war, various impulses come to expression of a kind that are apparently non-existent, or at all events latent, in the same people during peace; they include, among others, such disapproved-of tendencies as cruelty, deceit, ruthless egotism, looting, and savagery of various kinds. These impulses are part of the inherited charac- teristics of mankind and are readily to be detected, though their significance is here greatly underestimated, in the mental life of the infant. In the course of individual development they are replaced by other tendencies of an opposite kind, such as consideration for others, honesty, altruism, and horror of cruelty. It is vulgarly believed that the primitive set disappears owing to the implantation or development of the more civilised kind, but psycho-analytical investigation shows that the process is more subtle and complex than this. The primitive tendencies never disappear from existence, they only vanish from view by being ‘repressed’ and buried in the unconscious mind. From here they exert a far more considerable influence on consciousness than might be imagined, and may also appear in an almost naked form in dream life when the possibility of external manifestation is excluded. The main agent leading to the transformation -in question is the pressure of education in the widest sense as exerted first by the parents and later on by the whole cultural environment as well, though no doubt the child is born with a susceptibility to this influence in the form of a ‘predisposition.’ The effects of this pressure comprise several distinct processes, the corresponding social significance of which is very different. In the first place may be mentioned ‘sublimation,’ i.c., the replacement of an originally sexual aim by a more per- missible, social, non-sexual one with the deflection of interest and energy from the former to the latter. Similar to this is the process whereby egotistic impulses become invested with erotic feeling (the word erotic is here used to cover all varieties of love) and in this way subordinated to the mutual interests of the individual and his environment. In both these cases we may speak of a ‘refinement ’ of the primitive impulses, their very nature becoming profoundly affected. In contrast to this stand other effects of repression, which, although they may equally result in ‘good’ behaviour, do so merely through exercising an external pressure, there being no change whatever in the nature of the impulses. There are many varieties of this, compensations, character reactions, neurotic symptoms, &c., but they may all be grouped under the term ‘ pseudo- sublimation.’ When the external cultural pressure is relaxed—as it officially is in time of war, for instance—there is a tendency to reversion in the direction of the primitive impulses, but this happens far more with the second group considered than with the first. The distinction between the two is essential to the understanding of various social phenomena, including war. 5. Observation and Formal Training. By BE. Gueaves. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Neuro-Psychoses of Adolescence. By G. K. Saurrteworrn, B.A., M.D. Adolescence (roughly from 15 to 25) opens a new chapter in life, sex differ- ences being evolved and accentuated. Influences of heredity in development, especially as regards latent tendencies, Emotional characters: risk of perversion. Neurotic accompaniments,. e.g., hysteria and epilepsy. Asocial peculiarities, e.g., irritability of temper, family aversions, suspicions, religiosity, &c. Developmental mental stress. The risks of competitive examinations. Fancied talent. Disappointment and its results. 700 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, Moral sense and its perversions, Hyper-conscientiousness, Romanticism, Untruthfulness, Dishonesty, unprincipled conduct, and experversions. Devolutionary conditions. Juvenile General Paralysis of the Insane. Dementia precox. Suicide. 2. Therapeutic Re-education. By Dr. Jesstz Murray. 3. Some Effects of Training Children’s Powers of Observation. By Miss I. B. Saxsy. In a little book called ‘ Methods of Mind Training’ Miss C. Aiken describes a number of exercises in quick observation which are intended to develop in children the power of ‘ keeping the mind on the alert and holding the attention steadily.’ She gave these exercises about twenty minutes a day and was much impressed’ by the improvement they produced, especially in the case of unintelligent children. For the purpose of my experiment the exercises were given regularly fifteen minutes a day on four days of every week for a period of twelve weeks, and in connection with them an attempt was made to create a real desire to become more observant in the children who had these special lessons. The effect of this training was measured by means of four tests, of which three were given respectively at the beginning, middle, and end of the period of training, the fourth after a further period of four months. The material used in these tests consisted in (1) memory drawings of well-known objects, (2) reproduction of a story read to the class once only, and (3) reproduction of a list of ten numbers shown to the class for thirty seconds. The experiment was conducted in four elementary schools, and for the sake of comparison the tests were repeated at another set of four elementary schools where no special training was given. The results obtained in this way can be summarised as follows : (1) Under suitable conditions a well-marked and effective desire can be developed in this way, but the improvement produced is not in general permanent. In Test 4 the difference between the trained and the non- trained is no longer significant for the class as a whole. (2) If the training in observation is conducted by means of prestige sug- gestion only the more intelligent tend to improve more rapidly than the less intelligent, but the reverse is the case if prestige suggestion is used in connection with the special exercises in quick observation. (3) In questions testing the amount of knowledge acquired during the period of training the more suggestible tend to improve more rapidly than the less suggestible, but the reverse is the case when the task consists in reproducing material memorised in a limited amount of time in the presence of the experimenter. (4) As a suggestive force the effect of the exercises is negative rather than positive. (5) The improvement in the work of the trained classes was in the main due to the development of a desire to become more observant. The effect produced by the special exercises was almost nil. (a2) The more intelligent children derived no benefit from them either during the period of training or afterwards. (6) The less intelligent children did derive benefit from them during the actual period of training, but a twelve weeks’ course of lessons was found to be insufficient to produce a permanent improvement of any significance. 4. The Réle of Specific Mental Factors in Imagery. By EH. GuEAVES. - TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.—-PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 701 Srorion K.—BOTANY. PRESIDENT OF THE Section:—Proressor W. H. Lana, F.R.S. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— Since I am not a visitor to our place of meeting it is my privilege to extend to the members of this Section a special welcome on behalf of our Botanical Department. The war has diminished for the time the number of those engaged in botanical work. I shall not attempt any mention of those botanists who ave serving with ihe Forces, are assisting in the training of recruits, or are other- wise playing their parts in the service of the country. Some have been wounded, but, we rejoice to know, recovered. We have, however, to express our sorrow, tempered with pride, at the cutting short of the promising botanical careers of Mr. Laidlaw and Mr. Lee, who have been killed at the Front. While we have no group of foreign guests, as at the last Manchester meeting, we owe to the war the presence of a distinguished Belgian botanist, Professor Julius MacLeod, and shall hear some of the results of investigations he has made while in England. In welcoming him to this meeting we hope that he may soon be able to return to his own University of Ghent when the invaders are expelled from his country. Phyletic and Causal Morphology. I propose to deal with some aspects of the study of plant-morphology. In doing so I shall not accept any definition of morphology that would separate it artificially from other departments of botany. I regard the aim of plant- morphology as the study and scientific explanation of the form, structure, and development of plants. This abandons any sharp separation of morphology and physiology and claims for morphology a wider scope than has been customary for the past fifty years. During this period the problem of morphology has been recognised as being ‘a purely historical one,’ ‘perfectly distinct from any of the questions with which physiology has to do,’ its aim being ‘to reconstruct the evolutionary tree.’ The limitation of the purpose of morphological study, expressed in these phrases from the admirable addresses delivered to this Section by Dr. Scott and Professor Bower some twenty years ago, was due to the influence of the theory of descent. I fully recognise the interest of the phyletic ideal, but am unable to regard it as the exclusive, or perhaps as the most impor- tant, object of morphological investigation. To accept the limitation of morphology to genealogical problems is inconsistent with the progress of this branch of study before the acceptance of the theory of descent, and leaves out many of the most important problems that were raised and studied by the earlier morphologists. 702 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Kz In the history of morphology, after it had ceased to be the handmaid of the systematic botany of the higher plants, we may broadly distinguish an idealistic period, a developmental period, and a phyletic period. The period of develop- mental morphology, the most fruitful and the most purely inductive in our science, was characterised by an intimate connection between morphological and physiological work. Among its contributions were studies of development or ‘growth histories’ of whole plants and their members. These were carried out, in part at least, in order to investigate the nature of development, and such general problems found their expression at the close of the period in the Allgemeine Morphologie’ of Hofmeister. The ‘ Origin of Species’ took some years before it affected the methods and aims of botanical work. Then its effect on morphology was revolutionary and, as in all revolutions, some of the best elements of the previous régime were temporarily obscured. This exces- sive influence of the theory of descent upon morphology did not come from Darwin himself but from his apostle Haeckel, who gave a very precise expres- sion to the idea of a genealogical grouping of animals and plants, illustrated by elaborate hypothetical phylogenetic trees. Such ideas rapidly dominated morphological work, and we find a special ‘ phylogenetic method ’ advocated by Strasburger.!. he persistence of the phyletic period to the present time is shown not only in the devotion of morphology to questions of relationship but in the attempts made to base homologies upon descent only. Lankester’s idea of homogeny can be traced to the influence of Haeckel, and nothing shows the con- sistency of phyletic morphology to its clear but somewhat narrow ideal so plainly as the repeated attempts to introduce into practice a sharp distinction between homogeny and homoplasy. Professor Bower, in his Address last year and in other papers, has dealt illuminatingly with the aims and methods of phyletic morphology. I need only direct attention to some aspects of the present position of this, which bear on causal morphology. The goal of phyletic morphology has throughout. been to construct the genealogical tree of the Vegetable Kingdom. In some ways this seems farther off than ever. Phyletic work has been its own critic, and the phylogeny of the genealogical tree, since that first very complete monophyletic one by Haeckel, affords a clear example of a reduction series. The most recent and reliable graphic representations of the inter-relationships of plants look more like a bundle of .sticks than a tree. Consider for a moment our complete ignorance of the inter-relationships of the Alge, Bryophyta, and Pteridophyta. Regarding the Algw we have no direct evidence, but the comparative study of existing forms has suggested parallel developments along four or more main lines from different starting-points in a very simple unicellular ancestry. We have no clue, direct or indirect, to the ancestral forms of the Bryophyta, and itis an open question whether there may not be as many parallel series in this group as in the Algwe. The Pteridophyta seem a better case, for we have direct evidence from fossil plants as well as the comparison of living forms to assist us. Though paleobotany has added the Sphenophyllales to the existing groups of Vascular Cryptogams and has greatly enlarged our conceptions of the others, there is no proof of how the great groups are related to one another, As in the Bryophyta, they may represent several completely independent parallel lines. There is no evidence as to what sort of plants the Pteridophyta were derived from, and in particular none that relates them to any group of Bryophyta or Alge, I do not want to labour the argument, but much the same can be said of the seed-plants, though there is considerable evidence and fairly general agreement as to some Gymnosperms having come from ancient Filicales. The progress of phyletic work has thus brought into relief the limitations -of the possible results and the inherent difficulties. As pointed out by Professor Bower, we can hope for detailed and definite results only in particularly favour- able cases, like that of the Filicales. The change of attitude shown in recent phyletic work towards ‘ parallel 2 The claims of. this phylogenetic method were at once criticised by Braun, in a form that deserves careful study to-day (Monatsh. d. K. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1875, p. 248 ff.). PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 708 developments in phyla which are believed to have been of distinct origin’ * is even more significant. Professor Bower spoke of the prevalence of this as an ‘obstacle to success,’ and so it is if our aimis purely phyletic. In another way the demonstration of parallel developments constitutes a positive result of great value. Thus Professor Bower’s own work has led to the recognition of a number of series leading from the lower to the higher Filicales. By independent but parallel evolutionary paths, from diverse starting-points in the more ancient Ferns, such similarity has been reached that systematists have placed the plants of distinct origin in the same genus. In these progressions a number of characters run more or less clearly parallel, so that the final result appears to be due ‘to a phyletic drift that may have affected similarly a plurality of lines of descent.” This conclusion, based on detailed investigation, appears to me to be of far-reaching importance. If a ‘ phyletic drift’ in the Ferns has resulted in the independent and parallel origin of such characters as dictyostely, the mixed sorus, and the very definite type of sporangium with a vertical annulus and transverse dehiscence, the case for parallel developments in other groups is greatly strengthened. ‘The interest shifts to the causes underlying such progres- sive changes as appear in parallel developments, and the problem becomes one of causal morphology rather than purely historical. The study of parallel developments would, indeed, seem likely to throw more light on the morphology of plants than the changes traced in a pure phyletic line, for it leads us to seek for common causes, whether internal or external. We cease to be limited in our comparisons by actual relationship, or forbidden to elucidate the organisation in one group by that which has arisen independently in another. Similarly the prohibition against comparing the one generation in the life-cycle with the other falls to the ground, quite apart from any question of whether the alternation is homologous or antithetic. The methods of advance* and the causal factors concerned become the important things, and if, for example, light is thrown on the organisation of the fern-plant by comparison with the gametophyte of the moss, so much the better. This, however, is frankly to abandon phylogeny as ‘the only real basis of morpho- logical study ’** and with this any attempt to base homology on homogeny. Many of the homologies that exist between series of parallel development are what have been happily termed homologies of organisation; these are sometimes so close as to result in practical identity, at other times so distinct as to be evident homoplasies. The critical study of homologies of organisation over as wide an area as possible becomes of primary interest and importance. Since about the beginning of the present century a change of attitude towards morphological problems has become more and more evident in several ways. It seems to be a phyletic drift affecting simultaneously a plurality of lines of thought. The increasing tendency to look upon problems of development and construction from a causal standpoint is seen in the prominence given to what may be termed developmentalephysiology and also in what Goebel has called Organography.* These deal with the same problems from different sides and * This and other quotations in this paragraph are from Professor Bower’s address to Section K in Australia (Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1914). * In this connection it is of interest to remember that Professor Bower has always laid stress on the importance of studying methods of advance and has regarded in this way examples which some other morphologists have used to form an actual series. His use of the bryophyte sporogonium in explaining the origin of the sporophyte is a case in point. (Cf£.Annals of Botany, vol. Viil., p. 344.) “ Strasburger, Text Book of Botany, p. 9. It would be truer to say that morphology has been the basis of phylogeny. If each is to be the basis of the other, the building can hardly progress ! ° The special meaning attached by Goebel to Organography is difficult to ascertain and has undergone a fundamental change between the first and second editions of the Allgemeine Organographie. In the second edition (p. 8) the dependence of constructiom on function is regarded as open to question and in Specific cases as untenable (p. 39). The justification for an Organography instead of a General Morphology would thus really disappear. 704 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. neither formulates them as they appear to the morphologist. Together with genetics, they indicate the need of recognising what I prefer to call General or Causal Morphology. The problems of causal morphology are not new, though most of them are still unsolved and are difficult to formulate, let alone to answer. As we have seen, they were recognised in the time of developmental morphology, though they have since been almost wholly neglected by morphologists. So far as they have been studied during the phyletic period, it has been from the physiological rather than the morphological side. Still such problems force themselves upon the ordinary morphologist, and it is from his position that I venture to approach them. I willingly recognise, however, that causal morphology may also be regarded as a department of plant-physiology. In development, which is the essential of the problem, the distinction between morphology and physiology really disappears, even if this distinction can be usefully maintained in the study of the fully developed organism. We are brought up against a fact which is readily overlooked in these days of specialisation, that Botany is the scientific study of plants. General morphology agrees with physiology in its aim being a causal explana- tion of the plant and not historical. Its problems would remain if the phyletic history were before us in full. In the present state of our ignorance, how- ever, we need not be limited to a physico-chemical explanation of the plant. Modern physiology rightly aims at this so far as possible, but, while successful in some departments, has to adopt other methods of explanation and analysis in dealing with irritability. It is even more obvious that no physico-chemical explanation extends far enough to reach the problems of development and morphological construction. The morphologist must therefore take the com- plicated form and its genesis in development and strive for a morphological analysis of the developing plant. This is to attack the problem from the other side and to work back from the phenomena of organisation toward concepts of the nature of the underlying substance. It is to these questions of general morphology with a causal aim (for causal morphology, though convenient, is really too ambitious a name for anything we yet possess) that I wish to ask your attention. All we can do at first is to take up a new attitude towards our problems, and to gather here and there hints upon which new lines of attack may be based. This new attitude is, however, as I have pointed out, a very old one, and in adopting it we re-connect ° with the period of developmental morphology. Since the limited time at my disposal forbids adequate reference to historical details, and to the work and thought of many botanists’ in this field, let me in a word disclaim any originality in trying to express in relation to some morphological problems what seems to me the signifi- cant trend, in part deliberate and in part unconscious, of morphology at present. The methods available in causal morphology are the detailed study in selected plants of the normal development and its reswlts, comparison over as wide an area as possible with special attention to the essential correspondences (homologies of organisation) arrived at independently, the study of variations, mutations, and abnormalities in the light of their development, and ultimately critical experimental work. This will be evident in the following attempt to look at some old questions from the causal point of view. I shall take them as suggested by the Fern without confining my remarks to this. The Fern presents all the main problems in the morphology of the vegetative organs of the higher plants, and what little I have to say regarding the further step to the seed-habit will come as a natural appendix to its consideration. Individual Development. Twice in its normal life-history the Fern exhibits a process of development starting from the single cell and resulting in the one case in the prothallus and in the other in the fern-plant. For the present we may treat these two * It is no mere coincidence that modern genetics is due to the re-discovery of the work of an investigator of this period. 7 It will be sufficient to mention the names of Knight, Naegeli, Leitgeb, Hobgielster, Vochting, Sachs, Klebs, and Goebel as the earlier workers on this ine. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 705 stages in the life-history as individuals, their development presenting the same general problems as a plant of, say, Mucus or Hnteromorpha, where there is no alternation of generations. How is the morphologist to regard this process of individual development ? In the first place we seem forced to regard the specific distinctness as hold- ing for the germ as well as the resulting mature plant, however the relation between the germ-cell and the characters of the developed organism is to be explained. We start thus with a conception of specific substance,® leaving it quite an open question on what the specific nature depends. This enables us to state the problem of development freed from all considerations of the ultimate uses of the developed structure. The course of development to the adult condition can be looked upon as the manifestation of the properties of the specific substance under certain conditions. This decides our attitude as morphologists to the functions of the plant and to teleology. Function does not concern us except in so far as it is found to enter as a causal factor into the process of development. Similarly until purpose can be shown to be effective as a causal factor it is merely an unfortunate expression for the result attained. Let me remind you also that the individual plant, whether it be unicellular, coenocytic or multicellular, may behave as a whole at all stages of its develop- ment. We see this, for instance, in the germination of @dogonium, in the germination and subsequent strengthening of the basal region in Fucus or Laminaria, in the moss-plant or fern-plant, or in a dicotyledonous tree. A system of relations is evident in the plant, expressed in the polarity and the mutual influences of the main axis and lateral branches, as well as in the influences exerted on the basal region by the distant growing parts. We thus recognise, in its most general form, the correlation of parts, a concept of proved value in botany. To some the expression of the observed facts in this way may appear perilously mystical. I do not think so myself. It is true that the nature of the specific substance and of the system of relations is unknown to us, but it is regarded as a subject for scientific inquiry and further explanation. To recognise fully the complexity of the substance of the plant is not, however, a step towards neo-vitalism, but is perhaps our best safeguard against the dangers of this. The wholeness of the individual, together with important phenomena of regeneration, has suggested the conclusion that something other than physico- chemical or mechanical laws are concerned in the development of the organism. To this something Driesch applies the name entelechy. Without discussing the vitalistic philosophy of the organism, or other modern phases of philosophic thought that treat life as an entity, it seems worth while to point out that they are based mainly on the consideration of animal development. It would be interesting to inquire into the difficulties that are met with in applying such views to plants, where regeneration in one form or another is the rule rather than the exception and often does not lead to restitution of the individual. Causal morphology can recognise phenomena of development and of the individual, which are at present, beyond physico-chemical explanation, and try to attack them by any methods of investigation that seem practicable, without begging the main question at the outset and then proceeding deductively. To assume any special inner director of development, be it entelechy or vital force, is to cut the knot that may ultimately be untied. The previous experience of botany in the time of nature-philosophy may well make us cautious of solving our difficulties by the help of any new biologicat philosophy. On the other hand, co-operation between biology and philosophic thought is highly desirable. In this connection I should like to refer to an idea contained in Professor Alexander’s paper on the Basis of Realism. He * The more general concept of specific substance, which avoids hypctheses of heredity, seems preferable for our purpose to that of idioplasm or even of specific cell, since it leaves open the possibility of some properties of the plant being generalised in the protoplasm and not to be explained by the mutual relation of cells; it also covers the case of coenocytic plants. ® Royal British Academy, Jan. 28, 1914, p. 12. 1915. Zz 706 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. suggests that there is only one matrix from which all qualities arise, and that (without introducing any fresh stuff of existence) the secondary qualities, life, and, at a still higher level, mind, emerge by some grouping of the elements within the matrix. The development of this idea as it applies to life would appear to offer a real point of contact between inductive biological work-and philosophy. To return to our plant, its development, with increase in size and progressive complexity of external form and internal structure, must be considered. The power ef continued development possessed by most plants and wanting in most animals makes comparison between the two kingdoms difficult. That there is no fundamental difference between the continued and the definitely limited types of embryogeny is, however, shown by plants themselves. The bryophyte sporogonium is a clear example of the latter, while the fern sporophyte is one of many examples of the former. A difference less commonly emphasised is that in the sporogonium (as in the higher animals) the later stages of development proceed by transformation of the whole of the embryo into the mature or adult condition; in the fern-plant the apical development results in successive addi- tions of regions which then attain their mature structure by transformation of the meristematic tissue. ; These distinctions are of some importance in considering the generalisation originally founded on animal development and known as the biogenetic law. That ‘ the ontogeny is a concise and compressed recapitulation of the phylogeny ’ is essentially a phyletic conception. It has been more or less criticised and chal- lenged by some distinguished zoologists, and has always been difficult to apply to plants. If we avoid being prejudiced by zoological theory and results, we do not find that the characters of the embryos of plants have given the key to doubtful questions of phylogeny. What help do they give us, for instance, in the Alge or the Vascular Cryptogams? The extension of the idea of recapitulation to the successively formed regions of the seedling plant requires critical examination; if admitted, it is at any rate something different from what the zoologist usually means by this. The facts—as shown, for instance, in a young fern-plant—are most interesting, but can perhaps be better looked at in another way. Develop- ment is accompanied by an increase in size of the successively formed leaves and portions of stem, and the process is often cumulative, going on more and more rapidly as the means increase until the adult proportions are attained. The same specific system of relations may thus find different expression in the developing plant as constructive materials accumulate. I do not want to imply that the question is merely a quantitative one; quality of material may be involved, or the explanation may lie still deeper. The point is that the progression is not a necessary one due to some recapitulative memory. There are some other classes of facts, clearly cognate to normal individual development, that seem to require the causal explanation. I may mention three : (1) Vegetatively produced plants (from bulbils, gemme, &c.) tend in their development to pass through stages in elaboration similar to young plants developing trom a spore or zygote. The similarities are more striking the smaller the portion of material from which a start is made. (2) Branches may repeat the stages in ontogeny more or less completely also in relation to differ- ences in the nutritive conditions. (3) In the course of continued development there may be a return to the simpler form and structure passed through on the way to the more complex. ‘These cases of parallels to, or reversals of, the normal ontogenetic sequence suggest explanation on causal lines but are diffi- culties in the way of phyletic recapitulation; the first two cases can be included under this, while the third seems definitely antagonistic. On the whole it may be said that recapitulation cannot be accepted for plants without further evidence, and that preliminary inquiry disposes us to seek a deeper and more fruitful method of explaining the facts of development. The aevelopment of most plant-individuals starts from a single cell, and when we compare mature forms of various grades of complexity the unicellular condition is also our usual starting point. What is not so generally recog- nised or emphasised is the importance of the filament as the primitive construction-form of most plants. I do not use the word ‘primitive’ in a phyletic sense, nor in the sense of an ideal form, but to indicate a real stage in independent progressions underlying many homologies of organisation. I cannot PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 07 develop this fully here, but wide comparison of independent lines of advance suggests that the main types of progress in complexity of the plant-body ?° have involved the elaboration of the single filament with apical growth and with subordinated ‘ branches.’ It is generally recognised that various groups of Alge show how a solid multicellular axis may come about not only by the further partition of the segments of the apical cell but by the congenital cortication of a central filament or the congenital condensation of the subordinated ‘ branches’ on to the central axis. The Alge further show the change from the dome- shaped apical cell of a filament to the sunken initial cell with two, three, or four sides. The central filament then only appears, if at all, as a subsequent differ- entiation in the tissue, and the segments serially cut off from the apical cell may or may not bear projecting hair-shoots or ‘leaves.’ The Algw thus attain in independent lines a construction corresponding to that of the plant in Liver- worts and Mosses. In the various parallel series of Bryophyta the filament is not only more or less evident in the ontogeny but may be regarded as the form underlying both thallus and shoot, between which on this view there is no fundamental distinction. The sporogonium also can be readily regarded as an elaborated filament. While the same interpretation of the fern-prothallus will readily be granted, to think of the fern-plant as the equivalent of an elaborated filament may appear far-fetched. So far from this being the case, I believe that it will be found helpful in understanding the essential morphology of the shoot. In a number of Vascular Cryptogams and Seed-plants, there is actually a filamentous juvenile stage, the suspensor, while the growth by a single apical cell is essentially the same in the fern as in the moss and some Algz. There follows from this a natural explanation of the growth by a single initial cell so commonly found in plants. The apical cell appears to be the one part of the massive plant-body (for instance, of Zaurencia, a moss, or a fern) that persists as a filament; it is a filament one cell long. It may be replaced by a group of initial cells, as we see in some Algz, Liverworts, and Pteridophyta, and this leads naturally to the small-celled meristems found in most Gymno- sperms and Angiosperms. The filamentous condition is then wholly lost, though the system of relations, and especially the polarity, is maintained throughout all the changes in the apical meristem. I feel confirmed in regarding the construction of the sporophyte in this fashion by the fact that it fits naturally with the conclusions resulting from the masterly comparative treatment of the embryology of the Vascular Crypto- gams by Professor Bower.'' These are (1) the primary importance of the longi- tudinal axis of the shoot, the position of the first root and the foot being variable; (2) the constancy of the position of the stem-apex near the centre of the epibasal half of the embryo; (3) the probability that embryos without suspensors have been derived from forms with suspensors, without any example - of the converse change. These and other related facts seem to find their morphological explanation in the shoot of the sporophyte being the result of the elaboration of a filament. The Construction of the Shoot. The view to which we are thus led is that the uniaxial shoot is a complex whole, equivalent to the axial filament together with its congenitally associated subordinated ‘branches.’ This applies to the multicellular plant-bodies found in various independent lines of Algee and Bryophyta, whether they have definite projecting appendages of the nature of leaves or not. The discarding of the distinction between thallus and shoot, which in practice has proved an unsatis- factory one, is no great loss. Even taking the word in the narrower sense of a stem with distinct leaves, the shoots in Algw, Liverworts, and Mosses, though 1° There are other lines of progression in complexity, the most important being the formation of a plant-body by the co-ordinated growth of a number of filaments. This line of advance is seen in many Alge, in the larger Fungi, and in the Lichens. Though it raises morphological questions of great interest, it is here left out of consideration as not bearing directly on the organisation of the higher plants. 4 Land Flora, chap. xlii. ZZ2 708 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K admittedly independent developments, exhibit an essential correspondence amounting to a homology of organisation. The resemblances are not analogies, for it is doubtful whether the ‘leaves’ in the different cases correspond in function. The comparison of the shoot of the sporophyte of a Vascular Cryptogam with, for example, the shoot of the Moss seems equally justifiable. It is only forbidden by strict phyletic morphology, which for our purpose has no juris- diction, The general agreement as regards the leaf-arrangement between the Ferns and the Bryophyta suggests that similar laws will be found to hold in the shoot of both gametophyte and sporophyte. Apart from plagiotropic shoots, there is a constructionally dorsiventral type of fern-rhizome. The leaves of this alternate as in the leafy Liverworts, while the radial type of fern corresponds to the moss-shoot. It is significant that the early leaves of radially constructed ferns usually exhibit a divergence of 4 in the seedling, passing higher up the stem into more complicated arrangements, and the same is the case in mosses. I must not enter into questions of phyllotaxy, but may remark on the hopeful- ness of attacking it from the study of the simpler shoots of Alge and Bryophyta rather than, as has usually been done, beginning with the Flowering Plants. In some ferns (the striking example being Ceratopteris) the relation between the segmentation of the apical cell and leaf-production is as definite as in the moss, each segment giving rise to a leaf. This may hold more widely for ferns than is at present demonstrated, and the question deserves thorough re- investigation to ascertain the facts independently of any theoretical views. That the coincidence of the segmentation of the shoot expressed by the leaf- arrangement and the segmentation of an apical cell is not a necessary one is, however, clearly shown in other ferns, and is obvious in the case of shoots with a small-celled meristem. The two segmentations appear to be determined by some deeper system of relations, which may also be manifested in a ccenocytic plant-body. In the complication of the uniaxial shoot introduced by branching also there seems to be an advantage in a wide area of comparison. The question most often discussed concerns dichotomous and monopodial branching. If the details of development are to be taken into consideration, the term ‘dichotomy’ has usually been very loosely applied. Apparent dichotomy, the continuation of one shoot by two equally strong ones, is fairly common. But in most cases investigated in detail the branching seems to be really monopodial and the forking due to the equally strong development of a lateral branch close to the main apex, not to the division of the latter. In plants growing by a single initial cell almost the only case of strict dichotomy known is the classic one of Dictyota, The branching of the ferns has been the subject of numerous investigations, but there is a great lack of developmental data. Usually the branches stand in some definite relation to the leaves of the shoot, behind, to one side or on the leaf-base itself, the most interesting but least common case being when the branch is in an axillary position. When the mature shoot only is considered, it is possible to argue for the derivation of monopodial branching from dichotomy or the converse. Even the facts obtainable from the mature plant, however, point to the dichotomous branching being a modification of the monopodial, the opposite view appearing to land us in difficulties regarding the morphology of the main shoot.'* It is unlikely that a dichotomy involving the division of the apical cell occurs in the fern-shoot, and comparison with the Bryophyta confirms the suspicion that the cases of dichotomy are only apparent. In considering the construction of the shoot we are at present limited to comparison of the normal structure and development. The system of relations in the shoot of the fern, affecting in the first place the distribution of the leaves and secondly that of the branches, appears, however, to be of the same nature as in the independently evolved shoots of Bryophyta and Alge. A morpho- logical analysis based on the simpler examples may lead on to the experimental investigation of the common construction. The relation that exists between the general construction and the vascular anatomy offers a special and more ** The conclusion arrived at by Schoute, that the angular leaf in ‘ dicho- tomous’ branching and the subtending leaf in monopodial branching are ete supports this view. Recueil des Travaux botaniques Néerlandais, vol. xi. ee ee a “2 Sh ins 9-8 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 709 immediately hopeful problem. Here also, in considering the fern, we are assisted by homologies of organisation in other Vascular Cryptogams and in the more complex Bryophyta, though the Alge are of little help. In few departments of botany has our knowledge increased so greatly and become so accurate as in that of vascular anatomy. The definiteness of the structures concerned and the fact that they have been almost as readily studied in fossil as in living plants has led to this. Not less important have been the clear concepts first of the bundle system and later of the stele under which the wealth of fact has been brought. Great progress has been made under the influence of phyletic morphology, and anatomy has adopted further conventions of its own and tended to treat the vascular system as if it had an almost inde- pendent existence in the plant. The chief method employed has been the comparative study of the mature regions, of necessity in the fossils and by choice in the case of existing plants. I do not, of course, mean to say that we are ignorant of the development of the vascular system, but the variety in it has not been adequately studied in the light of apical development. A gap in cur knowledge usually comes between the apical meristem itself and the region with a developed vascular system. It is in this intermediate region that the real differentiation takes place and the arrangement of the first vascular tracts is then modified by unequal extension of the various parts. The apical differ- entiation requires separate study for each grade of complexity of the vascular system even in the same plant. If we leok at the vascular system, not as if it had an independent existence nor irom the phyletic point of view, but as a differentiation taking place within the body of the individual plant, we can inquire as to the causal factors in the process.‘* A deeper insight into the nature of the stele may be obtained by regarding it as the resultant of a number of factors, as part of the manifestation of the system of relations in development. ‘The first step towards this is the critical consideration of normal developing plants, but so long as the causal influences in the developing substance of a plant remain unchanged the resulting vascular structure will remain constant. Our hope of advance lies in the study of cases where these influences are modified. Herein lies the value of abnormalities, of natural experiments, and the results of experimental inter- ference. Possible influences that have at various times been suggested are functional stimuli, the inductive influence of the older pre-formed parts on the developing region, and formative stimuli of unknown nature proceeding from the developing region. The functional stimuli do not come into play at the time of laying down the vascular tracts, though they may have importance in their maintenance later; the inductive influence of the anatomy of older regions is excluded in the first differentiation of the vascular system in an embryo; we are thus led to attach special importance to the detection of the action of formative stimuli proceeding from the young developing primordia. We have further to take external stimuli into account, though these must act by influencing the internal system of relations. Time will not permit of reference to the scattered literature bearing on this subject, but it may make the reality of such formative stimuli a little clearer if I refer to some examples that have turned up in the course of my morpho- logical work. In the case of the shoot, formative influences must act in the small apical region where we have the meristematic growing point with the primordia of the leaves. There is a presumption in favour of some sort of segmental construction of the meristem in relation to the leaves, whether this coincides with the cell-segmentation or not, and such a segmental construction is reflected in the vascular system. Can we in the first place distinguish any parts played by influences from the stem-apex and the developing leaves respec: tively? Unfortunately we know little or nothing of the anatomical relations in the rare cases of adventitious leaf-formation. We get a little insight into the respective influences of leaf and axis, however, when we compare shoots with well-developed leaves and those without leaves or with greatly reduced leaves ; this may be done between distinct plants or between different regions of the '* An advantage that follows from this is that we get clear of the misleading metaphor of leaf-traces ‘passing out,’ &c. 710 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. same plant. It seems to emerge from such comparisons that, as regards the xylem at least, a central strand may be independent of influences from the leaves, while the latter may not only determine the leaf-traces connecting with the central strand, but may influence the periphery of this; the result is a cylinder of outer xylem continuous with the leaf-traces. This general conception is borne out by widely different plants, the correspondences between which are homelogies of organisation. I may instance the stele of the Polytrichacee as analysed by Mr. and Mrs. Tansley, the stele of the rhizome and aerial shoots of the Psilotaceew, of the Lycopods with larger or smaller leaves, and the stele of the ferns at various ages of the plant. The shoot of /soetes, which is of the Lycopod type but has relatively large leaves, shows the composite nature of the stelar xylem particularly clearly and also suggests how the component influences are at work in the meristematic region of the stem bringing about the resultant structure.’* Owing to the small size of the shoot-apex it is difficult to induce deviations from the normal to show the respective parts played by the central axis and by the influences from the leaf-primordia. The reality of influences proceeding backwards from developing structures is better brought out when they may be present or absent, and for this lateral buds are of special interest. As a rule, the primary development of buds has proceeded far enough to determine the connecting vascular tracts, but in the case of the dormant axillary apices of Botrychium no influence has been exercised on the vascular structure of the main shoot. When, however, such a lateral apex is called into activity, it not only forms its own vascular system as it develops, but exerts an influence back- wards through permanent tissue leading to the production of a ‘ branch-trace ’ connecting with the adaxial face of the subtending leaf-trace. In Helmin- thostachys a similar connection is established with the stele of the main stem, and the influence may extend to the whole periphery of the main stele, inducing a continued or secondary production of xylem both behind and before the place of insertion of the branch, These constructions were in a sense called forth by experimental interference, since they occurred in plants the normal apical growth of which had been arrested. Plants of Osmunda are normally unbranched and no indication of dormant lateral apices have ever been detected. I tried on young plants of Osmunda regalis the experiment of injuring or destroying the apex of the shoot, with the result that in a number of them branching was induced. The vascular relations exhibited considerable variety, but in some clear cases the branch was developed in an axillary position with regard to a leaf-primordium™ and its vascular connection was with the adaxial face of the subtending trace in the same fashion as in Botrychium and in some species of Zygopteris. The disturb- ance of the normal growth had apparently brought out (in more or less irregular form) the system of relations governing the position of development of lateral branches, The result showed the correspondence with what is the normal con- dition in some Zygopteridee. It has been said from the phyletic side, and on the whole rightly, that experiment cannot reconstruct history. In the light of Dr. Kidston and Professor Gwynne-Vaughan’s conclusions as to the derivation of the Osmundacee from a Zygopterid ancestry this induced branching of Osmunda might almost be cited as a partial exception to the statement. _ These examples will suffice to indicate the justification for a change of attitude in the study of the vascular system. Looked at in this light, the stele appears not as a characteristic thing inherited as such, but as a complex resultant. The problem gains in interest, new questions (which are different from, though not antagonistic to, phyletic problems) can be put as to stelar structure, leaf-trace structure, the venation of leaves, &c. We see this if we glance at the pro- gression in stelar structure that accompanies the development of the young fern. “ This is confirmed by the origin of a similarly differentiated ‘stele’ im relation to the insertion of the successively produced roots at the base of the plant of Zsoetes. : *° Tn another case the leaf primordium appeared to be replaced by an axillary branch—cf. the case of Plagiogyria described by Bower, Annals of Botany, — vol. xxiv. p. 434, . PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 711 The phyletic explanation has been recapitulation. We have found reason to criticise the adequacy of this as applied to external form, and the same line of criticism applies to the stelar progression. In this also the early stages may be hurried over or absent and, still more significant, the early type of stelar structure may recur, when the shoot has fallen upon evil days and approximated in size of stem and leaf-form to the seedling condition. From such points of view the vascular system offers problems in general or causal morphology not merely of great interest but with some possibility of solution. Thus the parallel progressions from protostely to a medullated monostele, and from protostely to solenostely and dictyostely may be treated as problems in the expansion and condensation of a stelar structure, which is itself the re- sultant of a system of influences. Such parallel progressions are before us within tthe ferns and also in other groups of Vascular Cryptogams. One of the most remarkable of these (which also affords an example of a change in anatomical construction related to a change in the external conditions) is seen in the occurrence of a solenostele in the rhizome of Selaginella Lyalli. This has been explained by the relation of the aerial branch-systems to the rhizome being similar to that of the leaf to the creeping fern-stem. Professor Bower’s suggestion *° that In some way the different construction of the rhizome is due to the horizontal position acting as a ‘stimulating cause’ seems more in accordance with the facts for this Selaginella. At any rate, Mr. Speakman, working in my laboratory, has found that in Selaginella Lyalli all the lateral branches of the rhizome become polystelic, but, while this is maintained in the erect shoots, those which grow into horizontal branches become solenostelic by a fusion of the ring of separate steles first developed. Bruchman also found that polystelic shoots laid horizontally on the soil grow on into solenostelic rhizomes. This is so fundamentally different from the relation of the solenostelic and dictyostelic condition in ferns as to suggest that the homoplastic resemblance is here probably not a homology of organisation but due to different factors. There is ground for suspecting the anatomical method when it stands by itself and also for very critically considering explanations of structural change on the ground of utility. When in the attainment of any more complex whole (as, for instance, in the origin of the shoot, the ovule or the flower), a new system of relations is established and the external developmental morphology of the primordia and their mutual relations are changed, this will be reflected in the vascular system. The resulting change in the latter may, however, be profound and not appear as a gradual modification of the preceding vascular system. In the numerous theories of the construction of the shoot the evidence relied on has been partly comparison of mature form, partly, though to a léss extent, development, partly the vascular anatomy, and largely phyletic series, most of which are very questionable. I must touch on this subject, but do not propose to involve myself in the details of particular theories. They can be broadly divided into those which regard the stem as in one way or another built up of potentially and phyletically independent segments or phytons and those which regard the shoot as a phyletically pre-existing axis or stem from which the leaves have arisen by enation. Considering the antagonism between these two lines of interpretation of the shoot that has held throughout the history of botany, I feel diffident in suggesting that there is much truth in both. In the light of general comparison the leaves cannot be looked on as mere enations from an unsegmented axis; nor, on the other hand, can the latter be regarded as composed of united leaf-bases. There seems an element of truth in the idea that the shoot can be analysed into segments composed partly of stem and partly of leaf; and another element of truth in the idea of a central column being clothed by some sort of pericaulome, though the form in which Celakovsky and Potonié have stated their theories and the evidence advanced makes their accept- ance impossible. While the straightforwardness of the distinction between stem and leaf as put forward by Braun or in the strobilar theory is attractive and has apparent support in the apical development of the higher plants, it 18 Annals of Botany, vol. xxv, p. 567. y I 712 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. seems impossible to overlook a segmental construction of the whole shoot in relation to the leaves. The view of the general nature of the shoot to which we were led by a wide comparison including Alge, Bryophyta, and Pteridophyta seems io enable us to understand in natural relation to one another the reality of the monopodial axis, its segmental construction, and the origin of the free portion of the leaves as outgrowths. The shoot is a new whole to be understood in the light of the method of elaboration of the single filament with subordinated appendages. As soon as the shoot is recognisable as an entity, the distinction can be drawn between these strictly subordinated appendages or ‘leaves’ and branches which repeat the whole construction. I cannot enter into the question of whether the fern-leaf is to be regarded as a transformed branch system, further than to state my opinion that the correspondence of the fern shoot as a whole with that of a Lycopod or a moss makes such a difference between their leaves unlikely.’’ The evidence in its support is drawn partly from an assumed origin of shoots from a hypothetical thalloid or pro-hepatic type and partly from vascular anatomy. The evidence on such questions from anatomy is, for reasons already given, perhaps the least satisfactory available, since the vascular tracts are established after the shoot as a whole has come into existence. They may to some extent reflect the original construction of the shoot, but may be largely independent of this. - If we test the opposed theories by their application to such a fern as Ceratopteris in the light of its embryology and apical development we find that the conception of leat arising from leaf without the existence of a stem apex is not really supported by the facts. On the other hand, the segmentation of the shoot is evident throughout, owing to its coincidence with the apical segmen- tation. It is further most instructive to try to apply the various theories, whether phytonic or strobiloid, to the shoot of the moss with all its parallel correspondences to that of a higher plant. Alternation of Generations. The question of individual development led to the consideration of the morphology of the shoot. It also naturally leads us to glance again at the old problem of alternation of generations, for it is of profound interest to causal morphology that two very distinct individual forms should appear in the same life-cycle. The question thus raised concerns the nature of alternation, and is distinct from the historical question as to the origin of alternation, which for a time was regarded as constituting the whole problem. Any solution of the historical question depends on a knowledge of the lines of descent that have led to the various groups of the Alge, Bryophyta, and Pteridophyta. We have seen how little prospect there is of this. The various examples of alternation seem best regarded as homologies of organisation, independent manifestations of a similar condition. They are not less but more valuable on that account in studying the nature of alternation. To find the common ground from which the correspondences in this respect in the life-histories of Algew, Bryophyta, and Pteridophyta result we might have to go very far back, possibly to the life-cycle of unicellular organisms. Even there the phenomena might be of independent origin and the homologies not homogenies. Were this the case we should have to contemplate an intercalation theory of the vegetative tissues not only for the sporophyte but for the gametophyte. This is necessarily mere speculation, but it helps us to realise, as Dr. Scott once said, how insoluble the problem really is. - I wish to dwell for a little on an aspect of it which is more open to attack, however difficult. This is the analysis of the phenomenon as we see it in the life-history of the fern with the object of arriving at some idea of the causal factors in the difference between the two generations. In one sense the fern- plant and the prothallus appear like two individuals; in another the two stages are like parts of the same individual. We seem almost forced to assume that 17 The cases in Algz where a shoot appears to result from the subordination of branches to an axis are of great interest, but require further elucidation themselves, while the other line of elaboration is clear. The difficult cases are mainly found in the Fucacee, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. dls the specific substance of a fern can, as it were, exist in two auotropic modifica- tions, the properties of which are revealed in the unlikeness of the two genera- tions. Presented thus, alternation of generations becomes a special aspect of the problem of individual development. — Ai This aspect of the problem is, indeed, apparent within what we naturally regard as individual development, whenever this is discontinuous. Thus in the moss we see within the limits of the sexual generation a marked discontinuous development leading to the formation of the leafy shoots upon the protonema. The change to the more complex type of plant-body is in some way determined in a single cell, which proceeds to develop in a new fashion. In some cases the stimulus of light of sufficient intensity appears to be effective, but we know nothing of the internal factors at work. The change, however, is not rigidly pre-determined, and it is of interest to find it at first reversible; the apical cell of the young bud may continue as a protonemal filament, though this rarely occurs in an older shoot. As another instance of discontinuous development, where also we have hints of an explanation, I may remind you of the in- florescences of Veronica Chamcdrys. They differ in a number of respects from the main vegetative shoot of the plant, for instance in having spiral instead of decussate leaves and a different type of hair. When Klebs,'* experimenting on the transformation of reproductive to vegetative shoots, succeeded with in- florescence cuttings of Veronica, the unknown modification in the growing point resulted in a change to the whole alternative system of relations, the growth continuing as a vegetative shoot with decussate leaves. These two examples suggest that from the causal point of view the alternation of shoots and the alternation of bionts again become parts of the same problem. There is no sharp line between continuous and discontinuous development, but the dis- continuity makes it easier to analyse, and perhaps experimentally attack, some problems of development. This last consideration applies to the normal alternation of the prothaiius and fern-plant; the new start from the fertilised egg gives an impression of abrupt discontinuity greater than that in the origin of the inflorescence of Veronica or the moss-bud on the protonema, but the cases are not essentially different. It is true that the egg at fertilisation appears as a separate little mass of substance in the venter of the archegonium, but after fertilisation there is the closest physiological connection between the prothallus and embryo. In a sense the latter behaves as if it were a special bud or branch of the prothallus. Some years ago I attempted to re-state from the ontogenetic side the ques- tion of the different development of the enclosed egg-cell from the free spore. I assumed the two germ-cells to be ‘essentially alike, the different products of their development depending on the different conditions.” The development of the zygote in relation to the enclosing gametophyte was regarded as the important factor. Though the position taken up was somewhat crude, it was useful in eliciting statements on the subject from a number of botanists; this response being more valuable than the stimulus. The view advanced has been criticised in most helpful fashion by Professor V. H. Blackman,!* who took the ontogenetic ground to which I was endeavouring to shift the problem. He considers the egg and spore to be different, in that ‘one has received from the plant which bore it a tendency to become a sporophyte, the other a tendency to become a gametophyte.’ He further extends the idea of correlation, as explaining the orderly development of an individual, to the whole life-cycle, and considers ‘the various stages as united together by a cyclical correlation, one stage influencing the development of the other.’ Professor Blackman’s view does not seem inconsistent with mine, but together with it gives a better statement of the position. My attempt was really towards an explanation of this cyclical correlation. When germ-cells are separated from the parent body, as in the case of the various spores of a Uredineous fungus, any differences in their powers must have been impressed on them previously and are manifested given the proper conditions. So far as this goes, it applies to the spore of the fern and in part to the egg. But the latter is in a different 8 Willkiirliche Entwickelungsinderungen bei Pflanzen, p. 69. New Phytologist, vol. viii. p. 207. 714 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, case from the spore. While peculiarities may already have been impressed upon it, a metabolic relation with the prothallus still continues, and the developing embryo may be further influenced by the latter. The essential of the view I advanced was the possible importance of this continued influence on the retained egg and embryo as giving the clue to its different development as compared with the free spore. The idea of the retention of the ege may be made a little clearer by distinguishing between efféctive and ineffective retention. The mere fact that an egg develops within an oogonium or arche- gonium only amounts to ineffective retention if mutual relations are not established between it and the gametophyte. Thus retention is ineffective in Vaucheria or Gdogonium, but it is not clear that it is so in Coleochete. As regards the egg in the archegonium, however, there is evidence of mutual rela- tions between the embryo and the prothallus. We see changes in the calyptra and in other parts of the prothallus following on the presence of a developing embryo. On the other hand, the symmetry of the normal embryo and the position of its primary members is determined by the relation to the prothallus, and not by the external influences of light, gravity, &c. In trying to form any idea of the nature of the influences which result.in the cyclical correlation between gametophyte and sporophyte in the normal life- history the deviations from the normal met with in apogamy and apospory are of assistance; they have an importance for causal morphology which was almost wholly overlooked when the problem of alternation was stated from the phyletic point of view. The first examples of apogamy and apospory described in the ferns were associated respectively with an absence of the sexual organs or of sexual reproduction and imperfection or absence of the sporangia. Later work has not diminished the possible importance of this sexual arrest or soral arrest in some cases, but has shown that the problem is by no means simple or direct. To properly discuss it would require the consideration of examples, not only of the transitions between plant and prothallus, but of the mix-up of tissues and members of the two generations. Our knowledge of these has increased greatly, but in most cases we are only acquainted with the phenomena without being in a position to understand them. Let me remind you of some types of apogamy: apogamous development of an ovum; direct apogamy as a constant character of the particular species or variety; direct apogamy with the occurrence of structures intermediate between gametophyte and sporophyte ; induced apogamy in potentially normal prothalli; the develop- ment of isolated leaves, roots, ramenta, or sporangia upon a potentially normal prothallus. On the other hand, we have as manifestations of apospory : apospory as a regular characteristic of certain varieties; aposporous develop- ment from the attached leaves of young plants; induced apospory from the primary leaves of normal ferns; induced apospory by the arrest of spore pro- duction; and the occurrence of intermediate growths between sporophyte and gametophyte. Clearly no one formula will cover all these cases. The nuclear facts we now possess are of great interest, but do not give an explanation of the phenomena. The whole subject is a most promising one for critical and thorough experimental work, all that has yet been done in this direction being of the nature of prospecting. Let us now assume that the normal alternation is due to cyclical correlation and try to analyse this a little further in the light of the facts of apogamy and apospory. The simplest cases of direct apogamy show a fern sporophyte con- tinuous with the cushion of the prothallus, but with the relative position of its members the same as that of a plant developed from a fertilised egg. We are naturally inclined to think first of a change to the alternative system of rela- tions and to remember that in the case of the normal embryo this takes place in a similar relation to the prothallus. When, however, we consider the strange cases of the perfect development of isolated members or tissues of the sporo- phyte on or in the prothallus, we seem forced to think further of special formative influences that are of the nature of substance rather than of a system of relations. We are confirmed in this by the fact that a number of cells may be simultaneously and collectively influenced, and that the influence may be reversed. This holds both for apogamy and apospory; in the latter when the prothalli develop upon leaves attached to the plant, it is difficult to see ie Bil eae eel PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 715 how either external or internal influences equivalent to the usual relations can come into play. There is no nuclear change, at least of the nature of meiosis, and there seems nothing for it but to assume some material modification involv- ing the change to the alternative condition of the specific substance expressed in the prothallus. The interest of these considerations, tentative as they must be, lies in the way in which they associate two explanations of development the influence of particular, unknown determining substances and the system of relations. ‘ The whole question is fortunately not complicated with adaptation or any gradual origin of these deviations from the normal, and affords a particularly clear example of a problem in causal morphology. The perfect development of isolated members without the usual relation to the rest of the plant-body has an important regulative bearing on the current assumption that every stage in development is determined by the preceding stage. In this connection a most interesting parallel can be traced between the appearance of perfectly formed roots, ramenta, sporangia, and vascular tissue in induced apogamy and the development of bones, teeth, and hairs in dermoid cysts occurring in the human ovary or testis. The further study of the conditions of development in such abnormal cases may do much to enlighten us as to the factors concerned in the normal ontogeny. The Seed and ils Dmbryo. So far the problems considered in illustration of the possibilities of a general causal morphology have been suggested by the fern. The nature of roots, of the sexual organs, and of sporangia might also be profitably looked into from the non-phyletic point of view. I shall instead step beyond the fern and glance very briefly at some problems of the seed and the embryo of the seed plants. The story of the great additions made of recent years to our knowledge of Paleozoic seeds is familiar to us all. It remains an open question, however, to what extent seed-plants are to be regarded as of poly- phyletic origin and in particular to what extent their seeds are homogenous or are homologies of organisation. In spite of the wonderful widening of the field of comparison by the discovery and investigation of the Pteridosperms we have no compelling evidence of actual lines of descent showing steps in the origin of the seed. The presumption is now in favour of an origin of all or most seed-plants from ancient Filicales, the earlier view of their derivation from the Lycopodiales being weakened or abandoned. Since this phyletic problem lies, in part at least, within the period of geological history, direct evidence may be hoped for. But in the light of the progress of opinion on other large questions of descent we must remember the possibility of parallel evolutions, and may even suspend judgment as to whether the Cycadophyta have been derived from Pteridosperms or the Angiosperms from the Bennettitales. Comparisons of the organisation of the whole plant seem somewhat forced in both cases. Looking at the facts broadly, we can hardly escape from a very strong suggestion of parallel development affecting a number of distinct groups. There is evidence of this in the case of heterospory, which is found at various points in the Lycopodiales, Filicales, and Equisetales, usually with no indication of its being a gradually acquired or an adaptive character. Heterospory is otherwise a darker problem than the origin of the seed-habit to which it was presumably the preface. The study of the variety in early seeds has suggested to experi- enced investigators that seeds also may be the result of independent develop- ment. From the point of view of causal morphology the seed appears to present problems parallel to those of the enclosure of the archegoniate sporophyte in ‘the archegonium. The distinction made between effective and_ ineffective retention applies here also. The fact that the megaspores of some species of Selaginella germinate within the sporangium is not really an approach to the seed-habit; it is ineffective retention so far as results on either the spore- contents or the sporangium are concerned. In the development of the ovule, however, we find the embryo-sac constituting with the investing tissues a new *° Cf. Oliver and Salisbury, Annals of Botany, vol, xxv. p. 46. 716 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. whole. There is the same likelihood of effective correlations as in other portions of the individual plant in which a new relation is set up. Cases in which a new influence affects the meristematic structure of the plant—as, for instance, in galls or the root-tubercles of the Leguminose—seem to be parallel. They exhibit a differentiation of the investing tissue in relation to the enclosed por- tion and a suggestive similarity between the vascular arrangements in the root- tubercles and those in the more bulky ovules. The new construction in the galls cannot be regarded as in any sense adaptive or purposive on the part of the plant. We are forced to look at it causally, and perhaps such a mode of regarding the ovule and seed may prove to be the most helpful. On such a view the ovule would be a megaspore gall, later containing an embryo plant, and the problem would concern the system of relations existing between the parts as development proceeds. Corresponding causes might independently result in corresponding constructions and the homologies between various seeds or the contents of various embryo-sacs, though real, be homologies of organisa- tion. This is consistent with the ideas we were led to entertain in the case of the shoot and of alternation of generations. As a last example the embryo of the seed-plants may be referred to. though I must not venture far into the facts. While exhibiting differences, the embryos of various seed-plants present certain common features which contrast with the embryos of all spore plants, even the heterosporous torms. flow ia: aie Liicse peculiarities causally connected with the seed-habit and to what extent are they marks of phyletic unity? We have seen grounds for suspecting that seeds are parallel developments. What follows as to the construction of the embryo if we contemplate such independent origins from ancient Filicales? The suspensor has already been considered, and we can regard it as a persistent construction finding a use in some cases. In the embryos of the Filicales we see a very clearly marked type with a single relatively large cotyledon and a hypocotyledo- nary region between the shoot and root. Without entering into the question of whether or not the Monocotyledons were derived from Dicotyledons, 1t seems clear on broad phyletic grounds that a single cotyledon condition lies behind the dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous condition. There is thus a presumption that there has been a change in the primary members of the embryo in this direction. It seems worth while to emphasise that, from a phyletic point of view, there is a real inconsistency between the origin of seed-plants from the Filicales and the relative primitiveness of dicotyly. Is it not possible that the conditions of early embryonic growth in the more or less cylindrical seed may have led to a more symmetrical construction of the embryo, and that the dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous condition, on the one hand, and the mono- cotyledonous condition with an apparently terminal cotyledon on the other, are two alternative expressions of this? *! For reasons already given, the anatomy would follow the morphological change, and would have to be considered in the light of this, and not as affording safe evidence by itself. Conclusion. I have touched on a number of large questions, any one of which demanded separate treatment. My concern has not, however, been with them indivi- dually but as cognate problems justifying the deliberate adoption of a causal explanation as the aim of morphological work. I have confined myself to problems bearing on the development and self-construction of the individual and tried to treat them so as to illustrate the causal attitude and possible lines of attack. Preliminary speculations on the questions considered can at best contain a germ of truth, and must be subsequently adjusted in the light of further facts. I have discussed these questions rather than the smaller modifications in individual development shown in metamorphosis, partly because the latter have of late years been treated from a causal point of view * and 71 Recent observations of Coulter and Land on the embryo of Agapanthus appear to afford direct support to this view arrived at by quite a different line of comparison,—Boat. Gaz. vol. lvii. p. 509. 22 Cf. especially, ‘The Fundamental Problems of Present-day Plant Mor- phology,’ Science, N.S. vol. xxii. p. 33, and other works by Goebel. rae VT eS ee Pre 7?" PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. rally) partly because I wished to consider questions that immediately affect us as working morphologists. Did time allow, we should naturally be led to recognise the same change of attitude in biological science toward the problems of the origin of new forms. Questions of bud-variation and mutation are clearly akin to some of those considered, and the whole subject of genetics is a special attempt at a causal explanation of form and structure and the resulting functions, Close co-operation between the morphological analysis of the plant and the genetic analysis attained by the study of hybridisation is most desirable. It is especially desirable that both should deal with structure as well as with form, and in the light of individual development. The causal factors which have determined and guided evolution can be naturally regarded as an extension of the same line of inquiry. The Darwinian theory, and especially the exposition of the principle of natural selection, was the greatest contribution ever made to the causal explanation of the organic world. Strangely enough, it led to a period of morphological work in which the causal aim was almost lost sight of. Why evolution has taken place in certain directions and not in others is a problem to the solution of which causal morphology will contribute. The probability of orthogenesis both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms is again coming into prominence, however it is to be explained. When we consider the renewed activity in this field it is well to remember that, just as is the case with causal morphological work, we are pick- ing up a broken thread in the botanical web. Lastly, as if summing up all our difficulties in one, we have the problem of adaptation. In attacking it we must realise that use and purpose have often been assumed rather than proved. We may look to scientific ecological work to lelp us to estimate the usefulness or the selection value of various characters of the plant. On the other hand, causal morphology may throw light on whether the ‘ adaptation’ has not, in some cases at least, arisen before there was a ‘use’ for it. The hopeful sign in the recent study of these greater morphological problems is that the difficulties are being more intensely realised, and that rapid solutions are justly suspect. The more the causal attitude is adopted in ordinary morphological work, the more hope there is of these larger questions being inductively studied rather than argued about. . The causal aim is essentially different from the historical one, but there is no opposition between causal and phyletic morphology. They are rather mutually helpful, for there has been an evolution not of mature plants, but of specific substances exhibiting development. A deeper insight into the nature of ontogeny is thus bound to be of assistance to phyletic morphology, while the tested results of phyletic work afford most valuable guidance in general causal morphology, though this cannot accept any limitation to single lines of descent in its comparisons. I have tried to bring before you the possibilities of causal morphology partly because the same attention has never been given to it in this country 7° as to other branches of botany and partly because if morphology be conceived in this broader spirit it need not be said that it has no practical bearing. I should not regard it as a serious disability were the study of purely scientific interest only, but this is not the case. When, if ever, we penetrate into the secrets o1 organisation so far as to be able to modify the organism at will (and genetics has advanced in this direction), the practical possibilities become incalculable. Probably all of us have reflected on what changes the war may bring to botanical work. It is impossible to forecast this, but I should like to emphasise what my predecessor said in his Address last year as to pure science being the root from which applied science must spring. Though results may seem far off, we must not slacken, but redouble our efforts towards the solution of the fundamental problems of the organism. This can be done without any antagonism between pure and applied botany ; indeed, there is every advantage *° One of the few exceptions to this is the excellent semi-popular lecture delivered to this section at Southport by Professor Farmer. (‘On Stimulus and Mechanism as Factors in Organisation,’ New Phytologist, vol. ii. p. 193.) Also Address to Section K at the Leicester Meeting (1907). 718 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. in conducting investigations on plants of economic importance. It would be well if every botanist made himself really familiar with some limited portion of applied botany, so as to be able to give useful assistance and adyice at need. The stimulus to investigation would amply repay the time required. Even in continuing to devote ourselves to pure botany we cannot afford to waste time and energy in purposeless work. It is written in ‘ Alice in Wonder- land’ that ‘no wise fish goes anywhere without a porpoise,’ and this might hang as a text in every research laboratory. A plant is a very mysterious and wonderful thing, and our business as botanists is to try to understand and explain it as a whole and to avoid being bound by any conventional views of the moment. We have to think of the plant as at once a physico-chemical mechanism and as a living being; to avoid either treating it as something essentially different from non-living matter or forcibly explaining it by the physics and chemistry of to-day. It is an advan- tage of the study of causal morphology that it requires us to keep the line between these two crudities, a line that may some day lead us to a causal explanation of the developing plant and the beginnings of a single science of botany. In replying to a unanimous vote of thanks, the President said :—We meet under the immediate shadow of a great loss to British botany. Professor D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, who was for many years Secretary and then Recorder of this Section, died on Saturday, September 4, and his funeral takes place this morning. There is no need for me, in speaking to botanists, to dwell on the value of Professor Gwynne-Vaughan’s work. I could wish that Dr. Scott and Professor Bower, in whose laboratories his earlier work was done, and Dr. Kidston, with whom he has since so brilliantly collaborated, were here to speak. Alike in dealing with the anatomy of existing plants and with the fossil ferns, his work is characterised by rare originality combined with the greatest thoroughness. His papers on the anatomy of solenostelic ferns have exerted a deep influence on the methods and the modern development of plant-anatomy, while the series of memoirs on the fossil Osmundacew are a great contribution to paleobotany. Gwynne-Vaughan leaves a solid monument of achievement, but the loss of the work which a man with such genius for investigation might yet have done is an irreparable one. While in his published work Professor Gwynne-Vaughan confined himself to plant-anatomy, in which he was a master, he was a botanist of wide interests, in the field as well as in the laboratory, and a stimulating teacher. I cannot trust myself to speak of him as a colleague and as a friend. In order to mark our sense of the great loss to botanical science caused by Professor Gwynne-Vaughan’s premature death, and of our deep sympathy with Mrs. Gwynne-Vaughan, I move on behalf of the Committee that we adjourn the business of the Section for the time of the funeral service. Professor IF. E. Weiss seconded the motion for adjournment, which was carried unanimously, the members upstanding. The Section then adjourned until noon. i 3 4 The following Papers were afterwards read :— 1. On the Expression by Measurement of Specific Characters, with special reference to Mosses. By Professor Junrus MacLmop, University of Ghent. Is it possible to describe and to identify an animal or a vegetable species by means of figures representing the value of the specific characters ? J have tried to realise this by measuring 38 characters in about 90 species and 20 varieties of the genus Carabus. For each character I have determined the minimal, median, and maximal value in each species and variety. The figures, set in order in tables, enabled me to describe and to identify the species and varieties more accurately than by the — usual meee of description. The war prevented me from finishing and publishing my work, I tried to carry out similar work withYplants, in the Cryptogamic Laboratory — TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 719 of the University of Manchester. On the suggestion of Prof. Lang, I took mosses of the genus Mnium. I limited myself to the study of the leaves of the fertile stem of seven species of that genus, the material being obtained from the Barker Collection of British Mosses. When we measure, for instance, the length of the successive leaves from the base to the summit of a fertile stem of a Mnium, we see that the length increases up to a maximum and then diminishes. Example : Table a: Mnium punctatum, a stem with 10 leaves, in mm. Leaves 1 2 3 4 ‘5, 6 7 8 9 10 Length 0.97 1.31 2.42 4.15 5.37 644 17.18 7.12 6.39 2.46 This curve represents the period of growth of the character under considerativit along the axis; it is something quite different from a variation-curve properly so called. The seven species of Mnium agree in this respect with Table a. In this paper I limit myself (except in one case) to that part of the stem which extends from the lowest leaf to the longest one. As the number of leaves is variable (between 8 and 56), I have divided this part of the stem into ten intervals, measuring the minimal, median, and maximal value of each character in the leaves of each interval. The figures of each given interval thus become comparable with the figures of the same interval in all the stems and species. Following this method, we find that the periods of all the measured characters of the seven species may be brought under three types : 1. The character increases from the base to the longest leaf and decreases beyond this. ‘The curve in Table a is an example of this type. 2. The character reaches its maximum below the longest leaf, the position of the maximum being to a certain degree variable. Example: The breadth of the leaves of Mnium cuspidatum (Table 8); the maximum here falls about the interval 4, the longest leaf being here the narrowest ! Fable B (mm.). Intervals 1 2 3 4 5 6 ui 8 9 10 Breadth . 0.80 0.96 0.98 1.00 0.97 0.96 0.92 0.87 0.79 0.71 3. The character reaches its highest value in the leaves which are above the longest leaf. Example: In Mnium punctatum, the nerve is short and never reaches the summit of the leaf in the three first intervals; in the intervals 4-10 it grows longer and approaches the summit more and more; in the leaves above the longest one in all the specimens the nerve reaches the summit. These three types are more or less variable along different lines. ‘The increase of a character from one interval to the following is more or less rapid. In several cases the increase is rapid in the first intervals and slower further on. Example : The number of cells in the transverse direction at the place of the greatest breadth in Mnium cuspidatum (Table y).: Table vy. Intervals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cells . 59 74 8 82 84 86 85 86 85 80 Some characters have the value 0, i.e., they do not exist in the first intervals ; they show their period in the following intervals. The knowledge of the period of a certain number of characters C7 i ene eng enables us to make clear the variability of the leaves of the same stem. ‘The value of the characters a, b,c... .. of each leaf depends on the position of the leaf. In other words, a leaf which belongs to the x interval will have the values of the curves of the characters a, b, c, . . . . in that interval. As each character has its own inde- pendent curve, and as much diversity exists among the curves, the result is a practically unlimited number of combinations. Each leaf shows such a combination. It is impossible to analyse this form of variability by any other method. By: the knowledge of the periods and by the division of the axis into a certain number of intervals (I have managed with ten), we are enabled to study the correlation which exists or may exist : (a) Between the characters of the leaves of one stem; 720 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. (6) Between the leaves of several stems of the same species (by comparing the leaves which belong to the same interval in all the stems) ; (c) Between the leaves of several species of the same genus (same method as for 6). We are also enabled to study more accurately the ordinary variability of a given character among individuals of the same species, by comparing the leaves of the successive intervals 1, 2, . . . . of several specimens. The description of a species, according to my method, consists of a certain number of tables giving the period of each character, the figures being based as far as possible on specimens from several localities. I have studied Mniuwm cuspidatum, M.hornum, M. punctatum, M. rostratum, M. serratum, M. subglobosum, M. undulatum; for each species the following characters were taken: Length, breadth, breadth at the base, number of cells and breadth of the cells at the place of the greatest breadth, breadth of the border and number of cells of the border at the same place, number of teeth at the border and on the nerve, length of the nerve (reaching the summit or not), tooth at the summit of the leaf (present or absent), total number of leaves of the fertile stem. To make the cdentification of a given specimen easier, we may use tables giving the minimal and maximal values of each character for the leaves of the 10% interval (longest leaves) only. The following Tables are of this nature :— Table 6 (mm.). Table « (mm.). Length, minimum. Length, maximum, Serratum ‘ ; : 4 . 291 Serratum : 3 ‘ ; o) 4.53 Cuspidatum 2. (. «ws 88) Cuspidatum GS Subglobosum. . 9. | .% « « 4145) Subglobosum . 9 2 . 2) 1) 706 Rostratum : ; : s - 490 Hornum . . : 5 3 - T.49 Hornum . 5 5 ; é . 542 Rostratum : Ns s : « 8.32 Punctatum . ‘ : é . 5.75 Punctatum 3 3 3 : > 9:21 Undulatum ; ; 2 : . 6.93 Undulatum . . .« oo SEG Table ¢ (mm.). | Table » (mm.). Breadth, minimum, Breadth, maximum. Serratum . ; : 2 . - 0.72 | Serratum . ‘ : ; : 27, Hornum . . - : - 0.87 | Hornum . , 5 E ; en 88) Cuspidatum,. nr ah et ew D9) Cuspidatuma & 2 tn 5 eS Rostratum F P ; . - 1.80 | Undulatum : . : z 2535 Undulatum ; R 5 : - 1.82 | Rostratum ‘ 5 Z ; «3219 Punctatum 5) le BAe atcunyh 2A0Ts |iSubglobosum: ssh a ae oe Subglobosum . . . « « 3.05 | Punctatum soOpet ee eos For example, on using the Tables 5-7, we take the longest leaf of a fertile stem and obtain the following measurements: Length 5.64 mm., breadth 2.15 mm, Let us try to identify the species by means of the tables: 6 excludes undulatum (and perhaps punctatum); ¢« excludes serratum and cuspidatum; ¢ excludes punctatum and subglobosum; 7 excludes serratum, cuspidatuwm (both already excluded), and hornum. The stem thus belongs to the species rostratum. In this example it was possible to find the name by two characters ; of course, we shall often be compelled to make use of three or more characters. As we have at our disposal a dozen of characters, we may hope that the identification of a given specimen will be always possible, even if the species to be considered were more numerous, the specific tables of the periods allowing verification, 2. The Aptian Flora of Britain: Early Angiosperms and their Contempo- raries. By Dr. Marie C. Sropgs. The so-called ‘Lower Greensand’ deposits of this country are of Aptian age, and represent the upper division of the Locretaceous according to the recent classification of Haug. From these deposits the plants hitherto known ¢ _ , § TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 721 _—— — — —notably Bennettites Gibsonianus Will. and Cupressinoxylon vectense Barber— have been so few that it has been impossible to speak of a Lower Greensand ‘flora.’ It has been generally assumed that both the climate, and the animals and plants then living were the same as those of the preceding Wealden. As a result of recent work the author has now brought together a flora consisting of 45 species, containing 9 Cycadophyta, 27 Conifers, and 5 Angio- sperms. Most of these are represented by petrifactions of the cellular anatomy, and many are very beautifully preserved. Some of the forms have structures of botanical interest, while others are of value as indicators of the climate of the epoch, of which nothing was previously known. It is interesting to find evidence of a change of climatic conditions about this time, so that the cooler weather and well-marked seasons of the Lower Greensand afford a great contrast to the ‘tropical climate’ of the Wealden of Southern England. Among the plants of botanical interest may be mentioned a new genus of Cycadophyta with curious wood structure; a new species of Protopiceoxylon; the leaf anatomy of a true Sequoia; several species of Pityoxylon with well- developed ray-tracheids; and several Dicotyledons. It should be remembered that these are all contemporaneous with the type species of Bennettites. ‘lhe Angiosperms are the oldest found in Northern Europe, and the oldest of which the anatomy is known. They are all woody; two of them, at least, must have had tall timber trunks. In some of them the minute details are particularly beautifully petrified, and show a very high degree of organisation. Like the Conifers, they show seasonal growth. They represent a dry—possibly fairly high—land vegetation. 3. The Application of Science to the Cotton Industry. By W. Lawrence Batts, M.A. The cotton industry does not consist of spinning and manufacture alone, but of cotton-growing as well. Co-operation between the spinner and the grower is desirable, and for this the scientists should be able to provide a language common to both. Advances may be made in the organisation of the industry as a whole by more exact knowledge of the available supplies of raw material. Science could be applied to steady the market by producing precise crop-reports and crop- forecasts, which might even be issued daily, like weather-charts. The seed- supply might also be arranged so that production should meet the demand fore- seen by the mills. In studying the cotton-crop it is now an easy matter to follow the life- history of experimental plots and areas in minute detail from day to day throughout the season. The effects of weather, soil, &c., can thus be exactly traced. Cotton-growing need not be an empirical art. The introduction of pure strains of cotton has already thrown some light on the spinning properties of raw cotton. Pure-strain lint will spin well, even when the sample is such as the expert grader would condemn as worthless. It is more uniform. If thoroughly studied in the mill, this peculiar behaviour of pure strains will lead to better knowledge of the spinning properties of cotton. Such knowledge of the causes which determine the properties of any given sample of cotton is not merely desirable, but is necessary, if co-operation is to be effected between the grower and the spinner. The latter must be able to state what kind of cotton he needs, using language which the grower can under- stand. At present the sole reliable test for the value of a sample of cotton is to spin yarn from it, which the grower obviously cannot do. With such knowledge and co-operation, the strength of the yarn might be increased very appreciably. 1915. , nay 722 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Papers were read :— 1. Preliminary Observations on the Nature and Distribution of the Statolith Apparatus in Plants. By Miss T. L. PRanxerp, B.Sc. The term ‘statolith’ is used to designate a body free to fall within the cell (the statocyte) which contains it. Liverworts show a response to gravity in the disposition of their reproductive organs, which is most marked in the gametophores, e.g., Lunularia cruciata, Corsinia marchantioides, Plagiochasma italicum, fReboulia hemispherica, Fegatella conica; and the statolith apparatus shows a striking correspondence in (1) locality, (2) time of appearance, and (3) degree of development. Ferns develop a statolith apparatus at the physical apex of young fronds which show negative geotropism. The case of Ophioglossum vulgatum. Certain Monocotyledons which do not ordinarily produce starch nevertheless develop statoliths, e.g., the foliage leaves of Narcissus. Seedlings show statoliths in the developing root and stem, even when no starch is contained in the resting plumule or radicle, and when no trophic starch is produced by these young organs. The petioles of many foliage leaves possess statoliths which do not disappear when all the trophic starch is dissolved. Special interest attaching to the case of Sagittaria sagittifolia. Statoliths seem to be absent from very delicate organs (e.g., some seedlings, Anthoceros sporophyte), from organs in which a geotatic position is of no advantage (e.g., vegetative thalli), and from organs where curvature is impossible. The present investigation indicates that— Statoliths are often chloroplasts, which may be termed ‘ chlorostatoliths’ ; e.g., Lunularia, Ophioglossum, Myriophyllum Proserpinacoides. Statocytes may be specialised (1) in shape (as in Polygonum persicaria), (2) in the possession of larger nuclei than the cells of the surrounding tissue (as in Polygonum amphibium), and (3) in the behaviour of the nucleus (as in some Pteridophytes). The statolith apparatus consists of the whole system of statocytes, which, in Angiosperms, are usually to be found abaxially to the phloem, but may occur singly or in patches in the ground tissue (‘diffused type’), or may themselves form a tissue (‘complete type’), for which the term ‘ statenchyma’ has been suggested. Modifications and transitional forms occur. The author considers the . statolith an intensive mechanism, the simplest form of statocyte being the living cell, which, passing through transitional stages, reaches its highest expression in the cell containing relatively heavy bodies differentiated both in size and mobility. 2. On the Liquid Pressure Theory of the Circulation of Sap in Plants. By Dr. Saran M. Baker. The two main theories at present current to explain the ascent of sap in trees are the cohesion theory of Dixon and the vitalistic theory upheld by Ewart and Janse. A new method of calculating the cohesion of liquids from the latent heat, by a modification of Stefan’s equation, shows that cohesion varies inversely with the absolute temperature. Dixon and Joly’s experimental demonstration of large cohesive forces in the interior of liquids depends, therefore, upon the increased cohesion caused by lowering the temperature of an enclosed liquid, and cannot be applied to liquids at constant temperature. On the other hand, the experiments of Strasburger and Dixon on the ascent of sap through dead wood have shown that the postulate of the co-operation of parenchymatous tissues in the stem is untenable. The present theory is founded primarily upon the ecological evidence that Se ey eee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 723 high trees only grow where there is a possibility of the access of water-vapour to their roots. When either drought or low temperature or an excess of liquid water decreases the vapour supply beyond a certain limit, trees disappear, while the plants occupying these habitats show marked xeromorphy. The theory assumes that the root is divided into two regions: (a) the root hair zone, specialised for salt absorption, which is permeable to liquid water or ‘“hydropermeable’; and (6) the growing region of the root-tip, specialised for water absorption, which is impermeable to liquids but permeable to water- vapour. Both assumptions are justified by experiment. The membrane of the root-tip has been called ‘aeropermeable’ because it is permeable to gases but not liquids, and its activities are responsible for the pumping efficiency of the root. A membrane with these properties has not been artificially prepared. But it is possible to deduce its qualities mathematically by comparison with the known semipermeable membranes. Its most important function is to demonstrate the pressure of the substance it encloses, i.e., liquid water. The total internal pressure of liquid water has been calculated by Van der Waals and Stefan, and reaches magnitudes of 20,000 atmospheres at low temperatures. Because this pressure is normally nullified by cohesion it can only become available when, by a valvular device of molecular dimensions, the liquid is allowed to pass in one direction and not the other. This device is afforded by the aeropermeable membrane. Through it liquid pressure may be generated by a chemical reaction (¢.g., respiration) which produces water at the expense of a gas, or by a physical change of state producing liquid from the condensation of vapour. The latter mechanism, according to this theory, is responsible for root- pressure. The condensation of vapour is effected by the lowering of vapour- pressure caused by the osmotic substances in the cell solution. This is suffi- cient to counteract the increase of vapour-pressure caused by internal hydro- static pressure. The condensation involves a direct conversion of energy and 90 per cent. of the latent heat evolved in the process (580 cals. per gramme at 20°) may, theoretically, be converted into liquid pressure. This energy is sufficient to raise two hundred times the weight of the condensed water to 100 metres, allow- ing that the frictional resistance to flow in the xylem is five times the hydro- static head. The ultimate source of energy is the combined action of capillarity imbibition and solar heat on soil particles of different sizes, which produces a slight supersaturation in the interstices of the soil. The second function of the root—the absorption of nutrient salts—is sup- posed to be, effected by the alternate extrusion and absorption of an acidic solvent through the root hairs. The conflicting evidence on the presence of this acid excretion is reconciled by the recognition of the aeropermeable membrane in the root-tip. Further, it is suggested that the movement of water in plants is a circu- lation, in which the whole upward current travels in the xylem and the whole downward current in the phloem, while the medullary rays serve to maintain the continuity at every level. 3. The Effect of Temperature on the Permeability of Protoplasm to Water. By Dr. E. Marion DELF. By the use of the optical lever and an apparatus designed by Dr. F. F. Blackman it has been possible to observe minutely the gradual contraction of a plant tissue undergoing plasmolysis, and thus to determine the rate at which water passes out through the protoplasm by exosmosis. By making these observations at different temperatures, the effect of temperature on the perme- ability of protoplasm has been investigated. The behaviour of plant tissue during plasmolysis depends considerably upon the strength of solution employed. With dilute solutions of cane sugar and dandelion scapes, the course of plasmolysis at any temperature is represented approximately by a logarithmic curve. Curves of this type were obtained at different temperatures ranging from 8° to 42° C,, and the rate of passage of i Fe-t 342 724 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. water through the protoplast was obtained by measuring the tangent of the slope of the appropriate curve at several specified stages of plasmolysis. For comparing the rates of permeation at different temperatures, values obtained from corresponding stages in plasmolysis were alone used. Thus for dandelion scapes at mid-plasmolysis, the rates were :— 1 2 3 5 8 12 and 22 at 8° 14° 19° 26° 29° 34° and 42° C. The temperature effect thus seen is much greater than that observed by van Rysselberghe, who by measuring the contraction of pith cylinders in plasmo- 1ysing solutions at different temperatures found comparatively little difference 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° I. 5 te = ~ +. - - 0 5° 40° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45° Curves showing the effect of temperature on permeability of protoplasm. AA. Pith experiments of van Rysselberghe. BB. Pilobolus (sporangiophores). CC. Dandelion (scape of inflorescence). in the rates above 20° C. It is comparable with the results of Lepeschkin, who observed the effect of temperature on the rate of secretion of water-drops by the sporangiophores of Pilobolus, and thence deduced the effect on the perme- ability of protoplasm. These results are expressed graphically in the curves A (van Rysselberghe) and B (Lepeschkin); the curve C is derived from the figures quoted above for dandelion scapes. From the curve of rates of permeation for dandelion, the following coefficients of acceleration of rate for a rise of temperature of 10° C. can be calculated : 10° to 20° C. 2-5 20° to 30° C. 2:5 30° to 40° C. 2-3 From Lepeschkin’s data, the corresponding coefficients for these temperature intervals are found to be 2°2, 1°7, and 2°1 respectively. Van Rysselberghe’s: ahead ps ie en ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 725 curve does not represent comparable rates at different temperatures, since he made his measurements not at specified stages of plasmolysis but after a fixed time interval (two hours), when the pieces at low temperatures were at an early stage, while those at high temperatures were completely plasmolysed. 4. The Respiration of Partly-dried Plani Organs. By A. Mauins Suara. Plant-organs, such as the leaves of the Snowdrop, stem-tips of Z'ropaolum, and young stems of Asparagus, were deprived of varying proportions of the water they contained by dryimg in a vacuum desiccator at a pressure of about half an atmosphere. In the partly dried condition their CO, output was measured by passing over them a stream of CO, free air and analysing the out- going air by means of baryta in Pettenkofer tubes. Confirmatory experiments were made with plants dried at ordinary atmosphere pressure. The results were as follows :— (1) When deprived of from 4 to $ of the total water contained, the respiration of the dried plants was increased over that of normal plants. This occurred in the case of stems of Z'ropawolum, stems and roots of Bean seedlings, and in the leaves of the Snowdrop. A very slight increase was found in stems of Sempervivum.. No increase was found in young stems of Pony or in young stems of Asparagus. On account of the time taken in drying, the first phase of normal respiration was completed before the plants were tested, and all the results apply to the second phase, called by Dr. F. F. Blackman the ‘ protoplasmic’ respiration, when the reserve food supply of the organs has practically disappeared. (2) Experiments to find whether this increased effect was a reversible one have not yet been conclusive, but so far there is no evidence for reversibility. (3) A thorough investigation of the course of respiration with varying amounts of water lost, a fresh lot of plants being used for each test, showed that the resulting respiration could be divided into three phases :-— (i) On removing small percentages of water, from 0 to about 30 per cent. of the water originally present, the respiration gradually increased in proportion to the amount of water removed. (ii) In the second phase the respiration remained steady at the increased level. The length of this phase varied, lasting from 25 or 30 per cent. to 50 or 60 per cent. loss of water. (iii) From 50 to 60 per cent. loss up to complete dryness the respiration decreased again proportionally to the amount of water lost. The curve of results indicated that in all material the plants continued to give out some CO2 as long as any water was left in the tissues. There were minor differences between the results in the two principal cases investigated, namely Snowdrop leaves and Z'ropwolum stems, but in each case the three phases were clearly marked. The meaning of the increased ‘protoplasmic’ respiration in partly dried material is obscure. Harden and Paine have shown that the activity of glycogenase in the autofermentation of yeast is increased by simple drying. Possibly the increased respiration shown in these experiments may be due to the increased activity of one or more enzymes. Further experiment on that part of the curve of CO, output relating to plant organs which are almost perfectly dry may throw some light on the question of residual vitality, and may perhaps have interesting connections with the condition of air-dry seeds. Demonstrations were given in the Botanical Laboratories of the University by Dr. Sarah M. Baker, Professor W. B. Bottomley, Professor F. O. Bower, Professor D. Ellis, Professor Julius MacLeod, Professor F. W. Oliver, Professor T. G. B. Osborn, Mrs. Edith M. Osborn, and Dr. Marie C. Stopes in connection with their papers: also by Miss N. Bancroft (Petiole of Zygopteris (Ze°- > TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. cylindrica); Miss T. L. Prankerd (Simplified Method for Estimating the Strength of Wheat); Mr. W. Robinson (Germ-tubes of Uredinee and Abnormal Spermogonia) ; Mrs. M. G. Thoday (Seeds of Gnetumgnemon); Dr. D. Thoday (Micro-eudiometer for measuring gas evolved by assimilating water-plants) ; Mr. ee B. Speakman (Branching of Rhizome in Selaginella Lyallii), and Professor ‘, E. Weiss. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Phyletic Arrangement of the Filicales, with special regard to the Dipterids and Pteridee. By Professor F. O. Bower, F'.R.S. 2. Further Deductions from the Figures of Rarity of the Ceylon Flora. By Dr. J. C. Wruuts. In a recent paper the author endeavoured to prove that the commonness of a species depends upon its age (in the country concerned) and that local endemic species are simply new species in the earlier stages of spreading. Accepting these conclusions, we may go on to deduce many others from the figures of rarity of the Ceylon flora. : From the fact that the species of wide distribution (which must be the oldest) increase in number up the scale of commonness, whilst the endemics (the youngest) increase downwards, and the @eylon-Peninsular-Indian species are comparatively evenly distributed along it, the conclusion is drawn that tables like these represent three stages in the history of a group of species, the distribution of the ‘ wides’ being the latest. Tables, &c., were given from which it is concluded (1) that there is no evidence that any species are dying out; (2) that the dry zone of Ceylon was on the whole peopled with plants a good deal later than the wet, and received its flora in two ways, either directly from the dry zone of India, or from the wet zone of Ceylon, the plants entering by the latter route becoming more quickly common; and (3) that there is little to choose in average age in Veylon between (a) herbs and (6) shrubs and trees, though there is evidence to show that the Monocotyledonous trees and shrubs are very old, and that the Gamopetale as a whole are older in Ceylon than the Archichlamydez. 3. The Periodicity, due to Coppicing, exhibited by the Ground Flora of Oak-Hornbeam Woods on Clays and Loams. By Dr. H. J. SALISBURY. Before the shrub layer is coppiced two phases can be recognised, viz., (1) The Light Phase, extending from the leaf-fall in autumn to leaf-expansion in spring, and (2) the Shade Phase, from about the middle of spring to autumn. During the former period from 40 to 60 per cent. of the total light reaches the ground vegetation, whilst during the latter from 5 to under 1 per cent. only penetrates. It is probably the degree of shading during the Light Phase which largely determines the amount of ground flora. (The light intensities were obtained by means of an actinometer. The intensity outside the wood at the time of the test being taken as the standard.) The alternations between ‘ Light ’ and ‘Shade’ phases also correspond to alternations in the degree of exposure. The ground-flora of the uncoppiced wood consists almost exclusively of perennial herbs which possess storage organs. These produce their foliage very early in the spring. Thus most of their assimilation is carried on during the ‘ Light’ phase. With a few exceptions (Mercurialis, Galeobdolon) the vegetative periods — of the members of the shade-flora end soon after the ‘Shade’ phase begins, After the undergrowth is coppiced there is a great increase in the number | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. . 727 of species, as also in the total amount of vegetation, occupying the areas formerly shaded. The invading species are mostly those which, before coppicing, were confined to the margin of the wood and the edges of the paths. Thus the total number of species in the wood as a whole remains relatively constant. The chief exceptions to this generalisation are plants with a good dispersal mechanism, chiefly weeds, which occupy neighbouring areas of cultivation. The total number of species increases for several years, but the maximum development of the ground-flora is reached in the second or third year after coppicing. The coppiced wood has a higher acidity and lower water-content than the uncoppiced. Plants tolerating high acidity are often abundant, and correlated with the diminished shelter rosette plants are frequent. ,As the coppice-stools sprout, the shelter and shade become gradually re-established. The light-demanding flora forms a reticulum in which the stools and shade- loving species occupy the meshes. . Finally the light-demanding species only survive by the paths and along the edge of the wood. If the coppicing period be short, a few may survive in a non-flowering condition till the undergrowth is again cut. Before coppicing, the later flowering species often do not bloom, but in the second year after coppicing they usually flower profusely (Galeobdolon, Ajuqa, Conopodium). Individuals in the coppiced part of a wood tend to come into bloom earlier than those of the same species in the uncoppiced part. This is probably related to illumination and the temperature of the soil. The latter in the spring is usually higher in the coppiced than in the uncoppiced areas. Frequent coppicing appears to prevent regeneration of the shrub layer from seedlings. 4. Observations on the Morphology of Selaginella uliginosa Spring. By Professor T. G. B. Ossorn. Selaginella uliginosa, a species belonging to the subgenus Homeophyllum, and occurring in Eastern Australia, is remarkable for the well-developed rhizome on which erect aerial shoots are borne laterally, °25-2°5 cms. apart. The aerial shoots have decussate leaves and two rows of lateral branches, the latter developed in the plane of the long axis of the rhizome and not in leaf axils. The cones, which are produced upon the lateral branches or terminate the main axis, closely resemble the sterile portions of the shoots. A ‘ Selago condition’ is common, the aerial stem surviving more than one season, when the axis of the cone continues growth, producing more vegetative leaves before a second repro- ductive phase is entered upon. The sporophylls show a well-developed ‘ dorsal flap. : The rhizome is solenostelic with ramular gaps. The first break in the xylem ring is formed by the departure of the rhizophoric trace from the dorsal margin of the gap. Next the branch trace leaves the ventral margin, the gap being prolonged forward, but not overlapping. The branch trace may divide immedi- ately, forming either two aerial shoots, or the basiscopic portion may form a rhizomic branch. 5. Preliminary Observations on an Australian Zygopteris. By Mrs. Evita M. Osporn. The specimen described was found about four years ago in situ in shales and tuffaceous agglomerates in the bed of the Manilla River, 12 miles west of Barraba, New South Wales. The shales contain abundant Zepidodendron australe and narrow beds of radiolarian chert and limestone. They have been named by Mr. W. N. Benson, of Sydney University, to whom I am indebted for information concerning the horizon, ‘ the Barraba series,’ and are considered by him to be of Upper Devonian age. They are directly overlain by beds containing a Lower Carboniferous marine fauna. It is impossible as yet to draw a sharp line of distinction between the two series. The Zygopteris occurred near the transition zone, but below it rather than above, so that it may be considered of Upper Devonian age. The specimen consisted of three closely associated stems, each 728 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. surrounded by roots and petiolar bases, rather suggesting a habit similar to that of Todea barbara. The lower face of the fossil was of an irregular elliptical shape 7 cms. long by 4°3 cms. wide. Each stele on this face showed three or four petioles. The upper face, which was much larger, 7 cms. by 8 cms., had been fractured obliquely, so that the greatest length of the specimens on one side was approxi- mately 8 cms., while on the other side it was only 3 cms. In this length of stem each stele gave rise to two leaf-traces, so that the departure of six leaf-traces can be seen in the whole block. The sections which have been cut show excellent preservation of the tissues. Both stems and leaves bear external glands or hairs. The stem stele is of a five-rayed star-shape with blunt points, the pith, which contains tracheids, being also star-shaped. The structure is in the main of the Ankyropteris Grayi type with less acute points, but with no axillary branches. Leaf-traces leave the stele in the same order and manner as described for A. Grayi. As each departs it is of a triangular shape with rounded angles, the apex of the triangle being the point of attachment to the stem. This bundle soon becomes flattened tangentially, so that before it leaves the cortex it has the appearance of a flattened ring, slightly curved, with the convexity of the curve on the adaxial side. As the trace passes outwards it becomes still more flattened and tan- gentially elongate, until when a little above the base of the petiole it appears as a long band-shaped xylem mass, without curvature, rather constricted in the middle, and with a peripheral loop containing parenchyma and small tracheids at each end. Thus the petiolar structure is of the Clepsydropsoid type. None of the petioles are continued high enough to show detached pinna traces, though they are high enough to show that the simple type of petiole structure is main- tained and it does not pass into a more complicated state, as in Diplolabis and Ankyropteris. Preparations for the departure of pinna traces are seen in some petioles. The traces, which are in two series, one from each peripheral loop, consist of a ring of tracheids with parenchyma in the centre, very like those figured for Clepsydropsis antiqua. The combination of the outstanding features of this fossil—the A. Grayi type of stele, the absence of axillary branches, and the simple Clepsydropsoid petiole—defines it clearly as a new type and an interesting addition to the already known members of the Zygopteridee. 6. The Formation of Aurimones from Nitrogenous Organic Substances. By Professor W. B. Borromuey, M.A. The bacterial scum formed on crude nitrifying culture solutions in the presence of auximones has provided a method for investigating the occurrence of these substances. It has been found that auximones are formed during the germination of seeds, and enable the young embryo to utilise the food material present in the seed. The phosphotungstic fraction from dry wheat, pea and maize seeds gave no scum. A similar fraction from seeds which had germinated for two days yielded a thick scum. Excised young embryos of wheat and maize failed to grow in Detmer’s culture solution, but flourished in culture solution containing one part in three millions of auximone. Auximones are formed during the humification of nitrogenous organic matter, and the amount of auximone present depends on the extent of humifica- tion. Fresh stable manure, two-year-old rotted manure, and bacterised peat were fractionised in the usual manner. The minimum quantity of these frac- tions necessary to produce a scum were as follows: Freshmanure. . ... . . . . extract from 50 grms. Rotted manure. / F : ; : : 5c » 10 grms. Bacterised peat. ; a ’ 4 : 4 5 O2 grms. The relative proportion of auximone is therefore 1:5:250. Hence the amount of auximones increases with the progressive humification of the organic matter, ce TT ee Se i TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 729 fxperiments on Lemna minor growing in Detmer’s culture solution show that the purer auximone silver fraction is more effective on growth than the cruder phosphotungstic fraction. Six glass dishes, each containing thirty Lemna plants, were arranged in three series of two dishes each: A. Detmer’s culture solution; B, Detmer+phosphotungstic fraction (17 parts per million) ; C. Detmer +silver fraction (0°35 parts per million). The average total area of thirty plants was 112 sq. mm., giving an average area of 3°7 sq. mm. per plant. The average results of growth each week in the two dishes of each series are given in the following table : | | Ree | | Number of Plants Total Area insq.mm. || Area ae Plant x 4 “4 Ee yh en) 4 | 4 [4] # = | D o f) oO oO Fa |e ra) fo) gigl2les/elelelél2 elsl2lelele os es) | an” cs a “BIE /E/S) |2 ales] || 4} 4ls Series A 30 78 | 155 | 292 | 562 “112 224 | 382 | 612 1086) 3°7| 2-9) 2°5| 2:1) 1:9 Series B || 30/83 | 160 | 303 | 577 || 112 | 352 | 639 |1129|1949]| 3-7| 4:2] 4:0] 3:7]| 3:4 Series C || 30 | 91|175 | 323 | 669 || 112 | 415 | 771 |1362/2678|| 3:7} 4:5) 4:4} 4:2" 4:0 7. On Fossil Fungi and Fossil Bacteria. By Dr. D. Ens. An investigation of the ferruginous and fossiliferous rocks of Great Britain showed that some of the organic fragments in the ferruginous rocks had been in a state of putrefaction when engulfed. A study was made of the micro- organisms which were responsible for this putrefaction. I. A fossil fungus was found in the Frodingham Ironstone of Lincolnshire (Lower Lias). To this organism the name Phycomycites Frodinghamii has been given. Characteristics—Hyphe of two dimensions, namely, 2 m and 35 qm respec- tively. The two sizes of hyphz were found in organic connection. There were no traces of transverse walls. In addition to the ordinary alternate branching whorls of hyphz arising from the same level were frequently observed. In many places the threads showed thickening cushions. Some of these were appa- rently in association with the formation of branches and were of a supporting nature ; others, however, had no apparent significance. Some of the hyphz had terminal dilatations of a sporangial nature, as in a few cases spore-like bodies were enclosed in them. The sporangia measured about 24 » (4; mm.) and were roughly spherical. The spores were 10 » in diameter. Probably each sporangium normally enclosed four spores. The fungus, unlike all modern fungi, had a power of attraction for iron-compounds, and in all cases its hyphe were covered with a varying quantity of ferric hydroxide. II. A fossil fungus was found in the Secondary Rocks in the Island of Raasay (N.W. Scotland). This fungus had the same general characteristics as the preceding, only its hyphe were covered with a hard black membrane of a carbonaceous nature. No sporangia were discovered. It is proposed in the meantime to call this organism Paleomyces a. III. In the Ferruginous Limestone of Dunliath (Inferior Oolitic Series of the Jurassic Rocks) a fossil Actinomyces was discovered. This micro-organism was found as a thick meshwork of minute threads inside fossilised animal fragments. The threads measured °75 w to 10 uw across and branched freely. It is proposed to name this micro-organism Actinomycites u. IV. From nodules derived from the base of the Gault at Folkestone fossilised 730 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. animal remains were found which had been in a state of putrefaction when engulfed. Remains were found of three kinds of bacteria : j a. Bacillus I. (Gault). Average width 4 u. Length from 1} to 100. b. Bacillus II. (Gault), Average width 1. Length on the average 57 Rods had well-defined membranes and rounded ends. c. Micrococcus I. (Gault). Uni- and Diplo-cocci in various stages of cell- division. Showed thicker outer walls and thinner transverse membranes. The diameter of the cocci measured 23-23 u. In some cases remains of cell-contents were observed. 8. On Spore Discharge in the Uredinee and Hymenomycetes. By Professor A. H. Racinatp Buuer. Throughout the Uredinee and Hymenomycetes the spores produced upon the basidia are violently discharged. In both groups, just before the discharge of a basidiospore, a drop of fluid is excreted where the spore is attached to the sterigma. The drop varies in size, according to the species, from one-third to one whole diameter of the spore. On discharge the drop is carried with the spore. Sometimes the drops become abnormally large, and then discharge may not take place. In many Uredinee the basidia are curved and the sterigmata are then placed on the outer convex side of the basidium. This causes the basidiospores to be directed toward an open space, with the result that, when discharge takes place, the spores are shot away so that they escape into free air. 9. Fruits and Seeds. By Professor F. W. Oxtver, F.R.S. 10. Stomata on Hypogeal Cotyledons. By Miss E. M. Buackweuu. 11. The Musk (Mimulus moschatus L.) in Scotland. By Wiut1am Wison. In 1911 I found the musk (Mimulus moschatus L.) growing in Haughton Wood, Alford, in a low, cold habitat (400 feet). In 1914 I found it beside a well, Glack Culmellie, Cushnie, at an altitude of about 1,200 feet. Possibly these are the coldest stations known for the plant. It is also recorded as growing occasionally in Perthshire on river shingles; and there are two records for Banffshire. Thus this garden plant is gradually extending its range, and competing with the really native members of the British flora. 12. The Life History and Cytology of Tuburcinia primulicola Rostrup. By Dr. M. Witson. The conidial stage of Z'uburcinia primulicola (known as Peepalopsis Irmischice Kiihn) was discovered by Kihn in Halle, Germany, in 1883, on several species of Primula, and it appears that no subsequent record of its occurrence has been made. ; This stage of the fungus has recently been found in two localities in Kent on Primula vulgaris. The fungus apparently persists in the host-plant during the winter. The mycelium is intercellular, producing haustoria of the type usually found in the Ustilaginex; in the spring it may be found in the peduncle, calyx, corolla, stamens and ovary, usually in the peripheral tissues of these organs. The mycelium is septate with uninucleate cells; the nuclei are small with one deeply-staining nucleolus. In the young flowers the mycelium is particularly abundant in the lower part of the corolla tube, on the dorsal sur- faces of the anthers and in the ovary between the ovules. In these places it becomes superficial and gives rise to large numbers of small unicellular uninucleate conidia. ‘The conidia in the open flower are seen as meal-like ; Hi TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 731 masses, which glue together the stamens and partially fill the base of the corolla-tube; functional pollen is apparently produced. ‘The’ conidia have little chance of escaping from the corolla-tube; some, mixed with pollen, are probably distributed by insects visiting the flower. Infection of healthy flowers with a mixture of pollen and conidia has so far been unsuccessful, : In the open flower conidia may be found in all stages of conjugation; they become joined up in pairs by a short connecting tube, thus producing dumb- bell-shaped structures. In the conjugating pair a nucleus passes from one conidium to the other through the connecting tube. The nuclei are then found in close proximity in the one conidium, which later gives rise to one or more germ tubes. It is highly probable that the mycelium thus produced bears the chlamydospores. Chlamydospores are found in flowers in which conidia were previously pro- duced. The mycelium in which they are developed is found in the superficial tissue of the placenta and packed in between the ovules. Seeds are usually not ripened. The cells of the mycelium producing the chlamydospores contain conjugate nuclei. The chlamydospore groups are developed from coiled masses of hyphe, and in the young condition the spores are binucleate. Later on, the conjugate nuclei fuse and the mature chlamy- dospores are uninucleate. Finally the tissue of the placenta, ovules, and ovary- wall disintegrate, and the spore masses are set free as a black powder in the calyx tube. Germination takes place readily in water; the process agrees with the description given by Brefeld. No conjugation of sporidia has been observed. The fungus is frequently placed in the genus Urocystis, but the presence of the conidial stage, the absence of sterile cells in the chlamydospore group, and the method of development of the sporidia lead to the conclusion that it is more correctly placed in the genus 7'uburcinia. \ 13. The Vegetative Anatomy of Molinia cerulea. By Rev. T. A. JEFFERIES. 732 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. Section L.—EDUCATION. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION:—Mrs. Henry SIpGwick. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— Wuen I look at the names of many of my predecessors in this Presidential chair, when I read their addresses, or when I consider what the work of the Section ought to be, I feel that an apology is needed for my being here at all. Let me say at once, however, that it is not because of my being a woman that I feel this. It is true that I am the first woman who has had the honour of presiding over Section L. But it is obviously very fitting that a woman should sometimes do so; and this not only because women are as much con- cerned with the results of Educational Science as men are—that might be said about all departments of science; nor only because the material on which education works—the human material to be educated—is approximately evenly divided between the sexes. A more important consideration is that women have the largest share in the work of education. This is clear if we take education in its widest and fullest sense, and include in it what is done in the home as well as in the school, beginning as it must with the earliest infancy. But it is also true if we limit the meaning of the word education—in the way that is constantly done, and is I think usually done in the discussions that take place in this Section—to that part of it with which the professional educator, the school or college teacher, is concerned. For the fact that the school teaching, not only of girls but of the younger children of both sexes, is mainly in the hands of women, results of necessity in there being a larger number of professional teachers among women than among men. May it not be added that in some departments of education women have appeared to take their profession more seriously than men so far as this can be measured by the trouble taken in training for it? For I think I am right in saying that among persons proposing to teach in secondary schools more women in proportion than men haye hitherto availed themselves of opportuni- ties for professional training. ; From another point of view, too, the education of women and girls has an interest which, though not different in kind, is greater in degree than that of the other sex. I mean in the rapidity of its growth and development since the middle of the last century. The development of school and university education and of technical education has, of course, been very great for both sexes. Much attention has been devoted to improving its quality and perhaps even more to increasing its quantity by making it more accessible to all classes of people. But in the case of girls and women the progress has been greater and more remarkable than in that of boys, for it started from a lower level, and notwithstanding this it would, I think, be difficult to point out in what respects the educational opportunities of women are now inferior to those of men. I say this, of course, in a general sense, and without prejudice as to controversial questions of detail such as the merits of the methods and curri- cula deliberately adopted for different schools. The Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission published in 1868, in what it says about girls’ education at that time, gives us a standard of comparison te) teeta ain PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. tee and a means of estimating the progress made. It has often been quoted, but may bear quoting again. The Commissioners say :* ‘The general deficiency in girls’ education is stated with the utmost con- fidence, and with entire agreement, with whatever difference of words, by many witnesses of authority. Want of thoroughness and foundation; want of system ; slovenliness and showy superficiality; inattention to rudiments; undue time given to accomplishments, and those not taught intelligently or in any scientific manner; want of organisation—these may sufficiently indicate the character of the complaints we have received, in their most general aspect. It is needless to observe that the same complaints apply to a great extent to boys’ education. But on the whole the evidence is clear that, not as they might be, but as they are, the girls’ schools are inferior in this view to the boys’ schools.’ This was what could be said of schools in 1868, and is certainly in striking contrast to what could be said now. And if we turn from the schools to higher education we find this was practically non-existent for women at that time. Its absence was indeed one cause of the badness of the schools. The schools were bad because the teachers were inadequately educated. ‘The two capital defects of the teachers of girls,’ as one of the Assistant Commissioners (Mr. Bryce, now Lord Bryce) reported, ‘are these: they have not themselves been taught and they do not know how to teach.’ These defects were, of course, partly due to the badness of the schools, and the want of any standard enabling the general public and the teachers themselves to judge of their badness. So far it was a vicious circle. The teachers were badly taught in bad schools and handed on the bad results to the schools they later taught in. But the defects were partly due to the absence of opportunity for them to carry their own education beyond that of their elder pupils—to obtain that higher educa- tion which men obtained at the Universities. This was pointed out by the Commissioners, and their Report acted as a great help and encouragement to those who had already realised the need of higher education for women, and gave an important stimulus to the foundation of Colleges for Women first at Cambridge and then at Oxford. The Commissioners’ Report also greatly encouraged the movement already in progress for the improvement of girls’ schools—the movement in which Miss Buss, of the North London Collegiate Schosl, and Miss Beale, of the Cheltenham Ladies’ College, were among the pioneers, and in which the opening of Local Examinations to Girls in 1865 by Cambridge was an important step. The cautious and anxious way in which the Commissioners refer to the possible effects on girls of more exacting school work and of examinations is amusing to read now. But the Report of the Commission helped in the progress of girls’ education in still another way, for it was instrumental in securing the recovery for the secondary education of girls of endowments which had been allowed to lapse into the service of primary education or to be absorbed by boys; and the division between girls and boys of some endowments not specifically assigned to either sex by the founders. Twenty years ago—in 1895—the Charity Commis- sioners in their Annual Report gave striking testimony to what has been done both in this way and by new endowments : ‘There is reason to think,’ they said, ‘that the latter half of the nineteenth century will stand second in respect of the greatness and variety of the charities created within its duration to no other half-century since the Reformation. And, as to one particular branch of Educational Endowment, namely, that for the advancement of Secondary and Superior Education of Girls and Women, it may be anticipated that future generations will look back to the period immediately following upon the Schools Inquiry Commission and the consequent passing of the Endowed Schools Acts, as marking an epoch in the creation and application of endowments for that branch of education similar to that which is marked, for the education of Boys and Men, by the Reformation.’ And the flow of endowments for this branch of education has not ceased since the Report just quoted from was written. As examples of it I may remind you of the St. Paul’s Girls’ School, the extension and rebuilding of 1 Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission, p. 548. 734 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. Bedford College, University of London, and the large sums given for the domestic department of King’s College for Women. Though, however, as the Charity Commissioners say, a great impulse was given to girls’ education by the Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission and the legislation as regards endowments that followed, I think that, even without these, great progress would have been made, though probably less rapidly. The desire for it was already there. Women who had themselves suffered from the previous deficiency were working for improvement, and sympathetic men friends were helping. It was becoming more and more obvious not only that women teachers must have adequate opportunities of learning, but that the home no longer in itself afforded sufficient scope for the energies of the daughters, especially unmarried daughters, of the professional classes, and that they must be trained for other useful work. The supply of suitable education followed the demand, as generally happens when the demand is strong and clear. The very mention by the Charity Commissioners in the passage I have quoted of the creation as well as of the application of endowments for the purposes of female education is evidence of the active public interest in the matter. The spirit which has led during the last half-century to the liberal endowment of education for girls and women from private sources has also led the State, and public bodies generally, to consider girls equally with boys in all public administration of education or of educational funds. The same spirit has led the newer universities without exception to admit women to their benefits on equal terms with men. And at the same time the creation of some professions and skilled industries—e.g., sick nursing—by women, and the open- ing to them of others, together with the general movement in favour of profes- sional training for professional work, have led to the great development of opportunities of technical or vocational training for women as well as for men. This immense—almost revolutionary—change, as regards Educational oppor- tunities for women, which has occurred within the recollection of people of my age, and which must be attributed largely to the efforts of women themselves, is, 1 think, very striking; and it certainly, as I said, fully justifies the selec- tion of a woman to preside over the Educational Section of the British Associa- tion. The apology I feel to be needed is for the particular woman selected. For it is the Science of Education, or at any rate the Science and Art of Educa- tion, that this Section presumably exists to advance, and I am no educator, no teacher, I have made no psychological study of young people from an edu- cational point of view, nor of the different methods of teaching suited to different ages, no statistical investigation of the influence or particular curricula in training the mind or furnishing it with useful information. I have, in short, neither made contributions to the science of education nor practised the art. Any work I have done has been on the administrative side, and I can speak only as a member of the general public—not as an expert. And what is there new, in a subject so much discussed, for a member of the general public to say? An illuminating address is, I fear, under the circumstances impossible. Not that I regard the view of the general public as unimportant. Indeed, I am not sure that a good case could not be made out for having a mere member of the general public as such as president from time to time. The general public must, as all will admit, decide what is to be spent on education, or, more strictly, on schools and colleges and professional educators, out of both public and private income—it is for them to decide on its relation to other social and family needs. But the concern of the public with education is not merely financial and administrative. It is more intimate than that. For education is not a subject like physics or chemistry on which only an expert has a right to an independent view. There are, no doubt, aspects of it of which only the expert can properly judge, there are experiments in it which only the expert can advantageously try, and there are, of course, departments of it in which the opinion of the expert is indispensable. But without depre- ciating either the science or art of education, it is clear that when we take education in its widest sense it concerns everybody, and almost everybody is bound to have views about it. Each generation as a whole is responsible for handing on to the next the control over matter and mind, and the power of co-operation, which it has itself inherited from its forbears and added to, and which it must put its successors in a position to add to further. It is on this ee are © ee a eee vee & = PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 735 that the progress of the human race depends; without it each generation would have to start fresh from the beginning, and we should still be in the position of primitive man. But the larger and more important part of education in this wide sense is done first in the nursery, and then, as the child gets beyond babyhood, by means of its own observation and imitation of its elders; while much is done by experience gained in mixing with others of its own age, and much by the exercise of responsibility. The education thus obtained, combined with precepts and with tales handed down orally, sufficed for our ancestors until the increas- ing complexity of life made it important for the rising generation to acquire skill and knowledge which mere imitation and experience could not give. When this happened division of labour took place in this as in other departments of life, and led to the introduction of the professional educator—that is, the educational expert who has the art of imparting the needed knowledge and skill, or at least of shortening the process of acquiring them. We may observe that his services are now required by all and not, as was once the case, only by those preparing for the learned professions. This work of the professional educator is what our Section of the British Association is mainly concerned with, and the methods to be employed are best judged by the professional educators themselves. But the co-ordination of their work with the whole process of education, its place in the production of good citizens, must, as I have said, be judged, not by the professional educators alone, but by the whole body of the nation. The general public must not only be regarded as capable of exercising judgment on educational matters, but should be encouraged to feel that it is its duty to do so. If we judge by the amount of talk which goes on about education, it would perhaps seem that the public is fully aware of its responsibilities. And yet I think there are indications that in some respects it fails to grasp them, and is disposed to depend too much on the professional educator ; allowing itself to be confused by our habit of using the same word ‘ Education’ in both the wider sense, of which we have been speaking, and also in the narrower sense of book- learning. The sense of proportion seems to me to be sometimes seriously lost from this cause. I was impressed with an example of this exhibited a little while ago in a correspondence in the 7Z'imes about the employment of the older boys in the elementary schools of country districts to do some of the work on the farms in place of farm-hands who have enlisted. One group of the correspondents, looking at the question from the point of view of agriculture, thought the advantage derived by the boy from his last year of school training was of small value to the country compared with the work he could do on the farm. The other group, looking at the question from the point of view of the school, thought it monstrous that what they called the ‘education’ of the boy should be in any way curtailed. I am not at the moment concerned with the con- troversy itself, nor am I taking the side of either group of disputants. There is, of course, much to be said on both sides, and the decision should probably vary with the locality, and the work, and the farmer, and the boy. But what struck me was that all the disputants seemed to regard education as beginning and ending at school. None appeared to think of it in its wider sense. None referred to the great effect it might have on the boy’s future life and character to feel that in a grave national crisis he had ‘ done his bit ’—an effect which would perhaps be all the greater if he felt he was sacrificing something to make up for which special effort might be needed later. I have seen the view of the gain to boys and girls from helping in the emergency put forward since, but not in the particular newspaper controversy in question, nor, I think, in connec- tion with the loss of a year of schooling. And there was another aspect of the question which did not seem to excite attention. I mean the possibly bad educational effect, in the wide sense, of preventing the boy from doing the work. To keep him at school, if he was conscious that his services were needed elsewhere, could not but tend to con- centrate his attention on himself and the importance of his own schooling, and could not but tend to produce to some extent the deplorable temper of mind which leads some young people, a little older than the schoolboys over whom the controversy raged, to regard self-development as the aim and object of 736 | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. existence. This is certainly not the attitude of a good citizen—and to produce good citizens should, as we probably all agree, be the principal aim of education. The particular difficulty to which I have referred seems inseparable from com- pulsory education, and probably cannot be altogether got over. The thoughtful girl of twelve, not absorbed in herself, must sometimes wonder whether her school-work is really as valuable as the help she could give her mother in some special difficulty or strain, except on the assumption that her own development ranks above all other objects. Of course, the higher the relative value we put on scholastic education the less important will the loss of other educational influences appear to us. And perhaps at this point I had better frankly confess—what is, I fear, another defect in my qualifications as President of the Educational Section—namely, that I am not an enthusiast about education in the same sense that most of my hearers probably are. I read the other day in a review of the life of an American educationist that— ‘He was penetrated with two characteristics which are the saving clause of the American and every other democracy, a reverence for learning and a flaming belief in education as the condition of success in any scheme of popular self- government.’ In the reverence for learning I am with him, but I could not describe my belief in education—education, that is, in the sense here meant, namely, school and college education—as ‘ flaming.’ I cannot, for instance, believe, as some seem to do, that by keeping children a year longer at school we should regenerate mankind, or at least secure as a matter of course great improvement. Why, you may ask, if I am not an enthusiastic believer in education, have I spent so much of my life—my time, my energy, my means—in helping to provide opportunities of University education for women? The answer is that I do believe very much in giving to as many people as possible educational opportunities—meaning by that in the first place the means of preparing for their work in life. Those who are going to teach, for instance, must obviously learn first, and, as I have just reminded you, women’s opportunity of doing this was lamentably deficient half a century ago. But secondly—and this is not at all less important—I mean by educational opportunity the means of satisfying intellectual curiosity, every spark of which should be fostered. For it is to intellectual curiosity that progress in knowledge, including physical science, is mainly due. And intellectual curiosity is an important adjunct to the mental processes involved in understanding the world we live in, a valuable aid in the formation of a good judgment, and a great assistance in practical life. Intellectual curiosity and xsthetic sensibility are, moreover, the mainsprings of culture—that is, of some of the highest pleasures we can enjoy. You will doubtless agree with this, and will agree, further, that without intellectual curiosity no amount of accumulated information can be properly assimilated, or will produce either culture or knowledge of permanent value. In. its absence the pupil may pass through school and college with little advantage apart from discipline, beyond the acquisition of elementary skill in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and if he has a good memory a barren knowledge of some facts. You will probably add that it is one of the most important func- tions of the teacher to endeavour to produce this intellectual curiosity when absent or in abeyance, and that the zeal of the professional educator in this direction is a strong reason for enthusiastic belief in school education. It would be, I grant, if we could hope that the teacher’s success would always be equal to his zeal; but notoriously this is far from being the case, and the failure is by no means always due to want of intelligence in the pupil any more than it is due to want of capacity in the teacher. In many cases, in all classes of society, the spark of intellectual curiosity—the response in the pupil’s mind to educational stimulus—cannot be fanned into flame through book-learning alone, and yet may be there all the time ready to burst forth when it comes into contact with the needs of actual life and work. It may even be there, and fail to respond to imposed lessons, while it would blaze up if the pupil could by any means be induced to desire to learn before he is taught. It is partly because it is so important, if and when the desire to learn comes, that the boy or girl, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 737 man or woman, should be armed with the instruments which may give them independent means of acquiring the knowledge they desire, so far as this can be acquired through books, that we compel parents to send their children to school. No doubt, however, an even more important reason is our now almost universal use of reading and writing as a means of communicating with each other. The more widespread these arts are, the harder it is for anyone who has not acquired them to keep abreast of his fellows. But even now it would, of course, not be impossible, and the use of such phrases as compulsory education, in which education merely means the reverse of illiteracy, tends, I think, in itself to obscure the apprehension of what education really is and to reduce the general sense of responsibility for it, and particularly that of parents. Many years ago before the days of compulsory education, or at least before it had time to produce any effect, I knew a man in the South of England who had had no school education, or practically none. I believe he could read a little with effort, but he could neither write nor keep accounts, so I was told. His wife did these things for him when they were necessary. He was, however, a good farmer, farmed a considerable amount of land, and acted as manager or agent under the landlord for a large estate. He knew his business thoroughly, had the power of managing men, and was much respected. It is impossible not to regard such a man as a more valuable member of the community, and a better-educated man in some respects, than many of those who climb the educational ladder to become clerks in an office. But, of course, such a man must have regretted that he had not had opportunities of schooling in his early youth—that he had not acquired the art of writing while he still had leisure. The want of the three R’s must have been a serious handicap, only overcome by unusual ability. And, in fact, no one now doubts that it is almost as important to acquire these elementary arts as to learn to speak or walk. It is with the question of carrying school education further that doubt arises whether it is really the best education for everybody, and whether we ought to regard the person whose scholastic education has been longest, or who has succeeded best in examinations, as therefore necessarily the best educated. I do not mean in saying this to set the practical man above the man of learning. Of course we want both, and we should like our schools to help to develop both. The value to the world of good scientific and literary work is enormous. And so far as science is concerned the British Association exists to bring home to the general public its value and interest, and consequently the importance of men who can advance it. Nor doI mean in what I have said to suggest any divorce between practice and learning. The business of most of us is practical, but what is to be desired is that everyone capable of it should combine practical ability—whether in manual work, or in organisation or administration, or in any other line—with a desire to learn; and that not only in relation to his work in life, but in a wider sphere. And, of course, we must wish that the means to satisfy this desire should be within everyone’s reach. My point, therefore, is not that learning is not valuable, but that it is of little value unless it meets a desire in the learner’s mind. And here the parents come in. The required attitude of mind is much more likely to be inspired by parents who possess it, than it is by the school. Or let us say that those children are most likely to grow up with it whose parents combine with the school to stimulate it. Unfortunately the result of compulsory primary education has not been to promote any sense of responsibility in parents as regards this; at least that is my belief. And I may, I think, appeal to Scottish experience in support of it. The institution of parish schools is, as is well known, older in Scotland than in England. They date there from the Reformation, and were part of the ecclesiastical organisation initiated by John Knox. In the scheme drawn up by him and his colleagues education had a great place. The parish schools, in which Biblical instruction was foremost, were put in charge of the Church and long needed its efforts for their maintenance. Starting in this way the zeal for school education had become traditional. All respectable parents aimed at giving their children the best education they could. There was a strongly rooted sense of duty in the matter, and this from a double motive. They sent their children to school not only to help them to get on in the world, but because of the traditional association of knowledge and religion, Observe 1915, 3B ¢ 738 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. the educational value of this second motive. I am not looking at it from the religious point of view—that is not my business to-day. But as an instrument of culture the value of a desire for learning, based on something other than its relation to worldly success, is obviously great. It may be that the school education actually prevailing in Scotland is better now than that of filty years ago, that the examination of the school inspector is more searching if less stimulating than was that of the Presbytery, that the average or backward child is less sacrificed to the clever one than used to be the case, and that general intelligence is more developed. But the parents, who felt their children’s schooling to be their private concern, valued it more, took more personal interest in it, and felt more personal responsibility for their children’s progress than parents can do now. And it is a serious question whether the loss of this close link with home life has not had a bad educational effect, taking education in its wider sense, which is not compensated for by possible improvement in the schools. I must admit that in saying this I have in mind only a limited area. 1 have made no wider investigation. The population I am thinking of is an entirely rural one in a purely agricultural district in the South of Scotland, with which I was intimately acquainted as a young woman, and which I revisit from time to time. Im such a district compulsion to send the children to school was unnecessary. It probably was required in the large towns and the more industrial parts of the country. I do not complain of the introduction of compulsion, but it did strike me at the time of its introduction that it was of very doubtful advantage in my own part of the country; and this impression has not diminished since. To see if it was shared by others I wrote to a friend, more familiar with the district than I am now, to ask whether he did not think that parental interest in the children’s school education had decreased, and also whether he thought that, as judged, for instance, by the books they borrowed from the parish library, the grown-up population was less inclined to serious reading than they used to be. I received from him a very interesting reply. He agreed with what I have just said as regards the first question, and after speaking of the warm and genuine wish in old times to give the children a good education, added : ‘The parents might, indeed, let their older children be absent for short times from school for light farm work or the like. But this was more than made up for by the zeal with which they were sent to winter evening classes, which could be gathered then far more easily than now. It is an unfortunate effect of legislation that it has largely deprived us of the great asset we had in the keenness of parental interest. It came about in this way. Government made it compulsory that no child should be employed in wage-earning who had not passed the fifth standard. Almost instantly the ideal of our people was lowered. A child was ‘‘educated’’ who had passed the fifth standard! And when by and by Government made it compulsory that a child should be at school till fourteen years of age, the parents in many cases felt this hard upon them, and our School Board every year has applications for permission to children. to work before they are fourteen on various pretexts. I do not say that our people are not interested in their children’s education. They still inherit that interest. But compulsion, and the fact of the responsibility being taken by Government, has greatly changed their attitude.’ With regard to my second question—‘ Whether there is in country parishes as much reading of serious books, books of weight, history, travels, &c.’—he says he ‘must answer No.’ He thinks that the young people are perhaps more intelligent than they used to be, ‘but the reading is in enormous proportion novels and very light literature.’ He goes on to tell me of an old man who died two years ago ‘of the finest old Scottish type—devout, independent, interested in religious reading, in lives of men like Livingstone, in travels (he was reading Nansen in his ninetieth year and most interested in his near- ing the Pole). But the list of books in his steady reading from the library here was of quite different character from that opposite other names in our catalogue of the same rank.’ He says also that forty or fifty years ago good audiences could be got for lectures—historical, travel, &c., but that now a good PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 739 audience can only be got for concerts, entertainments, or at most lectures with lantern pictures. All this seems, as far as it goes, to show a diminution in culture, in capacity for the higher intellectual pleasures, in fruitful curiosity. My correspondent is not prepared, however, to say that this change is due to changes in school education. It comes, he thinks, ‘of the different spirit in young people, less under authority, indulging more in pleasures, not pressing hard or thinking they need this in order to get on.’ He thinks, in short, that the young men now are more self-indulgent and less energetic than they were, and he looks to the nobler spirit which the War has called out to carry us into better ideals of life. He may be right in thinking that causes independent of school education have produced the result. But we must admit that if it is true that, concurrently with a school education improved in some important ways, there has been a diminution in intellectual interests—in culture, in short—the school education has at any rate failed in one of the objects aimed at. Well, you must take these views about a particular country district for what they are worth. Facts observed among a comparatively small number of people may not represent the average. Moreover, my correspondent and J are both old—we could not remember, or think we remembered, the state of things fifty years ago if we were not—and you may, if you think proper, discount what we have to say, on the almost proverbial ground that old people put the Golden Age behind them. I am not, however, myself conscious of any such tendency. I believe very much in progress, and look forward to a gradually improving world, and I believe we are on the whole improving in educational ideals and educational methods as in other things. But it behoves us to watch what we do, and not to acquiesce, if we can possibly help it, in ioss on one side without being very sure that it is more than compensated for by gain on the other. The loss of the parents’ real co-operation where it has existed, and the failure to gain it where it has previously been absent, is serious. It is serious even if it is limited to the intellectual side of education and does not extend to the formation of character, as I fear it sometimes does. With the greatest zeal the schoolmaster cannot replace the parents, nor even the parents’ influence in producing the right attitude of mind in the pupil. And it is at the very least doubtful whether the better teaching which improved methods secure to the pupil can make up for any loss of spontaneous desire to put his own mind into the effort of learning for learning’s sake. And so I come back to the point that the general public must be encouraged to take its share even in the part of education carried on at school and college, and in particular those members of the general public who are parents of pupils. But this conclusion is rather barren, for I have no very definite plan to suggest for carrying it out. The State cannot now, even if it would, abandon the responsibility for the elementary school education of the children, and even if it could it is more than doubtful whether it would be desirable. For though we have now secured that all parents shall themselves have had school education, we still cannot trust them all voluntarily to give that advantage to their children. So the drawback must be put up with that parents cannot feel the same degree of responsibility resting on themselves when the responsibility is undertaken by the State. It is to be hoped, however, that we shall be very careful how far we entrust to the State the regulation of education higher than the primary. Bureaucratic regulation may be well adapted to produce German Kultur, but it is not the way to secure the attitude of mind which leads to freedom, inde- pendence of thought, and culture in the best sense. And it is very apt to lead to want of independence in the teacher. Probably our best hope for progress in the right direction lies in movements like the Workers’ Educational Association, where we have voluntary effort put forward to satisfy spontaneous desire to learn. As this movement extends we may hope more and more to get a generation of parents who, having themselves experienced intellectual curiosity and the joy of satisfying it, who, having them- selves felt the gain of a wider outlook on men and things, may by their example inspire their children with a similar disinterested desire for learning and culture. 3B 2: 740 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. The following Papers were then read :— 1. The Place of History in Education. By Professor F. C. J. HearnsHaw. Before the place of history in education can be determined, the aim of education as a whole must be agreed upon. There is not at the present day the same simplicity of aim as there was in ancient and medizval times; but in a democratic country like Britain the civic aim must necessarily be the dominant one. The main purpose of national education is to produce good citizens. What part can history play in the attainment of this end? : Until recently history, regarded as an instrument of education, manifested several serious defects. It was written from a partisan point of view; it was unscientific in method ; it was unduly restricted in its scope. Recent changes, however, in the study and writing of history have gone far to remove these defects and to provide a valuable and trustworthy instrument, even though history on_its literary side has thereby suffered. The educational functions which history subserves may be classified as (1) Zechnical, in the case of statesmen and others; (2) Intellectual, in so far as it trains the imagination, shows the sequence and cause and effect in human affairs, and gives practice in the weighing of conflicting evidence; (3) Moral, in that it widens the mental horizon, elevates the character by bringing it into contact with great men and large affairs, arouses sympathy, develops impar- tiality, and teaches ‘awe at the prodigious manysidedness and endless signi- ficance of human activities’; (4) Civic, in that it provides a school of political method, a storehouse of political precedent, and the basis of future political progress. It further serves a purpose which may be termed (5) Philosophical, since it furnishes man with some data for the solution of the ultimate problems of knowledge and being. These generalisations may be illustrated from the light which history throws upon the causes of the present European crisis. 2. Methods and Content of History as a Subject of School Study. By Professor Ramsay Murr. History, like other subjects, has to serve a double end in the school curriculum. (A) It provides training for certain qualities of mind, imagina- tion, judgment, the habit of considering events in the light of their back- ground, the power of weighing human testimony without undue credulity or undue scepticism, and the habit of tolerance, arising from the sympathetic appreciation of conflicting points of view. (B) It provides the pupil with a body of knowledge useful for the purposes of his life, and especially with an explanation of the society in which he lives. The scheme of an historical curriculum, and the way in which it is handled, must depend upon the relative importance attached to these two ends. If we think only of mental training we shall conclude (a) that it does not matter what period is studied, and (6) that it is best to study a limited period, where the teacher has full and first-hand knowledge, and where by the use of contemporary narratives the events can be seen through the eyes of the actors. This forms the real justification of the long ascendency of classical studies, which gave the intelligent student a really intimate knowledge of decisive periods in the history of Greece and of Rome, and therefore achieved, often in a remarkable degree, the intellectual benefits of historical training. If equally good results are to be achieved in the modern field, the same methods, or similar methods, must be followed. The demand that history should be used to explain his world to the pupil is, however, now predominant; and it seems to exact a range of study that puts out of the question the intimate study required for the realisation of the first aim, and drives us back upon arid outline surveys, supplemented at the best by the disconnected collections of excerpts known as source-books. For “ ° ex: BAAR TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 7Al this second purpose the student ought to cover all English history, economic history, the history of the colonies and dominions, and the general history of Europe. This range is far too wide to make any solidity of knowledge possible, and the pupil is apt to be fed on formule and dead (because disorganised) facts. What is the result of the ordinary school curriculum upon even an intelli- gent boy? (1) He knows the traditionally emphasised facts about English political history, but seldom for any period later than the seventeenth century ; and he has no such grasp of (say) medieval civilisation as his predecessor sometimes had of classical; (2) he knows, as disconnected facts, a few episodes of English economic history, but has no sense of the organic development of a society ; (3) he knows as a rule nothing at all about India or the self-govern- ing colonies; (4) in a few cases he has been through a very slight outline survey of European history, but has no sense of the ‘personalities’ of the nations, the character of their civilisation, and the nature of their aspirations. He has not been equipped with a body of knowledge that in any real sense makes the world more intelligible to him; and on the other hand he has not enjoyed the kind of training that would cultivate the mental qualities already described. The two things that make English history worth studying are (1) the develop- ment of self-government, and (2) the expansion of the British race and of their ideas over the face of the globe. The first of these involves a study of consti- tutional history, which is too difficult to be successfully undertaken by immature minds. Our pupils in this field usually know only formule and disconnected scraps of ‘ antiquities,’ which (when divorced from their context) have in them no mental nutriment, and stand in no intelligible relation to the world which the pupil knows. Of the second theme, as has been already said, he knows nothing. Is there any means by which the two aims of historical study can be recon- ciled and combined? I suggest that we have, in the story of British expansion during the last four centuries, a theme which would make this possible. (1) The theme has a strong narrative interest, which will appeal to boys. It has both unity and variety. It remarkably illustrates the geographical factor in history. (2) It introduces the political problem in the simplest and clearest form, and illustrates the ideas and methods of self-government in a way far more intelligible to young minds than any narrative of the thirteenth or seventeenth century struggles. The essential character of British civilisation shows itself most unmistakably, and in clearest contrast with the civilisation of other countries, in the field of extra-European expansion. (3) Large blocks, at any rate, of the subject lend themselves to study in contemporary narratives, and an excellent source-book could easily be made, consisting not of snippets, but of long chapters by contemporary writers. (4) The development of the economic position of Britain, and, indeed, the general development of Western civilisa- tion in its economic aspect, comes out more clearly in this story than it can easily be made to do in a narrative of English history on the ordinary lines, because colonisation and trade have been closely related throughout. (5) All the principal nations of the world, European and other, appear on this great stage, and express their national characteristics in their colonial activities. As Britain has been not only their rival but often the inheritor of their work, some understanding of that work becomes necessary; and this means the appreciation of the nations as personalities. Such a scheme of studies, limited in its range in one way, of world-wide range in another, having a central thread and at the same time a great variety, could be so handled as at once to help the student to understand not merely the British Empire, but the world of to-day in all its interrelations, and to appreciate that conflict of national interests and national ideals which is the stuff of modern history. But it could also be used (because some intimacy of study would be possible) as a means of realising the intellectual aims of historical studies. The obstacles in the way of such a scheme are considerable, but they are merely practical difficulties about text-books, examinations, and the like, capable of being overcome. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. | rc bs 3. History as a Subject of School Study. By J. HE. Morris, D.Litt. There is a somewhat urgent need that schoolmasters and schoolmistresses should be freely consulted, because they know the capabilities of the youthful mind, immature and impressionable as it is, better than university authorities. Those who know the pupils in the class-room should have a voice in the choice of subjects rather than those who only see the answers written in examinations. The former resent, perhaps too keenly, the methods and the criticisms of examiners; the latter find fault, perhaps too freely, with the teachers. The friction, such as it is, can be lessened. Firstly, it is necessary to distinguish between the really promising, the average, and the dull boys. The promising boys, possibly candidates for scholarships, need, and usually find, scope; the chief danger, however, is that too often they are expected to limit themselves to political history, and are judged by literary capacity, whereas enthusiasm in some special branch, e.g., archeology or social developments, may be a sign of greater promise than mere literary expression. One hears that an attempt is being made to bring classical and modern languages more definitely into the history scholarship examination; in theory this is excellent, for an understanding of Thucydides or Cicero as an original authority, or an appreciation of go9me problem of the Revolutionary era expressed in a free French composition, would at once mark out a boy as a possible scholar; but in practice it is much to be feared that the linguistic side would be made too prominent. But it is for the average boys that the most careful legislation is required. They ought not to be harassed by too many examinations and too many sub- jects; and in general they ought to be taught as much as possible by one man, the form-master, for he only can properly judge where to put on special pressure, and where to relax, as examination time draws near. Where, however, the form-master is not sympathetic and the specialist must be called in, it is impera- tive to combine two or three consecutive classes under one man. The extreme case of an average boy presenting eight subjects and taught by eight men, each demanding the lion’s share of the time, is either pitiable or farcical, and the result is either overwork or a clever laziness which plays off the teachers against each other. In most cases history suffers, and is either crowded out or per- functorily taught; worse still, the right sort of history is not always put on the syllabus, but that which can be most easily crammed. Examinations of the “School Certificate” and ‘ Matriculation’ type are meant; hardly ever are the average boy’s one or two strong points allowed to come into play, and especially is this the case in history. At the present crisis it is opportune to insist that his school studies should not be confined to England and tu events before 1837; he both likes and should be encouraged to study European problems, even if he finds it hard to be accurate. The average boy suffers badly because of the dullard; often, of course, the dullard in one subject is the brilliant scholar in another, and outsiders in reading reports forget that the strong criticisms of examiners do not refer to the same boys in all subjects. Teaching to the bottom boys of a class to force them ee an examination is utterly unfair to the many average and few brilliant ys. Secondly, the rigid division of subjects is quite wrong. Geography and English ought not to be marked off from History. An ideal paper would contain absolutely elementary questions in all three, the standard being fixed by syllabus, and 20 per cent. of marks allotted; then a large number of alternative questions should be put, being worded so as to allow the writer to show how wide his reading is in political, social, geographical, and general subjects. As matters are now, one can offer no suggestions except on the lines of examination tests. jp p> el, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 743 4. The Method and Content of History as a Subject of School Study in Elementary Schools. By J. A. Wurts. The present situation has brought home to the most unimaginative how much our life is bound up with the outside world, the meaning and value of our own institutions, and that we, perhaps more than any other nation, are dependent upon world conditions. A democracy ignorant of its surroundings is, obviously, a serious danger in a democratic State. Some ideas of world con- ditions are, therefore, essential. Nor can these ideas be limited to present conditions, because tradition is such a tremendous intellectual force in the whole national organism. Definite history teaching, of the most elementary character, would have made the task of explaining the causes of the present crisis a comparatively easy matter. Again, how frequently one hears the complaint that it is most difficult to interest the elector in anything beyond his immediate environment! And this at a time when the State is forced, more and more, to interfere in the affairs of the individual. Enlightenment in this direction is a necessity, if we are to avoid, on the one hand, slavish obedience, or, on the other, a more or less hostile indifference. From these considerations it follows that we must, at least, introduce our youth to some knowledge of general, social, and constitutional history. This is a difficult task. Plainly we must throw overboard much that we have hitherto considered necessary. Already dates, royal personages, and battles have felt the shock of the newer tendencies in history teaching, and doubtless in many cases the abandonment of these has been overdone, and too much stress in the more advanced schools has been laid upon economic factors. But even when thus pruned. the selection of matter suitable to cover the ground indicated above is a very difficult task. Three things should be kept steadily in view : (1) the matter must be such as will appeal to the child; (2) it must have development as its cardinal feature ; (3) it must, in some measure, explain modern conditions. If this is done, neither kings nor queens, nor great men and women, nor economic and social develop- ment will be neglected. In general history we must keep to the broadest and most interesting events, and, in a sketch of this kind, sometimes one group of peoples or events, and sometimes another, will occupy the central theme, but the general result will be the gradual unfolding of the present grouping of the great world powers, with the British Empire in its relation to them. The world geography taken about the same time will be of considerable assistance. In social and economic history we have a somewhat easier task. The great stages in our social development, especially up to the end of the eighteenth century, are few. A continuous story is fairly easy to construct. In conjunc- tion with local history, its appeal to the child is direct. But while the com- munistic side of the subject will be strongly marked, the importance of the actions of individual men and women must be emphasised. In constitutional history we think of the future elector. Therefore the story of Parliament, with the main landmarks in the growth of political freedom, is what is necessary. This course will be of such a nature as to impress the lesson, that concurrently with greater freedom come more duties and more responsibilities. The accomplishment of all this depends primarily upon competent teachers with the necessary historical equipment. But it is possible to do much with the resources at hand. Much general history forms part of the Scripture lessons, and can also be dealt with in the story lessons. Certainly we could get almost all we need down to Roman times. The general biographical stories, so fre- quently given for history to children from the ages of 6+ to 8+, could be arranged in chronological sequence. Thus, while the imagination and the emotions are being cultivated, the child is acquiring some sense of historical sequence. From the ages of 8+ to 10+ a series of stories based upon the social development of the home country, coupled with a study of local history, would give a sense of development. From 10+ to 12+ British history could 744 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. be taken dealing in the latter year with the growth of the British Empire. From 12+ to 14 or 14+ the time for historical instruction might be lengthened in order to cover the three courses in general, social, and constitutional history outlined above. To assist in this work the Time Chart should always be in use. Maps, plans, and, in some cases, models, containing the necessary data for intelligent interpretation of events, as well as a good atlas, should always be at hand. Pictures, especially contemporary ones, are particularly useful. Source books and original documents need a competent teacher, or sufficient authoritative ex- planatory matter. Contemporary literature is most valuable. Museums supply isolated items to fill up the picture. Text-books and other reading matter should be under the guidance of the teacher. 5. History in Elementary Schools. By Professor T. F. Tour. 6. Instruction in Ethics and Politics. By Miss E. E. Constancs Jones. In discussing the teaching of any subject, we may consider (1) What is to be taught—the subject-matter itself; (2) Whether it is to be taught; (3) How it is to be taught. As regards history, we are all agreed that history should be generally taught in schools, and should be a subject of study at universities, and, to some extent at least, at training colleges, and perhaps we all know roughly what we mean by history. So the great question here is: How? As regards ethics and politics—the study respectively of private and public duty—of what men ought to do whether as private individuals or as political factors of an organised community—it might be thought that the most debat- able questions are: (1) What account can we give of these subjects? and (2) Should they be taught in schools, in the universities, and in training colleges? It seems, however, on reflection, that ethics and politics—though, on the whole, the systematic study of them is strangely neglected—are just as familiar and all-pervading as history—that instruction in history inevitably carries with it some instruction in ethics and politics. At every step in history, from the very beginning when an action, a king, a hero, a traitor, a coward, a govern- ment, a war, is pointed out as good or bad, ethics and politics are taught —though indeed only by-the-way. And the connection becomes closer and deeper and more multifarious as the study proceeds. So here, again, what is prominent is our third question, How? which we may enlarge to How, When, Where, and How much? A most suggestive hint as to the best way of consciously using history or legend—descriptive tales whether fact or fiction—as a starting-point of ethical instruction, is given by Robert Browning in a little poem which tells how his father first made known to him the heroic story of the siege of Troy—‘ piling up chairs and tables for a town.’ The progress so begun—‘ thus far I rightly understood the case, at five years old ’—ends in the pupil’s absorbed study of Aristotle’s ‘Ethics’ in the original. The whole suggestion seems true to life and thought—the first crude, but visible and tangible, presentment being succeeded by acquaintance with the ‘ Iliad’ itself, and that by admiring con- templation of unembodied virtues. At later stages a systematic answer to the question: (1) What is it that is to be taught as good in conduct? is insistently called for, because differences of opinion arise as to what it is that is Good and Bad. But perhaps at any stage Bishop Butler’s view that good conduct may be summed up under the heads of justice, veracity, and regard to common good, is likely on consideration to be accepted. Virtue thus understood is ‘that which every man you meet puts on the show of.’ And if justice, veracity, and regard to common good can be brought— as they can—under the one rubric of benevolence, our first and essentially important question: In teaching ethics and politics what is to be set forth TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 745 as good and bad? is answered—in the briefest possible way indeed, and in the barest outline—but yet adequately, if the answer proves to be valid and to cover all the ground. The principal part of this paper is devoted to trying to show this with as much brevity as is compatible with clearness, and insisting particularly on the a importance of having the same fundamental principle in politics as in ethics. No theory of conduct, of course, can escape the question, Why should we accept it? How do we know that it is true? This is a matter of method, and the theory here advocated is prepared with a very impressive answer—an answer which, when set out at length, offers also a solution of the very fundamental inquiry : Why should I do what I see to be right? There remains for further consideration our complicated third question : How ought ethics and politics to be taught? This I make an attempt to answer very briefly, and endeavour incidentally to indicate various interesting con- nections between teaching of history and instruction in the theory of conduct, and to point out some of the immensely valuable services which systematic ethics and politics can render not only to history, but also to that many-sided life of man which is the subject of historical study. 7. Education and British Ideals. By Professor R. 8. Conway, Litt.D. Many complaints have been heard in the course of the present War that British education is being proved inferior to German in point of technical training. Even if this be granted, it does not prove that the German system as a whole is better than ours. The Germans had, no doubt, applied to war all the resources of modern science; yet the object of education is not merely to make good tools but to teach men for what ends to use them. No system is sound which does not, as Plato taught, awaken some intelligent affection for great ideals of conduct, and these could only come from the literary side of train- ing. Now one of the ideals which the literary side of British education has nourished is absent from the Prussian mind, though not from the older and humaner traditions of Southern and Western Germany, and it is Prussia that has directed German education for the last forty years. This ideal is the love of freedom, understanding by freedom free government. The desire and respect for this is by no means spontaneous in human nature. Has any scientific dis- covery conferred vaster benefits on mankind than that of freedom in this sense? It was the Greeks of the sixth and fifth centuries B.c. who first introduced free government into the world, and saved it at the outset, at great cost to their own generation, from being crushed by Oriental tyranny. From them the faith in freedom has passed in a clearly traceable line through Roman literature and through the Roman municipal system to all the communities of the world in which freedom has taken root, including even the Hanse republics, for, as Freeman pointed out, our Teutonic ancestors hated the very idea of a town, and the notion of a charter granted by the Emperor came straight down from the Roman Empire. No educational changes, therefore, could be approved which injured this great tradition of British training. The University of Manchester has shown its faith in it by founding side by side with the fourth Chair of History a fourth Chair of Classical Studies, devoted to Imperial Latin, THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. The following Report and Papers were read :— 1, Report on Museums.—See Reports, p. 262. 746 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 2. The Place of Museums in General Education. By Hon. Professor W. Boyp Dawxins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. The value of museums in general education depends upon their arrangement and their being classified so as to show the true relations of the various objects to one another. I propose to lay before the Section a scheme of classification based on my experience in Manchester, dating from 1869, in combining various scattered collections into one museum, which is now of equal service to the University, to the various schools and institutions of the district, and to the general public. What has been done here on a fairly large may be done with equal success on a small scale elsewhere. The difficulty of co-ordinating the widely different groups of objects of human interest has been overcome by the adoption of the principles of time and evolution as the basis of classification, as seen in the following scheme. Scheme of Classification carried out in the Manchester Museum. VIII. History, Anthropo- Sia VI. | Vit. | VIL. | _logy, Ethnology, Art F Animals| Man | Plants} VII. Botany The Earth | VI. Zoology V. Tertiary Life V., IV., IIL, I., I. Geology (Cainozoic) IV. Secondary Life V., IV., III. Paleontology Ancient History (Mesozoic) of III. Primary Life The Earth (Palzozoic) II. Rocks II. Petrology I. Minerals Ts Mineralogy In this scheme the minerals are placed at the bottom because they are the materials forming the rocks. The existing animals and plants stand at the top in their true relation to the geological record, and the various changes, which they have undergone in becoming what they are, fix the geological aye of the - rocks in which they lie. The place also of the collections illustrating History, Anthropology, and other subjects grouped together in No. VIII., in close relation with those of Zoology, Botany (VI., VII.), and Geology (I. to V.), is fully justified by the connection between those sciences, and more particularly by the appearance of man in the geological record. The continuity is so marked that the present face of nature may be taken to be the current, but not necessarily the last, of the stages of the evolution of life in the Tertiary Period. A museum arranged on these lines, made intelligible by lectures and addresses as in Manchester, cannot fail to become an important instrument elsewhere in a system of education in which the study of things is becoming at least as important as the study of books. It is now doing its work in Manchester, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. TAT 3. Military Training in Schools. By Rey. A. A. Davin. 1. Its Bearing on National Needs. The question is not altogether separable from the wider question of Universal or National Training. : It is fair to point out that the recent sudden demand for a very large number of officers in all branches of the British Army would not have been met as it has been but for the careful and continually improving military practice in Public Schools for the last thirty years, but especially since 1908. But it will be endeavoured so far as possible to discuss the School question on its educational merits alone. 2. Suggestions for a Continuous Course.—At Elementary or Preparatory School stages—Drill and Scouting. In Public Schools.—Ditto with Field Practice and Elementary Tactics and much exercise in handling squads, sections, &c., leading to certificate A, and at a later stage to further training for Otficers and Certificate B. 3. Effects on the Individual Boy.—(a) in body. Good drill demands and induces alertness of ear, ready attention, and muscles under instant control. Physical exercises for straightening, smartening, and strengthening are probably best done as part of military training. And all this is most easily taught and learnt quite early in school life. (b) an capacity and character. To prepare a man to be a soldier means to produce in him faculties and powers which are of more than merely military value, e.g., in connection with the giving, receiving, and transmitting of orders, the appreciation and enjoyment of smartness and orderliness, and later on responsibility, initiative, and leadership. (c) in intelligence. Experience has proved the educational value for older cadets of tactical problems for Certificate A, map-making and reading, and other field work. 4. Effect on the School.—Here again experience has shown that a good Training Corps reacts on the life of the whole school. For instance, in Boarding Schools it is now exerting and, it is hoped, will continue to provide a whole- some check upon the undue exaltation of games; whereas in Day Schools, where compulsory games are often impossible, it supplies a wholesome and practical form of exercise and change of interest. And it has also been found that a really efficient corps raises the standard of discipline, and even of efficiency, in other departments of school life. But the drill must be good. Bad drill is worse than no drill. Much of the opposition to school training dates from a time when little was expected of Volunteers, before they were taken seridusly by the authorities. 5. Objections.—The objectors fall into two classes : (a) those whose hatred of all war leads them to condemn all military training whatsoever. Such views cannot fail to win respect for those who hold them. In a world of hard realities and second-bests we cannot afford to be without men who will thus continually remind us of what ought to be possible, but neither can we afford to act on their advice. (b) those who fear an ‘English militarism.’ But why should we suppose that English boys would catch a spirit and follow an example which the whole world is recognising to be ridiculous, odious, and disastrous? 4. Military Training in Schools. By J. L. Paron, M.A. The present time seems to me most inopportune for discussing this question. We are all under the obsession of the war. All that I urge is based not on the present state of things but what will follow when the War is over, when mankind will have a chance, such as it never had before, to open a new era and roll the world upon a new and a better course. I. If military training is to be made universal and compulsory in secondary schools, this ought to be part of a national scheme. Compulsion by patches 748 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. will never work. Where is this national scheme? At present it looks as if the idea was to train officers in the secondary school, and the rank and file in the elementary school. If we are to have a conscript army, serving under compulsion, at least let it be on a democratic basis, with free upward mobility and no caste about it. II. This war is the result of ideas firmly held, resolutely and unscrupu- lously carried out into action. The seed-time of ideas is boyhood and early manhood. Instil the idea of war, and war will be the crop we shall reap. Already our school history is instilling far too much the idea of war. Every page of it teaches implicitly that, when nations disagree, the way they settle their difference is by means of war. And war appeals far more to the imagina- tion of youth than arbitration. A boy is far more stirred by the Balaclava charge than by the Alabama arbitration. The teaching of history needs reforming. But what he does influences your boy much more than what he hears. And now you propose to train every boy in the practice of arms. War is to be his chief game. I do not know whether scouting is still to have any existence, but, if so, it is to be merely as a preparatory branch for the great universal English game of war. And directly a boy turns sixteen he is to be turned out of the scouts and don the khaki. That means that scouting will be shorn of one of its most valuable training qualities: the training of the senior boy in responsibility. Have the originators of this proposal thought out the in- evitable psychological result of their proposal? Steadily, day by day, they are going to drill into our boys, at the most suggestible period of life, the idea that the service which their country requires of them is fighting. III. One would have thought that this war had been sufficient object lesson to us never again to turn a nation into a barracks. Why did the European peoples go to war? Because for generations they had been living for war and preparing for it. If our present experience teaches us anything, it is the impotence of conscription to save us from war. Europe is suffering from the fever of war. What produced it? Conscription and military preparation. What remedy is proposed to cure the patient? The authors of this proposal have only one prescription, ‘ Repeat the conscription dose—the mixture as before, only make it stronger and increase the amount.’ IV. What is the principle we are fighting for? Is it government by consent, or government by coercion? Is it a nation drilled and regimented and dragooned by the War Office, or a nation free and spontaneous in its service, mutually co-operative in its organisation? Let us get down to the root difference between the two parties to this debate, Neither of us holds with Treitschke that the war is good or desirable in itself. Both of us agree that the present state of things is of the devil. But my opponents accept it as a thing that must be. ‘ We have to live in the world as it is.’ Our position is the exact opposite. ‘We have to make the world as it should be; and it is in our power to do it.” We fail in our highest duty if we do not make some advance towards this. There remains the question: on what other lines can national security be assured? First, smash Germany. Then summon the Hague Conference. Utilise to the full the reaction against war which is sure to set in. Throw all the highest statesmanship, moral wisdom, and strongest will-power of the nations into the ending of war. If we do not end war, war will end us. 5. Military Training in Schools. By A. A. SOMERVILLE. The best introduction to military training is probably to be found in either the Swiss system, which includes not only exercise and drill but also games, or in the Boy Scout movement; the results obtained by the latter are great and encouraging, and even extreme pacifists will not object to its spread all over the Empire. In the secondary schools, however, definite military training should be commenced; when the leaving age is eighteen or nineteen there is full oppor- tunity for this, but where the leaving age is sixteen the difficulties are much greater. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 749 The Volunteer movement in schools corresponded closely with its progress in the country ; in 1860 two Eton Masters formed the first Cadet Corps, and since 1872 the Eton Corps has almost always gone into camp at the end of the Summer Term. After the South African war the Officers’ Training Corps was founded by the War Office, with the special intention of forming a source from which officers for the Regular Army could be drawn; the result has been to make drill, shooting, and field work at school keener and camp-life more strenuous ; and, outside the Regulars, the O.T.C. is one of the few organisations able to provide officers and men at short notice. The County of Middlesex took the lead in introducing military training into the county and municipal schools, the necessary funds being raised partly by a small grant from the War Office and partly by a subscription from the games fund, although in some cases parents and friends have contributed. The question is controversial, but England is now face to face with realities, and must realise that it takes time to build up a great, efficient organisation. In New Zealand and Australia training in military subjects is compulsory; and, should it be objected that this leads fo militarism, the experience of Canada disproves the accusation. In a pamphlet signed by some of the most influential religious and educational authorities in the Dominion, and approved by the Canadian Government, it is stated that ‘Some Canadians object to the introduction of drill into the schools because they think it develops a spirit of militarism; experience has proved that this view is incorrect. . . . Drill does more than develop a spirit of patriotism; it reveals to a boy his value as a citizen, and therefore his responsibilities for the performance of his duties as a citizen, not merely in the defence of his country, but upon the highest development of his country in all departments of national life.’ 6. The Military Training of Youth in Schools.—A Review of the Systems of Training in the British Empire and in Various Foreign Coun- tries. By A. B. Woop, M.Sc. The object of this paper is to supply a few undisputed facts which may serve as a basis for a scientific discussion on this important problem. Information . has been collected from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, France, and U.S.A. As it is impossible in a brief abstract to mention all these countries, one or two cases only are given. Australia.—In Australia all male inhabitants (except those _ specially exempted) are liable to military service in time of peace as well as in time of war. This principle of compulsory military training was made law in 1909, and came into operation in January 1911. The Defence Act provided compulsory military education for boys as follows : Rank Age Service Training Junior Cadets . | 12-14 years | 2 years | Annually—90 hours Senior Cadets - | 14-18 years | 4 years | Annually—4 whole days, 12 half- days, and 24 night drills Citizen Forces 18-26 years | 8 years | Annually—In first 7 years drills (Militia) equivalent to 16 whole days (including 8 ‘ camps’) When in full operation this system involves the training of 100,000 Senior Cadets and 128,000 Militia (the population of Australia—excluding aboriginal natives—being about 44 millions). The Junior Cadets (12-14) are given a general physical training, including swimming, first-aid, and miniature rifle- shooting. Senior Cadets (14-18) are subject to military discipline, and have regular military drills and rifle practice. On attaining the age of 18 the boys, if fit, are transferred to the Militia. 750 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION lL. The expense of this training, as part of the educational system, is wholly included in the ordinary Education Budget. Certain provision is made for ‘religious objectors’ and ‘ anti-militarists.’ Reports by the Premiers of the various States of the Commonwealth give ample testimony to the success of the system. New Zealand.—By the Defence Act of 1910-11, compulsory military training is provided for every male person between the ages of 14 and 35 years. Between the ages of 12 and 14 the boy receives a certain amount of physical training in the elementary school. At 14 he joins the Senior Cadet Corps, his subsequent training being now conducted on lines similar to the Australian system. South Africa.—The Defence Act of 1912 provides that all boys between the ages of 13 and 17 years shall undergo a prescribed course of military training annually. The Act provides for compulsory military training ‘only where it can be carried out efficiently,’ 7.c., in urban and populous areas. In scattered districts Defence Rifle Associations are formed. Sweden.—Compulsory military training was introduced into Swedish schools fifty years ago. Military exercises are given in all secondary schools, special emphasis being placed on rifle practice, at which 60 hours annually must be spent by every boy between the ages of 15 and 18 years inclusive. In elemen- tary schools physical exercises are given regularly, but no rifle practice. Norway.—The system here is similar to that of Sweden. The value of this military training is estimated by referring to the reports of the respective Governments. All these reports describe the compulsory system of training as a great success, both from the point of view of the boy as an individual and the nation as a whole. In the British ‘System,’ which is entirely voluntary, much excellent work is done by various voluntary organisations, such as Church Lads’ Brigades, Minia- ture Rifle Clubs, School Cadet Corps, Boy Scouts, &c., and it becomes necessary to decide whether or not such a voluntary system could be improved by adopting a more centralised and systematic Government organisation of Cadet Corps on lines, say, similar to that of the Australian system. Many interesting questions for discussion will immediately suggest them- selves, e.g. : (1) Is the adoption of the compulsory system of training an indica- tion of ‘ Militarism’?—To answer this question it is interesting to compare the cases of Germany and Switzerland or Australia. (2) At what age should this training commence ?—The ‘stages of growth’ (physical and mental) of a boy must necessarily be considered in this connection. (3) ‘Military Training’ or ‘ Physical Exercises’ in Elementary Schools ?— The solutions of (1) and (2) answer this question automatically. (4) With regard to boys who leave the elementary school without going on to the Secondary School, the same series of questions arise as in the discussion of the problem of Evening Continuation Schools. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Reports and Papers were read :— 1. Report on the Influence of School Books on Eyesight. See Reports, p. 234. 2. Report on Scholarships.—See Reports, p. 238. , TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. tel 3. The Education of Girls for Professional Life. By Mrs. W. L. Courtney. It is necessary to differentiate between : I. Professions with a fixed course of training, for which a university education is a necessary preliminary (¢.g., medicine, teaching). II. Professions for which girls cannot train until they are nineteen or over (e.g., nursing, social work, higher grades of Civil Service). III. Occupations which can be begun at an early age (e.g., secretarial and clerical work, journalism, lower grades of Civil Service). Class I. need not here be further considered because the school curriculum for these girls must necessarily be guided entirely by the requirements of the Universities. Class Il. includes two different types of professions. For some (e.g., nursing) a university course is irrelevant; for others (e.g., social work, Civil -Service) it is eminently desirable, if the age at which wage-earning must be begun can be deferred until twenty-two to twenty-four. But the school curriculum will not need any special adaptation for either type. The nurse will be the better for a good general education, and would not in any case begin her vocational training at school. The social worker or aspirant to the Public Service, if she cannot afford the very desirable university course, will take her settlement, or other sociological, training from about the age of nineteen, and need not begin at school. Class III. is the group immediately concerning us. Here there are two rival views: (1) That vocational training should begin at fifteen or sixteen either (‘) during the last school year; (i) at a special school or commercial college. (2) That vocational training should in no case begin before seventeen, and pre- ferably should be deferred till eighteen. Those who hold this view advocate its non-inclusion in the curriculum of the secondary school. The arguments in favour of (1) are (a) that it ensures the girl remaining longer at school; (0) that it thereby strengthens her character and improves her health ; (c) that, while ensuring her these advantages, it turns her out equally proficient in technical subjects. This is frequently disputed. The arguments against (1) are (a) that the time spent on vocational training is subtracted from the ordinary school hours, and therefore curtails general education ; (b) that the girl so trained is not as proficient as the pupil of the special school. The arguments in favour of (2) are obvious. It ensures better general educa- tion, and defers the vocational education to an age when the mind is more mature and the technical qualifications are therefore more rapidly and more effectively acquired. The arguments against (2) are (a) that it defers the beginning of wage-earning to an age which many middle-class parents cannot afford ; (b) that the employer prefers his assistants to begin young. This is again a very disputable point. It is clear that the only person who certainly gains by the girl beginning young is the parent. The girl does not gain, for she feels the strain of work more severely, and chafes more against the long hours and confinement. And the employer’s gain is illusive, for though the girl may be more amenable, she is less intelligent and attentive at sixteen than at eighteen, and in the long run probably of less use. But if the girl is not to begin wage-earning work at sixteen, and is to wait till eighteen, where should she spend the years from sixteen to eighteen? I answer, at school if possible, receiving a good general education. But if wage-earning at eighteen or earlier is indispensable, then from sixteen to seventeen at school, and from seventeen to seventeen and a half or eighteen at a secretarial or business training school, carefully selected. I do not believe in the possibility of getting more than the first rudiments of business training at school, because it is impossible to create there the business atmosphere. And though the ‘hustle’ of the crammer is as bad in its way as the ordinary school’s absence of business atmosphere, there is something between the two, and that ‘some- thing’ is what the ordinary business employer regards as indispensable. It 752 | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. consists in a short training conducted, as far as possible, in classes pervaded by a business spirit, by persons who have been themselves in business and pro- fessional life and understand its requirements, as no educationist can understand them. It is a question of atmosphere, not of subjects. The better the general education, the shorter can be this period of special training. But it makes the pupil alert, business-like, and methodical, and is her best answer to the employer, who always seeks, if he can, a girl ‘ with previous experience,’ thus placing serious difficulties in the path of the beginner. It will be very hard to persuade him that a girl, merely school-trained and not specially trained, has any equivalent at all to this ‘ previous experience.’ And the more he can be per- suaded to raise the standard of his requirements, the greater chance there is of raising generally the level of secretarial and clerical work, until it is worthy to rank as a profession, not an occupation, and of relegating to other employments the mass of ill-trained clerical workers, who at present degrade this and kindred branches of employment and bring down the rate of wages. 4. Women’s Education. By Miss Haupans. We have to face special questions raised by war conditions, and must con- sider how to meet them. A new vista in employment has opened up for women. Of the enormous number of new openings that have arisen, some, of course, are temporary, but women will doubtless be more largely employed as earners in the future; (1) because of the shortage of men, (2) because in certain directions women’s labour has proved as efficient as men’s, and (3) because work will probably be plentiful but cheap after the War, and more individuals in the family will be required as wage-earners. What preparations are we as educationists to make for the coming changes? We must above all realise that in our secondary education we have to prepare not only for the great profession of teaching, but for technical work of very varied sorts. We shall expect our women not only to become doctors, teachers, nurses, secretaries, &c., but also farmers, market gardeners, caterers, officials in factories, railways, &c., and we must see that these women do not go into their new occupation without the foundation of education which is essential if a man or woman is to carry on his or her work in a broad-minded way. The danger at present is that girls are hurried through the training con- sidered requisite before they have had time to think for themselves or find them- selves as individuals. The danger is difficult to meet at this moment, but we must strain every nerve to prevent its becoming permanent. Whatever our economic condition, we should struggle against the fatal economy of curtailing the education of the nation, and should lay to heart the conclusions of Mr. Acland’s Committee on Examinations in Secondary Schools. It would be most valuable if we could have a recognised stage in education (certainly not repre- sented by any cram examination) which should be the gateway to the university on the one hand and the technical classes on the other. 5. The Education of Girls with reference to their Future Careers. By Miss R. Otpuam. The War must of necessity aggravate what is already a serious condition of social life—the numerical preponderance of women over men. Another grave result will be the shortage of men in many occupations. The welfare of the community as a whole demands that we should in this time of social truce con- sider the measures that will best serve in the process of reconstruction. It is obvious that an increasing number of women must be denied the opportunities. of wifehood and motherhood. How can such women best serve their purpose as useful citizens? Two reforms are vital: A free entry for women into all pro- fessions and callings from which they are not physically debarred, with a free way through these callings, and a raising of the status of the domestic worker or homemaker. The education of a girl suffers from the narrow sphere of choice that lies before her, and from the fact that, in such callings as are open TRANSACTIONS OF SEUTION L. 153 to her, she is for the most part relegated to a subordinate position and a lower scale of remuneration. Her intelligence shows her the injustice of artificial restrictions based on sex prejudice, and the anomaly of opening to her, e.g., the profession of medicine while keeping that of law closed. Denied the rights of citizenship as she is, she has little incentive to high effort or to public spirit. It is hardly surprising that the outcome of such conditions should be, on the one hand, narrowness and irresponsibility, on the other bitter revolt against the prevailing social system. Even to-day, when the State has called upon women to volunteer for war service, there is a dangerous tendency to re-grade the work so as to reserve for men all that carries with it interest and responsibility. The time cannot be far distant when women will gain a larger participation in public life; it is one of the first duties of the teacher to prepare her girls for such participation by developing in them a sense of national responsibility. In the second place a more liberal education is necessary for the girl whois to be the homemaker. In the opinion of many, it is in this sphere that woman performs her highest service to the State. If the foundations of national greatness are indeed set in the homes of the people, we should train with the utmost care the girls who will to a great extent make the home. We should seek to remove the stigma of inferiority that rests on girls whose tastes lie in the direction of domesticity and manual accomplishments. Such girls should be discovered early; to this end, every girl should, at some period of her school life, devote the greater part of one year to the domestic arts. This training should be supplementary to a broad general education, which, far from making a girl discontented with her lot, will do much to show her the importance of the service she is rendering to the nation. The State could do much to give greater dignity to the career of the domestic worker by entrusting to women the control of certain branches of its departments, such as those that deal with maternity and child-welfare, or that demand special knowledge and experience possible only to women. Finally, there is need for increased effort in every department of education. There must be among other advances a generous provision of Trade Schools to better the condition of the masses of women engaged in industry. What we need above all in England at the present time is to make our education a more systematic and careful preparation for the business of life. 6. Education of Girls with special reference to their Career—Education preparatory to Clerical Work. By Miss E. A. CuarLesworrn. The writer approached the subject from the point of view of one who has been engaged in clerical work for many years, and has been, as a member of the Executive Committee of the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries, in touch with large numbers of women employed in all branches of such work. As the outcome of this experience she has come to the conclusion that there are some general principles the inculcation of which is of greater importance and value as a preparation for work than any kind of special instruction. These may be summed up under the headings : (1) Self-reliance and self-dependence. Determination to rely upon own qualifications and efforts, rather than upon influence of relatives and friends, in obtaining posts and making progress. (2) Willingness to face the cost of living. Realisation that earnings must be sufficient to cover bad times as well as good, extraordinary as well as ordinary expenses. (3) Appreciation of the place of the individual worker in the social economy, and of the influence of actions upon the welfare of fellow-workers. Some kind of specialised instruction doubtless necessary. Consideration when this instruction should begin, what subjects form the best framework for it, and where and by whom it should be given. Strong reasons why specialised instruction should not begin too early : (a) Clerical work is of an abstract nature: it does not, like a craft, develop creative faeulties and constructive powers. The meaning and value of the tasks 1915, 3.C 154 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. performed by a junior clerk are not obvious, and the work is not educative unless and until a broad foundation of general education has been laid. (4) Without this broad foundation the work tends to have a narrowing influence upon the mind and a deteriorating effect upon the powers : the worker quickly arrives at a point beyond which no further development seems possible. Suggestions as to subjects which should be introduced in specialised instruc- tion: Elementary economics, principles of accountancy and of record-keeping, geography on modern principles, reading of good journals and newspapers. As to where instruction should be given, it is clear that the general principles set out above could only be inculcated in a school where the tone and discipline were good; the secondary school is undoubtedly the best place for girls to receive both general-and special instruction. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Relation of Education to Industry. By Right Hon. Sir Witt1am Martuer, M.Inst.C.H., LL.D. The question is of the highest importance, and, viewed in the largest sense of the words, the relationship is as close as that of the soul to the body, for it isthe spirit which inspires, directs, and ennobles the bodily activities. At the Meeting of the British Association in Manchester in 1887 the writer dealt with another fundamental aspect of the same question in discussing the subject of manual training as a main feature of national education. The President of the Association, Sir H. E. Roscoe, remarked in his presidential Address on that occasion that if the country is to maintain its industrial and commercial supremacy it can only be accomplished by a reconsideration of the whole question of education on new lines embracing all the people, and that a statesman who could effectively achieve this would earn the gratitude of generations yet to come. Succeeding Presidents like Sir Norman Lockyer and Sir William Ramsay enforced this view, but the statesman has yet to appear. A much more liberal provision of the means and opportunities of education for all classes is essential to the well-being of the nation. At the time of the former meeting of the Association in Manchester our national education was miserably inadequate for the highest efficiency of work and service. Even the Act of 1870, designed to provide in some measure the means of education for the masses of the people, failed of its purpose, and it was not until 1889 that Parliament made any attempt to provide the means of any satisfactory secondary and technical education, with the consequence that nations such as Germany and the United States, where education had greatly developed, reaped to a far greater extent the fruits of scientific discovery. During the period marked by the achievements of Faraday, England produced some of the most eminent scientists of the world; yet it was in foreign countries in which the spirit of education had long before penetrated the lives of the people that the new revelations of scientific discovery were most successfully applied to the common needs of life. The industrial and commercial results achieved thereby at last stirred our Government to send out the Royal Commission of 1882 to investigate the causes and to inquire into the facilities for secondary and technical education existing in foreign countries. The Report of the inquiry published in 1884 of the conditions of education in Europe and in the United States, in which country the writer had spent eight months of careful investiga- tion, created widespread alarm in the United Kingdom and in other parts of the Empire. No immediate action ensued therefrom until, as a result of the persistent efforts of a few resolute men, an Act was passed for the advancement of technical education at the very close of the session of 1889, to be followed by the Act of 1890 which appropriated the proceeds of the ‘ whisky and beer ’ tax to the support of technical education. The large manufacturing centres took vad d f+ if sb téaul ie aan OOP OG) ox> rere? »M, OY S205 OD SRK S555 uausapral poyiis) ROX SpUDdy Surpva7y seceene 2 1) <> 55 e, 8 s2s1n0> ao 6626 oo Ss ‘ OOO <5 x5 S S ¥ SirBouvyy | sys0Mm EEN F4dUB ise Uswsaypis poraysipuy Zz & s % 8% @ ™@ on. at u bi) st vl fl 7" me oF se3y ‘uoryestuvs.io Jueseid Jo uolZeoytpom pasodoid Zuryerysui[t WeIseIG@—'AULSAGN] GNV NOILYOAGG 758 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. citizen. He must have opportunities for training which will fit him for manhood and for his place in the nation. The Workshop and the Technical School.—In the highly organised workshops of the present time it is impossible for the boy to learn the whole of his trade. The employer is no longer able to educate his apprentice or young worker, and the schoolmaster, therefore, must come in to do a part of the work. When the boy enters the workshop his education is far from complete. Continued education applicable to his chosen trade must be given, and it is in this connection that the technical schools of the country, working in close co-operation with the work- shops, should fulfil their real function. To expect the young worker to get the necessary technical education by attending evening school for three or four evenings a week after he has done a full day’s work in the workshop is indefensible, and voluntary schemes of co- operation between employers and Education Authorities are ineffective. Only a small proportion of the young workers of the country attend evening schools in spite of the inducements offered and of the encouragement given, and the effect of evening education on the nation as a whole is very slight. The only rational and effective way to train the rising generation of skilled workmen after leaving the elementary schools is to have half-time in the work- shops and half-time in the technical schools, or at least some approximation to this, between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. Young workmen must be enabled to attend suitable courses of instruction for periods of suitable length within the normal working day. In this respect England suffers by comparison with other nations. A further limitation of juvenile labour is urgent, and it must be made the duty of the employers to allow young persons under eighteen to attend courses of technical and general instruction at certain hours of the day-time when they are not too tired bodily and mentally to profit from the instruction. Special Opportunities for proved Ability.—Such a scheme would result in an army of skilled workmen; but no potential talent must be lost. There must be facilities for young workmen of brains and capacity to secure the education and training required of those who fill the highest posts in industry. Special pro- vision must be made to enable young workers of proved ability to attend day courses at the university for two or three years in order that they may under- stand the application of scientific methods in the development of industry. In this connection technological scholarships to enable selected young workers to follow day courses in science and technology at the university have proved extremely useful. The Secondary School Boy in the School.—There has been during recent years much discussion regarding the nature of the curriculum which should pertain in secondary schools, and now we are approaching well-balanced schemes of study which are likely to produce harmonious development of the faculties of the boy. The work of a secondary school should not be guided by the desire to qualify a few boys at the top to win university scholarships. On the other hand, the danger of undue importance being placed on the vocational side and a secondary school becoming a day technical school at the top must be avoided. . There is no inherent opposition between general education and life purpose ; it is possible to have a sound core of general education throughout and at the same time to give due attention to the requirements of the future occupations of the boys. As in the elementary school, so in the secondary school, there must be no pure trade instruction—no attempt to teach a specific trade. While at the secondary school the boy must receive a sound general education with such preparatory vocational training as will tend to produce a free and inventive mind, ready to attack the technical problems which will face him when he actually enters industry. Secondary School Pupils beyond the School Age.—England fails in the indus- trial world where trained intelligence of the highest order is the deciding factor, and in the future education must assist industry by providing expert helpers and capable leaders. For these no education can be considered too good—no training too high. Our future leaders of industry must be equipped for competition on equal terms with the highly trained young men of other nationalities. A sound education in the secondary schools, followed by thorough training in the technical of: Sa pangs ath Se oad sh hidebaegucteieed Anite s “A TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 759 and science departments of the university, combined with adequate experience in the workshop or factory, is required. Safeguards must be taken to prevent the training being too academic. In addition to the intellectual and technical training, there must be opportunities for the student to obtain first-hand knowledge of the particular industry in which he is interested. A year’s experience in the workshop may precede the student’s entrance to the university, in which connection a system of ‘ deferred scholarships ’ from the secondary schools to the university for boys who intend to enter industry would be useful, or the ‘sandwich system’ of training may be adopted, in which case the youth on leaving the secondary school would enter on a course of training which each year is carried on partly in the university and partly in the workshop. Equality of Opportunity for Canacity.—Industry is now experiencing the lack of expert technical helpers, and the present crisis should bring the nation to recognise how essential it is to utilise to the full native brain power in whatever rank it is found. British talent is not inferior to that of other nations, but technically trained talent will naturally dominate untrained talent in industrial enterprise, and it is for us to see that native talent has at home facilities for specialised training not less favourable than those enjoyed by foreigners in their country. England must be the land of ‘opportunity and the sieve.’ There must be careful selection of capacity, with ample facilities for specialised study, to produce men of intellectual power, combined with high technical training. Our present system which allows mediocrity with pecuniary means to secure high training and denies such training to natural high capacity without pecuniary means is wasteful. High intellectual endowment is a natural asset, and the State should adopt methods to realise this asset. There are required (2) an extended system of scholarships, (4) grants-in-aid or maintenance allowances to enable suitable students to continue their studies, (c) greater endowment of research. Research is intimately connected with manufacturing progress. Without highly trained men engaged in experimental work there can be no development of industry, and unless there is development there must be stagnation and decay. The astounding apathy with which English firms are accustomed to view the highly trained expert in industry must give way to a full appreciation of the value of trained intellect if British industry is to flourish. Education and Industry a Partnership.—Great gaps are now being made in the ranks of skilled workers of every grade in industry, in commerce, and in the professions. As a nation we shall have to make good the wealth which is lost. The War will be followed by keen competition between the brains of the various nations, and England should prepare along thorough and adequate lines for that struggle. It is by an alliance between the educational institutions and the workshops of England and close co-operation between the employers and the Education Authorities that success will be attained. If the proper relationship between education and industry is secured, there will arise in England an indus- trial army with trained leaders capable of maintaining our industrial supremacy. Papers on the same subject were also contributed by :— 4. Professor H. KE. Anmstrona, F'.R.S. 5. A. P. M. FLEwiIne. 6. J. G. Pearce. 7. Dr. W..CRaAmp. 760 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. Section M.—AGRICULTURE. PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION: R. H. Rew, C.B. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8. The President delivered the following Address :— Farming and Food Supplies in Time of War. AGRICULTURE is the antithesis of warfare; farming is pre-eminently a peaceful avocation, and farmers are essentially men of peace. The husbandman is not easily disturbed by war’s alarms, and his intimate association with the placid and inevitable processes of Nature engenders a calmness of spirit which is unshaken by catastrophe. Many stories illustrative of this attitude of mind come to us from the battlefields. The complete detachment of the fighting men from the rest of the community which was usual up to quite recent times is impossible in these days when in almost every country the army is not a class but the nation. It is inconceivable now that a war could rage of which it could be said, as has been said of our Civil War: ‘ Excepting those who were directly engaged in the struggle, men seemed to follow their ordinary business and their accustomed pursuits. The story that a crowd of country gentlemen followed the hounds across Marston Moor, between the two armies drawn up in hostile array, may not be true; but it illustrates the temper of a large proportion of the inhabitants.’* But, while farmers and peasants within the range of the guns cannot now ignore the fighting, they have repeatedly demonstrated their invincible determination that the madness of mankind shall not interrupt the calm sanity of the ordered cultivation of the soil. Of a district in the Argonne, a correspondent, writing in April last, said: ‘ The spring seed has already been sown or is being sown, sometimes indifferently, under shell-fire, right up to the edge of the trenches.’* A story was told of a farmer in Flanders looking over the parapet of a trench and demanding of an indignant British officer whether any of his men had stolen his pig. On receiving a suitable reply, he observed that he had already asked the French, who also denied all knowledge of the missing animal, so that he supposed it must be those condemned Germans, whom he forthwith proceeded to interview. Such a sublime sense of values, such absorption in the things that matter, such contempt for the senseless proceedings of warfare, are only possible to the agriculturist. The quarrels of mankind are transient, the processes of Nature are eternal. One thinks of Matthew Arnold’s lines : The East bowed low before the blast In patient deep disdain ; She let the legions thunder past, And plunged in thought again. But, while the farmer is by instinct a pacifist, he is also, in a cause which rouses him, a doughty fighter. In that same Civil War to which so many were indifferent, the farmers of East Anglia, under Cromwell, changed the course of English history; and the thoroughness with which they turned their plough- * Prothero, English Farming, Past and Present, p. 194. * Westminster Gazette, April 30, 1915. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 761 shares into swords is demonstrated by the fact that when they took to soldier- ing they put the nation for the first and only time under what is now termed militarism; that is, government controlled by the Army. In the last battle fought on English soil the yeomen and peasants of the West Country proved, amid the butchery of Sedgemoor, that bucolic lethargy can be roused to desperate courage. Indeed, through all our island story, since the English yeomen first broke the power of medieval chivalry and established the supre- macy of infantry in modern warfare, it has been from the rural districts that the nation has drawn its military strength. Even in the present war, when the armies of the Empire have been drawn from all classes of the community, the old county regiments and the yeomanry squadrons with their roots in the countryside have proved once more that the peaceful rustic is as undismayed on the field of battle as on the fields of peace. It is, however, in his pacific rather than in his belligerent aspect that the British farmer now claims our attention, and, before considering the position of farming in the present war, we may briefly glance at its position when a century ago the nation was similarly engaged in a vital struggle. From February 1793 until 1815, with two brief intervals, we were at war, and the conflict embraced not only practically all Europe but America as well. The latter half of the eighteenth century had witnessed a revolution of British agriculture. The work of Jethro Tull, ‘Turnip’ Townshend, Robert Bakewell, and their disciples, had established the principles of modern farming. Coke of Holkham had begun his missionary work; Arthur Young was preaching the gospel of progress; and in 1803 Humphry Davy delivered his epoch-making lectures on agricultural chemistry. Common-field cultivation, with all its hin- drances to progress, was rapidly being extinguished, accelerated by the General Inclosure Act of 1801. A general idea of the state of agricuiture may be obtained from the estimates made by W. T. Comber of the area in England and Wales under different crops in 1808. There were then no official returns, which, indeed, were not started until 1866; but these estimates have been generally accepted as approximately accurate and are at any rate the nearest approach we have to definite information. TU give for comparison the figures from the agricultural returns of 1914, which approximately correspond to those of the earlier date : ad 1808 1914 Acres Acres Wheat oP MO ALS tal RE. MF 3,160,000 1,807,498 EAnOveanGirye: el, Omi i tee bd py 861,000 1,558,670 Oats and beans . . P : , : ; . 2,872,000 2,223,642 Clover, rye-grass, &e. b y 3 3 j , 1,149,000 2,558,735 Roots and cabbages cultivated by the plough . 1,150,000 2,077,487 Fallow RON ey Ve Se VOR OR SAR. ¢ 2,297,000 340,737 Hop grounds... F : : : : 36,000 36,661 Land depastured by cattle . . . . «+! 17,479,000 16,115,750 The returns in 1914 comprise a larger variety of crops than were cultivated in 1808. Potatoes, for instance, were then only just beginning to be grown as a field-crop, and I have included them, together with Kohl-rabi and rape, among “roots and cabbages.’ The population of England and Wales in 1801 was 8,892,536, so that there were 355 acres under wheat for every hundred inhabitants. In 1914 the popn- lation was 37,302,983, and for every hundred inhabitants there were 5 acres under wheat. The yield of wheat during the twenty years ending 1795 was estimated at 3 qrs. per acre*; in 1914 it was 4 qrs. per acre. The quantity of home-grown wheat per head of population was therefore 84 bushels in 1808, and 14 bushels _ * Report of Select Committee on the means of promoting the cultivation and improvement of the waste, uninclosed and unproductive lands of the Kingdom, 1795, 762 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. in 1914. Nevertheless, even at that time, the country was not self-supporting in breadstuffs. In 1810, 1,305,000 qrs. of wheat and 473,000 cwt. of flour were imported. The average annual imports of wheat from 1801 to 1810 were 601,000 qrs., and from 1811 to 1820 458,000 qrs. Up to the last decade of the eighteenth century England was an exporting rather than an importing country, and bounties on exports were offered when prices were low, from 1689 to 1814, though none were, in fact, paid after 1792. 4 During the war period we are considering, the annual average price of wheat ranged from 49s. 3d. per qr. in 1793 to 126s. 6d. per qr. in 1812; the real price in the latter year, owing to the depreciation of the currency, being not more than 100s. In 1814 the nominal price was 74s. 4d. and the real price not more shan 54s. per qr.4. The extent to which these high and widely varying prices were affected by the European war has been the subject of controversy. As we mainly depended on the Continent for any addition to our own resources, the diminished production during the earlier years in the Netherlands, Ger- many, and Italy, and in the later years of the war in Russia, Poland, Prussia, Saxony, and the Peninsula, reduced possible supplies. At the same time the rates of freight and insurance, especially in the later years of the war, increased very considerably. Tooke mentions a freight of 30/. per ton on hemp from St. Petersburg in 1809. On the other hand, a powerful impetus was given to home production, which was stimulated by Government action and private enterprise. Inclosure was encouraged by the General Inclosure Act of 1801, and 1,934 Inclosure Acts were passed from 1793 to 1815. The schemes for increasing and conserving food supplies were various. The Board of Agricul- ture, for example, offered prizes of 50, 30, and 20 guineas respectively to the persons who in the spring of 1805 cultivated the greatest number of acres— not less than 20—of spring wheat.’ In 1795 a Select Committee recommended that bounties should be granted to encourage the cultivation of potatoes on ‘lands at present lying waste, uncultivated, or unproductive,’ and that means should at once be adopted to add at least 150,000 and perhaps 300,000 acres to the land under cultivation ‘ as the only effectual means of preventing that impor- tation of corn, and disadvantages therefrom, by which this country has already so deeply suffered.’ Another view of importation is presented by Tooke, who, in a discussion of the effect of the war, says: ‘Although the war cannot have been said to have operated upon the supply of agricultural produce of our own growth and other native commodities, sufficiently to outweigh the circum- stances favourable to reproduction, it operated most powerfully in increasing the cost of production and in obstructing the supply of such commodities as we stood in need of from abroad. It is therefore to war chiefly as affecting the cost of production and diminishing the supply, by obstructions to importation, at a time when, by a succession of unfavourable seasons, our own produce became inadequate to the average consumption, that any considerable proportion of the range of high prices is to be attributed.’® The main cause of high prices and scarcity was the failure of the harvests. Mr. Prothero thus analyses the wheat harvests of the twenty-two years 1793- 1814: ‘ Fourteen were deficient; in seven out of the fourteen the crops failed to a remarkable extent, namely in 1795, 1799, 1800, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812. Six produced an average yield. Only two, 1796 and 1813, were abundant; but the latter was long regarded as the best within living memory. 7 ‘ It appears paradoxical, but in a sense it is true, to say that the scarcity of wheat in certain years arose from the fact that the country was too largely dependent on its own crop. The risk of a bad harvest in a climate such as that of the British Isles must always be serious, and by the fortune of war this risk between 1793 and 1814 turned out to be very high. When supplies are drawn from the four quarters of the globe, it is evident that the risk of a shortage in time of peace is greatly reduced. Whether in a great war it is preferable to be more dependent on the sea than on the season is debatable. 4 Porter’s Progress of the Nation, by F. W. Hirst, p. 183, 5 Annals of Agriculture, 1805. ®° History of Prices, ed. 1838, vol. i. p. 116. " Hnglish Farming, Past and Present, p. 269, 6 Pe re 4 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 763 In comparison with wars for national existence, such as that against Napoleon and in a still sterner sense that in which we are now engaged, other conflicts appear insignificant. The Crimean War, however, did affect our food supplies and had a reflex action on British agriculture. The cessation of imports from Russia caused a rise in the price of corn. The average price of wheat rose to 72s. 5d. per qr. in 1854, 74s. 8d. in 1855, and 69s. 2d. in 1856. Only once before (in 1839) during the previous thirty-five years had it risen above 70s. There were then no agricultural returns, but the estimates of Lawes, which were generally accepted, put the area under wheat at a little more than 4,000,000 acres, a higher figure than has been suggested for any other period. It is, indeed, highly probable that the Crimean War marked the maximum of wheat cultivation in this country. It was a time of great agri- cultural activity and of rapid progress. To their astonishment, farmers had found, after an interval of panic, that the Repeal of the Corn Laws had not obliterated British agriculture and that even the price of wheat was not invari- ably lower than it had often been before 1846. Caird had preached ‘ High Farming’ in 1848 and found many disciples, capital was poured into the land, and the high prices of the Crimean period stimulated enterprise and restored confidence in agriculture. To generalise very roughly, it may be said that while the Napoleonic wars were followed by the deepest depression in agriculture, the Crimean War was followed by a heyday of agricultural prosperity which lasted for over twenty years. What the agricultural sequel to the present war may be, I leave to others to estimate, and I turn to consider briefly some of its effects on British farming up to the present time. Harvest had just begun when war broke out on August 4; indeed, in the earlier districts a good deal of corn was already cut. The harvest of 1914 was, in fact, with the exception of that of 1911, the earliest of recent years, as it was also one of the most quickly*gathered. The agricultural situation may perhaps be concisely shown by giving the returns of the crops then in hand, 1.€., in course of gathering or in the ground, with the numbers of live stock as returned on farms in the previous June. The figures are for the United Kingdom, and I add the average for the preceding ten years for comparison : Average | — 1914 | 1904-13 } Qrs. Qrs. | Wheat 7,804,000 | 17,094,000 Barley 8,066,000 7,965,000 Oats 20,664,000 | 21,564,000 Beans . 1,120,000 1,059,000 Peas 374,000 525,000 Tons Tons Potatoes P 7,476,000 6,592,000 Turnips and swedes . 24,196,000 26,901,000 Mangold 9,522,000 | 9,934,000 Hay 12,403,000 14,148,000 Cwts. Cwts. Hops . 507,000 354,000 No. No. Cattle . A : ¥ 12,185,000 11,756,000 Sheep . * ‘ 27,964,000 29,882,000 Pigs 5 3,953,000 3,805,000 Horses. 1,851,000 | 2,059,000 Farmers had thus rather more than their usual supplies of nearly every crop, the chief deficiencies being in peas, roots, and hay. The shortage of the hay-crop was, however, in some measure made up by the large stocks left from the unusually heavy crop of 1913. It was fortunate from the food-supply point 764 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. of view that two of the most plentiful crops were wheat and potatoes. The head of cattle was very satisfactory, being the largest on record, and pigs were well above average. Sheep, always apt to fluctuate in numbers, were much below average, the total being the smallest since 1882 with the exception of 1913. On the whole, it was a good year agriculturally, and the supply of home- grown produce at the beginning of the war was bountiful. Nature at any rate had provided for us more generously than we had a right to expect. At first it appeared as if farmers were likely to be sufferers rather than gainers by the war. Prices of feeding-stuffs, especially linseed and _ cotton- cakes, maize-meal, rice-meal, and barley-meal, rose at once, recruiting affected the labour supply, and difficulties arose in the distribution of produce by rail. With one or two exceptions, such as oats, the prices of farm produce showed but little rise for three or four months after the war began. Wheat rose about 10 per cent., barley remained about normal, cattle by November had not risen more than 3 per cent., sheep and veal-calves showed no rise until December, while poultry was actually cheaper than usual, though eggs rose considerably. Butter rose slightly, and cheese remained about normal. Up to nearly the end of the year, in fact, it may be said generally that British farm-produce made very little more money than usual. Meanwhile the nation began to take a keen interest in the agricultural resources of the country, and farming became the object of general solicitude. We started with great energy to improvise, in truly British fashion, the means of facing the supreme crisis of our fate, but the elementary fact at once became obvious that it is impossible to improvise food. The main farm-crops take an unreasonably long time to grow, even if the land is prepared for them, and a sudden extension of the area under cultivation is not a simple proposition. It was freely pointed out—with undeniable truth—that our agricultural system had not been arranged to meet the conditions of a great European war, and many suggestions were made to meet the emergency. Some of these sugges- tions involved intervention by legislative or administrative action. It was decided that any attempt violently to divert the course of farming from its normal channels would probably not result in an increased total production from the land. The Agricultural Consultative Committee, appointed by the President of the Board of Agriculture on August 10, issued some excellent advice to farmers as to their general line of policy and the best means by which they could serve the nation, and this was supplemented by the Board and by the agricultural colleges and local organisations throughout the country. No less than thirty special leaflets were issued by the Board, but, while it may, I think, fairly be claimed that all the recommendations made officially were sound and reasonable, I should be the last to aver that farmers were universally guided by them. They do not accept official action effusively : ‘Unkempt about those hedges blows An English unofficial rose,’ and official plants do not flourish naturally in farm hedgerows. It was, how- ever, fairly evident that patriotism would suggest an effort to obtain the maxi- mum production from the land, and there were good reasons to think that self- interest would indicate the same course. It must be admitted, however, that during the autumn the lure of self-interest was not very apparent. Food-prices, however, at the end of the year began to rise rapidly. English wheat in December was 25 per cent. above the July level, in January 45 per cent., in February and March 60 per cent., and in May 80 per cent. Imported wheat generally rose to a still greater extent, prices in May standing for No. 2 North Manitoba 95 per cent., and No. 2 Hard Winter 90 per cent. above July level. The greater rise in imported wheat may be noted as vindicating farmers against the charge which was made against them of unreasonably withholding their wheat from the market. Cattle and sheep rose more slowly, but in March prices of both had risen by 20 per cent., and in May and June cattle had risen by about 40 per cent. Butter rose by about 20 per cent. and cheese by about 40 per cent. Milk rose little through the winter, but when summer contracts were made prices remained generally at the winter level. British agriculture, like the British Isles, is a comparatively small affair, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 765 geographically. The 47 million acres which it occupies, compared with the 80 million acres of Germany or the 90 million acres of France, and still more with the 290 million acres of the United States, represent an area which may be termed manageable and about which one might expect to generalise without much difficulty. But, in fact, generalisation is impossible. Even on the 27 million acres of farm land in England and Wales there is probably more diversity to the square mile than in any country on earth. The variations in local conditions, class of farming, and status of occupier preclude the possi- bility of making any general statement without elaborate qualifications. Thus whatever one might say as to the effects of the war on agriculture would be certain to be inaccurate in some districts and as regards some farmers. There are three main agricultural groups, corn-growing, grazing, and dairy- ing. They overlap and intermingle indefinitely, and there are other important groups, such as fruit-growing, vegetable-growing, hop-growing, &c., which represent a very large share of the enterprise and capital engaged on the land. The receipts of the corn-growing farmer, generally speaking, were substantially increased. Probably about 50 per cent. of the wheat-crop had been sold before prices rose above 40s. per quarter, and there was very little left on the farms when they reached their maximum in May. Oats rose rather more quickly, but did not reach so high a level, relatively, as wheat. Barley—owing perhaps to enforced and voluntary temperance—never made exceptional prices, and in fact the best malting barleys were of rather less than average value. There is no doubt, however, that farmers who depended mainly on corn-growing found an exceptionally good market for their crops and made substantial profits. Farmers who depended mainly on stock were less generally fortunate, although stock were at a fairly high level of price when the war began. Sheep for some time showed no signs of getting dearer, but in the spring prices rose substanti- ally, and a good demand for wool—which in one or two cases touched 2s. per lb.—made the flockmasters’ returns on the whole very satisfactory. Cattle followed much the same course; stores were dear, but by the time fat stock came out of the yards or off the grass prices had risen to a very remunerative level. The large demands on imported supplies of meat for the British and French armies occasioned a distinct shortage for the civil population, but this was relieved by a reduced demand, so that the effect upon prices of native beef and mutton was not so great as might have been expected. The influence of a rise of price upon demand is more marked in the case of meat than in that of bread. While there has been a distinct reduction in the consumption of meat, there is no evidence of a reduced consumption of bread. Dairy farmers generally found themselves in difficulties. Prices of butter and cheese increased but slightly, and milk remained for a considerable period almost unchanged. The rise in the prices of feeding-stuffs and the loss of milkers aggravated their troubles. An actual instance of the position in February as affecting a fairly typical two-hundred-acre farm may be quoted. It had thirty milch cows, producing about 16,500 gallons per annum. The cake bill showed an advance of fifty per cent., and wages had risen twelve per cent. It was calculated that the extra cost was 13d. per gallon of milk. Later the prices of milk, butter, and cheese rose, but on the whole it cannot be said that dairy farmers generally made exceptional profits. While it is certain that the gross receipts by farmers were substantially increased, it is very difficult to estimate what the net pecuniary gain to agri- culture has been. It can only be said generally that while some have made sub- stantial profits, which probably were in very few cases excessive, many others have on balance (after allowing for extra cost) done no better financially, and some perhaps even worse, than in an average year of peace. With regard to one item of extra cost, that of labour, it is possible to make an approximate estimate. Agricultural labourers were among the first to respond to the call for the new armies, and, up to the end of January, fifteen per cent. had joined the forces of the Crown. This considerable depletion of labour was not acutely felt by farmers during the winter, but during the spring and summer serious difficulty was experienced and many devices were suggested—some of which were adopted—for meeting it. Naturally the wages of those agricultural labourers who were left rose, the rise varying in different districts but being 766 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. generally from 1s. 6d. to 3s. per week. Owing to the rise in the price of com- modities, this increase of wages cannot be regarded as a profit to the labourers, but it is, of course, an outlay by farmers, which in England and Wales may be reckoned as amounting to an aggregate of about 2,000,000/. This country has never suffered from a dearth of agricultural advisers, and in such a time as the present, when everyone is anxious to help the country, it is natural that they should be unusually plentiful. Advice was freely offered both to the Government how to deal with farmers and to farmers how to deal with the land. Whether in consequence of advice or in spite of it, it may fairly be said that farmers throughout the United Kingdom have done their duty. They have met their difficulties doggedly and have shown an apprecia- tion of the situation which does credit to their intelligence. It was not easy last autumn, when farmers had to lay their plans for the agricultural year, to forecast the future. We were all optimists then, and many thought that the war might be over before the crops then being planted were reaped. It was clear, however, that the national interest lay in maintaining and, so far as possible, increasing the produce of the land. In the quiet, determined way which is characteristic of them, farmers devoted themselves to the task, and the returns recently issued give the measure of their achievement. They have added twenty-two per cent. to the acreage of wheat and seven per cent. to the acreage of oats, and they have kept the area of potatoes up to the high and sufficient level of the previous year. These are the three most important crops. They have also not only maintained the stock of cattle, which was the largest on record, but, in spite of unfavourable conditions and a bad lambing season, they have increased the stock of sheep. In view of these facts, I venture to say that British and Irish farmers have shown both patriotism and intelligence, and may fairly claim to have contributed their share to the national effort. The share of British agriculture in the food supply of the nation is more considerable than is sometimes realised. When I last had the honour to address the British Association I ventured to emphasise this point, and I may be allowed to repeat, in a somewhat different form and for a later period, the figures then given. ‘Taking those articles of food which are more or less pro- duced at home, the respective proportions contributed by the United Kingdom, the rest of the Empire, and foreign countries were on the average of the five years 1910-14 as follows : ee United prteh Foreign Kingdom Geonicat Countries Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. WW ate ® 5 RP ee Pathe Ra, Wee: 19-0 393 41-7 Meat . NPE Rats Dey é 57°9 10°7 314 Pauley? 1); aes MEM toe 2a eee 8 re 82°7 0:2 - 171 Eggs 3 : 3 2 : : ; 67°6 0-1 32°73 Butter (including margarine) . . 25:1 13°3 61:6 Chees6 4 “ : : : 19°5 65°4 151 Milk (including cream) . : : : 95-4 0-0 46 Babette Se SAP Shane i z 36°3 8°3 55-4 Wepetables=’ s.0ite Sr, (ane aan et 91:8 1-1 | The war has directly affected some of our food supplies by interposing barriers_against the exports of certain countries. Fortunately we were in no way dependent for any of these foods upon our enemies, though Germany was one of our main sources of supply for sugar. We received some small quantit‘es of wheat or flour and of eggs from Germany, Hungary, and Turkey, some poultry from Austria-Hungary, and some fruit from Germany and Turkey, but the whole amount was insignificant. The practical cessation of supplies from Russia was the most serious loss, as we drew from thence on an average 9 per cent. of our wheat, 9 per cent. of our butter, and 16 per cent. of our eggs, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 767 The rather humiliating panie which took possession during the first few days of the war of a certain section of the population, who rushed to accumu- late stores of provisions, arose not only from selfishness but from insufficient appreciation of the main facts about food supplies. Our large imports of food are constantly dinned into the ears of the people, but the extent and possi- bilities of our native resources are practically unknown. It is very natural, therefore, that the man in the street should assume that even a temporary interruption of oversea supplies would bring us face to face with famine. Within the first few days of the war, the Government, through the Board of Agriculture, obtained returns, not only of the stocks of all kinds of food-stuffs in the country, but also of the stocks of feeding-stuffs for animals and of ferti- lisers for the land. Powers were taken under the Articles of Commerce (Returns, &c.) Act to compel holders of stocks to make returns, but it is due to the trading community to say that in only two instances, so far as the Board of Agriculture was concerned, was it necessary to have recourse to compulsion. The returns of stocks of food-stuffs, feeding-stuffs, and fertilisers have been made regularly to the Board of Agriculture * every month since the outbreak of war, and the loyal co-operation of the traders concerned deserves cordial recog- nition by those whose official duty has been rendered comparatively easy by their assistance. I may be allowed to add that the readiness with which traders communicated information which was, of course, of a very confidential nature, displayed a confidence in Government Departments which they may regard with some satisfaction A very casual glance at the national dietary suffices to show that John Bull is an omnivorous feeder, and, as the whole world has eagerly catered for ‘his table, his demands are exigent. But, for various reasons, our daily bread, reluctant though most of us would be to be restricted to it, is regarded as the measure and index of our food supplies. On the 4th of August the Board of Agriculture published an announcement that they estimated the wheat-crop then on the verge of harvest at 7,000,000 quarters, and that, including other stocks in hand, there was at that time sufficient wheat. in the country to feed the whole population for four months; and a few days later, having then obtained further information from about 160 of the principal millers, they stated that the supplies in the country were sufficient for five months’ consump- tion. The Board also announced, on August 5, that the potato crop would furnish a full supply for a whole year’s consumption without the necessity for any addition from imports. When it was further announced that the Govern- ment had taken steps to ensure against a shortage of sugar it began to be generally realised that at any rate the country was not in imminent danger of starvation. Indeed, on a broad survey of the whole situation, it was apparent that our native resources, together with the accumulated stocks of various commodities held in granaries, warehouses, and cold stores, would enable the United Kingdom to face even the unimaginable contingency of a complete blockade of all its ports for a considerable period, Nevertheless it was abundantly evident, not only to the man in the street, but even to those whose duty it was to consider such matters, that the main- tenance of regular supplies was essential to avoid undue depletion of stocks. The risk that a certain number of vessels carrying food to this country might be sunk by the enemy was obvious, and it was at first very difficult to measure it. After a year of strenuous endeavour by the enemy it is satisfactory to record that, although a few cargoes of food-stuffs have been sunk, the effect on supplies has been practically negligible. Under these circumstances it appeared that, provided adequate protection were given against unusual risks, commercial enterprise might in the main be relied upon to supply the demands of the people in the normal manner and in the usual course of business. It is a self-evident axiom that it is better not by interfere in business matters unless there is a paramount necessity for inter- erence. The machinery of modern business in a highly organised community is very * Returns in Scotland and Ireland are made to the Agricultural Departments of thos countries and the results transmitted to the Board of Agriculture and isheries. , 768 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. complicated; the innumerable cog-wheels are hidden while the machine is running normally, but every single one of these becomes very obvious when you attempt to introduce a crowbar. With one or two exceptions the purveyors of food to the nation were left to conduct their business without official inter- ference, though the Board of Trade took steps to ascertain what were the retail prices justified by the wholesale conditions and to disseminate the infor- mation for the protection of consumers against unreasonable charges. One measure of a drastic and widespread nature was adopted. The exporta- tion of a large number of commodities was prohibited. This was done for two reasons: (1) to conserve stocks in this country, and (2) to prevent goods from reaching the enemy. The latter object could be attained only very partially by this method so long as any sources of supply other than the ports of the United Kingdom were open to the enemy or to adjoining neutral countries. The former object—with which we are now only concerned—was on the whole achieved. The Board of Agriculture, concerned for the maintenance of our flocks and herds, at once secured a general prohibition of the exportation of all kinds of feeding-stuffs for animals. Many kinds of food-stuffs were at once included and later additions were made, so that for a long time past nearly all kinds of food have been included, though in some cases the prohibition does not apply to the British Empire or to our Allies. The exportation of ferti- lisers, agricultural seeds, binder twine, and certain other commodities more or less directly connected with the conservation of our food supplies, was also prohibited, so that generally it may be said that the outlet for any food in the country was under effective control. This is not the time or place to discuss the reasons why in some instances limited quantities of certain articles were allowed to escape under licence. It is only necessary to remark that in all such cases there were cogent reasons in the national interest for the action taken. Direct Government intervention in regard to food supplies was limited to three commodities—sugar, meat, and wheat. In the case of sugar the whole business of supply was taken over by the Government—a huge undertaking but administratively a comparatively simple one, owing to the fact there are no home-grown supplies. Intervention in the meat trade was necessitated by the fact that the enormous demands of the Allied armies had to be met by drafts upon one particular kind of meat and mainly from one particular source. The Board of Trade co-operated with the War Office, and a scheme was evolved whereby a very large part of the output of meat from South America and Australia comes under Government control. As regards wheat, the intervention of the Government took two forms. The scheme whereby the importation of wheat from India was undertaken by the British Government, in co-operation with the Indian Government, arose primarily from conditions in India rather than from conditions in the United Kingdom, although it is hoped and believed that the results will prove to be mutuaily advantageous. Other than this the intervention of the Government in regard to wheat was devised as an insurance against the risk of interruption of normal supplies, its main object being to prevent the stocks of wheat in the country from falling to a dangerous level at a time when the home crop would be practically exhausted. When the home crop is just harvested there are ample reserves in the country for some months, and, as the United States and Canada are at the same time selling freely, stocks held by the trade are usually high. While home-grown wheat remains on the farms it is practically an additional reserve supplementary to the commercial reserves. When it leaves the farmers’ hands, even although it may not actually go into consumption, it becomes part of the commercial reserve. This reserve in the nature of business tends to be constant, but fluctuates within rather wide limits under the influence of market conditions. If the price of wheat rises substantially and the capital repre- sented by a given quantity increases, there is a natural tendency to reduce stocks. If also there is any indication of a falling market ahead, whether from favourable crop prospects or the release of supplies now held off the market for any reason, a prudent trader reduces his stocks to the smallest quantity on which he can keep his business running. So long as shipments reach this country, as in normal times they do, with, as a member of the Baltic once expressed it to me, ‘the regularity of buses running down Cheapside,’ the PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 769 country may safely rely on receiving its daily bread automatically. But if any interruption occurred at a time when the trade, for the reasons just indicated, happened to be running on low stocks, the margin for contingencies might be insufficient. I am, of course, debarred from discussing the method adopted or the manner in which the scheme was carried out, but, as the cereal year for which it was devised is over, it is permissible to state that the object in view was successfully achieved. Of the 47,000,000 people who form the population of the United Kingdom the large majority are absolutely dependent for their daily food on the organisa- tion and regular distribution of supplies. The countryman, even if he possesses no more than a pig and a garden, might exist for a short time, but the town- dweller would speedily starve if the organisation of supplies broke down. He does not, perhaps, sufficiently realise the intricacy of the commercial arrange- ments which make up that organisation, or the obstacles which arise when the whole economic basis of the community is disturbed by a cataclysm such as that which came upon us thirteen months ago. The-sorry catchword ‘ Business as usual’ must have sounded very ironically in the ears of many business men confronted with unforeseen and unprecedented difficulties on every side. The indomitable spirit with which they were met, the energy and determination with which they were overcome, afford further evidence of that which has been so gloriously demonstrated on land and sea, that the traditional courage and grit of the British race have not been lost. To the question how have our oversea food supplies been maintained during the first year of the war, the best answer can be given in figures. Imports of the principal kinds of food during the first eleven months of the war were as under, the figures for the corresponding period of 1913-14 being shown for comparison : | Increase + | —— 1914-15 1913-14 or Decrease — per Cent. Thousands Thousands of Cwts. of Cwts. Wheat (including flour) . ae 113,797 115,398 — 1:39 Meat. : : : : 5 : 5 15,868 18,026 —11-97 Bacon and hams . fan ft ; 7,452 5,975 +-24°72 HGERCINE Sc. le SILL Soren oes eed Oe 2,766 2,386 +15°93 Butter (including margarine) . . 5,376 5,748 — 647 Fruit : i - 4 : 18,820 17,512 + 7:53 Rice . : : . - 5 . 3 9,573 4,840 +97:79 Sugar : 4 # : . . 3 35,029 38,356 — 867 In total weight of these food-stuffs, the quantity brought to our shores was rather larger in time of war than in time of peace. Yet one still occasionally meets a purblind pessimist who plaintively asks what the Navy is doing. This is a part of the answer. It is also a measure of the success of the much- advertised German ‘blockade’ for the starvation of England. So absolute a triumph of sea-power in the first year of war would have been treated as a wild dream by the most confirmed optimist two years ago. The debt which the nation owes to our sailor-men is already immeasurable. That before the enemy is crushed the debt will be increased we may be assured. The crisis of our fate has not yet passed, and we may be called upon to meet worse trials than have yet befallen us. But in the Navy is our sure and certain hope. ‘That which they have done is but earnest of the things that they shall do.’ Under the protection of that silent shield the land may yield its increase untrodden by the invading foot, the trader may pursue his business undismayed by the threats of a thwarted foe, and the nation may rely that, while common prudence enjoins strict economy in husbanding our resources, sufficient supplies of food will be forthcoming for all the reasonable needs of the people. ———— —_— 1915. 3D 770 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. The following Papers were then read :— 1. Reports on Influence of War upon Supplies and Use of Fertilisers and Feeding-stuffs. (a) The Manurial Situation and its Difficulties. By Professor J. HENpDRICK. (b) New Feeding-stuffs. By EH, T. Haunan. 2. The Accumulation of Fertility in Grass-land, as a Result of Phos- phatic Dressings of Basic Slag. By Professor W. SOMERVILLE, MiA., D.&e. It is well known that in most cases the application of 5-10 cwt. per acre of basic slag to permanent grass-land results in a large increase in the weight of herbage, and especially of the Leguminose. The immediate result is that if the herbage is grazed by stock the area can carry a greater number of animals, and each individual animal makes improved increase in weight. It appeared probable that concurrently with the stimulus to the herbage there would be an accumulation of fertility in the land, and it is a point of interest to discover the extent of such accumulated fertility. Five farms were therefore selected, where grass-land had been treated with slag during recent years, certain parts having been left undressed. About a cwt. of soil was sent to Oxford from each centre, part from grass-land that had been slagged and part from untreated land. This was put in pots in the spring of 1914, and in these pots, without further treatment, a ‘crop’ of oats (1914), two crops of mustard (autumn 1914), and a crop of wheat (1915) have been grown. Five pots were filled with soil from ‘slagged’ and five from ‘unslagged ’ pasture from each centre. The slag had been applied at somewhat varying times and in varying quantity at the different centres; but it is unnecessary in this abstract to go into details, except to say that the accumulation of fertility is in close relationship with the amount of slag used. In four cases the ‘ slagged ’ soil has been found to produce increased yields of oats, mustard, and wheat, though the fertility that has accumulated has varied in degree. The ‘slagged’ soil from Cockle Park, which has _ been longest under treatment, produced—as compared with ‘unslagged’ soil—about 140 per cent. more oats, 30 per cent. more mustard (first crop), 70 per cent. more mustard (second crop), and about 40 per cent. more wheat, the average increase from this station being 62 per cent. Another set of soils showed an aggregate increase of 57 per cent.; other two gave increases of 12 and 8 per cent. respectively, while the fifth did not respond consistently after the oat crop, which, however, was increased by 20 per cent. Adding together all the four crops, and taking the average for the five soils, it was found that the increase was 25 per cent. It is therefore evident that the factors of pro- duction have been materially increased as a consequence of using basic slag on grass-land, a result of no small importance in view of the fact that con- siderable areas laid down to grass during recent years may again come under the plough. 3. The Composition and Uses of certain Seaweeds. By Professor James Henpricx, B.Sc., F.1.C. There is an old-established industry in the preparation of kelp or the ash of seaweed in certain parts of the coast crofting districts of Scotland and Ire- land. This industry has experienced many ups and downs during its history and has always been a poor, badly organised, peasant industry. In recent TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 771 times the kelp has been used as a source of potash salts and of iodine, and as such has had to suffer severe competition from German potash salts and Chilian iodine. Owing to the war, there has been a revival of interest in this decaying old industry as our supplies of potash salts for manurial and other purposes have been largely cut off, and we have been endeavouring to find means of obtaining potash compounds in our own country. It is interesting to note that in the United States also for the last few years investigations have been in progress into the possibility of using the seaweeds of the Pacific Coast as a source of potash compounds. The Americans began to investigate this subject seriously before the outbreak of the great war, but the events of the past year seem to have intensified their wise desire to make themselves independent of foreign supplies of potash. It was in connection with a movement to revive the kelp industry in Scotland that my - recent investigations were made. There are two great families of seaweeds found round our coasts, the sup- plies of which are plentiful enough for industrial purposes. These are (1) certain common varieties of Fucus, which grow between tide marks, and (2) certain varieties of Laminaria, and in particular Laminaria digitata, which grow below low-water mark but in comparatively shallow water. Analyses of these were made during the past winter and spring. It was found that Laminaria is richer in potash and far richer in iodine than Fucus. Samples of Laminaria digitata may contain over 2 per cent. of potash in the fresh state, or about 12 per cent. in the dry matter. At the same time they may contain 01 per cent. of iodine in the fresh state, or about 0°5 per cent. in the dry matter. Analyses showing the composition of different samples and especially their content of potash and iodine were given. Observations were also made on the use of seaweeds as food for stock and for human beings, in the western islands of Scotland. Analyses were given of the varieties which were found to be used as food. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. Discussion on Influence of the War upon the Fulure of British Agriculture. The following Papers were read :— 1. Systems of Farming and Food-supply: the Need for more Tillage. By T. H. Mippueron, C.B 2. The Probable Effect of the War on the Future of Agriculture in Scotland. By J. M. Catz, M.A., B.Sc., B.L. What the ultimate economic effect of the war may be is a problem of extreme complexity, and, as the condition of agriculture is closely dependent on the general economic position, any forecast of the future is necessarily both difficult and liable to error. All that is possible-is I. To state what have been the tendencies exhibited by comparatively recent changes in agriculture in Scotland; II. To point out the salient features of Scottish agriculture at present; III. To attempt an estimate of the future economic forces affecting agriculture ; IV. To consider in what way Scottish farmers can take advantage of these forces. I. The chief relevant tendencies revealed by the Scottish Agricultural Statistics of the past thirty years are (1) a relatively large decrease in the area of cultivated land, and particularly of arable land, which has not been accom- panied by a corresponding decrease in the numbers of live stock; and (2) some improvement in the standard of production. II. For our purpose, the present position may be summed up in the following ; 3D 2 772 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. table showing the distribution of the total area of land in Scotland and the numbers of live stock : Arable land Q k , : ; ‘ ; : 17°287 Permanent grass . : - 5 . : ; - 782%, Rough grazings ; : : : : é : 47:97 % Woods and plantations ‘ : . ; : , 4°47 7, Remaining area . : ‘ : : : : - 22°46 % Cattle . ‘ : : ; 5 : : : . 1,215,000 Sheep . : : , E : - 5 : . 7,026,000 Pigs : - é - : : - 153,000 III. A. Economic causes tending to decrease demand and lower prices of agricultural produce : : (1) Depletion of the population of the countries at war. (2) Destruction of capital, probably causing some industrial depression. (3) Temporary disturbance of labour market and increase of unemployment, owing to return of soldiers to civilian life. (4) Taxation will be high. (5) Habits of thrift may be engendered. B. Causes operative in diminishing supplies, or otherwise raising prices : (1) Neglect or devastation of agricultural land, resulting in lasting deterioration. (2) Depletion of stock. (3) Destruction of buildings, horses, implements, and all forms of farm capital. (4) Freights may continue to be high. (5) Owing to a certain loss of men who were skilled agriculturists, the occupation or working of land may fall to less experienced persons. (6) With a reduction in the number of farm workers, following on heavy emigration, the rise in wages will probably be maintained. ) The growing demand for meat by the United States may decrease imports to this country. (8) European countries will probably compete with us for supplies of chilled and frozen meat. Balancing these two sets of factors, it appears likely that prices, both of bread and of meat, will be relatively high, and though costs may also be high, increased production will be economically advantageous to the farmer. IV. Speaking generally, such increase may be either of A. bread or B. meat. A. Some increase of the wheat area may take place, but in Scotland this area is limited, owing to conditions of soil and climate. B. There is room for expansion in the numbers, and improvement in the quality, of stock ; this improvement will take place along the lines, scientific and administrative, now being pursued. Increase in the numbers will be affected by the following factors : (1) Improvement of grazing land. (2) Restriction of the area exclusively devoted to sport, always with due regard to ratepayers’ interests. (3) Increased growth of turnips, oats, and other foodstuffs for winter- feeding; this will involve an extension of the arable area or a shortening of rotations, and an increased use of labour-saving appliances, (4) Some increase in the growth of forage crops. (5) A more general knowledge of the proper use of food-stuffs. (6) An increase in the numbers of home-bred store stock. (7) An increase in the numbers of pigs and poultry. These developments will lead to greater advantage being taken of existing or new agencies of agricultural education, to an extension of co-operation, especially among small-holders, and possibly to a demand for cheaper means of railway or other transport facilities. 8. Scientific Aid to the Stock-feeder. By Professor T. B. Woop, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M, 773 4. Labour and Labour-saving Machinery on the Farm. By W. J. Maupen. As the need for labour-saving machinery on the farm is considerably influ- enced by the supply of capable men to carry out the manual work, these two cannot be dealt with separately. Hitherto in British farming, machinery has been sparingly used, so that those who would otherwise not find employment might find a living on it. There is at the present time the first real shortage, men and horses are now in really deficient number, and after the war, with the great re-shuffling of affairs, the temptations to return to it will be opposed by great temptations elsewhere. The workmen on the land in future will require all the technical knowledge of acts of husbandry that their forefathers possessed, and will have to be intelligent in other matters. The better- class farm workman is a skilled artisan; but this he rarely becomes unless early trained to it. Moreover, if not early trained, he will not stay on the land. Yet the land in the future will hold out great attractions to the worker on it. The present form of Rural Education at Board Schools drives boys from the country. Education authorities have studied general systems of education, and have not studied the boy. Rural Education to fit the boy for the land, and attract him to it, will fail until it is recognised that the physiological changes from childhood to youth have profound influence; and that muscular work, which comes naturally in childhood, is met with considerable resentment at the approach of the first change of life. The young have to be regarded in the following stages : (1) Childhood, when the boy is in the monkey or imitative stage; willing to undergo physical exertion; not minding the monotony of continued muscu- lar effort; under full parental influence; quick to appreciate the natural life around him; carrying no responsibilities. (2) Youth. Becoming independent, but at present irresponsible and yet under parental protection. Spasmodic in effort mentally and physically; but with dawning ideas of future; objecting to monotony, and, if not earlier trained to physical work, strongly resisting continuous muscular effort. The muscle-untrained boy going on to the land at 14 resents hard labour, and does this so thoroughly that from the first he decides not to stay at farm work; with this decision in his mind he makes no effort to become skilled, and takes the earliest opportunity to go to towns. (3) Approaching Manhood. Dawning ideas of duties to the State and the responsibilities of parentage. Rarely goes by choice to a physical life. But as the boy was driven from the land through his natural interests in rural life having been destroyed, and his early muscular training having been neglected, he does not come up for discussion here. The half-timer (the half-time period being considerably prolonged) is, with further education in matters of interest and utility, the most useful man on the land, and, apart from incapables, the only one to remain on it. For- tunately, through the introduction of much new machinery in the past twenty years, and the fact that farmers feeling some shortage of men after the South African War have well equipped their farms, finds them fairly well supplied, in spite of the sudden change of position that this war has occasioned. The delay in bringing the oil-tractor forward more quickly is, however, a more serious matter, especially as steam cultivation has declined in view of the possibilities of the oil-engine. The engines themselves have efficiency, but as yet the implement-maker and the motor-maker have not joined hands; and there is great need of this. Confused ideas which the effort to adapt attach- ments suitable for horse power, but utterly unsuited for mechanical power, have established, must be cleared away. Great developments will occur, including that of cutting and threshing corn in one operation; which is as practicable in England as in other countries where it has been adopted; though there will have to be special adaptations to permit it. 774 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 5. Economics of Continuous Cropping. By T. Wipperuey, N.D.A., N.D.D. Introductory.—Brief survey of the agricultural economic position of Great Britain and Ireland, special reference to latter country. Reasons for decline of tillage area in Ireland—climate, labour, markets. Influence of these three factors as regards tillage decline. Continuous Cropping.—A system of intensive arable farming, specially designed to suit the climatic, labour, and market conditions obtaining in Ireland. Comparisons between growing ordinary farm crops and roots, corn and sub- stitutes for these crops, in connection with continuous cropping. The relative costs of productions to be discussed. Cost of production of certain continuous crops with reference to their manurial value. Conservation of soil nitrogen in the winter months through continuous cropping. Effects of continuous cropping on the soil texture in winter and summer, Evaporation of excessive soil moisture in winter through growth of con- tinuous crops. Possibilities of motor tillage in connection with continuous cropping and ordinary cropping compared. Relative stock-carrying capacity of land under continuous cropping as com- pared with the grass farm. Milk and beef productions from continuous crops compared with same from ordinary crops and artificial feeding. Discussion of balance sheet of a continuous cropping farm. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. The following Papers were read :— 1, Methods of Estimating the Cost of Food in the Production of Milk. By J. Macxintosu, N.O.A. Investigations into the cost of food in the production of milk have been carried out in several counties during recent years, but the methods of collecting the information from the farms and of calculating the cost of food per gallon have varied considerably. These differences make it impossible to compare the results obtained in the various districts; hence it is desirable that as far as possible a generally suitable and accurate method should be devised and adopted. As a basis for discussion, the methods adopted at University College, Reading, will be described. Method of obtaining Information on: (a) Food used Indoors.—The farmers concerned were supplied with Food Record sheets on which the kinds and quantities of the foods used each week were entered. The foods were occasionally measured or weighed when the Recorder visited the farms. This system is preferred to that of calculation from an average ration, or the ration in use at the time of the Recorder’s visit. Still greater accuracy might be obtained if, as regards the bulky foods, definite ens of roots and ricks of hay or straw could be allocated for the cows’ use alone. (b) Food used Outdoors.—The acreage of pasture and aftermath grazed by the cows was entered on the Food Record sheet; also the acreage of any soiling crops and cabbage fed to the cows either in the field or indoors. (c) Prices of Foods.—The farmer supplied particulars as to the cost price of all purchased foods, and an allowance was added for cartage. All home-grown foods were charged at the estimated cost of production on each farm. It was difficult to get reasonably accurate estimates for crops producing only one food, €.g., Mangels, and much more difficult with crops producing two foods, e.g., oats, but the principle of charging foods at cost price in place of market or _T TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 775 consuming price was adhered to as closely as possible. Some writers consider that market prices should always be charged, and this point requires thorough discussion. The cost prices for each farm were made the basis of calculation, instead of selecting average costs and applying these to all farms. Greater accuracy for each farm is thus obtained, but comparison between farm and farm in the same district is more difficult. (d) Quantity of Milk produced.—The total quantity of milk produced on each farm was calculated from the weekly milk records. The Recorder weighed the milk ence a month, checked the weighings of the intervening weeks, and made all the necessary calculations himself. Allowance for Manurial Values of Foods.—Careful calculations on this point have been made for the second year’s work at Reading. The allowance on account of manurial residues varies considerably, according to the kind and quantity of concentrated foods and the methods of management and storage of the manure. Allowance for Dry Cows.—Only the food fed to the cows in milk has been considered, as in the case of dry cows it has been estimated that the value of the calf or the increased value of the fat cow will balance the cost of food during the dry period. 2. Cost of Food in Production of Milk on Three Yorkshire Farms. By Professor C. CrowtHer, M.A., Ph.D., and A. G. Ruston, BreAy BSc During the last four years investigations as to the cost of food in the production of milk have been carried out on a number of farms in the North and West Ridings of Yorkshire. In making the estimates the purchased feeding-stuffs have been taken at cost price, but for the home-grown feeding-stuffs the following arbitrary scale has been used : Hay). ><. iy dds) per ton Mangels . 10s. 6d. per ton Oat Straw Se OO R I ys Swedes a Os > Barley Straw . 25s. ,, Turnips . 8s. » Grazing: 3s. Gd. per week for spring calvers, During the past year detailed records have been kept on three of the farms, which enable the actual costs of production of the home-grown feeding-stuffs on these farms to be arrived at. The main features of the results are summarised in the following tables :-— TABLE I.—Weights of Food Consumed per Head during Last Year. ; Grain, Herd Grass Hay Straw Roots Cakes and Meals ewts. st. cewts. st. tons ewts. st. ewts, st. A 27 weeks 12 4 13 4 | aut Pg? 14 6 B P20 ie ness 2 24 3 a OG TGs 3 2 C Pdi 21a 5 10 2 Ze Vitus 16, 1 TaBLe II.—Estimated Cost of Foods per Head per Year on ‘ Arbitrary Scale,’ Grass Herd | and Green Hay Straw Roots Cakes, &e. Total Fodder Se Sse den | A St ao se, Md Ne Bh ad, Di Be di Sri Beni: Be A 414 6 Lit 6 0 16 11 ate ae: 40 2 14 0 6 B 4146/;);02 4 Leta Of 2 413 8 13 17 5 419 6 | 219 6 015 5 Li lO 416 3 1413 6 —_—_-- oor ere re 776 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. TABLE III.—Costs of Production of Home-grown Foods. Grass Hay Straw Roots Herd psa Cost per Ton Cost per Ton Cost per Ton 8. d. £ os. d. 8. d. 8. d. A 2 0 113 0 10 6 5 8 B Ua LAS 9 15 2 eT Cc eG 111 0 14 6 8 5 TaBLe IV.—Cost of Foods per Head per Year, valuing Home-grown Foods at Cost of Production. Grass and Herd Green Hay Straw Roots | Cakes, &c. Total Fodder £8. “d- 8. d. s. d. Gees ds |WEeese id. £8. d. A 214 0 18 11 ook Ld Ae Os 9 11 "6 B 2 Zawd Lei 18 6 LAY, aide S42 SS 7S tells Cc 214 0 oo. 7 4 O19 2 | 416 3 1010 4 TaBLE V.—Estimated Average Cost of Food per Gallon of Milk. ‘Arbitrary Scale’ “Cost Seale’ Average Herd Milk-Yield | Total Cost of | Average Cost || Total Cost of Average Cost per Head Food per of Food per Food per of Food per per Year Head per Gallon of Head per Gallon of Year Milk Year Milk Gallons Sead. Pence & 3. d. Pence A 677 14 0 6 4:97 911 6 3°39 B 656 13.17 5 5:08 9-139 3°54 Cc 672 1413 6 5:24 1010 4 3°76 3. Types of Upland Grazings, their Economic Value and Improvement. By Donatp Macruerson, B.Sc., and Wiuu1am G. Smitu, B.Sc., Ph.D. The extent of upland grazings in Scotland comprises 48 per cent. of the total land area of the country; it is mainly devoted to sheep-farming with the Blackface and Cheviot Mountain breeds. Cattle-grazing is confined to the lower marginal areas. The following types have been recognised, and include almost the whole of the natural pastures :— (1) Peatlands.—The peat cap of the upland plateau areas. Heather (Calluna) ; cottongrass (Hriophorum); and deer-hair grass (Scirpus cespitosus) are dominant plants and provide valuable spring grazing. Retrogression of peat is widespread. (2) Nardus Grassland.—Nardus stricta grassland occurs on wasting peat on steep slopes marginal to the moorland. It invades and is successive to the vegetation of the peatlands. It is of secondary grazing value. (3) Heatherlands.—On slopes where continuous leaching has impoverished the upper layers of the lighter soils, and where slow accumulation of humus occurs. These form valuable grazing ground at al! seasons. (4) Molinia Grassland.—Molinia cerulea grassland, on gentle wet slopes with peat. When pure it is of secondary grazing value, ; TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 177 (5) Alluvial and Flush Grasslands.—These provide the best pasturage on streamside alluvials and on hill slopes flushed with water from springs. They may be utilised as wintering grounds or enclosed as meadows. The alluvia of the upper valleys are light, and accordingly retrogression occurs through leach- ing where flushing is prevented. The lower valley alluvia tend to be heavier and their maintenance as grazing units depends on drainage. This habitat offers conditions suitable to invasion by bracken. The extent and distribution of the individual types are determined chiefly by topography and climate, but past history and interference by animals or man are important, e.g., grazing, burning, draining, liming. The types are relatively constant throughout, but may occur in various combinations in association with differences in the factors. Thus in different localities the grazing areas present distinctive features. This involves different systems of management, e.g., dry south-eastern area and humid western area of Scotland. Alluvial and flush grasslands, heatherlands, and peatlands are most valuable to the grazier. Nardus and Molinia are of secondary importance. The value of a grazing depends on a suitable representation of types and on their relative disposition. ‘Hirsel’ charts indicate the best combination of types. Improvement. Alluvial and Flush Grasslands.—These can be made to replace heather anc Nardus by suitable irrigation with water derived from springs or with surface water bearing rainwash. Invasion of acid water deteriorates the pasture, favours Nardus, and, where ‘pan’ is formed, promotes retrogression to moor- land. These grasslands are suitable subjects for manurial treatment, e.¢@., basic slag. Destruction of bracken increases the productive capacity of the pasture. Heatherlands.—The grazing value is greatly increased by regular burning on a suitable rotation. Renewal of burnt areas results through: (1) Growth from the shoot; (2) Colonisation by seedlings. The former gives the most rapid recovery. Types of heatherland with slow and rapid rejuvenating powers require different burning rotations respectively. Peatlands.—Draining increases the proportion of heather but reduces that of cottongrass and deer-hair grass, and favours invasion of Nardus. Little improvement is possible. Nardus.—Where flushing is possible good pasture may be induced, other- wise in Nardus and Molinia areas grazing value is improved by burning on a short rotation. 4. On the Effect of Increasing the Amount of Calcium Phosphate in the Rations of Cows on the Composition of the Milk. By A. Lauper, D.Sc., F.I.C., and T. W. Faaan, M.A. The investigations of previous workers on this subject were reviewed ;! while there was not complete agreement between their conclusions, the general opinion was that the composition of the mineral matter in the milk could not be readily affected by adding mineral matter to the food. For the present investigation six cows of the dairy Shorthorn breed were selected, as nearly equal as possible in regard to age and period of lactation. They were then divided into two lots of three each. The yield of milk given bv each cow was determined at every milking by weighing. Weekly samples of the milk of each cow were also taken for analysis, and the percentages of phosphoric acid, ash, fat, and ‘solids not fat’ determined. 1Duclaux, Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 1893, 2-17, Chem. Soc. Journal, 64 ( 1893), ii. 582; Neumann, Milch Zeit. 22, 701-704, Chem. Soc. Journal, 66 (1894), ii. 246: Weiske, Landw. Versuchs-Stat., 1894, 45, 242-245, Chem. Soc. Journal, 66 (1894), ii. 246; Neumann, J. Landw. 1894, 42, 33: Von Wendt, Chem. Zeit. 1908, ii. 1881, Chem. Soc. Journal, 96 (1909), ii. 164; Fingerling, Landw. Versuchs-Stat., 1911, %5, 1, Chem. Soc. Journal, 100 (1911), ii. 510. 778 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. The cows received the following ration :— 75 lb. turnips. 4 ,, Bombay cotton cake. 1 ,, bran. 8 ,, hay. straw (ad lib.). The mineral matter in this ration, exclusive of the straw, contained about 5 lb. of calcium phosphate. The analyses made during the preliminary period showed that the percentage of phosphoric acid and mineral matter in the milk of each cow was relatively constant, although there were slight differences in the amount when one cow was compared with another. The percentage of fat, as is usually the case, showed more variation. Lot I. was kept on the same ration during the whole period of the experi- ment. To the other lot calcium phosphate was fed in gradually increasing quantity—two, four, six, and finally eight ounces per head per day, the latter amount being fed for three weeks. The addition of calcium phosphate was then stopped and the original ration continued for other two weeks. An examination of the percentages of phosphoric acid found shows that the addition of calcium phosphate has not increased the amount of phosphoric acid in the milk. There is practically no change, and the results vary less than those obtained from Lot I., where the cows were on the same ration all the time. Since the cows were receiving calcium phosphate over a period of five weeks, Neumann’s criticism that the negative result is due to the experiment not being continued sufficiently long is inapplicable in this case. The increase in the amount of phosphoric acid (0172) which he claims to have effected appears to be well within the ordinary limits of variation. In the same way, an examination of the percentages of fat, ash, and ‘solids not fat” obtained does not indicate that the extra calcium phosphate fed to Lot II. has had any effect on the amount of these substances secreted. Finally, no definite effect on the yield can be observed. Percentage of Phosphoric Acid in the Milk. Lot I. (No Phosphate.) Cow 1 | Cow 2 Cow 3 Date ne A.M P.M A.M P.M A.M P.M December 10 =: 0°26 0°24 0°25 0°23 0°24 0°24 5 17. : . 0°28 0°24 0°24 0°23 0-21 0°24 January: ledacre eee 0°25 0:26 0:23 0°23 0-21 0°25 x l4 . 0:27 0°27 0°24 0°24 0°23 0°22 Average 2 : 3 0°26 0°25 0°24 0°23 0°22 0°24 January 21. . .| 0-27 | 0-27 | 024 | O24 | 0-25 | 0-27 ” 28. : 4 0°29 0°29 0°26 0-26 0°27 0°27 Hebruary, 4:5. .; 0°28 0°28 0°23 0-29 0:26 0°26 ra Jul ag ot tals 0°30 0°29 0°26 0-21 0°28 0:20 ” 1S cq hens tees 0°29 0°29 0°25 0°24 0:26 0°26 Average aA eet 0-28 0:28 0°25 0°25 0°26 0°25 February 25. . . 0:29 0:29 0°24 0°25 0°25 0°25 March 4. ; : 0°29 0°29 0°23 0°24 0°27 0°26 Average DE ESS 0°29 0:29 0°23 0-24 0°26 0°25 a ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 779 Lot If. (With Phosphate.) Cow 4 Cow 5 | Cow 6 Date -—— aS Denil te aKa A.M P.M A.M. P.M | AM P.M, December 10 . 0°22 0-19 0°33 0°28 025 | — - 17 0°20 0°20 0°28 0:27 0:23. |. O-21 January 7 0-19 0-19 0°25 0°26 0°22 0°22 &S 14 0°22 0-21 0°26 0°29 0:22 | 0:26 Average ‘ ‘ : 0-21 0-19 0-28. | 0:27 0°23 0°23 January 21. 0:22 0°22 0:28 0:27 0°22 0°22 oo 28 . A A 0:22 0°23 0:29 0:26 0°22 | 0-22 February 4. a 3 0°20 0°22 0°26 0°26 0:24 0°24 of Mis 0°21 0°19 0°29 0°30 0°24 0°23 6 Se 0°21 0-21 0°28 0:29 0°22 0°22 Average ‘ 5 ¢ 0°21 0°21 0°28 | 0:27 0°23 0°23 eee / . Hebruary 25. . . 0°22 0-21 0°28 0°28 0°23 | 0°22 March 4. , 3 0°20 0°23 0°27 0°29 0:23 0°22 Average nay leah bee 0-21 0°22 0°27 0:28 0°23 0°22 5. The Significance of the Act of Milking. By Professor C. CrowTHer, M.A., Ph.D. The operation of milking serves to remove pre-formed milk from the udder, but it is possible that, in addition, the handling of the teats may impart a stimulus to further vigorous secretion during the period of milking. Data were adduced in support of the latter hypothesis. Further tests, in which the ‘quarters’ were milked separately, and the milk from each ‘ quarter ’ collected in fractions, show that whereas in the case of the first ‘quarter’ milked there is a tendency for the percentage of fat in the milk to rise steadily from the earliest-drawn to the last-drawn fractions, this tendency is much less pronounced in the case of the other ‘ quarters,’ and indeed, in the case of the ‘quarter’ milked last, the tendency for a consider- able portion of the milking is for the percentage of fat to fall rather than to rise. In all cases there is a very rapid rise in the percentage of fat towards the close of milking. If the ‘quarters’ be milked in pairs, the records of the first pair resemble those of a ‘ first quarter’ and those of the last pair resemble the records of a ‘last quarter.’ If the four ‘quarters’ be milked simul- taneously the records of each resemble those of a ‘first quarter.’ These con- clusions are not affected by the order in which the ‘quarters’ are milked. Taking the produce of each ‘quarter’ as a whole, it was found almost invariably that the milk from the ‘ quarter’ milked first was the richest in fat, and that from the last ‘ quarter’ was poorest in fat. In thirty-seven com- parisons of first and last ‘quarters’ milked singly the former gave the richer milk on thirty-four occasions, the average percentages of fat being 4:26 (-4:15) and 3-10 (4:13) respectively. In ninety-five comparisons in which the ‘quarters ’ were milked in pairs, the first pair milked gave the richer milk on sixty-five occasions. The foregoing observations led to, the conclusion that the time-factor must be of considerable importance in milking. This was confirmed by a comparison of very quick and very slow milking by ordinary methods, which showed a difference of 10 per cent. of milk-yield and 40 per cent. of fat-yield in favour of the quick milking. 780 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. A further comparison was made of ordinary milking, taking the teats in pairs, and simultaneous milking, by two milkers, of all four quarters. A difference of 2 per cent. in milk-yield and 6 per cent. in fat-yield in favour of the latter method was indicated, despite the occasional disturbance of the cow inevitable with this mode of milking. Further tests with the milking- machine are proposed. 6. The Plant as an Index of Smoke-pollution. By Professor C. CrowtHer, M.A., Ph.D., and A. G. Ruston, B.A., B.Sc. Results obtained in several years’ experiments and observations in and around Leeds are summarised under the following heads :— 1. The general type of vegetation in smoke-infested areas. 2. The general appearance of individual smoke-damaged plants. 3. The specific effects of smoke-damage in plants. 1. Trees and shrubs make only a stunted growth; dead and dying trees are common objects. Conifers are particularly sensitive. Plants with thick, tough leaf-cuticle (e.g., iris, auricula) are more resistant than those with thin cuticle and crinkled, hairy surface (e.g., primrose). Most bulbous and seed-bearing plants are sensitive to smoke. In areas badly infested with smoke, coarse grasses (bent, couch, Yorkshire fog) and weeds (dock, sorrel, plantain) monopolise the meadows and lawns, leguminous plants rapidly disappear, whilst the hawthorn hedge barely persists. Rhubarb does not seem to be affected, and the elder can be successfully grown. 2. Destruction of young shoots and buds is noticeable. Characteristic dis- colouration of leaves takes place apart from the inevitable coating of tarry soot, and the fall of the leaf is greatly accelerated. The colours of flowers fall short of their normal intensity, blues and reds tending to run to white, and bronzes to pale yellow. 3. Previous observations as to the choking of stomata by soot particles have been confirmed. Tintcmetric measurements show a certain degree of correlation between depth of tint of flowers and atmospheric-pollution. The correlation between plant-growth and atmospheric-pollution previously established by measurements of rate of assimilation las been confirmed by actual vegetation tests in the garden and in the field. In the garden tests within the city boundaries the produce (three crops) obtained in the ‘ cleanest ’ garden was fully three times greater than that obtained in the ‘ dirtiest’ area. In the field tests made outside the city the difference between extremes (one season’s crops) was fully 20 per cent. In soils long exposed to smoke-pollution there is a marked failure of root-development, root-hairs and fibrous roots being few or absent. The chemical composition of plants grown in polluted areas shows a relatively high content of sulphur, chlorine, and arsenic—an abnormally high proportion of the sulphur being in non-protein forms. In the case of seed-bearing plants smoke-pollution has been found to cause a decrease in size and weight of seed, and a lowering of germination-capacity and germination-energy. Inhibitory effects upon enzyme-activity have been demonstrated by com- parative measurements of oxidase-, catalase-, lipase-, and emulsin-activity. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. -~ ‘Fan Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. WHITAKER (Chairman), Mr. W1LFRED Mark WEsB (Secretary), Rev. J. O. BEVAN, Sir EDWARD BRABROOK, Sir H. G. ForpHam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal KH. H. GrirritHs, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. T. V. Hotmgs, Mr J. Hopkinson, Mr.. A. Li... Lewis, Rev..T. BR. R, STEBBING, and the PRESIDENT and GENERAL OFFICERS. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tur Committee recommends that the Warrington Society should be made an Associated Society. Sir T. H. Holland, K.C.1.E., D.Se., F.R.S., has kindly under- taken to act as Chairman at the Conference of Delegates to be held at Manchester, and has chosen ‘The Organisation of Scientific Societies ’’ as the subject of his Address. Mr. William Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., has been so good as to accept the Vice-Chairmanship. The Committee has chosen the following subjects for discussion at the Conference :— ‘Tocal Museums’ (suggested by the Selborne Society), to be introduced by Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A., and ‘ Colour Standards ’ (pro- posed by the British Mycological Society), to be introduced by Mr. J. Ramsbottom, M.A. The Committee asks to be reappointed, and applies for a grant of 251. Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held at Manchester on Wednesday, September 8, and Friday, Septem- ber 10, 1918. Chairman . . Sir Thomas Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Chairman . William Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. Secretary . . Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S. On taking the chair, Sir Thomas Holland called upon the Secretary to make an announcement which was to the effect that the General Committee, on the recommendation of the Council, had sanctioned an alteration in the Rules of the British Association, subject to the report of the Committee of Recommenda- tions, so that the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Conference of Delegates would in future have the title of President and Vice-President respectively. This information having been received with applause, Sir Thomas Holland proceeded to deliver his Address on The Organisation of Scientific Societies. Among the many lessons we learn in every great war there is always one that stands out prominently as something of fundamental and national import- ance. Inthe Crimea our shortcomings in commissariat organisation were demon- strated with painful emphasis. In South Africa we learnt something of the way in which the initiative of the individual, naturally more prominent in the amateur soldier, triumphs, under unforeseen circumstances, over any system fixed by formal and traditional discipline. The great war now in progress will result more completely than any of its puny predecessors in recasting our national ideals—economic, political, and military. 782 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, Of all the lessons we are likely to learn, the one that so far promises most to affect the life of the nation may be summed up in the word organisation. The fuss made lately about the shortage of munitions; the discovery in the ranks of the Army, and among its officers, of thousands who are only amateur fighters, but are professionally trained technologists; the recasting of the Cabi- net; the introduction, twelve months after the commencement of the war, of legislation to register and classify the technical qualifications of the people; the repeated occurrence of coal strikes on a large scale, settled only by the inter- vention of Cabinet Ministers, and by an obviously temporary compromise, are all confessions of our shortcomings in national organisation—shortcomings that have cost the country thousands of lives. On the other side of the ‘ front’ we see organisation raised to the level of a national cult—Kultur—with the result that, while efficiency in action and economy in the utilisation of a country’s resources have been raised to a standard hitherto unknown, and by us undreamt of, the human instincts have been drilled out of existence, and Germany stands alone as an almost perfect machine in action, but, like a machine, unable to understand the rest of the human race— admired for its mechanical efficiency, but loathed for its degradation of the great human instincts of liberty and toleration. But between these extremes there must be a course of maximum wisdom; for admittedly both the organisation of the community (the feature which is supposed to dominate the professional classes) and freedom of the individual (the prerogative of the amateur) are necessary for the progress of what is best in civilisation. Every meeting of the British Association reminds us that early in the last century a body of learned men realised that the form of study popularly known as scientific needed organising, required the strengthening influence of a pro- tective guild—the formation of a cult—in order that its value might be forced on the popular mind. Long before the foundation of the British Association, a comparatively small number of men had interested themselves in scientific problems, and their work had so far progressed as to require specialisation, with the foundation of distinct societies. ‘This specialisation found expression at the first three meetings of the Association by the formation of committees for (1) Mathematics and General Physics, (2) Chemistry and Mineralogy, (3) Geology and Geography, (4) Zoology and Botany, (5) Anatomy and Physiology, and (6) Statistics. These six groups have developed into our present twelve Sections, with extra Sub-Sections; and in practice every Section, by classification of its papers and in the conduct of its discussions, acknowledges a further specialisation that is none the less real because it has not yet been formally recognised in organisation. It is difficult for us to realise that, although the collection of scientific data and thought had made such progress eighty-four years ago as to require the sub-division indicated by the first institution of the British Association, the importance of science was still hardly recognised among the so-called learned and the ruling classes. Obvious, if insufficient, progress had been made since the days when it was possible for Dean Swift to issue, as tolerable literature, his satires on the Royal Society, or for Robert South to add to his doubtful popularity by describing its members as incapable of admiring anything except ‘fleas, lice, and themselves.’ Although science now takes its place on equal terms with literature in the world of academic culture, we have so far succeeded only to a very small extent in getting the professors of pure science to co-operate in unison with the captains of industry who depend entirely, consciously or otherwise, on the application of scientific laws to industrial problems. There has hitherto been a tendency for scientific and literary men to gather together under one banner, with the motto ‘learned,’ but a more natural associa- tion should be indicated by the community of interests between scientific men and technical experts. The student of pure science often discovers laws or formulates theories which are but accidentally carried beyond the purely intel- lectual world. On the other hand, technical experts frequently work by empirical methods that are discovered either by accident or as the result of many costly blunders. The growth of science and of commercial technology has been largely independent and unrelated, that is, without organisation. il ag tpn CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 783 The absence of this organisation has shown itself for many years to those who are able to read the signs of the times by the way in which German applied science has assisted commercial activity in trespassing on markets created and formerly occupied by British enterprise. The result of organised co-operation on the one hand, and of disconnected effort on the other, has now been brought home to us all, suddenly and painfully, by the war. In the utilisation of tech- nical science the German army has had an enormous advantage, for which we have had to pay by the lives of some of our best officers and men. — In Germany the scientific, technical, and commercial community (not com- munities) is mobilised, and each individual in it has been given his appropriate function. In this country, on the other hand, we still have endless instances of right men in wrong places, while scientific activity seems to be devoted to the voluntary formation of innumerable and often irresponsible committees, with overlapping functions, and with no apparent common aim in view. Nothing could more clearly demonstrate our shortcomings in organisation than the columns of the daily Press, which are filled with complaints from scientific men, who, though among the most distinguished in the world of pure science, are in this great struggle still unemployed, and unfortunately often show by the tone of their complaints that they are also unemployable. A small fraction of the time now devoted in this country to discussions in committee would be sufficient, if turned to well-directed effort, to remove many of the handicaps from which our Navy and Army are now suffering in this eritical stage of the war. Most of our committees might be justifiably likened to two athletes at the east end of a church discussing the better route by which to get round to the tower, while a cripple starts off at once by one of the routes (possibly even by the less easy of the two); yet the cripple gets there while the athletes are still wrangling. The root trouble with us is due to the fact that our committees are generally composed of members appointed, not because they are best able to solve the problem in hand, but because they represent vested interests ; and vested interests have now grown to dimensions beyond power of removal, because our institutions are often the products of worthy, local, unconnected, and therefore unorganised effort. In their relations to one another institutions that profess a common public aim show. a spirit of jealous competition more prominently than any community of ideal. One cannot study the recent history of University education in London without being painfully impressed with the fact that internal friction in a machine without design results in a consumption of ‘energy that costs more than the educational output is worth. Our scientific and technical societies similarly suffer from overlapping and conflicting interests, and this Conference will be of some value if, instead of discussing for once some special scientific problem, its members become inspired with a desire to direct the activities of the societies they represent, so as to reduce the quantity of machinery ; to correlate their activities with those of the metropolitan institutions with headquarters in London; to subdivide those institutions composed of dissimilar elements, and to assist, so far as practicable, the regrouping of those who work with common data and with a common aim. An excellent illustration exists of the way in which reform of this kind is possible when members are sufficiently public-spirited to distinguish between the wider interests of science and those of their own special societies. Up to 1889 there were in this country about eight separate societies devoted to the technical interests of coal mining. In that year four of these societies federated their interests, and during the few following years three others joined the federation, and pooled their resources to meet the cost of a common publication and to maintain a common office at Newcastle. In 1892 the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy was founded in London to meet the wants of technologists devoted mainly to the requirements of metalliferous mining. The rapid growth of this institution, its metropolitan location, and its comprehensive name, challenged the premier position of the Federated Institution of Mining Engineers. The latter consequently changed its name to The Institution of Mining Engineers, and moved its central office to London. Thenceforward each institution not only published papers on its own special branch of mining, but trespassed frequently on the natural domains 784 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915, of its competitor.. Later, when one of these institutions applied for a Royal Charter, the other, in its own interests, successfully opposed the application. But in 1918, through the happy possession of two Presidents who could distinguish parochial from national interests, both institutions agreed to a delimitation of their spheres of influence, and each supported with success the petition of the other for a Royal Charter. They are now no longer competitors, but sister institutions; and, instead of competing for recruits, they can afford to define and maintain a common standard of technical qualification and pro- fessional etiquette for the British mining engineer. : é i One of the first principles observed by a student of science is that of classi- fication. Classification means not merely the bringing together of things that are similar in some essential feature; it also means the separation of those that are essentially unlike, although superficially bearing some form of resemblance. One realises how hard it is to apply the pruning knife of scientific classifica- tion when one contemplates the spectacle of the various ‘literary and philoso- phical societies’ which still survive, mostly under financial difficulties, in many of our large provincial cities, vainly endeavouring to cover ‘the whole realm of Nature.’ Such societies, embracing the general range of sciences, and some- times even including literary subjects, exist at Aberdeen (founded in 1840), Birmingham (1858), Cambridge (1819), Edinburgh (1731), Glasgow (1802), Leeds (1820), Manchester (1781), and Newcastle (1793); while at Dublin, where indivi- duality seems ever to flourish in various departments of civilised activity, there are two such societies, with apparently overlapping interests in general science : the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1731, and the Royal Irish Academy, founded in 1785. There are not many among these societies whose publications can be safely neglected by the research worker in any of the specialised branches of science, and yet most of them could not show an average annual output of one serious paper in each of the science subjects as defined by the twelve Sections of the British Association. They become in turn the fortunate victims of some local enthusiast, who in time passes away like a comet or finds wider scope for his ambitions, either in the Royal Society of London, or in the metropolitan society that governs his own pet subject, where his products enjoy the benefit of more thorough discussion, and sometimes appreciation, by fellow experts. He removes his attentions from the gallery to tickle the fancy of the stalls. If we take the Literary and Philosophical Society of this city, which has for many years devoted itself almost entirely to science, and issues memoirs which no serious worker can afford to overlook, we get an example of the way in which the student is taxed in his search for the ‘ previous literature.’ Of ninety-one papers published in The Manchester Memoirs during the past five years, as many as thirty-four belong to a class that would be referred to Section A of this Association, this abundant enthusiasm being largely due to a local occurrence of radio-activity. Of the remainder, ten would come under Section B, seven—entirely paleontological in character—come under Section C, twenty-two under Section D, two under Section H, two under Section I, thirteen under Section K, and one under Section M. One can sympathise with those readers who grumble at one halfpennyworth of geological bread to this intolerable deal of physical and biological sack. Now, it is important to remember that this Society is maintained by fewer than 150 members, many of whom are members only through general interest in science, or merely in consequence of a commendable desire to keep alive an institution which has an honourable record. Thus the critical discussion of most papers presented must be confined to a very small number, and herein arises a danger that may at any time give rise to consequences far more serious than the burial of a paper with an overburden of unrelated litera- ture; for the author of the paper himself must often be the only member capable of deciding as to whether his paper is or is not suitable for record as a definite addition to scientific data or thought. To the outside student, therefore, the publication of a paper by such a small] society gives no prima facie reason for regarding it as a serious and probably trustworthy addition to scientific literature. The papers so issued must be most embarrassingly unequal, and wholly indeterminate in character; yet no stranger can run the risk of disregarding such publications, —_ 7s —_— | ———- ee CORRESPONDING SOOIETIES. 785 But the tax thus laid on students of scientific literature is not the only draw- back or danger due to the activities of such small, local, non-specialised societies. They often possess collections of natural-history specimens or of physical instruments for which they become, by mere possession, trustees to the whole scientific world. As in the case of published literature, the circumstance that these things are often unknown to the rest of the world, or are almost inacces- sible to the student, is only one, and not the most serious, danger; for one knows instances of collections suffering from neglect, or, still worse, suffering from the activities of some member who temporarily dominates the governing body, and entertains strong views as to the cost of maintaining collections that, from his special point of view, are of no value. Before proposing, in the name of Organisation, to abolish such unspecialised societies, or before hinting that they have outlived their times, or before even suggesting that they might now be allowed to die a natural and respectable death, one should exert one’s ingenuity to devise some scheme for turning them to account. They inherit traditions in most cases that only an unregenerate iconoclast would despise; most of them were founded when science was barely specialised, and when facilities for attending London meetings were imperfect ; many of them have published memoirs that are now of classical value, and they have included among their active members the most worthy names in the history of science; most of them possess libraries that could not now be purchased for money, although these are often neglected, and, for financial reasons, often difficult to use. Even as monuments, therefore, societies such as those that I have mentioned deserve preservation. How, then, can one turn their resources to good account, and organise their culture without the drawbacks of Kultur? The plan that has often occurred to me as a possible compromise between the claims of central organisation and of provincial autonomy is this. The recognised chief among such societies—the Royal Society of London—should, by affiliation of its provincial poor relations, take over the cost, as well as the responsibility, of their serious publications. They would enjoy home rule so far as their meetings, discussions, finances, and libraries are concerned; but the papers offered for publication would be censored, in the usual way, by the appropriate sectional committees of the Royal Society; and, if passed, would be published, either in the Proceedings or Transactions of the Royal or of some metropolitan specialised society. Such papers would then rank technically, not by mere courtesy, as ‘publications’ for purposes of quotation or priority. The local interest in science would not then be curtailed, and the geographical handicap, especially of junior provincial workers, would be removed; while the provincial scientific communities would be able to maintain their treasured monuments, without, as now, a constant fear of financial difficulties, and with- out a recurring dread that senility in the respected old ‘lit. and phil.’ will soon end in the way of all things living. So far as our local example is concerned, many, if not most, of the papers which I have just classified by the British Association system might well have been accepted by the Royal Society; for the majority of the papers published in its Proceedings are also by non-members. The last six volumes of the Proceedings of the Royal Society contain papers by 384 authors, of whom only 141 are fellows of the Society. I am quite aware of many difficulties in the way of this proposal : fears, on the one side, that the Council of the Royal Society will acquire a dangerous power of controlling the freedom of the scientific writer; and forebodings, on the other, that the duties of the Council threaten to become ‘heavy burdens and grievous to be borne’; while the cost of such additional publications will be removed from the local body to be thrust upon the Royal Society. With regard to these objections, the circtimstance that a young worker’s paper has been hall-marked by the Royal Society will soon be regarded as fair compensation for what would, after all, be but partial loss of freedom; for the local societies, as well as the various journals, can still publish what they like, though the foreign student may not be blamed for neglecting any but technically published scientific literature. The extra burdens added to the Council and Sectional Committees of the 1915, 3 5 786 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Royal Society are merely of a kind that someone must undertake, if we are to have any regard at all for the progress of science; and it will soon be necessary for the State to recognise the national value of the work done by the Council and Committees of the Royal Society in more ways than nominal recognition of their ornamental positions. In practically every country on the Continent of Europe the premier learned academies, that occupy positions corresponding to the Royal Society of London, are financially supported by the State, and even the ordinary members are paid. In this country scientific organisations, like the universities, are largely dependent on private charity, with the result that, while we get the benefits of individuality and local competition, we suffer, as the war has already proved to us, the necessary loss of power, due to an undesirable number of wheels in our machine, due to unnecessary duplication of effort, and due to industrial and financial eddies in the stream of progress; in a word, due to want of method and organisation. That is the theme which I wish the delegates present to take back for practical consideration by the societies that they represent. It is important to remember that organisation necessarily requires someone to take the lead and someone to fill the subordinate’s place, otherwise all is anarchy; and, whatever may be the discipline within each society, their rela- tions to one another at present can but be described as anarchy. The fellow of the Royal Society has no more responsibility at present than any member of the smallest debating club. His selection is regarded as an honour, but an honour is as meaningless as an iron cross if it does not imply responsibility and an opportunity for more work. What applies to an individual applies to a society of such persons. The premier position of the Royal Society is acknow- ledged by every British worker in science, and those societies which similarly embrace all phases of science can assist the aims of organisation by reminding the Royal Society that its position is more than ornamental, and that its lead will be welcomed. Sir Epwarp Brasroox proposed, and Mr. Witt1am WHITAKER seconded, a vote of thanks to the Chairman for his Address. This was carried with great cordiality, and acknowledged by the Chairman. The subjects chosen for discussion were (1) ‘Local Museums,’ (2) ‘Colour Standards.’ The first was introduced by Dr. W. E. Hovyte. Local Museums. The duty of the opener of a discussion, as I understand it, is not to present an exhaustive treatise on the subject entrusted to him, but merely to throw down, as it were, certain ‘ bones of contention ’ which those present may worry to their hearts’ content. I shall, therefore, with all possible brevity, place before you a few theses, and leave you to fill up the too obvious lacuna in my observations. May I lay it down at the outset that the first and fundamental function of a museum is to preserve? We museum officials are nowadays given so much good advice about the desirability of making our exhibits xsthetically attrac- tive, of compiling explanatory labels which shall at the same time instruct the specialist and interest the casual visitor, and of catering for school children, that we are perhaps in danger of forgetting that our paramount duty is to see that ‘neither moth nor rust doth corrupt,’ and that ‘thieves do not break through nor steal.’ It always tends to clearness of thought in approaching any subject to begin with a definition. I will therefore provisionally define a ‘ local museum’ as a museum existing in a place, belonging to that place, destined for the instruction and delight of the dwellers in that place, and illustrative of that place, and will leave to my critics the congenial task of picking holes in my definition. It follows from this that the first duty of a local museum is to preserve the things of interest pertaining to the locality, whether they illustrate its history, folklore, natural history, or any other topic. These must be carefully kept, and every particular relating to them recorded with scrupulous accuracy. A certain proportion must be exhibited in such a way that their points of interest may | CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 787 be readily seen, and they must be adequately labelled—all this in accordance with principles which are nowadays well understood by every qualified museum official. Complete reference collections of animals, plants, fossils, and the like must be formed and kept in cabinets accessible to those desiring to make use of them for purposes of study. Here, I think, it is necessary to consider the important and delicate question : What ought to be the relations between the local museum and the national museum? Broadly stated, the solution is to be found in the general principle, what is of national importance should be preserved in the national museum ; what is of merely local interest should be kept in the local museum. Like many general principles, this is quite easy till we begin to apply it to particular cases. These require judgment and tact for their successful negotiation. May I give one single instance? In a remote part of the Celtic Fringe is a mass of sand dunes which cover what was once a city of sufficient importance to have a Royal Charter, a roll of burgesses, and a mace. In 1886 the corporation was dissolved : the burgesses, their sons and widows, were each to receive the sum of eleven shillings per annum, and the mace was kept in a public-house, where it was produced for the inspection of anyone who cared to pay for a drink in order to have a look at it. Such an arrangement had obvious dangers, and the national museum naturally wished to have possession of the mace. It was found that the burgesses had no power to give it, but they consented to deposit it in the museum provided a replica were furnished to be kept in the public-house. This was agreed to, and a replica, which is hardly distinguishable from the original, was provided, and I am informed by a recent visitor that the landlady continues to exhibit it as the original, so that all parties are satisfied. It having been admitted that the formation and preservation of a local collection is the prime duty of a local museum, and supposing this function to be adequately discharged, should a local museum undertake any others? I should say, ‘Certainly, if its means and opportunities allow,’ and the possi- bilities are many and various. One obvious way in which the museum can be of the greatest service is by providing collections which shall give the visitor a preliminary sketch of some department of knowledge. I allude to what are often called ‘index’ collections, though the term ‘introductory’ collections would be more appropriate. For instance, a larger or smaller collection, illustrating the animal kingdom, would furnish a suitable preliminary to a study of the local fauna; a series of specimens showing the technique of different processes of engraving, etching, and mezzotint would furnish a valuable introduction to a collection of local prints ; a number of objects from different prehistoric and historic periods would enable the visitor to place in their proper chronological relation the collections of local archeology; and numerous other possibilities will readily suggest themselves. Another direction in which a local museum may profitably develop is by coming into direct connection with the educational system of the locality. This may be done either by setting apart and furnishing a room for the special use of school classes, or by providing topical collections, which can be lent to, or circulated among, the schools. There is already an extensive literature on this subject, so I need not enlarge further upon it, the more so as a committee of this Association is actively engaged in studying the educational uses of museums. Furthermore, there is, to my mind, nothing out of place in a local museum developing a special subject, quite disconnected with the locality, if it has the power to do so without interfering with its proper work. Suppose, for example, that some well-to-do citizen has acquired an important collection, say, of seven- teenth-century furniture or Japanese works of art, which he is desirous of giving or bequeathing to his native town. There is no objection to the museum accepting such a gift and developing it to the best of its power. Tt will be a source of pride and delight to the inhabitants ; and, if it is not so to begin with, may become a collection of real importance, which will attract specialists to visit and study it, greatly to the advantage of the museum and the town. As instances of such collections may be mentioned the Gurney collection of raptorial birds in the Norwich Museum, and the Egyptian collections in the Manchester Museum. 3 E 2 788 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. I may, however, remark, by way of parenthesis, that the generous donor leaves his work half done, if he bequeaths a collection without also providing some means for its maintenance and development; and he is by no means a benefactor if he attaches to his gift embarrassing stipulations as to its being always exhibited in cases of a particular type, and excludes the posSibility of its enlargement and development. May I conclude in the words of a great teacher, applicable to local as to other museums—‘ The first function of a museum is to give an example of perfect order and elegance. Everything should be in its own place, everything looking its best because it is there. Nothing should be crowded; nothing unnecessary. The museum is only for what is eternally right and well done. ‘The least things are there and the greatest and all good. ‘The simple may go there to learn and the wise to remember.’ Dr. F. A. Barner, referring to the distinction between objects of national and local interest, urged that the principle which should guide local curators in their selection should be the advancement of science. This was to be con- sidered, first from the standpoint of the local public, whose needs were best met by objects of introductory educational value; secondly, from the standpoint of the researcher, who might live in the locality or might come from the ends of the world. To meet the needs of the latter, material should not be scattered through hundreds of museams, but should rather be grouped in convenient centres, not necessarily national. Such a researcher would naturally seek for local objects, e.g., fossils, in a local museum, but he ought not to have to seek for, say, New Zealand fossils through all the museums of the British Isles. If a museum happened to have had presented to it such exotic objects, not utilised for its own educational purposes, it should exchange them with a museum (national or local) that had laid itself out to collect and preserve that special class of objects. Type-specimens, above all, should be placed in museums where they would be well looked after, and would be readily accessible to specialists. In exchange for such unique or extraneous objects the local museum might obtain series of objects more suited to the educational needs of its locality. Dr. Maris C. Stores urged that one of the functions of local museums is to make and preserve permanent cinematograph records of events, human or natural, of importance and interest : these records should not only be preserved for posterity, but also exhibited from time to time and explained to the young people and others; and also submitted the view that there may be a balance of good in the decentralised state of collections, even of type-specimens. The visiting of local museums brings a stimulus to the local and often isolated inhabitants, and widens and humanises the interests of specialists. Dr. W. M. Tarrersatt (Museums Association) agreed with Dr. Hoyle as to the necessity and importance of local museums, and suggested closer co-operation between the museum authorities and the members of the local societies with a view to the better organisation of the collecting of local specimens. The museum should be the headquarters of all the local societies, and the curator could, by a little organisation, make use of them to provide him with collections of local specimens and at the same time increase the value of their work, at present often spasmodic and aimless. He emphasised the value of local col- lections as a stimulus to local workers and as an educational asset of the highest utility to the people of the district in which the museum was situated. While recognising the great value of circulating collections for the use of schools, he was of opinion that the provision of such collections came more properly within the province of the local Education Committee, or, better still, should be organised by a Central Authority such as the Board of Educa- tion. Professor GeppeEs called attention to the ‘Survey of Greater London’ now in progress, under the auspices of the Architects’ War Committee of the Royal Institute of British Architects, at their premises, 9 Conduit Street, W., under the direction of Mr. H. V. Lanchester and Mr. E. F. G. Jemmett, F.R.I.B.A., from the latter of whom particulars may be obtained. A similar survey is now beginning for Greater Manchester under the direction of Professor Patrick Abercrombie, Department of City Design, University of Liverpool, and other kindred surveys are also under consideration for other important centres; and CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 789 in this way it may reasonably be hoped that a more and more comprehensive study of our leading cities and city-regions may before long be in active pro- gress, and from all points of view. As regards co-operation with these surveys by museums and local natural history societies, particulars can be obtained from Mr. R. Maynard, the Curator of the Museum, Saffron Walden, Essex. Alderman Artuur Bennerr (Warrington Society) said that he should like to emphasise in the strongest possible way the desirability of securing and pre- serving cinema films of all important local and national events, which, if they could be made sufficiently permanent, would be of lasting historical value. He also cordially agreed with Professor Geddes in his plea for a civic survey of every town and district in the country. The Chairman might be interested to know that Dr. Percival and Dr. Barnes, who were largely instrumental in forming the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, were born in Warrington, and that Warrington could boast the earliest free rate-supported museum and library in the United Kingdom, both of which were singularly rich in local relics. The Society he represented, in addition to its various other objects, existed to maintain the Warrington Academy as a local museum spe- cially devoted to the commemoration of the golden age of Warrington’s history, and its collection was limited to books, pictures, and relics which were either directly associated with the Academy or reflected lustre on the annals of the town. He believed that there was ample room, in many places, for specialised local museums on these lines. Mr. F. W. Asx (North Staffordshire Field Club) said that local museums might be divided into two classes, the objects of which are largely opposite. In the one kind the exhibits have local relations, but are for the benefit of visitors and the general public (example: a local archeological collection). In the other kind the collection may be of a general nature, and intended for the benefit of local students (example : a natural history collection. It is ques- tionable if any particular purpose is served (in many cases) by a zoological collection limited to specimens from a political boundary such as that of a county. Mi. Cortmx Brooks (Southport Literary and Philosophical Society) said that the point which struck him, as representing a philosophical society not con- cerned with experimental or pure science, was that the majority of local museums were the property of a township, and, reverting to John Ruskin’s analogy, in considering the collection as the possession of an individuality, the centralisation of exhibits to a national museum was hardly a right or sound procedure. There was some danger of a mistake in phraseology. The meaning of the words ‘the advancement of science’ was ambiguous. They of the British Association construed it into the advancement of the results of science: a township, he imagined, would merely interpret it as the broadening of the basis and member- ship of their scientific community. As one not personally concerned in museum control, he was strongly in favour of the decentralisation of exhibits to purely local habitations. Mr. Witt1am WuitaKker was of opinion that the division of museums into national and local is hardly enough. There is a great class between, consisting of the museums of great towns, which, though not national, are by no means merely local. Mrs. Forses Juttan (Torquay Natural History Society) also spoke. The CHarrMan (Institute of Mining Engineers) stated that, during his term of office as Chairman of the Trustees of the Calcutta Museum, the question of balancing the claims of a national, as against those of provincial, museums passed through an acute stage ; and, according to the lessons then learnt, he considered that any provincial museum should be permitted to retain valuable specimens, including ‘types,’ whenever, in the opinion of the Museums Association, its government and curatorship are satisfactorily stable. It would be quite easy to define and to enforce, by periodical inspection, a satisfactory standard of manage- ment. Local authorities should be given to understand that unique and reference specimens are not their private property, but that they are trustees responsible to the scientific world. So long as the safety of a reference specimen be reason- ably assured it should not be removed from the local museum; for local pride, due to the possession of valuable materials, helps the healthy spread of interest 790 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENOE.—1915, in science. It is as easy and as important to legislate for the preservation of specimens of scientific value as for the preservation of ancient monuments. ; The thanks of the Conference were given to Dr. Hoyle. The Conference then adjourned. At a second meeting of the Conference, which was held on Friday, Septem- ber 10, mention was made of the interest which had been aroused by the suggestions contained in the Chairman’s address, and Mr. Wur1rTaker, the Vice- Chairman, read the following explanatory remarks : The existing practice prevents a suitable classification of papers, and affords no guarantee to research workers that the papers have been considered by any body observing a constant and recognised standard. lt is the opinion of many that the progress of science would be greatly facilitated by the adoption of a system such as that suggested by the Chairman— namely, by a form of limited control by the Royal Society in the matter of publications, or by an independent federation of the non-specialised scientific societies. By either of these two systems it would be possible for original papers of scientific value to be made more accessible to research workers, as such papers would then be suitably grouped by subjects, and would appear in a recognised serial accessible in all important reference libraries. With regard to the proposal to form an independent federation of non- specialised societies, there is the obvious objection that such an institution would add one more to an already embarrassingly large variety of papers. Any scheme also of the kind would require the organisation of another controlling Council, necessarily composed of unequal constituents, the working of which would present difficulties on account of the wide geographical distribution of the societies. On the other hand, the publications of the Royal Society are already estab- lished, and are recognised throughout the world as authoritative. The machinery for controlling such publications is already organised and in working order, additional advantage being gained by the fact (1) that the sectional committees of the Royal Society are independent of local influences, and (2) that the addi- tional cost of the publications would be small compared with that of establishing a new serial, appropriately divided into parts, to suit the natural subdivisions of science. From the financial point of view, therefore, it would be more economical, even if the provincial societies had to bear the additional cost to the Royal Society, to adopt the system suggested by the Chairman. Comments were made by many of the delegates present, including Sir Daniel Morris (Bournemouth Natural Science Society), Sir Eustace Gurney and Mr. Alfred W. Oke (Brighton and Hove Natural History Society and South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies), Mr. Wilfred Mark Webb (the Selborne Society), Mr. Harry Sowerbutts (Manchester Geographical Society), Mr. Henry Coates (Perthshire Society of Natural Science), and Miss Crosfield (Holmesdale Natural History Society). Mr. H. W. Davies (Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society) thought that it might be advisable to bring the matter before the Corresponding Societies Committee before a further step was taken. The following resolution was then passed: ‘That this Conference of Delegates invites the attention of the Corresponding Societies Committee to the Chair- man’s opening address, in which suggestions are made for reforming the existing varied and unorganised practice of publishing original papers.’ The suggestion that Sir Thomas Holland should be asked to join the Corre- sponding Societies Committee was enthusiastically received. The second subject for discussion, namely ‘Colour Standards,’ was intro- duced by Mr. J. Ramszorrom in the following paper :— During the past ten years there have been published three schemes of colours : Oberthir and Dauthenay’s ‘ Répertoire de Couleurs,’ Klincksieck and Valette’s “ Code des Couleurs,’ and Ridgway’s ‘ Color Standards and Color Nomenclature.’ These three works have been adopted by different naturalists, and it has seemed to the British Mycological Society that the question of a colour standard is one that might profitably be brought to the notice of the Corresponding Societies of the British Association. As everyone who has had to deal with colour in the natural sciences realises, there are two fundamental difficulties : (1) the difficulty of understanding what — CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 791 is intended by any colour-term used in a description; (2) the difficulty which any worker himself has of satisfactorily naming the colours in a species under discussion. It is obvious that these difficulties have not come forward suddenly during the present century, and in the few days at my disposal I have attempted to trace out various previous attempts to get over them. In this way it would appear that the requisites of a standard could best be appreciated. The earliest effort to define colours from the naturalist’s standpoint to which I have found a reference is in an Appendix to Charleton’s ‘De Nominibus Animalium,’ 1677. This author realises the almost infinite varieties of colours, and the difficulty of translating classical names into English idiom. He divides the colours up into groups: white, black, yellow, blue, etc. He gives Latin names for the colours, é.g., Psittaceus is described as ‘ Poppin-jay-green, such as the green of parrots, which in old English were call’d Pope-jayes, quasi Priests-jayes.’ This method of describing colour by referring it to some natural object has always been common with men of science, and has much to commend it. When one gets away from common objects, however, in the definition of colour, obvious objections arise. The more perfect the scheme in any branch of science the more difficult it is of general application. The alternative method is to have samples of colour for comparison. It is to such scales we must look if we are to have a satisfactory scheme of denoting colours. Such colour charts have been brought forward at different times. The first colour chart of this description appears to have been published in Hayne’s “Termini Botanici Iconibus Illustrati,’ 1807. There are thirty-six samples of colour which have Latin names appended. In the text the terms are explained, with examples where possible, and the German equivalent given. Next, Werner’s ‘Nomenclature of Colours,’ as introduced by Patrick Syme, was published in 1814; a second edition of this work was published seven years later. The first edition has 108 tints; the second 110. The introduction gives the method by which each colour was prepared. The samples are very small (half-inch square), and pasted ten on a page. The name of the colour is given, and examples of the colour where possible from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. Thus: Wine yellow; body of silk moth; stamina of honeysuckle; pale Brazilian topaz. Most of the colours have by this time considerably altered, and, on comparing the two editions, it is seen that many of the colours, with the same names, are quite different. This scheme met with some success, and was used in Barton’s ‘ Flora of North America,’ 1821. In 1815 Mirbel, in his ‘ Elémens de Botanique,’ gave a chart of eighty-three tints, the only explanation given being a naive statement that by its aid any colour whatever can be matched ; a statement which. appears particularly ridicu- lous now that all the whites have turned black. Another scheme which may be mentioned is that of Haytor, which is appended to Sinclair’s ‘ Hortus Ericaeus Woburnensis,’ 1825, one of the well- known Woburn monographs. An account of the origin of the scheme is given in a letter by Haytor to the Duke of Bedford. Sinclair had ‘lamented much that no work existed to render clear and definite all communications on the subject of any new or rare bloom. ... In attempting at present to describe the colour of any given flower, the term red, he remarked, was applied to so many blossoms that it was impossible to define precisely what was meant by it : and, to give me an evidence of the want he complained of, he took me to several flowers, generally called red, but varying so much that, to my eye as a painter, they each demanded a different appellation for their colour.’ He adds that matters are made worse by adding the termination -ish, and arriving at such indefinite but common terms as ‘reddish’ and ‘ greenish.” A comparison of the colour descriptions of the same varieties in present-day florists’ catalogues shows clearly that matters are quite as bad as they were a hundred years ago; and the entomologist’s testaceus and the mycologist’s ferrugineus show that Latin terms are used with just as much levity. In Haytor’s scheme 272 tints are arranged in a circle in the form of a mariner’s compass, and the nomenclature is also nautical, e.g., red, red by purple. Two gradations are appended, one showing the range from black to white, the other from brown to white. The scheme does not appear to have been at all successful. 792 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Another arrangement of general application is that of Hay, ‘A Nomen- clature of Colours applicable to the Arts and Natural Sciences,° to Manufac- tures, and other purposes of General Utility,’ 1845. The second edition has forty plates, each with six one-and-a-half-inch-sided triangles of colour pasted in. The samples were very evenly painted, and very little fading appears to have taken place. The introduction gives the author’s theories of colour, and the arrangement, which is difficult to follow, is based upon these. The nomen- clature, in which ‘tempered green hue’ and such like appear, was also probably a factor against any general adoption by naturalists. Before this time Chevreul, Directeur des Teintures a la Manufacture Nationale des Gobelins—the national manufactory of tapestry in Paris—began to devise a classification of colours. His first discussion, ‘La Loi du Contraste simultané des Couleurs,’ appeared in 1839. A full account of his scheme, and its application, is given in a memoir of 944 pages (‘Mém. Acad. Sci.,’ Paris, 1861, ‘Exposé d’un Moyen de définir et de nommer les Couleurs’). This method, which it would take too long to describe, is still used at the national manu- factory of tapestry, and is the basis of the modern French colour schemes. Theoretically, over 14,000 different colours, tones, shades, and tints are obtain- able, but in practice a much smaller number suffices. In 1855 Digeon published a set of ten charts, ‘ Cercles Chromatiques de M. E. Chevreul.’ The circles are divided into seventy-two sectors, and there is a gradual gradation from red through orange red to orange, and so on. The charts have different percentages of black added, from ‘1 to :9. Thus there are 720 different shades. The name of the colour is denoted by giving the number of the chart and of the sector. Peele full scheme is made more complete by having different intensities of colour. Radde’s ‘ Internationale Farben Skala,’ 1877, consists of fifteen cards. 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REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 798 * ATyeuoIs"o90 ‘ssu\paed Plewens yoo1g JURY 1p -O1g : “AEOTE TA “odey “sg ouoN SOT ‘UIeyjlig “VY pay ‘wnesnyy oqnd ‘Mvyspeig ‘(| * f * OJ8T ‘ANID SI8I1eaNgeN Pleweus + Aprojqaen | quoy {4styernyen 1eqseqooy , "8g avon OI | “MEQSUTITH ‘peoy Ter0WTeg oF ‘eseq punwipy |* * * S181 ‘ANID SqSITBANgBN Joqsoqooy | sTepyooy “TWqINOS an al ee "89 euoN OFS | qooryg SUIy gg “og'd “qyIoMYsSy pleuIsey “f | * gzgT ‘Aqa100g oyMueTOg pus Arer931'] ajepyooy Trenuue ‘ssuyt -posd0ig pue suolovsuBiy, “pg ‘sg auoN FEE ie . 5 * UOSITIA LS ‘Wj40g “‘qeerqyg AB, | * LOST ‘a0Ueldg [vanjzeN Jo AqoI00g arlqsyyIog “Aypenuue ‘st017BA.108q0 yeordoor0oj07y pus aodey "pg sh .*8g SP . F * Saysreg ‘sovtg Aqunog ¢ ‘reupsrey *¢ | * SOST ‘WOTyN4AWSUT [voTYydosoyIyg Ao[s1Vq *Aypenuus meysuly ; ‘suoljowsuvay, pue y1odey £8G *P9'SZ Ill -J0N ‘aset[op Aqiszeatay “WW ‘AIVO "Mf *JOId | * 3 GERT ‘Aqot00g ,SqSTTBANZVN WVy.SUIZION } aospleqory “V “f pus uosqoy ‘ * 6281 ‘Jo Ayatoog Ar04sT [vanjeN ‘oudy, *Ayyenuue ‘suorovsuely, "SIS ouoN Slt ‘A ‘QO ‘audy-uo-ayjsvomeN ‘uinesnyy yooouvyH | -uodn-eyssoMen pure ‘ueyqing ‘puvlrequinyyaoNy iz woqdiey410N 91ST “ANIO Plea aay = “Teun Lf "SOL auoNn 08% apelVd SMeqWPN 9S LT “VW ‘UoxId ‘N “H | pus Ago100g Ar04stH [BINGEN sATysuoydmeByy.1oN *AT[BnUuue | ‘suoljovsuvry, pure qa1odeay “sg "sg SFO le : Z * *syuqg ‘om0gg ‘Wepelg SII “A | * 5 * GOST ‘ANIO Pleld eIGsplogeys Y4ION “ATQQUOUTs10N TIS UA SUA | aoupi0p ZEST ‘Slv0ULsUG [voruByoeTyL jo “‘4suy jo suolovsuvsy | ‘sz pue “sez auoy wet) =, Wey «‘eudy-uodn-aysvomeN ‘TTe@H AT[IAeN | puw Surat Je aqnqysuy puvjsugq Jo YON “ATTVNUUE *STOTOBsSUBAT, “pg "SL au0N | €8z | + YorMIon ‘yo0199 SaTIN “IS ve “GW ‘Su0T “H ‘*S |* G98T ‘A90TO0g ,SqISITRANJVNY YOIMION PUB Y[OJION “AT[BMOISBO | 611 (suosaag), -00 ‘Aroj00TIqT «ss SUAMesNyL “p9 “SOL auoN saqyeoossy | TTT (‘sqsuq) 194S0010'T “A[qguou ‘}eusrnor suNesnyy ‘STS | auoN suaquoey | ‘Arayey gry pue umnesnyy “os'g ‘emo7T ‘gq “qT | * p : 0 * 6881 ‘WOIQvIoOssy stnosnyy “AT qQUOTL ‘srosulsUq SUIUI jo | UOTANAYSUT JOSuUOToUsUBLT, | “7T PUB SZ 7G | “SLIT oLs f Aqaog “pvoy pusl pry “VW ‘sIMoT party “4 | [£81 ‘StosulZuq Jo uoyNng4sUT selyUNOD PULIPITT $9 + Aypenuue ‘410dey “sg “ST OST . * aZal[op Ysno10qiawyy ‘yw ‘dosry "9 “¢ “Ageqo0g Aro, TBsnIwVN ada T1909 ailerons + Ayyenuue ‘suoovsuely, “Pg ‘SOL *P9 “SOT I9L | JaqsoyouByy “4ee14g YAOK g *ploysuvy uous, “7 * gegt ‘Agor00g [8014819R45 JoysoTOURTL *Ayenuue AaTYSI Youeperq ‘lozsoyo ‘qz0dayy ~pue suolousueIy, *s9 "sg OST | -uvyy ‘ATTIpBOoT *aa14g unojfy *[eI0H puvIy | * O8gT ‘Aqa100g JBOIdoosoAOITY JoysoyouRyy “AT QJUOMs199U LSU SUM "271 pue SULBITITM jo ‘4suy jo suo1jovsueay, | “S¢ 72T “83°12 auoN 00F |", Yeon ‘logsoyouryy ‘qo013g uoqeq uyor g | gggT ‘AJol00g SUINITY PUB [BOISO[OIy Ao}saqOULyL *"pg'sQT Soqyetoossy | daysoqoury ‘asvuosieg “Ajaoqrenb ‘yeuanor |! 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PUB P10JIBO * @18T “UoTWBIOOsSY OYIWUalOg projpwlg G18T ‘Aqa100§ [woldoosoro1yy pus AIOISIR [VANQVN ploypig FEST “ANIO PENT vast0qq¥E 9L8T ‘UOIZBIOOSsY OYIQUeIDg pue Areiaqry pus qniQ pla sIseinjeN Moseg L68T *Ajato0s Ax10481H [eanjeyy pus usaenbyUy 4o1y4sIq pue ueYyleg | | (99g ee | “PO 'ST auoNn 09 Sayoy) yoong “y ‘Aqsumay ‘ eget WL A ‘ATyenuue | *M ‘Sulpeq ‘peoy | ‘sto}jovsuBIT, pus qaoday | "pg ’sg puv ‘sot auoN raat | VOUAIOTA 13 ‘espory AajoH ‘yqIoJYSNY [LENO “wT aulonrayun —_— “sg au0N OST “900198 moremeO TE “org ‘aql}asowog qaaqoy | * : — "sg auton 9 ‘A'S “pxojqvH ‘peoy praysavy gz ‘A000 semory, = "PQ “SZ pus sg anon ost * —- ploypuag ‘onueay yyouIng PE ‘pInoqMeN “AV — “Sh “ST gL : * ployperg ‘gaar4g yuaOTIA Z ‘4I9MOL *paayy | SITIOW “A “I Sst Se "P9 “SE P9 "SZ 99 “M'S “vosioqqyug ‘[[TH Jopuoaey ‘Aavaqry onqnd | * ie 7 f ‘ *Ayenuue | ‘ssulpopo01g pue aiodey “pg ‘sz pue ‘se auo Ny | Z0Z E * modieg ‘qa0199 YSTpueARD ¢ ‘aseq "T"M *A]]BUOIsBO00 “M'S‘TOMM0D WIOM | ‘saadeg ! 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WRYy SUMMIT ‘990199 []eYMEN ¢ “WAI "q*y *[[BUOISBODO ‘ssuIpss001g "Pgs | euoN L112 Z JAodyqnog “proxy yser0,7 zg ‘FUBysavy "y “Vy “AyTyenuue | ‘on ‘ajdaeg, ISTVAN{VN Usojseq-qynog, | “se WNMIUIT aUuoN 000'ST qnoqu “4.09 TaprBy Z “Ws “a'1T “ure WRIT AM *A]]/BU018B900 ‘suOIyO"sUBA, “12 | 9euoN 106 uMOy, dey ‘umnesnyy uvolyjy {Nos ‘IRIO "WD | AvID 85109H "19° pur ‘aq, ‘oO ‘ uqae soe “AyTenNUUL ‘sSurpasoorg |"Pg'so] WUMIUI,, “Pg “SOT 016 “AW AoY IOABO MM "Q"AOY “TOJUNBT,‘a/9SVH EU, * GE8T ‘AqoIo0g [worydosopiyg e1TYSyIOX T9ST ‘WOT SqSITVIN}eN OTIYSHIO K LEST ‘Aqo100g [BoIsoTOeH er1qsy10 X LPSL QNIO .S}SI[VANGVNT OAT SIO}SE0I0 MA 6981 “QUID PION «S9STTCINIEN adoyjoo FS8T ‘QUIO Ped SSSOOBYOTY PUB SISTBINQVN OATYSYOUMIGM 0Z81 ‘Aqotoog [vorqdosoyiqg pue Arvszogiy wogSurare AA * L881 “ANIO PIOM SIsT[VInzeN FMOMTaCT Jo o[BA, * L88T ‘Aqe100g [voryderZ0aH aprsaudy, PPST ‘AqaI00g AIOSIH [8aNyeN Avubso07, LOST ‘ste0UISaq Suraiyy jo AINIYSUT ILIYSHOMIVM PUB sIlYSsp1oyeIS YINOg * AJoyoos [vorydosopiyg puv Arvz0qryT qaody4nog 9681 ‘so}901905 OPUS JO UOIUN WIE4sBy-qINOS " 9061 ‘Jo AjoI00¢ eso ‘eolayy qynog 6F81 ‘Aqa100g AI04 “STH [8INjBN pue [voLsoo@yory sa1rqsqyosiomog REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. 800 “ATpenuue ‘410deiy -ATTenuuae ‘4.10dayy «AT eIanerq “410dayy "ava k @ SOUITZ eay ,‘Apnjg angen TooyosS , *Ayyenuue ‘410day *ATTeuoIsvo00 ‘sradvq *A[[BU01s¥v000 ‘sernqoa'T | A[Tenuue ‘y10dey *kyeuorsvo90 ‘q10daxy *ATpenuuy ‘ssu1pes01 gq *A[/BM01svd00 ‘suoTIO’ -suvay, { Atjenuue ‘y10daxz “Aqrenawe ‘s3ulpoo001g “Ayyenuue 410dey *AT[BUOTsvO0O ‘sMOTJOVSULIT, + A[[BMOTsBd00 ‘ssUIpse001g “A]Tenuue ‘sSutpeso01g + pue 4Jtodey *AyTeuoTsv900 ‘SuUOTZOBSUeIT, + A[penuue ‘suOMoVsUBLT, -AyTeuoIse000 ,‘48T[2IN4{BN xessng Jsvq PUR ssuIqgsepH, "Sg PUB "DQ “SL *P9 “STL “21 | "Sq pure “D9 “SOT "PY “8B *s¢ "PQ °SZ “SOT pure ‘71 a8 EVA “SOL “SOT “pg ‘sg pus ‘sg 4 "P9 “SOT eG pg ‘sg puB “sg a ag “pg °3B ‘PO SE “PQ “8G | aucyy *P9 “SOT auoN auoN auoN au0 Nt auoN auoN euoNn auoN "PO "8Z “PQ "SE auoN auoNn auoN ou0oN auoN auoN auoN “ST euoN bl O8T ‘oossy pur STOq WaT 092) eeT 69 &Z 00T 06 O91 008 03% Ost “| ‘uoysorg ‘ayesi0qsIq V6IT PIO}FVA\ “490199 USTH OOT ‘UIE “V m0} sUI “IBM ‘SlaqmieyyQ o9e4H yoyreyy “ouueg anyy1y STIO.M asplaqunt ‘stapaey, aTepsuoT g ‘saravq “qd ‘1d * woaaq ‘mozanqysy ‘pinaq ‘Areury ‘g§ ugoLr cs * qrodyqnog ‘peoy Tlessny 6 “WeIgsitq0 *H “d “W'S ‘TlaMsiequiey ‘xv IOUSASOIH | “AUINT, “AH YySnos0qavog ‘pvoy puvjiooy ¢F ‘Aouang *¢*V moqIappeyo TRH ernqoe'T : 5 somo party ‘aus y-wodn-epsvoMoN asplug ‘M ‘f pus uojIeg “y ‘“Whesny, suoyspreyy "S'G'd “leuIny, *¢ “A pues “ST A ‘SpreApa Aguejys ‘q's ‘esplag uopuoy ‘srequivyy Biuseqiy ‘a'N ‘plop Suryy ‘pvoy aaory s ueen} SI ‘sso "¢ . * oupnpuryy ‘uingyulig ‘poomiepuy *s “1 U0j}s01p “Ys *[oodazeavyT “uorqngiqsu] jeAoy ‘W'S ‘ueysIMaT “pvoy oPIVMIALBIS‘aspo7T syorqulag ‘soyoorg "AM “£ . . * spae'y ‘qaa14g UeqQVIZg BT ‘O1SUT “Lf PrVAPH aspliq “sUB wmeTIM ‘[oodreary ‘uowyngysur [esoy D * SSOUIOAUT ‘OI[SAO{IM ‘OOBI1E A SBULOT.T, * YOIMBH ‘400198 WSTH [8 “WouIeA “fC “LP 9§-00-SprlBuoeyT 4S ‘sueprvp 8,M20U97"IN “99 FI “V's “AOIINIK oP" M * xejljey ‘aovlley, eylorepug og ‘quny "HS 6061 | ‘£qot00g o1gdvrSoyoyg pue quip v1remep pr0yye A . . . . . 6ST ‘AQoTD0g U0ZSUTIIe AA FRRT ‘AqoI00g [BoOIQdos “old pus 4£10481H Tengen STeM 28plaquny, * gest ‘QNID PPM SISITBIN{VN Uslag, * * OG8T ‘e0uaTOg [BangeN Jo AqaI00g yaodyynog - ¥ c * 061 ‘Wolug Apnyg oAnqyeN [ooyog 8681 ‘Ajor00g jeolsojowyory pues yeoiydosoyiyg ysno1oqivog : : ‘ * $681 ‘Aqoloog oplzusr0g Uoyserg S6LT ‘Jo Ayo100g jeorqdosopiqg pus Arveseqry ‘oud y-uodn-914svoMeN 8981 ‘Aqoroog Teorydosopiqd pue Aroqsty [eanjeN yUeY-ply, pus STOFSpreyy ZLST ‘Aqot00g AIOASTH [BANGe NT pues [eRoIsojomojuy uopuoTyT yyNOg : UopuoT * S161 “Aqato0g A10}s1H{ [eINZVN Wopuo'T : UopuoT rs ‘ 9061 ‘qnio. PIP JOl4sIq Pav oupnpury’yT * gost ‘Ajeroog [eoldoososoryy [OOdAeATT * gggt ‘Aqo100g uRlIenbyUy WeystIMe'T S98T ‘HOTy -BIOOSSY OYIQUSTNS pus qnIO ,SISITBINJVN spoa'T L181 ‘Aqa100§ [BOIso[OMOZU sIIYsoyH PUB oATYSBOUL'T 9181 ‘anio PIeld pus Ayeto0g OYIZUEIOS SsoUIOAUT * 9ggT ‘Aqa100g [wolso[o@yo1y YOIMeA €681 *492100S 410981H TeInqeN spivtoey “49 pues ssunsey * P1gl ‘AJol00g OgIQUELOg X¥BjI/eH suo1qBolTqng Jo anss] jo Aouenbeiy pus 91911 mo14dizosqug jenuuy | | aad aouvliqug siaquiayy JOON Areyaioag Jo ssalppy pus ome JO S1oj1enbpveH ToMepunog Jo a3eq PUL OTL 1A “‘penuljyu0o—sarga190g pazpro0ssy CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 801 Catalogue of the more important Papers, especially those referring to Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding Societies during the year ending May 31, 1915. *,* This Catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of the Committee in accordance with Rule 2, Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. AsHwortTH, JAMES (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Notes on the Sixth and Final Report of the Explosions in Mines Committee. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvm. 604-608. 1915. Beattie, Prof. J. C. The Secular Variation of the Magnetic Elements in South Africa during the period 1900-1913. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ rv. 181-203. 1915. BrAsHEAR, JOHN A. The Originator of Spectrum Analysis. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vi. 229-230. 1914. BricoTon anD Hove Narurat History anp Pamosopnican Society. Meteor- ology of Brighton, 1913-1914. ‘ Report Brighton and Hove Nat. Hist. and Phil. Soc. 1914,’ 32-33. 1914. Bryson, THomas (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Testing of Fans, with special reference to the Measurement of Pressure. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvmi. 50-56. 1914. Bourron, Wm11am R. Temperature and Rainfall for July, 1911. ‘Trans. Woolhope ~ Nat. Field Club, 1908-1911,’ 257. 1914. BurtTon-on-TRENT NaturAL History anp ARCH@OLOGICAL Society. ‘ Meteoro- logical Summary, 1911,’ 75-77. 1914. CAMPBELL-BAYARD, Francis. Report of the Meteorological Committee, 1913. ‘Trans. Croydon N. H. Sci. Soc. 1913-1914,’ 175-185, and Appendices, 63 pp. 1914, Cannon, J. B. The Orbit of 136 Tauri. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc.’ rx. 151-157. 1915. —— The Orbit of e« Andromedex. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 158- 164, 1915. CaRADOO AND SEVERN VALLEY Fretp Cius. Meteorological Notes, 1913 and 1914, ‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 23, 37-53. 1914; No. 24, 23-36. 1915. Cuant, C. A. The Meteor-Fall of Ensisheim (1492). ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit. 349-357. 1914. Cotiirr, Hrreert B. How I Sculptured the Moon. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 1-6. 1915. CornwaLt Roya Potyrecunic Society. Report of the Observatory Committee. 12 pp. ‘Report Royal Cornwall Poly. Soc.’ 2 (N.s.). 1914. Dauton, Dr. Jonn P. Onan Experimental Modification of Van der Waals’s Equa- tion. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ Iv. 123-136. 1914. Dennina, W. F. Meteoric Astronomy. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 282-286. 1914. —— Perseids and Leonids. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 341-344. 1914. —— The Claims of Meteoric Astronomy. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 57-60. 1915. —— Large Meteors in June. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 61-62. 1915. Drxon, Prof. Harotp B. (N. Staffs. Inst. Eng.). The Nature of Explosions. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrrx. 214-217. 1915. Eatin Screntiric AnD Microscoricat Society. Meteorological Notes for the Years 1913 and 1914. ‘ Report Ealing Sci. Mic. Soc.’ 1913-1914, x. 1914; 1914-1915, xx. 1915. East Kent Naturat History anp Screntiric Socrery. Sunshine and Rainfall Tables, 1912, 1913. ‘ Report East Kent N. H. Sci. Soc. 1912-13, 15. 1914. Fox, Witson Lioyp. Declination of the Magnetic Needle, Falmouth ‘ Report Royal Cornwall Poly. Soc.’ 2 (N.s.), 202. 1914, 1915. 3F 802 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Gorpon, J. W. A ‘New’ Object Glass by Zeiss. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xu. 515-520. 1915. GrauaM, J. Ivon. The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part V.—The Influence of Temperature on the Rates of Absorption by different parts of the Barnsley Bed. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvmt. 521-534, 1915. —— (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part VII.—The Influence of Moisture upon the Rate of Absorption, and the Question of Bacterial Oxidation. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xurx. 35-43. 1915. Harrer, W. E. Atmospheric Conditions suitable for the 72-inch Reflector. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 172-179. 1914. —— The Orbits of the Spectroscopic Components of 50 Draconis. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 165-167. 1915. —— The Orbit of the Spectroscopic Binary 1149 Groombridge. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 168-169. 1915. Hawse, E. L. Meteorological Report for 1913 and for 1914. ‘ Report Hampstead Sci. Soc. 1913,’ 28-30. 1914; 1914, 28-30. 1915. HensHaw, R. Stevenson. Returns of Rainfall in Dorset in 1913. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxxv. 206-219. 1914. Hopkinson, Joun. The Climate of Hertfordshire, deduced from Meteorological Observations for 25 years, and Rainfall Observations for 70 years. ‘ Trans. Herts, N. H. 8S. F. C.’ xv, 195-206. 1915. —— The Weather of the Year 1913 in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8S. F, GC’ XV. 225-238. 1915. Hunter, A. F. Is there a Morning Maximum of the Aurora? ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 121-125. 1915. Innes, R. T. A. The Triple Stellar System ¢ Virgo E 1757. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ tv. 145-146. 1914. Kaptryn, J. C. On the Structure of the Universe. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 145-159. 1914. Kuorz, Orro. Location of Epicentres for 1913. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 160-171. 1914. —— Earthquakes, Phases of the Moon, Sub-Lunar and Sub-Solar Points. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 273-281. 1914. —— Deformation of the Earth by the Moon. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit. 375-389. 1914. —— Magnetic Observations, 1914. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 170- 172. 1915. —— Gravity Stations, 1914. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 176-179. 1915. Lucas, JosrepnH. A Cross-Channel Current at St. Leonards. ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 124-125. 1915. McDiarmip, F. A. Errors in Longitude, Azimuth, and Latitude Determinations— II. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vu. 318-340. 1914. MELvILL, THomas. Observations on Light and Colours. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 231-272. 1914. Meru, A. A. C. Etior, On the Minimum Visible. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xu. 385-392. 1914. Morean, J. D. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Coal-dust Explosions. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xi1x. 220-229. 1915. MorTHEerRWeLL, R. M. The New Photographic Telescope of the Dominion Observa- tory. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 305-306. 1914. Murr, Prof. James. The Constitution of Matter. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xLy. 76-93. 1914. Muir, Dr. Toomas. Note on a Theorem of Ph. Gilbert’s regarding the Differentia- tion of a Special Jacobian. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ rv. 139-142. 1914, —— Note on Rosanes’ Functions resembling Jacobians. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ Iv. 157-161. 1914. —— Properties of Pfaffians, with their Analogues in Determinants. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ rv. 205-214. 1915. —— Note on the Product of a Special N-line Determinant by its Central Minor of the (N-4)th Order. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ tv. 273-277. 1915. Netson, Epwarp M. A New Object-Glass by Zeiss, and a New Method of Illumina- tion, ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xu. 363-366. 1915, CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 803 Netson, Epwarp M. A New Low-power Condenser. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xi. 367-368. 1915. —— Binocular Microscopes. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 369-380. 1915. Parrrrson, J. A Meteorological Trip to the Arctic Circle. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 101-120. 1915. Puaskert, H. H. The Solar Rotation in 1913. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit. 307-317. 1914. Praskett, J. §. The 72-inch Reflecting Telescope. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vi. 180-187. 1914. —— The Sidereal Universe. (Presidential Address.) ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ rx. 37-56. 1915. Preston, ArtHUR W. Meteorological Notes, 1913. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 757-764. 1914. Rampavt, A. A. Summary of the Weather during 1914, from Observations at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. ‘ Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1914,’ 41. 1915. RopeeErR, ALtex. M. Abstract of Meteorological Observations, Perth, 1913. ‘ Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci. vz. Ixxii.-lxiv. 1914. RosEvEARE, W. N. A Proof by elementary methods, without complex quantities, that every algebraic function (with real coefficients) has factors of the form (x*— pa-+-q) (p, q, real), and hence, every algebraic equation with coefficients real or imaginary has real or imaginary roots, equal in number to the degree of the equation. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ tv. 215-221. 1915. —— On Malet’s Proof that every Equation has roots, real or imaginary, equal in number to its degree. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ Iv, 222-229. 1915. RUTHERFORD, JOHN. Weather and other Notes taken at Jardington during 1913. “Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ m. (Third Series), 144-155. 1914. —— Astronomical Notes, 1913. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ m. (Third Series), 156-157. 1914. Sours Waxes, Roya Instrrurion or. Meteorological Report, June 1913-May 1914. ‘ Report Royal Inst. South Wales, 1913-1914,’ 61-72. 1914. ScHLESINGER, FRANK. The Problemof Algol. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ tx. 11-15. 1915. StgrapwortHy, A. Spectrum of Lightning. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit. 345-348. 1914. —— Black Lightning. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1x. 173-175. 1915. Surron, Dr. J. R. Barometric Variability at Kimberley and elsewhere. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ tv. 105-121. 1914. —— A Note on the Temperatures of the Air observed at Mochudi. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ rv. 163-167. 1915. Watrorp, Dr. E. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District, 1913. “Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xtvr. 101-119. 1914. Wuitetow, E. T. Old World Astronomy. ‘ Proc. Warrington Lit. and Phil. Soe. 1912-1914,’ 22 pp. 1914. Winmit, T. F. The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part II.—The Quantity of Oxygen absorbed. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 503-507. 1915. —— The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part IIJ.—The Thermal Value of the Absorption. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvm. 508-513. 1915. —— The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part IV.—The Influence of Temperature. “Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xivm. 514-520, 1915. —— The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part VI.—The Rate of Spontaneous Heat- ing. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvmm. 535-544. 1915. Wricut, Max A. The Great Windstorm of October 27th, 1913. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ Lxvi. 65-82. 1914. YORKSHIRE PaitosopHicaL Society. Meteorological Returns for 1914. ‘ Report Yorkshire Phil. Soc. 1914,’ xix.—xxiv. 1915. Youna, Rrynotp K. A Gnomonic Star Atlas. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1x. 7-10. 1915. Section B.—-CHEMISTRY. Burret, Benzamin Artuur. The Analysis of Ilkley Spa Water. ‘ Proc. York- shire Geol. Soc.” x1x. 14-17. 1914. 3 F2 804 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Drucz, G. Crariper. The Saline Spring at Marcham. ‘ Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1914,’ 34-35. 1915. Fow er, Dr. Ginpert J. The Present Position of the Sewage Disposal Problem. “Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxv. 213-223. 1914. Hareer, Dr. Joun (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The Removal of Carbon Mon- oxide from Air, and Methods of Estimation in Mines. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ XLV. 533-541. 1914. Ormanpy, Dr. W. R. Liquid Fuels. ‘ Proc. Warrington Lit. and Phil. Soc. 1912- 1914,’ 12 pp. 1914. Pops, Prof. W. J. Modern Aspects of the Molecular Theory. ‘Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xv. 57-75. 1914. Steven, Artec. B. Artificial Silk; its Manufacture and Properties. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 28-34. 1914. Section C.—GEoLoGyY. ARBER, Dr. E. A. Newrtt. Geology of the Kent Coalfield. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvm. 677-714. 1914. Barges, Grorce F. Further Notes on Highland Rocks. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vi. 22-31. 1914. Brastzy, H. C. Description of a Footprint recently found in the Lower Keuper Sandstone of Runcorn Hill. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xm. 32-34. 1914. —— Some Fossils from the Keuper Sandstone of Alton, Staffordshire. ‘ Proc. Liver- pool Geol. Soe.’ xm. 35-39. 1914. Bisat, W. 8. The Millstone Grit Sequence between Masham and Great Whernside. “Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ xv. 20-24. 1914. Bouton, Prof. W. 8. Recently Exposed Silurian Rocks on Rumney Hill, near Cardiff. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ txvr. 83-84. 1914. Burnet, ArtHur, and J. H. Everert. Notes on Sections in a Quarry at Robin Hood, near Leeds. ‘ Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ xvut. 31-35. 1914. Burton, J. J. Coast Erosion. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 122-124, 1915, CarRuTHERS, RB. G. The Carboniferous Sediments around Strathaven. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 151-166. 1915. —— and J. E. Ricuzy. The Lower Limestones of Renfrewshire and North Ayr- shire: A Comparison and Correlation. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 249-264. 1915. CuarmaNn, Miss Saran E. Some Petrological Characteristics of Underclays. ‘ Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ xvi. 8-15. 1914. CuarKE, W. G. Some Aspects of Striation. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ I. 434-438. 1914. Drake, H. C. The Ammonites of the Yorkshire Cornbrash. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 64-66. 1915. Dron, R. W. Notes on Buried River Channel at Motherwell. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 1-3. 1914. Duntor, R. Notes on the Discovery of Fossil Chitons in Fife. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 167-173. 1915. Du Torr, Dr. Atex. L. On the Porosity of the Rocks of the Karroo System in South Africa. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ rv. 169-180. 1915. DwerrRyHousE, Dr. A. R. Features of Local Geology. ‘ Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club,’ vit. (Ser. m.), 71-74. 1914. Epwarps, JAMES. Fauna and Flora of Norfolk. Additions to Part XIIT.—Cole- optera (Fifth List), ‘ Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 804-811. 1914. —— Fauna and Flora of Norfolk. Additions to Part VIII.—Hemiptera (Seventh List). ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 812-814. 1914. GreGcory, Prof. J. W. Corries, with Special Reference to those of the Campsie Fells. “Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 84-98. 1914. —— The Permian and Triassic Rocks of Arran. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 174-187. 1915. GwInNNELL, the late Russert F. On an Occurrence of Dolomite Limestone in Glen Fruin, Dumbartonshire. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 4-8. 1914. Harker, ALFRED. Presidential Address: Some Remarks on Geology in relation to the Exact Sciences, with an Excursus on Geological Time. ‘ Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ x1x. 1-13. 1914, bP WARN Mtns aera ip tense: - CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 805 Hinp, Dr. WHEELTON. Temnocheilus derbiensis, sp. nov. ‘ Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soe.’ xrx. 18-19. 1914. —— Paleontological Notes on the Millstone Grit Beds between Masham and Great Whernside. ‘ Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ x1x. 25-34. 1914. Hosson, Dr. J. M. The Genesis of the Wandle. ‘Trans. Croydon N. H. Sci. Soc. 1913-1914,’ 145-160. 1914. Inxny, Brta pr. The Formation of the Soil of Hungary. ‘ Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xxrx. 143-153. 1914. Kenpatt, Prof. P. F. Evidences of Climatic Changes in Geological Times. ‘ Trans, Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ xvit. 20-24. 1914. Kipner, Henry. Geological Work in Hertfordshire in 1913. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F. C. xv. 247-248. 1915. Maonarr, Peter. The Hurlet Sequence in North Ayrshire. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 200-248. 1915. —— and Harry R. J. Conacuzr. The Stratigraphy of the Limestones lying imme- diately above the Calciferous Lavas in the Glasgow District. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 37-50. 1914. Maripwett, F. T. Some Sections in the Lower Keuper of Runcorn Hill, Cheshire. “Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xm. 40-52. 1914. —— Notes on Footprints from the Keuper. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xm. 53-71. 1914, Martin, Epwarp A. Problems in Coast Erosion. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1914,’ 41-56. 1914. Mettor, Dr. J. W. Unknown Clays in Mines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvmt. 596-598. 1915. Mitzs, N. H. Structure of Oolitic Limestone. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 62-63. 1915. Morir, J. Retmp. The Fractured Flints of the Eocene ‘ Bull-head’ Bed at Coe’s Pit, Bramford, near Ipswich. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 397-404. 1914. Opiine, M. The Fossil Fauna of the Oxford District. ‘ Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1914,’ 43-61. 1915. Orp, Dr. Wm114am T. The Scenery of Bournemouth and its Geological History. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1914,’ 22-25. 1914. Partrrson, A. H. Fauna and Flora of Norfolk. Additions to Part ITV.—Fishes (Seventh List). ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 815-821. 1914. Ricwarpson, Linspatt. A Deep Boring at Chavenage, near Tetbury, Gloucester- shire. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvm. 243-246. 1914. —— A Boring in the Lower Lias at Wallsworth Hall, near Gloucester. ‘ Proc, Cottes- wold Nat. Field Club,’ xv. 247-249. 1914. —— Note on a Deep Boring at Gloucester. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvi. 250. 1914. —— The Chronological Succession of the Echinoid-Faunas in the Inferior-Oolite Rocks of the Stonesfield—Burton-Bradstock District. ‘Proce. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xv. 251-256. 1914. —— Some Glacial Features in the Wye Valley at Aberedw. ‘Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club, 1908-1911,’ 103-105. 1914. Satter, Dr. A. E. Sarsen, Basalt, and other Boulders in Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvu. 186-199. 1914. Scorr, ALExanDER. The Pitchstones of South Arran. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 16-36. 1914. Scorr, ALEXANDER, Jun. A Composite Sill in Glen Cloy, Arran. ‘ Trans, Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 140-150. 1915. SHepparp, Gruoree. Faulting in Boulder Clay at Dimlington, E. Yorks. ‘ The Naturalist for 1914,’ 206. 1914. —— Additions to the Fauna of the Upper Chalk, Flamborough. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 274. 1914. Suepparp, T. Bibliography. Papers and Records relating to the Geology and . Paleontology of the North of England (Yorkshire excepted) during 1913. ‘ The Naturalist for 1914,’ 193-199. 1914. Smrtiim, W. R. The Cowal ‘ Landslip’ of 5th August, 1912. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 9-15, 1914. —— The Tertiary Composite Sill of South Bute. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 121-139. 1915. 806 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. Sorsy, the late Dr. H. C. On the Physical Geography of the Old Red Sandstone of Herefordshire. ‘Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club, 1908-1911,’ 18-20. 1914. Sretrox, A. W. The Post-Glacial Levels of Lough Neagh. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxiv. 8-9. 1915. Stevens, A. Notes on the Geology of the Stornoway District of Lewis. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 51-63. 1914. Tuomas, H. Hamsuaw. The Thinnfeldia Leaf-bed at Roseberry Topping. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 7-13. 1915. Tuomeson, C. The Ammonites of the Lias. ‘ Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ xvi. 16-19. 1914. THomeson, Percy G. On the Occurrence of Rhaxella-Chert in Epping Forest Gravels. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvm. 256-260. 1915. TRAVIS, CHARLES B. Presidential Address: Some Evidences of Peneplanation in the British Isles. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xm. 1-31. 1914. TyRRELL, G. W. A Petrographical Sketch of the Carrick Hills, Ayrshire. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 64-83. 1914. —— On the Boundary between the Upper and Lower Divisions of the Red Rock Series near Whiting Bay and in the Sliddery Water, Arran. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc. xv. 188-199. 1915. Ussoer, W. A. E. A Geological Sketch of Bream Down and its Environs, with special reference to the Marsh Deposits of Somerset. ‘ Proc. Somersetshire Arch. N. H. Soe.’ rx. 17-40. 1915. on Bonpz, W. On the Crystallography of Anatase Crystals from the Auriferous Conglomerate of the Witwatersrand. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ rv. 299-303. 1915. Waker, W. T. Some Observations on the Liassic Outcrop near Whitchurch (Shrop— shire). ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xi. 72-87. 1914. Wattacz, Rosert. The Geology of Lochrutton, with special reference to Water Supply. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ m. (Third Ser.), 11- 29, 1914. Wuitaker, W. Presidential Address: Notes on Essex Geology at the latter end of the Nineteenth Century, and after. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvm. 265-284. 1915. Wray, D. A. A New Record of Glacial Drift near Wakefield; and its bearing on the late Glacial Changes in Lower Calderdale. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 125— 128. 1915. Wricut, W. B. The Post-Glacial Levels of Lough Neagh. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxiv. 65-67. 1915. Section D.—Zoouoay. ApEIN, Rosert. Tinea pallescentella, Stainton (=nigrifoldella, Gregson). Some Notes on its Life-history and its History. ‘ Proc, South London Ent. N. H. Soe. 1913-1914,’ 1-6. 1914. ANDREWS, H. W. Notes on some Diptera taken in the South of Ireland. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 136-143. 1914. ARMISTEAD, Witson H. Birds that are Land and Water Feeders. ‘ Trans. Dum- friesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ m1. (Third Series), 135-144, 1914. Atmore, E. A. Fauna and Flora of Norfolk: Part V.—Lepidoptera (Fifth List), “Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ 1x. 775-783. 1914. Fauna and Flora of Norfolk. Second List. Part XII.—Phytophagous Hymen- optera (Sawflies). ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ 1x. 798-803. 1914. Baring, Hon. Ceci. Notes on the Fauna and Flora of Lambay. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxiv. 68-71. 1915. Barrineton, R. M. Fulmars, Gannets, and other Sea-birds on the Skelligs. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 133-135. 1914. — — Bird Rushes and Wrens. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 241-247. 1914. Berprorp, G. A. H. A Curious Mosquito. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ Iv. 143-144. 1915. Benson, Rev. CuHartes W. Our Irish Warblers. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxmr. 149~ 153. 1914. Bickerton, WiLL1AM. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1913. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F.C” xv. 209-224. 1915. Buatuwayt, Rev. F. L. The Birds of Lincolnshire. ‘Trans, Lincolnshire Nat, Union, 1914,’ 178-211. 1915. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 807 Bioomrietp, Rev. E. N. Annual Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora, &c., for 1913. “Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 98-104. 1914. Brown, James Merxtr. On the Occurrence of Paulinella chromatophora (Lauter- born) in Britain. ‘The Naturalist for 1915, 157-159. 1915. CaRADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY FieLtp CLuB. Zoological Notes, 1913 and 1914. “Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 23, 18-25, 1914; No. 24, 11-18, 1915. —— Entomological Notes, 1913 and 1914. ‘ Record of Bare Facts,’ No, 23, 26-36, 1914; No. 24, 19-21. 1915. CARPENTER, Prof. Grorar H., and THomas R. Hewirr. Some New Observations on the Life-history of Warble Flies. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 214-221. 1914. Carter, J. W. Lestevaluchiosa Fauv.: a Species new to England. ‘The Natural- ist for 1915,’ 104. 1915. Cuarponnier, H. J. Notes on the Heterogyna and Fossores (Hymenoptera Aculeata) of Somerset. ‘Proc. Somersetshire Arch. N. H. Soc.’ ux. 88-92. 1915. Cotaan, NatuanieLt. The Opisthobranch Fauna of the Shores and Shallow Waters of County Dublin. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 161-204. 1914. Denpy, Prof. ArtHUR. The President’s Address: The Biological Conception of Individuality. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm, 465-478. 1915. Dreyer, Dr. T. F. The Morphology of the Tadpole of Xenopus levis. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ rv. 241-258. 1915. Epmonpson, F. H. Notes on the Merlin. ‘The Naturalist for 1915, 61. 1915. Epwarps, AuBREy. The Night Soaring of the Swifts. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xLvi. 50-54. 1914, Etmurrst, Ricuarp. Some Additions to the Clyde Marine Fauna. ‘ Glasgow Naturalist,’ v1. 78-79. 1914. Fatconer, Wm. Nesting Habits of the Common Mole. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 238. 1914. Farn, A. B. Migratory Birds. ‘Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club, 1908-1911,’ 134-137. 1914. —— Notes on Birds for 1911. ‘Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club, 1908-1911,’ 256. 1914. Firtp, Water. A Digest of the Dates of Arrival of Summer Migratory Birds in the Hastings District from 1893 to 1913. ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ um. 108-113. 1914. Forpuam, W. J. Yorkshire Coleoptera in 1914. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 164- 167. 1915. Fortune, R. Gannet with Abnormal Eyes. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 315-316. 1914. —— The Nesting Season at Spurn. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 332. 1914. Frienp, Rey. HiupEric. Rare and Unique Sussex Oligochaets. ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 114-123. 1914. G., E. Wild Birds Protection in Norfolk, 1914. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ 1x. 765-769. 1914. Gemma, Dr. James F. On Keeping Small Marine Aquaria. ‘ Glasgow Natural- ist,’ vi. 79-86. 1914. Gzorar, C. F. A New Trombidium: Ottonia ignota n.sp. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 306. 1914. —— Trombidium buccinator. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 353. 1914. —— Bryobia pratensis Garman, at Grantham. Lincolnshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 6. 1915. Gopparp, Dr. E. J. Preliminary Note on some Phreodrilide from the Wellington Mountains, South Africa. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ Iv. 147, 1914. —— On the Significance of the Somitic Constitution, Body Form, and Genital Aper- tures in the Hirudinea, in reference to the Arthropoda. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ 1v., 148-156. 1914. Grimsuaw, Percy H. Oligotrophus ventricolus Rubs.: a New Yorkshire _Gall- Midge. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 333-336. 1914. Gurney, J. H. Are Gannets destructive Birds? ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm1. 212- 213. 1914. —— The Irruption of Wax-wings into Norfolk during the Winter of 1913 1914. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 773-775. 1914. Hatiert, H. M. Entomological Notes. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xtvz. 97-100. 1914. 808 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915. HANSON, CHARLES, jun. Our Summer Migrants. ‘Trans. Burton-on-Trent N. H. A. Soc.’ viz. 31-38. 1914. —— Dates of Arrival of Summer Migrants, as noticed in Burton-on-Trent District. ‘Trans. Burton-on-Trent N. H. A. Soc.’ vo. 72. 1914. Harrison, J. W. Hestop. Cleveland Spiders. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 245- 248. 1914. —— New and Rare Yorkshire Spiders. ‘The Naturalist for 1915,’ 26-27. 1915. —— Coccide observed in Durham and North Yorkshire. ‘ The Naturalist for 1915,’ 78-81. 1915. Huu, Rev. J. E. British Oribatide: Notes on New and Critical Species. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 215-220, 249-250, 281-288. 1914. Hutcurmson, T. Vanessa Autiopa in Herefordshire. ‘Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club, 1908-1911,’ 253-254. 1914. IsseL, Dr. RarrarLE. A Morphological Study of Strongylus Douglasi, Cobbold. “Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ Iv. 259-272. 1915. Jonges, R. W. A Glance into the Avifauna of Creuddyn. ‘Trans. Caradoc and Severn Valley F. C.’ v1., No. 1, 23-36. 1914. Kayn, W. J. The Jthomiine. ‘ Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc. 1913-1914,’ 38-48. 1914. Kerywoop, K. P. List of Birds observed in the Neighbourhood of Croydon: LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 49 Year of Election. 1894, 1912. 1903. 1864. 1887. 1901. 1871. 1900. 1908. 1883. 1884. 1906. 1913. 1915. 1885. 1907. 1901. 1905. 1901. 1913. Done. 1882. 1908. 1915. 1914. 1909. 1883. 1903. 1915. 1874. 1883. 1883. 1899. 1913. 1906. 1898. 1887. 1905. 1874, 1915. D *Hutouinson, A., M.A., Ph.D. (Local Seo. 1904.) Pembroke College, Cambridge. §Hutchinson, Dr. H. B. Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts. §Hutchinson, Rev. H.N.,M.A. 17 St. John’s Wood Park, Finchley- road, N.W. ; *Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. *Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. *Hutton, R.S., D.Sc. West-street, Sheffield. *Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces- tershire. *Hyndman, H. H. Francis. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. fIdle, George. 43 Dawson-street, Dublin. fIdris, T. H.W. 110 Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W. *Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada. flliffe, J. W. Oak Tower, Upperthorpe, Sheffield. §llling, Vincent Charles, B.A., F.G.S. The Chestnuts, Hartshill, Atherstone, Warwickshire. §Imms, A. D. West Wood, The Beeches, West Didsbury. §m TuHuRN, Sir Everarp F., C.B., K.C.M.G. (Pres. H, 1914; Council, 1913- .) 39 Lexham-gardens, W. §Ingham, Charles B. Moira House, Eastbourne. tIneuis, Jonn, LL.D. 4 Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. §Innes, R. T. A., F.R.A.S. Union Observatory, Johannesburg. *Tonides, Stephen A. 802 Equitable-building, Denver, Colorado. tIrvine, James, F.R.G.S. Richmond-buildings, Chapel-street, Liver- 1 ol. Mirvingy J. C., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of St. Andrews. §Irvina, Rev. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort- ford, Herts. tIrwin, Alderman John. 33 Rutland-square, Dublin. §Jack, A. J. 30 Amhurst-road, Withington, Manchester. §Jack, A. K., B.Sc. Agricultural College, Dookie, Victoria. tJacks, Professor L. P. 28 Holywell, Oxford. *Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 349 Collins-street, Melbourne, Australia. tJackson, C.S. Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, 8.E. §Jackson, E. J. W., B.A. The University, Edmund-street, Bir- mingham. *Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Somenos, Vancouver Island, B.C., Canada. *Jackson, F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport. fJackson, Mrs. F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport. {Jackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, S.W. *Jackson, H. Gordon, M.Sc. Mason College, Birmingham. *Jackson, James Thomas, M.A. Engineering School, ‘lvinity College, Dublin. *Jackson, Sir John. 51 Victoria-street, S.W. §Jacobson, Nathaniel, J.P. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Manchester. *Jaffé, Arthur, M.A. New-court, Temple, E.C. *Jaffé, John. Villa Jaffé, 38 Promenade des Anglais, Nice, France. 50 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1906. 1891. 1904. 1896. 1889. 1910. 1896. 1913. 1903. 1904. 1897. 1912. 1908. 1909. 1903. 1904. 1893. 1900. 1907. 1905. 1914. 1909. 1909. 1890. 1902. 1898. 1899. 1883. 1913. 1909. 1913. 1908. 1884, 1909. 1888. 1887. 1913. 1904. 1890. jJalland, W. H. Museum-street, York. *James, Charles Russell. The Bungalow, Redhill, Surrey. tJames, Thomas Campbell. University College, Aberystwyth. *Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. Borderdale, Sunningdale, Berkshire. +Japp. WY. R., M.A; Ph-D., LED, ER.S2 =] (Pres. 9B71S98s) 36 Twyford-avenue, West Acton, W. *Japp, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 59 Beaver Hall-hill, Montreal, Canada. *Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire. jJarrard, W. J. The University, Sheffield. {Jarratt, J. Ernest. (Local Sec. 1903.) 22 Hesketh-road, South* port. *Jeans, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 8 Ormonde-gate, Chelsea, 8.W. {Jeffrey, E.C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada. §Jehu, T. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Geology in the University of Edinburgh. *Jenkin, Arthur Pearse, F.R.Met.Soc. Trewirgie, Redruth. *Jenkins, Miss Emily Vaughan. 31 Antrim-mansions, South Hampstead, N.W. tJenkinson, J. W. The Museum, Oxford. jJenkinson, W. W. 6 Moorgate-street, E.C. tJennings, G. E. Ashleigh, Ashleigh-road, Leicester. *Jevons, H. Stanley, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Pembroke-terrace, Cardiff. *Jevons, Miss H. W. 17 Tredegar-square, Bow, E. §Jeyes, Miss Gertrude, B.A. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew Gardens. tJobbins, G. G. Geelong Club, Geelong, Victoria. *Johns, Cosmo, F,G.S., M.I.M.E. Burngrove, Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield. jJohnson, C. Kelsall, F.R.G.S. The Glen, Sidmouth, Devon. *JoHnson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. *Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Sc. Wath Rectory, Melmerby §.0., Yorkshire. *Johnson, W. Clande, M.Inst.C.E. Broadstone, Coleman’s Hatch, Sussex. tJonnsron, Colonel Sir Duncan A., K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1909.) 8 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh. jJonnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. St. John’s Priory, Poling, near Arundel. §Johnston, James. Oak Bank-avenue, Manchester. *Johnston, J. Weir, M.A. 129 Anglesea-road, Dublin. tJohnston, Dr. 8. J. Department of Biology, The University, Sydney, N.S.W. jJohnston, Swift Paine. 1 Hume-street, Dublin. *Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire. §JoLty, Professor W. A., M.B., D.Sc. South African College, Cape Town. jJory, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1908), Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin. Geological Department, Trinity College, Dublin. tJones, D. E., B.Sc. Eryl Dag, Radyr, Cardiff. *Jones, Daniel, M.A., Lecturer on Phonetics at University College, London, W.C. {Jones, Miss E. E. Constance. Girton College, Cambridge. jJones, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay, Skipton. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 51 Election. 1896. 1903. 1907. 1887. 1891. 1883. 1912. 1913. 1905. 1901. 1902. 1908. 1912. 1875. 1913. 1883. 1886. 1905. 1894. 1914. 1905. 1888. 1913. 1915. 1913. 1904. 1892. 1913. 1908. 1913. 1911. 1884. 1908. 1908. 1911. 1902. 1885. tJones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor. tJones, Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare. *Jones, Mrs. Evan. 39 Hyde Park-gate, S.W. {Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.. 17 Whalley-road, Whalley Range, Manchester. *J Sa Rev. G. HarrweELt, D.D. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, urrey. *Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road, Waterloo, Liverpool. {Jones, J. H. The University, Glasgow. tJones, O. T., M.A., D.Se., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University College of Wales. Fenton, Caradoc-road, Aberystwyth. tJones, Miss Parnell. The Rectory, Llanddewi Skyrrid, Aberga- venny, Monmouthshire. tJones, R. E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury. tJones, R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast. tJones, R. Pugh, M.A. County School, Holyhead, Anglesey. §Jones, W. Neilson, M.A. Bedford College, Regent’s Park, N.W *Jose, J. H. Eithersall, Tarbock-road, Huyton, Lancashire. {Jourdain, Miss Eleanor F. St. Hugh’s College, Oxford. tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester. tJoyce, Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester. tJudd, Miss Hilda M., B.Sc. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew. §Julian, Mrs. Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay. tJulius, G. A., B.Sc. Culwulla-chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W. §Jurirz, Cuartrs F., M.A., D.Sc., F.LC., Chief of the Division of Chemistry, Union of South Africa. Department of Agri- culture, Cape Town. ; {Kapp, Gispert, M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. (Pres. G, 1913), Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of Birmingham. 43 Upland-road, Selly Park, Birmingham. {Kay, Henry, F.G.S. 16 Wretham-road, Handsworth, Birmingham. §Kay, Max M. 82 Daisy Bank-road, Victoria Park, Manchester. tKaye, G. W. C. Culver, St. James’-avenue, Hampton Hill. {Kayser, Professor H. The University, Bonn, Germany. {Keanz, Cuartes A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Jewry-street, Aldgate, E.C. {Kebby, Charles H. 75 Sterndale-road, West Kensington Park, W. tKersie, Freperick, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1912), Pro- fessor of Botany in University College, Reading. *Keeling, B. F. E. Survey Department, Giza Branch, Egypt. *Keith, Arthur, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Royal College of: Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C. tKellogg, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A. {Kelly, Sir Malachy. Ard Brugh, Dalkey, Co. Dublin. tKelly, Captain Vincent Joseph. Montrose, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin. {Kelly, Miss. Montrose, Merton-road, Southsea. *Kelly, William J., J.P. 25 Oxford-street, Belfast. §Kexttim, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1897 ; Council, 1898-1904.) Royal Geographical Society, Ken- sington Gore, S.W. D2 52 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Elestion. 1877. 1887. 1898. 1891. 1875. 1897. 1906. 1908. 1905. 1913. 1893. 1901. 1913. 1857. 1915. 1915. 1881. 1913. 1909. 1892. 1889. 1910. 1869 1869. 1903. 1883. 1902. 1906. 1886. 1901. 1885. 1896. 1890. 1914. 1875. 1875. 1914. 1871. 1883. 1883. 1908. *Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire ; and 15 Haton-place, S.W t{Kemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man- chester. *Kemp, John T., M.A. 27 Cotham-grove, Bristol. {Kenpatt, Percy F., M.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Leeds. {Kennepy, Sir Avexanprer B. W., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1894.) Atheneum Club, $.W. {Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D., K.C. Crown Lands Department, Toronto, Canada. {Kennedy, Robert Sinclair. Glengall Tronworks, Millwall, E. {Kennedy, William. 40 Trinity College, Dublin. *Kennerley, W. R. P.O. Box 158, Pretoria. tKenrick, W. Byrne. (Local Sec. 1913.) Metchley House, Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. §Kent, A. F. Srantey, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Bristol. {Kent,G. 16 Premier-road, Nottingham. *Kenyon, Joseph, B.Sc., F.LC. 51 Irving-place, Blackburn. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland. §Kerfoot, E. H. Springwood Hall, Ashton-under-Lyne. §Kerfoot, Thomas. Pole Bank Hall, Gee Cross, Cheshire. {Kermopg, P. M. C. Claghbene, Ramsey, Isle of Man. §Kerr, George L. 39 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow. tKerr, Hugh L. 68 Admiral-road, Toronto, Canada. {Kerr, J. Granam, M.A., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. tKerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere. §Kersuaw, J. B.C. West Lancashire Laboratory, Waterloo, Liver- pool. *Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Roseville, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Edelweiss Villa, 19 Broomfield- lane, Hale, Cheshire. {Kewley, James. Balek Papan, Koltei, Dutch Borneo. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Se., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge. {Kidd, George. Greenhaven, Malone Park, Belfast. {Kidner, Henry, F.G.S. _25 Upper Rock-gardens, Brighton. §Kipstoy, Rosurt, LL.D., E.R.S., F.B.S.E£., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon- place, Stirling. *Kiep, J. N. 137 West George-street, Glasgow. *Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen. *Killey, George Deane, J.P. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo, Liverpool. {Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Canon’s House, St. Thomas- street, Southwark, S.E. ae oe Hilda 8., D.Sc. Tarana, Kinkora-road, Hawthorn, N.S.W. *Kincu, Epwarb, F.1.C. Suunyside, Chislehurst, Kent. *King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. §King, Miss Georgina. Springfield, Darlinghurst, N.S.W. *King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath. *King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead. *King, Joseph, M.P. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming. §King, Professor L. A. L., M.A. St. Mungo’s College Medical School, Glasgow. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. Ba Year of Election. 1860. 1912. 1912. 1870. 1913. 1909. 1903. 1900. 1899. 1913. 1915. 1901. 1915. 1914. 1886. 1912. 1888. 1887. 1887. 1906. 1915. 1874. 1915. 1902. 1875. 1883. 1890. 1888 1903. 1909. 1904. 1904. 1889. 1915. 1887. 1893. 1914. 1898 *King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol. Poe de B. R., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Jermyn-street, tKing, W. J. Harding. 25 York House, Kensington, W. tKing, William, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Beach-lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool. *King, William Wickham, F.G.S. Winds Point, Hagley, near Stourbridge. tKingdon, A. 197 Yale-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. {Kingsford, H. 8., M.A. 8 Elsworthy-terrace, N.W. {Kiprine, Professor F, Stantey, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1908.) University College, Nottingham. *Kirby, Miss C. F. 8 Windsor-court, Moscow-road, W. §Kirkaldy, Professor A. W., M.Com. The University, Edmund- street, Birmingham. *Kitson, A. E. 109 Worple-road, Wimbledon, S.W. §Kitto, Edward. 2 Great Headland-terrace, Preston, Paignton, South Devon. §Knecht, E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Manchester. 131 Sussex-road, Southport. §Knibbs, G. H., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., F.S.S., Commonwealth Statisti- cian. Rialto, Collins-street, Melbourne. tKnight, Captain J. M., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex. {Knipe, Henry R., F.L.S., F.G.S. 9 Linden-park, Tunbridge Wells. fKnort, Professor Carqitt G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray- street, Edinburgh. *Knott, Herbert, J.P. Sunnybank, Wilmslow, Cheshire. *Knott, John F. Edgemoor, Burbage, Derbyshire. *Knowles, Arthur J., B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Banbury-road, Wolvercote, Oxford. *Knowles, Sir Lees, Bart., C.V.0. Westwood, Pendlebury, near Manchester. tKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim. §Knox, George. Heol Isaf, Radyr, Glamorgan. tKyox, R. Kytz, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast. *Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge. {Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge. *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Stonycroft, Knutsford-road, Wilmslow, Cheshire. *Kunz, G. F., M.A., Ph.D., Sc.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New York City, U.S.A. *Lafontaine, Rev. H. C.de. 52 Albert-court, Kensington Gore, S.W. tLaird, Hon. David. Indian Commission, Ottawa, Canada. tLake, Philip. St. John’s College, Cambridge. tLamb, C.G. Ely Villa, Glisson-road, Cambridge. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants. §Lamb, Francis W. Lyndene, High Lane, near Stockport. tLams, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1904), Pro- fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University, Manchester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester. *Lamptuaa, G. W., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1906.) 13 Beaconsfield- road, St. Albans. tLane, Charles. Care of John Sanderson & Co., William-street, Melbourne. *Lana, .Wittiam H., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1915), Professor of Cryptogamic Botany in the University of Manchester. 2 Heaton-road, Withington, Manchester. 54 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1886. 1865. 1880. 1884. 1911. 1885. 1909. 1887. 1881. 1883. 1870. 1911. 1900. 1911. 1913. 1892. 1907, 1870. 1914. 1905. HOW: 1908. 1908. 1914. 1888. 1913. 1883. 1914. 1894. 1905. 1901. 1904, 1884. 1872. 1910. 1912. 1895. 1914. *LanaLey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899; Council, 1904-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Cam- bridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. {tLanxestmr, Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1906; Pres. D, 1883 ; Council, 1889-90, 1894-95, 1900-02.) 331 Upper Richmond-road, Putney, S.W. *LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Dimsdale, 4 Pond-road, Blackheath Park, London, §8.E. tLanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, U.S.A. {tLapthorn, Miss. St. Bernard’s, Grove-road South, Southsea. {Larwortn, Cuarues, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. ©, 1892.) 38 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. tLarard, C.E., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 14 Leaside-avenue, Muswell Hill, N. {Larmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down. {Larmor, Sir Josepu, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. St. John’s College, Cambridge. tLascelles, B. P., M.A. Headland, Mount Park, Harrow. *LatHaM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Parliament-mansions, Westminster, S.W. §Lattey, R. T. 243 Woodstock-road, Oxford. *Lauder, Alexander, D.Sc., Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture, * Edinburgh. §Laurie, Miss C. L. 1 Vittoria-walk, Cheltenham. *Laurie, Mrs. E. B. 11 Marine-parade, Hoylake. {Lavuagiz, Matcor, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. School of Medicine, Sur- geons’ Hall, Edinburgh. *Laurie, Robert Douglas, M.A. Department of Zoology, The Uni- versity, Liverpool. *Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay. §Lawrence, A. H. Urunga, N.S.W. tLawrence, Miss M. Roedean School, near Brighton. *Lawson, A. Anstruther, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University, Sydney, N.S.W. tLawson, H. 8., B.A. Buxton College, Derbyshire. {Lawson, William, LL.D. 27 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin. {Layard, J. W. Bull Cliff, Felixstowe. tLayard, Miss NinaF., F.L.S. Rookwood, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich. §Lea, F. C., D.Sc. 36 Mayfield-road, Moseley, Birmingham. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland. tLeach, T. H. de Bluis. Yardley Lodge, Crick-road, Oxford. *Luany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield. jLeake, E.O. 5 Harrison-street, Johannesburg. *Lean, George, B.Sc. 3 Park-quadrant, Glasgow. *Leathem, J. G. St. John’s College, Cambridge. *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, U.S.A. {Lzzour, G. A., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Geology in the Armstrong College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. {Lebour, Miss M. V.,M.Sc. Zoological Department, The University, Leeds. {Lechmere, A. Eckley, M.Sc. Townhope, Hereford. *Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate. tee, Charles Alfred. Tenterfield, N.S.W. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 55 Election, 1910. 1896. 1907. 1909. 1909. 1894, 1909. 1905. 1892. 1915. 1912. 1886. 1906. 1915. 1889. 1906. 1912. 1912. 1910. 1915. 1891. 1903. 1906. 1905. 1913. 1903. 1908. 1887. 1901. 1915. 1914. 1913. 1912. 1890. 1904. 1900. 1896. 1913. 1887. 1904. 1870. 1891. 1913. “Lee, Ernest. Birkbeck College, Chancery-lane, E.C. §Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. 126 Mile End-lane, Stockport. {Lee, Mrs. Barton. 126 Mile End-lane, Stockport. §Lee, I. L. 26 Broadway, New York City, U.S.A. tLee, Rev. J. W., D.D. 5068 Washington-avenue, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. *Lee, Mrs. W. The Nook, Forest Row, Sussex. tLeeming, J. H., M.D. 406 Devon-court, Winnipeg, Canada. {Lees, Mrs. A. P. Care of Dr. Norris Wolfenden, 76 Wimpole- street, W. *Luns, Cuartes H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the East London College, Mile End. Greenacres, Woodside-road, Woodford Green, Essex. §Lees, Mrs. H. L., F.R.G.S. Leesdene, Hale, Altrincham. tLees, John. Pitscottie, Cupar-Fife, N.B. *Lees, Lawrence W. lLynstone, Barnt Green. tLees, Robert. Victoria-street, Fraserburgh. §Lees, 8. School of Technology, Manchester. *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House, Twickenham, Middlesex. tLeetham, Sidney. Elm Bank, York. . tLeceat, W. G. Bank of Scotland, Dundee. {Legge, James G. Municipal Buildings, Liverpool. §Leigh, H. S. Brentwood, Worsley, near Manchester. §Leigh, T. B. Arden, Bredbury, near Stockport. tLeigh, W. W. Glyn Bargoed, Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire. tLeighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E. Local Government Board, Edinburgh. fLeiper, Robert T., M.B., F.Z.S. London School of Tropical Medicine, Royal Albert Dock, E. tLeitch, Donald. P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg. {Leith, Professor R. F. C., M.A., M.Sc. Pathological Laboratory, The University, Birmingham. *Lempfert, R. G. K., M.A. 66 Sydney-street, S.W. {Lentaigne, John. 42 Merrion-square, Dublin. Leon, John T., M.D., B.Sc. 23 Grove-road, Southsea. § Lzonarp, J. H., B.Sc. 31 Gunterstone-road, West Kensington, W. §Leslie, Miss M. 8. 1 Park View-terrace, Halton, near Leeds. tLe Souef, W. H. D., C.M.Z.S. Zoological Gardens, Parkville, Victoria. tLessing, R., Ph.D. 317 High Holborn, W.C. *Lessner, C., F.C.S. Carril, Spain. *Lester, Joseph Henry. 5 Grange-drive, Monton Green, Manchester. *Le Sueur, H. R., D.Sc. Chemical Laboratory, St. Thomas’s Hospital, S.E. {Letts, Professor E. A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. Queen’s University, Belfast. tLever, Sir W. H., Bart. Thornton Manor, Thornton Hough, Cheshire. tLevick, John. Livingstone House, Livingstone-road, Handsworth, Birmingham. *Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester. *Lewis, Mrs. Agnes §., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane, Cam- bridge. tLewis, Atrrep LiongeL. 35 Beddington-gardens, Wallington, Surrey. tLewis, since D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth. fLewis, E. O. Gwynfa, Alma-street, Brynmawr. 56 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1899. tLewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A. 1910. {Lewis, Francis J., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 1904. {Lewis, Hugh. Glanafrau, Newtown, Montgomeryshire. 1910. *Lewis, T. C. West Home, West-road, Cambridge. 1911. §Lewis, W. C. McC., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physical Chemistry in the University of Liverpool. 1906. {Liddiard, James Edward. F.R.G.S. Rodborough Grange, Bourne- mouth. 1913. *Lillie, D.G. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 1908. {Lilly, W. E., M.A., Sc.D. 39 Trinity College, Dublin. 1904. {Link, Charles W. 14 Chichester-road, Croydon. 1898. {Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol. 1913. *Lishman, G. P., D.Sc., F.I.C. Chemical Laboratory, Lambton Coke Works, Fence Houses, Co. Durham. 1888. {ListER, J. J.. M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1906.) St. John’s College, Cambridge. 1861. *Livrtne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882 ; Council], 1888-95; Local Sec. 1862.) Newnham, Cambridge. 1876. *LiveRsipan, ARoHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S, F.R.G.S. Fieldhead, George-road, Kingston Hill, Surrey. 1902. §Llewellyn, Evan. Working Men’s Institute and Hall, Blaenavon. 1912. §Lloyd, Miss Dorothy Jordan. 16 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1909. §Lloyd, George C., Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute. 28 Victoria-street, S.W. 1908 tLloyd, Godfrey I. H. The University of Toronto, Canada. 1892. tLoon, Sir C.8., D.C.L. Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge-road, S.W. 1905. {Lochrane, Miss T. 8 Prince’s-gardens, Dowanbill, Glasgow. 1904. {Lock, Rev. J. B. Herschel House, Cambridge. 1863. tLocxynr, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1903 ; Council, 1871-76, 1901-02.) 16 Penywern-road, S.W. 1902. *Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road. S.W. 1914. {Lockyer, Ormonde H.S. 126 Webster-street, Ballarat, Victoria. 1900. §LockyzErR, W. J.S., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, S.W. 1886. *Loper, AtrreD, M.A. (Council, 1913-15.) The Croft, Peper- By harow-road, Godalming. 1914. {Lodge, Miss Lorna L. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1914. {Lodge, Miss Norah M. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1875. *Lopes, Sir Ottver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (Presrpentr, 1913; Pres. A, 1891; Council, 1891-97, 1899-1903, 1912-13), Principal of the University of Birmingham. 1914. {Lodge, Lady. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1894. *Lodge, Oliver W. F. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1915. §Lomas, L. H. Beech Hall, Tytherington, near Macclesfield. 1915. §Lomax, James, A.L.S. 65 Starcliffe-street, Great Lever, Bolton. 1899. tLoncg, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France. 1903. tLong, Frederick. The Close, Norwich. 1905. tLong, W. F. City Engineer’s Office, Cape Town. 1910. *Longden, G. A. Draycott Lodge, Derby. 1904. *Longden, J. A., M.Inst.C.E. Chislehurst, Marlborough-road, 4 Bournemouth. 1898. *Longfield, Miss Gertrude. Belmont, High Halstow, Rochester. 1901. *Longstaff, Captain Frederick V., F.R.G.S. No. 1252 Post Office, Victoria, B.C., Canada. 1875. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.S. Highlands, Putney Heath, 8.W. 432% See LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 57 Year of Flection. 1872. *Longstaff, Lieut.-Colonel Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, S.W. 1881. *Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, 8.W. 1899. *Longstaff, Tom G., M.A., M.D. Picket Hill, Ringwood. 1903. {Loton, John, M.A. 23 Hawkshead-street, Southport. 1897. {Loupon, James, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto, Canada. 1896. {Louis, Henry, D.Sc., Professor of Mining in the Armstrong College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 1887. *Lovn, A. E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1907), Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 34 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford. 1886. *Love, E. F. J., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Melbourne, Australia 1904. *Love, J. B., LL.D. Outlands, Devonport. 1576. *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W. 1908. §Low, Alexander, M.A., M.D. The University, Aberdeen. 1909, sd ate M.D. 1927 Scarth-street, Regina, Saskatchewan, anada. 1912. {Low, William. Balmakewan, Seaview, Monifieth. 1885. §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex. 1891. §Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan. 1885. *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex. 1886. *Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Welland Lodge, Prest- bury-road, Cheltenham. 1894. tLowenthal, Miss Nellie. Woodside, Egerton, Huddersfield. 1903. *Lowry, Dr. T. Marrry, I'.R.S. 17 Eliot-park, Lewisham. S.E. 1913. §Lucas, Sir Cnartes P., K.C.B., K.C.M.G. (Pres. EK, 1914.) 65 St. George’s-square, 8.W. 1913. §Lucas, Harry. Hilver, St. Agnes-road, Moseley, Birmingham. 1901. *Lucas, Keith, Sc.D., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1891. *Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-pare, Whitchurch, near Cardiff. 1906. {Ludlam, Ernest Bowman. College Gate, 32 College-road, Clifton, Bristol. 1883. *Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Victovia-street, S.W. 1914. §Lupton, Mrs. 7 Victoria-street, S.W. 1874. *Lupron, Sypnzy, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890.) 102 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, W. 1915. §Lusgarten, J. School of Technology, Manchester. 1898. {Luxmoore, Dr. C. M., F.I.C. 19 Disraeli-gardens, Putney, S.W. 1903. {Lyddon. Ernest H. Lisvane, near Cardiff. 1871. {Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., F.G.S. Kinnordy, Kirriemuir. 1914. {Lyur, ProfessorT. R., M.A.,F.R.S. Irving-road, Toorak, Victoria, Australia. 1884 tLyman, H. H. 384 St Paul-street, Montreal, Canada. 1912. *Lynch, Arthur, M.A., M.P. 80 Antrim-mansions, Haverstock Hill, N.W. 1907. *Lyons, Major Henry Groren, D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. E, 1915; Council, 1912-15.) 3 Durham-place, Chelsea, S.W. 1908. tLyster, George H. 34 Dawson-street,. Dublin. 1908. {Lyster, Thomas W., M.A. National Library of Ireland, Kildare- street, Dublin. 1905. tMaberly, Dr. John. Shirley House, Woodstock, Cape Colony. 1868. {MacatisterR, ALExanpER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892; Council, 1901-06), Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge. 58 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1878. 1904. 1896. 1914. 1915. 1879. 1883. 1915. 1909. 1896. 1904. 1896. 1902. 1912. 1912. 1886. 1908. 1909. 1884. 1904. 1902. 1906. 1914. 1878. 1908. 1914. 1901. 1915. 1901. 1912. 1905. 1904. 1915. 1909. 1904. 1905. 1900. 1905. 1884. 1909. 1909. 1915. 1912. 1906. 1885. tMacAutstrer, Sir Donautp, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D., B.Sc., Principal of the University of Glasgow. tMacalister, Miss M. A. M. Torrisdale, Cambridge. {MacatLum, Professor A. B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1910; Local Sec. 1897.) 59 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada. tMcAlpine, D. Berkeley-street, Hawthorn, Victoria. §Macalpine, Sir George W. Broad Oak, Accrington. §MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon. tMacAndrew, Mrs. J.J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon. §Macara, Sir C. W. Ardmore, St. Anne’s-on-Sea. tMacArthur, J. A.,M.D. Canada Life-building, Winnipeg, Canada. *Macaulay, F. S., M.A. The Chesters, Vicarage-road, Hast Sheen, S.W. *Macaulay, W. H. King’s College, Cambridge. {MacBripz, H. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, S.W. *Maccall, W. T., M.Sc. Technical College, Sunderland. tMcCallum, George Fisher. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. tMcCallum, Mrs. Lizzie. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. iMacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A 50 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. §McCarthy, Edward Valentine, J.P. Ardmanagh House, Glenbrook, Co. Cork. tMcCarthy, J. H. Public Library, Winnipeg, Canada. *McCarthy, J. J.. M.D. 11 Wellington-road, Dublin. §McClean, Frank Kennedy. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells. McClelland, J. A., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in University College, Dublin. t{McClure, Rev. E. 80 Eccleston-square, S.W. tMcColl, Miss Ada. Post Office, Parkville, Victoria. *M‘Comas, Henry. 12 EHlgin-road, Dublin. *McoComein, Hamruron, M.A., Ph.D. The University, Birmiagham. *McCombie, Mrs. Hamilton. The University, Birmingham. *MacConkey, Alfred. Lister Lodge, Elstree, Herts. §McConnel, John W. Wellbank, Prestwich. tMcCrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow. tMacCulloch, Rev. Canon J. A.,D.D. The Rectory, Bridge of Allan. §McCulloch, Principal J. D. Free College, Edinburgh. tMcCulloch, Major T., R.A. 68 Victoria-street, S.W. §McDonald, Dr. Archie W. Glencoe, Huyton, Liverpool. {MacDonald, Miss Eleanor. Fort Qu’Appelle, Saskatchewan, Canada. tMacponatp, H. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Aberdeen. tMcDonald, J. G. P.O. Box 67, Bulawayo. {MacDonald, J. Ramsay, M.P. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C. tMacpona.p, J. §., B.A. (Pres. I, 1911), Professor of Physiology in the University of Sheffield. *Macdonald, Sir W. C. 449Sherbrooke-street West, Montreal,Canada, tMacDonell, John, M.Il). Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada, *MacDougall, R. Stewart. The University, Edinburgh. *McDougall, Robert, B.Sc. Lerryn, Carr Wood-road, Cheadle Hulme, Stockport. t{McDougall, Dr. W., F.R.S. Woodsend, Foxcombe Hill, near Oxford. §McFarlane, John, M.A. 48 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester. tMacfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the University of Pennsylvania. Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn- sylvania, U.S.A. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 59 Year of Election. 1901. 1909. 1888. 1908. 1908. 1906. 1867. 1909. 1909. 1912. 1909. 1884, 1913. 1915. 1885. 1912. 1908. 1909. 1873. 1909. 1907. . [Mackenzie, Hector. Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape tMacfee, John. 5 Greenlaw-terrace, Paisley. {Macgachen, A. F. D. 281 River-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. tMacGeorge, James. 8 Matheson-road, Kensington, W. {MoGaratza, Sir Josepu, LL.D. (Local Sec. 1908.) Royal University of Ireland, Dublin. {McGregor, Charles. Training Centre, Charlotte-street, Aberdeen. tMacerecor, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. *Molnrosa, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1885), Professor of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B. {McIntyre, Alexander. 142 Maryland-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. {McIntyre, Daniel. School Board Offices, Winnipeg, Canada. ae J. Lewis, M.A., D.Se. Abbotsville, Cults, Aberdeen- shire. {McIntyre, W. A. 339 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada. §MacKay, A. H., B.Sc., LL.D., Superintendent of Education. Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. *Mackay, John. 85 Bay-street, Toronto, Canada. §Mackay, John. 46 Acomb-street, Manchester. {Mackay, Jonn Yur, M.D., LL.D., Principal of and Professor of Anatomy in University College, Dundee. tMackay, R. J. 27 Arkwright-road, Hampstead, N.W. tMcKay, William, J.P. Clifford-chambers, York. §McKee, Dr. E. 8. 2132 Sinton-avenue, W.H., Cincinnati, U.S.A. tMcKenpkrick, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. I, 1901 ; Council, 1903-09), Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Maxieburn, Stonehaven, N.B. tMcKenty, D. E. 104 Colony-street, Winnipeg, Canada. {McKenzin, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. Birkbeck College, Chancery-lane, W.C. Town. . McKenzie, Jobn J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada. . [Mackenzie, K. J. J.. M.A. 10 Richmond-road, Cambridge. . tMacKenzie, Kenneth. Royal Alexandra Hotel, Winnipeg, Canada, . *Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. Netherby, Manse-road, Motherwell, N.B. . §Mackenzie, William, J.P. 22 Meadowside, Dundee. . *Mackey, J. A. United University Club, Pall Mall East, 8.W. . tMackie, William, M.D. 13 North-street, Elgin. . [Macgurnper, H. J., M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895 ; Council, 1904-05.) 10 Chelsea-court, Chelsea Embankment, 8.W. . {Mackinnon, Miss D. L. University College, Dundee. . §McLardy, Samuel. Basford Mount, Higher Crumpsall. . *McLaren, Mrs. E. L. Colby, M.B., Ch.B. 137 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton. . *Maclaren, J. Malcolm. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber- land-avenue, W.C. . {McLaren, Professor 8. B., M.A. University College, Reading. . [Maclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glasgow. . {McLean, Angus, B.Sc. Harvale, Meikleriggs, Paisley. . *Maciean, Maenvs, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901), Pro- fessor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow. . §McLean, R. C., B.Sc. Duart, Holmes-road, Reading. . §McLennan, J. C., Professor of Physics in the University of Toronto, Canada. . §McLrop, Hersert, LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; Council, 1885-90.) 37 Montague-road, Richmond, Surrey. 60 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1909. 1883. 1909. 1902. 1914. 1914. 1878. 1905. 1909 1907. 1906. 1908. 1908. 1902. 1910. 1908. 1905. 1909. 1875. 1908. 1907. 1902. 1914. 1913. 1908. 1914. 1912. 1905. 1897. 1915. 1903. 1894. 1915. 1887. 1902. 1912. 1898. 1911. 1900. 1905. 1905. 188]. 1903. 1892. tMacLeod, M. H. C.N.R. Depét, Winnipeg, Canada. {MacManon, Major Percy A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (TRusTEx, 1913- ; GernrRAt SEcRETARY, 1902-13; Pres. A, 1901; ing 1898-1902.) 27 Evelyn-mansions, Carlisle-place, .W. tMcMittan, The Hon. Sir Danret H., K.C.M.G. Government House, Winnipeg, Canada. tMcMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down. §Macnab, Angus D. Oakbank, Tullamarine, Victoria, Australia. tMacnicol, A. N. 31 Queen-street, Melbourne. tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin. §Macphail, Dr. 8. Rutherford. Rowditch, Derby. {MacPhail, W. M. P.O. Box 88, Winnipeg, Canada. {Macrosty, Henry W. 29 Hervey-road, Blackheath, S.E. {Macturk, G. W. B. 15 Bowlalley-lane, Hull. tMcVittie, R. B., M.D. 62 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin. tMcWalter, J. C., M.D., M.A. 19 North Earl-street, Dublin. {McWeeney, Professor E. J., M.D. 84 St. Stephen’s-green, Dublin. {McWilliam, Dr. Andrew. Kalimate, B.N.R., near Calcutta. {MaDpDEn, Rt. Hon. Mr. Justice. Nutley, Booterstown, Dublin. {Magenis, Lady Louisa. 34 Lennox-gardens, S.W. tMagnus, Laurie, M.A. 12 Westbourne-terrace, W. *Maanos, Sir Purp, B.Sc., B.A., M.P. (Pres. L, 1907.) 16 Glouces- ter-terrace, Hyde Park, W. *Magson, Egbert H. Westminster College, Horseferry-road, S.W. *Mair, David. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-gardens, W. *Mairet, Mrs. Ethel M. The Thatched House, Shottery, Stratford- on-Avon. tMaitland, A. Gibb. Geological Survey, Perth, Western Australia. {tMaitland, T. Gwynne, M.D. The University, Edmund-street, Birmingham. *Makower, W., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Manchester. tMalinowski, B. London School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C. tMalloch, James, M.A., F.S.A. (Scot.). Training College, Dundee. {Maltby, Lieutenant G. R., R.N. 54 St. George’s-square, S.W. tMance, Sir H.C. Old Woodbury, Sandy, Bedfordshire. §Mandleberg, G. C. Redclyffe, Victoria Park, Manchester. tManifold, C.C. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W. {Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts. §Manson, John Sinclair, M.D. 8 Winmarleigh-street, Warrington. *March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorsetshire. *MarcHant, HK. W., D.Sc., David Jardine Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of Liverpool. tMarchant, Rev. James, F.R.S.E. 42 Great Russell-street, W.C. *Mardon, Heber. Cliffden, Teignmouth, South Devon. *MaretTt, R. R., D.Sc. Exeter College, Oxford. tMargerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds. §Marks, Samuel. P.O. Box 379, Pretoria. {Martors, R., M.A., Ph.D. P.O. Box 359, Cape Town. *Marr, J. E., M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1896 ; Council, 1896-1902, 1910-14.) St. John’s College, Cambridge. tMarriott, William. Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria- street, S.W. *Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire. j ; $ LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 61 Year of Election. 1883. *Marsh, Henry Carpenter. 3 Lower James-street, Golden- square, W. 1887. {Marsh, J. E., M.A., F.R.S. University Museum, Oxford. 1915. §Marsh, J. H., M.D. Cumberland House, Macclesfield. 1889. *Marsuaty, Atrrup, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1890.) Balliol Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge. 1912. {Marshall, Professor C. R., M.A., M.D. The Medical School, Dundee. 1904. tMarshall, F. H. A. University of Edinburgh. 1905. {Marshall, G. A. K. 6 Chester-place, Hyde Park-square, W. 1907. {Marston, Robert. 14 Ashleigh-road, Leicester. 1899. {Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks. 1911. {Marrin, Professor CoarLEs James, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the Lister Institute, Chelsea-gardens, S.W. 1884, §Martin, N. H., J.P., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead. 1889. *Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Windermere, Mount Pleasant-road, Hastings. 1912, {Martin, W. H. Buyru. (Local Sec. 1912.) City Chambers, Dundee. 1911. §Martindell, E. W., M.A. Royal Anthropological Institute, 50 Great Russell-street, W.C. 1913. {Marrinuav, Lieut.-Colonel Ernust, V.D. Ellerslie, Augustus- road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1913. §Martineau, P. KE. The White House, Wake Green-road, Moseley, Birmingham. 1907. {Masefield, J. R. B., M.A. Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire. 1905. *Mason, Justice A. W. Supreme Court, Pretoria. 1913. *Mason, Edmund W., B.A. 2 York-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. 1893. *Mason, Thomas. Enderleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham. 1915. *Mason, Rev. W. A. Parker. Hulme Grammar School, Alexandra Park, Manchester. 1913. {Mason, William. Engineering Laboratory, The University, Liverpool. ‘ 1891. *Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.0., Berkshire. 1885. {Masson, Davip Orme, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Melbourne. 1910. {Masson, Irvine, M.Sc. University College, W.C. 1905. §Massy, Miss Mary. 2 Duke-street, Bath. 1901. *Mather, G. R. Sunnyville, Park-crescent, Wellingborough. 1910. *Mather, Thomas, F.R.S., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Exhibition-road, S.W. 1887. *Maruer, Right Hon. Sir Winu1am, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester. 1909. {Mathers, Mr. Justice. 16 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada. 1913. {Matheson, Miss M. Cecile. Birmingham Women’s Settlement, 318 Summer-lane, Birmingham. 1908. {Matheson, Sir R. E., LL.D. Charlemont House, Rutland-square, Dublin. 1894. {MarHews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. 10 Menai View, Bangor, North Wales. 1902. {Martey, C. A., D.Sc. Military Accounts Department, Naina Tal, U.P., India. 1904 {Matthews, D. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth. 1899. *Maufe, ea B., B.A, F.G.S. P.O. Box 168, Bulawayo, Rhodesia, 62 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1914. {Maughan, M. M., B.A., Director of Education. Parkside, South Australia. 1893. tMavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada. 1894. §Maxim, Sir Hiram §. Thurlow Park, Norwood-road, West Norwood, S.E. 1905. *Maylard, A. Ernest. 12 Blythswood-square, Glasgow. 1905. {Maylard, Mrs. 12 Blythswood-square, Glasgow. 1878. 1904. 1912. 1913. 1879. 1905. 1908. 1915, 1883. 1879. 1881. 1905. 1901. 1913. 1909. 1914. 1905. 1879. 1899. 1899. 1915. 1889. 1914. 1905. 1896. 1915. 1915. 1869. 1903. 1912. 1881. 1904. 1894. 1885, *Mayne, Thomas. 19 Lord Edward-street, Dublin. tMayo, Rev. J., LL.D. 6 Warkworth-terrace, Cambridge. §MreK, ALEXANDER, M.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Armstrong College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. §Megson, A. L. Cambridge-street, Manchester. §Meiklejohn, John W. 8., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W. tMein, W. W. P.O. Box 1145, Johannesburg. { Meldrum, A. N., D.Sc. Chemical Department, The University, Manchester. §Melland, W. 23 King-street, Manchester. : +Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street, Southport. *Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop. §Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York. *Melvill, E. H. V., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. P.O. Val, Standerton District, Transvaal. tMennell, F'. P., F.G.S. 49 London Wall, E.C. *Mentz-Tolley, Richard. Moseley Court, near Wolverhampton. tMenzies, Rev. James, M.D. Hwaichingfu, Honan, China. §Meredith, Mrs. C. M. 55 Bryansburn-road, Bangor, Co. Down. {Meredith, H. O., M.A., Professor of Economics in Queen’s University, Belfast. 55 Bryansburn-road, Bangor, Co. Down. {Mezrrivacn, Jonn Herman, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889.) Togston Hall, Acklington. *Merrett, William H., F.I.C. Hatherley, Grosvenor-road, Walling- ton, Surrey. {Merryweather, J. C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W. §Merton, Thomas R. 25 Gilbert-street, W. *Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. §Messent, A. K. The Observatory, Adelaide, South Australia. {Methven, Cathcart W. Club Arcade, Smith-street, Durban. §Metzler, W. H., Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A. §Meunier, Stanislas. Gas Works, Stockport. §Meunier, Mrs. 16 Gibson-road, Heaton Chapel, Stockport. tMuatt, Louis C., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1897 ; Pres. L, 1908; Local Sec. 1890.) Norton Way North, Letch- worth. *Micklethwait, Miss Frances M. G. 15 St. Mary’s-square, Padding- ton, W. §Middlemore, Thomas, B.A. Melsetter, Orkney. *Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of. Bishop’s House, Middlesbrough. t{Mippieton, T. H., C.B., M.A. (Pres. M, 1912.) Board of Agri- culture and Fisheries, 4 Whitehall-place, S.W. *Mirrs, Sir Henry A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1905 ; Pres. L, 1910), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Man- chester. Birch Heys, Cromwell Range, Fallowfield, Man- chester. +Mitt, Hues Rosert, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1901.) 62 Camden-square, N.W. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 63 Year of Election. 1905. 1912. 1889. 1909. 1915. 1895. 1897. 1904. 1905. 1908. 1868. 1908. 1908. 1902. 1907. 1910. 1910. 1903. 1898. 1908. 1907. 1914. 1901. 1913. 1901. 1909. 1885. 1905. 1908. 1914, 1895. 1908. 1905. 1905. 1883. 1900. 1905. 1905. 1891. 1915. 1909, 1909. TMill, Mrs. H. R. 62 Camden-square, N.W. tMiuiar, Dr. A. H. (Local Sec. 1912.) Albert Institute, Dundee. *Mittar, Ropert Cooksurn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh. §Miller, A. P. Glen Miller, Ontario, Canada. §Miller, Dr. Alexander K. 4 Darley-avenue, West Didsbury. tMiller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich. *Miller, Willet G., Provincial Geologist. Provincial Geologist’s Office, Toronto, Canada. {Millis, C. T. Hollydene, Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon. {Mills, Mrs. A. A. Ceylon Villa, Blinco-grove, Cambridge. {Mills, Miss E. A. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin. *Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 64 Twyford-avenue, West Acton, W. §Mills, John Arthur, M.B. Durham County Asylum, Winterton, Ferryhill. §Mills, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin. }Mills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry. {Milne, A., M.A. University School, Hastings. §Milne, J. B. Cross Grove House, Totley, near Sheffield. *Milne, James Robert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 5 North Charlotte-street, Edinburgh, *Milne, R. M. Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, South Devon. *Mitner, S. Rostrneton, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield. §Milroy, T. H., M.D., Dunville Professor of Physiology in Queen’s University, Belfast. §Minton, J. H., F.G.8., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 8 College-avenue, Crosby, Liverpool. tMinchin, Mrs. 53 Cheyne-court, Chelsea, S.W. *Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow. ae Francis W. V. 25 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birming- am. *Mitchell, G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow. tMitchell, J. F. 211 Rupert-street, Winnipeg, Canada. {Mrrcnuty, P. Cuatmurs, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.Z.S. (Pres. D, 1912; Council, 1906-13.) Zoological Society, Regent’s Park, N.W. *Mitchell, W. E.C. Box 129, Johannesburg. {Mitchell, W. M. 2St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin. {tMitchell, William, M.A., D.Se., Hughes Professor of Philosophy and Economies in the University of Adelaide, South Aus- tralia. *Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire. tMoffat, C. B. 36 Hardwicke-street, Dublin. ; {Moir, James, D.Sc. Mines Department, J ohannesburg. §Molengraaff, Professor G. A. F. Voorstraat 60, Delft, The Hague. {Mollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge. *Monceton, H. W., Treas. L.S., F.G.S. 3 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, H.C. *Moncrizrr, Colonel Sir C. Scorr, G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., R.E. (Pres. G, 1905.) 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W. tMoncrieff, Lady Scott. 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W. *Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Combe Bank, Sevenoaks. §Moodie, J. Williams Deacon’s Bank, Manchester. {Moody, A. W., M.D. 432} Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada. *Moopy, G. T., D.Sc. Lorne House, Dulwich, S.E. 64 BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Year of Election. 1914. 1912. 1911. 1908. 1894. 1908. 1901. 1905. 1892. 1912. 1896. 1901. 1905. 1895. 1902. 1901. 1883. 1906. 1896. 1892. 1915. 1896. 1880. 1907. 1899. 1909. 1886. 1896. 1913. 1908. 1912, 1876. 1892. 1913. 1913. 1912. 1878. 1899 1905. 1911. 1912. 1902. 1907. 1874. §Moody, Mrs. Lorne House, Dulwich, S.E. §Moort, Bensamin, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. 1, 1914.) 8 Pembroke- villas, The Green, Richmond, Surrey. §Moore, EK. S., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the School of Mines, Pennsylvania State College, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. *Moorg#, Sir F. W. Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin. tMoore, Harold E. Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent. {Moore, Sir John W., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin *Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. {Moore, T. H. Thornhill Villa, Marsh, Huddersfield. tMoray, The Right Hon. the Earl of, F.G.S. Kinfauns Castle, Perth. {Moray, The Countess of. Kinfauns Castle, Perth. *Morpry, W.M. 82 Victoria-street, S.W. *Moreno, Francisco P. Parana 915, Buenos Aires. *Morgan, Miss Annie. Care of London County and Westminster Bank, Chancery-lane, W.C. tMoraay, C. Luoyp, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Psychology in the University of Bristol. {Morean, GueErt T., D.Sc., F.I.C., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. *Morison, James. Perth. *Moriey, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W. tMorrell, H. R. Scarcroft-road, York. *Morrell, Dr. R.S. Tor Lodge, Tettenhall Wood, Wolverhampton. t{Morris, Sir Dante, K.C.M.G., D.Se., F.L.S. (Council, 1915-_.) 14 Crabton-close, Boscombe, Hants. *Morris, H. N. Gorton Brook Chemical Works, Manchester. *Morris, J. T. 36 Cumberland-mansions, Seymour-place, W. §Morris, James. 23 Brynymor-crescent, Swansea. tMorris, Colonel Sir W. G., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Charing Cross, W.C. *Morrow, Joun, M.Sc., D.Eng. Armstrong College, Newcastle- upon-Tyne. tMorse, Morton F. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada. *Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W. *Morton, Witu1aM B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s University, Belfast. §Mosely, Alfred. West Lodge, Barnet. {Moss, C. E., D.Sc. Botany School, Cambridge. tMoss, Mrs. 154 Chesterton-road, Cambridge. §Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society, and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin. *Mostyn, 8. G., M.A., M.B. Health Office, Houndgate, Darlington. {Mott, Dr. F. W., F.R.S. 25 Nottingham-place, W. tMottram, V.H. 256 Lordship-lane, East Dulwich, S.E. *Moulton, J. C. Sarawak Museum, Sarawak. *Moutton, The Right Hon. Lord Justice, K.C.B., M.A., K.C., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-square, S.W. tMowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover. *Moysey, Miss E. L. Pitcroft, Guildford, Surrey. *Moysey, Lewis, B.A., M.B. St. Moritz, Ilkeston-road, Nottingham. {Mudie, Robert Francis. 6 Fintry-place, Broughty Ferry. tMuir, Arthur H. 7 Donegall-square West, Belfast. *Muir, Professor James. 31 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow. {Morr, M. M. Partison, M.A. Hillcrest, Farnham, Surrey. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1916. 65 Year of Election. 1915. 1909. 1912. 1904. 1872. 1913. 1905. 1876. 1902. 1915. 1904. 1911. 1898. 1901. 1906. 1904. 1909. 1883. 1909. 1914. 1911. 1909, 1908. 1908. 1905 1903. 1914. 1915, 1892. 1909. 1906. 1912. 1870. 1906. 1913. 1902. 1902. 1909. 1906. 1915. 1890. 1914, 19 §Muir, Ramsay. 140 Plymouth-grove, Manchester. {Muir, Robert R. Grain Exchange-building, Winnipeg, Canada. §Muir, Thomas Scott. 19 Seton-place, Edinburgh. tMuir, William, 1.8.0. Rowallan, Newton Stewart, N.B. *MUIRHEAD, ALEXANDER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Carteret-street, Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W. §Muirhead, Professor J. H. The Rowans, Balsall Common, near Coventry. *Muirhead, James M. P., F.R.S.E. Dunlop Rubber Co., 3 Wal- lace-street, Bombay. *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, B.A., D.Sc. 64 Great George-street, Hillhead, Glasgow. tMullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry. §Mullen, B. H. Salford Museum, Peel Park, Salford. tMullinger, J. Bass, M.A. 1 Bene’t-place, Cambridge. {Mumby, Dr. B. H. Borough Asylum, Milton, Portsmouth. {Mumford, C. E. Cross Roads House, Bouverie-road, Folkestone. *Munby, Alan E. 44 Downshire-hill, Hampstead, N.W. tMunby, Frederick J. Whixley, York. {Munro, A. Queens’ College, Cambridge. {Munro, George. 188 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada. *Munro, Rosert, M.A., M.D., LL.D. (Pres. H, 1893.) Elmbank, Largs, Ayrshire, N.B. tMunson, J. H., K.C. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada. *Murchison, Roderick. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street, Mel- bourne. {Murdoch, W. H. F., B.Sc. 14 Howitt-road, Hampsiead, N.W. ale a J. Vanguard Manufacturing Co., Dorrington-street, Leeds, tMurphy, Leonard. 156 Richmond-road, Dublin. tMurpuy, WitiiaM M., J.P. Dartry, Dublin. tMurray, Charles F, K., M.D. Kenilworth House, Kenilworth, Cape Colony. §Murray,Colonel J. D. Mytholmroyd, Wigan. Murray, John. Tullibardin New Farm, Brisbane, Australia. §Murray, Miss M. A. Kdwards Library, University College, Gower- street, W.C. {Murray, T. 8., D.Sc. 27 Shamrock-street, Dundee. tMurray, W. C. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sas- katchewan, Canada. {Muegrove, Mrs. Edith M. S., D.Sc. The Woodlands, Silverdale, Lancashire. *Musgrove, James, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of St. Andrews, N.B. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool. {Myddelton-Gavey, E. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Stanton Prior, Meads, Eastbourne. tMyddelton-Gavey, Miss Violet. Stanton Prior, Meads, Eastbourne. {Myddleton, Alfred. 62 Duncairn-street, Belfast. *Myers, Charles S., M.A., M.D. Great Shelford, Cambridge. *Myers, Henry. The Long House, Leatherhead. tMyers, Jesse A. Glengarth, Walker-road, Harrogate. §Myers, William. 7 Station-road, Cheadle Hulme. *Myres, Joun L., M.A., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1909 ; Council, 1909- ) Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. 101 Banbury-road, Oxford. *Myres, Miles Claude. 101 Banbury-road, Oxford. 15. E 66 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1886. 1890. 1908. 1908. 1909. 1883. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1898. 1866. 1889. 1912. 1901. 1901. 1913. 1889. 1912. 1892. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1908. 1908. 1908. 1887. 1884, 1911. 1915. 1908. 1916. 1863. 1888. 1913. 1912. 1913. 1894, 1909, tNaaezx, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894.) Trinity College, Oxford. {Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, E.C. {Nally, T. H. Temple Hill, Terenure, Co. Dublin. *Neal, Mrs. EH. M. 10 Meadway, Hampstead Garden Suburb, N.W. tNeild, Frederic, M.D. Mount Pleasant House, Tunbridge Wells. *Neild, Theodore, M.A. Grange Court, Leominster. fNelson, Miss Edith A., M.A., M.Sc. 131 Williams-road, East Prahran, Victoria. *Nettlefold, J. S. Winterbourne, Edgbaston Park-road, Bir- mingham. {Nettlefold, Miss: Winterbourne, Edgbaston Park-road, Birming- ham. *Nevill, Rev. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South Devon. *Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of Dunedin, New Zealand. *NEwALL, H. Frank, M.A.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astrophysics in the University of Cambridge. Madingley Rise, Cambridge. tNewberry, Percy E., M.A., Professor of Egyptology in the Uni- versity of Liverpool. Oldbury Place, Ightham, Kent. tNewbigin, Miss Marion, D.Sc. Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh. tNewman, F. H. Tullie House, Carlisle. {Newman, L.F 2 Warkworth-street, Cambridge. tNewstead, A. H. L., B.A. 38 Green-street, Bethnal Green, N.E. *Newton, Arthur U. University College, W.C. {Newron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Florence House, Willow Bridge- road, Canonbury, N. §Newton, R. Bullen, F.G.S. British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, S.W. tNicholls, Dr. EK. Brooke. 174 Victoria-street, North Melbourne. §Nicholls, Professor G. E. King’s College, Strand, W.C. tNicholls, W. A. 11 Vernham-road, Plumstead, Kent. fNichols, Albert Russell. 30 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Co. Dublin. §Nicholson, J. W., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Mathematics in King’s College, Strand, W.C. {Nicholson, John Carr, J.P. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds. tNicHotson, JosepH S., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh. tNicol, J. C., M.A. The Grammar School, Portsmouth. §Niven, James. Civic Buildings, 1 Mount-street, Manchester. {Nrxon, The Right Hon. Sir CuristopHer, Bart., M.D., LL.D., D.L. 2 Merrion-square, Dublin. §Nosxz, J. H. B. (Locan TREASURER, 1916.) Sandhoe, Hexham, Northumberland. - §Norman, Rev. Canon AtrrED Merz, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted. tNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath. pice Sir Henry, Bart.,M.P. The Corner House, Cowley-street, W. tNorrie, Robert. University College, Dundee. fNorris, F. Edward. Seismograph Station, Hill View, Woodbridge Hill, Guildford. §Norcurt, S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec. 1895.) Constitu- tion-hill, Ipswich. tNugent, F. 8. 81 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada, LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 67 Year of Election. 1910. 1915. 1913. 1912. 1908. 1898. 1908. 1913. 1883. 1910. 1858. 1911. 1908. 1915. 1902. 1913. 1876. 1914. 1885. 1912 1905. 1905. 1908. 1892. 1893. 1912. 1914. 1863. 1887. 1914. 1889. 1882, 1880. 1908. 1902. §Nunn, TI’. Percy, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Education in the Uni- versity of London. London Day Training College, South- ampton-row, W.C. §Nuttall, Harry, M.P. Bank of England-chambers, Manchester. §Nuttall, T. E., M.D. Middleton, Huncoat, Accrington. tNuttall, W. H. Cooper Laboratory for Economic Research, Rickmansworth-road, Watford. {Nutting, Sir John, Bart. St. Helen’s, Co. Dublin. *O’Brien, Neville Forth. Greywell House, Woking. tO’Carroll, Joseph, M.D. 43 Merrion-square East, Dublin. §Ockenden, Maurice A., F.G.S. Oil Well Supply Company, Dash- wood House, New Broad-street, E.C. {Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D., K.C. 15 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. *Odling, Marmaduke, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Department, The University, Leeds. *Op.ina, WittiaM, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864 ; Council, 1865-70.) 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford. *O’Donocuun, Cuartes H., D.Sc. University College, Gower- street, W.C. §O’ Farrell, Thomas A., J.P. 30 Lansdowne-road, Dublin. sOgden, C. K., M.A. Magdalene College, Cambridge. {Ogden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport. §Ogilvie, A.G. 15 Evelyn-gardens, S.W. {Ogilvie, Campbeli P. Lawford-place, Manningtree. §Ogilvie, Mrs. Campbell P. Lawford-place, Manningtree. fOamvin, F. Grant, C.B., M.A., B.Sc. F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1892.) Board of Education, S.W. §Ogilvy, J. W. 18 Bloomsbury-square, W.C. *Oke, Alfred William, B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.L.S. 32 Denmark- villas, Hove, Brighton. §Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. \ §Oldham, Charles Hubert, B.A., B.L., Professor of Commerce in the National University of Ireland. 5 Victoria-terrace, Rath- gar, Dublin. ? jOtpuam, H. Yuts, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge. *O_puaM, R. D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 8 North-street, Horsham, Sussex, §O’Leary, Rev. William, S.J. Rathfarnham Castle, Co. Dublin. {Oliver, Calder E. Manor-street, Brighton, Victoria. tOuiver, Danret, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens- road, Kew, Surrey. fOtver, F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1906), ?rofessor of Botany in University College, London, W.C, §Oliver, H. G., C.K. Lara, Victoria, Australia. {Oliver, Professor Sir Thomas, M.D. 7 Ellison-placo, Newcastle- upon-Tyne. §Oxszn, O. T., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s- terrace, Grimsby. *Ommanney, Rev. LE. a St. Michael and All Angels, Portsea, Hants. ee aa G., M.A. University College, St. Stephen’s Green, ublin, tO’Neill, Henry, M.D. 6 College-square East, Belfast. E2 68 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1913. tOrange, J. A. Generai Electric Company, Schenectady, New York, U.S.A. 1905. {O° Reilly, Patrick Joseph. '7 North Earl-street, Dublin. 1884. *Orpen, Rev. T. H., M.A. Mark Ash, Abinger Common, Dorking. 1901. tOrr, Alexander Stewart. 10 Medows-street, Bombay, India. 1909. tOrr, John B. Crossacres, Woolton, Liverpool. 1908. *Orr, William. Dungarvan, Co. Waterford. 1904, *Orton, K. J. P., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University College, Bangor. 1915. §Orwin, C. S. 7 Marston Ferry-road, Oxford. 1910. *OsBorn, T. G. B., M.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of Adelaide, South Australia. 1901. tOsborne, Professor W. A., D.Sc. The University, Melbourae. 1908. {O’Shaughnessy, T. L. 64 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. 1887. {O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. The University, Sheffield. 1884. {Osxer, Sir WittraM, Bart., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford. 13 Norham- gardens, Oxford. 1881. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby. 1906. {Owen, Rev. E. C. St. Peter’s School, York. 1903. *Owen, Edwin, M.A. Terra Nova School, Birkdale, Lancashire. 1911. §Owens, J. S., M.D., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W. 1910. *Oxley, A. E. Rose Hill View, Kimberworth-road, Rotherham. 1909. {Pace, F. W. 388 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada. 1908. {Pack-Beresford, Denis, M.R.I.A. Fenagh House, Bagenalstown, : Treland. 1906. §Page, Carl D. Wyoming House, Aylesbury, Bucks. 1903. *Page, Miss Ellen Iva. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex. 1883. tPage, G. W. Bank House, I'akenham. 1913. §$Paget, Sir Richard, Bart. Old Fallings Hall, Wolverhampton. 1911. §Paget, Stephen, M.A., F.R.C.S. 21 Ladbroke-square, W. 1912. {Pahic, Paul. 52 Albert Court, Kensington Gore, S.W. 1911. {Paine, H. Howard. 50 Stow-hill, Newport, Monmouthshire. 1870. *PataRAvE, Sir Roperr Harry Inatis, F.R.S., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1883.) Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk. 1896. {Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool. 1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, S.W. 1866. §Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham. 1915. *Parker, A. The University, Birmingham. 1904. {Parxer, E. H., M.A. Thorneycreek, Hers«hel-road, Cambridge. 1909. §Parker, M. A., B.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. 1891. {ParKer, Witt1am Newron, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in University College, Cardiff. 1905. *Parkes, Tom E. P.O. Box 4580, Johannesburg. 1899. *Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle. 1905. *Parkin, Thomas. Blaithwaite, Carlisle. 1906. §Parkin, Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. Fairseat, High Wickham, Hastings. 1879. *Parkin, William. Broomhill House, Watson-road, Sheffield. 1911. {Parks, Dr. G. J. 18 Cavendish-road, Southsea. 1913. §Parry, Edward, M.Inst.C.E. Rossmore, Leamington. 1903. §Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo, near Liverpool. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1916. 69 Year of Election. 1908. tParry, W. K., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Charlemont-terrace, Kingstown, Dublin. 1878. tParsons, Hon. Sir C. A., K.C.B., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, (Pres. G, 1904.) Holeyn Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne. 1904. {Parsons, Professor F. G. St. Thomas’s Hospital, S.E. 1995. *Parsons, Hon. Geoffrey L. Worting House, Basingstoke, Hants. 1898. *Partridge, Miss Josephine M. 15 Grosvenor-crescent, S.W. 1887, {Patrrerson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Liverpool. 1908. {Paterson, M., LL.D. 7 Halton-place, Edinburgh. 1909, {Paterson, William. Ottawa, Canada. 1897. {Paton, D. Noél, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. 1883. *Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. Airtnoch, 184 Mayfield-road, Edinburgh. 1884. *Paton, Hugh. Box 2646, Montreal, Canada. 1913. §Patrick, Joseph A., J.P. North Cliff, King’s Heath, Birmingham. 1908. §ParrEn, C. J., M.A., M.D., Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Sheffield. 1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast. 1913. {Patterson, W. Hamilton, M.Sc. The Monksferry Laboratory, Birkenhead. 1913. *Pattin, Harry Cooper, M.A.,M.D. King-street House, Norwich. 1879. *Patzer, F. R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire, 1883. tPaul, George. 32 Harlow Moor-drive, Harrogate. 1887. *Paxman, James. Standard Iron Works, Colchester. 1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath. 1914. *Payne, Professor Henry, M.Inst.C.E. The University, Mel- bourne. 1888, *Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor, Yeovil. 1876. {Peace, G. H., M.Inst.C.E. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Man- chester. 1906. tPeace, Miss Gertrude. 39 Westbourne-road, Sheffield. 1885. }Pzacn, B. N., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S8. (Pres. C, 1912.) Geological Survey Office, George-square, Edinburgh. 1911. §Peake, Harold J. EK. Westbrook House, Newbury. 1913. {Pear, T. H. Dunwood House, Withington, Manchester. 1886. *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Collingwood, Manby-road, West Malvern. 1886. {Pearsall, H. D. Letchworth, Herts. 1883. {Pearson, Arthur A., C.M.G. Hillsborough, Heath-road, Petersfield, Hampshire. 1893. *Pearson, Charles E. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire. 1898. {Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol. 1905. *Prarson, Professor H. H. W., M.A., F.L.S. National Botanic Gardens, Kirstenbosch, Newlands, Cape Town. 1883. {Pearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport. 1906. {Pearson, Dr. Joseph. The Museum, Colombo, Ceylon. 1904. {Pearson, Karl, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Eugenics in the University of London. 7 Well-road, Hampstead, N.W. 1909. {Pearson, William. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada. Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire. 1855. *Peckover, Lord, LL.D., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. 1888, +E Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridge- shire. 1885. {Peddie, William, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in University College, Dundee. 70 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election 1884. tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin. 1878. *Peek, William. Villa des Jonquilles, Rue des Roses, Monte Carlo, 1901. *Peel, Right Hon. Viscount. 52 Grosvenor-street, W. 1905. §Peirson, J. Waldie. P.O. Box 561, Johannesburg. 1915. §Pemberton, Granville. 49 Acresfield-road, Pendleton. 1905. {Pemberton, Gustavus M. P.O. Box 93, Johannesburg. 1887. {PenpLEBuRY, Wituiam H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1899.) Woodford House, Mountfields, Shrewsbury. 1894. t{Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay. 1896. {Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph. 1898. {Percival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Chesham-street, 8.W. 1908. {Percival, Professor John, M.A. University College, Reading. 1905. tPéringuey, L., D.Sc, F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape Town. 1894, {Puraiy, A. G., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C. 8 Montpelier: terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds. 1902. *Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. 199 Piccadilly, W. 1884, {PerKin, Witt1am Henry, LL.D.. Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. B, 1900 ; Council, 1901-07), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 5 Charlbury-road, Oxford. 1864. *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. 1898. *Perman, E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff. 1909. aa Rev. Professor E, Guthrie. 246 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, anada. 1874. *Perry, Professor JoHn, M.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (GmNERAL TREASURER, 1904-- ; Pres. G, 1902; Pres. L, 1914; Coun- cil, 1901-04). British Association, Burlington House, Lon- don, W. 1913. {Perry, W. J. 7 York-view, Pocklington, Yorkshire. 1904. *Pertz, Miss D. F. M. 2 Cranmer-road, Cambridge. 1900. *PETaveEL, J. E., M.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in the University of Manchester. 1914, *Peters, Thomas. Burrinjuck vid Goondah, N.S.W. 1901. {Pethybridge, G. H., Ph.D. Royal College of Science, Dublin. 1910. *Petrescu, Captain Dimitrie, R.A., M.Eng. Scoala Superiora de Messern, Bucharest, Rumania. 1895. {PErriz, W. M. Furypers, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor of Egyptology in University College, W.C. 1871. *Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Vale House, St. Helier, Jersey. 1886, {Phelps, Lieut.-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. 1911. {Philip, Alexander. Union Bank-buildings, Brechin. 1896. {Philip, G. Hornend, Eastcote, Middlesex. 1903. 1853. 1877. 1863. 1905. 1899. 1910. 1890 1909 tPhilip, James C. 20 Westfield-terrace, Aberdeen. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire. §Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, Crescent-road, South Woodford, Essex. }Philipson, Sir G. H., D.C.L. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne. {Phillimore, Miss C. M. Shiplake House, Henley-on-Thames. *Phillips, Charles E. S., F.R.S.E. Castle House, Shooter’s Hill, ent, *Phillips, P. P., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Thomason Engineering College, Rurki, United Provinces, India. . {Pariurps, R. W.,M.A., D.Se., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni- versity College, Bangor. 2 Snowdon-villas, Bangor. . *Phillips, Richard. 15 Dogpole, Shrewsbury. LIST OF MEMBERS : 1915. 71 Year of Election. 1915 1883. 1901. 1885. 1907. 1888. 1865. 1896. 1915. 1905. 1896. 1905. 1911. 1911. 1911. 1908. 1908. 1909. 1893. 1900. 1911. 1915. 1898. 1908. 1908. 1907. 1900. 1913. 1914. 1908. 1906. 1891. 1911. 1907. 1900. 1892. 1901. 1905. 1905. 1883. 1906. 1907. §Phillips, Captain W. E. 7th Leinster Regiment, Kilworth Camp, Co. Cork. *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster. §Pickard, Robert H., D.Sc. Billinge View, Blackburn. *PICKERING, SPENCER P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts. tPickles, A. R., M.A. Todmorden-road, Burnley. *Pidgeon, W. R. lLynsted Lodge, St. Edmund’s-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. f{Prxz, L. Ownn. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. *Pilkington, A.C. Rocklands, Rainhill, Lancashire. §Pilkington, Charles. The Headlands, Prestwich. tPilling, Arnold. Royal Observatory, Cape Town. *Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing. {Pim, Miss Gertrude. Charleville, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. {Pink, H.R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants. {Pink, Mrs. H. R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants. tPink, Mrs. J. E. The Homestead, Eastern-parade, Southsea. *Pio, Professor D. A. 14 Leverton-street, Kentish Town, N.W. tPirrie, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., M.Inst.C.E. Downshire House, Belgrave-square, S.W. {Pitblado, Isaac, K.C. 91 Balmoral-place, Winnipeg, Canada. *Pirt, Water, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Lansdown-grove, Bath. *Platts, Walter. Morningside, Scarborough. *Plinimer, R. H. A. Ranulf-road, Hampstead, N.W. §Plummer, Professor H. C., Royal Astronomer of Ireland. Dun- sink Observatory, Co. Dublin. {Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston, Birkenhead. tPlunkett, Count G. N. National Museum of Science and Art, Dublin. {Plunkett, Colonel G. T.,C.B. Belvedere Lodge, Wimbledon, 8.W. *PLunKeETT, Right Hon. Sir Horace, K.C.V.0., M.A., F.R.S. Kilteragh, Foxrock, Co. Dublin. *Pocklington, H. Cabourn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 5 Wellclose-place, Leeds. tPocock, R. J. St. Aidan’s, 170 Eglinton-road, Woolwich, 8.E. tPollock, Professor J. A., D.Sc. The University, Sydney, N.S.W. {Pollok, James H., D.Sc. 6 St. James’s-terrace, Clonshea, Dublin. *Pontifex, Miss Catherine E. 7 Hurlingham-court, Fulham, 8.W. {Pontypridd, Lord. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff. tPoore, Major-General F. H. 1 St. Helen’s-parade, Southsea. §Pope, Alfred, F.S.A. South Court, Dorchester. *Popr, W. J., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1914), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge. Chemical Labora- tory, The University, Cambridge. {Popplewell, W. C., M.Se., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bowden-lane, Marple, Cheshire. §PorTER, ALFRED W., B.Sc., F.R.S. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions, Lissenden-gardens, N.W. §PortErR, J. B., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Mining in the McGill University, Montreal, Canada. {Porter, Mrs. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. tPorrmr, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Arm- strong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 13 Highbury, New- castle-upon-Tyne. tPotter-Kirby, Alderman George. Clifton Lawn, York. {Potts, F. A. University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. 12 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election, 1908. *Potts, George, Ph.D., M.Sc. Grey University College, Bloem- fontein, South Africa. 1886. *Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. D, 1896 ; Council, 1895-1901, 1905-12), Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. 1905. {Poulton, Mrs, Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. 1913. {Poulton, Miss. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford. 1898. Beha Edward Palmer, M.A. Wykeham Cottage, Woldingham, urTey. 1894. *Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 118 Portland-place, W. 1887. §Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, E.C. 1913. {Poynting, Mrs. J. H. 10 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1908. {PrarncER, R. Liuoyp, B.A., M.R.LA. Lisnamae, Rathgar, Dublin. 1907. *Pratn, Lieut.-Col. Sir Davin, C.1.E., C.M.G., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1909 ; Council, 1907-14.) Royal Gardens, Kew. 1884. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford. 1913. *Prankerd, Miss Theodora Lisle. 25 Hornsey Lane-gardens, N. 1888. *Preece, W. Llewellyn, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W. 1904. §Prentice, Mrs. Manning. 27 Baldock-road, Letchworth. 1892. {Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock. 1906. {Pressly, D. L. Coney-street, York. 1889. {Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Bradford, Yorkshire. 1914. {Preston, C. Payne. Australian Distillery Co., Byrne-street, South Melbourae. 1914. {Preston, Miss E. W. 153 Barry-street, Carlton, Victoria. 1903. §Price, Edward E. Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent. 1888 {Pricz, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S8. (Pres. F, 1895 ; Council, 1898- 1904.) Oriel College, Oxford. 1785. *Price, Rees. Walnuts, Broadway, Worcestershire. 1913. §Price, T. Slater. Municipal Technical School, Suffolk-street, Birmingham. 1897. *Pricz, W. A., M.A. 135 Sandyford-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1914. {Priestley, Professor H. J. Edale, River-terrace, Kangaroo Point, Brisbane, Australia. 1908. §PrizstLEy, J. H., B.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. 1909. *Prince, Professor E. E., LL.D., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries. 206 O’Connor-street, Ottawa, Canada. 1889. *Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South Hampstead, N.W. 1876. *PrircHaRD, Urnean, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W. 1881. §Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York. 1884, *Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. Care of E. C. 8. Scholefield, Esq., Provincial Librarian, Victoria, B.C., Canada. 1879. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe. 1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts. 1883. *Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth. 1903. {Pullen-Burry, Miss. Lyceum Club, 128 Piccadilly, W. 1904. {Punnett, R. C., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the Uni- versity of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge. 1885. {Purpiz, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B. 1881. {Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The Deanery, York. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 15 Year of Election. 1913. 1913. 1884, 1911. 1912. 1898. 1883. 1883. 1879. 1911. 1893. 1906. 1879. 1912. 1911. 1887. 1913. 1898. 1896. 1894. 1908. 1912. 1876. 1883. 1915. 1914. 1913. 1907. 1868. 1861. 1903. 1914. 1892. 1913. 1914. 1908. 1915. 1905. 1868. tPurser, G. Leslie. Gwynfa, Selly Oak, Birmingham. tPurser, John, M.Se. The University, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W. tPurvis, J. E. Corpus Christi College, Oxford. tPycraft, Dr. W. P. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell- road, 8.W. ; *Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester. §Pye-Smith, Arnold. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C. tPye-Smith, Mrs. 32 Queen Victoria-street, B.C. {Pye-Smith, R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield. {Pye-Smith, Mrs. R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield. tQuick, James. 22 Bouverie-road West, Folkestone. *Quiggin, Mrs. A. Hingston. 88 Hartington-grove, Cambridge. {Radford, R. Heber. 15 St. James’s-row, Sheffield. {tRadok, F. 12 Central-hill, Upper Norwood, S.L. §Rae, John T. National Temperance League, Paternoster House, Paternoster-row, E.C. *Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester. §Railing, Dr. A. H., B.Sc. The General Electric Co., Ltd., Witton, Birmingham. *Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place, Baker-street, W. *Ramaace, Huan, M.A. The Technical Institute, Norwich. *RamBaut, ArtTuur A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. {Rambaut, Mrs. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. tRamsay, Colonel R. G. Wardlaw. Whitehill, Rosewell, Mid- lothian. *Ramsay, Sir WiLtiaM, K.C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1911; Pres. B, 1897; Council 1891-98). Beecheroft, Hazle- mere, High Wycombe. tRamsay, Lady. Beechcroft, Hazlemere, High Wycombe. §Ramsbottom, J., 61 Ennerdale-road, Richmond, Surrey. §Ramsbottom, J. W. 23 Rosebery-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne. tRamsden, William. Blacker-road, Huddersfield. tRankine, A. O., D.Sc. 68 Courtfield-gardens, West Ealing, W. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford. fRansome, Arruur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861.) Sunnyhurst, Dean Park, Bournemouth. tRastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge. {Rathbone, Herbert R. 15 Lord-street, Liverpool. *Rathbone, Miss May. Backwoud, Neston, Cheshire. tRaw, Frank, B.Sc., F.G.S. The University, Edmund-street, Birmingham. tRawes-Whittell, H. Manchester Hall, 183 Llizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W. *Raworth, Alexander. .St. John’s Manor, Jersey. §Rawson, Christopher. 33 Manley-road, Manchester. tRawson, Colonel Herbert E., C.B., R.E., F.R.G.S. Home Close, Heronsgate, Herts. *Raytetag, The Right Hon. Lord, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. (Presipent, 1884; TrustE, 1883- ; Pres. A, 1882; Council, 1878-83), Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex. 74 BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Year of Election. 1883. 1912. 1897. 1907. 1913. 1896, 1913. 1914. 1902. 1884. 1890. 1908. 1915. 1905. 1891. 1894. 1903. 1911. 1906. 1910. 1901. 1904. 1881. 1883. 1903. 1892. 1908. 1901. 1901. 1909. 1904. 1912. 1897. 1892. 1887. 1912. 1875. 1894. 1891. 1903. 1914. 1889. 1906. *Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster. §Rayner, Miss M. C., D.Sc. University College, Reading. *Rayner, Edwin Hartree, M.A. 40 Gloucester-road, Teddington, Middlesex. tRea, Carleton, B.C.L. 34 Foregate-street, Worcester. §Read, Carveth, M.A. 73 Kensington Gardens-square, W. *ReaD, Sir Caartes H., LL.D., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1899.) British Museum, W.C. tReade, Charles C. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, Gray’s Inn, W.C. Reade, Mrs. C. C. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, Gray’s Inn, W.C. tReade, R. H. Wilmount, Dunmurry. tReadman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Belmont, Hereford. *Redwood, Sir Boverton, Bart., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. The Cloisters, 18 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, N.W. tReed, Sir Andrew, K.C.B., C.V.0., LL.D. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. §Reed, H. A. The Red House, Bowdon. tReed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S. 16St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester. *Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff. *Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton. tReeves, E. A., F.R.G.S. Hillside, Reigate-road, Reigate. {Rerves, Hon. W. Pemper. (Pres. F, 1911.) London School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C. *Reichel, Sir Harry R., M.A., LL.D., Principal of University College, Bangor. Penrallt, Bangor, North Wales. *Reid, Alfred, M.B., M.R.C.S. The Cranes, Tooting, S.W. *Reid, Andrew T. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow. tReid, Arthur H. 30 Welbeck-street, W. §Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B. *Rump, CLEMENT, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. One Acre, Milford-on- Sea, Hants. *Reid, Mrs. KE. M., B.Sc. One Acre, Milford-on-Sea, Hants. {Rerp, E. Waymovts, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in University College, Dundee. tReip, GEorGE ARCHDALL, M.B., C.M., F.R.S.E. 9 Victoria-road South, Southsea. ; *Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow. tReid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glasgow. tReid, John Young. 329 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada. tReid, P. J. Marton Moor End, Nunthorpe, R.S.O., Yorkshire. §Reid, Professor R. W., M.D. 37 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. {Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury. {tReid, Thomas. Municipal Technical School, Birmingham. *Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey. §Reinheimer, Hermann. 43 King Charles-road, Surbiton. TREINOLD, A. W., C.B., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1890-95.) 3 Lennox- mansions, Southsea. tRendall, Rev. G. H., M.A., Litt.D. Charterhouse, Godalming. *Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road, Accrington. *REnDLE, Dr. A. B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 28 Holmbush-road, Putney, S.W. tRennie, Professor EH. H., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Adelaide, Australia. *Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W. {Rennie, John, D.Sc. Natural History Department, University of Aberdeen. i! a ~~? ee | cay ti LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 75 Year of Election. 19065. 1912. 1904, 1912. 1905. 1883. 1913. 1871. 1900 1906. 1907. 1877. 1905. 1906. 1914. 1912. 1889. 1884, 1896. 1901. 1914. 1883. 1911. 1902. 1913, 1894. 1881. 1883. 1892. 1912. 1910. 1903. 1913. 1908. 1898. 1914, 1902. 1887, *Renton, James Hall. Rowfold Grange, Billingshurst, Sussex. tRettie, Theodore. 10 Doune-terrace, Edinburgh. {Revunert, TaEeopore, M.Inst.C.E. P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg. tRrw, R. H., C.B. (Pres. M, 1915.) Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 3 St. James’s-square, 8.W. §Reyersbach, Louis. Care of Messrs. Wernher, Beit, & Co., 1 London Wall-buildings, E.C. *Reynolds, A. H. 271 Lord-street, Southport. tReynolds, J. H. Low Wood, Harborne, Birmingham. {tReynotps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.RS., F.CS., M.R.I.A. (Pres. B, 1893; Council, 1893-99.) 3 Inverness- gardens, W. *Reynolds, Miss K. M. 8 Darnley-road, Notting Hill, W. tReynolds, S. H., M.A., Sc.D., Professor of Geology in the Univer- sity of Bristol. §Reynolds, W. G. Waterhouse. Birstall Holt, near Leicester. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva Muro 14, Modena, Italy. §Rich, Miss Florence, M.A. Granville School, Granville-road, Leicester. tRichards, Rev. A. W. 12 Bootham-terrace, York. tRichardson, A. Ei. V., M.A., B.Sc. Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. {Richardson, Harry, M.Inst.E.E. Electricity Supply Department, Dudhope Crescent-road, Dundee. tRichardson, Hugh, M.A. The Gables, Elswick-road, Newcastle-on- Tyne. *Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea. *Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell, near Weymouth. *Richardson, Owen Willans, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Wheatstone Professor of Physics in King’s College, London, W.C. *Rideal, Eric K., B.A., Ph.D. 28 Victoria-street, S.W. *RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sce., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W {Ridgeway, Miss A. R. 45 West Cliff, Preston. §Riparway, Wiviiam, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A. (Pres. H, 1908), Professor of Archeology in the University of Cambridge. Flendyshe, Fen Ditton, Cambridge. §Ridler, Miss C. C. Coniston, Hunsdon-road, Torquay. tRiptey, EK. P., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1895.) Burwood, Westerfield- road, Ipswich. *Rigg, Arthur. 150 Blomfield-terrace, W. *Riaa, Sir Epwarp, C.B., I.8.0., M.A. Royal Mint, E. tRintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol. §Rintoul, Miss L. J. Lahill, Largo, Fife. {Ripper, William, Professor of Engineering in the University of Sheffield. *Rivers, W. H. R., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1911.) St. John’s College, Cambridge. tRivert, A. C. D., B.A., Ph.D. (General Organising Secretary, 1914.) The University of Melbourne, Victoria. *Roaf, Herbert E., M.D., D.Sc. 44 Rotherwick-road, Hendon, N.W. *Robb, Alfred A., M.A., Ph.D. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast. tRobb, James Jenkins, M.D. Harlow, 19 Linden-road, Bournville, Birmingham. *Roberts, Bruno. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent's Park, N.W. *Roberts, Evan. 27 Crescent-grove, Clapham Common, S.W. 76 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1896. 1913. 1897. 1912. 1901. 1913. 1913. 1915. 1886. 1909. 1903. 1902. 1911. 1902. 1912. 1888. 1908. 1910. 1899. 1914. 1875. 1908. 1904. 1909. 1909. 1904. 1870. 1912. 1915. 1885. 1905. 1908. 1898. 1913. 1913. 1890. 1906. 1909. 1884. 1876. 1915. 1905. tRoberts, Thomas J. Ingleside, Park-road, Huyton, near Liverpool. §Robertson, Andrew. Engineering Laboratories, Victoria Uni- versity, Manchester. tRobertson, Professor J. W., C.M.G., LL.D. The Macdonald College, St. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada. §Robertson, R. A., M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Botany in the University of St. Andrews. *Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Carmbooth, Carmunnock, Lanarkshire. *Robins, Edward, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Lobito, Angola, Portu- guese South-West Africa. {tRobinson, A. H., M.D. St. Mary’s Infirmary, Highgate Hill, N. §Robinson, Arthur, Professor of Psychology in the University of Durham. Observatory House, Durham. *Robinson, Charles Reece. 176 Gerrard-street, Aston, Birmingham. tRobinson, E. M. 381 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada. {tRobinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport. tRobinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool. {Robinson, J. J. ‘ West Sussex Gazette’ Office, Arundel. tRobinson, James, M.A., F.R.G.S. Dulwich College, Dulwich, S.E. §Robinson, James. Care of W. Buckley, Esq., Tynemouth-road, North Shields. tRobinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal. *Robinson, John Gorges, B.A. Cragdale, Settle, Yorkshire. tRobinson, John Hargreaves. Cable Ship ‘ Norseman,’ Western Telegraph Co., Caixa no Correu No. 117, Pernambuco, Brazil. *Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. Parliament-chambers, Westminster, S.W. {Robinson, Professor R. The University, Liverpool. *Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington. {Robinson, Professor Robert, D.Sc. Lance House, Childwall-road, Wavertree, Liverpool. tRobinson, Theodore R. 25 Campden Hill-gardens, W. {Robinson, Captain W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada, tRobinson, Mrs. W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada. tRobinson, W. H. Kendrick House, Victoria-road, Penarth. *Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W. tRobson, W. G. 50 Farrington-street, Dundee. §Roby, Frank Henry. New Croft, Alderley Edge. *Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow. tRoebuck, William Denison, F.L.S. 259 Hyde Park-road, Leeds. tRogers, A.G. L. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 8 Whitehall- place, S.W. {Rogers, Bertram, M.D. (Local Sec. 1898.) 11 York-place, Clijton, Bristol. tRogers, F., D.Eng., B.A. Rowardennan, Chelsea-road, Sheffield. tRogers, Sir Hallewell. Greville Lodge, Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Leeds. 6 Hollin-lane, Leeds. tRogers, Reginald A. P. Trinity College, Dublin. tRogers, Hon. Robert. Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada. *Rogers, Walter. Care of Capital and Counties Bank, Falmouth. tRoxut, Sir A. K., LL.D., D.C.L., Litt.D. St. Anne’s Hall, near Chertsey-on-Thames, Surrey. §Roper, R. E., M.A. Bedale School, Petersfield. tRose, Miss G. Mabel. Ashley Lodge, Oxford. Be. b> mivee 4 Year LIST OF MEMBERS: 19lé. Th of Election. 1883. *Rose, J. Holland, Litt.D. Walsingham, Millington-road, Cam- bridge. 1894. *Rosz, Sir T. K., D.Sc., Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint. 1905. 1905. 1900. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1909. 1859. 1912. 1908. 1902. 1915. 1901. 1891. 1911. 1991. 1899. 1884. 1905. 1901. 1903. 1890. 1910. 1901. 1905. 1905. 1904. 1909. 1896. 1911. 1912. 1904. 1883. 1852. 1908. 1908. 1886. 1909. 6 Royal Mint, E. *Rosedale, Rev. H. G., D.D., F.S.A. 7 Gloucester-street, S.W. *Rosedale, Rev. W. E., D.D. St. Mary Bolton’s Vicarage, South Kensington, 8.W. tRosennarmn, Water, B.A., F.R.S. Warrawee, Coombe-lane, Kingston Hill, Surrey. §Rosenhain, Mrs. Warrawee, Coombe-lane, Kingston Hill, Surrey. {Rosenhain, Miss. Warrawee, Coombe-lane, Kingston Hill, Surrey. tRoss, Alexander David, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathematics and Physics in the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia. tRoss, D. A. -116 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada. *Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster. tRoss, Miss Joan M. Hazelwood, Warlingham, Surrey. tRoss, Sir John, of Bladensburg, K.C.B. Rostrevor House, Rostrevor. Co. Down. tRoss, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden-hill, W. §Ross, Roderick. Edinburgh. {Ross, Colonel Sir Ronatp, K.C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Tropical Sanitation in the University of Liverpool. The University, Liverpool. *Roth, H. Ling. Briarfield, Shibden, Halifax, Yorkshire. *Rothschild, Right Hon. Lord, D.8ec., Ph.D.. F.R.S. Tring Park, Tring. *Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co., Glasgow. *Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, S.E. *Rouse, M. L., B.A. 2 Exbury-road, Catford, S.E. §Rousselet, Charles F. Fir Island, Bittacy Hill, Mill Hill, N.W. tRowallan, the Right Hon. Lord. Thornliebank House, Glasgow. *Rowe, Arthur W., M.B., F.G.S. Shottendane, Margate. tRowley, Walter, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds. +Rowse, Arthur A., B.A., B.Sc. 190 Musters-road, West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. *Rudorf, C.C. G., Pn.D., B.Sc. 52 Cranley-gardens, Muswell Hill, N. *Ruffer, Marc Armand, C.M.G., M.A., M.D., B.Sc. Quarantine International Board, Alexandria. {Ruffer, Mrs. Alexandria. {Ruhemann, Dr. 8., F.R.S. The Elms, Adams-road, Cambridge. tRumball, Rev. M. C., B.A. Morden, Manitoba, Canada. *Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. Terras Hill, Lostwithiel. {Rundle, Henry, F.R.C.S. 13 Clarence-parade, Southsea. *Rusk, Robert R., M.A., Ph.D. 4 Barns-crescent, Ayr. tRussell, E. J., D.Sc. Rothamsted Experimental Station, Har- penden, Herts. *Russell, J. W. 28 Staverton-road, Oxford. *Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W. tRussell, Robert. Arduagremia, Haddon-road, Dublin. tRusset, Right Hon. T. W., M.P. Olney, Terenure, Co. Dublin. {Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester. ea Hon. Alexander Cameron. Strathcona, Alberta, nada. 1907. §RutTHERFORD, Sir Ernest, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1909; Council, 1914- ), Professor of Physics in the University of Manchester. 78 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Election. 1914. 1914. 1909. 1908. 1905. 1909, 1906. 1903. 1883. 1871. 1903. 1914. 1915. 1873. 1904. 1911, 1901. 1907. 1915. 1896. 1896. 1903. 1886. 1905. 1896. 1907. 1914. 1913. 1903. 1887. 1906. 1883. 1903. 1879. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1888. 1880. 1905. §Rutherford, Lady. 17 Wilmslow-road, Withington, Manchester. tRutherford, Miss Kileen. 17 Wilmslow-road, Withington, Man- chester. {Ruttan, Colonel H. N. Armstrong’s Point, Winnipeg, Canada. tRyan, Hugh, D.Sc. Omdurman, Orwell Park, Rathgar, Dublin, tRyan, Pierce. Rosebank House, Rosebank, Cape Town {Ryan, Thomas. Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. *RyMER, Sir JoSEPH SyKES. The Mount, York. {Sapizr, M. E., C.B., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1906), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds. 41 Headingley-lane, Leeds. {Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport. {Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Church House, Westminster, S.W. tSagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax. {St. John, J. R. Botanic Gardens, Melbourne. §Sainter, E. H. Care of Messrs. Steel, Peech & Tozer, Sheftield. *Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells. {Savrmr, A. E., D.Sc., F.G.S. 5 Clifton-place, Brighton. §Sampson, Professor R. A., M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. tSamuel, John S., J.P., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow. *Sand, Dr. Henry J. 8. The Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Jewry-street, Aldgate, H.C. Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry. *Sandon, Harold. 51 Dartmouth Park-hill, Kentish Town, N.W. §Saner, John Arthur, M.Inst.C.E. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire. {Saner, Mrs. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire. tSankey, Captain H. R., R.E., M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, 9 Bridge-street, S.W. {Sankey, Percy E. 44 Russell-square, W.C. {Sargant, H. B. Quarry Hill, Reigate. *SarGAnt, Miss Eres, F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1913.) The Old Rectory, Girton, Cambridgeshire. tSargent, H.C. Ambergate, near Derby. §Sargent, O. H. York, Western Australia. tSaundby, Robert, M.D. Great Charles-street, Birmingham. *SaunpeErs, Miss E. R. (Council, 1914- .) Newnham College, Cambridge. §Sayor, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College, Oxford. {Sayer, Dr. Ettie. 35 Upper Brook-street, W. *Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire. {ScaRISBRICK, Sir CHaRLES, J.P. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport. *Scuirer, Sir E. A., LL.D., D.Sc, M.D., F.R.S. (PresrpEnt, 1912; GrnmRAL SEcRETARY, 1895-1900; Pres. I, 1894; Council, 1887-93), Professor of Physiology in the University of Edinburgh. Marly Knowe, North Berwick. {Schafer, Lady. Marly Knowe, North Berwick. tScharff, J. W. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow. tScharff, Mrs. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow. *ScHaRFF, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History Department, National Museum, Dublin. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow. *Schemmann, Louis Carl. Neueberg 12, Hamburg. {Scuonnanp, §., Ph.D. Albany Museum, Grahamstown, Cape Colony. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 79 Year of Election, 1873. *ScuustEr, Artruur, Ph.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S. (PresipEent; Pres. A, 1892 ; Council, 1887-93.) Yeldall, Twyford, Berks. 1883. *ScraTEerR, W. Luriey, M.A., F.Z.S. Odiham Priory, Winchfield, 1905. {Sclater, Mrs. W. L. Odiham Priory, Winchfield. 1913, §Scoble, Walter A., B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E. City and Guilds Technical College, Leonard-street, E.C. 1881. *Scorr, AvexanpER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.8. 34 Upper Hamilton-terrace, N.W. 1878. *Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter. 1889. *Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.S. (Genera SEcRE- TARY, 1900-03 ; Pres. K, 1896.) East Oakley House, Oakley, Hants ; and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 1915. §Scott, Rev. Canon J. J. 65 Ardwick-green, Manchester. 1857. *Scort, Ropert H., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park- gardens, 8.W. 1902. {Scort, Winutam R., M.A., Litt.D. (Pres. F, 1915), Professor of Political Economy in the University of Glasgow. 1895. {Scott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. Newton, Dumfries. 1883. {Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover. 1895. {Scull, Miss E. M. L. St. Edmund’s, 10 Worsley-road, Hamp- stead, N.W. 1890. *Searle, G. F. C., Sc.D., F.R.S. Wyncote, Hills-road, Cambridge. 1906. *See, T. J. J., A.M., Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics, U.S. Navy. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, California. 1907. §Sexiaman, Dr. C. G. (Pres. H, 1915), Professor of Ethnology in the University of London. 36 Finchley-road, N.W. 1911. *Selizman, Mrs. C. G. 36 Finchley-road, N.W. 1913. §Seligmann, Miss Emma A. 61 Kirklee-road, Kelvinside, Glasgow. 1909. {Sellars, H. Lee. 225 Fifth-avenue, New York, U.S.A. 1888. *SENIER, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1912), Professor of Chemistry in University College, Galway. 28 Herbert-park, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin. 1910. {Seton, R. S., B.Sc. The University, Leeds, 1895. *Seton-Karr, H. W. 8 St. Paul’s-mansions, Hammersmith, W. 1892. *Suwarp, A. C., M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. K, 1903 ; Council, 1901-07; Local Sec. 1904), Professor of Botany in the Univer- sity of Cambridge. The Master’s Lodge, Downing College, Cambridge. 1913. {Seward, Mrs. The Master’s Lodge, Downing College, Cambridge. 1914. tSeward, Miss Phyllis. The Master’s Lodge, Downing College, Cambridge. 1899. {Seymour, Henry J., B.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the National University of Ireland. LEarlsfort-terrace, Dublin. 1891. {Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff. 1905. *Shackleford, W. C. Burnt Green, Worcestershire. 1904. {Shackleton, Lieutenant Sir Ernest H., M.V.O., F.R.GLS. 9 Regent- street, S.W. 1902. {SHarrespury, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., K.C.V.O. Belfast Castle, Belfast. 1913. {Shakespear, G. A., D.Se., M.A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfield, Worcestershire. 1901. *Shakespear, Mrs. G. A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfield, Worcester- shire. 1906. {Shann, Frederick. 6 St. Leonard’s, York. 1878. {SHarpr, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Lawnside, Brocken- hurst, Hants, 3 80 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1904 1914, 1910. 1889. 1883. 1883. 1915. 1903. 1912. 1905. 1905. 1865. 1900. 1908. 1883. 1883. 1896. 1888. 1908. 1883. 1887. 1897. 1882. 1901. 1908. 1904. 1910. 1889. 1902. 1883. 1877. 1914. 1913. 1873. 1905. 1914. 1903. 1915. 1871. 1914. . {Sharples, George. 181 Great Cheetham-street West, Higher Broughton, Manchester. {Shaw, A. G. Merton-crescent, Albert Park, Victoria. §Shaw, J. J. Sunnyside, Birmingham-road, West Bromwich. *Shaw, Mrs. M. 8., B.Sc. Brookhayes, Exmouth. ~ *Suaw, Sir Napier, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1908 ; Council, 1895-1900, 1904-07.) Meteorological Office, Exhibition-road, South Kensington, 8.W. tShaw, Lady. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensington, S.W. §Shaw, Dr. P. E. University College, Nottingham. {Shaw-Phillips, T., J.P. The Times Library Club, 380 Oxford- street, W. tShearer, C. Clare College, Cambridge. tShenstone, Miss A. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes. tShenstone, Mrs. A. E. G. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes. tShenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes. §SHEPPaRD, Tuomas, F'.G.S. The Municipal Museum, Hull. tSheppard, W. F., Se.D., LL.M. Board of Education, White- hall, S.W. tSherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin. tSherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin. jSsErrinaton, C.8., M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1904; Council, 1907-14), Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford. 9 Chadlington-road, Oxford. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath. *Shickle, Miss Mabel G. M. 9 Cavendish-crescent, Bath. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. Ardvernis, 3 Richmond-gardens, Bournemouth. *SuipLey, ArtaurR E., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1909; Council, 1904-11), Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. {Snorn, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge. tSuHorg, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 6 Kingswood-road, Upper Nor- wood, S.E. {Short, Peter M., B.Sc. 1 Deronda-road, Herne Hill, 8.E. tShorter, Lewis R., B.Sc. 29 Albion-street, W. *Shrubsall, F. C., M.A., M.D. 4 Heathfield-road, Mill Hill Park, Acton, W. tShuttleworth, T. E. 5 Park-avenue, Riverdale-road, Sheffield. {Sibley, Walter K., M.A., M.D. 6 Cavendish-place, W. {Siddons, A. W., M.A. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex. *Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Srpawick, Mrs. Henry (Pres. I., 1915). 27 Grange-road, Cam- bridge. *Srpawick, N. V., M.A., D.Sc. Lincoln College, Oxford. *SrmrmEns, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E. Caxton House, Westminster, {Siemens, Mrs. A. Caxton House, Westminster, S.W. {Silberberg, H. B. 8 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W. *Silberrad, Dr. Oswald. Buckhurst Hill, Essex. *Simon, Councillor E. D. (Local Secretary, 1915.) 20 Mount- street, Manchester. *Smmpson, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.D., Emeritus Professor of Mid- wifery in the University of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh. §Simpson, Dr. G. C. Meteorological Department, Simla, India. LIST OF MEMBERS : 1915. 81 Year of Election. 1913. *Simpson, J. A., ee D.Sc. 62 Academy-street, Elgin. 1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgefield House, Blaydon- -on-Tyne. 1909. {Simpson, Professor J. a McGill University, Montreal, Canada. 1908. {Simpson, J. J., M.A., B.Se. Zoological Department, Marischal College, Aberdeen. 1901. *Simpson, Professor J. Y., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 25 Chester-street. Edinburgh. 1907. {Simpson, Lieut.-Colonel R. J. S., C.M.G. 66 Shooter’s Hill-road, Blackheath, S.E. 1909. *Simpson, Samuel, B.Sc., Director of Agriculture, Kampala, Uganda. 1909. {Simpson, Sutherland, M.D. Cornell University Medical College, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A. 1884, *Simpson, Professor W. J. R., ©.M.G., M.D. 31 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1909. {Sinclair, J. D. 77 Spence-street, Winnipeg. 1912. §Sinclair, Sir John R.G., Bart.,D.S.0, Barrock House, Wick, N.B. 1907. *Sircar, Dr. Amrita Lal, L.M.S., F.C.S. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta. 1905. *SsocreN, Professor H. Natural History Museum, Stockholm, Sweden. 1914. “Skeats, E. W., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Uni- versity, Melbourne. 1902. {Skeffington, J. B., M.A., LL.D. Waterford. 1906. {Skerry, H. A. St, Paul’s- “square, York. 1883. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham. 1910. {Skinner, J.C. 76 Ivy Park-road, Sheffield. 1898. {Sxinver, Sipney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) South-Western Polytechnic, Manresa-road, Chelsea, S.W. 1905. *Skyrme, C. G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood, S.E. 1913. ares Mrs. C. G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood, BE. 1913. *Stapu, R. E., D.Sc. University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1915. §Slater, Gilbert. Ruskin College, Oxford. 1887. tSmall, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 48 Kedleston-road, Derby. 1915. *Smalley, J. Norton Grange, Castleton, Manchester. 1915. §Smalley, William. Springfield, Castleton, Manchester. 1903. *Smallman, Raleigh 8. Eliot Lodge, Albemarle-road, Beckenham. 1902. {Smedley, Miss Ida, 36 Russell- -square, W.C. 1911. {Smiles, Samuel. The Quarry, Sanderstead-road, Sanderstead, Surrey. 191]. pot A. Malins, M.A. St. Audrey’s Mill House, Thetford, Nor- folk. 1914. {Smith, Professor A. Micah. School of Mines, Ballarat, Victoria. 1892. {Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, U.S.A. 1908. {Smith, Alfred. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin. 1897. {Smith, Andrew, Principal _of the Veterinary College, Toronto, Canada. 1901. *Surra, Miss ANnin Lorratn. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensing- ton, W. 1914. {Smith, Arthur Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester. 1873. {Smith, C. Sidney-Sussex College, Cambridge. 1889. *Smrru, Professor ©. Micutz, C.I.E., B.Se., F.R.S\E., F.R.A.S Winsford, Kodaikanal, South India. 1910. {Smith, Charles. 11 Winter-street, Sheffield. 1900. §Smith, E.J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford. 1913. *Smith, Miss E. M. 40 Owlstone-road, Newnham, Cambridge.. 1908. {Smith, E. Shrapnell. 7 Rosebery-avenue, E.C. 1915. R 82 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Hlection. 1915. 1886. 1901. 1866. 1911. 1912. 1897. 1914. 1911. 1903. 1910. 1914, 1889. 1860. 1876. 1902. 1903. 1915. 1914. 1914. 1910. 1894, 1910. 1896, 1911. 1913. 1885. 1909. 1883. 1909. 1857. 1914. 1908. 1888. 1913. 1905. 1905. 1879. 1883. 1915. 1900. §Smite, E. W. Fraser. (Locat Srcrerary, 1916). 2 Jesmond- gardens, Newcastle-on-Tyne *Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham. §Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq., Burlington House, Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, S.W. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham. §Smith, F. E. National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex. {Smith, Rev. Frederick. The Parsonage, South Queensferry. iSmirn, G. Extiot, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1912), Professor of Anatomy in the University of Manchester. §Smith, Mrs. G. Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester. Smith, Geoffrey W., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford. *Smitu, Professor H. B. Lrzs, M.A., M.P. The University, Bristol. §Smith, H. Bompas, M.A. Victoria University, Manchester. {Smith, H. G. Technological Museum, Sydney, N.S.W. *SmitH, Sir H. LLEwEttyn, K.C.B., M.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1910.) Board of Trade, S.W. *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 30 York-avenue, Hove. *Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow. {Smith, J. Lorrain, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the University of Edinburgh. *Smith, James. Pinewood, Crathes, Aberdeen. §Smith, Joseph. 28 Alton-street, Blackburn. tSmith, Miss L. Winsford, Kodaikanal, South India. {tSmith, Latimer Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester. §Smith, Samuel. Central Library, Sheffield. §Smith, T. Walrond. Care of Frank Henderson, Esq., Thetford, Charles-street, Berkhamsted. {Smith, W. G., B.Sc., Ph.D. College of Agriculture, Edinburgh. *Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 104-122 City-road, E.C. {Smith, W. Parnell. The Grammar School, Portsmouth. {Smith, Walter Campbell. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, S.W. *Smith, Watson. 34 Upper Park-road, Haverstock Hill, N.W. {Smith, William. 218 Sherbrooke-street, Winnipeg, Canada. {SmirHeELis, ARTHUR, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1907 ; Local Sec. 1890), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds. {Smylie, Hugh. 13 Donegall-square North, Belfast. *SmytH, Joun, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown, Banbridge, Ireland. §Smyth, John, M.A., Ph.D. Teachers’ College, Carlton, Victoria. §Smythe, J. A., Ph.D., D.Sc. 10 Queen’s-gardens, Benton, New- castle-on-Tyne. *Snapr, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom-road, South- port. *Snell, Sir John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W. tSoppy, F., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen. {Sollas, Miss I. B. J., B.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge. *Sottas, W. J., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1900 ; Council, 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the Univer- sity of Oxford. 48 Woodstock-road, Oxford. tSollas, Mrs. 48 Woodstock-road, Oxford. §Somers, Edward. 4 Leaf-square, Pendleton. *SoMERVILLE, W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Sibthorpian Professor of Rural eonony in the University of Oxford. 121 Banbury-road, xford., ee ee a ae ne Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 83 Election. 1910. 1903. 1903. 1865. 1915. 1883. 1913. 1909. 1893. 1910. 1912. 1914. 1910. 1894. 1864, 1909. 1854, 1915. 1888. 1903. 1883. 1914. 1894, 1909. 1900. 1913. 1911. 1915. 1899. 1898. 1907. 1910. 1900. 188]. 1892. 1896. 1914. 1911. 1908. 1912. *Sommerville, Duncan M. Y. Tl University, St. Andrews, N.B. tSoulby, R. M. Sea Holm, Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lanca shire. tSouthall, Henry T. The Graig, Ross, Herefordshire. *Southall, John Tertius. . Parkfield:, Ross, Herefordshire. §Sowerbutts, Harry. Manchester Geographical Society, 16 St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester. {Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley, Staffordshire. §Sparke, Thomas Sparrow. 33 Birkby-crescent, Huddersfield. {Sparling, Rev. J. W.,D.D. 159 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada. *Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston. {Spearman, C. Birnam, Guernsey. {tSpeers, Adam, B.Sc., J.P. Holywood, Belfast. {SPENCER, Professor W. Batpwiy, C.M.G., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. The University, Melbourne. tSpicer, Rev. H.C. The Rectory, Waterstock, Oxford. {Spiers, A. H. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk. *SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s- road, Canonbury, N. {Sprague, D. E. 76 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada. *Spraaugr, THomas Bonp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham- terrace, Edinburgh. §Squier, George Owen. 43 Park-lane, W. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 164 Shoreditch, BE. {Stallworthy, Rev. George B. The Manse, Hindhead, Haslemere, Surrey. *Stanford, Edward, F.R.G.S. 12-14 Long-acre, W.C. *Stanley, Hon. Sir Arthur, K.C.M.G. State Government House, Melbourne. *STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. {Stansfield, Edgar. Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada. *STANSFIELD, Professor H., D.Sc. Hartley University College, Southampton. §Stanton, T. E., D.Sc., F.R.S. National Physical Laboratory, Ted- dington, Middlesex. §Srapr, Dr. Orto, F.R.S. Royal Gardens, Kew. §Stapledon, R. G. The Fangan, Llanbadarn, Aberystwyth. tStartine, FE. H., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1909 ; Council, 1914- ), Professor of Physiology in University College, London, W.C. {Stather, J. W., F.G.S. Brookside, Newland Park, Hull. Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire. §Staynes, Frank. 36-38 Silver-street, Leicester. {Stead, F. B. 80 St. Mary’s-mansions, Paddington, W. *Srmap, J. E., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1910.) 11 Queen’s-terrace, Middlesbrough. {Stead, W. H. Beech-road, Reigate. *SteBBinG, Rev. Tomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The Common, Tunbridge Wells. *Srrppina, W. P. D., F.G.S. 78a Lexham-gardens, W. {Srzexe, Professor B. D. The University, Brisbane, Australia. {Steele, L. J.. M.L.E.E. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth. {Steele, Lawrence Edward, M.A., M.R.I.A. 18 Crosthwaite-park East, Kingstown, Co. Dublin. §Steggall, J. E. A., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University College, Dundee. Woodend, Perth-road, Dundee. F2 84 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1911. 1909. 1884. 1915. L902. 1910. 1911. 1909. 1908. 1906. 1900. 1880. 1915. 1905. 1916. 1909. 1875. 1901. 1901. 1915. 1911. 1913. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1876. 1904. 1906. 1901. 1883. 1898. 1899. 1905. 1895. 1908. 1878. 1883. 1903. 1915. {Stein, Sir Mare Aurel, K.C.LE., D.Se., D.Litt. Merton College, Oxford. {Steinkopj, Max. 667 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada. *Stephens, W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A. §Stephens, Sir William. 2 Cathedral-street, Manchester. {Stephenson, G. Grianan, Glasnevin, Dublin. *STEPHENSON, H. K. Banner Cross Hall, Sheffield. tStern, Moritz. 241 Bristol-road, Birmingham. {Stethern, G. A. Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada. *Steven, Alfred Ingram, M.A., B.Sc. 16 Great Clyde-street, Glasgow. Stevens, Miss C. O. The Plain, Foxcombe Hill, Oxford. {Stevens, FREDERICK. (Local Sec. 1900.) Town Clerk’s Office, Bradford. *Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpill, R.S.O. §Stevens, Marshall. Trafford Hall, Manchester. §Stewart, A. F. 343 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada. §Stewart, A. W., D.Sc. 3 Annfield-road, Partick Hill, Glasgow. {Stewart, David A., M.D. 407 Pritchard-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. *Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Junior Constitutional Club, Piccadilly, W. *Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 2 Stow Park-crescent, New- port, Monmouthshire. *Stewart, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. St. George’s-chambers, Cape Town. §Stewart, Walter. Ventnor Street Works, Bradford. {Stibbs, H. A. Portsea Island Gas Company, Commercial-road, Portsmouth. *STILEs, WALTER. The University, Leeds. {Stillwell, J. L.. M.Sc. University of Adelaide, South Australia. tStirling, Miss A. M. Care of Messrs. Elder & Co., 7 St. Helen’s- place, Bishopsgate, E.C. tSrmuine, E. C., C.M.G., M.A., M.D., Se.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Adelaide, South Australia. {Srrrtune, Witx1aM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology in the Victoria University, Manchester. {Stobbs, J. T. Dunelm, Basford Park, Stoke-on-Trent. *Stobo, Mrs. Annie. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbarton- shire, N.B. *Stobo, Thomas. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbartonshire, N.B *Stocker, W. N., M.A. Brasenose Colleze, Oxford. *Stokes, Professor George J.. M.A. 5 Fernhurst-villas, College- road, Cork. *Stone, Rev. F. J. Radley College, Abingdon. {Stoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Province. *Stoney, Miss Edith A. 20 Reynolds-close, Hampstead Way, N.W. *Stoney, Miss Florence A., M.D. 4 Nottingham-place, W. *Stoney, G. Gerald, F.R.S. Oakley, Heaton-road, Newcastle-upon- 'yne. {Stopes, Mrs. 4 Kemplay-road, Hampstead, N.W. *StopEs, Marre C., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S. 14 Well-walk, Hampstead, N.W. §Stopford, John 8. B. Woodbank, Higher Fence-road, Macclesfield. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 85 Mloction. 1910. §Storey, Gilbert. Department of Agriculture, Cairo. 1887. *Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster. 1888. *Stothert, Perey K. Woolley Grange, Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts. 1905. *Stott, Clement H., F.G.S. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal. 1881. {Srranan, AuBrey, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1904), 1905. 1908. 1914. 1906. 1883. 1898. 1887. 1887. 1876. 1872. 1885. 1909. 1879. 1902. 1898. 1911. 1887. 1908. 1913. 1914. 1911. 1911. 1903. 1905. 1911. 1897. 1914. 1914. 1913. 1914. 1887. 1913. 1887. 1913. 1896. 1902. 1902. 1906. 1914. 1903. Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Geo- logical Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W. tStrange, Harold F. P.O. Box 2527, Johannesburg. *Stratton, F. J. M., M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. tStreet, Mr. Justice. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme Court, Sydney, N.S.W. *Stromeyer, C. E. 9 Mount-street, Albert-square, Manchester. §Strong, Henry J.,M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing. *Strong, W. M., M.D. 3 Champion-park, Denmark Hill, 8.E. *Stroud, H., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. *Srroup, WILLIAM, D.Sc. Care of Messrs. Barr & Stroud, Annies- land, Glasgow. *Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, §.E. *Stuart, Rev. Canon Edward A., M.A. The Precincts, Canter- bury. tStump, Edward C. Malmesbury, Poiefield, Blackley, Manchester. {Stupart, R. F. Meteorological Service, Toronto, Canada. *Styring, Robert. Brinkcliffe Tower, Sheffield. §Sully, H. T. Scottish Widows-buildings, Bristol. §Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Queen’s-road, Weston-super-Mare. tSummers, A. H., M.A. 16 St. Andrew’s-road, Southsea. *Sumpner, W. E., D.Sc. Technical School, Suffolk-street, Bir- mingham. {Sutherland, Alexander. School House, Gersa, Watten, Caithness. §Sutton, A.W. Bucklebury-place, Woolhampton, Berkshire. {Sutton, Harvey, M.D., B.Sc. Trinity College, Parkville, Victoria. {Sutton, Leonard, F.L.S. Hillside, Reading. tSutton, W. L., F.1.C. Hillcroft, Eaton, Norwich. {tSwallow, Rev. R. D., M.A. Chigwell School, Essex. tSwan, Miss Mary E. Overhill, Warlingham, Surrey. *Swann, Dr. W. F. G. Department of Terrestrial Magnetism Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C, U.S.A. {Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast. §Sweet, George, F.G.S. The Close, Brunswick, Victoria. {Sweet, Miss Georgina, D.Sc. The Close, Brunswick, Victoria. {Swift, Richard H. 4839 St. Lawrence-avenue, Chicago. {Swinburne, Hon. George. 139 Collins-street, Melbourne. eee aes Jamzs, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, Ny {Swinnerton, H. H. 441 Mansfield-road, Nottingham. *Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elm- bourne-road, Tooting Common, S.W. §Sykes, Godfrey G. Desert Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A. *Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 10 Headingley-avenue, Leeds. *Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire. *Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire. tSykes, T. P., M.A. 4 Gathorne-street, Great Horton, Bradford. tSyme, Mrs. D. York. Balwyn, Victoria. §Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough. 86 Year of BRITISH ASSOCIA'TION. Election. 1885. 1914. 1908. 1910. 1912. 1904. 1913. 1903. 1892. 1908. 1861. 1902. 1913. 1914. 1908. 1887. 1881. 1906. 1884. 1882. 1914. 1913. 1915. 1860. 1906. 1884. 1894. 1901. 1858. 1885. 1906. 1910. 1879. 1913. 1892, 1883. 1883. 1882. 1915, 1871. 1906. 1906. {Symineton, Jounson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903), Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s University, Belfast. {Symington, Miss N. Queen’s University, Belfast. tSynnott, Nicholas J. Furness, Naas, Co. Kildare *Tait, John, M.D., D.Sc. 44 Viewforth-terrace, Edinburgh. {Talbot, P. Amaury. Abbots Morton, Inkherrow, Worcestershire. §Tallack, H. T. Clovelly, Birdhurst-road, South Croydon. §Tangye, William. Westmere, Edgbaston Park-road, Birmingham. *Tanner, Miss Ellen G. Parkside, Corsham, Wilts. *TansLrey, ArTHUR G., M.A., F.L.S. Grantchester, near Cambridge. {TaRLEToN, Francis A., LL.D. 24 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin. *Tarratt, Henry W. 25 Glyn-mansions, Addison Bridge, Ken- sington, W. {Tate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast. §Tattersall, W. M., D.Sc. The Museum, The University, Manchester. *Taylor, C. Z. 216 Smith-street, Collingwood, Victoria. {Taylor, Rev. Campbell, M.A. United Free Church Manse, Wigtown, Scotland. tTaylor, G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford. *Taylor, H. A. 12 Melbury-road, Kensington, W. {Taylor, H. Dennis. Stancliffe, Mount-villas, York. *Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. *Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham. {Taylor, J. M., M.A. Public Service Board, 4 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W. tTaylor, J. 8. The Corinthians, Warwick-road, Acock’s Green. §Taylor, J. W. Morecambe. *Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Street-place, E.C. §Taylor, Miss M. R. Newstead, Blundellsands. *Taylor, Miss 8S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham. *Taylor, W. W., M.A. 66 St. John’s-road, Oxford. *Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Kingsborough-gardens, Glasgow. {Teatz, THomas Pripain, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street, Leeds. tTzatt, J. J. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893 ; Council, 1894-1900, 1909- ). Athenzeum Club, 8.W. *Teape, Rev. W. M., M.A. South Hylton Vicarage, Sunderland. tTebb, W. Scott, M.A., M.D. 15 Finsbury-circus, E.C. {Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Solheim, Cumberland Park, Acton, W. §Tremp.e, Sir R. C., Bart., CIE. (Pres. H, 1913.) The Nash, Worcester. ; *Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A. tTetley, C. F, The Brewery, Leeds. tTetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds. *THane, GrorcE Danorr, LL.D., Professor of Anatomy in Uni- versity College, London, W.C. §Thewlis, J. Herbert. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester. jTutsetton-Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., CLE., M.A., B.So., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. K, 1895 ; Council, 1885-89, 1895-1900.) The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester. *THopay, D.. The University, Manchester. *Thoday, Mrs. M. G. 6 Lyme-park, Chinley, Stockport. °. |e = LISLE OF MEMBERS: 1915. 87 Year of Election, 1870. 1891. 1903. 1913. 1910, 1899, 1902. 1883. 1904. 1891. 1888, 1885, 1896, 1907. 1883. 1904. 1912. 1893. 1913. 1913, 1876. 1913. 1876. 1883. 1896. 1911. 1912. 1912. 1894. 1913. 1912. 1909. 1906. 1914. 1890 1883. 1889. 1902. {Thom, Colonel Robert Wilson, J.P. Brooklands, Lord-street West, Southport. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Pencerrig, Builth. *Tyomas, Miss Evrurnt N., D.Sc. 3 Downe-mansions, Gondar- gardens, West Hampstead, N.W. {Thomas, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. *Thomas, H. Hamshaw. Botany School, Cambridge. *Thomas, Mrs. J. W. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent. *Thomas, Miss M. Beatrice. Girton College, Cambridge. tThomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff. *Thomas, William, F.R.G.S. Bryn-heulog, Merthyr Tydfil. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, Northampton. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in University College, Cardiff. 88 Park-place, Cardiff. {THompson, D’Arcy W., C.B., B.A. (Pres. D, 1911; Local Sec. 1912), Professor of Zoology in University College, Dundee. *Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop *Thompson, Edwin. 25 Sefton-drive, Liverpool. *Thompson, Francis. Eversley, Haling Park-road, Croydon. *Thompson, G. R., B.Sc., Principal of and Professor of Mining in the South Atrican School of Mines, Johannesburg. *Thompson, Rev. H. Perey. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E. Tregarthen, Garland’s-road, Leatherhead. *Thompson, Mrs. Lilian Gilchrist. Kippington Vicarage. Sevenoaks. {Thompson, Peter. 14 Rotten Park-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York. *Thompson, Sidney Gilchrist. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks. {TsHompson, Sitvanus Purturms, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. G, 1907 ; Council, 1897-99, 1910- ), Principal of and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Tech- nical College, Leonard-street, Finsbury, E.C. *Thompson, T. H. Oldtield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Tuompsun, W. H., M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1908), King’s Professor of Institutes of Medicine (Physiology) in Trinity College, Dublin. 14 Hatch-street, Dublin. {Thompson, Mrs. W. H. 328 Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg. {Thompson, William Bruce. Thornbank, Dundee. §Thoms, Alexander. 7 Playfair-terrace, St. Andrews. {Tuomson, ArtuuR, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford. t{Thomson, Arthur W., D.Sc. 28 Craven Hill-gardens, W. §Thomson, D. C. ‘Courier’ Buildings, Dundee. *Thomson, E. 22 Monument-avenue, Swampscott, Mass., U.S.A. §Thomson, F. Ross, F.G.S. Hensill, Hawkhurst, Kent. §Thomson, Hedley J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 14 Leonard-place, High- street, Kensington, W. *THomson, Professor J. Antuur, M.A., F.R.S.E. Castleton House, Old Aberdeen. {Tuomson, Sir J. J., O.M., M.A., Sc.D., D.Sc., Pres. R.S. (PRESIDENT, 1909; Pres. A, 1896; Council, 1893-95), Professor of Ex- perimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. *Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastie-upon- Tyne. Pokoniset. James Stuart. 4 Highfield, Chapel-eii-le-Frith, Derby- shire. 88 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1891. 1871. 1874. 1906. 1905. 1898. 1902. 1903. 1881. 1881. 1898. 1871. 1899. 1896. 1873. 1905. 1874. 1913. 1899. 1914. 1902. 1905. 1911. 1900. 1912. 1907. 1889. 1875. 1909. 1912. 1901. 1876. 1870. 1902. tThomson, John. Westover, Mount Ephraim-road, Streatham, S.W. *THomson, JOHN Miuiar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1895-1901), Professor of Chemistry in King's College, London. 18 Lans- downe-road, Holland Park, W. §THomson, WILLIAM, F.R.S.2., I.C.S. Royal Institution, Man- chester. {Thornely, Miss A. M. M. Oaklands, Langham-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Thornely, Miss L. R. Nunclose, Grassendale, Liverpool. *THornTON, W. M., D.Sc., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. {Thornycroft, Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Eyot Villa, Chis- wick Mall, W. {Thorp, Edward. 87 Southbank-road, Southport. tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York. *Thorp, Josiah. 24 Manville-road, New Brighton, Cheshire. {Tuorre, JocELyN FieLp, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, S.W. {TuHorpr, Sir T. E., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.RB.S., F.R.S.E., E.CS. (Pres. B, 1890; Council, 1886-92.) Whinfield, Salcombe, Devon. §THRELFALL, RicuarD, M.A., F.R.S. Oakhurst, Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. §Turirt, Witt14am Epwarp, M.A. (Local Sec. 1908), Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Dublin. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Dublin. *TIDDEMAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 298 Woodstock-road, Oxford. tTietz, Heinrich, B.A., Ph.D. South African College, Cape Town. {Ti_pen, Sir Wiiu1am A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1888; Council, 1898-1904.) The Oaks, Northwood, Middlesex. {Tilley, J. W. Field House, Harborne, Park-road, Birmingham. {T:ms, H. W. Marett, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Royal Veterinary College. 11D Oxford and Cambridge- mansions, Marylebone-road, N.W. fTims, Mrs. Marett. 11D Oxford and Cambridge-mansions, Maryle- bone-road, N.W. {Tipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 21 Greenside, Kendal. {Tippett, A. M., M.Inst.C.E. Cape Government Railways, Cape Town. {Tizard, Henry T. Oriel College, Oxford. *Tocher, J. F., D.Sc., F.C. Crown-mansions, 41} Union-street, Aberdeen. §Todd, John A. The Nook, Alexandra Park, Nottingham. {Todd, Professor J. L. MacDonald College, Quebec, Canada. §Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool. tTorr, Charles Hawley. 35 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Not- tingham. {tTory, H.M. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. {Tosh, Elmslie. 11 Reform-street, Dundee. Townsend, J. S., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the University of Oxford. New College, Oxford. *Tram, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1910), Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Aberdeen. tTgam., Wiutiam A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway, Portrush, Ireland. fTravers, Ernest J. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim. LIST OF MEMBERS : 1915. 89 Year of Election. 1914. 1884. 1908. 1908. 1911. 1914. 1887. 1903. 1908. 1905. 1871. 1902. 1884, 1914. 1887. 1914. 1898. 1913. 1885. 1905. 1912. 1901. 1914. 1893. 1913. 1894. 1905. 1886. 1910. 1890. 1907. 1915. 1886. 1899. 1907. 1865. 1911. *Trechmann, C. T. Hudworth Tower, Castle Eden, Durham. {Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool. aia abe Henry M., B.Sc. 3 Staflord-road, Weston-super- are. {Tremain, Miss Caroline P., B.A. Alexandra College, Dublin. §Tremearne, Mrs., LL.A., F.L.S. 105 Blackheath-park, S.E. {Tremearne, Mrs. Ada J. Mandeville Hall, Clendon-road, Toorak, Victoria. *Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber- ford, Leeds. fTrenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield. {Tresilian, R. 8S. Cumnor, Eglington-road, Dublin. tTrevor-Barryz, A., M.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Stoner Hill, Peters- field, Hants. {TRmeEN, Rouanp, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Glaslyn, Water- den-road, Guildford. fTristram, Rev. J. F., M.A., B.Sc. 20 Chandos-road, Chorlton- cum-Hardy, Manchester. *Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond-terrace, Whitehall, S.W. {Trouton, Eric. The Rydings, Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W. *Trouton, Freprrick T., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1914; Council, 1911-14.) The Rydings, Redington-road, Hamp- stead, N.W. Some Mrs. The Rydings, Redington-road, Hampstead, N *TRow, ALBERT HowapgbD, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni- versity College, Cardiff. {Tschugaeff, Professor L. The University, Petrograd. *Tubby, A. H., M.S., F.R.C.S. 68 Harley-street, W. §Turmeau, Charles. Claremont, Victoria Park, Wavertree, Li verpool. {Turnbull, John. City Chambers, Dundee. §Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, Dublin. {Tumer, Dr. A. J. Wickham-terrace, Brisbane, Australia. tTurver, Dawson, M.D., F.R.S.E. 37 George-square, Edinburgh. §Turner,G.M. Kenilworth. *TurnNeER, H. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (GENERAL SucreE- TARY, 1913- ; Pres. A, 1911), Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. University Observatory, Oxford. tTurner, Rev. Thomas. St. Saviour’s Vicarage, 50 Fitzroy- street, W. *TurNner, THomas, M.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.I.C., Professor of Metallurgy in the University of Birmingham. 75 Middleton Hall-road, King’s Norton. *Turner, W. E.S. The University, Sheffield, *Turpin, G. 8., M.A., D.Sc. High School, Nottingham. §Turron, A. E. H., M.A. D.So., F.R.S. (Council, 1908-12.) Duart, Yelverton, South Devon. *Tweedale, Samuel. Sanbridge House, Castleton, Manchester. *Twigg, G. H. Rednall, near Birmingham. tTwisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C. §Twyman, F. 75a Camden-road, N.W. {Tvtor, Sir Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1884 ; Council, 1896-1902.) Linden, Wellington, Somerset. *TynpaLL, A. M., M.Sc. The University, Bristol. 90 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1883. 1912. 1884 1903 1483. 1876. 1909. 1880. 1905. 1887. 1912. 1908. 1865. 1907. 1903. 1909. 1888. 1905. 1913. 1881. 1883. 1904. 1896. 1896. 1890. 1906. 1899. 1883. 1902. 1904. 1904. 1902. 1909, 1888. 1914. 1890. 1900. 1902. 1908. tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane, Stratford, EH. {Tyrrell, G. W. Geological Department, The University, Glasgow, *Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. }Underwood, Captain J. C. 60 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport. §Unwin, Ernest Ewart, M.Sc. Grove House, Leighton Park School, Reading. §Unwin, John. Eastcliffe Lodge, Southport. *Unwin, W.C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council, 1892-99.) 7 Palace Gate-mansions, Kensington, W. tUrquhart, C, 239 Smith-street, Winnipeg, Canada. tUssuer, W. A. E., F.G.S.. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. tUttley, E. A., Electrical Inspector to the Rhodesian Government, Bulawayo. *Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham. tValentine, C. W. Queen’s University, Belfast. tValera, Edward de. University College, Blackrock, Dublin. *VaRLEY, S. ALFRED. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N. §VaRLEY, W. Mansereu, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. Morningside, Katon- crescent, Swansea. {Varwell, H. B. Sittaford, West-avenue, Exeter. *Vassall, H., M.A. The Priory, Repton, Burton-on-Trent, *Vaughan, Mrs. 750 Pacific- building, San Francisco. tVaughan, E. L. Eton College, Windsor. {Vaughton, T. A. Livery-street, Birmingham. {VeLtzy, V. H., M.A, D.Sc, EF.R.S. 8 Marlborough-place, St. John’s Wood, N.W. *Verney, Lady. Plis Rhoscolyn, Holyhead. *Vernon, H. M., M.A., M.D. 5 Park Town, Oxford. *Vernon, Thomas T. Shotwick Park, Chester. *Vernon, Sir William, Bart. Shotwick Park, Chester. *Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. Carlisle Lodge, Rickmans- worth, *Vincent, J.H.,M.A., D.Sc. L.C.C. Paddington Technical Institute, Saltram-crescent, W. *Vincent, SwaLz, M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of Physiology in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. *VinEs, SypNEY Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1900 ; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford. {Vinycomb, T. B. Sinn Fein, Shooter’s Hill, S.E. tVolterra, Professor Vito. Regia Universita, Rome. §Wace. A. J. B. Pembroke College, Cambridge. {Waddell, Rev. C. H. The Vicarage, Grey Abbey, Co. Down. {Wadge, Herbert W., M.D. 754 Logan-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford. tWadsworth, Arthur. Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne. §WacerR, Harotp W. T., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1905.) Hendre, Horsforth-lane, Far Headingley, Leeds. tWagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. Haberdashers’ School, Cricklewood, N.W, {Wainwright, Joel. Finchwood, Marple Bridge, Stockport. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 9] Year of Election. 1906. tWakefield, Charles. Heslington House, York. 1905. §Wakefield, Captain E. W. Stricklandgate House, Kendal. 1894. {Wavrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. 21 West Bar, Banbury. 1882. *Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. Care of George Lloyd, Esq., 7 Coper’s Cope-road, Beckenham, Kent. 1893. {Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe-place, Maidstone, Kent 1890. {Walker, A. Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds. 1901 *Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.1.C. Newark Castle, Ayr, N.B. 1904. §Walker, E. R. Nightingales, Adlington, Lancashire. 1911. *Warxer, E. W. Arntey, M.A. University College, Oxford. 1905. {Walker, Mrs. Ainley. 31 Holywell, Oxford. 1897. *WaLkeER, Sir Epmunp, C.V.O., D.C.L., F.G.S. (Local Seo. 1897.) Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada. 1915. §Walker, Edward J.. M.D. Hey Lee Combs, Chapel-en-le-Frith. 1891. {Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leeds. 1894. *WaLgerR, G. T., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Red Roof, Simla, India. 1897. {Walker, George Blake, M.Inst.C.E. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley. 1913. §Walker, George W., M.A., F.R.S. 63 Lensfield-road, Cambridge. 1906. tWalker, J. F. E. Gelson, B.A. 45 Bootham, York. 1894. *Wa.ker, JAMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford. 1910. *WatkerR, James, D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1911), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, 5 Wester Coates- road, Edinburgh. 1906. {Walker, Dr. Jamieson. 37 Charnwood-street, Derby. 1909. Walker, Lewie D. Lieberose, Monteith-road, Cathcart, Glasgow. 1915. §Walker, Professor Miles. School of 'Technology, Manchester. 1907. tWalker, Philip F., F.R.G.S. 36 Prince’s-gardens, 8. W. 1909. § Walker, Mrs. R. 3 Riviera-terrace, Rushbrooke, Queenstown, Co. Cork. 1908. *Walker, Robert. Ormidale, Combe Down, Bath. 1888. tWalker, Sydney F. 1 Bloomfield-crescent, Bath. 1896. § Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool. 1914. t{Walkom, A. B. The University, Brisbane, Australia. 1910. {Wall, G. P., F.G.S. 32 Collegiate-crescent, Sheffield. 1883. Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport. 1911. {Watt, Tuomas F., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The University, Birmingham. 1905. {Wallace, R. W. 2 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C. 1901. {Wallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-place, Glasgow. 1887. *Wauuer, Avaustus D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1907.) 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 1905. §Waller, Mrs. 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 1913. *Waller, J. C., B.A. 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 1913. *Waller, Miss M. D., B.Sc., 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 1913. *Waller, W. W., B.A., 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 1915. §Wallis, B. C. Bandora, Granville-road, North Finchley, N. 1895. ¢{Waxus, E. Wurre, F.S.S. Royal Sanitary Institute and Parkes Museum, 90 Buckingham Palace-road, S.W. 1894, *Waxmisiey, A. T., M.Jnst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, Westminster, WwW S.W. 1891. §Walmsley, R. M., D.So. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, F.C. 1903. t{Walsh, W. T. H. Kent Education Committee, Caxton House, Westminster, S.W. 1895. {Watsineuam, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall, Thetford. 92 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1902. *Walter, Miss L. Hdna. 18 Norman-road, Heaton Moor, Stockport. 1904. *Walters, William, jun. Albert House, Newmarket. 1887. {Warp, Sir A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. 1911. {Ward, A. W. Town Hall, Portsmouth. 1881. § Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds. 1914. 1914. i905. 1887. 1913. 1913. 1914. 1875. 1905. 1916. 1900. 1909. 1884. 1901. 1886. 1909. 1906. 1909. 1892. 1885. 1915. 1906. 1913. 1894. 1915. 1879. 1901. 1913. 1875. 1873. 1883. 1870. 1911. 1905. 1907. 1910. 1910, tWard, L. Keith, B.E. Burnside-road, Kensington Park, South © Australia. tWard, Thomas W. LEndclifle Vale House, Sheffield. tWarlow, Dr. G. P. 15 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. tWaRkREN, General Sir CHarntus, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1887.) Athenzum Club, S.W. §Warren, William Henry, LL.D., M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Challis Pro- fessor of Engineering in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. {Warton, Lieut.-Colonel R. G. St. Helier, Jersey. it Waterhouse, G. A., B.Sc. Royal Mint. Sydney, N.S.W. *WatreRBOousSE, Major-General J. Hurstmead, Eltham, Kent. {Watermeyer, F. S., Government Land Surveyor. P.O. Box 973, Pretoria, South Africa. §Waters, Miss Charlotte M. Cotswold, Hurst Green, Oxied, Surrey. {Waterston, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. King’s College, Strand, W.C. §Watkinson, Professor W. H. The University, Liverpool. {Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex. *Watson, ARNOLD Tuomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent- road, Sheffield. *Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green, Birmingham. tWartson, Colonel Sir C. M., K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E., M.A. (Pres. E, 1912.) 16 Wilton-crescent, S.W. tWatson, D. M.8. University College, London, W.C. {Watson, Ernest Ansley, B.Sc. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green, Birmingham. tWatson, G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Ruskin-close, Hampstead Way, N.W. t{Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park, Cheltenham. *Watson, G. N, Trinity College, Cambridge. *Watson, Henry Angus. 3 Museum-street, York. tWatson, John D., M.Inst.C.E. Tyburn, Birmingham. *Watson, Professor W., D.Sc., F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, S.W *Watson, Walter, B.Sc. Taunton School, Somerset. *Watson, WILLIAM Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones House, Beckermet, Cumberland. tWatt, Harry Anderson, M.P. Ardenslate House, Hunter’s Quay, Argyllshire. *Watt, James. 28 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. *Warts, Joan, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford. Bebe W. MargswaLL, D.Sc. Shirley, Venner-road, Sydenham, *Warts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903; Council, 1902-09), Professor of Geology in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, 8.W. § Watts, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Kenmore, Wilmslow, Cheshire. tWaxweiler, Professor E. Solvay Institute, Brussels. tWay, W. A., M.A. The College, Graaf Reinet, South Africa. {Webb, Wilfred Mark, F.L.S. The Hermitage, Hanwell, W. {Webster, Professor Arthur G. Worcester, Massachusetts, U.S.A. tWebster, William, M.D, 1252 Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 93 Year of Klection. 1904. 1903. 1914. 1890. 1905. 1902. 1894. 1880. 1908. 1881. 1911. 1908. 1881. 1911, 1864, 1886, 1910. 1903 1882. 1900. 1909. 1893. 1888. 1912. 1913. 1912. 1898. 1859. 1884. 1897. 1886. 1908. 1911. 1913. 1904. 1885. 1914. 1910. 1912. 1877. 1904. §Wedderburn, Ernest Maclagan, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 7 Dean Park- crescent, Edinburgh. tWeekes, R. W., A.M.Inst.C.E. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent. §Weir, G. North Mine, Broken Hill, New South Wales. *Wetss, FREDERICK Ernest, D.Sc., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1911; Council, 1914— ), Professor of Botany in the Victoria University, Manchester. tWelby, Miss F, A. Hamilton House, Hall-road, N.W. tWelch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast. {tWeld, Miss. 119 Iffley-road, Oxford. *Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford. tWelland, Rev. C. N. Wood Park, Kingstown, Co. Dublin. §Wellcome, Henry S. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C. {WE LLDon, Right Rev. J. E. C., D.D. (Pres. L, 1911.) The Deanery, Manchester. tWellisch, E. M. 17 Park-street, Cambridge. {Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury. osieg ent Miss KE. J. Imperial College of Science and Technology, Ww, Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. *Were, Anthony Berwick. The Limes, Walland’s Park, Lewes. *Wertheimer, Julius, D.Sc., B.A., F.I.C., Dean of the Faculty of Engineering in the University of Bristol. §West, G. S., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of Birmingham. tWestaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford. *Westlake, Ernest, ¥.G.S. Fordingbridge, Salisbury. {Wethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham, Bradford. tWheeler, A. O., F.R.G.S. The Alpine Club of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada. *WueruaM, W. C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cambridge. tWhidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay. tWhiddington, R., M.A., D.Sc. St. John’s College, Cambridge. tWhipp, E. M. 14 St. George’s-road, St. Anne’s-on-Sea. *Whipple, F. J. W., M.A. Meteorological Office, South Kensington, S.W. *WuipeLe, Rosert §. Scientific Instrument Company, Cam- bridge. *WHITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895 ; Council, 1890-96.) 3 Campden-road, Croydon. {Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,Canada, tWhitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester. {Wnire, A. Surva. 42 Stevenage-road, 8.W. tWhite, Mrs. A. Silva. 42 Stevenage-rcad, S.W. tWhite, Miss E. L., M.A. Day Training College, Portsmouth. §White, Mrs. E. W. Anelgate, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. tWhite, H. Lawrence, B.A. 33 Rossington-road, Sheffield. *White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee. {White, Dr. Jean. Prickly Pear Experimental Station, Dulacca, Queensland, Australia. *White, Mrs. Jessie, D.Sc., B.A. 49 Gordon-mansions, W.C. §White, R. G., M.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales. *White, William. 20 Hillersdon-avenue, Church-road, Barnes, 8.W. tWuirexeapd, J. E. L., M.A. (Local Sec, 1904.) Guildhall, Cambridge. 94 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1913. 1905. 1893. 1907. 1905. 1891. 1897. 1901. 1905. 1913. 1912. 1889, 1914. 1887. 1910. 1905. 1904. 1900. 1915. 1913. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1883. 1861. 1875. 1891. 1883. 1888, 1901. 1891. 1883. 1877. 1894. 1910. 1913. 1895. 1895. 1896. 1913. 1899. 1899. 1913. 1911. {Whitehouse, Richard H., M.Sc. Queen’s University, Belfast. {Whiteley, Miss M. A., D.Sc. Imperial College of Science and Technology, S.W. §Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.I.C. Municipal Science and Tech- nical School, West Bromwich. *Whitley, E. 13 Linton-road, Oxford. *Whitmee, H. B. P.O. Box 470, Durban, Natal. {Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Hyde Park, Leeds. tWuirrarer, E. T., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. {Whitton, James. City Chambers, Glasgow. §Wibkerley, C., M.V.O. Care of Parr’s Bank, Ltd., Cornmarket, Derby. §WicKsTEED, Rev. Puitip H., M.A. (Pres. F, 1913.) Childrey, Wantage, Berkshire. §Wight, Dr. J. Sherman. 30 Schermerhorn-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A. *WILBERFORCE, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University of Liverpool. {Wilcock, J. L. 9 East-road, Lancaster. *Witpe, Henry, D.Se., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. §Wilkins, C. F. Lower Division, Eastern Jumna Canal, Delhi. tWilkins, R. F. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street, S.W. { Wilkinson, Hon. Mrs. Dringhouses Manor, York. § Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill, Bradford. *Willans, J. B. Dolfargan, Kerry, Montgomeryshire. tWillcox, J. Edward, M.Inst.C.E. 27 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. tWillett, John E. 3 Park-road, Southport. *Williams, Miss Antonia. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W. §Williams, Gardner F. 2201 R-street, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. {Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Sheering Rectory, Harlow, Essex. *Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea. *Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New- port, Monmouthshire. §Williains, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. 22 Lansdown-place, Chelteiham. *Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W. *Williams, Miss Katharine I. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol. *Williams, Miss Mary. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W. {Williams, Morgan. 6 Park-place, Cardiff. {Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool. *Witiiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Broomgrove, Goring-on-Thames. *Williamson, Mrs. Janora. 18 Rosebery-gardens, Crouch End, N. {Williamson, K. B., Central Provinces, India. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 54 Parliament-street, S.W. {Willink, H. G. Hillfields, Burghfield, Mortimer, Berkshire. tWitiink, W. (Local Sec. 1896.) 14 Castle-street, Liverpool. tWitus, Joun C., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. 48 Jesus-lane, Cam bridge. tWrtutson, J. S. (Local Sec. 1897.) Toronto, Canada. *Wills, L. J., M.A., F.G.S. The University, Birmingham. §Willson, George. Lendarac, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea. § Willson, Mrs.George. Lendarav, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards- on-Sea. tWilmore, Albert, D.Sc., F.G.S. Fernbank, Colne. *Wilmott, A. J., B.A. Natural History Museum, S.W. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 95 Election. 1911. 1911. 1908. 1901. 1878. 1905. 1907. 1903. 1894. 1904. 1912. 1904. 1912. 1900. 1895. 1914. 1901. 1902. 1879. 1910. 1913. 1908. 1879. 1901. 1908. 1909. 1847. 1883. 1892. 1861. 1887. 1909. 1910. 1907. 1910. 1886. 1863. 1905. 1914. 1913. §Wilsmore, Professor N. T. M., D.Sc. The University, Perth, Western Australia. tWilsmore, Mrs. The University, Perth, Western Australia. §Wilson, Miss. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield. {Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down. tWilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. United Free Church Manse, North Queensferry. §Wilson, A. W. P.O. Box 24, Langlaagte, South Africa. tWilson, A. W. Low Slack, Queen’s-road, Kendal. tWilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney-Sussex College, Cambridge. *Wilson, Charles J., F.1.C., F.C.S. 14 Suffolk-street, Pall Mall, S.W. §Wilson, Charles John, F.R.G.S. Deanfield, Hawick, Scotland. {Wilson, David, M.A., D.Se. Carbeth, Killearn, N.B. tWilson, David, M.D. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield. *Wilson, David Alec. 1 Broomfield-road, Ayr. *Wilson, Duncan R. 44 Whitehall-court, S.W. tWilson, Dr. Gregg. Queen’s University, Belfast. tWilson, H. C. Department of Agriculture, Research Station, Werribee, Victoria. fWilson, Harold A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. *Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 32 Westwood-road, Southampton. {Wilson, Henry J., M.P. Osgathorpe Hills, Sheffield. *Wilson, J. S. 29 Denbigh-street, S.W. §Wilson, Professor J. T., M.B., F.R.S. University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W. §Wilson, Professor James, M.A., B.Sc. 40 St. Kevin’s-park, Dartry- road, Dublin. {Wilson, John Wycliffe. Easthill, East Bank-road, Sheffield. *Wilson, Joseph, I.R.M.S. The Hawthorns, 3 West Park-road, Kew Gardens, Surrey. *Wilson, Malcolm, D.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer in Mycology and Bac- teriology in the University of Edinburgh. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. §Wilson, R. A. Hinton House, Londonderry. *Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke. tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. {Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. {Wilson, Thomas Bright. Ghyllside, Wells-road, Ilkley, Yorkshire. §Wilson, W. Battlehillock, Kildrummy, Mossat, Aberdeenshire. {Wilson, W. Murray. 29 South-drive, Harrogate. {Wilton, T. R., M.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 18 Westminster-chambers, Crosshall-street, Liverpool. §Wimperis, H. E., M.A. 16 Reynolds-close, Hampstead Way, N.W. {Winder, B. W. Ceylon House, Sheffield. {Wrnp cs, Sir Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of University College, Cork. *Winwoob, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864.) 11 Caven- dish-crescent, Bath. §Wiseman, J. G., F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. Stranraer, St. Peter’s-road, St. Margaret’s-on-Thames. {Witkiewicz, S. Care of Dr. Malinowski, London School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C. {Wohlgemuth, Dr. A. 44 Church-crescent, Muswell Hill, N. 4875. {WouFE-Barry, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., F.R.S., MInst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1898; Council, 1899-1903, 1909-10,) Delahay House, 15 Chelsea Embankment, S.W. 96 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1915. 1905. 1863. 1875. 1878. 1908. 1883. 1912. 1904. 1899. 1901. 1899. 1896. 1911. 1912. 1906. 1904. 1887. 1869. 1912. 1886. 1866. 1894, 1909. 1908. 1890. 1883. 1915. 1914. 1912. 1908. 1863. 1901, 1904. 1908. 1906. 1910. §Wolfi, C. E. The Clough, Hale, Cheshire. {Wood, A., jun. Emmanuel College, Cambridge. *Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B. *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, Manchester. tWoop, Sir H. Trurman, M.A. Royal Society of Arts, John- street, Adelphi, W.C.; and Prince Edward’s-mansions, Bayswater, W. tWood, Sir Henry J. 4 Elsworthy-road, N.W. *Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire. §Wood, John K. 304 Blackness-road, Dundee. *Woop, T. B., M.A. (Pres. M, 1913), Professor of Agriculture in the University of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge. *Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire. *Wood, William James, F.S.A.(Scot.). 266 George-street, Glasgow. *Woodcock, Mrs. A. Care of Messrs. Stilwell & Harley, 4 St. James’-street, Dover. *WoopuHeEaD, Professor G. Sims, M.D. Pathological Laboratory, Cambridge. §Woodhead, T. W., Ph.D., F.L.S. Technical College, Huddersfield. “Wood-Jones, F'., D.Sc., Professor of Anatomy in the University of London. New Selma, Epsom, Surrey. *Woodland, Dr. W. N. F. Zoological Department, The Muir Central College, Allahabad, United Provinces, India. fWoods, Henry, M.A. Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge. Woops, SaMuEL. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C. *Woopwarp, Artuur Smit#, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. Cy 1909 ; Council, 1903-10, 1915-_), Keeper of the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell- road, S.W. *Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road, Harborne, Birmingham. {Woodward, Mrs. C. J. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road, Harborne, Birmingham. {Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W. tWoopwarp, Henry, LL.D. F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1887; Council, 1887-94.) 13 Arundel-gardens, Notting Hill, W. *Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, W S.W. *Woodward, Robert S. Carnegie Institution, Washington, U.S.A. §Wootacort, Davin, D.Sc., F.G.S. 8 The Oaks West, Sunderland. *Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F.R.C.Inst., F.R.G.S., F.R.ES., F.S.S., M.R.1.A. 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin. *Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester. *Woolley, Hermann. Fairhill, Kersal, Manchester. f{Woolnough, Professor W. S., D.Sc. University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia. *Wordie, James M., B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge. {Worsdell, W. C. 2 Woodside, Bathford, Bath. *Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol. tWorth, J.T. Oakenrod Mount, Rochdale. tWorrnineton, A. M., C.B., F.R.S. 5 Louisa-terrace, Exmouth. *Worthington, James H., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. The Observa- tory, Four-Marks, Alton. tWraaasz, R. H. Vernon. York. {Wrench, E, G. Park Lodge, Baslow, Derbyshire. LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915. 9! Year of Election. 1906. 1914. tWright, Sir Almroth E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Ex- perimental Pathology in the University of London. 6 Park- crescent, W. tWright, A. M. Islington, Christchurch, New Zealand. 1883. *Wright, Rev. Arthur, D.D. Queens’ College, Cambridge. 1909. 1914. tWright, C.S., B.A, Caius College, Cambridge. Wright, Gilbert. Agricultural Department, The University, Sydney, N.S.W. 1874. tWright, Joseph, F.G.S. 4 Alfred-street, Belfast. 1884. {Wriaut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. Red Gables, Head- 1904. 1911. 1903. ington Hill, Oxford. LWright, R.T. Goldieslie, Trumpington, Cambridge. tWright, W. B., B.A., F.G.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. {Wright, William. The University, Birmingham. 1871. {Waicutson, Sir THomas, Bart., M.Jnst.C.E., F.G.S. Neasham 1902. 1901. 1902. 1911. 1899. Hall, Darlington. tWyatt, G. H. 1 Maurice-road, St. Andrew’s Park, Bristol. tWylie, Alexander. Kirkfield, Johnstone, N.B. tWylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast. tWyllie, W. L., R.A. Tower House, Tower-street, Portsmouth. tWyrnne, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1913), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sheffield. 17 Taptonville- road, Sheffield. . *Yapp, R. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in the Queen’s University, Belfast. *Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster. . *Yarrow, A. F. Campsie Dene, Blanefield, Stirlingshire. . *Yates, H. James, F.C.S., M.I.Mech.E. Redcroft, Four Oaks, Warwickshire. . {¥erbury, Colonel. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W. . §Young, Professor A. H. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada. . TYoung, Alfred. Selwyn College, Cambridge. - §Youne, AurrepD C., I'.C.S. 17 Vicar’s-hill, Lewisham, S.E. . Young, Professor Andrew, M.A., B.Sc. South African College, Cape Town. . Young, F. A. 615 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. . *Young, Francis Chisholm. La Nonette de la Forét, Geneva. . *Youne, Gxrorer, Ph.D. 46 Church-crescent, Church End, Finchley, N. . §Young, Herbert, M.A., B.C.L., F.R.G.S. Arnprior, Ealing, W. - *Young, John. 2 Montague-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow. . $Youne, R. Bruoz, M.A., M.B. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 1909, {Young, R. G. University of North Dakota, North Chautauqua, North Dakota, U.S.A. . }Young, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna, Belfast. . *Youna, Sypngy, D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1904), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. 12 Raglan-road, Dublin. . FYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C. - {Young, T. J. College of Agriculture, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire. . *Youna, Wiutiam Henry, M.A., Sc.D., Hon. Dr. és Se. Math., F.R.S., Professor of the Philosophy and History of Mathe- matics in the University of Liverpool. La Nonette de la Forét, Geneva, Switzerland. . TYoxall, Sir J. H., M.P. 67 Russell-square, W.C. 1915. G 98 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1887, Professor Cleveland Abbe. Local Office, U.S.A. Weather Bureau, Washington, U.S.A. 1892. Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs- gatan 18.) 1913. Dr. O. Backlund. Pulkowa, Russia. 1913. Professor C. Barrois. Université, Lille, France. 1897. Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A. 1887. Hofrath Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Anilenfabrik, Ludwigshafen, Germany. 1913. Professor K. Birkeland. Universitet, Christiania. 1890. Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen. 1893. Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute, Christiania, Norway. 1894, Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali- fornia, U.S.A. 1897. M. GC. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland. 1887. Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy. 1913. Professor H. S. Carhart. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. 1894, Emile Cartailhac. 5 rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France. 1901. Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A. 1894. Dr. A. Chauveau. 7 rue Cuvier, Paris. 1913. Professor R. Chodat. Université, Geneva. 1887. F. W. Clarke. Care of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. 1913. Professor H. Conwentz. Elssholzstrasse 13, Berlin W. 57. 1873. Professor Guido Cora. Via Nazionale 181, Rome. 1889. W. H. Polk Se.D. United States Geological Survey, Washington, E:C.-UiS- A. 1872. Dr. Yves Delage. Faculté des Sciences, La Sorbonne, Paris. 1901. Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium. 1913. Professor Carl Diener. Universitat, Vienna. 1876. Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence. 1894. Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands. 1892. Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland. 1901. Professor J. Elster. Wolfenbiittel, Germany. 1913. Professor A. Engler. Universitat, Berlin. 1913. Professor Giulio Fano. Istituto di Fisiologia, Florence. 1901. Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A. 1874, Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig. 1913. Professor Chas. Féry. Ecole Municipale de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles, 42 rue Lhomond, Paris. / 1886. Dr. Otto Finsch. Altewiekring, No.19b, Braunschweig, Germany. 1894. Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 34, Berlin, S.W.48. 1872. W. de Fonvielle. 50 rue des Abbesses, Paris. 1901. Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden, Netherlands. 1894. Professor Léon Fredericq. 20 rue de Pitteurs, Liége, Belgium. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1915. 99 Year of Election. 1913. 1892. 1881. 1901. 1889. 1913. 1889. 1884. 1913. 1892. 1913. 1876. 1881. 1913. 1913. 1893. 1894. 1893. 1913. 1887. 1884, 1876. 1881. 1887. 1876. 1913. 1913. 1913. 1884. 1873. 1894, 1894. 1913. 1913. 1894. 1913. 1872. 1901. 1883. 1887. 1913. 1894. 1913. 1887. 1884. 1894, 1897. 1913. 1897. Professor M. von Frey. Universitat, Wiirzburg. Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Berlinerstrasse 30, Berlin. Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris, Professor Dr. H. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel, Germany. Professor Gustave Gilson. l'Université, Louvain, Belgium. Professor E. Gley. 14 rue Monsieur le Prince, Paris. A Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels. pie W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, Professor P. H. von Groth. Universitit, Munich. Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres. Yves Guyot. 95 rue de Seine, Paris. Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena. Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 30 Langdon-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. Professor A. Haller. 10 rue Vauquelin, Paris. Professor H. J. Hamburger. Physiological Institute, Gréningen, Professor Paul Heger. 23 rue de Drapiers, Brussels. Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitat, Kénigsberg, Prussia. Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie, Munich. Professor A. F. Holleman. Universiteit, Amsterdam. Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R.L., U.S.A. Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas- sachusetts, U.S.A. Dr. W. J. Janssen. Soldino, Lugano, Switzerland. W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A. Professor C. Julin. 159 rue de Fragnée, Liége. Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Bastioni Vittoria 21, Milan. Professor Hector Jungersen. Universitet, Copenhagen. Professor J. C. Kapteyn. Universiteit, Griningen. Professor A. E. Kennelly. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan. Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen. Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin. Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland. Professor D. J. Korteweg. Universiteit, Amsterdam. Professor A. Kossel. Physiologisches Institut, Heidelberg. Maxime Kovalevsky. 13 Avenue de ]’Observatoire, Paris, France. Ch. Lallemand, Directeur-Général des Mines. 58 Boulevard Emile-Augier, Paris. M. Georges Lemoine. 76 rue Notre Dame des Champs, Paris. Professor Philipp Lenard. Schlossstrasse 7, Heidelberg. Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich. Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Riéimistrasse 56, Zurich, V. Professor F. von Luschan. Universitit, Berlin. Professor Dr. Otto Maas. Universitat, Munich Professor E. Mahaim. Université de Liége, Belgium. Dr. C. A. von Martius. Voss-strasse 8, Berlin, W. Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A. Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djursholm, Stockholm. Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden. Professor E. H. Moore. University of Chicago, U.S.A. Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. West Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A. 100 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Year of Election. 1887. E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A. 1913. Professor F. R. Moulton. University of Chicago, U.S.A. 1889. Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway. 1894. Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico, Via 8. Maria, Pisa, Italy. 1913. Professor E. Naville. Université, Geneva. 1887. Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany. 1894. Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A. 1890. Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig. 1890. Maffeo Pantaleoni. 13 Cola di Rienzo, Rome. 1895. Professor F. Paschen. Universitat, Tibingen. 1887. Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany. 1901. Hofrath Professor A. Penck. Georgenstrasse 34-36, Berlin, N.W. 7. 1890. Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholms Hogskola, Stockholm. 1894. Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig. 1887. Professor Georg Quincke, Bergstrasse 41, Heidelberg. 1868. L. Radikofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich. Sonnenstrasse 7. 1913. Professor Reinke. Universitat, Kiel. 1895. Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A. 1913. Dr. Hans Reusch. Universitet, Christiania. 1897. Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 rue de |’ Université, Paris, France. 1896. Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands. 1892. Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria. 1913. Professor A. Rothpletz. Universitat, Munich. 1913. Professor H. Rubens. Universitat, Berlin. 1895. Professor Carl Runge. Wilhelm Weberstrasse 21, Gottingen, Germany. 1901. General Rykatchew. Ouniversitetskaia-liniia, 1, Petrograd. 1913. Dr. C. Schoute. De Biet, Holland. 1874. Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Kaiser Friedrichstrasse 8, Berlin. 1897. Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A. 1887. Ernest Solvay. 25 rue du Prince Albert, Brussels. 1888. Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A. 1881. Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. The University, Athens. 1887. Professor John ‘Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1889. Wladimir Vernadsky. Imperial Academy of Sciences, Petrograd. 1913. Professor M. Verworn. Universitat, Bonn. 1886. Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium. 1887. Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltkestrasse 60, Kiel. 1913. Professor Max Weber. Universiteit, Amsterdam. 1887. Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A. 1881.. Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A. 1887. Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. 1887. Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im- Breisgau, Baden. 1913. Professor R. W. Wood. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A. SOCIETIES, ETC., RECEIVING REPORT: 1915. 101 LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales. Belfast, Queen’s University. Birmingham, Midland Institute. Bradford Philosophical Society. Brighton Public Library. Bristol Naturalists’ Society. ——, The Museum. Cambridge Philosophical Society. Cardiff, University College. Chatham, Royal Engineers’ Institute. Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of. Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland. ——, Royal College of Surgeons in Treland. ——, Royal Irish Academy. ——, Royal Society. ——, National Library of Ireland. Dundee, University College. ——, Albert Institute. Edinburgh, Royal Society of. ——, Royal Medical Society of. ——, Scottish Society of Arts. Exeter, Royal Albert Memorial College Museum. Glasgow, Royal Philosophical Society | of ——, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Leeds, Institute of Science. ——, Philosophical and Literary Society of. Liverpool, Free Public Library. ——, Royal Institution. ——, The University. London, Admiralty, Library of the. —, Board of Agriculture Fisheries. — —, Chemical Society. ——., City and Guilds (Engineering) College. ——-, Civil Engineers, Institution of. ——, Geological Society. , Geology, Museum of Practical. ——, Greenwich Royal Observatory. ——, Guildhall Library. ——,, Institution of Electrical Engineers. ——, Institution of Mechanical Engineers. | | Oxford, Ashmolean Natural and London, Intelligence Office, Central Department of Political Informa- tion. ——,, King’s College. ——, Linnean Society. ——, London Institution. ——, Meteorological Office. ——, Physical Society. ——, Royal Anthropological Insti- tute. ——, Royal Asiatic Society. ——, Royal Astronomical Society. ——, Royal College of Physicians. ——, Royal College of Surgeons. ——, Royal Geographical Society. ——, Roya! Institution. ——, Royal Meteorological Society. ——, Royal Sanitary Institute. ——, Royal Society. ——, Royal Society of Arts. ——, Royal Statistical Society. ——, United Service Institution. ——, University Coilege. ——~, War Office, Library. ——, Workers’ Educational Asso- ciation. 14 Red Lion Square, W.C. ——, Zoological Society. Manchester Literary and Philosophi- cal Society. | ——, Municipal School of Technology. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and Philosophical Society. ——, Public Library. Norwich, The Free Library. Nottingham, The Free Library. istory Society. ——, Radcliffe Observatory. Plymouth Institution. ——, Marine Biological Association. Salford, Royal Museum and Library. Sheffield, University College. Southampton, Hartley Institution. Stonyhurst College Observatory. Surrey, Royal Gardens, Kew. ——., Kew Observatory, Richmond. Swansea, Royal Institution of South Wales. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. The Corresponding Societies. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. EUROPE. Berlin ....... Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Munich....... University Library. demie der Wissen- Naples....... Royal Academy of schaften. Sciences. Bonn .......University Library, © ——......... Zoological Station. Brussels ....Royal Academy of Paris......... Association Frangaise Sciences. pour l Avancement Charkow ....University Library. des Sciences. Coimbra ..... Meteorological Ob- , —— ........ Geographical Society, servatory. | ew aible cele Geological Society. Copenhagen...Royal Society of —— ........ Royal Academy of Sciences. Sciences. Dorpat, Russia University Library. = Ushojayists ds School of Mines. Dresden ....Royal Public Library. Petrograd .... University Library. Frankfort ...Natural History So- —— ........ Imperial Observatory. ciety. Pultova...... Imperial Observatory. Geneva....... Natural History So- Rome ....... Accademia dei Lincei. ciety. Ji sealers aj eungete Collegio Romano. Gottingen ....University Library. aay Fadler Italian Geographical Gritz ........ Naturwissenschaft - Society. licher Verein. ee nne Italian Society of Halle ...ini3inis.0% Leopoldinisch - Caro - Sciences. linische Akademie. | Rumania .... Rumanian Association Harlem ...... Société Hollandaise for the Advance- des Sciences. ment of Science. Heidelberg... . University Library. s}oen Bae aboe Asociacion para el Helsingfors ...University Library. Progreso de las Jena ........ University Library. ‘ Ciencias. Kazan, Russia University Library. Stockholm ...Royal Academy. LG Sapa Royal Observatory. urin\eeeeiel re Royal Academy of Ka Ovaries University Library. Sciences. Lausanne ....The University. . Upsala ...... Royal Society of Leiden ......- University Library. Science. Liége ........ University Library. Utrecht ...... University Library. Lisbon ....... Academia Real des Vienna ...... The Imperial Library. Sciences. eee sata ogahore Central Anstalt ftir Milage rn eiciecr: The Institute. Meteorologie und Modena ...... Royal Academy. Erdmagnetismus. Moscow ...... Society of Naturalists. Zurich........ Naturforschende Ge- settee University Library. | sellschaft. ASIA. AgTa ac sae ess The College. | Calcutta...... Medical College. Bombay ..... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ....... Presidency College. tion. | @OyAOH 9's’ » sxe The Museum, Co- Ee ye ai. Grant Medical Col- | lombo. lege. Madras ...... The Observatory. ee OT Royal Asiatic Society. rere ances University Library. Calcutta ..... Royal Asiatic Society. | Tokyo ....... Imperial University. Sens odin Hooghly College. AFRICA. Cape Town ....National Botanic Gardens, Newlands. ahaa ee The Royal Observatory. Rater Pte South African Association for the Advancement of Science. Radgousotac South African Public Library. Grahamstown ..Rhodes University College. Kimberley ..--Publie Library. 1916. SOCIETIES, ETC., RECEIVING REPORT: 103 AMERICA. Albany ...... The Institute. | Montreal ..... McGill University. Ambherst...... The Observatory. | New York ...American Society of Baltimore ....Johns Hopkins Uni- Civil Engineers. versity. [ee ees ares Academy of Sciences. Boston ...... American Academy of | | Ottawa....... Geological Survey of Arts and Sciences. | Canada. ~~ tHerelaretoie. Boston Society of | Philadelphia ..American Philosophi- Natural History. cal Society. California..... The University. So node Franklin Institute. i, -seleeials Lick Observatory. Vowels amerta's University of Penn- mioveles « Academy of Sciences. | sylvania. Cambridge .-Harvard University | Toronto ..... The Observatory. Library I foie olerelere The Canadian Insti- Chicago ...... American Medical | tute. Association. = bene The University. I) OER Field Museum of Uruguay...... General Statistical Natural History. | Bureau andLibrary, Edmonton. .. . University of Alberta. Montevideo. Guelph ...... Ontario Agricultural Washington...Board of Agriculture. Wollepes Fe | Se Oe ateieys wis Bureau of Ethnology. Kingston ..... Queen’s University. ——— seeeens Bureau of Standards, Manitoba ....Historical and Scien- — Departmentof Com- tific Society. merce and Labour. SCOR OD The University. — .......Coast and Geodetic Massachusetts -Marine Biological Survey. Laboratory, Woods | —— ....... Library of Congress. Hole. Sat RTT Naval Observatory. Mexico ...... Sociedad Cientifica | --— ....... Smithsonian Institu- * Antonio Alzate.’ tion. Missouri ..... Botanical Garden. —— kee eee United States Geolo- Montreal ..... Council of Arts and | gical Survey of the Manufactures. Territories. AUSTRALIA. Adelaide. vec... Public Library of South Australia, ence Royal Geographical Society. <5 PURO The University. IBFISDEHO) \ar.1e. sila se Queensland Museum. Se ee a otc oon ove! sis Queensland Public Library, Melbourne ........ Public Library. SVONGY leieleia'e\eicic'o 1s Public Works Department. au oa ee Australian Museum. Se bse pheno Library, Department of Mines. FUARMANIS eci- is 5's 65s Royal Society. WIGtOnyA ss vivias: guises The Colonial Government. NEW ZEALAND. Canterb aap ales Wellington ........ . The Museum. New Zealand Institute (Dominion Museum), QO ALG IME PRINTED BY SPOPPISWOODH, BALLANTYNE AND CO,, LID, RY Sey: es ee : ee : peweete Se zm Bi) innate ) ‘ t a. — — a ES rw pe ea a